Suchergebnisse

L'analisi storica delle pratiche museali di Public History riconduce ad un piano propriamente storiografico il rapporto – per alcuni antitetico – tra scienza e uso pubblico della storia. Per riflettere sulle implicazioni sociali e politiche di queste forme di narrazione del passato, la ricerca ricostruisce la formazione e lo sviluppo della raccolta di fonti sulla Grande guerra in seno al Museo del Risorgimento di Milano nel periodo tra le due guerre mondiali. Più precisamente, assumendo le prospettive della storia culturale, la ricerca si interroga sul ruolo che l'immaginario storico reificato in un allestimento museale ha avuto nel processo di nazionalizzazione delle masse in Italia. L'approfondimento della figura e dell'opera di Antonio Monti (direttore, 1925-45) ha permesso di inquadrare il processo di formazione e sviluppo dell'Archivio-Museo di Guerra all'interno di un contesto sociale, politico e scientifico che precisa le conoscenze fino ad oggi acquisite dagli studi circa la dinamica tra centro e periferia, e circa le fasi della memoria sulla guerra. Oltre allo studio delle fonti documentarie di diversa natura conservate presso le Civiche Raccolte Storiche di Milano (es. documenti cartacei, carteggi, cimeli, opere grafiche), la ricerca si è avvalsa di fonti a stampa (opuscoli, volumi e periodici) e fonti archivistiche proprie. Tra quelle primarie, le principali sono i registri di carico, gli schedari, i cataloghi e gli altri strumenti di corredo prodotti dal museo; queste fonti sono state considerate dal punto di vista quantitativo e qualitativo, sia nell'aspetto materiale che in quello immateriale. A partire dall'analisi archivistica, dallo studio della prassi di gestione documentaria e dalla relazione tra spazio organizzato e spazio descritto, le pratiche museali di narrazione sulla Grande guerra sono state considerate anzitutto come organizzazione materiale dello spazio (nell'archivio, nella biblioteca e nel museo). La storia museale delle fonti ricostruisce le reti di relazioni che conferiscono significato al patrimonio storico conservato, spostando l'attenzione dal piano dell'immaterialità delle rappresentazioni a quello della materialità delle fonti. La sintesi interpretativa si è avvalsa invece di categorie antropologiche: nello scambio continuo tra realtà e immaginazione, il museo opera come dispositivo di risignificazione, che – attraverso le azioni precipue di raccogliere, ordinare ed esporre – modifica le reti di relazioni tra le fonti trasformando di conseguenza il loro stesso significato. Il museo storico, che sancisce attraverso il dono un patto sociale con il pubblico, è lo spazio del rituale di passaggio che accoglie la fase di riaggregazione delle memorie private nella dimensione pubblica della storia della nazione. Attraverso questo rituale, il significato dell'esperienza di guerra viene trasformato da evento traumatico legato al lutto a mito di rigenerazione in continuità col Risorgimento. In conclusione, l'analisi del caso milanese ha permesso di evidenziare le specificità delle reti di relazioni facendo emergere i diversi significati celati dalla rappresentazione oleografica conforme alla "memoria totalitaria" imposta dal fascismo. Infine, l'approccio scientifico che emerge da queste pratiche di uso pubblico della storia è stato identificato nella prodizione di strumenti che dessero conto dello spostamento delle fonti nello spazio durante la loro storia museale. ; The historical analysis of museums' Public History practices brings the relation between science and public use of history – often regarded as antithetical - into the historiographical dimension. In order to reflect on the social and political implications of these types of narration of the past, our research reconstructs the formation and development of the collection of the Great War sources from Milan Museum of Risorgimento between the two World Wars. By taking the standpoint of Cultural History, our research questions the role that the historical imagery, embodied in a museum installation, has had in the process of nationalization of the masses in Italy. The follow-up on the figure and work of Antonio Monti (Director, 1925-45) enabled us to frame the process of formation and development of the War Archive-Museum within a social, political and scientific context that clarifies the knowledge gathered so far about the dynamics between center and periphery, as well as about the phases of the memory of war. Besides the study of documentary sources of various nature from Milan's Civiche Raccolte Storiche (eg. paper documents, correspondence, memorabilia, graphics), the research made use of published sources (brochures, volumes, periodics) and proper archival sources. Among the primary archival sources, the main ones are the registers, card files, catalogs, and the other sets of documentation produced by the museum. The material and immaterial aspects of these sources have been analyzed from both a qualitative and a quantitative point of view. Starting from the archive analysis, from the study of the document management system, and finanlly from the relation between organized and described space, the museum practices concerning the Great War narration have been mainly construed as a material organization of the space (respectively in the archive, in the library, and in the museum). The museum history of the sources reshapes the relational network that gives meaning to the preserved historic heritage, shifting the focus from the immateriality of the representations to the materiality of the sources. On the other hand, the interpretative synthesis made use of anthropological cathegories: within the continuous exchange between reality and imagination, the museum acts as a resignification device that, through the actions of gathering, organizing and displaying, modifies the relational network between the sources, therefore changing their meaning. The history museum enshrines a social pact with the public through the gift, and becomes the scenery of a rite of passage that accomodates the reaggregation of private memories into the public dimension of the history of the nation. Through this rite, the meaning of the war experience is turned from a traumatic event linked to mourning, into a rigeneration myth, thus continuing the action of the Risorgimento. In conclusion, the analysis of the Milan case has allowed us to highlight the specificity of relational networks, unravelling the different meanings hidden by the oleographic representation consistent with the "totalitarian memory" imposed by the Fascist regime. Lastly, the scientific approach emerging from such practices of public use of history has been identified in the production of instruments that allow one to account for the spatial movement of the sources during their museum history.

Il dibattito sulla questione ambientale, sorto tra gli anni '60 e '70 del secolo scorso, con la formazione delle prime associazioni ambientaliste, ebbe come nodo centrale il rapporto tra economia e ambiente, nella sempre più evidente necessità di preservare la qualità del patrimonio naturale e nella consapevolezza che, essendo le risorse del pianeta tendenzialmente esauribili, dovessero essere rivisti ed equilibrati i modelli di sviluppo. Gli oggetti, secondo la lezione di Bruno Latour, simboleggiano stili di vita che comprendono al loro interno processi comunicativi e riguardano in ogni caso la sfera dell'informazione, dell'interazione, del ricordo e anche del desiderio. L'omologazione del pianeta sul modello occidentale, l'azzeramento delle differenze culturali, l'abuso delle risorse, gli impatti inquinanti sull'ecosistema costituiscono gli effetti negativi della globalizzazione. Spesso la localizzazione viene ignorata per colpa della troppa importanza data alla globalizzazione e in molti casi, le forze locali si sforzano costantemente per attenuare l'impatto dei processi globali. Bauman ha introdotto il termine "glocalizzazione", (Barman, 2005) senza volervi trovare un senso politico di opposizione alla globalizzazione (come ad esempio fanno i no-global). Il concetto di glocalizzazione ritiene che il fondamento della società in ogni epoca è stata ed è la comunità locale, l'interazione degli individui, organizzati in gruppi sempre più allargati e presenti su un territorio. Esso pone al centro della sua "filosofia": l'individuo, la persona umana, il patrimonio locale materiale e simbolico della persona e del gruppo di appartenenza. Ogni luogo ha, infatti, una sua vocazione e una propria identità, costituite dal paesaggio naturale ininterrotto con quello artificiale fatto dall'uomo e dal grado di coesione sociale. Cioé quella identità territoriale, che oggi assume sempre più la valenza di attributo strategico e di input immateriale dello sviluppo socio-economico locale, che poi diventa una straordinaria risorsa spendibile ai fini della valorizzazione dello stesso territorio. Oggi, è evidente come la mescolanza, l'ibridazione siano la regola generale dominante, ma è altrettanto incontestabile che la natura dei luoghi influenza in modo decisivo l'aspetto dei prodotti. Le particolari capacità creative proprie di un luogo entrano a far parte della natura stessa dei prodotti. Il progetto segue strade misteriose in cui la forma è il risultato di innumerevoli fattori fra i quali anche il contesto sociale.La crescente convinzione dell'importanza e dell'urgenza di saper organizzare forme di sviluppo sostenibile, nel rispetto delle limitate risorse ambientali e della salute umana, ha orientato la ricerca verso l'utilizzo delle fibre vegetali. Le fibre vegetali possono fornire prestazioni tecniche e formali a volte superiore a quelle fornite dai materiali e dagli oggetti prodotti con alte tecnologie e costituire contemporaneamente un'ingente risorsa economica in un territorio, come quello siciliano, in cui si voglia promuovere una cultura d'impresa basata su innovazioni eco-compatibili. In generale la coltivazione, la produzione, la trasformazione e l'uso di queste fibre possono fornire delle risposte concrete ad una serie di problematiche connesse al risparmio energetico, alla sostenibilità ambientale e all'inquinamento. Inoltre la rivalutazione in campo artistico e progettuale delle tradizionali tecniche di lavorazione rappresenta non soltanto un grande potenziale di rinnovamento e di riconversione anche sotto l'aspetto estetico, ma sempre più garantisce il controllo della qualità di diverse tipologie di oggetti. ; The debate on the environmental issue, which arose between the 60s and 70s of last century, with the formation of the first environmental groups, had as its central point the relationship between economy and environment, the increasingly obvious need to preserve the quality of the natural heritage and in the knowledge that as the planet's resources tend exhaustible should be reviewed and balanced development models. The objects, according to the lesson of Bruno Latour, symbolizing lifestyles that include their internal communication processes and concern in every case the sphere of information, interaction, and even the memory of desire. The approval of the planet on the Western model, the elimination of cultural differences, abuse of resources, the impact of pollution on the ecosystem are the negative effects of globalization. Often the location is ignored because of too much emphasis on globalization and in many cases, local forces constantly strive to mitigate the impact of global processes. Bauman introduced the term "glocalization" (Berman, 2005), without wishing to find a sense of political opposition to globalization (such as do-globalization). The concept of glocalization believes that the foundation of society in every age has been and is the local community, the interaction of individuals, organized groups increasingly enlarged and placed on a territory. It stands at the center of his "philosophy": the individual, the human person, the local heritage material and symbolic of the person and the group. Every place has, in fact, his vocation and identity, constituted by the natural uninterrupted with artificial man-made and the degree of social cohesion. Ie the territorial identity, which today is becoming more strategic and value attribute of input intangible local socio-economic development, which then becomes a powerful resource to be spent in valuing the same territory. Today, it is evident as a mixture, the hybridization is the general rule dominant, but it is equally undeniable that the nature of places influence in a decisive way the appearance of the products. The particular capabilities of their creative a place become part of the very nature of the products. The project follows mysterious ways in which the shape is the result of many factors, including also the context sociale.La growing conviction of the importance and urgency of knowing how to organize forms of sustainable development, in accordance with the limited resources and environmental health human, has directed research towards the use of plant fibers. Vegetable fibers can provide performance techniques and formal at times greater than that provided by materials and articles produced with high technology and simultaneously create huge economic resource in an area, like the Sicilian, in which you want to promote a culture of enterprise based on eco-friendly innovations. In general, the cultivation, production, processing and use of these fibers can provide specific answers to a series of problems related to energy conservation, environmental sustainability and pollution. Moreover, the appreciation in art and design of traditional techniques is not only a great potential for renovation and conversion also in aesthetic terms, but increasingly ensures quality control of different types of objects.

En este trabajo abordamos el análisis de experiencias exiliares de trabajadores chilenos que se radicaron en el Noreste de la Provincia de Chubut, en Patagonia Argentina, después de producido el golpe de estado contra el presidente democrático Salvador Allende Gossens, en Septiembre de 1973. Cuando revisé la factibilidad de la investigación, y en mérito a los escasos repositorios documentales, decidí, dando continuidad a indagaciones previas, trabajar con historia oral. Esta metodología o práctica, involucra una dimensión personal, subjetiva y afectiva, que supone una constante relación entre los sujetos que participan, lo que implica una cualitativa diferencia en relación a las fuentes más tradicionales. No minimizo el valor de la estadística, pero hago una opción por nombrar y conocer a quienes han compartido con nosotros vivencias y experiencias, explicitando nuestra inscripción en la construcción de la información documental, no objetivándonos. El trabajo desarrollado se halla en la encrucijada entre la historia del pasado reciente y la memoria; con una perspectiva "desde abajo", buscando conjugar la no uniformidad de la experiencia humana, con la pretensión de generalidad y explicación de la ciencia social. Las narraciones o testimonios obtenidos las he revisado, procurando develar las representaciones que subyacen, y comprendiendo el modo en que actuaron. Las memorias tienen un carácter subjetivo y en permanente transformación, lo que en cierto sentido puede singularizarlas, pero como historiadores debemos inscribirlas en un contexto histórico global, para procurar esclarecer las causas, las condiciones, y las estructuras, aportando a una historia total. Hemos rescatado prácticas, percepciones, y discursos; develando la importancia del trabajo como factor organizador y estabilizador, al dotar a estos sujetos, de un sitio en la sociedad receptora, y permitiéndoles "ir desarmando sus valijas", es decir, ir superando la transitoriedad. Al caracterizar al exilio chileno, en el contexto internacional y local; y atendiendo a las escasas producciones que dan cuenta del universo obrero en estas experiencias traumáticas, han sido evidentes los límites que supone una estricta separación entre exilio, y migración económica o política; ya que dicha conceptualización encierra una mirada que invisibiliza derroteros que en principio, o superficialmente, pueden ser leídos como poco organizados. La aplicación del análisis de red, por cierto contribuyó a hacerlos visibles, transformándolos en actores racionales, con objetivos que se movilizaron a partir de los recursos de que dispusieron; tratando de superar el paradigma que hacía de ellos seres desesperados: fueron mujeres y hombres que eligieron un destino posible, siempre atendiendo al doble carácter de la experiencia en que estuvieron inmersos: la salida de su país por un lado los liberó, pero también los privó; asociando indisolublemente sentimientos de dolor por el desprendimiento de lo propio -de los afectos personales y colectivos-, agravados por los efectos de la derrota y la incertidumbre. Son sujetos que pusieron su identidad en riesgo. Pretendemos lograr que esta investigación, no sea sólo un estudio de caso, sino que pueda inscribirse a partir de su especificidad, en tanto exilio obrero, en una perspectiva comparativa, superando una definición espacial específica, en el Nor Este de Chubut. ; In this work we approached the analysis of experiences you will exile of Chilean workers who took root in the Northeast of the Province of Chubut, in Patagonia Argentina, after produced the coup d'etat against Rescuing democratic president Beyond Gossens, in September of 1973. When I reviewed the feasibility of the investigation, and in merit to the little documentary repositorios, I decided, giving continuity to previous investigations, to work with oral history. This methodology or practice, involves dimension personal, subjective and affective, that supposes a constant relation between the subjects that participate, which implies a qualitative difference in relation to the most traditional sources. I do not diminish the value of the statistic, but I make an option name and know those who have shared with us experiences and experiences, specifying our inscription in the construction of the documentary information, not objetivando to us. The developed work is in the crossroads between the past recent history of and the memory; with a perspective "from down", looking for to conjugate the nonuniformity of the human experience, with the pretension of majority and explanation of social science. Narrations or testimonies I have reviewed the obtained them, trying to reveal the representations that underlie, and being included/understood the way in which they acted. The memories have a subjective character and in permanent transformation, which in a certain sense can distinguish them, but as historians we must register them in a global historical context, to try to clarify the causes, the conditions, and the structures, contributing to a total history. We have rescued practical, perceptions, and speeches; revealing the importance of the work like organizing and stabilizing factor, when equipping to these subjects, of a site in the receiving society, and allowing them "to be disarming its valises", that is to say, to be surpassing the transitoriness. When characterizing to I exile Chilean, in the international and local context; and taking care of the little productions that give account of the working universe in these traumatic experiences, they have been evident the limits that a strict separation supposes enters I exile, and economic or political migration; since this planning locks up a invisibiliza glance that map courses that in principle, or superficially, they can be read at least organized. The application of the network analysis, by the way contributed to make them visible, transforming them into rational actors, with objectives that were mobilized from the resources which they had; trying to surpass the paradigm that made of them desperate beings: they were women and men who chose a possible destiny, always taking care of the double character of the experience in which they were immersed: the exit of its country released on the one hand them, but it deprived also them; associating very indissolubly feelings of pain by the loosening of own - the personal and collective affection, agravated by the effects of the defeat and the uncertainty. They are subjects that put their identity in risk. We try to obtain that this investigation, is not only a case study, but can register from their specificity, in as much I exile working, in a comparative perspective, surpassing a specific space definition, in the Nor This of Chubut. ; Fil: Gatica, Mónica. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

En este trabajo abordamos el análisis de experiencias exiliares de trabajadores chilenos que se radicaron en el Noreste de la Provincia de Chubut, en Patagonia Argentina, después de producido el golpe de estado contra el presidente democrático Salvador Allende Gossens, en Septiembre de 1973. Cuando revisé la factibilidad de la investigación, y en mérito a los escasos repositorios documentales, decidí, dando continuidad a indagaciones previas, trabajar con historia oral. Esta metodología o práctica, involucra una dimensión personal, subjetiva y afectiva, que supone una constante relación entre los sujetos que participan, lo que implica una cualitativa diferencia en relación a las fuentes más tradicionales. No minimizo el valor de la estadística, pero hago una opción por nombrar y conocer a quienes han compartido con nosotros vivencias y experiencias, explicitando nuestra inscripción en la construcción de la información documental, no objetivándonos. El trabajo desarrollado se halla en la encrucijada entre la historia del pasado reciente y la memoria; con una perspectiva "desde abajo", buscando conjugar la no uniformidad de la experiencia humana, con la pretensión de generalidad y explicación de la ciencia social. Las narraciones o testimonios obtenidos las he revisado, procurando develar las representaciones que subyacen, y comprendiendo el modo en que actuaron. Las memorias tienen un carácter subjetivo y en permanente transformación, lo que en cierto sentido puede singularizarlas, pero como historiadores debemos inscribirlas en un contexto histórico global, para procurar esclarecer las causas, las condiciones, y las estructuras, aportando a una historia total. Hemos rescatado prácticas, percepciones, y discursos; develando la importancia del trabajo como factor organizador y estabilizador, al dotar a estos sujetos, de un sitio en la sociedad receptora, y permitiéndoles "ir desarmando sus valijas", es decir, ir superando la transitoriedad. Al caracterizar al exilio chileno, en el contexto internacional y local; y atendiendo a las escasas producciones que dan cuenta del universo obrero en estas experiencias traumáticas, han sido evidentes los límites que supone una estricta separación entre exilio, y migración económica o política; ya que dicha conceptualización encierra una mirada que invisibiliza derroteros que en principio, o superficialmente, pueden ser leídos como poco organizados. La aplicación del análisis de red, por cierto contribuyó a hacerlos visibles, transformándolos en actores racionales, con objetivos que se movilizaron a partir de los recursos de que dispusieron; tratando de superar el paradigma que hacía de ellos seres desesperados: fueron mujeres y hombres que eligieron un destino posible, siempre atendiendo al doble carácter de la experiencia en que estuvieron inmersos: la salida de su país por un lado los liberó, pero también los privó; asociando indisolublemente sentimientos de dolor por el desprendimiento de lo propio -de los afectos personales y colectivos-, agravados por los efectos de la derrota y la incertidumbre. Son sujetos que pusieron su identidad en riesgo. Pretendemos lograr que esta investigación, no sea sólo un estudio de caso, sino que pueda inscribirse a partir de su especificidad, en tanto exilio obrero, en una perspectiva comparativa, superando una definición espacial específica, en el Nor Este de Chubut. ; In this work we approached the analysis of experiences you will exile of Chilean workers who took root in the Northeast of the Province of Chubut, in Patagonia Argentina, after produced the coup d'etat against Rescuing democratic president Beyond Gossens, in September of 1973. When I reviewed the feasibility of the investigation, and in merit to the little documentary repositorios, I decided, giving continuity to previous investigations, to work with oral history. This methodology or practice, involves dimension personal, subjective and affective, that supposes a constant relation between the subjects that participate, which implies a qualitative difference in relation to the most traditional sources. I do not diminish the value of the statistic, but I make an option name and know those who have shared with us experiences and experiences, specifying our inscription in the construction of the documentary information, not objetivando to us. The developed work is in the crossroads between the past recent history of and the memory; with a perspective "from down", looking for to conjugate the nonuniformity of the human experience, with the pretension of majority and explanation of social science. Narrations or testimonies I have reviewed the obtained them, trying to reveal the representations that underlie, and being included/understood the way in which they acted. The memories have a subjective character and in permanent transformation, which in a certain sense can distinguish them, but as historians we must register them in a global historical context, to try to clarify the causes, the conditions, and the structures, contributing to a total history. We have rescued practical, perceptions, and speeches; revealing the importance of the work like organizing and stabilizing factor, when equipping to these subjects, of a site in the receiving society, and allowing them "to be disarming its valises", that is to say, to be surpassing the transitoriness. When characterizing to I exile Chilean, in the international and local context; and taking care of the little productions that give account of the working universe in these traumatic experiences, they have been evident the limits that a strict separation supposes enters I exile, and economic or political migration; since this planning locks up a invisibiliza glance that map courses that in principle, or superficially, they can be read at least organized. The application of the network analysis, by the way contributed to make them visible, transforming them into rational actors, with objectives that were mobilized from the resources which they had; trying to surpass the paradigm that made of them desperate beings: they were women and men who chose a possible destiny, always taking care of the double character of the experience in which they were immersed: the exit of its country released on the one hand them, but it deprived also them; associating very indissolubly feelings of pain by the loosening of own - the personal and collective affection, agravated by the effects of the defeat and the uncertainty. They are subjects that put their identity in risk. We try to obtain that this investigation, is not only a case study, but can register from their specificity, in as much I exile working, in a comparative perspective, surpassing a specific space definition, in the Nor This of Chubut. ; Fil: Gatica, Mónica. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

En este trabajo abordamos el análisis de experiencias exiliares de trabajadores chilenos que se radicaron en el Noreste de la Provincia de Chubut, en Patagonia Argentina, después de producido el golpe de estado contra el presidente democrático Salvador Allende Gossens, en Septiembre de 1973. Cuando revisé la factibilidad de la investigación, y en mérito a los escasos repositorios documentales, decidí, dando continuidad a indagaciones previas, trabajar con historia oral. Esta metodología o práctica, involucra una dimensión personal, subjetiva y afectiva, que supone una constante relación entre los sujetos que participan, lo que implica una cualitativa diferencia en relación a las fuentes más tradicionales. No minimizo el valor de la estadística, pero hago una opción por nombrar y conocer a quienes han compartido con nosotros vivencias y experiencias, explicitando nuestra inscripción en la construcción de la información documental, no objetivándonos. El trabajo desarrollado se halla en la encrucijada entre la historia del pasado reciente y la memoria; con una perspectiva "desde abajo", buscando conjugar la no uniformidad de la experiencia humana, con la pretensión de generalidad y explicación de la ciencia social. Las narraciones o testimonios obtenidos las he revisado, procurando develar las representaciones que subyacen, y comprendiendo el modo en que actuaron. Las memorias tienen un carácter subjetivo y en permanente transformación, lo que en cierto sentido puede singularizarlas, pero como historiadores debemos inscribirlas en un contexto histórico global, para procurar esclarecer las causas, las condiciones, y las estructuras, aportando a una historia total. Hemos rescatado prácticas, percepciones, y discursos; develando la importancia del trabajo como factor organizador y estabilizador, al dotar a estos sujetos, de un sitio en la sociedad receptora, y permitiéndoles "ir desarmando sus valijas", es decir, ir superando la transitoriedad. Al caracterizar al exilio chileno, en el contexto internacional y local; y atendiendo a las escasas producciones que dan cuenta del universo obrero en estas experiencias traumáticas, han sido evidentes los límites que supone una estricta separación entre exilio, y migración económica o política; ya que dicha conceptualización encierra una mirada que invisibiliza derroteros que en principio, o superficialmente, pueden ser leídos como poco organizados. La aplicación del análisis de red, por cierto contribuyó a hacerlos visibles, transformándolos en actores racionales, con objetivos que se movilizaron a partir de los recursos de que dispusieron; tratando de superar el paradigma que hacía de ellos seres desesperados: fueron mujeres y hombres que eligieron un destino posible, siempre atendiendo al doble carácter de la experiencia en que estuvieron inmersos: la salida de su país por un lado los liberó, pero también los privó; asociando indisolublemente sentimientos de dolor por el desprendimiento de lo propio -de los afectos personales y colectivos-, agravados por los efectos de la derrota y la incertidumbre. Son sujetos que pusieron su identidad en riesgo. Pretendemos lograr que esta investigación, no sea sólo un estudio de caso, sino que pueda inscribirse a partir de su especificidad, en tanto exilio obrero, en una perspectiva comparativa, superando una definición espacial específica, en el Nor Este de Chubut. ; In this work we approached the analysis of experiences you will exile of Chilean workers who took root in the Northeast of the Province of Chubut, in Patagonia Argentina, after produced the coup d'etat against Rescuing democratic president Beyond Gossens, in September of 1973. When I reviewed the feasibility of the investigation, and in merit to the little documentary repositorios, I decided, giving continuity to previous investigations, to work with oral history. This methodology or practice, involves dimension personal, subjective and affective, that supposes a constant relation between the subjects that participate, which implies a qualitative difference in relation to the most traditional sources. I do not diminish the value of the statistic, but I make an option name and know those who have shared with us experiences and experiences, specifying our inscription in the construction of the documentary information, not objetivando to us. The developed work is in the crossroads between the past recent history of and the memory; with a perspective "from down", looking for to conjugate the nonuniformity of the human experience, with the pretension of majority and explanation of social science. Narrations or testimonies I have reviewed the obtained them, trying to reveal the representations that underlie, and being included/understood the way in which they acted. The memories have a subjective character and in permanent transformation, which in a certain sense can distinguish them, but as historians we must register them in a global historical context, to try to clarify the causes, the conditions, and the structures, contributing to a total history. We have rescued practical, perceptions, and speeches; revealing the importance of the work like organizing and stabilizing factor, when equipping to these subjects, of a site in the receiving society, and allowing them "to be disarming its valises", that is to say, to be surpassing the transitoriness. When characterizing to I exile Chilean, in the international and local context; and taking care of the little productions that give account of the working universe in these traumatic experiences, they have been evident the limits that a strict separation supposes enters I exile, and economic or political migration; since this planning locks up a invisibiliza glance that map courses that in principle, or superficially, they can be read at least organized. The application of the network analysis, by the way contributed to make them visible, transforming them into rational actors, with objectives that were mobilized from the resources which they had; trying to surpass the paradigm that made of them desperate beings: they were women and men who chose a possible destiny, always taking care of the double character of the experience in which they were immersed: the exit of its country released on the one hand them, but it deprived also them; associating very indissolubly feelings of pain by the loosening of own - the personal and collective affection, agravated by the effects of the defeat and the uncertainty. They are subjects that put their identity in risk. We try to obtain that this investigation, is not only a case study, but can register from their specificity, in as much I exile working, in a comparative perspective, surpassing a specific space definition, in the Nor This of Chubut. ; Fil: Gatica, Mónica. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

Issue 41.6 of the Review for Religious, November/December 1982. ; A Pope for Religious Advent: Not Ours But God's Religious in Politics Volume 41 Number 6 Nov./Dec., 1982 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (ISSN 0034-639X), published every two months, is edited in collaboration with the faculty members of the Department of Theological Studies of St. Louis University. The editorial offices are located at Room 428:3601 Lindell Blvd.: St. Louis, MO 63108. REvIEw FOR REt.IGIOUS is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus, St. Louis, MO: © 1982 by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOOS. Composed, printed and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, MO. Single copies: $2.50. Subscription U.S.A.: $9.00 a year: $17.00 for two years. Other countries: $10.00 a year: $19.00 for two years. For subscription orders or change of address, write: REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Dolores Greeley, R.S.M. Daniel T. Costello, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Book Editor Questions and Answers Editor Assistant Editor Nov./Dec., 1982 Volume 41 Number 6 Manuscripts, books for review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; Jesuit Community; St. Joseph's University; City Avenue at 54th St.; Philadelphia, PA 19131. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108. "Out of print" issues and articles not published as reprints are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. A Pope for Religious: John Paul II on the Consecrated Life Barbara Albrecht This article is the Introduction to the book of homilies, addresses and writings edited by Dr. Albrecht: Johannes Paul II: Gottgeweihtes Leben (Vallendar-SchiSnstatt: Patris Verlag, 1982). pp. 336. It was translated by Sister M. Ingeborg, O.S.F.; St. Francis Novitiate; 2120 Central Avenue: Alton, IL 62002. His special messages and conferences, the many addresses to religious in Rome and during his pastoral travels show us in John Paul II a pope who is truly a friend who genuinely treasures religious communities. John Paul 1I has a very special sensitivity for the specific charism of each community, for its singular importance .in the life of the Church as a whole. The religious vocation belongs to that "spiritual fullness which the Spirit himself--the Spirit of Christ--brings forth,and molds in the People of God. Without religious orders, without 'consecrated' life, by means of its vows of chastity, poverty and obedience, the Church would not be fully herself."l The pope, himself a strong spiritual leader, forcefully reminds us of the priori-ties of religious life. He accentuates, warns of dangers, challenges--and all this as one who, with inner strength and clarity, tries to live out the mission of his office, fully aware of his responsibility before its Lord t:or the Church in our time. A survey of the highlights of John Paul's teaching makes for an effective summary of a practical theology of religious life. Call to Religious Life The interplay of the divine free call and the human freeyes to that call in a life ~To Superiors General of Men, Rome, November 24, 1978. L'Osservatore Romano. December 7, 1978, p. 3. All citations are from L'Osservatore Romano. and will be indicated by date of issue and page (English Edition). 801 1~02 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 consecrated to the Triune God is a mystery which e.merges out of the "creative initiative of God" and his loving providence over each individual.2 The call to religious life, then, is not first of all a duty, but a gift, "an immense and gratuitous gift from God."3 It is the basis for continuous thanksgiving and deep joy and, yes, for wonder! This is the ever-new wonder: "Whoever takes up the risk of following a religious vocationTM gains, "through the sweet breath of the Holy Spirit in his frail human reality a real form." At the same time, John Paul is caught by the "strength which, consolidating us in love, incorporates our existence with the work of God, with his plan of re-creating man in Christ, that is, the formation of his new redeemed family."~ This Christian calling is not for the individual alone. On the contrary, it is always an offer of love and of salvation for all. This is the fact that gives to each one who is called a responsibility for others through the witness of his life and of his service.6 A vocation to religious life is a mystery of love-as-dialogue because "we respond lovingly to the initiative of love," as the pope told seminarians and candidates for religious life in Porto Alegre.7 Our yes, given in love, is a matter of our faith in the faithful God, the faith with which the individual firmly grounds himself in God who calls. And simultaneously ouryes is the greatest expression of our freedom. This loving, free answer of ours is expressed in the threefold vows of the evangelical counsels. John Paul told reli-gious men in Chicago: No matter what others may contend or the world may believe, your promises to observe the evangelical counsels have not shackled your freedom. You are not less free because you are obedient, and you are not less loving because of your celibacy. On the contrary: The faithful practice of the evangelical counsels accentuates your human dignity, liberates' the human heart . But this freedom of an individed heart (see I Co 7:23-35) must be maintained by continual vigilance and fervent prayer.8 This vigilance refers especially to the authenticity of our life of the evangelical counsels. One important aspect of this authenticity is the art with which conse-crated men and women give their total love to God and, at the same time, meet their brothers and sisters--freely and effortlessly. The pope expressed this to women religious in Paris: May your vow of consecrated virginity impel you to join in actual fact with your brothers and sisters in humanity, in the concrete situations in which they find themselves! So many people of our world are, as it were, lost, crushed, without hope! Being mindful of the norms of prudence, make them feel that you love them in the manner of Christ, drawing from his heart 2To Those Called to the Priesthood and Religious Life and Their Directors, Porto Alegre, July 5. 1980. July 28, 1980. p. 6. ~To the Union of Superiors General of Won~en, Rome, November 14. 1979. November 26, 1979, p. 8. 4To Women Religious, Paris. May 31, 1980. June 9, 1980, p. 7. ~To Seminarians at the Major Seminary inGuadalajara, January 30, 1979. February 19, 1979, p. 4. 6To Women Religious, Paris, May 31, 1980. June 9, 1980, p. 7 7Lot. tit,. p. 6. ¯ 8To Religious Men. Chicago, October 4, 1979. October 29, 1979. p. 5 A Pope for Religious / 1103 the human and divine tenderness that he bears them. You also promised Christ to be poor with him and like him. Certainly our society of production and consumption raises complex problems for the practice of evangelical poverty. This is not the place or the time to discuss them. It seems to me that every congregation must see in this economic phenomenon a providential invitation to give an answer, at once tradi-tional and new. to Christ in his poverty? Poverty must, however, be genuinely evangelical in order to be able to recognize Christ in the "humblest." It is necessary to be able to identify oneself with one's brother in need by being "poor in spirit"(see Mt 5:3). Now this calls for simplicity and humility, love of peace, freedom from dissipative commitments or attachments, an inclination toward total abnegation that is free and obedient, spontaneous and constant, gentle'and strong in the certainties of faith.~° The Gospel meaning of poverty cannot be reduced to its material aspect alone. We have a plethora of possibility today to live it in ever new ways. To recognize such possibility in the Holy Spirit and to act on this understanding--this is the imitation of Jesus Christ, and, at the same time, a real service to our society. "All religious have the responsibility of reintroducing into society, with univocal wit-ness through the conversion of heart and of life-style, the values of real poverty, simplicity of life, fraternal love, and generous sharing."~ The Holy Father deliber-ately ended the fifteenth centenary of St. Benedict, and began the eighth centenary of St. Francis' birth under this heading of poverty. Finally, obedience is "the resolute and constant aspiration to conform our own will to that of God."t2 Religious obedience is certainly the sharpest of the three gold nails which attach [his] imitators to the will of Jesus Christ. Is it possible to look at the cross of the Lord Jesus without conforming to his mystery of obedience to the Father?t3 This question is addressed to all religious. The Holy Father pointed out very clearly that such obedience will find expression in our dependence on human superiors. There is yet another aspect of the consecrated life to which the Holy Father often turned. Such a life, consecrated to the eternal God, of its very essence has a great deal to do with perseverance. In Altftting, he reminded thousands of religious: Believing in the faithfulness of the One who calls and in the power of his Spirit, you put yourselves at God's disposal through the vows of poverty, consecrated virginity, and obedi-ence, and this not as an "obligation which can be revoked," not as a "life in a monastery for a time," not as co-workers in a group that has come together fora specific task and which breaks up again at will. No, in faith you have spoken a yes which is all-inclusive and forever, which finds its expression in your way of life and even in your religious garb. In our time, when people shy away from binding ties, when many would like to turn to a life of"testing," it 9Lot. cir. p. 7. t0To Religious Women, S~o Paulo, July 3, 1980. July 21, "1980, p. 3. ~Homily at St. Paul Outside the Walls. Mar~h 21, 1981. March 30. 1981, "p. 2. ~2To Religious Women of the Umbriah Dioceses. March 23, 1980. March 31, 1980, p. 9. ~3To the Daughters of Charity; January I I, 1980. February 4. 1980, p. 7. 8~ ] Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 belongs to you to testify that one can dare to enter into a definitive bond, to make a decision for God which embraces one's whole life, which makes you free and happy if it is renewed day after day.t4 Persons who give this kind of joyful witness "make the religious vocation in the Church to be something attractive."~5 They are the "best advertisement" for reli-gious vocations. It is self-understood that first of all we have to pray for vocations. But young people should also be enthusiastically invited to this way of following Christ in our pastoral work among the young.~6. Yes, the pope calls upon bishops and priests to become interested on a per-sonal level in religious vocations--just as he did himself when he was bishop in Krakow, and on the occasions of his pastoral journeys later when he became pope. At every opportunity he repeats: Go among the young! Meet them personally and call them. The hearts of the young and those not so young anymore are ready to listen to you. Many are searching for a goal in their lives. They are concerned about discovering a worthwhile mission in life to which they can dedicate themselves. Christ has prepared them for his call and your call. We have to call! The Lord will do the rest. His fundamental suggestion is: "Nothing without God--but nothing also without us!" This very old Catholic truth becomes truly concrete when it is applied to vocations to the consecrated life. The Charism of the Founder At a time when the younger generation appears to have lost any sense for tradition and history (which is one reason for the phenomenon of internal crisis in the Church) it is evident that the pope intends to give clear reminders to religious of their origins. The beginnings of the many orders and religious communities in which indi-viduals today live out their consecrated lives are not at all like musty archives, but like lively fountains, vital fires, lives lived in obedience to the Holy Spirit, lives in which the founders and foundresses, responding to their call from God, accepted and carried out their missions under the most trying of circumstances. At the start of each congregation stands some prophetic figure, one who was seized by a special mission, endowed with a special charism: Each of your founders, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit promised by Christ to the Church, was a man who possessed a particular charism. Christ had in him an exceptional ~instrument" for his work of salvation which, especially in this way, is perpetuated in the history of the human family. The Church has gradually assumed these charisms, evaluated them, and, when she found them authentic, thanked the Lord for them and tried to "put them in a safe place" in the life of the community so that they could always yield fruit)7 Therefore it is the expressed desire of the pope that those who are called to a ~4Homily to Religious, November 18, 1980. December 15, 1980, p. I I. ~To Religious Men, Manila Cathedral, February 17, 1981. February 23, 1981, p. 6. ~6To Bishops of Latin America, Puebla, January 28, 1979. February 5, 1979,~ p. 5. ~TTo Superiors General of Men, Rome, November 24, 1978. December 7, 1978. p. 3. A Pope for Religious consecrated life in community, especially contemplatives, will study more and more deeply, in order to live it more and more intensely, the spirituality of their founders, without letting themselves be tempted by more fashionable methods or tech-niques, the inspiration of which has often little to do with the Gospel. The contemplative and mystical heritage of the Church is exceptionally vast and deep. It is necessary, therefore, to take care that all monasteries will undertake to get to know it, cultivate it, and teach But more than a few religious communities today have forgotten their beginnings. They do not know the specific spirituality and the mission on the basis of which the founding generation took its start. It is no wonder that this leads to a leveling among them, to the loss 6f the spiritual lineaments not only of the specific community but of the entire Church. In truth, it is not surrender to compromise~9 and a leveling process, but a distinctive portrait, not uniformity but a pluralism of charisms that makes for the beauty of the Church. Therefore the pope exhorts: Let every spiritual family watch over its particular identity in view of the good of the whole Church. What is done in one place is not necessarily to be imitated elsewhere.2° The Church needs a clear difference (and not a confusion) and the valid complementarity (and not isolation) of charisms and vocations . The spiritual richness of the Church and of her service to men lies in variety.2~ It is precisely this that presents to the searching Christian youth of today the chance for each one to find his way to follow his call and mission according to God's plan. Only in faithfulness to Christ and to the charism of each founder or foundress will this variety be safeguarded. And only in this faithfulness will be found the key that opens and secures the effectiveness of each order. The Witness of Being Anyone who reads the remarks of the Holy Father with an open mind will perceive his appreciation for the varied activity 0f religious in the apostolate, whether new or old. We could not find a warmer expression of papal approval of service to the poor and sick than in John Paul's letter marking the four-hundredth birthday of St. Vincent de Paul, or more encouraging words about the catechetical and pastoral service of religious women than those he spoke in Kinshasa/Zaire. But all apostolic work would be in vain if it were not founded on a strong spiritual life. What the Holy Father had said to priests and religious in Maynooth, he repeated to the superiors general in Rome, again to the plenary session of the Congregation for Religious and Secular Institutes. and, finally, to monks at Saint Paul's: Your first apostolic duty is your own sanctification. No change in religious life has any importance unless it be also the conversion of yourself to Christ. No movement in religious life has any importance unless it be also a movement inwards to the "still center" of your ~STo Plenary Session of the Sacred Congregation for Religious and Secular Institutes, Rome, March 7. 1980. March 24, 1980, p. 4. ~gTo Religious Women, Rome. November 10. 1978. November 23, 1978, p. 10. -'°To the Carmelites of Lisieux. June 2, 1980. June 23, 1980, p. 14. 2~To Religious Men. S~o Paulo. July 3, 1980. July 21. 1980, p. 7. 1106 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 existence, where Christ is. It is not what you do that matters most but what you are.:'- It would totally misrepresent his words to interpret this primacy of being and of personal sanctification as some kind of ego-centered salvation. The Holy Father does not want religious to become turned in on themselves, centered around their own egos. But he is concerned "that Jesus must always be first.''-3 He is concerned about their witness "to the primacy of God,"~4 about the credibility of the lives of those who have received the "gift" of a special call in the imitation of Christ.25 This call is something that "deserves, but also costs, the response of our whole being."~6 "A vocation is, therefore, a mystery that man accepts and lives in the depth of his being.''~7 "The Epiphany, the appearance of our Lord, which you love to celebrate here, depends on you!" he told religious women in Africa.28 This summons should be an imperative for us all, " so that the world may believe." Prayer and Contemplation Again and again the Holy Father affirms the absolute necessity of the vertical, contemplative dimension of religious life, and this not just for monastic-contem-plative religious, but for active apostolic communities: daily meditation on the Word of God, personal and communal prayer, gratitude and praise of God, add the petition for the "freedom of an undivided heart."~9 The Holy Father is, of course, aware of the tension between prayer and work. He knows that "a constant danger for apostolic workers is to become so much involved in their own work for the Lord as to forget the Lord of all work."3° But there is another danger in our world today. Through the very s~ams of convent walls seeps "the temptation to activism and distraction that the modern consumer society brings in its train, with all its materialistic overtones.TM Because of this, the Holy Father reminds religious of the absolute necessity of silence in every form of religious life. This element of the spiritual life "calls for areas of actual silence and personal discipline in order to facilitate contact with God."32 What is true for the individual is equally applicable to religious houses: Religious houses must be, above all. oases of prayer and meditation, places of personal and community dialogue with him who is and must remain the first and principal interlocutor of -'-'To Priests, Missionaries. Religious Brothers and Sisters. Maynooth, October I. 1979. October. 15. 1979. p. 6. -'3To Religious Women, Washington. October 7, 1979. November 5, 1979. p. 3. ~4To the International Union of Mothers General, Rome, November 16, 1978. November 30, 1978, p. 3. ~Porto Alegr¢, Ioc. cir. p. 6. 2~To Enclosed Nuns, Guadalajara. January 30, 1979. February 12. 1979. p. 8. ~TPorto AIcgre, Ioc. cit. p. 6. -'SKinshasha, May 3, 1980. May 19, 1980. p. 3. -'~To Religious Men, Chicago, Ioc cit. p. 5. ¯ ~°To Plenary Session of the Sacred Congregation, Ioc. cir. p. 3. 3~To Religious Women, Nagasaki, February 26, 1981. March 9, p. 18. ¯ ~-'To Plenary Session of the Sacred Congregation, Ioc. cir., p. 3. A Pope for Religious 807 their days, so full of work. Superiors must not be afraid, therefore, of often reminding their confreres that a pause of real worship is more fruitful and rich than any other activity even if intense and of an apostolic characterP3 Every generous service to men draws possibilities and impetus precisely from this prayerP4 Mere human kindness will not be enough. People have to feel that through you someone else is at work. To the extent that you live your total consecration to the Lord, you communi-cate something of him, and, ultimately, it is he for whom the human heart is longing.-~ In this connection it is to be observed how deep are the bonds which link the Holy Father to the contemplative branch of religious life. He hardly gives any talk in which he does not mention its importance for the Church and the world of today. What he tells the sisters in Lisieux holds true for all: Take up the challenge of the modern world and of the world of always, by living more radically than ever the very mystery of your quite original state, which is folly in the eyes of the world and wisdom in the Holy Spirit: exclusive love of the Lord and of all your human brothers in him. Do not seek to justify yourselves! All love, provided it is authentic, pure and disinterested, bears in itself its own justification. To love gratuitously is an inalienable right of the person even--and one should say above all--when the Beloved is God himself. In the footsteps of contemplatives and mystics of all times, continue to bear witness with power and humility to the transcendent dimension of the human person, created in the likeness of God and called to a life of intimacy with him.J6 Demands of the Apostolate The spiritual demands underlying all the apostolates of one who is called to the consecrated life have already been discussed, as has been the symbiosis of prayer and work. The Holy Father tells women religious in Baclaran that this demands, very concretely, ¯. in the taxing routine of your apostolic tasks [that you] always make sure that you devote periods of each day to personal and community prayers. These times of prayer must be carefully guarded and suitably prolonged, and you must not hesitate to supplement them by periods of more intense recollection and prayer, at times especially set aside for this purpose. You must always insure that the mutual center of your communities is the Eucharist: you will accomplish this by your fervent daily participation in the Mass, and by community prayer in an oratory where the eucharistic presence of Christ expresses and realizes what must be the principle mission of every religious family.37 Another directive to ffhich the Holy Father gives voice in forceful language has to do with the quality of apostolic work, especially in regard to its theological, spiritual, human and professional aspects, and always is this to be pursued in brotherly or sisterly solidarity: Help one another, among religious houses, among congregations, to organize times and ~Ibid. ~To Union of Superiors General of Men, Rome, November ~26. 1979. December 24, 1979, p. 5. 3~To Religious. Altrtting, November 18, 1980. December 15, 1980, p. 12. ~'To the Carmelites of Lisieux, Ioc. cir., p. 14. aTBaclaran, February 17, 1981. February 23, 1981, p. 5. 808 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 places of silence and meditation, in order to benefit from sessions of spirituality, theology, and ministry. Encourage one another to take part in them. Contribute by mutual aid to cover the expenses caused by these retreats and sessions. Your love for one another should be clearly seen. Because you are religious today, it is indispensable, even if you are contemplatives, to watch over your human formation, to sufficiently know the life and the problems of people today, especially if you have the mission of proclaiming the Gospel to them. Young people and adults are sensitive to the humanity of those who have "given everything to gain every-thing" to follow Christ.38 "Your professional competence is equally a very important factor and you will have to take it very seriously and keep it up-to-date. Also in this regard a symbiosis is necessary." Thus did the Holy Father speak to the General Chapter of the Hospital Order of St. John of God. "Only a professional, a purely human relation-ship, even with the sick, runs the risk of drying up for lack of roots and deep motivations. But if your work is not filtered through faith, it is always in danger of becoming materialized and of losing even the human elements."39 Only with the help of a deep inner saturation with prayer, faith, and professional competence can the work of religious be transformed into a true apostolate. In this connection the Holy Father makes frequent mention of that particular group of consecrated religious who are of special importance for every apostolate: How could I forget the sick sisters, and those who are infirm and old? Throughout the day and often at night, when sleep is difficult, they present to the Lord the silent offering of their almost uninterrupted prayers, their physical or moral sufferings, their "fiat" to the divine Will. They, too, are the priestly people that Christ won with his blood on the Cross. With him they save the world.4° Therefore all the members of the community should give them special, grate-ful, and loving attention. The Holy Father offers yet another direction for the right understanding of the religious apostolate, one which is important not only for the young Church, but for the entire Church: It is well-known that religious orders have always cultivated the vertical dimension by entering into a life with the Gospel and bearing witness to it through the example of the Gospel reread authentically: that is, on the basis of the Church and in faithfulness to her magisterium. It must be so today also. Witness, yes--protest, no! On every community, on every religious there weighs a particular co-responsibility for the real presence of Christ, meek and humble of heart, in the world of today--of the crucified and risen Christ--Christ among brothers. This is the spirit of evangelical maximalism which is differentiated from any socio-political radicalism.4~ What the Holy Father reminded religious of in Manila has to be the direction for all religious: "Faithfulness to Christ in religious life requires a threefold fidelity: fidelity to the Gospel, fidelity to the Church, fidelity to the particular charism of 38To Religious Women, Kinshasha, Ioc. cir. p. 3. 39Rome, December 13, 1979. January 7, 1980. p. 12. ~°Kinshasha, Ioc. cir. p. 3. '~To Union of Superiors General of Men. Rome, November 24, 1978. December 7. 1978, p. 3. A Pope for Religious ] 809 your institute."4-~ This brings us to one of the most important demands regarding the apostolate of religious communities: collaboration. What is meant here is collaboration on every level: between organizations of major superiors with national conferences of bishops, between religious and ordinaries, between religious and diocesan priests, between religious and the laity. In view of the disruptions which have begun to appear in many places, the Holy Father emphatically and distinctly pointed to the function of uniting and of teaching that pertains to the authority of bishops. He is concerned that religious in their theological teaching and pastoral practice "not only accept but seek loyally an unbreakable unity of aim and action with their bishops. To the bishops the Lord entrusted the mission of feeding the flock. To religious it belongs to blaze the trails for evangelization. It cannot be. it ought not to be. that the bishops should lack responsible and active, yet at the same time, docile and trusting collaboration of the religious, whose charism makes them ever more ready agents at the service of the Gospel. In this matter everybody in the ecclesial community has a duty of avoiding magisteria other than the Church's magisterium, for they are ecclcsially unacceptable and pastorally sterile.43 Nobody knows better than the Holy Father how important, in every regard, is the inner unity of the Church. To his difficult task he brings the experience of a bishopfrom a country under the sway of communism. It is for the well-being of the life of the Church that he appeals to the spiritual capacity of religious to work for unity within the Church. To religious men in the cathedral in Manila he said: As religious you are in a position to make a special contribution to the promotion of the unity of the Church. Your experience of community life, common prayer, and corporate apostolic ¯ service prepares you for this task. May you dedicate yourselves to the great cause of unity with renewed vigor, seeking in a spirit of openness and respect to break down barriers of division and to encourage the progress of harmony and mutual collaboration.4~ Community Life Characteristic of the consecrated life of virginity, poverty and obedience is that it is not vowed and lived outside but inside a community. In his address to superiors general John Paul said: Community life is in fact an important element of religious life. It has been a characteristic of the lives of religious persons from the beginning because spiritual bonds cannot be created. developed and perpetuated unless through daily and prolonged relations. This community life, in evangelical charity, is closely linked with the mystery of the Church which is a mystery of communion and participation, and gives proof of your consecration to Christ. Make every effort that this community life may be facilitated and loved, becoming in this way a precious means of mutual help and personal fulfillment.45 Concretely the Holy Father admonished the superiors general to do everything 4"Lot. cir. p. 6. ~To Bishops of Latin America, Puebla, Ioc. cit,, p. 4. aLoe. cir., p. 7. ~STo Superiors General of Women. Ioc. cir., pp. 8. 12. 810/ Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 "that can contribute to union of minds and hearts. The world is very sensitive to the witness that good or bad religious communities are giving. A sisterly, fervent and authentic life is indispensable in order that women religious may cope, in a lasting way, with the obligations, toil and difficulties that a life of consecration and apostolate entails in the world today."a6 Moreover, the superior has a genuine human and spiritual obligation to take care that every individual feel responsible for building up the community: Acceptance of one's brother, with his qualities and his limitations, the effort to coordinate one's own initiatives with decisions matured together, the self-criticisms imposed by continu-ous confrontation with the evaluations and points of view of others, become not only a very effective training ground of human and Christian virtue but also a precious opportunity for constant verification of the earnestness with which one endeavors to put into practice in one's life the obligations assumed in the religious profession.47 "Charity begins at home!" The "neighbor," in the meaning of the Gospel, is first of all one's co-brother or co-sister. True love for this very concrete neighbor should urge everyone to "be concerned with the well-being of the brother and to put aside one's own advantage." "If a person endeavors day by day to bring into harmony the absolute necessity of silence and modesty with the other absolute necessity of participation in community life, then there grows in him the ability to act as a genuine person who stands in the right relationship with God and with the others." These answers about community which the Holy Father gave to the Benedictines hold true for all other religious communities as well. To make this kind of community life possible requires real authority in the superior. The exercise of authority, in a spirit of service and love for all the sisters, is a vital task, even though a difficult one, which calls for no little courage and dedication. The superior has the duty to help the sisters to realize their vocation more and more perfectly. She cannot shirk this obligation which is certainly an arduous but indispensable one. To carry out this duty calls for constant prayer, reflection, consultation, and also courageous decisions, in awareness of your personal responsibility before God, the Church, and the sisters themselves who expect this service. Weakness. like authoritarianism, are deviations that are equally harmful for the good of souls and the proclamation of the kingdom?~ The Holy Father reads the essence and practice of genuine authority in a very concentrated and fundamental way in what St. Benedict wrote in his Rule about the abbot as spiritual father. It contains such richness that it would be profitable for all superiors, men and women, to study the Rule of him who traditionally is thought to be the Father of monks and of orders, beginning with a personal meditation on John Paul's papal letter marking the fifteen-hundredth birthday of St. Benedict. There is yet another aspect of community life upon which the pope frequently ~lbid. *TTo Religious Brothers of Clerical and Lay Institutes, Rome, January 12, 1980. February 4, 1980, p. 9. '=STo the Union of Superiors General of Women, Ioc. cir., p. 12. A Pope for Religious / 811 touches, and which sheds light on the importance of community life for the Church and for the whole world: Having come to religious life from very different social environments, countries and even continents, you live in communities to bear witness--contrary to nationalistic feelings, preju-dices, sometimes hatred--to the possibility and the reality of this universal brotherhood, to which all people vaguely aspire.49 Communities (the one addressed here directly is that of the White Fathers) have to be and are ¯ . . witnesses that prejudices of race, class, nation and culture can be overcome for the kingdom of God. It is on this basis that you live your consecration to the mission. It is from this basis that you wish to advance along the ways of deep spiritual life, where the values of poverty, chastity and obedience find their whole meaning again, whether you are priests or brothers. The Pope deeply rejoices at this and encourages you from the bottom of his heart. The Church and the world today absolutely need those communities in which sharing and communion are not just words, but realities lived from day to day, with humility and enthusiasm. Is it necessary to add that such concrete expressions of brotherhood will be, in themselves, a call to the young and even adults of all countries, to take their place in your ranks and carry on in the future?~° "Community" should not only be lived within one's own convent and in one's own congregation. There is a very acute demand for cooperation among all orders and religious communities, ¯. whether you are dedicated to contemplation or engaged in the direct tasks of evangeliza-tion, to be on extremely fraternal terms among yourselves and among congregations, and to help one another, better and better, on three planes which seem to me essential: to see your consecration in the right way and carry it out courageously, to be eager to take part in the mission of the Church, to pursue a solid spiritual formation and judicious openness to realities of your age and your environmentP~ Were these, and the other many thoughts sketched by the Holy Father able to shed light into the darkened areas of our hearts, leading us once again into a deep joy over our religious communities, it would be an unequalled contribution to the unity of the Church! Self-ldentity The Holy Father recognizes that the topic of self-identiO, is "hot." This is why the concept, if not the word, so frequently recurs in his talks. Fundamentally, this concept is but a variation of the theme that he often stresses regarding the fidelity which the individual and the congregation should have to the charism of the respective founder. Now he broadens the idea, referring to the consecrated life as "religious," and then referring specifically to the religious man or woman. The urgency of the problem is evidenced by the following statements addressed to religious men in S~o Paulo: 49To Religious Women, Kinshasha, Ioc, cit. p. 2. ~OGeneral Chapter, December 15, 1980. February 2, 1981. p. 12. ~Kinshasha, Ioc. cir. p. 2. 1~12 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 In the pursuit of pastoral collaboration there is a frequent temptation to dilute as much as possible, almost to the point of extinction, that which characterizes and identifies religious life and religious [thcmselves]. It is clear that it is not helpful either for religious life or for collaboration. A religious priest, immersed in the apostolate alongside diocesan priests should show clearly by his attitude that he is a religious. The community should be able to sense it. The same should be said of a religious who is not a priest, or of a sister, in their respective collaboration with lay pcople.~-' The situation described by the Holy Father for women religious in Mexico also often applies to all religious: But there are not lacking, either, examples of confusion with regard to the very essence of consecrated life and one's own charism. Sometimes prayer is abandoned and is replaced by action: the vows are interpreted according to the secularizing mentality which dulls the religious motivation of one's own state; community life is abandoned with a certain irrespon-sibility; socio-political attitudes are adopted as the real aim to pursue, even with well-defined ideological radicalizations. And when the certainties of faith arc sometimes dimmed, motives arc put forward, such as the seeking of new horizons and experiences, perhaps with the pretext of being closer to men, when it may be a question of concrete groups chosen with criteria that are not always evangelical. Beloved sisters, never forget that to maintain a clear concept of the value of your conse-crated life you need a deep vision of faith which is nourished and preserved with prayer. This faith will enable you to overcome all uncertainty with regard to your own identity.5-~ The situation he thus sketches seems to be what lays behind the Holy Father's intense exhortation to religious women in Paris regarding external appearance: "Never be afraid to let your identity as women consecrated to the Lord be clearly recognized. Christians, and those who are not, have the right to know who you are!"54 The Holy Father's concern is not only in regard to an understanding of religious life in general. Even more does he touch upon the problem of identity in regard to the religious man and woman. In regard to religious men, the Holy Father expressed himself in very clear terms on the occasion of the celebration of the Benedictine centenary, when he spoke about spiritual fatherhood in a father-less world. Still more specifically, though only briefly, did he address religious women. The pope picked up and developed the phrase of the superiors general, "Let us first be Christians," coupled with the addition that some made, "Let us first be women," saying that, in his opinion, they are not mutually exclusive. They become one in the mystery which embraces the mission of women in a very special way, placing them directly in its center: the mystery of the Church as Mother and as Bride. This involves a lived surrender. There is. it seems, in a woman's body and heart an extraordinary disposition to make her life a royal offering to Christ as the one Bridegroom. This femininity--often considered by a certain public opinion as sacrificed in a foolish way in religious life--is, as a matter of fact. reformed 5~-Loc. cit. p. 7. 53January 27. 1979. L'Osservatore Romano. February 12, 1979. p. 4. A Pope for Religious and expanded on a higher plane: that of the kingdom of God. For example, physical fecundi-ty, which has such a great place in African tradition, as well as attachment to the family, are values that can be lived by the African sister within a far wider and ever renewed community, and to the benefit of an absolutely astonishing spiritual fecundityPS It should make us wonder why there is a lack of community spirit, of loneli-ness, of unrecognized and unlived womanhood in some religious women when there is such a natural foundation in the very being of woman. It is hard to live the dignity of woman in accordance with God's plan when the natural foundation has hardly been tapped. Those who are concerned with the formation of young reli-gious should keep this in mind. Otherwise it would be impossible to fulfill what the Holy Father rightly expects of religious women: "The witness of a harmonious and mature personality, which is able to establish relations with others without unjusti-fied prejudices or ingenuous imprudence, but with cordial openness and serene balance."56 St. Catherine of Siena is for the Holy Father "a masterpiece of grace, renewing and raising the creature to the perfection of holiness, which is also the full realiza-tion of the fundamental values of humanity," in this case, of being a woman. In her nature as a woman, [Catherine] was generously endowed with imagination, intuition, sensitiveness, willpower and industry, with capability and power of communication, with readiness for giving of herself and for service. She is transfigured, but not impoverished in the light of Christ who calls her to be his bride and to identify herself mystically with him in the depth of "interior knowledge" as well as to commit herself in charitable, social, and even political action, in the midst of the great and the ordinary, the rich and the poor. the learned and the ignorant.$7 What stands out the most, in all apostolates, is always hidden service. This apostolate is usually hidden, near to the human being, and so more suited to a woman's soul. sensitive to her neighbor, and hence called to the task of a sister and mother. It is precisely this vocation which is at the very "heart" of your religious being. As Bishop of Rome I beg you: Be spiritually mothers and sisters for all the people of this Church which Jesus. in his ineffable mercy and grace, has wished to entrust to me. Be this for everyone, without exception, but especially for the sick, the suffering, the abandoned, the children, the young, families in difficult situations . Go out towards them! Do not wait for them to come to you! Look for them yourselves! Love drives us to do so!~ Difficulties, Experimentation, Renewal The pope is a realist. He sees the tremendous interior and exterior difficulties with which the whole Church must contend today: young Christians on the way to making their life-decisions, Christians in religious communities, and especially those who must bear their responsibility as superiors. John Paul II does not try to ~ Loc. cir. p. 7. 55Kinshasha, Ioc. c#., p. 2. 5~At Rome. Ioc. cir., p. 10. STCelebration of the Sixth Centenary of St. Catherine of Siena. St. Peter's Basilica. April 30, 1980. June 23. 1980, p. 7. ~STo Religious Women, Rome, lot'. tit. p. 5. 814 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 minimize the number of difficulties, as, for example, when to religious at Czesto-chowa he spoke of times "when you will have to endure inward or outward suffering or darkness."~9 Difficult to accept also are "the rapid social changes in a country, or the small number and the aging of your°subjects."~0 But the Holy Father is even more radical in addressing the topic of other "difficulties." He searches out roots which quite possibly come not from outside but from within the hearts of those who are called: Why is our testimony sometimes in vain? Because we present Jesus without the whole attrac-tive power of his Person, without revealing the riches of the sublime ideal that following him involves, because we do not always succeed in showing a conviction, expressed in real life, with regard to the stupendous value of our dedication to the great ecclesial cause that we serve.6~ This summation could very likely serve as an examination of conscience for many today. To the International Assembly of Superiors General in Rome the Holy Father mentioned still other kinds of difficulties. Throughout he shows great insight and gives clear directives for resolving them within--or at least making them bearable. The Holy Father ¯ . . wishes to give [religious] encouragement and comfort in the accomplishment of a commitment that is always demanding, often accompanied by the sign of the cross and by painful solitude, and which calls, on the side [of you superiors] for a deep sense of responsibil-ity. a generosity without weakness and confusion, and constant forgetfulness of yourselves. You, in fact, must sustain and guide your sisters in this post-conciliar period, which is certainly rich in new experiences, but also so exposed to errors and deviations, which you try to avoid and correct.62 This is not at all to suggest that John Paul II seeks to block all experimenta-tion. Were this so, he would not have asked the mothers general, in the face of"the wind of interminable researches and experiments: accept all these realities. Take them seriously, never tragically. Seek calmly for gradual, clear and courageous solutions.6~ No step forward in any direction is possible, unless starting from those already taken, but, vice versa, to stop at the latter is a sign of sterile stagnation,u The years of searching, sometimes of uncertainty and unrest have been years of purifica-tion. No~; we should be entering a period of consolidation and of construction.6~ After the years of experience, aimed at updating religious life, according to the spirit of the 59"1"o Women Religious, Jasna Gora, June 5, 1979. July 2. 1979, p. 4. ~'°To Union of Mothers General, Ioc. cit., p. 3. 6~To the Clergy, Religious and Seminarians of Santo Domingo, January 26, 1979. February 5, 1979, p. 10. 62To Union of Superiors General of Women, Ioc. cir., p. 8. 6~To Union of Mothers General, Ioc. cir., p. 3. 6~To Union of Superiors General of Men, Rome, November 26. 1979. December 24, 1979, p. 5. 6~Maynooth, Ioc. cit. p. 5. A Pope for Religious Institute, the time has come to evaluate objectively and humbly the attempts made. in order to rec.ognize their positive elements and any deviations and to answer them accordingly,u' [One should also] apply oneself humbly and courageously, when necessary, to correct, suspend, or direct in a more opportune way the experiments that are being carried out.~'7 Two criteria, among others, seem the most important: The first is that religious life is not truly renewed if the purpose of the renewal is, in practice, the pursuit of what is easiest and most convenient, but only if the purpose is the pursuit of what is most authentic and most consistent with the aims of religious life itself. The second criterion is that religious life is renewed in order to become even more a path of holiness.6~ The overall basis of everything that the Holy Father says to Christians who have embraced religious life, in spite of all difficulties, is joy and hope. "This is a wonderful time to be a priest, to be a religious, to be a missionary for Christ. Rejoice in the Lord always. Rejoice in your vocation."69 With this inner conviction, the Holy Father, as witness of hope, spoke to young people in the world on the World Day of Prayer for Vocations (May 6, 1979): You will meet difficulties. Do you think that 1 do not know about them? I am telling you that love overcomes all difficulties. The true response to every vocation is the work of love. The response to the priestly, religious and'missionary vocation can only spring from a deep love of Christ. He himself offers you this power of love, as a gift that is added to the gift of his call and makes your response possible. Trust in "him who, by the power at work within us, is able to do far more abundantly than all that we wish or think" (Ep 3:20). And, if you can, give your life, with joy and without fear, to him who first gave his for you.7° Orders and the Entire Church Many of the topics fundamental to the theme of this heading have already been discussed. The pope never tries to be too specific in pointing out concrete aspects as they fit into the overall picture. Religious have to be people ,who "love the Church" (S~o Paulo).7~ "Fidelity to Christ is inseparable from fidelity to the Church, especially in religious life" (Washington).n But this cannot remain true merely on the level of words, It must be manifest in concrete life and activity: "[Its] bond of union with the Church must also be shown in the spirit and apostolic endeavors of every religious institute."73 Very concretely, this means that members of the Church, and thus also religious, must follow the direction of the Church--not with gritted teeth and interior distancing, but "with generous and faithful adherence to the true magisterium" (S~o Paulo).74 Basically ~To the Union of Superiors General of Women. Ioc. cir., p. 8. ~'TTo Religious Women. $5o Paulo. Ioc. tit., p. 4. ~'STo Religious Men. S.~o Paulo. Ioc. tit., p. 7. ~Maynooth. Ioc. cir., p. 6. 70pope's Message for XVI World Day of Prayer for Vocations. May 6. 1979. April 30. 1979. pp. 3. 12. 7~To Religious Women. S-~o Paulo. Ioc. cir., p. 4. 72To Religious Women. Washington. Ioc. cir., p. 3. 731bid. 1~16 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec. 1982 this is all one problem: obedience. Obedience to the charism of the founder, obedience within the community, obedience towards those in authority in the Church. This connection goes even deeper: It has often been noted that there is a close connection between the fervor of the religious life of a country and the condition of the Church in that country: fervent religious life means a living and apostolic Church: where that fervor grows cold, the vitality of the local Church is reduced. If. by mischance, tepidity and mediocrity were to set in. they would soon be reflected among the Christian people. On the other hand, throughout the history of the Church, when she has been assailed by crises, it has always been the religious life that has given the signal for a reawakening and a renewed fidelity to the Gospel.75 These words demonstrate again that the pope never points out dangers with-out, at the same time, showing a positive side! In this instance, as in all others, it is necessary to "go back to the very roots of a sound ecclesiology as revealed by Vatican !!."76 The addresses of the Holy Father are not only marked by the spirit of Vatican I1, but also by the very words of the Council. This would be a very easy thing to trace through each of these citations here. but such would be beyond the scope of this paper. Finally, there is no more beautiful document about the inner unity of religious congregations and the Church than the "Pope's Letter to the Superior General of Discalced Carmelites on the Occasion of the Teresian Year.''77 It well merits frequent meditation. Mary Except in Germany (Alt6tting, November 16, 1980), the Holy Father, though he does not build his talks on Mary, does point towards the Mother of the Lord in all of them. This pervasiveness underscores the importance for us not only to acknowledge, but to ponder with renewed fervor and attention in our hearts what the Holy Father says in regard to the significance of Mary for the spiritual life, and espe-cially for religious life. Whoever finds difficulty with this might well let the off-repeated proclamation of the Holy Father become a vital question for his own life: Why is Mary the "model of every spiritual life," as the pope never tires of pointing out (Mexico, Manila, and so forth). Could not Mary become my model again? What does the Holy Father mean when he says that her "fiat" in Nazareth is the "prototype of every religious profession"? (Czestochowa). Why is genuine union with Mary a true "protection for the consecrated life"? (Rome). And do we--each one of us--really need this protection? Why does the Holy Father entrust each "seed of a 74To Religious Women. Ioc. cir. p. 4, 75To Religious Women. Baclaran. Ioc. cir., p. 5. 7~'Homily, World Day for Vocations. May 10, 1981. May 25. 1981. p. 3. 77November 9. 1981, pp. 8-10. A Pope for Religious / 1117 religious vocation to our Lady"?. (Czestochowa). And why do we need her interces-sion in our prayers for vocations? (Rome). And if the mission of a woman is so "deeply interwoven with the mystery of the Church" (Centenary of St. Catherine of Siena) because the Church in her essence is Mother and Bride, would Mary not be at the same time "Mother of the Church" and "the human picture of the Church"?. (General Chapter of Franciscans). Would she not be the key to solve all the present heated discussions in regard to the theme, "Women in the Church"?. Of course, pondering all that the Holy Father has said about religious life and Mary, we cannot stop with asking ourselves questions. Each characteristic descrip-tion of Mary, the Mother of the Lord, as "Model of the Church" (Franciscans, AIt6tting), "Queen of Martyrs" (Nagasaki), "Mother of Monks" (Monte Cassino) and many others, offers unlimited source for meditation. Would it be possible that here the Holy Father also wanted to give a fresh impetus to many religious? It Is Worth It! Whoever truly lives a consecrated life in generous and dynamic fidelity to Christ, to the Church, and to the demands of his calling and mission, serves the goal of which the Holy Father reminded religious women in Washington: The aim of religious life is to render praise and glory to the. Most Holy Trinity and, through your consecration, to help humanity enter into fullness of life in the Father, and in the Son, and. in the Holy Spirit. In all your planning and in all your activities, try also to keep this aim before you. There is no greater service you can give, there is no greater fulfillment you can receive.7s It is worth dedicating oneself to the cause of Christ, who wants valiant and decided hearts: it is worth devoting oneself to man for Christ, in order to bring him to Him, to raise him, to help him on his way to eternity: it is worth making an option for an ideal that will give you. great joys, even if at the same time it demands a good many sacrifices. The Lord does not abandon his followers.~ In this appeal to the diocesan and religious seminarians in Mexico, the Holy Father brought to a distinct focus his urgent concern for the consecrated life and the service of religious. May those who have received the gift of a call to this life and service receive these words into their hearts with courage and joy. Like Pope John Paul 11, may they, in the service of God, be convincing Witnesses of the Lord before men, especially before the young who are in search ofa way of life. It is worth it! 7~To Religious Women. Washington. Ioc. cir. p. 3. 7'~To the Seminarians at Guadalajara. Ioc. cir. p. 4. Thoughts at an Ordination Vera Gallagher, R.G.S. Sister Vera's last article in our pages was "An American Experience of Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity" in the issue of July/August. 1981. Sister resides at 2702 Broadway East; Seattle. WA 98102. In the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. Amen. Invoking the Three in One, their majesty, their grandeur, we begin your Ordination Mass, Tony and Ott. And 1 think long thoughts. We pray for you, you called in a particular way as servants of the Most High, and we watch you, you with the youthful vigor and the radiant energy and the vision evernew, and we wonder whether you--or any of us--comprehend that call to servitffde that is yours/ours, and what it may involve. Servants all! All of us, for God has made us. And we live out our lives in contradiction to a culture generally indifferent, occasionally at enmity with all we believe. Today's saints--the Lord's servants--are surprises: -a Secretary General of the United Nations, a mystic: a tiny, wizened woman, a foundress of four religious orders; a street man with a gift of prayer, my friend, even as he kneels among bums in our Skid Road; ¯ that poor wretch in his cell on MacNeil Island (our penitentiary) a friend of God: that family in the suburbs, all His friends. You will meet them all where they are, working in factories, programming computers, pleading at the bar, driving trucks. The Lord who had formed you from the womb calls you to serve them, to inspire, to guide to holiness, to lead. That is your challenge--for "God did not give 818 Thoughts at an Ordination / 1119 ¯. a spirit of timidity but a spirit of power and love and self-control" (2 Tm !:6-7), as goes the reading that you chose. Alleluia, Alleluia.t The vaulted ceiling of our cathedral does indeed ring with the alleluias flung out from hundreds of throats, accentuated by trumpet peal and organ blare and the roll of the drums. Alleluia! For today, yes indeed! But your lives will not be alleluias. You know that. But how deeply have you internalized your knowledge? We are not candi-dates, none of us, for self-fulfillment or realization or attainment. One only comes to know God--and no greater joy has been created than that transcendent knowl-edge- by a process of ascetic self-emptying and self-naughting. Opportunities in plenty you will have! Catholic people have such expectations of their priests that one who hears them knows why Jesus was crucified--and why he would be crucified again. And they are good people, all of them. They mean well. "If I, then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, so you also ought to wash one another's feet" (Jn 13:!4). Servantship can glitter even as it beckons-- your ideal! But the reality is boring, foot-slugging, day-in-and-day-out: the phone, the doorbell, the daily homily, the marriages, the sickbeds, the deaths. Of course the "hiddenness" of sanctity is a theme you will have already explored--a hiddenness seldom found today, perhaps, in the monastic cloister or the hermit's cell, but found often enough in the everydayness, the sterility, the orderliness of middle-class existence. We who are sometimes lost in everydayness as surely as the ancient Fathers lost themselves in the desert are yet the ones who carry about in our pockets the lost coin, the grain of mustard seed, the deed to the acre of land with its as-yet-undiscovered treasure buried there. The Archbishop's sermon on the reading you chose from John I could not hear, since I sat behind his back. But I know that he talked of the cross towards the end. Celibacy may be your greatest cross--oh, not in itself, but in the general hostility expressed towards it. And your celibacy will be attacked, often, and by good people: other priests, nuns, singles, married couples--and by your own rational minds. Because, of course, it makes no sense. None whatever to rational minds. But you have promised it. What you do, Tony and Ott, will make little difference to this world of ours, one way or the other. What you are, though, counts. The saints began life much as you and I: not really bad, not especially good, just mediocre. But they smashed the plaster mold of this world's expectations, and they loved much. They rose above everydayness, yet not in spectacular fashion. Benedict Joseph Labre died a bum. Mat Talbot, a recovering alcoholic. Jacob Lieberman, an epileptic. And the Cur6 of Ars never did get his M. Div.! We have not yet canonized anyone who regularly visited a psychiatrist. But we will. We will indeed. I have digressed from celibacy, meaning only to say that the saints are those caught by a vision which changed their lives, and transformed those around them, because they clung to that vision. Saints are eschatological signs to our poor, 1~20 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 befuddled world--such signs as you are called to be, Tony and Oft. Hol, v. Holy. Holy. You have been called forth and examined and prayed over. You have been consecrated and ordained. And, in the abandonment of our joy, we sing "Holy!" Holy. the Lord God of hosts. To touch and to meet that Holy is the purpose of our lives. The only sadness is not to be a saint. The only failure is not to have tried. But to have found that Holy for only one glimpse, one in a lifetime--what is that? Possibly 1 know less than most. But i shall dare to respond. It is a joy, a tremulous, trembling joy, a joy which comes not from pain, but which transcends pain even as it confounds pain. It is vision, the vision at midnight when, because the darkness is so black, the glimmer of light shines clear, an effervescent, irretrievable light of shifting shape. It is peace, the still silence amidst the raucous clanging of the downtown streets at rush hour. It is fire, the flame which burns but does not consume, and which, in conguming, bears bursting life. And is it worth it? Oh yes, indeed. A million times yes. May the body of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve our souls unto life everlasting. Amen. We Are Anointed and Sent Out Through Sacrament of Priesthood We [priests] are all anointed in a special way and we are sent out through the sacrament of the priesthood. Among those whom Christ made and always continues to make "a kingdom of priests" we are priests in a special, sacramental way. All of us have also drawn upon, in a special way, the fulness of the messianic power that was revealed on the "today" of Christ's Holy Thursday. This "today" is our day. It is our feast. We were born along with the Eucharist, and so we were born together with the Church in the room of the Last Supper. In instituting the sacrifice in which the Church is constantly recreated, Christ at the same time consecrated priests, ministers of his sacrifice. He said: ~Do this in remembrance of me" (I Co 11:25). And we do it. We all do it, those of us gathered here and the priests of the entire Church with whom we are united today in a profound, sacramental brotherhood (John Paul II. Mass of Chrism, 8 April." L'Osservatore Romano, 19 April, 1982, p. 6). Advent: Not Ours But God's Daniel McLellan, O.F.M. Father Mcl,ellan is a student in a doctoral program in American history concentrating on American Catholicism. He resides at 317 Brownson: University of Notre Dame: Notre Dame, IN 46556. In a few weeks our time of waiting will be over. But today we are still anticipating. We still await the one who is to come. Patiently we look forward to the promised one who will come upon us from the stillness of the skies. We wait for the one who comes to fulfill our dreams and expectations. He is the one who knows us: the one in whose sight we live. Be it darkness or light, he sees us. "He sees us when we're sleeping / He knows when we're awake / He knows if we've been bad or good / So be good for goodness' sake." Thus began one of the more provocative Advent homilies I've heard. Naturally the congregation thought the homilist was talking about someone else. But that confusion always seems to happen at Advent time--Santa Claus/Jesus; Jesus/ Santa Claus. It's hard to tell the difference! Even though they are venerated in different .~hrines, with different rites; even though the votive offerings to one far outweigh ~hose to the Other, there still remains a great deal of confusion. Both "arrive" on the same day, and the time of preparation is the same. A common sense of waiting, anticipation, further binds the two. And nobody really seems to mind. But there is "something to mind." There is a frightening clash of symbols. Both Jesus and Santa Claus evoke notions of grace and charity, the extension of kindness and generosity. Yet Santa Claus is never enough; we soon outgrow him. Jesus is "too much"; we continue to grapple with him. The task of unclashing the symbols mediated by this season begins in how we perceive Advent. Unless this perception is carefully focused, we will be guilty of abusing the Incarnation, the enfleshment of God, by limiting the consequences of that mystery to seasons and festivals in much the same ways that earned Israel 821 1122 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 Yahweh's condemnation and disgust. The fruitfulness of Advent time and its integrity within the totality of our lives depends upon our ability to retrieve the season's meaning within the context of our lives as a people of faith who are invested with a peculiar call. As we make the focus of our Advent more precise we remember that there are many things right with our world. Despite recent setbacks, efforts are continuing to empower more and more people to have a say in the organization and working out of their own lives. Culturally, there is still a wholesome sensitivity to the need to overcome that ethnic imperialism that fails to recognize the relativity of one's socio-cultural value system; socially we continue to find men and women, despite the so-called narcissism of the seventies, looking to one another for a more vital sense of community. While the news is good least of all in the economic sphere, even this dimension reflects a basic willingness to attend to the restructuring of trade and investment for a global economy. In the world of religious there are signs that the old "either/or" dichotomy (Word or Sacrament, nature or grace) that was partitive within and between churches is being replaced with a deeper appreciation of the "both/and" synthesis (Scripture and tradition, freedom and authority). We have taken note of Teilhard's alert that the most profound move-ment is often the most imperceptible. And yet there is more that remains to be done. Apathy and ignorance still overwhelm the political process; cultural sophistication is still judged by narrow criteria; Moynihan's "benign neglect~ has become the strategy of dealing with the other; recession and unemployment continue to erode the self-esteem and incentive of millions. In the world of religion, the call to,community is still too often a disguise for flight into personal irresponsibility. This season of Advent can be an opportunity to meditate on the work of our lives and the vigor with which that work is carried out on behalf of those to whom we, as Christians, have been promised. Jesus reminded us that, upon setting out to accomplish a task, we ought to assess the situation and see whether or not our resources are sufficient. Perhaps we ought to spend a few moments retrieving the meaning of Advent as a resource enabling us more genuinely and effectively to accept God and the power of God in our lives for the sake of the many. What is Advent? Few would disagree that it is considered a time of waiting, a time of preparation. But for whom? For what? ls it Christ? In what sense? The historical Jesus has come and worn our flesh and blood. If we are awaiting that Jesus, our Advent is a contrivance: four weeks of having to psychologically shift gears everytime we light an Advent wreath, because there can be little real excite-ment, wonder, or urgency about an event whose history we have so long manipu-lated. Or perhaps the theme of our waiting is the coming again of that Jesus. But what happens on December 26th? These four weeks of waiting,, metaphor of our lives, are over, and we return to our very real preoccupation .with the present in which few of us give any thought to that final coming. In each case--the anticipa-tion of the birthday, the acknowledgment of the return--there is little of substance to engage our life in a critical way that penetrates into more than these four weeks. Advent: Not Ours But God's / 823 And so before long the other symbol, the other waiting intermingles, and our Advent collapses into a tinsel-and-light festival that has some spiritual overtones, but is centrally and primarily for each of us a commercial salute to the neighborli-ness we share. Now there is nothing wrong with that type of celebration. But it ought to be recognized for what it is. And yet, for all that, it seems to me that the yearly anniversary of Jesus' birth can be meaningfully celebrated in a way that engages the depth of our whole selves. But that can only happen when we make a radical shift in our perception of what Advent time is. The season is a time of waiting and anticipation, but it is not ourselves who wait--it is God. The Eternal One, who again and again has shown himself to be no stranger to history, waits for us to use an anniversary celebration to remind ourselves of that claim which that anniversary makes upon us by virtue of our incorporation into the life of Jesus. Advent is not so much our invention to structure our waiting for Christmas as it is God's invention to keep us ready for the fullness of life non, and forever. When we wait, whether it be for an exam result, a holiday, or the results of a job interview, we know we have expectations. And so it is with God. Advent is filled with God's expectation of us. To understand what God expects of us we look at the way he speaks to us. The Scripture readings for the last week of the liturgical year are taken from either Daniel or Revelation: apocalyptic scripture, scripture for a time of crisis, a time of decision. We begin Advent in a spirit of crisis, of decision. We begin Advent knowing that, One like the Son of Man is coming on the clouds of heaven. He received dominion, glory, and kingship: nations and peoples of every language serve him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that shall not be taken away His kingship shall not be destroyed (Dn 7:13, 14). It is a kingship that presides over a "new heavens and a new earth." ¯ . : the kingship and dominion and majesty of all the kingdoms under the heavens shall be given to the holy people of the most high Whose kingdom shall be everlasting: All dominions shall serve and obey him (Dn 7:27). And the final words, Remember, 1 am coming soon! Happy the man who heeds the prophetic message of this book. (Rv 22:20). When Advent is our waiting time, what is the horizon that sets that waiting in focus? We wait not in promise of something new but in the midst of powers, dominions, and idealogies that too often obscure even the best within ourselves, let alone the potential of one another. The result is a tired and worn world view that 1~24 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 deadens the impact of Christmas. A Santa Claus, tinsel and lights are all needed to invigorate the season. But when the season is a coming face-to-face with a waiting God to whom we must answer, a God whose inbreaking establishes a dominion, a lordship that once for all lays claim on all peoples, that makes a difference. A whole new theme is set. God waits for us to accept and appropriate the new person Jesus whose birth marks the "inbreaking" of God's kingdom, whose source of life is imbedded in the future. It is only the light of what it is that God waits for us to appropriate--the power of his yet-to,be realized kingdom--that Advent time.has (or can have) any appeal. Advent prayer is filled with the promise of men and women who beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks [where] one nation shall not raise the sword against another nor shall they train for war (Mi 4:3). These words are set against the horizon of one whose kingdom shall be ever-lasting. It will be a kingdom in which the wolf shall be a guest of the lamb and the leopard shall lie down with the kid (Is I 1:6). The kingdom promises to be one in which death is destroyed forever and the lofty city is brought down, "trampled underfoot by the needy, by the footsteps of the poor." In this kingdom the deaf shall hear the words of a book and out of gloom and darkness the eyes of the blind shall see. The lowly shall find joy in the Lord and the poor rejoice in the holy one of Israel (Is 29:18,19). If Advent were a time of our waiting, these words would probably have little meaning; they would sketch a way of life bearing little or no resemblance to the world we know--a world in which the majority of us have already mandated our authorities to beat ploughshares into spears: a world that feeds its paranoia on differing ideologies; a world where relief of the suffering becomes fact only if the trickle falls far enough. When Advent is our waiting, the messianic promises mediated through Isaiah and the other sacred writers become scenes sentimental-ized in art or easily set aside as wonderful but ultimately a fancy that is, after all, impractical. And so its "onward Donner and Blitzen"--at least Master Card makes that fantasy graspable. But what if Advent is God's waiting? What if God waits for us to see things as he does? If Advent becomes the vision of what is possible for those who decide in favor of the kingdom of God, who take God at his word that the future~fulfillment of his promise has already begun to unfold in our midst through him whose birth Advent: Not Ours But God's we commemorate, then there is no excuse for disclaiming the reality of Isaiah's vision. We live at a time when the global village becomes smaller and smaller, a contraction that raises the temperature of interpersonal, international, and inter-cultural relations. We know that for all our differences which work themselves out ¯ in a multitude of ways, enormous tensions still threaten life as we know it. The disparity of life-styles between North and South, West and East; the persistent attempts at political hegemony by first and second world powers over vast por-tions of the world; the refusal of the "haves" to invest in the future of the "have nots"; the pursuit of value-free research subscribing only to the agenda of positiv-ism; nationalism based on consumerism--all of these difficulties ground us in the sober reality of the so-called practical. Lest anyone conclude that these macro-issues lack practicality within the con-text of our local experience, a brief look at the consequences of these conditions reveals how much they impinge upon the experience of each of us. Where differences in life-styles are severe, the price of natural resources, eco-nomically and politically, continues to rise as the developing countries which have what we "need"(e.g. tin, oil) demand a greater share in the fruits of these resources. Thus we experience a rise in our consumer prices. The struggle for political hegemony demands more sophisticated weaponry purchased at the cost of endowments to the arts, research grants, and college loans. A refusal to share and to cooperate with the "have nots" leads to the realization of what Kempis saw centuries ago, "A man who is tense and agitated by evil is troubled with all kinds of suspicions; he is never at peace with himself, nor does he permit others to be at peace." The evil of poverty and want breeds a world of suspicion and resentment that undercuts all attempts at peace and cooperation. Researchers whose only standard i's "progress" soon see people and the common good as obstacles to scientific breakthroughs. Knowledge ceases to be responsible or integrated within the totality of the common good. Finally, when who-we-are is based on what-we-consume or on our potential for consumption, we relegate the non-consumer, the poor, to the mai'gin of society. When what you are is what you wear or what you drive, when where you live is a "statement,~ what value is placed upon a "bag lady"? These issues condition the way we hear the promises and discern the contours of God's kingdom. They are such massive and complicated problems that they leave many of us numb. We retreat. We cannot believe that the energy of God's k.ingdom can accomplish the promise of the kingdom in the world we know. And so, as is commonsensical in the face of such a conclusion, we find ourselves caught up in an ethic of accommodation that lets us slowly extricate ourselves politically, socially, religiously, economically and culturally, till our yeast grows old and our salt goes fiat. What is needed at this critical moment is the sense that Advent is a metaphor of our lives, a reminder that our life and work is caught up in that future alluded to in Daniel and Revelation, and sketched out in the words of Isaiah. Advent is the 1126 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 season to recall that God who loves us and calls us now waits for us to lay claim to what he has loved us for and called us to--the completion of his creation. What is needed to fulfill God's waiting is for us to use the tools of faith, hope, and suffering to mediate the energy of God's kingdom, insinuating it first into our individual lives and then, by those lives, into the arena of the public life to which our talents and interests call us. The outcome of this is the vision of the prophets: a world of peace, of greater trust, of sacrificial sharing of resources. Scripture, in the book of Proverbs, reminds us that where there is no vision, the people perish. Magdalen, Zaccheus, Matthew, Paul all lived because Jesus had a vision of what his life could inaugurate. The question for me, for you is: do I give life? Only if we believe, only if we hope, only if we suffer. Whenever we reflect on faith we come to realize that we are. involved in that ~right now/not yet" relationship with the life of Jesus which a gospel describes: "Lord 1 believe, help my unbelief.~' The man who speaks these words is a grief-wracked father who, for too long, has helplessly watched the agonies of his pos-sessed son. The father has come to the point where he sees that the fulfillment of his need is only possible through the exercise of Jesus' power, through the penetra-tion of Jesus' life into the life of his sick boy. The man is convinced of this. He is committed to Jesus--yet he is honest enough to admit the relativity of this moment at the feet of Jesus. This man lays his great love there because he is convinced that Jesus can act on his behalf. He seems sure that Jesus' attention can change things. In front of the crowd of witnesses the man commits himself---"l believe"---to what Jesus can do, to what is possible under the power of God. And his further "help my unbelief," far from being a compromise of that conviction and commitment, is a testimony to the depth of the man's trust. There is no certainty-- there is faith. There is not the solid proof of hard logic--there is faith. Teetering on the edge of the possibility that nothing will happen--that the power of possession will frustrate Jesus--the father makes his confession of faith face-to-face with impracticality, embarrassment, and all the other diminishments that are the real frustrations and enemies of belief. The Scriptures tell us that the enemy was defeated. In a word the father grasps and is grasped by the kingdom of God in both its immediacy and its futurity. Thus faith is the way, in the here and now, that we live in the kingdom of God. For us, then, the question at. hand is the question of faith: Do you believe? Can you lay your life before God convinced that no one, nothing else can bring you worth and happiness--all the while makin~ this act of faith in the face of people, events, ideologies that suggestively contend the impact and relevance of Jesus in a technological age? Do you believe in Jesus? Is he decisive? Is he the way, the truth, the life in a lived way? History teaches us that it is not enough for women and men like ourselves to point to our surroundings, the observables of our environment; it is not enough to call attention to VOWS, to orders, even to baptism as evidence for ourselves, and the world, that we believe in Jesus. The most striking evidence that we are people of faith is the way we answer the question: what is my future? Perhaps we answer that Advent: Not Ours But God's / 1127 our future is to live and die a ,wife, a husband, a religious; to live and die a minister to the needs of the Church; perhaps our future is to execute a teaching, publishing or administrative career--in a word to play out the whole constellation of enter-prises that so many of us do so capably. And yet all this is not the stuff of that faith which is necessary if we would satisfy a waiting God. We can only lay claim to be people of genuine faith and thus, as Christians, lay claim to be honest if we confess that God and the ways of God are our future. In our times it is easy tO forget this God, to become occupied by the many ventures that claim to mediate this God. A quick survey of the last twenty years reveals a galaxy of brilliant theologians, of tremendously gifted church men and women who have crafted provocative theological syntheses, who have opened up the long-forgotten history of the community's liturgical life, who have gleaned helpful insights from the social sciences to be integrated into the processes of spiritual development, And yet in all of this there seems to be so little of God! Why is this? Perhaps the problem is that many of us are uncomfortable and even embar-rassed that God is our future. Even though in conventional discourse "future" connotes a certain open-endedness, we are co-opted by our culture which chafes under the provisional. We, like the biologist or chemist, the politician, the investiga-tive reporter or social worker, want to provide an answer--a helpful finality--to .the critical problems of our day. We want to come up with something that assuages the uncertainty that breeds alienation among the people we love. We cannot bear to admit that in and of our own resources we have not in all our centuries come up with the answer to the problem of sin and evil, to sickness and death, or to the true, the good, the beautiful. We are faced with the hard fact that these solutions belong to God and to his unforeseen future. And so, living out of step with the brokers of solutions, we strive to fall into step, to recover the cadence, and we end up canonizing the means at the expense of the end. What is necessary is to come to terms with the fact that if we confess God, the future becomes quite different. The future becomes, not merely the temporal sphere of unbridled poten-tial, but the fulfillment of a promise that we are no strangers to, the fulfillment of Daniel and Revelation that Isaiah made bold to sketch. To give evidence, to witness to this in a world so often convinced that its own mind and resources are sufficient, is a hard task. For we, too, are mere compassionate persons who are overwhelmed by the desire for an answer, a solution. What our faith needs, then, is hope. A believer's hope is not a hand-wringing anxiety that one's wish will come true. Neither is it dispassionate anticipation. Hope, rather, is the trust one has that the human adventure which in history enfleshes God's kingdom will not fail, that the "radical risk" of human freedom, i.e. the conferral of divinity on us, will not end in the disaster of men and women rejecting what they are. Hope owns the day when what Jesus could not work in Nazareth will be worked here. But this hope only takes shape when a person of conviction believes that in, with, and through Jesus he or she can make "an ultimate and radical and irreversible decision" regarding the future, whether it will be a fulfillment or an everlasting loss. 1~911 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 Hope is the virtue by which we take responsibility for God's future. It is not imposed. And it it not simply "my" but "our" future that falls into our hands. Hope is an active consciousness that engages us in the structuring and unfolding of human life because we know that God's future, our destiny, does not oppose the existing structures of the world. We know that God's promise involves a connection between the future and the present. In other words, our unforeseen future emerges out of faith to see political, social, cultural, economic, and religious engagement as necessary cooperation with God. The person of hope is one who recognizes that the efforts of even one person can invest a desperate situation with God's saving power. Our tradition is replete with persons like Francis, Dorothy Day, Frederic Ozanam, and Teresa of Cal-cutta, persons whose faith-action was not dependent on a movement or a commit-tee, but instead generated these support structures. What these Christians show us is that hope enables faith to speak to the world a word about God. But they also show us that the price of a hopeful faith is suffering. We are a people of signs--from "1700" shirts to pottery Communion cups to the environments we create in our homes. Signs reflect what we believe, and they sometimes call us to grasp what we don't yet strongly believe. Thus ifa hope-filled faith is or ought to be characteristic of our lives, then we ought to be lavish with the Sign of the Cross. Those most conscious of how the power of the kingdom of God is exercised in the world are intimates of the Cross--witness Francis of Assisi. St. John tells us that the kingship of Christ is most evident on Calvary. What does this say to us? It reminds us that the work of a faith-filled hope is only accom-plished when oneis broken and poured out. Thus God's waiting is his challenge to renovate society and ourselves. If we would use the political process, or the tech-niques of an increasingly sophisticated communications field: if we would direct social and economic policy and power to rebuilding the world, without first rebuilding our own mind and heart, we build on sand. Personal conversion is the primary suffering that gives the life of the future. Jesus' agony was a moment of decision to accept not his, but the Father's will. The Advent of God's waiting bids us to hear the Baptist's echo of Isaiah: Prepare the way of the Lord. Every valley shall be filled and every mountain shall be leveled. The windings shall be made straight and the rough ways smooth (40:3.4). And if this is done-- all mankind shall see the Salvation of God (40:5). It is no easy thing to reshape the landscape of our lives individually and socially~ Yet that suffering, that conversion is the first point of Advent's agenda. We who challenge autocracy .a.nd oppressive measures in the political sphere Advent: Not Ours But God's / 1t29 should do so only after challenging our pride, our disobedience; we who call for a more just and compassionate distribution of the earth's good should do so only in the midst of a commitment to abandon our personal greed, false need, and con-sumerism; we who call others to community should speak only when we are conscious of our personal efforts to overcome self-centeredness; we who speak about God should only do so while learning to speak with God. The process of conversion is a suffering because it involves a breaking away from what heretofore has sustained us. It is a suffering because it is an action never completed. Thus Francis could speak of his and ours as a life of penance; thus Jesus could bluntly say that salvation depends on doing penance. The Sign of the Cross reminds us that continual discipline and mortification is critical for that personal conversion that sustains systemic conversion. We come upon a further dimension of the cross in our lives when we realize that, like St. Paul, we must be able to say, "if you would imitate Christ, imitate me." We must be a mirror in which persons and societies can look and see a reflection of what they and society ought to be. It is Crucial to proclaim the gospel in a language that men and women understand. That language is our own life-styles and conduct. What we proclaim is not "more of the same"; we proclaim Good News. Thus our life-styles and behavior must be good news. To be good news is to put on Christ, and when one puts on Christ, Jesus says-- They will manhandle and persecute you because of my name You will be brought to give witness on account of it You will be delivered up They will hate you because of me. The consequence of faith-filled hope is marginalization by those who find the good news of God's kingdom a threat to their own kingdoms. These are not evil, malicious people--they are those upon whom Jesus looked with love; they are genuinely threatened by the gospel message and all who attempt to live it. They have trusted, not in God's future, but in their hard-won political base, financial fortune, social success, or theological sophistication. Because these persons are so often life's power brokers and trend setters, we are tempted to seek personal and communal legitimation from them. It is difficult to avoid this temptation. It is a painful thing to hand oneself over to subtle ridicule; to experience the trivialization of one's most significant values. And it is not a pain from which one can legitimately hide. St. Paul tells us to test everything and retain what is good. The experience of Elijah reminds us that God appears in the most unlikely of places. The person of faith and hope must be exposed to the full force of life--yet carefully select the good from the bad. Perseverance requires an inner strength forged by a vivid awareness that God waits for me to mediate his future; forged by an awareness of God's expectations of me. I emphasize the singular me, rather than the plural us because suffering has that quality of loneliness and abandonment that Jesus bore 1~30 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 witness to on the cross. Further, the us only takes shape as individuals are con-fron/ ed by the waiting God who gives us one-to-another to help each other fulfill those expectations. And so we stand in the face of Advent. What shall it be for us? Shall it be four weeks of tension between Santa and Jesus, Jesus and Santa, all coming to a close on December 26th as the too small jackets and the too large gloves go back and the beach wear comes out? Or shall it be a time to rethink God's relationship to me, to us; to remember that our task in life is to complete God's work of creation; to take responsibility for the future in which one, like a Son of Man, comes for an everlasting kingdom. God awaits our faith--that he is our future, that he is the end of human longing. God awaits our hope--that my life is given to make a differ-ence; that despite suffering and death, violence and hate, greed, disobedience--all the diminishments of sin--God's kingdom has, in Jesus to whom Scripture and tradition bear witness, broken into our present. Advent tells us that we are not waiting for God to act. Advent tells us that God has invested us with faith, hope. and suffering and now waits for us to recall each year that Jesus is our future, and we are invested with his power to make God's kingdom even greater. God waits for us to remember that a swaddled infant has, is, and will be a sign that we are not to be dismayed by what appears to be an overwhelming project. Today God waits for us to recall the urgency of doing good, of toking an active role in the issues of our day. And God waits for us to lay claim that what we have most of all to offer to the human adventure is a word of forgiveness, of God's love, of God's encouragement. We live Advent in crisis: God waits. He waits on faith, tie waits on hope, he waits on suffering. Does he, then, wait on us? The Practice of Penance Hence, an updating that would lead to a lessening of penance, that is to say. to a less generous, less joyful, less complete sacrifice of yourselves, would certainly not be in keeping with the Council or with the charism of your Holy Mother. In fact, fidelity to the practice of penance also promotes the exercise of fraternal charity. total detachment and authentic humility which remain the three hinges of the way of perfection (Way IV, 4): at the same time, penance denotes that characteristic and essential element of Carmelite experience which Saint 3ohn of the Cross, intrepid cooperator with Saint Teresa in the reform of your Order. has with masterly skill expressed in the absolute of the todo-nada.--John Paul II. letter to Discah'ed Carmelites on the Fourth Centenary of the Death ~f Saint Teresa, L'Osservatore Romano. 19 Ju~v, 1982, p. 3. Two Knowings Lorna Green Doctor Green has pursued studies in both science and philosophy. For a time she has lived with the Benedictine community in Pecos. At present she may be addressed c]o Knight: St. Lawrence Campus;. 790 N~r6e-Tremblay St.; Ste-Foy; Prov. of Quebec GI V 4K2; Canada. What is most wonderful about our life is that we can know its Author. We, caught in flesh and time and change, can know the unchanging Creator of our-selves and the universe, the great invisible One. We are meant to know God. He wishes us to know, he delights to have us know him. "Eternal life is this: to know you, the only true God, and him whom you have sent, Jesus Christ~ (Jn 17:3). There are two knowings. The first is theoretical, and our age is steeped in it. It is knowledge of the world--of science, history, theology, politics. To acquire such knowledge takes years of study, so we are dependent on experts. Many seek it, but this knowledge does not satisfy the heart. The second knowing concerns us most. It is practical knowledge--knowledge of God. This second knowledge is hidden from the experts, but it is open to ordinary people. How is this knowledge acquired? As de Caussade writes: "It is what happens moment by moment which enlightens us [about God] and gives us that practical knowledge which Jesus Christ himself chose to acquire before begin-ning his publi9 life."~ God can be known by us when, in our ordinary lives, we attend to what transpires in us from moment to moment, from day to day, and over the course of years. God is not afar off, somewhere over the mountain tops, but he is fight here, amongst us. That we may know him, God gives us the day. "The day" is the place where our small lives run together with the great life of God. So let us go forth into the ~Jean-Pierre de Caussade. Abandonment to Divine Providence. Image Books, Doubleday, New York (1973), p. 49. 831 1~2 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 day, and listen. God dwells in our depths and comes to us from inner life. Images, moods, memories welling up into consciousness are sent by him. We live among rivers of poetry and prophecy. Attending to what passes in our interior world is a way to learn much about him who dwells there. God comes to us from outer events as well. Always something feels real, and this is where God is to be found. Friends, gray winter days, music as we pass an open window, meditative afternoons--all can give us an experience of him. Inner and outer events blend in prayer. Ask for love in the morning, you will be deep in the confirmation of others in the afternoon. Confide to him fears and anxieties, and in an hour or so, when you are busy about some household task, they will have vanished. Tell him you need images for your life, and as you sit down to have a cup of coffee, an image from the depths will appear. For that is how close he is to us. Augustine: "Thou art closer to me than my own soul." When we are merged with our situation, the inner life is addressed by what happens around us. People complain that God does not speak, but God is always speaking. He speaks to us through others. Words that are his reveal their author-ship by their appropriateness to our inner condition which he alone could have known. So pray that he will speak his words to you this day, and go forth to listen. Words that are his can come to us from any direction--voices overheard at a street corner, from a child in passing, from a friend in conversation, from a book. The whole world is a medium through which we hear him. Augustine, praying in a garden, heard children singing: "Take and read! 'Take and read!" He interpreted their song as a message to read Scripture. He opened the Bible at random, and what he read there changed his life. For science and for secular culture, the world is inert. In God, the world is alive and magical. It speaks to us with ultimate speech. Each day is thee supreme adventure of finding out what God has to say to us. So let us go forth into the day, to live this adventure. God not only speaks his word to us during the day, he provides us with a thousand places where we may settle into his presence. At the edges of our life-structures are little pockets, little po~stinia of silence and solitude where we can touch him. A moment while doing the ironing, or going through a door, or getting on a bus, and suddenly an insight into our life-situation comes to mind. Then we sense his touch in the peace that is a sign of his presence. Love, life, light, power, peace, beauty, joy--these are the experiences of the day in which God comes to us. We can learn much about God's ways by noticing these. God never works on one plane alone; rather the psychic and the physical merge. Dreams are a privileged way in which the indwelling divinity may instruct us about inward being or show us the spiritual terrain of our lives. If you do not understand a dream in the morning, its i~nterpretation may come somewhere during the day. If a dream reveals the will of God, confirmation will com~ on the Two Knowings ] ~ conscious level. One may ask for two or three confirmations. He willingly indicates his desires for us. The day is the place where he reveals his will. A closed door here, an open door there, peace, these are his signs. Ease of maneuvering, bursts of energy, inspiration, an inward sense of the story being right--all reveal his will. Each event in our lives is sent by God. Therefore, if we would be wholly within his will, we have only to attend to the duties of the present,~moment, and we will be pleasing him. Somewhere in the day, the Spirit will send us a glimpse of who we truly are, for our identity is a great mystery. Then we must nourish that self and seek to bring it alive. That true self sleeps just below the surface of our waking consciousness and is the imago Dei, the beautiful image of God he wishes to realize and reveal in us. There is a self-knowledge which is knowledge of God. Every day will bring its darkness too. But darkness is part of his work of healing and bringing to wholeness. It can be acknowledged, prayed for in the evening. The Spirit never sends us more than we can handle. All we meet are messengers of God. We should respect especially those who cause us pain, for pain is the kiss of Christ. It is a sign that the little child who dwells within has been touched and needs hbaling. That child too can be praye~d for in the evening, in powerful images of the risen Lord holding it and calling it his own. The day is a short plot in the story of our lives where God brings us to identity, to individuation and integration. So days deepen into years, into the long patterns of our lives. God will bring us around to similar situations again and again until we turn to him forhealing. Relationships with men and women recapitulate old relationships width father and mother, and we need to pray for these relationships. The long story is.hisgift to us, the interface where our life runs together with his. This interface places in our lives a vertical order which can be grasped in prayer. Did we know joy, inspiration,,the love of spring rains and of ideas? Through these he draws us into his life-design for us. By what path have we come? What is our place in the mountainous territory of Being? How does God see us? Who is the beautiful imdgo Dei that he wishes to unbury in us? As we see the long patterns of our lives and answer these questions, we learn the way God has"worked with us in the past and will likely w0rk with us in the future. He is a God ~f order and not of capri(e.' God knows all our needs. Our lives, in their smallest details, are put together by him. When we see what our lives a're, see where we are, then we will know God. ! have spoken of God's ways with us. Perhaps it is possible to know something of his vast inner life too. Perhaps insights always welling up in us to dur situations are really his thoughts in us, bringing us to see as he sees. ¯ There are two knowings. The bne we acquire in schools. It i~ the province of experts. The other is acquired in life and is open to everyone. It is knowledge of God. "Father. to you 1 offer praise; for~ what you have hidden from the learned and the clever you have revealed to the merest children" (Mt 11:~5). ReligioUs in Politics David F. O'Connor, S.T. Father O'Connor.is Chairman of the Department of Church Law at The Washington Theological Union. He resides at Holy Trinity Mission Sqminary: 9001 New Hampshire Ave.: Silver Spring. MD 20903. ~n recent years it has not been uncommon for the media to inform the public that a priest or religious has announced that he or she will seek public office as a representative, senator, mayor, or some other such political position. It is .under, standable that questions be raised: Why are they doing this? Is it permissible? Who gives the permission? What does it imply? And so forth. ,~ The author of 2 Timothy (2:4) intimated that one must give one's full and undivided attention to the ministry when he wrote: "Put up with your share of difficulties, like a good soldier of Jesus Christ. In the army, no soldier gets himself mixed up in civilian affairs because he must be at the disposal of his commanding officer." Moreover, the Church has frequentlyexpressed its concern that its clergy and its religious not engage themselves significantly in parallel activities, especially if these activities were considered "foreign" to their ministry. ObvioUsly particular culture, local custom and similar factors have helped in part to determine what activities are considered unsuitable for priests and religious. Too, such unsuitability has also been expres~sed in the exhortations and instru$- tions of popes, bishops an.d councils, as well as in the regulations and laws of the Church. In.f~act, there is a great deal ,of continuity evident in this matter.from the earliest Church councils down to the most modern Church documents. This article intends to give, first of all, a brief historical perspective to the issue of priests and ,r.eligious in politics of public office. After a consideration of the present Code of Canon Law and how it has been interpreted and applied, there is,a, survey of some recent Roman documents and statements of Pope John Paul II which expressly concern themselves with this issue. Next, the article places the matter in the context of the Church's social teaching (which has had a very Religious in Pofitics / 835 significant impact on religious~and priests) and the influence~ of politicafized theol-. ogies on the issue. Then, it treats the Church's teaching on the unique place.of the laity in the Church's mission, and their reaction to the question of clergy and religious assuming roles traditionally reserved to the°laity as a form of the ~social aposto~lat,e of the Church. Finally, the latest draft of the new Code of Canon Law ~ is c6nsider,qd, together with a practical suggestion of my own about how it migh~ be implemented. ~ Historical Background ~ o Jn the early Christian period, the followers of Jesus ayoided publi~c office because such duties often were associated with pagan worship. As a matter of fact, the generally low social stan~ding of Christians in Roman society helped keep them from such positions. However, with the Edict of Milan (313) and the official recognition of Christianity, circumst~nc~is changed quickly and drastically. Chris-tian emperors forbade clerics and monks from accepting spec!fic civil offices, ~nd exempted them from certain public duties. The Theodosian Code prohibited them from being receivers or collectors of taxes, recorders of public or private property, and atto~rn,eys who conduct litigation) The reasons behind such legislation,had to do with the protection of religious~ institutions from injury and with guaranteeing that holy services would not be obstructed. Likewise, early Church councils for-bade clergy from engaging in secular administration.~_u,nder pain of deposition or d~gradation.2 During~the early middle ages, nevertheless, ,many clerics were una~bJe t? ~avoid public office, especially the administration of justice. Bishops were vassals of the king and, because of the high esteem in which the clergy was held and because of the education which they possessed, they were coerced into certain positions. At this time the Church was content simply to avoid evident abuses in such activities. Warrior kings wereoverwhelmed with the task of government and lacked adminis-trative~ personnel. ~The Church,~on the other hand, possessed the personnel who were ~ccustomed to performing ecclesiastical administrative~tasks. Hence clerics became adept 'at substituting for the often.~decadent civil ad.ministrators. The Church's own internal discipline helped keep,it from the universal anarchy,that engulfed society. So, when Charlemagne, for exa .mple,-wanted to reconstitute an administration i.n~his state, he turned to the clergy for help.3 In later centuries, these condiiions.changed and prohibitions concerning such activity again became increasingly frequent in Church life: Pope Alexander~Vll in 1658 forbade the clergy to engage in political matters~ This prohibition was ~The Theodosian Code. translated by Clyde Pharr (Princeton, New Jersey: The Princeton University Press, 1952), XVI, p. 326. -'See C.J. Hefele. History of Christian Councils. translated by Willian~ R. Clarke (2nd ed., 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1883-189,6), I, 460, 489. 490. ~See H. DanieI-Rops, The Church in the Dark Ages, translated by Audrey Butler (New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1959), pp. 262-263., ,~ ~136 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 .rep'eat~l by almost al! subsequent pontiffs. But in 1893 Pope Leo XII1 adopted a somewhat more liberal approach, permitting involvement in political activities in order~t6 'defend the, rights of the Church. At the same time, though, he urged clerics not to neglect their spiritual lives in theii" study of civil and political matters, and to follow the guidance of their own bishops.4 lntereStihgly, in 1884, at the Third Coun'cil'of Baltimore, the bishops of the United States'hb.d ~lready stated their own exception, in N.83. They forbade priests to interfere in political affairs unless it was required to,do.so in defense of morality and sound principles. Finally, in 1906 Pope Plus X gfi~,e permission for clerics in France'to become candidates for'political office with the permission of their own bishopg and of the bishops of the place ffhere they wished to do so.5 This became part of the public law of the Church in i913, and was substantially repeated in the Code of Canon Law'at its promulgation in 1917'. The Code ,of Canon Law (1917) The~present code prohibits the clergy and members of religious institutes and societies of the common life from seeking or accepting public office without an apostolic indult. Canon 139, :2, obliges the clergy. Canon 597 states that religious are bound by this regulation. Cahon 679, I, asserts that members of societies of the common life are subject to the prohibition. Some of the offices which are pro-hibited to these public ministers are, for example, those oflmayors, commissioner.s, judges, sheriffs, attorney-generals, prosecuting attorneys, governors, tax commis-sioners, state superintendents of schools, heads of municipal and state depart-ments, and similar offices. Canon 139, 4, prohibits the clergy (and religious and members of societies) from running for or accepting public legislative offices, such as senator, deputy or represefltative to parliamentary gatherings~ without the permission of the prO)per Ordinary and the Ordinary of the place where the office will be°exercised. This canon contains the only legislation in the Code that~ directly concerns politicai activity, on the part of the Church's public ministers. It seems that when the 1917 Code wa;g!being drafted, the.re was an expression in one of the drafts ttiat would have includ~d~any.involgement in politicis contentionibus (in political con-test~ or deba,tes). However, th.is was considered to be far too broad and was removed in the final draft. It was never intended to ~xclude religious and clergy from political discussions which might be ne~e~;sary to protect and foster the welfare~of, the people and of the. Church.6 °, ~ Religiou~ also ne~d the permission of their own major sti[gerior, even if he_or she is not the proper Ordi~nary (as are the major superiors in exempt or pontifical clerical institutes). Moreover, the Ordinary of the place where the office is to be exercised must a!s0, give his permission. The singular is used in the canon, so it is '~See Codicis luris Canonici Fontes, 9 vols. (Romae, 1923-29), n. 62~). SSee Acta Apostolica~ Sedis (Romae, Vo XXXIX~ 1906); p. 192. ~ 6Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome luris Canon[ci (Romae: H. Dessain, 1925-27), vol. I, n. 233, c. Religious in Politics [ 837 not necessary to have the permission of more than one local Ordinary if the office is exercised over the people of many dioceses. Subsequen~t Practice of the Holy See (1918-1962) A review of Church documents from the promulgation of the Code until Vatican il attests the negative attitude of the Holy See t0~ involvement of the clergy in politics.7 For example, Pope Benedict XV in a letter to Cardinal Csernoch, March 12, 1919, deplored the inordinate political activities of some of the Hungar-ian clergy,~ and in a letter to the Polish bishops, July 16, 1921, he stated that the apostolate of the press should be used to combat error, and that the clergy should avoid undue politic~al activity.9 When the Pontifical C0mmmission for the Official Interpretation of the Code was asked' in 1922 by some~ bishops how they should respond ~to re.cluests by priests wishing to seek legislative positions, the Commission responded that the bishops should be severe and not lenient when .it came to granting such permissions?° Pope Plus XI wrote the bishops of Mexico in 1926, sharing in their protestations about the.persecution of the Church in t.hat country, but he warned them to abstain from political partisanship.'j Also, in a series of responses over the years, the Sacred Congregation" of the Council consistently informed ordinaries of their right and duty to forbid political activity to ecclesias-tics and that, after warnings and failure to amend, the priests could be suitably punished~ In one case, in 1958, the Congregation stated that active participation in politics by ecclesiastics was inappropriate because their work should be entirely directed toward the spiritual good of sou_Is and that the Church has permitted such involvement only in special circumstances and under very definite conditidns by way of exception, though it did not specify what these were.~2 A Survey 0f Some Recent Documents of the Holy Se,e Just,~as canons of the code concerning prohibited activities are expressly appli-cable to both the clergy and religious, so are some recent documents of,the Holy See equally applicable to both the clergy and~religio,us. This is due to the closelink which religious life has with the hierarchical apostolate and the special relationship ~ Which 'binds religious life to the pastoral responsibilities of the Church.3 " ~We will 'briefly consider four of these documents which contain instructions regarding the activities of priests or religiOus,and which give some of tl~e reasons for prohibiting involvement in politics or secular activities. I. Paul VI on "The Ministerial Priesthood" ( 1971 ) The second part of this document contains guidelines for the life and ministry 7See The Canon Law Digest, 8 vols., 1934-1978 (vols, 1 and 2 edited by T. Lincoln Bouscaren, S.J.;" vols. 4-6 edited by Bouscaren and James I. O'Connor, S.J.; vols. 7 and 8 and Supplements edited by O'Connor), hereafter Digest. ~Digest, vol. I. p. 126. ~lbid. ~Olbid. vol. I. p. 127. ~lbid., vol. I. pp. 127-128. ~Digest, vol. 5. pp. 199-200. ~131t [ Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 " of priests.~4 it explicitly treats the inappropriateness of the engagement by priests in certain secular activities and in politics. It states that the priestly ministry, even when compared with other activities, must be considered "as not only a fully 4alid human activity, but even indeed as more excellent than others," although this cannot be appreciated a,nd ~understood except in'the light of the gift of faith.~5 "And so, in the ordinary course of events, full time should-be given to priestly ministry. By no means is participation iff secular activities in which men engage to be considered the principle o.bjective, nor can it suffice to exp}ess the particular responsibility of priests.'!6 The document acknowledges the right of priests to function as ordinary citizens, but ~'~since political options are, of their nature, contingent and absolutely hever adequately and perenially interpret the Gospel, the priest who is a witness to things to come should keep himself removed to a certain degree frorfi eve,)ry kind of p61itical office or involvement.~7 Especially excluded are roles of leadership in--or an active militancy for~a political party, unless in some concrete and extraordinary circumstance this is required for the good of the. community, and the bishop has given his consent. The bishop is advised to consult the priests' i:ouncil and, if necessary, the episcopal conference.~8 2. '!Religious and Human Promotion" (1978) The Sacred Coffgr?gat~ion of Religious and Se~uiar Institutes conducted a study on the S~pecific roli~°of religious in the mission of the Church for the integral promotion of the human person.19 It gave special consideration to the socio-politi-cal involvement of religious. The ~study was completed in 1978 but only published in 198Oin conjunction with a companion document, "The Contemplative Dimen-sion of Religious Life,''z0 It acknowledges the link between the Church's mission, its widespread commitment to the adx~ancement of people and the betterment of :society, and the importani role religious play in this ministry. It notes sympatheti-cally the particular problems and difficulties which have faced religious when they have tried to intervene more decisively in the areas of injustice and oppression,,, their need to express solid.arity with the poor and underprivileged compelling them at times "to become actively involved, sometimes in the working world and in p01ilics."~1 However the document reminds them that "they are:bearers of human" and Christian values which will oblige them to repudiate certain methods of trade union aciion or of political maneuverings which do not respond to the exact demands of justice, which alone is the reason for their involvement?"~2 The, docu-ment expresses concern that certain types of involvement carry with them "the risk of a loss of identity proper to religious life and to the Church's mission . ,'z3 '~JSee Digest, Supplement through 1980. canon 592. (1981). p. 13. ~See Digest, vol. 7 (1974). pp. 352-365. ~lbid., p, 355. Wbid ~71bid. p. 356. ~See Di~est, Supplement through 1980. canon 592 (1981). pp. 1-32. ~°lbid. canon 593 (1981). pp. 1-21. "-qbid., canon 592. p. 6. ' "-'-Ibid., p. 16. ~lbid., pp. 356.357. "-31bid. Religious in Politics There~fore, religious are warned not to let themselves become directly involved in politics, and should "not be deluded into thinking that they will have greater influence on the development of persons~and peoples by substituting a political involvement, in the strict sense, for their own tasks."~4 They "should stand apart from certain political options, being seen not as men and women who take sides, but as agents of peace and fraternal solidarity."~5 Unlike the laity and lay members of secular institutes, religious have committed themselves to obedience t9 the common purpose of the religious c.ommunity and to their own religious superiors. Therefo, re, states the document, the presence of religious shot~ld "alw.ays be as consecrated persons who,seek the full conversion of people and society to the ways ¯ of the Gospel through witness and service."~6 3. "The Prophetic Role of Religious in the Promotion of Human Progress" This document appears in the English edition of lnformationes, the official publication of the SCRS1.27 It is obviously linked to the previous document of the SCRS1, "Religious and Human Promotion." It is concerned that religious not underrate their prophetic role and contribution in the Church. They should safe-guard the primacy of the charism of their own institutes in their activities and must not give way "to the trappings of some political ideology, nor take on activities or ways of ~cting proper to other vo6atiods, for example, of lay people or of secular institutes."~8 The document exhorts religio~s to be faithful to their own vocation and way of life which w.ill not permit them to be "of a party." It states that a true ' Christian prophet cannot canonize any political system and will be aware Of the ~njust~ce inherent in every;system because of human weakness. It explicitly dis-courages any direct ihvolvement with political movements and expects that reli-gious will be prophetic by standing apart and by being critically aware of the limitations of all such movements.29 4. "InStruCtion o.f the Sacred Congregation of the Council on Associations of th~ Clergy (March 8, 1982) ~ Although directed at priests' organizations in'Hhng~iry, Yugoslavia and Czech-oslovakia, this documefit is 0f'interest because it ekpresses the Holy See's consist-ent understanding of the priesthood as a life of service and minist,ry that is to be conducted in close communion with the bishop, and it condemns any organization that would impede that communion, harm the identity of priests, or restrict their service to people.3° There is no room for associations of priests or deacons which have a political purpose(~Priests must never put themselves at the service of any ideological or human factor because they are "heralds of the Gospel and shepherds of the Church, and must devote themselves to the spiritual growth of the body of "-~lbid. p. 17. ~-5lbid. "-~lbid., p. 29. -~TSee Consecrated 14"fe, vol. 4. n. 2 (1980), pp:, 416-429. ~lbid. p. 428. "-~lbid. ~0See CRUX ~fthe News. vol. 2, March 22, 1982, pp. 4-5. 1~40 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 Christ.''-~ Even if ihey are presented as supporting humanitarian ideals, peace and social progress, associations of priests which pursue aims related "to politics cause division and discord wi!hin the people" of God, both among the faithful, among the priests themseives, and between the pri(sts and their bishops. They "undoubtedly place in the shadow the priestly mission and infringe on ecclesial communion . ,,3.2 The Statements of Pope ,John Paul I! The pope believes, in harmony with the Vatican 11 teaching, that temporal and seCular matters are properly within the competence of the laity. In his address to religious men in $5o Paulo on July 3, 1980 he said: 1 would like to point out the origihality of the presence of religious in the world. Already on other occasions this point has been presented as follows: there are two f~rms of presence in the world, one physical, direct, material--the other, invisible and spirit~Jal.' but no less real. Lay men and women, due to the fact that they affirm their vocation of physical presence in the world, need that strong support that comes precisely from the spiritual presence of religious. They would feel the lack of it if. through the euphoria of"immersion in thc world." religious ended up by denying'the Church the contribution of what is specifically theirs. For theirs is not a call to alienation: on the contrary, it is an invit,~tion to think that in the Church. according to the concept of St. Paul. the clear difference (and not confusion) and the valid complementarity (and not isolation) of charisms and vocations, continues to be important. The presence of religious in temporal struggles will never bc fruitful in the long run (but will it even be useful immediately?), if it takes plac9 at the cost of the essential values--even tl~e most humble--of religiou~ life.~3 The pope has insisted on the different roles of the priest, the re!!gi.ous and the layman q~ woman in,the political arena. Religious and priests are to be aware of their own yocation to preach God's word. ~While this certainly includes a concern for justice, the priest and the religious are to be seen as agents of reconciliation, not division. Their primary role as servants of God and of his Church does not permit them nor.rnally to be directly involved in partisan politics where divisions are inevitable. The priest and the religious are called to inspire, motivate, educate and exhort. The task of renewing the temporal and secular order is the responsibility of the laity. The Christian vocation to public ministry and ser, vic~e in the name of the Church belongs to,.the priest and the religious. This form of Christian life is distinct from, but complemented by, other Christian vocations. Therefore, in his February 17, 1981 address to religious men in Manila, John Paul stated: At the same time I ask you to observe this guideline: that each apostolic endeavor should be in harmony with the teachings of the church, with the apostolic purpose of your individual institutes. May I also remind you ~f my words at Guadalupe: "You arc priests and religious: you are not social or political figures or officials of a temporal power., let us not be under th~ illusion that we are serving the Gospel if we "dilute" our charism through an exaggerated interest in the wide field of temporal problems.",lt is important for people to see you as .~lbid. p. 4. ~'-Ibid. 33See John Paul II Speaks to Religious 1978-1980, edited by Jean Beyer. S.J., (Chicago: I,ittle.Sisters of the Poor, 1982). p, 245. Religious in Politics / ~141 "servants of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God."3~ While the pope does not confuse politics with religion, he courageously has condemned the violation of human rights, the lack of religious freedom where it occurs, consumerism, self-indulgence, unconcern for the poor, bias, and moral chaos. While he argues for personal and religious values, he opposes moral laxity and totalitarianism. Likewise, while he tells politicians tha~ they ought to aid the poor and ban weapons, he clearly asks priests and religious to stay out of politics.35 Social Justice, Public Office and Politics Invariably, since Vatican 11 (1926-1965). Catholic religious and clergy who are in politics or public office have cited the Church's social teaching as the basis for their activities. For example, one woman religious, a state senator, stated: "Though I may not be able to use gospel language when ! denounce sinful and oppressive structures on the House floor or in.committee meetings . . . 1 am nonetheless making the Church's teaching present and striving for the reconcilia-tion it seeks to promote by reordering relationships and structures?'36 Social justice has been a concern of the Church, especially from the pontificate of Leo Xlll~to that of John Paul 11. Since Vatican !1, the Church has been seeking to define its life also in terms of its impact on human development,. Gaudium et spes helped the Church come to the conviction that there cfin be no explanation of what the Church is apart from its impact on the social, political and economic life of society: Indeed, at the Third Roman Synod of Bishops (1971), the pursuit of justice in the world was perceived as an integral element in the life of the Church. However when Paul VI addressed the Fourth Roman Synod of Bishops (1974) on the ,subject of evangelization, he warned that the message of salvation which the Church preaches cannot be reduced "to mere sociological or political activity., to a man-centered and temporal message . " but quickly added, "there is no separation or opposition [between evangelization and human development], but a complementary relationship . -37 While the bishops accepted this integral rela-tionship between evangelization and~human development, their concern was on the emphasis-being given the latter in developing countries and the tendency to eliminate the distinction ,between evangelization, and development. Again, in 1975 when the Pontifical Commission on Justice and ~Peace issued its document on "The Church and Human Rights," it reasserted that the Church must have a liberating impact on society, but stated that it does not enjoy any special compe-tence in the political or economic areas, nor was its mission of salvation to be reduced to those areas of life and temporality. 34See Address of John Paul. 11. February 17. 1981, Osservatore Romano English Edition. p. 6. 35James V. Schall, S.J., "The Changing Catholic Scene," in Christianity and Politics. edited by Carol Friendly Griffith (Washington. D.C.: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1981). p. 38. ¯ a~Jim Castelli. "Priests, Nuns, Ministers in Politics," Commonweal. 24 June. 1977, p. 400. 377he Pope Speaks. 19 (1975), pp. 189-190. 842 / Review for Religious, Nov.-Dec., 1982 Unfortunately, when clergy Or religious have spoken out on behalf of justice and basic human rights, as they are obliged to do at times, they have been accused of "meddling in politics." Furthermore, in systems of political oppression the corporal works of mercy are themselves perceived as political acts pure and simple when political oppression is the cause of such poverty. As a consequence, religious and priests have b~en persecuted, even murdered for their performance. Therefore, "politics" can mean different things to different people. When bishops have taken a public stand against abortion,,this is considered to be a political act more than a moral stand by a segment of the populace. What is to be thought, then, when the bishops lobby in Congress in pursuit of Church interests and the broader goals of peace, justice and equality? The history of the Church manifests the extraordinary dangers that beset it if it becomes

Issue 20.1 of the Review for Religious, 1961. ; Volume 20 1961 EDITORIAL O~FICE St. Mary's College St. Marys, Kansas BUSINESS OFFICE 428 E. Preston St. Baltimore 2, Maryland EDITOR R. F. Smith, S.J. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. Henry Willmering, S.J. ASSISTANT EDITORS John E. Becker, S.J. Emile G. McAnany, S.J. DEPARTMENTAL EDITORS Questions and Answers Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Woodstock College Woodstock, Maryland Book Reviews Earl A. Weis, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana Published in January, March, May, July, September, Novem-ber on the fifteenth of the month. REVIEW FOR RELI-GIOUS is indexed in the CATHOLIC PERIODICAL IN-DEX. JOHN XXIII Devotion to the Precious Blood [The following is an English translation of the Latin text of the apostolic epistle Inde a prirais, which Pope John xxIiI issued on June 30, 1960, concerning the fosterihg 6f devotion to ~the Precious Blood of Christ. The original text oF the docu-ment is to be found in Acta Apostolicae Seitis, 52 (1960), 545-50.] From the first months of Our pontifical labors, it oc-curred to Us again and again--and our. solicitous~ and plain-spoken words have often been an indicatioh of Our future intentions--that when daily practices-of religious piety were to be discussed, We would invite the faithful to an ardent honoring of that reality which in a remark-able way manifests the mercy of God for the souls of men, for holy Church, and for the entire ~orld~. We would in- ' vite them, in other words, to a special veneration of the Precious Blood of Christ Jesus, our Redeemer and our Savior. ~' We Ourselves became accustomed to this devotion in the home in which We were raised. Even today it is with happiness that We recall that every day during the month of July Our parents used to recite at home the litanies of the Precious Blood. Following the apostolic exhortation, "Take heed"to yourselves and to the entire flock whereof the Holy Spirit has made you bishops for the ruling of the Church of God which he acquired by his own blood" (Acts 20:28), We have decided, venerable Brethren, that the principal and pressing duties of Our pastoral office demand that We first of all take care of sound doctrine and secondly that We provide for the right exercise and conduct of religious piety, both" in its public and its° private manifestations. For this reason it hag.seemed to Us opportune to exhort Our sons to consider the indissoluble bond which should link the two widely diffused devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus and to the Sacred Heart of Christ with the're-. ligious homage to be offered to the Precious Blood of the Incarnate Word which was poured forth "for man~ for a remission of sins" (see Mt 26:28). ÷ ÷ ÷ D~votion to Precious Blood VOLUME 20, 1961 4, 4, ]olm XXIH REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 4 Just as it is of the utmost importance that the liturgical action of the Church should be in full accord with the profession of the faith;since "the law of belief determines the law of prayer";1 and just as no forms of piety should be introduced which do not flow from the purest fonts of the truths of faith; so it is also right that the various types of devotions should agree among themselves. It is actually necessary that those forms of piety which are re-garded as the most important and which are more apt for the attainment of holiness should in no way disagree with or oppose each other. It is likewise necessary that the forms of piety which from the viewpoint of value and of use are of limited and minor importance should yield ground to those forms which contribute more to the ob-taining of the salvation that was accomplished by Him who is "the mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a redemption for all" (1 Tim 2:5-6). If the faithful derive the driving forces of their personalities and the discipline of their lives from a correct faith and a sane piety, then they can be assured that they are thinking with the Church and that through their union of prayer and their charity they are clinging to that Christ Jesus who is the Founder and High Priest of the lofty religion which derives its name, dignity, and power from Him. Even if only a hasty glance be directed to the admirable new emphases that the Church has attained in the field and area of liturgical piety--and such emphases are in full accord with that salutary progress of the faith wards a fuller understanding of divine truth-~it becomes consolingly clear that in the last few centuries this Aposto-lic See has often and openly approved and recommended the three religious devotions We have already mentioned. Although these devotions had been introduced into the practice of Christian living by a number of the faithful during the Middle Ages and although they were after-wards propagated in various dioceses and in various re-ligious orders and congregations, yet it was necessary that the authority of the Chair of Peter should intervene in order that these practices might be declared to be in ac-cord with Catholic faith and that they might be extended to the universal Church. It will be sufficient to recall here that from the. sixteenth century Our predecessors had bestowed spiritual benefits on the devotion to the Holy Name of Jesus which in the previous century St. Bernadine of Siena had untiringly propagated ~hroughout Italy. In honor of this Holy Name an Office and a Mass were first approved, then a litany.~ x See the encyclical Mediator Dei, Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 39 (1947), 54. t See .4cta Sanctae Sedis, 18 (1886), 509. fewer were the benefits with which the P~oman Pon- :iffs promdted the devotion to the Sacrffd 'Heart of Jesus, devotion that was so greatly helped to its achievement its full and complete form and its universal propaga-aon by those matters whlcti~were~,made clear'to St. Mar-garet Mary Alacoque by Christ when He appeared to her showing her His Heart. With admirable unanimity the Roman Pontiffs have honored this religious practice not only by pointing out its power and its nature but also by declaring its legitimacy and by promoting its use through-out the entire world~a All this has been done in many public documents of the Church, the three most impor-tant of which are three encyclicals devoted' t6 this topic.4 As was only right, the consent and the approval of this Apostolic See were not lacking for the devotion to the Precious Blood of Christ, the remarkable promoter of which in the last century was St. Gaspar del Bufalo, priest of the Roman clergy. In this connection it will be remem-bered that at the command of Benedict XIV a Mass and an Office were composed in honor of the adorable Blood of the Divine Redeemer; Moveover, Plus IX, in order to fulfil a vow made to God at Gaeta, ordered this liturgical ¯ feast to be extended to the universal Church.5'Finally the Supreme Pontiff of happy memory, Pius XI, raised this feast to a double of the first class in order to per-petuate the memory of the jubilee which took place on the occasion of the nineteen hundredth anniversary of the' redemption of the human race. He did this because he was convinced that the increased solemnity of the feast would foster a deeper devotion to the~: Blood of the Re-deemer and that thereby more abundant effects of the same divine Blood would result for mankind. We were but~ following the example of Our predeces-sors when, in order that devotion to the Precious Blood of Christ, the immaculate Lamb, might grow an, d flourish, We approved its litanies as properly set forth by' the sacred .congregation8 and recommended to the entire Christian family the private and public recitation of the same by attaching to them special indulgences.7 Our de- 8 See the Of?ice o! the Feast of the Sacred Heart, Second Nocturn, Fifth Lesson. *The encyclical Annum sacrum in dcta Leonis, 19 (1899), 71 ft.; the encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 20 (1928), 165 ft.; and the encyclical Haurietis aquas in Acta Aposto-licae Sedis, 48 (1956), 309 ft. ~See the decree Redempti sumus of August 10, 1849, in the Ar-chives of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, decrees for the years 1848--49, folio 209. e See Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 52 (1960), 412-13. ¢ Decree of the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary of March 3, 1960, in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 52 (1960), 420. 4. 4. 4- Devotion to the Precious Blood VOLUME 20, 1961 4. 4. John XXIII REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 6 cision in th~is matter, pertaining as it did to the solicitude for all the churches (see 1 (]or 11:28) which is proper to the .Supreme. Pontiff, was prompted by the hope that in these days of great and pressing spiritual needs the faith-ful might continue to increase their respect for those three forms of Christian piety which We previously praised and that they come to see them as possessing a perpetually salutary power of effectively promoting the spiritual life. Since the feast and month are now approaching which are dedicated to the Blood of Christ, the price of our re-demption and the pledge of a salvation and of a life that will never fail, the faithful should meditate on this Blood with renewed fervor and should partake of it by more frequent reception of the sacrament of the Eucharist. Il-luminated by the light which comes from the profitable admonitions of Sacred Scripture and from the precepts of the holy fathers and doctors of the Church, they should recall how abundant and limitless is the power of this truly Precious Blood, "one drop of which is able to wash the entire world from every sin," as holy Church sings t.hrough the lips of the Angelic Doctors and as was wisely confirmed by Our predecessor, Clement VI.0 The power then of the Blood of Christ, God and man, is infinite; infinite too is the love which moved our Re-deemer to pour it forth for us. This shedding of His Blood began .eight days after His birth when He was cir-cumcised. Later it was shed more copiously when being in agony in Gethsemani, He prayed the longer (see Lk 22:43), when He was scourged and crowned with thorns, when He climbed the hill of Calvary and was there affixed to the cross, and when at the end His side was opened by a great wound which was to be the sign of the divine Blood that flows out into the sacraments of the Church. All these events show that it is not only fitting but even highly necessary that all the hithful, reborn as they have been in the streams of this Blood, should adore it in a spirit of religious homage and should honor it with their love. It is most salutary and entirely fitting that the worship of adoration which is due to the chalice of the Blood of the new ~fid eternal testamefit, especially when it is ele-vated in the Eucharistic sacrifice for the worshipful gaze of the faithful, should be followed by the reception of that Blood. This is possible, because in the sacrament of the Eucharist the Blood of Christ is received since it~is joined by an indissoluble bond to His Body. Joined in mind with the priest, the faithful who attend" Mass can In the hymn ddoro te devote. See the bull Unigenitus Dei Filius of January 25, 1343, as cited in Denzinger-Rahner, n. 550. most properly repeat to themselves the words which the priest says at the time of his sacred Communion: "I will take the chalice of salvation and I will call upon the name of the Lord . The Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ guard my soul unto life e~ei:nal, Ameh." There can be no doubt that in this way the faithful, whenever they wor-thily approach the sacred synaxis, will receive a more abundant, share of those fruits of the redemption, of the resurrection, and of eternal life which the Blood offered by Christ "throu.gh the Holy Spirit" (Heb~9:14)~acquired fbr all the family of mankind:Nourished by the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ and sharing in that divine power of His which has raised up in the Church numberless ranks of martyrs, the faithful will find it easier to bear ~the labors and troubles of everyday life; and should it be necessary for the sake of Christian virtue~and the kingdom of God, they will even sacrifice their lives, for they will be burning with that ardent love which caused St. John Chrysostom to exclaim in his writings: "Let us come back from the table as lions, breathing fire, terrible to the devil, realizing who our Head i~ and how great a love He has shown for us . This Blood ~hen it is worthily re-ceived, drives out the devils and _calls to our side the angels and even the Lord of the angels.~. This Blood when it was poured forth Washed the entire world . It is the price of the world; it is that b~ which Christ bought His Church . These thoughts will moderate our passions. How long will we cling to present things? How long will we refuse to be aroused? How~lo.ng will we take no care of our salvation? Let us reflec( what honors God has be-stowed on us;.a.n.d then letus give thanks and give back glory not only by our faith but also by our deeds.''x° It is to be hoped that those ~ho are honored by the name of Christian will frequently consider the fatherly exhortation of the first Supreme Pontiff when he wrote: "Spend the time of your sojourn here in reverence, in the realization that you were redeemed not by gold or silver., but by the precious blood of Christ, as of a lamb without blemish and without spot" (I Pet 1:17-19). May they also.listen closely to the Apostle of the Gentiles when he says: "You have been purchased at a great price. Glo-rify God then and carry Him in your body" (1 Cor 6:20). If all the faithful take these texts to heart, then their way of life by which they should be an example to others will become more noble and more fitting. Thus it will come about that the Church, strengthened by such virtue, will carry out its earthly task to the profit of the human race. Men, peoples, and nations will be joined by a close bond of brotherly love, if they will yield themselves to the move- See Homily 46 on the Gospel o] John in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, 59, 260-61. + + + Devotion to the Precious Blood VOLUME 20, 1961 ments of the grace of that God who wishes all men to be ¯ saved (see 1 Tim 2:4), who has willed the redemption of them all in the Blood of His only begotten Son, and who hag called all of them to become members of the one Mystical Body whose Head is Christ. Civil society itself will thereby enjoy a serene peace; and human nature, which was created to the image and likeness of its Maker (see Gen 1:26), will become yet more worthy of God. It was to a consideration of this lofty dignity to which mankind has been divinely called that St. Paul exhorted those converted Jews who were too much attached to the institutions of the Old Testament even though the latter was but a dim figure and image of the New Testament: "You have come to Mount Sion, to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, to the companionship of many thousands of the angels, tb the comunity of the first-born who are now citizens of heaven, to God, the judge of all things, to the spirits of the just who have been made perfect, to Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, and to a sprinkling of blood that is far more eloquent than that of Abel" (Heb 12:22-24). We are certain, venerable Brethren, that Our fatherly exhortation, when communicated in the way you judge best to you.r people and your clergy, will be put into salu-tary and effective execution in a spirit of willing coopera-tion. Accordingly as a sign of heavenly gifts and as a pledge of Our special benevolence, We impart in full charity Our apostolic blessing to each and every one of you as well as to your flocks, especially to those who carry out Our desires with devoted alacrity. Given at Rome in St. Peter's, the thirtieth day of June, on the vigil of the Feast~ of the Precious Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, in the year 1960, the second of Our pontificate. John XXIII REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS CHARLES A. SC.HLECK, C.S.C. The Sister in the Church When something good, nobie, and sublime is called into question or becomes obscure, it usually calls into existence an immense amount of thought,~reflection, and literature. Indeed, if we are to meet the demands of the situation fully and adequately, the whole matter of the entire reality must once more be subjected to a prolonged and meditative scrutiny. There is usually not so much a question of justifying its existence as there is of getting back to its roots, of elucidating and bringing into the light and clarity of the common vision the fundalnental and essential meaning of the institution in question. And this is especially true when this institution has been estab-lished by God or by His Church. What we feel in such a case is the need to see straight, or rather to see into the core and the heart of the reality itself. In the past such was true of several of the mysteries of divine revelation, the Incaination, fok example, the Trinity, grace, the divine motherhood. This calling of an institution into question together with" the consequent obscurity that almost destroys our appreciation of it has been common in our own day in the case of the Church herself, Mariology, the role of the laity in the Church, and Christian virginity or the religious sister in the Church. Consequently we witness today an outpouring of much labor, thought, and writing which, with more or less suc-cess, attempts in one way or another to penetrate into the divine reasons for the existence of such mysteries and their essential and basic meaning. And while each of these re-alities would certainly be a most interesting topic for our consideration, the one that is being singled out in the present .article is the institution of Christian virginity, or more precisely and exactly, the role of the religious sister in the Church. At the very outset we ought to note that one aspect of this vocation has rarely been called, into question or fallen into obscurity at least as far as the apostolic re- Thee Reverend Charles A. Schleck, C.S.C. teaches theology at Holy Cross College (seminary), 4001 Hare-wood Road N.E., Wash-ington 17, D.C. VOLUME 20~ 1961 9 ~. ~. sa,~, c.~.c. REVIE~ FOR RELIGIOUS lO ligious sister is concerned. And that is the utility, the contribution which such a vocation makes to one or other of the needs of our visible society. There are very few who would call into question the utility of the teaching, or of the care for the sick and the abandoned, or of the other spiritual and corporal works of mercy which form part and parcel of the various apostolates and missions entrusted to apostolic communities of religious women in the Church. In fact, the thought and the writing that has come forth in defense of the sister's vocation has tended to make this its principal and chief weapon. But when we come to another aspect of this vocation, one that touches the very soul of it and centers around the fundamental meaning of this vocation, then we find very few even among Catholics who understand what is perhaps the primary and basic mission of the sister in the Church. The proof of this, it seems, lies ih the fact that the question Ut quid perditio haec still remains in the minds of so many inside and outside the Church"To what avail is this loss of womanhood, this institution of virginity?" From the fact that this question mark still rematns and is even looming larger in certain areas of our country in spite of all the writing and speaking that has been done on the subject, we can conclude, without any kind iSf violence or exaggeration being done to the actual situation, that people by and large do not consider the collaboration in action with other institutions of so-ciety as a sufficient explanation of the vocation of the re-ligious sister. And that is a sobering thought; for these people are, perhaps, more right in their conviction or as-sumption than any of us ~ould be willing to admit. No, it is not the i'prose" of the sister's vocation that needs° clarification in the eyes of the world and in the minds of men, and perhaps even in tier own mind. It is rather the "poetry," so to speak, or the poetic symbolism of the life and mission of the sister in the Church that must be mole constantly and widely diffused both inside and ~outside the Church. For without that difftision we can not hqpe 'to make men see and love the vocation, the mission, or the role wl~ich God intends her to play in the Mystical Body Of the Church. We musi then ask ourselves the question: What is this "poetry" or this basic notion which lies at the very root of the sister's mission in the Chtirch? Only when we an-swer that question satisfactorily will we be able to di-minish and soften and, in the case of many, eliminate the objections which they raise against it. Only then can we hope to show those outside the Church and to very many inside, that the mission and the presence of the sister, far from being a block or an obstacle to the continuation of life, is itself a source of vitality and one of the most ex- cellent ins~truments by which the highest and most sub-lime form of life, if not perhaps begun, is nevertheless nourished, increased, protected, and safe-guarded, and most often formed and fashioned. The religious sister is ~v~fi tb the Church not:so much as a model or an image according to which other women must pattern their lives; neither is she given to the Church as a kind of living representation of the grace of the Christian life as it would .have been given Ito all. except by reason of some fault or' guilt on their part. No, she is given to the Church as a kind of sacrament,' a v,s~ble s~gn, a symbol of one, even of several mws,lble reahtles. To understand this assertion thoroughly, w,e need to re-call briefly the mysteries of the Trinity and of creation. In the first mystery, that of the Trinity, ~we know that God the Father communicates His own nature to God the Son, and these two persons~ commumcate this same nature to the Holy Spirit. Yet while all thre~ of these per-sons possess the one same divine nature, skill from our very limited vision this nature appears to take on differ-ent~ aspects when we consider one or other oflthese persons according to His distinctive properties or characteristics. We obtain a much clearer picture of the richness of each of the persons by linking up certain qualities or perfec-tions with which we are familiar, with one o~: other of the . divine persons. Thus itis by reason of the various kinds of processions which we find in this myster~ that we at- .~ tribute understanding to the Word of God Who proceeds by way of an operation of the divine intell~,ect; similarly we attribute love and affection to the Holy Spirit because He proceeds by way of an operation of theI divine will. In the second mystery, that of creation, God seems to have wished that His various perfections I~e manifested and shared in by many different creatures, each acc.ording to a very definite limitation, such that some would repre-sent Him more perfectly and more fully, than others. For only in this way could the fullness of His b~ing be made somewhat clear. When we focus our gaze on material creation, we see that only one creature came into being, made, as we are told, according to the lmage~ and likeness of God. Only one received a perfection or perfections which would enable it to know and to love ~;od, to share and participate in the most intimate opI e.rations of the Godhead. That creature was man. Or let ks say, it was human nature, possessed by two different~individuals who I reflect the riches of this nature in such d~ffe~ent ways that the fullness of the mystery of the human composite might stand'out the more clearly and might m,rror more per-fectly the riches of the Godhead. For we must not forget that man and woman also belong to those th.ings of which it was said by the Apostle: "From the foundations of the 4. ÷ ÷ The Sister in the Church VOLUME 20, 1961 II C. A. $chl~cl~, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS world, men have caught sight of His invisibl~ nature, his eternal power and his divinity as they are known through the things he has made" (Rom 1:20). In something of the way in which the divine nature was shared in by two person~ other than the Father, proceed-ing from Him and yet personally manifesting and empha-sizing different aspects (at least according to our imperfect vision), so too in the mystery of the human composite we see one nature shared in by two individuals who mani-fest in their whole make-up the distinct perfections of the rational creature. And just as the Word of God is the one to whom we attribute the intellectual operations of God while the Holy Spirit is the one to whom we apply the affective operations of God, so too (I do not mean to say that the parallel is entirely exact) man is the one in whom we see manifested more visibly the operations of the mind and the duties of the intellective side of our being, while woman is the one in whom we see manifested more visibly the operations of the will and the duties of the affective side of our being. Since all created beings are sent into the world as signs or "sacraments" in the broad sense of this word, and since man is an image of the Trinity, we might say that man and woman are visible signs and symbols of the intellec, tire and affective operations and perfections of God. Man is a sign or a "sacrament" more especially of God as truth, and woman is a sign or "sacrament" more especially of God as love. In a sense, then, we might say that man reflects more the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, the Word, while woman is more the reflection of the Third Person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit. Now while it is true that the original plan of God was interfered with and that it was set right again only when the two persons proceeding from the Father were sent in mission to men, still it is precisely here--in relation to the fall and the two missions necessitated by it--that the "poetry" or the "sacramental" role and meaning of the religious sister begins to appear in all its dignity and sublimity. For when we consider the mystery of these two divine missions, we see that the Son of God was sent in mission to instruct men and to teach them the way of salvation. His function was to preach by word of mouth those mysteries and that knowledge of God which had been hidden from the foundation of the world. The Holy Spirit, on the other hand, was sent in visible mission only very briefly and for a different purpose. For He was sent both as a sign and as a kind of mother-principle. He was sent as a sign of sanctification, a sign of what the interior renovation which takes place within the soul in the state of grace actually is. In fact, the very creatures under which He appeared manifested this role: the dove and the fire. The one, the dove, manifested the innocence of sanctity, its caution, its fruitfulness, and its silence; while the other, the fire, manifested love and the knowledge proper to love, the wisdom of the heart. Moreover, the Holy. Spirit was sent as a kind of.mothe~:prlnclple, a pi~i~i~i~ '~f re-birth, to mold the human race into a new creature. This was the work He was to continue in a silent and hidden manner by acting as the soul, the vitalizing force and power of the Church, giving birth and life to the family of God. While it is true, then, that in the mystery of the Trinity the Holy Spirit is in a sense passive, since He is the term of a divine procession but not a principle of any further divine procession, still He does not remain passive. Rather He becomes active, most active, together with the Father and the Son in the work of sanctification or of what we might call the Trinification of the members of the family of ~God. This role of the Holy Spirit has certain affinities with the role of woman. Although, of the two individuals pos-sessing human nature, she embodies the characteristics of receptivity, acceptance, and submission, this does not mean that she is inactive or merely passive. The case is far otherwise. She receives or accepts, but only to give flesh and-blood, so to speak, to what she receives, to clothe it with the more sublime qualities of human nature. By reason of her entire being--her body, her soul, her powers of understanding, her capacity for affection, her aptitudes, and her inexhaustible devotion--she is made to mother the human race, to know it in all of its depths and.heights, its crudities as well as in its sublime potentialities. Thus, she has been endowed by God with a maternal instinct to form someone for family life, whether it be for the human family or for the family of God. In fact, this func-tion is one that she is not free to side-step; she is not free to isolate herself or to make her life self-cente~ed. For she exists for humanity; she is at its very foundations, not so much to direct and govern it, but rather to give it birth and to direct its initial steps in the pursuit of the human race's common goal. Woman exists, moreover, as an inspiration for all to seek the things that are above; likewise she is a sign of what this higher life actually is. She was given to man as a~companion, a helpmate to enable him to attain the sub-lime end for which he had been destined. And when she realizes the potentiality that lies within herself, she acts as a focal point or as an exemplar for the human race. Hence in the present economy of our existence, the divine idea of a complete human nature as something that trans-cends all difference of sex is better translated by woman than by man,, not only because her beauty excels that of ÷ ÷ ÷ The S~ ~ the ~hurch VOLUME 20, 1961 ~. A. $cltleck, ~.~. . REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 14 man, but also and especially because she presents an idea that is remarkable for the contraries which it unites-- somewhat as the activity of the Holy Spirit is presented to us in the Sequence for Pel~tecost, something like the ac-tivity of grace itself. For feminine nature presents us with an idea that is simple, yet very profound. She appears as one in whom we find a mingling of grace and gravity, of a smiling yet deep seriousness, of enjoyment and sacrifice, of song and silence, of purity and fecundity. It is in Mary' that we find the most perfect realization of this womanly' perfection. How the rest of womankind has realized this ideal and performed her role can be very readily seen by scanning the pages of history,, both sacred and profane; She has often led man away from God--she has often performed the role of the first Eve; and yet she has often led man back to his God---she has performed the role of the second Eve. Her influence ~has accompanied man. to near perfection, and it has also plunged him into an abyss of hate and despair. In fact, we can say that the destiny of man in his relationship with God depends to a great extent upon the silent directive force and power of wo-man, befit good or evil. Whether it be for good or evil de-pends very much upon her veil of mystery, her unassum-ing surrender to goodness and her willingness to share her time and her qualities with man in a spiritual or in a physical sense. Without her cooperative participation, the totality of human existence would become distorted and sterile. For her role in human existence will always be that of a bride, of a woman moving within the realm of man, not rejecting her veil which is a sign of her ac-ceptance, of her l~at mihi, not struggling to attain that which is properly man's, but surrendering her whole be-ing in an effort to make her contribution to the end result which is the unity of the human race with God. Like the Holy Spirit with whom she has a certain af-finity, woman is not only passive or receptive. She is com-municative, in fact, essentially communicative; and .like the person of love whom she represents, she tends to be-come dit~usive, 'to create or to prepare [or the members of the human family the best that this family contains in the depths of its own being--life, freshness, the poetry of love, fidelity, service, and care. It is only when woman actually lives or incarnates in her own life these characteristic marks of the Holy Spirit that she arrives at the fulfillment of her mission in crea-tion. And it is only in and through her arrival there that she attains that vision proper to wisdom, one that reaches from end to end seeing all things and judging all things according t° their proper place in the divine plan. It is only in the measure that she fulfills her role that she will be enabled to see the needs of souls, the needs of the Mys- tical Christ, and the destinies of the humffnfamily. For in proportion as her affective nature becomes more and more purified, she Will become more and more like to the person of the' Holy SpiriLwho, is personal love in the mystery of the Trlmty; and she-will be g,ven~that gift which is part and parcel of her vocation--wigdom and the divine vision which this implies. For as h~r'affections become purified, she learns~o .center herself and her life in God who will constantly infuse intd her a deeper love which is perfected by one 'of~His most precigm Sifts w~sdom. Thus we can say that'only in proportion as there grows in the woman the untarnished innocen~e~0f Mary the girl, will there also' grow in her the. deep compas-sionate gentleness and wisdom and.vision of Mary the mother, enabling her like Mary to cover the world with a silent and still co-redemption. Consequently, we can say that ~oman's vocation and mission is to imitate and continue partially at least and in a visible way the mission of the Holy Ghost--to mother the human race inits relatidnship with God by showing men that God isoa God of lov~ and that it is man's duty to find God not go much by r~ducing Him to our level of thought and limitatiofis, 'but rather/by going out of ourselves and in the" darkness Of a deep faith ~and trust, loving beyond what we see. M6reover, she was meant to be a perpetual sign to man of what the soul in the state of grace is--the bride of the L6rd. If this is the fundamental role of woman by her very nature, we should exPect that any furthervocation which she might be called upon"by God td exercise in the divine plan would not depart from this. Rather we would expect it to call her to a more perfect fulfillment of this funda-mental and basic role or vocation; for grace, as we hav~ so often heard, builds upon nature. It should come-as no surprise, then, that w~ should conceive of the religious vocation which lies at the very basis of the sister's way of life as a dall or an invitation from God much more than as an arbitrary decision on the 15art of a woman to enter the religious life. It is;' we might say, a special glance 'or grace which God Himself directs towards certain souls whereby He lifts thein from the realm of His common love and elevates them t6 that of His special love. We can say that if a woman goes out of the world in attempting to realize a religious vocatibn, she does not do so arbi-trarily; she does so onl~ in :response to an invitation by which God addresses her by'her first name, going beyond the common love which He shows otherg'and embracing her with His ~pecial love. A sister gods out of the world (and ~this is implied in the religious life) only became she has been given an-other task by almighty God/For she is given- to the Church The~ Sister in the Church VOLUME 20; 1961 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 16 and to mankind, not so much as a type or figure as we mentioned above, but rather as a sign in much the same way as the Holy Spirit was given to the world in His visible manifestation as a sign. And because she is given to the Church as a sign, her whole life must be, as it were, a kind of graphic picture or parable. For in her there was meant ~o become lifelike and instantly visible what in all others is usually kept secret and hidden. In her what is innermost in the Church of God is turned outward; and the City of God, which lies so concealed in others, becomes the town which is set upon the mountain--visi-ble for all to see. I am speaking, of course, of the life of man with God. It is this role which the sister constantly plays in the Church; we see it in the habi~ she wears, in the houses she lives in, the bearing which marks her per-son, and in the very disposition of her life. Her mission and vocation in the Church was meant to publish this truth: that this woman belongs entirely to God, that she lives only for Him and only with Him. This is, it seems, what the vocation of the religious sister was meant by God to signify; and the external marks which set it off from all other vocations (something like the plate of pure gold worn by the high priest of the Old Tes~tament) indi-cate immediately that the one belonging to this yay of life is set apart for the Lord. God knew that by reason of the fall the observance of the first and greatest commandment--to love God with one's whole heart and soul--would be most difficult to keep. For the mind of man, wounded by original sin, would tend to look downward; his heart would tend to become immersed in the things of time even though he be ordered to an eternal destiny. The sublime idea of union with God would be recalled and brought to birth in him only through what he saw or only through what he would in some way sense. God knew that if know.ledge would be had only through the instrumentality of the senses, through contact with visible things such as the spoken or the written word, then love would be recalled to man and begotten in him only t~hrough what he would in some way sense, only through some visible instrument; and in this case the love that would be recalled and be-gotten in him would be a share and participation in God's own love itself. It was for this reason that God instituted Christian virginity, and the Church ~gave this institution a very definite form in the religious life; *for the sister was to be a sign or a "sacrament," that is, a visible sign of an in-visible reality. It was one of the best possible ways of realizing and of answering the cry of the psalmist, "We no longer see the signs," which you have placed before us, Lord. While a sister is a sign of many things---of the fact that God exists, of the fact that He can touch a soul in a most intimate way, of the fact that He can ask a soul, or rather demand of 'it as it were~ 'to live for Hi~n ~lone-- still the sister is above all according to the divine~plan a sign of a yet greater mystery, 'For her mlssxon was set up by God to signify that He is love, that He is one who loves and can be loved. She was meant to indicate perpetually, not so much in her own individual person as in the insti-tution which she incarnates, that man is called to experi-ence God's personal love, that a human soul is called to be the bride of the Lord. This explanation is not just ~ sentimental, metaphor; it is something, which fias been constantly re-echoed in the literature of the Church--in the figure of the Church herself as the ,immaculate spouse of Christ, in the person of the bride of the Canticle of Canticles, in the figure of the chosen people as the Jerusalem or Sion of the Old Testament, in the.figure of Mary, and in the figure of the New Jerusalem who is said by St. John in the Apocalypse to be sent down from heaven by God all clothed like a bride who has adorned herself in readiness to meet her husband (Apoc 21:2). It is in fact rather clearly indicated there that the new Jerusalem is a figure of the Church and of the individual members of this Church, each of whom is called to be the bride of the bridegroom who is the Lamb (Apoc 21:9). There is, we might say, a common desire in the Church to see this heavenly Jerusalem or to catch some glimpse here on earth of the soul that is ready to enter into glory or who already participates in vision. In the sister that desire was to be fulfilled. For while it is true that the re-ligious profession taken together with the reception of both man and woman is essentially the same, a represen-tation of an eschatological state, nevertheless it is only in the case of tlie sister, because she is a woman, that one of the principal effects--the closest possible union with God---is brought out most strikingly and unmistakably. The man's consecration to God is considered to be a kind of second baptism, a ceremony in which his death to the world and his resurrection unto God is signified. But in the case of the woman, the ceremonies taken in their en-tirety form a kind of marriage rit~, a marriage in which she unites herself to the God-man as His bride. Conse-quently only the sister is able to signify in her very being and. person the marriage of the Christian with God, be-cause only she cfin be by nature a bride. The veil and, in some cases, the ring that she receives at the time of her profession were meant to be a perpetual reminder both to herself and the world that there is another world of r.eality that lies far beyond the surface vision which takes up the thoughts and the attention of the majority of men. 4- + The Sister in the Church VOLUME 20, 1961 17 ÷ ÷ ~,. A. $chleck, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 18 The excellence of this marriage over that of the sacra-ment lies in the immediacy of the union with Christ the God-man as well as in the permanence of the bond that is established at that time. For we kno~ that in the re-ligious profession a woman unites herself' immediately to Christ, whereas in Christian marriage, She unites herself only. mediately to Him, through the intermediary of a human creature who represents Christ for her. The bond of the religious profession, moreover, is not dissolved at death; rather it is 'one that realizes its full meaning and significance not here on earth but only'in eternity since it is the reward of virgins alone tO follow, the Lamb whithersoever He goes in the everlasting hills. It is in this way that a sister is a visible and constant symbol to the world of the sublime privilege and destiny which rests upon all human souls--to be a bride in search of the bridegroom. Sublime though this role of the sister is, there is yet another one which is not merely attached to this destiny of being a bride of Christ, but is its natural outcome. We know that in and through human marriage the bride as-sumes the interests 'and the concerns of the ~bridegroom. Consequently, in the marriage signified by the'religious reception and profession of the sister, she assumes the in-terests and concerns of eternal love, of God who is infinite love. Thus her love is not only not annihilated by her profession, but it is given new life and becomes much more dynamic and extensive than that which is had be-tween two persons united to each other through Christian marriage. It is meant to assume the status arid proportions' of the love of the God-man Himself. If the bride reflects the interests and the concerns of the bridegroom, she does so in a very definite way in accordance with her own na-ture. Since this nature is feminine, she rel~resents God as love and she reflects the concern of God for souls in a ma-ternal way. in fact, we can say that the maternal office or role for which she is created is not only not annihilated in her profession but is brought to its highest and most perfect fulfillment because she exercises it over a greater number of souls and with respec~t to the highest life that can be given to a creature, a share in the life of God Him-self. This is as it should be. For a natural desire, one that is implanted in a creature by God Himself, must be capa-ble of being ftilfilled and must be fulfilled in some way or other if that creature is to realize its highest possible perfection. In calling the sister ~o her vocation, the highest voca-tion to which a woman could aspire in the Church, God will not--I think that "we can say can not---destroy this aspiration which lies deep in the very make-up of every woman. Rather He will bring it--He must bring it--pro- vided there is no'obstacle on her part--to its fullest and most perfect realization. To be pure and untouched~oand wholly consecrated to God and yet to have the heart and soul of.a mother is the unique wonder of Mary; and,it is also at the very heart and m);s'te~ 0f the sister's ,~6cation. It is a grace which is given to her initially in the grace of vocation itself, in much the same way as the fruit of the tree is given already in the very seed of the tree. And that grace will die or grow in the sister in the same measure or proportion as the grace of vocation dies or grows in her heart. It is of this also that a sister is a continuing sign or symbol to the world---that only a virgin motherhood is' compatible with~ a~_divine motherhood, that is, one that has as the whole purpose of its existence to lift up the souls of its children to :God, Just as Mary became filled with,grace and,superabundant 'in it, so to9 the sister is called to something similar--to be filled ~with grace but in such a way that she not only receives it but commtini-cates ,and diffuses it' to others as .a mother communicates and diffuses life to her children. Consequently, the.phrase which the Church in her liturgy.applies to Mary can also be applied in a certain sense to her: "And ~having the honor of virginity, you have also the joyof'motherhood," I think that it is true to say ,that only this understand-ing and presentation of the sister's, role in .the Church will make it more meaningful for her and restore it to its rightful place of: excellence~among the ways of life that lie"open to the faithful. For unless there is ~a deep faith and conviction in her marriage with Christ and in her spiritual motherhood, ~ the deeper motivating forces of, her vocation c~)uld easily remain somewhat obscured"and the consequent fruit of her apostolate diminished. And unless the missiofi' of the sister is presented to all the faithful during the years of their academic training and instruction,.espeCially in high schools and colleges, not by means of a ~¢il~d of "fly,by~nigh~" program but by one that openly juxtaposes it to marriage and presents it in all of its fullness, with its beauty, excellence, and joys, to-gether with its peculiar trials and difficulties, the question Ut quid perditio haec? spoken of above.will remain in the minds of a great many of the faithful and continue to ;. serve' as a parent,al objection to the very vocation itself: For all the attractiveness and beauty which this picture of the sister's mission in the Church might present, there° is one warning that might be voiced before c6ncluding, a-warning which becomes ever more necessary as the prog-ress of our technical civilization moves on with the.speed of an object drawn by the pull of gravity.And that is that 'the sister as well as the institution which she incar-nates must not fail to hold up the mystery of the cross-- in schools, in vocation literature, and above all in ,the The Sister in the C~hurch VOEUME 2~ 1961 19 4. + C. A. Schleck, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 20 actual living of the religious life itself. The presence of this sign of contradiction, its mystery, its sorrow and its joy, must always be the very basis of her way of life. For the essence of the religious life is "to go out from the world." Consequently, the religious sister is to bear in mind that here on earth she is called upon to fulfill the obligations of a bride and .a mother. The privileges and the rewards that shall be hers--that of "following the Lamb whithersoever He goes" and that of ~eeing "her sons coming from afar off and her daughters rising up at her side" (see Apoc 14:4; Is 60:3 ff.)--are reserved for eternity: These will be hers only if she has understood and accepted at the very outset of her religious life and has observed ever more faithfully during it the injunction of St. Ambrose: "The root and the flower of virginity is a crucified life.". It is this life, together with all that it implies in the case of the woman--silence and stillness and hiddenness especially--that is necessary not only for this vision to remain throughout her life but also for it to grow and to reach to new extensions and heights so that all the various lights and shadows of its beauty might appear in all their fullness, richness, and splendor. Such a vision of the "Word breathing forth love" as St. Thomas says (Summa tkeologiae, .1, 43, 5, ad 2), can be purchased only where there is lived and practiced prayer and disci-pline. These requirements have today made the vocation of the religious sister especially difficult. For the growing demands of her apostolate in the world along with the almost imperceptible infiltrations of elements foreign to her. vocation which such an apostolate often implies, could easily diminish and even destroy the possibility of retaining and developing this vision. If she remains faith-ful, however, to a constant and personal practice of these requirements, she will enable herself to fulfill her two-fold role, that of being a virgin in search of Christ and that of being a mother in whose conceptions no sin is passed on to the offspring, but only grace, only a share in the life of God Himself. Like freshly fallen snow on a mountain she will lift her gaze.only to God; and yet under the heat of the sun (which stands for the activity of'the Holy Spirit) she will melt and give life-giving water to those who dwell in the fields and valleys below. And he who drinks of this water shall never thirst, but it will become to him "a fountain of living water springing up unto life everlasting" (Jn 4:14). In conclusion we might sum up very briefly what we have attempted to give in these few pages. A religious sister leaves the world to become a sign or symbol, repre-senting God to men and men before God. For God loves humanity in her person, and in her person humanity gives its loving answer back to God. This, I think, is the mission given to the sister both by God and by the Church. When she returns to the world in the exercise of her apostolate, regardless of what this might be, she does so primarily as a sxgn, a symbol of the pasclial mysterxes, of tiuman na-ture's death to sin and resurrection unto God. In her case, this resurrection will be not so much unto light and knowledge as unto love. We know, that no apostolate, no vocation has any real meaning except in some relation to communication of life through light or through love. In the case of the religious sister it is in ke~eping with her very nature that the communication be more often predominantly through love; and even when it is through light, through the instruction of youth, it will be a spread-ing of vision in and through the warmth of love. Therein lies the "poetry" or the sacramental meaning and the divine design for the sister's mission, a mission whose fullness and richness and meaning must be made known to the world today; for it presents the solution to the needs of our day a constantly deeper interiorisation of doctrine and life, a flowering of the contemplative spirit, and an intense outpouring of charity and love. It is true that the world of today needs a rational theology; yet before it can become capable of this theology, it needs the vision which lies behind it, the vision wfiich made the very Summa of Aquinas seem like so much straw--the vision of eternal light that loves and is love. This role, this mission, this need for the presence of the sister in the Church has been very well indicated by a passage from one of the works of St. John of the Cross: 0 Lamps of fire, in whose resplendent light the deepest caverns where the senses meet,- erst steeped in dark-ness dire, Blaze with new glories bright, and to the lov'd one give both light and heat. Living Flame of Love, Stanza 3 This is the work of the Spirit and it is also the mission of the sister in the Church. And so in the end we come back to the beginning. The sister's apostolate or primary mission is very much like that of the Holy S15irit with whom she has a very definite affinity--to diffuse within the souls of men the gift of created love which is the com-mon bond uniting us with God and with each other in the friendship of divine charity or in the community of love which is the Church. If the sister fulfills tfi~t mission, on the day of her entrance into eternity she will merit to hear the words which the Prophet addressed to the new Jerusalem many centuries ago: "Arise, O Jerusalem, and stand on high, and behold the joy that comes to thee from thy God" (Bar 4:36; 5:5). 4- 4- The Sister in,- the Church VOLUME 20,, 1961 JEAN GALOT, S.J. Thanksgiving After Holy Communion, + ÷ + The Reverend Jean Galot, S.J. is Professor of Dogmatic Theology at Coll~ge Saint-Albert, Eegenhoven - Louvain, Belgium. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 22 In recent years it seems that some observers have no-ticed a decline in personal thanksgiving after Holy Com-munion. 1 The liturgical too;cement would seem to have led some of the faithful, including priests, to neglect any prayer which is not official, liturgical prayer, or prayer with a community flavor. On the other hand; the publi-cation b~y Father Karl Rahner of two articles on the theo-logical justification for thanksgivings gives us an oppor-tunity to reconsider this aspect of Holy Communion. We would like to do this not only from the standpoint Of prac-tice, but also doctrinally. Firstly, we shall ask what connection there is between thanksgiving and the Mass. In particular, is it correct to say that thanksgiving has only minor importance because Mass is it.self essentially a thanksgiving? Then we shall look at the reason usually given for making a thanksgiv-ing; namely, the continuation of the real presence of Christ in the communicant. But is this, in fact, the chief justification for the practice? Finally, there are some conclusions about the length of the thanksgiving and the manner of making it. Having a better understanding of Holy Communion and of its effects in us will lead us to see the attitude it requires of the communicant. By t~he end of this study it is hoped that the great im-portance of the matter in all religious formation will be ,apparent. This is the year of the Eucharistic Congress which has as its theme "Pro mundi vita" [For the life of the world], and it is also the fiftieth anniversary of St. Plus X's decree on the Communion of small children. It would be rewarding were the thoughts here outlined to contribute in any way to a fresh development Of Eucharis-, uc p~ety. . x This article originall~ appeared in Revue des Communautds Re. ligieuses, 32 (1960), 73-86. The translation is by Rev. D. Brigstocke, s.J. *"Danksagung nach der hl. Messe," Geist und Leben, 32 (1959), 180-89, 442-48. Thanksgiving Completes Our Participation in the Mass It is very t~ue that the whole Mass is a thanksgiving. The expression Eucharist~.makeS this clear. The word was applied by the primitive Church to the sacr~iment which Jesus instituted at the Last Supper; and the reason may be found in St. Luke and St, Paul: when He consecrated the bread, Christ "gave thanks" .(Lk 22:19; 1 Cot 11:24). It is the attitude which distinguished Christ at this capi-tal moment that has given its name~ to the sacrament. In memory of. Christ His '~disciples have likewise "given thanks" to God by repeating the gesture of consecration,3 ~How is this characteristic attitude to be interpreted? To give thanks is to thank God and to adopt the disposi-tions ofsomeone who has received everything from Him, and is glad to offer Him everything in return. At the moment of the Last Supper, Christ wished, to proclaim that He held everything from the: Father, hnd at,the same time He wanted to make a complete offering of Himself to the Father in a way .which would for ever perpetuate His oblation on Calvary. By this, thanksgiving, which is intended to be an act of total homage to the Father, the bread is blessed;~ it is consecrated because, being ,offered to God, henceforth it belongs to Him; it becomes the in-strument of divine blessings. The thanksgiving is an obla-tion, and the blessing of the bread is the sign of this obla-tion, its material symbol This is as much as to say that one must n6t have too restricted an idea of thanksgiving, confining it tO an outburst of gratitude alone. It signifies a return to God of what He has given to man. It is .a "Thank you" which is expressed by a profound offering of the self. If the Mass is to be called a thanksgiving, then it is within this very broad meaning of the word. Those who take part in the Mass have to acknowledge with. Christ that they h~ve received everything from the Father and that with Him they present to the Father all that has been bestowed upon them. They do this by uniting their offer-ing,' which should l~e as complete as possible, with that of the Savior, Does this mean to say that fervent.participation in,the Mass, with this attitude of thanksgiving, makes a thanks-giving after Holy Communion secondary or only slightly useful? We might notice that Father Rahner, while put-aFor the employment of the term Eucharist in the prim~itive Church an~d especially in St. Justin see P. Batiffol,'L'Eucharistie, la prdsence rdelle et la transsubstantiation, "l~tudes d'histoire et de th~o-logie positive," 2nd series; J.-A. ~Jungmann, Missarum Sollemnia, I, 45 ft. ~In St. Matthew (26:26) and St. Mark (14:,22) the equivalent of "having given thanks" is "havin~,g blessed." 4, Thankagiving Holy vo,.u~E ~o. ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ean Galot, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ting in the first place the thanksgiving constituted by the Mass itself, maintains that thanksgiving after Holy Com-munion means much and is truly recommendable. And if one thinks of the personal participation by the priest or the faithful in the Mass, with all that this sharing de-mands, it cannot be said that thanksgiving has only sec-ondary importance. For its role is to complete partici-pation in the Mass, and to ensure the full fruit of this participation. In fact, participation in the sacrifice of the Mass reaches its culmination in Communion. This is the sacrificial meal. Certainly the sacrifice has its value on its own. Once the Consecration has taken place the essence of the sacri-fice has been accomplished, with its worth ex opere operato applied to the intentions for which the Mass is celebrated. But in the sacramental order the personal participation by the priest or faithful in the sacrifice of Christ remains essentially insufficient so long as it has not ended in Communion. This remains true, however fer-vent the will to unite oneself with the Offering and the Consecration.5 The object of Holy Communion is the full association in the Savior's sacrifice of those who are present at the sacramental renewal of this sacrifice. It unites them to Christ's offering in virtue of an efficacity ex opere operato different from that of the Consecration, and which completes the latter by acting in each com-municant individually. This sacramental efficacity may be explained in other terms by saying that here it is no longer the member of the faithful who tries simply to unite himself to the sacrifice of Jesus, albeit his efforts are sustained by grace; it is Jesus Himself coming to unite the Christian to His sacrifice. He comes to incorporate the individual with His sacrifice, and He does so by a divine power enabling the fa!thful to offer that which human weakness would have precluded. This sacramental incor-poration in the sacrifice may be translated in terms of thanksgiving: by Holy Communion Christ comes to in-corporate the faithful into His own supreme thanksgiving --a thanksgiving repeated at each Mass and which in-cludes the offering of His death. Christ associates the Christian with Himself, placing him in this situation of giving thanks. The sacramental efficacity of this incorporation, while it proceeds essentially from the divine strength of Christ, depends also upon the dispositions of the faithful. As with the rest of the sacraments, the effect ex opere operato of Holy Communion does not dispense the faithful from cooperating with grace. Christ gives Himself with His 5 Cf, the Council of Trent (DB 944) encouraging the faithful to sacramental communion at each Mass they attend. omnipotence, but the soul still has to open itself to Him and welcome Him. This attitude of welcome, this opening of the self and subjective fervor will have an influence upoh the fruits of Communibn. Here it is that we discern':the'i~nportance 6f'indi~,idual thanksgiving after Holy Communion. The Christian really has to "receive, Christ in such a way as to allow Christ to incorporate Him fully into His own sacri,fice. In order to be able to receive Christ in this way, one has to pay attention to Him, try to show Him the sentiments of welcome that He deserves, .and make ohe's own the thanksgiving that Christ brings with Him. This can only be achieved in those moments~ of recollection When a cer-tain intimate dialogue occurs. The time of thanksgiving after Holy Communion is the moment when all that has happened at the altar enters deeply into the soul of the Christian in order to transform it. At this moment the communicant yields himself to that immense giving of thanks which was the theme of the Savior's sacrifice. He commits himself personally to this thanksgiving by allowing Christ to penetrate to his. fur-thest depths, and by devoting all his powers as a man, his ability to reflect and to will, to the work of extending the Savior's reach within him. Thus, thanksgiving after Holy Communion is not a simple movement of personal piety which just happens to be added to a liturgical action in itself fully sufficient. It~is not a complement, with value only secondary. It is the reception and welcome of the liturgical and sacramental action, a welcome without which this liturgical action could not produce in the com-municant that which one has a right to expect. True--the thanksgiving is individual. It has to be, because it signi-fies a personal welcome given to the coming of Christ, and it has all the more worth in proportion as the depths of the personality are engaged. But this individual com-plement is claimed by Holy Communion and therefore by the liturgical action of the community which is the Mass. Besides, while remaining an act of the individual, the thanksgiving allows the member of the faithful to rise to a higher le~,el of community charity. It does this pre-cisely because in Holy Communion the Christian wel-comes to himself the love of Christ. . There is, therefore, no reason for neglecting thanks-giving after Holy Communion, or for holding that it is an act of private piety which we may omit at will. On the contrary, it is the ordinary completion of 'the Mass. Its importan.ce is not less for not being found among the prayers that the priest recites officially. By its very essence the thanksgiving has to be something intimate,~ a reaching-out and utterance of the soul; and as such it gua,rantees the full effect of the Mass in each of the faithful. + Thanksgiving A.~e~ Holy Commumon VOLUME 20, 1961 ~e~ ~, sJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Thanksgiving and the Real Presence of Christ For some time after Communion the sacramental pres-ence o£ the bod~ o£ Christ remains in us.~ It is difficUlt to decide the exact duration o£ this presence, but it does not cease be£ore the dissolution o~ the species. Accord.oing to some medical opinion, a small host in a healthy stom-ach does not corrupt before haft an hour.7 On the other hand, it is even more 'important to notice that this bodily presence o~ Christ in the communicant is given essentially £or a spiritual action, and more speCially £or a spiritual presence o~ Christ in u~. For Christ comes to nourish us spiritually. Father Rahner has good reason £or insisting upon the spiritual pregen.ce o~ Christ that Holy Communion produces. Thinking o~ the Eucharist, St. Paul Spoke about "spirit-ual food" and "spiritual drink" (1 Cor 10:3-4). He un-derstood the efficacity o£ the Eucharist as being o£ the spiritual order because, to speak more precisely, this effi-cacity was due to the Holy Spirit: "in 6ne Spirit we have all been made to drink" (1 Cor 12:13). According to these views, it is not the Bgdy or the Blood of Christ, as such, in their simple material reality, which operates in the communicant, but the Holy Ghost whom they bear. St. Paul was ectioing Christ's teaching. In the l~romise o~ the sacrament a's St. John recounts it, the Master had under-lined the spiritual nature o~ the etticacity of the Eucharist: "Only the spirit gives li£e; the flesh :is of no avail" (Jn 6:63). By itseff the flesh would be powerless to exert any sanctifying activity; it is only through the Spir!t that it can act in this way. In order to better understand the connection which exists between the Eucharistic body and the Holy Ghost, we should recall that the Body present in the Eucharist is the glorifie.~d Body o[_.the Savior. It is His risen Body. It is true that th.is Body is giv~en to us in a ~sacrifice. But the sacrifice, While it renews the offering of Calvary, renews too the completion of this offering and' its acceptance by the Father: :that is to~ say, the glorification o~ Jesus. That is why the Mass omme'mbrates not only the Passion~ but . e Father Rahner has put £orward a new theory~ according to which 'the real presence would cease [xom the moment of communicating, because from that instant the species of bread can no longer be con-sidered as food, being .no longer eatable. According to him there would begat this moment the equivale.nt of corruption of sp.ecies'. In' principle, however, tradition considers that physical corruption of ~ ¯ the species must occur before the real presence ~ceases. One might!! also add that the species of bread do. continue to be a nourishment' I even ~fte'r actual manducation, and so they remain the sign 6f the I real presence. Therefore the presence of the Body of Christ certainly I persists after the ~ctual°moment of communicating. ~ C~. Cardinal Gasparri, Tract. canonicus de Sanctissima Eucha- I ristia, (1897), n. 1194~ also the Resurrection and Ascension. Without the Resur-rection and the Ascension the sacrifice would be neither perfect nor consummated. Therefore, at the moment-of consecration it is the risen Body of Christ that becbmes present on the altar, and\in,.Holy Commufii61i~,iit is this risen Body which the faithful receive. Now the charac-teristic feature of the glorified humahity of Christ is that of being filled with the Holy Spirit,.and of b.eing able to transmit and communicate thissame Spirit.,At the Resur-rection the Body of Christ was tr~a~stormed and spirit-ualized by the Spirit. So it is that St. Paul considers the risen Christ as He who possesses the Hgly Spirit, and who bestows Him for our sanctification,s "The last Adam was made into a quickening spirit" 0 Cor" 15:45). This Pauline teaching is based on the testimony of the Gospel itself, which shows us in the risen Chyist Him who says.to His apostles, "Receive ye the Holy Ghost" (Jn 20:22), and above fill Him who sends, the Ho.ly Spirit to all the disciples on the day of Pentecost (Lk .24;49; cf. Act The reception of the glorious flesh of Christ in the body of the communicant produces as a consequence a general pervasion by the Holy Spirit. Before all let us notice that the Holy Ghost does not veil the presence-of Chr!st, as though He were an intermediary acting as a screen. On the contrary, He causes the ~piritual diffusion of this p~es-ence; it is He who causes the action and love of the Savior to penetrate the soul. It is through Him that the presence of Christ gr6ws deeper and more intimate. It is this spiritual action of the bodily presence of the Savior in the communicant that demands the latter's cooperation if that action is to be exercised fully. It fol-lows that this spiritual action requires the most fervent thanksgiving possible. We are now in a position to define more exactly the role of thanksgiving. For our part, i.t is the welcome to the bodily presence of Jesus as a presence which acts in a spiritual manner and thus penetrates the soul. It is, be-sides, traditional to think of thanksgiving along these lines: the Christian who has just communicated addresses himself to Christ present in his heart, Christ who. has reached and penetrated into his very soul. The communi-cant desires to make some answer to this spiritual pres-ence. This concentration of attention upon the spiritual presence of Christ should not lead to the conclusion that the bodily presence is without importance. The spiritual presence is bound up with the bodily presence:. ,we have recalled that it is the glorious Body of Christ that is the s Cf. F. X. Durrwell, La Rdsurrection de ]dsus, myst~re de salut, (Paris: 1949), pp.,196-23. 4- 4- 4- Thanksgiving Alter ltoly Communion VOI~UME 20, :1961 ÷ ÷ ÷ lean Galot, SJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 28 bearer of the Spirit. In th6 rest of the Sacraments there is an action by the Holy Spirit, together with an infusion of grace; the Eucharist is the only sacrament wherein we receive not only grace, but the author of grace. In it we receive the spiritual presence of Jesus after a fashion that ig quite exceptional, arising from the fact that this pres-ence is the immediate result of the presence of His Body within us. It is this bodily presence which guarantees the spiritual presence at its highest pitch, together with spiritual nourishment, Thanksgiving after Holy Com-munion has as its object the spiritual assimilation of the presence of Christ. The Duration of Thanksgiving According to what principle should we determine the lengt.h of thanksgiving? Father Viller writes, "It is nor-mal for it to last as long as the Eucharistic presence of our Lord remains in us.''9 But it is quite legitimate to enquire with Father Rahner whether this criterion is fully justified. To begin with, certain inconveniences arise when we seek to measure the duration of the thanksgiving by the duration 'of Christ's bodily presence in the com-municant. If, as Cardinal Gasparri states on medical evi-dence, a small host remains in the stomach for not less than half an hour, and a large one for an hour, then this p~i~sistence of the species will in any case require a very long thanksgiving. Besides, were this criterion to be adopted, it would be for doctors and biologists to decide upon the length of the thanksgiving. In addition to this, such a criterion does not appear to be founded on the true nature of the thanksgiving. The proper object of the latter is not the reception of the Body of Christ in the stomach, but the reception of the total Christ by the soul. We are not dealing with an assimilation by the body of the Body of Christ, but with a reception and assimilation "of His spiritual presence. We have tried to stress that the bodily presence of Christ is designed to give us His spiri-trial presence more comp.letely and immediately. Since the role of the thanksgiving is to open the heart or the soul to this spiritual presence of the Savior, its duration should be measured by the amount of time nor-mally needed if such'a welcome is to occur. It should be long enough to allow the person of Christ to exercise His action in the soul of the communicant and to fill it with His life in the measure that He Himself wishes. What 'must take place is a penetration of our intelligence and will and sentiments by this presence, and there must also be a personal effort to achieve this intimate relationship with Christ. No absolute norm can be given for achieving Communion (pratique), in Dictionnaire de Spiritualitd, II, 1282. this, simply because one has to take into account the sub-jective dispositions of each individual. But in general spiritual writers think that about a quarter of an hour is good measure for most. This isJong enough to ach,,ieve the degree of recollection whi~li ig n~ssary if profound con, tact is to be made. with the person of the Savior, and if the depths of the soul are really to be opened to Him. Certainly it would be arbitrary to declare that the last prayers of the Mass are a sufficient thanksgiving after Holy Communion, and that once the litUrgical action has been completed there is no need to prolong the prayer which should act as an echo to the.sacrament just received. On the contrary, itmay be said in general that the mere fact of following the prayers 6f the priest up to the ending of Mass is not sufficient to afford Christ th~ intimate and personal welcome which His Eucharistic. presence asks of us. It is to be regretted that there are those.who syste, m~tically favor the departure of the faithful as~.soon as Mass h~s ended. If there are many lives in wl~ich frequent reception of Holy Communion fails to produce the fruit that might be expected, may this not be because the welcome offered tq the Eucharistic Christ is not fervent enough, and because the thanksgiving which should lie the surge of a° personal. love is too brief and superficial? It has already been no-ticed that sacramental efficacity ex opere operato requires man's cooperation if it is to have its full effect. Father Rahner writes that this efficacity eX opere ope-rato cannot be increased by the thanksgiving, and that it simply depends upon the disposition of the soul at the moment of Communion. He adds that if this disposition exists it will in fact be manifested by a meditative and recollected thanksgiving,xo But if it is true that strictly speaking the thanksgiving does not augment the efficacity ex opere operato, it does none the less allow th.is effic~city to be. exercised in the fullest measure desirable. It is not only at the precise moment of communicating that 'the bodily presence of Christ produces its spiritual action. This is continued later. It will be fully efficacious to the degree that the soul yields itself to it in thanksgiving, attempting to respond by faith and love. The length of the thanksgiving does influence the efficacity of the sacra-ment, seeing that normally a certain time is called for if a welcome is to be considered fervent. It is therefore un-derstandable that the Church should recommend a thanksgiving which goes on after the Mass has ended. In this connection it is worth citing from Mediator Dei. As this encyclical is expressly concerned with the liturgy, it ~o Rahner op. cir., pp. 186-87. ÷ + + Thanksgiving A~ter Holy o~munio~ VOLUME 20, 1961 29 ÷ ÷ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 30 is particularly noteworthy that it should stress the per-sonfil thanksgiv.ing d~manded by the liturgy. When the Mass, which is subject to special rules of the liturgy, is over, ~the person who has received Holy Communion is not thereby freed from his duty of thanksgiving; rather; it is most becoming that, when the' Mass is finished, the person who has received the Eucharist should recollect himseif, and in intimate union with the divine Master hold loving and fruitful converse with Him. Hence they have departed from the straight way of truth: who, adhering to the letter rather than the sense,~assert and teach that, when Mass has ended, no such thanksgiving should be added, not only because the Mass is itself a thanks-giving, 'but also because this pertains to a private and personal act of piety and not to thegood of the community. But, on the contrary, the very .nature of the sacrament de-mands that its reception should produce rich fruits of Christian sanctity. Admittedly~the congregation has been officially dis-missed, but each individual, Since he is united with Christ, should not interrupt the hymn of praise in his own soul, "al-ways returning thanks for all in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ to God the Father" (Eph 5: 20). The sacred liturgy of the Mass also exhorts us to do this when it bids us pray in these . words, "Grant, we beseech thee, that we may always continue to offer thanks" (Postcommunion, Sunday Within the Octave of Ascension) " .and may never cease from praising thee" (Postcommunion, First Sunday after Pentecost), Wherefore, if there i~"no time when we-must not offer God thanks, and if we must never cease from praising Him, who would dare to reprehend or find fault with the Church, because she advises her priests (canon 810) and faithful to converse with the divine Redeemer for at least a~ short while after Holy Communion, and inserts in her liturgical books, fitting, prayers, enriched with indulgences, by which the sacred mlmsters may make suitable preparati6n before Mass and Holy Communion or may return thanks afterwards? So far is the sacred liturgy from re-stricting the interior devotion of individual Christians, that it actfiaily fosters and promotes it so that they may be rendered like to Jesus Christ and through Him be brought to the heavenly Father; wherefore this same discipline of the liturgy demands that whoever has partaken of thd sacrifice of the altar should return fitting thanks to God. For it is the good pleasure of the di;gin~ Redeemer to hearken to us when we pray, to converse witfi us intimately and to offer us a refuge in His loVing Heart. Moreover, such personal colloquies are very necessary that we may all enjoy more fully, the supernatural treasures that are contained in the Eucharist and, according to our means, share them with others, so that Christ our Lord may exert the greatest possible influence ofi the' souls of all. Why then, Venerable Brethren, should we not approve of those who, when they receive Ho!y Communion,~ remain on in clbsest familiarity with' their divine Redeemer even after the congregation has been"officially dismissed, and that not only for~the consolation of conversing with Him, but also to render Him,due thanks and praise and especially to ask help to defend their souls against anything that may lessen the efficacy of the sacrament and to do everything in their power to cooperate with the action of Christ who is so intimately present. We exhort. them to do so in a special manner by carrying out their resolu-tions, by exercising the Christian virtues, as also by applying to their own necessities the riches they have received with royal liberality. The author of that golden book The Imitation of Christ certainly speaks in accordance with the letter and the spirit of the liturgy, when he gives the following advice to the person who approaches the altar, "Remain on in secret and take delight in your God; for He is yours whom the whole world cannot take away from you" (4 [12).Xffr," ~" ,~ The Manner o[ Making the Thanksgiving The very first principle is that of personal liberty. The same way cannot Be laid down for everyone, and there is no universal formula. Wffat is important above all is that in this meeting with Christ the soul should express itself personally. One cannot, then, lay it down as a hard and fast rule that the best way to make a thanksgiying is to follow the priest in the prayers he says towards the end of Mass. Besides, taken from the point of view of giving thanks, it must be admitted that in the Roi'han Rite these prayers are very brief and only slightly' d.eveloped. Cer-tainl); at Masses where the congregation sings or pub-licly recites the pray+rs, this activity will be shared by tl~0se who have communicated. They 16ave till later the completion of their thanksgiving in a thore personal man-ner. But where neither hymns nor'prayers are expected from the congregation, each communicant is free to fol-low his own taste. On the c;ther hand it is quite possible that an individual will need educating in the use Of thig liberty. An obvious example is that of children, and the same may be "true of a number of the'f~tithful. In orderto help their thanks-giving a prayer may be recited or an intention placed before them. Care should always be taken to introduce va,riety in order to avoid monotony and routine. But if there is great freedom in the loving converse that a thanks-giving should be, there are still certairi principles which should guide .the exercise of this liberty. We suggest, at any rate, two such principles. _Firstly, thanksgiving is the kind o.f prayer .which is par excellence directed towards the person of our Lord inti-mately present. Indeed, as we have noticed, the Eucharist is d!stinguished from the other sacraments by this gift of the personal presence of Christ. It follows that after Com-munion we should be concerned to develop all that brings our attention to bear upon the very person of the Savior. Before all else.~ this person claims our ad~oration. In renew-ing his faitfi'in the presence of God now bestowed upoh him so intimately, the communicant adores the Lord with his whole soul; and proclaims before the Infinite Being that he is a creature and utterly depend~nt. But as this in-finite being is now his guest, the com~nunicant tries to converse with Him familiarly. He c~mverses with Christ who is the identi(al'Christ of the Gospel, the Christ who The Cath~oiid Mind, 46 (June, 1948), 363--64. ÷ +- + Thanksgiving Alter Holy Communion VOLUME :~0, 1961 ÷ ÷ ÷ lean Galot, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 32 enjoyed being in the company of men. The thanksgiving is the privileged moment in this personal dialogue. On the other hand it is no less important to recall that the thanksgiving is indeed the prolongation of the Mass and its completion in the individual soul. In consequence .there should be an effort to develop the dispositions which unite the soul with those of Christ in His sacrifice. Be-fore we go on to mention these dispositions, a word should be said about the Mother of God. MaTy can bring great help to the soul in its effort to unite itself to Christ's sacri-fice, just as she aids in the effort towards union with 'His person. The Blessed Virgin remains the model of per-sonal welcome to the Savior's presence, as well as of an intimate sharing in the redemptive sacrifice. She has a mission to draw souls along this way. It will be particu-larly helpful to have recourse to her in order to ensure a genuinely fervent thanksgiving. Among the dispositions which associate us with Christ's sacrifice is gratitude, for it has given its name to the Eu-charist. We have to own that we owe all to God our Father, and we should thank Him accordingly. It is to Him that we owe in the first place the immense benefit of Com-munion itself, and the gift of the Savior's body. Then comes offering. Once we have owned that all is the Father's sift there is the wish to.°ffer Him all in re-turn. The total offering that Christ makes in the Mass entails a total offering by the communicant. Thus'Com-munion prepares the soul for the sacrifices of the day ahead those sacrifices 3vhich are the effective seal of what has been offered at Mass. If it is possible to foresee certain sacrifices, it may be desirable to offer them in advance during the thanksgiving; thus the Christian will be helped to accept them in the right spirit when they come, a spirit of intimate union with Christ and the love which was carried to love's extreme limit. Thanksgiving gives the soul the opportuniiyto adopt an ideal attitude of gener-osity Which it will ~try to maintain when the difficult mo-ments do in fact arise. We should also-mention confidence and joy. Christ present in the soul is the glorious Christ, and his sacrifice was consummated in the triumph of the Resurrection. The thanksgiving should strengthen confidence in the victory the Savior h~is won, both in Himself and in others, and in such a way that the communicant is able to face more firmly obstacles to his personaFreligious life and apostolate. There should also be a renewal of spiritual joy. Coming from Communion the Christian should have a heart filled with enthusiasm and be manifestly happy, for he has just welcomed the triumphant Christ. Neither should prayer of petition be forgotten. The sacrifice of the Mass is celebrated in order to spread divine graces more abundantly upon men. The communicant ought to unite himself with the salvific will of God which, in Christ, inspires sacrifice. With the Savior he should de-sire the expansion and progress of His Kingdom; he will become more and more one. w~th the intima~t,e~desires of Christ in proportion as he makes his own the great inten-tions of the Church and asks for their fulfillment. At the same time the communicant entrusts his own private in-tentions to Christ, intentions that represent his own share of responsibility in the advancement of the Kingdom. He will take advantage of the Savior's presence in order to express his desires and hopes and to obtain their satisfac-tion. Finally, among those dispositions which we may expect the thanksgiving to develop is fraternal charity, that love of one's neighbor of which Christ's sacrifice is the perfect and extreme form. Ever since St. Paul the Church has loqked upon Holy Communion as the most powerful sac-ramental bond linking Christians, the artificer par excel-lence of the unity of the Mystical Body. Thanksgiving should contribute to the flowering of charity, both of that direct charity which concerns the people with whom daily life brings, us into contact, as well as 6f that more ample charity which goes out to the furthermost confines of the whole Mystical Body, and which is marked by a special goodwill towards our separated brethren. Such, then, are the essential dispositions which thanks-giving should develop. One could add others, or further stress certain aspects of those which we have mentioned. With Father Rahner we say .that all that is really pious may find its place in the thanksgiving, all that touches the heart of the communicant, his cares and his intentions. For the point is that thanksgiving may be seen as a kind of r~sum~ of Christian piety, of which it is the richest and most complete moment. In thanksgiving participa-tion in the sacrifice of the Mass~ reaches its peak, just as does union with the Savior's person. All the diverse, inti-mate attitudes of a man before God may therefore here be manifested in the deepest and most concrete fashion, with a most sincere personal impulse. Thanksgiving A]t~r Holy ommunion VOLUME 20, .1961 I~MILE BERGH, S.J. The Communicant's Our Father ÷ ÷ + The Reverend ~mile Bergh, S.J. is editor of Revue des Commu-naut~ s Religieuses and Professor of Canon Law at Coll~ge Saint-Albert, Eegenhoven - Louvain, Belgium. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 34 The Lord's Prayer expresses perfectly the-dispositions which should be found in the Christian who participates integrally in the H01y Sacrifice by sacramental Com-munion. It is certainly proper to think that at the mo-ment when our Lord actualizes in us in a special way His work~of salvation, He teaches us by His Spirit the prayer of redeemed sons. Le~ us then respond to this grace. Father! We are to call You by this name because Your Son, present in us, communicates to us His" divine life. May His Spirit make us taste Your paternal love. Our Father! We all form but one body, we who h~ive partaken of the same bread. In Christ we encounter all of Your sons. We will be always more brotherly toward them. We pray to You especially for our brothers, sep- "arated Christians, that they may participate ih our Eu, charist in the only Church of Christ. Who art in heaven! We believe firml~ that we have re-ceived the bread come down from heaven. Grant, our Father, that we may live close to You in spirit in the so-ciety of~the angels and saintS. Hallowed be thy name! The Eucharistic offering gives You perfect glory. YoUr holiness, Your power, Your love, all Youi attributes proclaim themselves in this mystery. W~ Unite our adoration to the Holy, holy, holy of the angels. We render You all honor and glory through Your beloved Son. Thy Kingdom come! Grant that from the rising of the sun to the going down thereof all people will offer this purest sacrifice to You, so that the entire universe may submit to the sweet yoke of the Lord Jesus. May His reign of truth and of life, of holiness and grace, of justice, of love, and peace extend itself by means of the Eucharist to all nations. Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven! To receive communion is to participate in the obedience of Your Son. In everything He has done that which was pleasing to You. We give ourselves over to His will as He has given himself over to Yours for us. Make us, by the Spirit of Jesus, faithful and loving, patient and resigned. So 'the world will believe that You are Love, and the fiat of ~he earth.will echo the Amen i~f heaven. ~ . ~ Give us thi~ day 9ur daily bread! After the gift ~which You have just given us, the bread of eternal-life, can we doubt for a moment your Providence and not wait to re-ceive from it all the help for which our misery has need? Give us each day the bread of heaven. Give it to us in our last hour. Give it to all suffering humanity, for it is the guarantee of eternal happiness. Forgive us our. trespasses! By the ~mystery of the Re-demption, ~,hic.h has just renewed itself.,~f~ "us, by the power of the Body~and the Blood of Jesus, our Savior, purify us of our faults; give us deep contrition for them, pen~etrated with love and~fihal confidence. .~ As we forgive those who trespass against us! On the altar as at Calvary You pardon Your enemies. You have desired that we should reconcile ourselves Witti one another be-fore presenting our offering. Teach~ us to imitate You~ mercy w.hmh ng~ther judges ngr condemns, but pardons without tiring. By the charity which we draw from the Heart of Your Son may we be everywhere and always artisans of peace and union. Lead us not into tempthtion! We-ha~e been made mem-bers of Your Divine Son. Do not l~t us profane His most holy Body. We ate threatened on eve~ sid6,.,f0'r w'e are feeble and inconstant, imprudent and (owardl~. Welean solely on His strength and His 'love. YoUr S6.n could not be very powerful, were He unable to support U.S from one day to the next. But deliver us from evil! For one who has understood what Communion i~, tl~ere is but one evil" on earth: to lose or allow to grow cold by s~in the friendship of God. Deliver us from sin and fronl everythin~g-which leads to sin. Deliver poor. sinners fr6m their slavery.~ Amen! It is Your love which, after halving invented the marvels of the Incarnation" and the Redemption,. has crowned their magnificence with the ~ystery of the Eu-charist. We believe in-and w~ will always believe even more in Your charity. The Communicant's Our Father VOLUME 20, 1961~ MICHAEL NOVAK Saint East and West ÷ ÷ ÷ Mr. Michael Novak, a well known writer on various subjects, is cur-rently studying for a graduate degree in ~unhiivleorssoitpyh.y at Harvard REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS In these days of the re-unifying of East and West, the great John Chrysostom stands as a long-ago figure to whom both sides already turn with reverence and love. The Bishop John (3't47-~07) won the hearts of his people so wholly by his gifts of spirit and of tongue that they could not refrain from calling him as by a proper name: John of the Mouth of Gold. The saint and bishop is a crucial figure for the understanding of the meaning of the East. For he was Bishop of Constantinople in the time in which it was beginning to exert its power as the new center of the East. At the time of Nicaea in Byzantium was still inconsiderable. To the cultured world, it meant little save as the recent choice of Con-stantine for his eastern headquaiters. To the Church, it was again inconsiderable, compared to the great sees of An tioch and Alexandria which, with Rome, formed the triangle of influence in the first three centuries of Chris-tianity. But by ~81, at the second ecumenical council, Constantinople had squared the triangle by becoming the third great patriarchate of the East, and had in fact shouldered out her Eastern rivals to take second rank to Rome alone. Rome and Constantinople: two instead of four. The Emperors, of course, both of East~ and West, would be sympathetic to such centralization.' Magistrates and bishops, these were the focal points of leadership among the people (not as in our own day, when com-munications leaders, unions,, vocal professional classes, and so on, offer other focal points of leadership). To have the bishops aligned with the magistrates was then the simple key to unity and civil peace. To have one 'bishop in authority in each half of the Empire was to limit to two the locks in which to turn the key. In ~98, when St. John was raised to the patriarchal throne of Constan-tinople, the system was beginning to manifest what would be its classic workings. John Chrysostom had been ordained a priest and had been preaching at Antioch for a dozen years when he was kidnapped and borne away to Constantinople. He was kidnapped, so that neither he nor the people could . successfully protest--there was vigor and imagination to actualize cabinet decisions in those old days. How did John react to the outrage? There was no escaping the sit-uation. For the glory of God he set his hand to" the task with courage, then with joy: ., ~.' ~" Cardinal Newman's famous essay gives us perhaps the best image of this man Chrysostom, for whom the Car-dinal felt one of the most intimate ties among all the men of history. Why was John a great orator? Because he spoke in the measures of Cicero? to the public weal like Demosthenes? mystically like the ardent Origen? as a witness of the faith like Athanasius? s~,eepingly and cre-atively like the grei~t~Augtistine? humanly and commonly upon the Bible like the Antiocheans among whom he was trained? No, says Newman, he won the greatest ac-colade of any human orator because of his closeness to his people's heart. He spoke for them, adapted all his talent and his heart to their needs and characters. ~They crowded one another to hear him. He defended them. He loved them. Against those who plotted against him, the high in Church and Empire, the people were his strength: not at all because he was a demagogue, but be-cause he was a shepherd who knew his Own, whose own knew him. His greatest characteristic, the secret inner x~ord of his life, Cardinal Newman conceives, was his "intimate ~ym-pathy and compassionateness for the whole world,~ not only in its strength but in its weaknesses." His singular mark is "the interest he takes in all things, not so far as God has made them all alike, but as he has made them different from each other., the discriminating affection-ateness with which he accepts everyone for what is per-sonal in him and ianlike others., his versatile recogni-tion of men, one by one, for the sake of that portion of good, be it more or less, of a lower,order or a higher~ which has severally been lodged in them., the kindly spirit and-the genial temper with which he looks round at all things which this wonderful world contains." Out of such love, Chrysostom could approach his peo-ple with balm and sweetness evefi when ~he chastised. He hated and feared only sin; he was willing to die over and over for his people; he told them that. His own life was active and abstemious to infective measure. He did chas-tise; he made enemies. Impulsive and courageous both, he was not cautious with that talent of his: he spoke. The people loved him mightily for his courage and his single-ness. "His friends loved him with a love stronger than death, and more burning than hell; and it was well to be so hated, if he was so belovedT' When Theophilus, the Patriarch of Alexandria, enviously contrived with the of-fended Empress Eudoxia to exile John in 403, the first ÷ ÷ ÷ Saint ot East and West VOLUME 20, 1961 4. + 4. Michael Novak REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 38 exile, John could not be cautious even while his fate hung in the balance. He preached with great fervor to his people: "Christ is with me; what then have I to fear? . Already you are even more earnest than before. And when tomorrow you go out singing the litanies I shall be with you, for where you are, there also am I, and where I am there are you. Though separated in space we shall ever be one in spirit, for we form one body and it cannot be separated from its head . I am ready to give my life ten thousand times over for you . You have watched many days and nothing has moved you from your pur-pose. You have not been weakened by threats or by long-drawn- out waiting--you have done what I have always been w~anting you to do: set earthly things at naught, turned your backs on this world, risen above the slavery of the body. That is my crown, my consolation, my anoint-ing, my token of immortalityl" 1 Thus was John's union with his peop!e. His affection-ate heart poured out toward each of them, and they re-sponded. By a ruse, at the time of his second exile, he called for his riding mule at one side of the cathedral, then slipped out the other, lest the gathering crowds riot against the Imperial troops who led him off: John always thought of the people. In exile, too, on the far eastern shores of the Empire "in the loneliest spot on earth," John thought of them. He wrote them hundreds of letters, asking of their health, consoling, chiding, directing, beg-ging money for new missionary needs which he had come upon in his travels. John's first trait was compassion. His second was sanguinity: never have I had it so good, he writes shortly after he had nearly died, this frail man in his sixties, in toilsome travel; the cool air, the leisure, the care heaped on me have refreshed me. "My health was never better." His third characteristic was courage and impetuositymtogether with his goodness, these brought him to his exile and his martyrdom. To understand the malice and passion that could have moved Christians to send so good a shepherd to exile and to death, we must reflect on many aspects of the Chris-tianity and of~ the world in John's time. The peoples around the blue Mediterranean were now Christians only three hundred years or, much more accurately, only for two or three generations. The perfection of holiness, the expression in manners and institutions of the love and justice of the Lord, had hardly had time to be explored even mentally, f.ar less sink deeply by habit into the tissue and fibre of society. Elementary passions were fierce. Ways and means were direct. Monks--those whom Christianity might be suppo.sed most thoroughly to have transformed 1 Donald Attwater, St. John Chrysostom: The Voice of Gold (Mil-waukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1939), p. 126. II were known in several places to have torn enemies limb from limb with bare hands; their riots at Alexandria were a terror. The soldiers guarding Chrysostom at Caesarea risked murder and enslavement at the hands of Isaurian barbarians rather than face the mob of monks "Who de-manded that Chrysostom leave the' city. As f6~ tl~*hier-archy, Chrysostom-said he feared nothing as he feared the Bishops. Treachery that led to flogging, tearing with hooks, burning with torches as happened to one of Chrysostom's deacons, a gentle youngster runs through the history of this time as bright scarlet and yellow thread. We must understand the wildness of the. times, and the fierceness of even tl~e next many. centuries, if we are to understand the play of human passion ;ind barbarity upon which Christianity is called to ~zork. Violeni" im-pulses, cruel machiriations, fierce self-int~rest, still rhn rampant in ourselves; but we must make an effort to re-call the times when society itself more directly expressed thes~ evil movements, less effectively neutralized and hid them. Civil magistrates and ecclesiastics may not in the main be hny holier now than heretofore, but political forms, canon law, the persistent suasion of civilized con-ventions prevent their being as violent in their evils as once upon a time save where the primitive passions arise again under the ifnpulse of marching boots and songs and shouts. ~3nce this backdrop of primitive violence is set, still another note in Chrysostom's situation must be recalled. It is this. The glory of European_ civilization was in the fourth century pivoted not yet on Europe proper but still on Alexandria and Antioch and old Byzantium. The East bore the glory of human history. Greek was the great language of the Empire. Christ had come in the East. Greek philosophy was reborn in Origen, Plotinus, Por-phyry. The great councils of the Church were Eastern councils. The Near East flourished with libraries, splen-did cities, the roads and methods taught and fostered by the earlier Romans. The deserts of Egypt and the fast-nesses of Cappadocia and Caesarea heard in th~ still crystal nights the prayers of Eastern monks. Augustine was only now bringing glory to the Latin tongue; Benedict was not yet shifting the pivot of spiritual energy from Egypt to Subiaco. Western Europe was only now b~ing conceived: the East would bring her forth. In the violence of local jealousies and entanglements with the state, Chrysostom, the light of the East, could appeal to Innocent of Rome. The Pope and he could find solace in one another's reverence and love. East and West were not yet fighting against themselves, as mother against her daughter, as land blessed by the presence Of Christ against land chosen as the humble seat of Christian leader-÷ ÷ ÷ Saint o] East and West VOLUME 20, 1q61 ÷ ÷ ÷ Michael Novai~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 40 ship. Chrysostom appealed to Innocent; Innocent replied with love. But Innocent's powerlessness foreshadowed the doom that'was to come, as the torture and dispersal of his emissaries foreshadowed other injuries of each side upon the other in the centuries to come. These were still prom-ising times, at the end of the fourth century. Chrysostom's fame went around the world; Africa and Italy shared the suspense and pain of his exile, and waited upon his let.° ters. These were among the last generations of unity of sentiment between East and West. Like the mysterious column of flame that leapt up in the night from Chrys-ostom's pulpit and burnt his cathedral to the ground, as he took ship never to see Byzantium again, so the glory of the East was to feel the flame and fire of centuries of strife, long separation, and continued misunderstanding. Why was Chrysostom sent into exile? When he came to Constantinople as Patriarch, he had begun, as Donald Attwater says, to sweep the stairs from the top. He re-buked, encouraged, disciplined, set the example for his clergy. He spoke courageously against the rich, on behalf of the poor for justice' sake, on behalf of Christ for humility's and charity's sake. He rebuked vanities and thoughtless injustices. He spoke plainly to the Empress and her court. At a crucial moment he dared to speak impulsively of the vanity of wealthy women of the court, perhaps even deliberately to ring out adoxia (disreputa-ble) to suggest Eudoxia (the Empress). Theophilus of Alexandria had had little difficulty setting enemies in motion concertedly against him. Exiled once, brought back in glory shortly--in a harbor crowded as a city square, to shouts, to joy--he was soon exiled again, de-finitively. The reasons hardly mattered. Enemies he had. Richly slippered toes he had trampled on. The ardent affection of the people could not prevent the outcome. Why was Chrysostom sent into exile? It was not only for the reasons of state, the trumped-up charges, then the consequent intrigues, the pressures, the Imperial com-mands to make the charges stick. These were trivial, dispensable. If it had .not been these, it would have been others. Good men must be broken. This is the law of Christianity. Chrysostom understood it, explicitly. Chrysostom's great natural gift was his unequalled heart-enflaming tongue; by all the laws of Christianity, his tongue would have to be silenced. Chrysostom had to be sent into exile, to the 'farthest parts of the Empire, so that God's grace might work where he had worked be-fore, Silent now in tongue, his letters live for ages--letters exile forced on him. Chrysostom grasped the fact that the kingdom Christ came to bring has laws for its inner life which set history topsy-turvy. A historian seeing the incredible malice, jealously, and ferocity of religious leaders in these times might marvel, with contempt, that Christianity could achieve so little fruit, even~,among her own.W, i~.t~',hier-archy, favor, churches, energies,~Christianity seems to do so lattle, for all 1.ts lovely wor~ls, to give the race-new hfe. But Christianity is not hierarchy or social acceptability. It is not monasteries or many vocations or crowds in church. All these did not prevent, they caused, the tor-ture of Chrysostom to death. Christianity is sacrificial love. Christian life is sacrificed life. Hence persecutions must come. If they do not come from those outside Chris-tendom, they must come from the corruption or limita-tions in the organization itself. Indeed, saint will perse-cute saint°as St. Jerome and St. Epiphanius joined Chrysostom's enemies; as good Cardinal Manning and khe saintly Newman could hardly bear each other's com-pany without severe constraint. Sacrificial love is the in-ner life of the Church. All the turmoil at Constantinople --jealousy, scheming, lying, banishment, and torture for those who would not w6rship with the false successors-- all this was necessary to make the inner life of Constan-tinople's faithful fructify. Christianity simply cannot live without suffering. External standards and measurements have got, at times, to be set at odds. Only so can con-sciences be proved truly mature, strong, brave, bold, in the darkness of faith and selflessness. "There is no need to remind you, the teacher and shepherd of a great flock," wrote Pope Innocent to Chrysostom, "that everywhere and always good men are put to the test of meeting with injustice and evil . Rest securely then in your good conscience, honored brother, for that is the strength of all good men in the hour of~affliction." "Do not be scan-dalized," John wrote to Olympias, recalling the ~candal of the Incarnation and of all the Scriptures; "remember that things even more distressing happened in the days of the Apostles." Though disunity and injustice racked his see, though true Christians were driven from the churches while the cowardly or the vicious pretended to worship there, though he himself was driven ever further into exile, forced to travel and again to travel (an attempt by his enemies to murder him by physical exhaustion), still Chrysostom could die with his favorite phrase upon his golden lips: "Glory be to God. Amen." Chrysostom un-derstood Christian love. "Be true to yourself and no one can harm you," he wrote in a last short treatise which he sent Olympias. Conscience is the dwelling place of Chris-tianity, and sacrificial love is the life of conscience not duty, or conformity, or complacency, or obligation, or law. Purified will, enamored of persons, and a Person. Hierarchy, canon law, even the Holy Mass itself, the sacra-÷ ÷ ÷ Saint oI East and West VOLUME 20, 1961 41 ments these are but means. They are some of them in-dispensable means, to be sure, given by Christ. But the accent may as accurately be On means as on indispensable. The law is love. The Way is love. The fruit is love. And love means sooner or later darkness, trial, and suffering. If East and West are separate since the tiine of John, it is because all kinds of considerations have got the better of sacrificial love. Historically polemic has been preju-diced and fruitless, each side preferring personal empha-ses to self-sacrificial views of truth. Why do Roman Cath-olics in practice if not in theory, exaggerate the legalisms of the external Church out of all proportion to their Christ-given role? Because these aspects have been under severe attack for many centuries and, knowing their value, these people have not got accustomed to seeing their limitation they are means, not the goal. Why do Easterners resist the effort of unity? Because they do not wish to forfeit centuries of tradition by a too humiliating capi~tulation to Western points of view. There are count-less 6ther reasons: none of them are insuperable, save through lack of charity. The inner dynamism of Chris-tianity is toward unity. Disunity makes for inner anguish; quarrelling causes our intensest pain; selfishness and ac-cusation make witnesses "cry out to the Lord for mercy and for aid. Just so, the scandal of disunity is our trial and darkness. The inner life of the Church is Sacrificial love. That is why the first need of East and West, when we speak of unity, is to focus our eyes with mutual regard on men as lovable as St. John Chrysostom, pride of the East and of the universal Church. Our longing hhs got to be the same as his: to be consumed, like John of the Mouth of Gold, in thq paradoxical, interior ways of the Lord's love. Michael Nov~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 42 R. F. SMITH, S. J. Documents The documents wh.ich appeared in, Acta Apostolicae Se, d~s I(AAS) during August and September, 1960, will be summarized in this article. Throughout the article all page references will be to the 1960 AAS (v. 52). New Breviary and Mass Rubrics By the apostolic letter motu propriO, Rubricarum in-structum, of July 25, 1960 (pp. 593-95), Pope John XXIII announced a new code of rubrics for the Roman Breviary arid Missal and decreed the revocation of all statutes, indults, and customs contrary to the new code. On the following day, July 26, 1960 (p. 596), the Sacred Congre-gation of Rites duly promulgated the new code of rubrics and directed that their observance be begun on January 1, 1961. The new code~ is a long document of one hundred and forty-four pages (pp. 597-740) and is divided into three parts which deal consecutively with general rubrics, rubrics of the Roman Breviary, hnd rubrics of the Roman Missal. "° General Rubrics Part One of the new code, entitled "General Rubrics," ¯ consists of nineteen chapters. The first of these chapters notes that the document is intended only for the Roman Rite. Chapter Two defines the mean.ing of liturgical days and rules that all such~days are now to be divided into first-, second-, third-, and fourth-class liturgical days. Chapter Three divides all Sundays into first- and sec-ond- class groups. First-class Sundays are the Sundays of Adveht, Lent, and Passiontide, Easter, Low Sunday, and Pentecost; all other Sundays are.second,class ones. First-class Sundays take precedence over all feasts with the ex, ception of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. A second-class Sunday outranks a second-class feast and, when it occurs on November 2, displaces All Souls' Day. However, first- and second-class feasts of our Lord, ~when 4. 4. Survey oy Roman Documents VOLUME'20, 1961 R. F. Smith, $. ]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS they occur on a second-class Sunday, take over the place as well as all the rights and privileges of the Sunday; in such cases accordingly no commemoration is made of the Sunday. Ferials, Vigils, Feasts Chapter Four defines ferials as days of the week other than Sundays and divides them into four classes. First-class ferials are Ash Wednesday and the ferial days of Holy Week; all these ferials take precedence over all feast days and admit no commemoration except a privi-leged one. Second-class ferials are the Advent ferials from December 17 to December 23 and the Ember Days of Advent, Lent, and September. These ferials outrank sec-ond- class feasts and must be commemorated when out-ranked. Third-class ferials are all the other ferials of Advent, Lent, and Passiontide. Third-class Lenten and Passiontide ferials outrank third-class feasts, but third-class Advent ferials yield to such feasts. All third-class ferials, however, must be commemorated when out-ranked. All other ferials of the year are fourth-class ones and receive no commemoration when outranked. Vigils are divided in Chapter Five into three classes. The two first-class vigils, those of Christmas and Pente-cost, take precedence over all feast days; and the Vigil of Christmas, when necessary, takes the place of the Fourth Sunday of Advent. Second-class vigils, those of the Ascen-sion, of the Assumption, of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist, and of Sts. Peter and Paul, outrank third- and fourth-class liturgical days; the only third-class vigil, that of St. Lawrence, is preferred tO fourth-class liturgical days. Both second- and third-class vigils, when impeded, are commemorated according to the rubrics governing such matters; these vigils, however, are omitted if they fall on a Sunday or a first-class feast or if their feast day is transferred or reduced to a commemoration. Chapter Six groups feast days into first-, second-, and third-clvss feasts. Only first-class°feasts have First Vespers; however, second-class feasts of our Lord have First Vespers whenever they replace a second-class Sunday. The rest of this chapter is concerned chiefly with those feasts which the law now requires to be inserted into particular cal-endars drawn up for the use of dioceses or of religious orders and congregations. Chapter Seven r~tains only three octaves, those of Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost. The octaves of Easter and Pentecost are first-class ones; that is, all the days of these octaves are first-class. The Christmas octave is a second-class one; the days within the octave are second-class, but its Octave Day is a first-class day. Chapter Eight lists the various seasons of the ecclesi- astical year, while Chapter Nine provides for the Saturday Office of our Lady. Chapter Ten considers the Major and Minor Litanies; it notes that, those bound to the Office no longer need to say th'e' ~itany of the Saints on the Rogation Days; it Mso giv~'sq6~al ordinaries ~he ~I56wer to transfer the Rogation Days from their usual place to three other successive days at a more appropriate time. Precedence of Liturgical Days Chapter Eleven gives a breakdown of the days of the ecclesiastical year into the four classes of liturgical days and gives the rank of precedence within each of the four classes. First-class liturgical days. include all first-class Sundays, feasts, ferials, and vigils as well as the days within the octaves of Easter and Pentecosti the Octave Day of Christmas, and All Souls' Day. Seqond,class litur-gidal days are all second-class Sundays, feasts, ferials, and vigils together with the days within the octave of Christ-mas. Third-class ferials and feasts and the one third-class vigil constitute third-class liturgical days, while fourth-class liturgical days include the Saturday Office of our Lady and fourth-class ferials. Chapter Twelve defines what is meant by the occur-rence ~of liturgical days, and the following chapter gives the rules to be followed when two or more liturgical days happen to fall on the same date. In such cases only first-class feasts may be transferred; all other feasts are either commemorated or completely omitted. Chapter Fourteen gives the procedure to be followed in the case of a per-petual occurrence of liturgical days. Chapter Fifteen reg-ulates the situation that arises when the Vespers of one liturgical day conflict with the First Vespers of the suc-ceeding day. If the days are of unequal rank, the Vespers of the higher day are to be said; but if the two days are eqtlal in rank, Second Vespers are to be said with a com-memoration of the other set of Vespers. Commemorations Chapter Sixteen divides all commemorations into priv-ileged and ordinary commemorations. Privileged com-memorations are made at Lauds and Vespers and in all Masses; ordinary commemorations on the other hand are made only at Lauds and in conventual and low Masses. Privileged commemorations are the commemorations to be made of a Sunday; of first-class liturgical days; of~ the days within the octave of Christmas; of the September Ember Days; of Advent, Lent, and Passi?ntide ferials; and of the Major Litanies (but at Mass or~ly). All other commemorations are ordinary. In Masses of first-class liturgical days and in sung non-conventual Masses, no commemoration~is to be made ex- 4. 4. 4- Survey Roman VOLUME 20, 1961 45 cept a privileged one. Second-class Sundays permit a commemoration of a second-class feast only; even this, however, is to be omitted if there is a privileged com-memoration. Other second-class liturgical days permit one commemoration, whether privileged or ordinary. Third-and fourth-class liturgical days permit only two commem-orations, Chapter Seventeen gives the conclusions to be used for the orations and commemorations of the Breviary and the Missal. Chapter Eighteen is concerned with the litur-gical colors; it gives episcopal conferences in mission" ter-ritories the power to change the liturgical colors when they are inappropriate for that particular region. Chapter Nineteen completes Part One of the document by its rubrics for Mass" and Office vestments; according to this chapter the folded chasuble and the broad stole are no longer to be used. 4- 4. ÷ R. F. Smith, S. ]. Breviary Rubrics Part Two of the new code of rubrics is entitled "Gen-eral Rubrics of the Roman Breviary." Chapter One of this part divides the recital of the Office into choral,~com-mort, and individual recital. Choral recital is that of a community obliged to choir by ecclesiastical law; common recital is that of a community (two or three persons are sufficient) not bound to choir. Chapter Two notes that the canonical hours are dis-tributed in a way intended to sanctify the natural day; nevertheless to satisfy the obligation of reciting the Of-rice it is sufficient if all the canonical hours are said in the twenty-four hour period allotted them. Matins (but not Lauds1) may be anticipated after two o'clock in the after-noon of the preceding day. In choral and common recital Lauds should be recited in the early morning and Ves-pers, even during Lent and Passiontide, in the afternoon. The same p.ractice is recommended for private recital. Compline is fittingly made the last prayer of the day, even though Matins of the following day have been antici-pated. When Compline is made the last prayer of the day m choral and common recital, the Pater noster is omitted, its place being taken by an examination of conscience ~of reasonable length; the Confiteor and the rest of Compline are then.recited. All of this is also recommended .for indi-vidual recital. Chapter Three then discusses the calendar to be followed by those bound to the Office. Chapter Four begins by listing three types of Matins. .The first type, consisting of three Nocturns, that is, nine Psalms and nine Lessons, is used on first- and second-class REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS lit is probable that in private recitation Lauds may still be 46 anticipated. feasts, on the lfist three days of Hply Week, on the Octave Day of Christmas, and on All Souls' Day. The second type consists of a single Nocturn of nine Psalms and three Lessons; it is Used on all Sundays except Easter and Pente-cost, on all ferials except the'q~t three days of Holy Week, on vigils, on third-class feasts; on'the days within the octave of Christmas, and at-the Saturday Office of our Lady. The [hird type of Mating, used only on Easter and Pentecost and throughout their octaves 'if composed of a single Nocturn of three P~Alms find three Lessons. The chapter continues by" considering th~ five kinds of Offices which are now ~6 b~ used in the recital of the Breviary. "I:l{e Sunday Officd i~xcluding th6 Office°for Easter, Pentecost, and the Sunday within the oc'tave of Christmas) is largely the same as formerlywith the excep-tion of Matins. At Matins are recited the nine Sunday Psalms, then the absolution Exaudi; the Blessings to be used are Ille nos, Divinum ~iuxilium, and Per 'evangelica dicta. The First Lesson is the same as the former First. Leg-son of the day's Scripture; the gecond~ Lesson is formed'by u~iting the former Second and Third Lessons of the Scripture; and the Third Lessoh ig the First Lesson of the Homily, that is, the former Seventh Lesson. The festive Office is used for all first-class feasts and is said in the same wgy as an~ Office of a double of the first clasg was formerly said. The semi-festive Office, used for second-class feagts, is said in the same°way that Offices of doubles of the sdcofid clasg'have been~recited since 1~55. The ordinary Office, that uged on third-class feasts and for the Satm'day Office of oui'Lady, is recited like the former simple Office except for s6me changes in the Les-sons. The First Lesson is the former First Lesson of the day's Scripture, the Second Lesson is formed by uniting the former Second and Third Lessons of the Scripture, and the Third Les~on is of'the feast. This Third Lesson is obtained by using the "contracted life of the saint_ in the former Office; or, failing that, by.~om.bining the Fourth~ Fifth, and Sixth I~ssons of the former'prope.r Office of the feast; br finally, if .t.~ae feast has no Proper, by using the former Fourth Lesson of the Common. The ferial Office, used on all fer'ials and vigils except the last three days o.f Holy"Week and the Vigil of Christmas, is like the former ferial Office with Lessons either of the H~omi!y or of t~e day's Scripture. The Dil~eren.t Parts o['~the .OOice ,, ,.+,. Chapter Five, which legislates for the various parts of the Office, makes several changes which "can be-noted here. All Hymns of the Office have only the conclusion given in the Breviary, all changes~ of the conclusion by reason of feast or season being now excluded. The com-plete Antiphon is always to be said in its entirety both ÷ Survey o~ ~ Roman Documents ;=VOLUME 20, 1961 ÷ ÷ R. F. Smith, S. ]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS d8 before and after the Psalms and Canticles of all the canonical hours. The Responsoria of Offices with three Nocturns are to be taken from the Proper or the Common as previously. In the.Sunday Office, however, the first Responsorium will be the one given after the former First Lesson; the second will'be that given after the former Third Scripture Lesson; and the third, when needed, will be the Responsorium formerly recited after the Third Lesson of the Homily. In ordinary Offices with Lessons taken from the day's Scripture, the first Responsorium will be that used after the former First Lesson, while the second will be that formerly used after the Third Scrip-ture Lesson. Ordinary Offices with proper Scripture Les-sons will use proper or o~dinary Responsoria in the° same order as given in the previous kind of ordinary Office. At Prime the Capitulum will always be Regi saecu-lorum and the Lectio Brevis is always to be the seasonal one. In private recital of the Office and when the Office is recited by those who are not deacons, the prayer or oration of the Office is to be preceded-by Domine, exaudi orationem meam with its response in place of Dominus vobiscum and its response. Preces feriales are to be said at Lauds and Vespers of the ferial Office on Wednesdays and Fridays of Advent, Lent, Passiontide, and the Sep-tember Ember Week. They are also to be said at Lauds on Ember Saturdays except on the Saturday within the octave of Pentecost. Chapter Six gives the directions for making the sign of the cross and for bodily posture during the choral and common recital of the Office. It is recommended that the regulations for the sign of the cross be followed also in individual recital.° Mass Rubrics Part Three of the new c~de of rubrics is called "General Rubrics of the Roman Missal." Chapter One gives some ¯ basic notions of the various kinds of Masses and notes that the phrase "private Mass'" should be avoided, since the Mass by its nature is always and everywhere an act of public worship. Chapter Two then considers the calendar to be followed in the celebration of Mass. Chapter Three siates that the conventual Mass, except on fourth-class ferials, must comform to the Office of the day and should be ff solemn Mass, or at least a high Mass. This chapter prohibits the chanting.of the Divine Office during the conventual Mass. Chapter Four is' con-cerned with Sunday and ferial.Masses, while Chapter Five discusses the Mass for feast days. This latter chapter al-lows a priest celebrating a non-conventual Mass to choose a proper Mass for a given feast from the section "for cer-tain places" rather than use a Mass formula from the Common. And in the case of non-conventual Masses, any of the Mass formulas in the correct category of the Com-mon may be used when there is no proper Mass for the feast. Votive Masses "' '" ~' Chapter Six, which deals with votive Masses, begins by general remarks on the subject. It permits all Masses of universal feasts of the Blessed Virgin to be used as votive Masses, excluding, however, Masses of the mysteries of hbr life with the exception of the Immaculate Concep-tion. Sequences are to be omitted in votive Masses and vestment colors should fit in with the votive Mass chosen. In the case of low, non-conventual votive Masses of the fourth class, however, the color of the Office of the day may be used; violet and black, however, are always to be used when demanded by the votive Mass chosen. The chapter then divides votive Masses into four classes. First-class votive Masses, which are those permitted on all litu

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Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; The world population growth and its derived demands encourage the search and commissioning of eco-friendly, sustainable and long-lasting resources. In this regard, the field of Materials Science and Engineering is committed to the investigation and production of materials able to withstand harsh operating conditions without compromising the environment or their nominal properties. These severe working scenarios – such as high temperature, wear or corrosive applications – fit in different sectors, like power generation (fusion nuclear reactors), mining or aeronautics. A broad branch of this type of materials correspond to hardmetals or cemented carbides, metal-ceramic composites comprised by a predominant net of tungsten carbide (WC) particles embedded in a cobalt (Co) binder. This combination has been strongly rooted to the industry due to its outstanding properties, especially regarding hardness and toughness, two valuable properties in the niche of cutting tools. However, the relatively recent inclusion of W and Co in European and American critical raw materials and toxicity lists – REACH and NTP – have driven the study of alternative materials. In this sense, there exist two approaches: the partial or total substitution of Co, and seeking for a WC competitor as ceramic phase. With respect to the binder phase, iron (Fe) based alloys have proven to be excellent candidates as Co substitutes. Moreover, the addition of alloys such as chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) or aluminium (Al) has demonstrated to improve oxidation and corrosion resistance of these materials, among other properties. Concerning the substitution of the ceramic phase, materials based in titanium carbonitride – Ti(C,N) –, also referred to as cermets, have arisen as very promising options, on the basis of providing advantages like high wear resistance or chemical stability. The combination of both strategies implies a challenge, but also the most sustainable option. In this regard, Ti(C,N)-Fe15Ni cermets have attained dense samples with a homogeneous microstructure, evidencing excellent metal-ceramic wettability. Moreover, the development of a core-rim structure in the carbide has been avoided, thus approaching the biphasic configuration of hardmetals. The present thesis has continued with this investigation line, proposing a flexible and systematic methodology with which to ease the task of designing and producing alternative hard materials. This method integrates the tools for thermodynamic simulation, validation and experimental processing. The inclusion of new alloying elements – Cr and Al – and different compositions have been evaluated, comparing the roles of WC and Ti(C,N). Furthermore, the effects exerted by the processing route have been carefully assessed, as the final properties of the material greatly depend on this decisive parameter. These attributes are also influenced by the final microstructure which, at the same time, is affected by the processing step or material composition, as well as other factors. This synergy among parameters and the characterisation of their effects on the material have enabled to attain an optimum combination of composition, microstructure and mechanical properties. Materials have been characterised in terms of their density, final composition – X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction at room/high temperature – microstructure, magnetic properties, corrosion resistance or mechanical properties, among other techniques. With respect to their mechanical evaluation, it is worth highlighting the performance of massive nanoindentation analyses, with which the intrinsic hardness of each constituent phase could be extracted. ; El incremento de la población mundial y las demandas derivadas en consecuencia impulsan los esfuerzos en investigación hacia la búsqueda y puesta en servicio de recursos ecológicos, sostenibles y duraderos. En este sentido, el campo de la Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales tiene por compromiso el estudio y la producción de materiales que puedan brindar una prestación en condiciones extremas sin comprometer el medio ambiente, garantizando el mantenimiento de sus propiedades en todo momento. Estos escenarios de servicio severos – por ejemplo, alta temperatura, desgaste o trabajo en ambientes corrosivos – tienen aplicación en diversos campos, tales como la generación de energía (reactores nucleares de fusión), la minería o la aeronáutica. Una amplia rama de estos materiales corresponde a los metales duros o carburos cementados, unos materiales compuestos metal-cerámicos formados por una red predominante de partículas de carburo de wolframio (WC) embebidas en una matriz de cobalto (Co). Esta combinación ha estado fuertemente arraigada a la industria gracias a sus excelentes propiedades, sobre todo en cuanto a dureza y tenacidad, altamente valorables en el nicho de las herramientas de corte. Sin embargo, la inclusión en los últimos años del W y el Co en la lista europea de materias primas críticas y en programas toxicológicos tanto europeos como norteamericanos – REACH y NTP – han dirigido los estudios hacia la búsqueda de materiales alternativos. En este aspecto, existen dos estrategias: la sustitución parcial o total de la matriz metálica, y el cambio del WC por otra fase cerámica. Respecto a la matriz, las aleaciones base hierro (Fe) han demostrado ser claras opciones como competidoras del Co. Además, la adición de aleantes como el cromo (Cr), el níquel (Ni) o el aluminio (Al) ha manifestado una evidente mejora en cuanto a la resistencia a oxidación y corrosión de estos materiales, entre otras propiedades. En cuanto a la sustitución de la fase cerámica, los materiales basados en carbonitruro de titanio – Ti(C,N) –, también denominados cermets, se han establecido como excelentes candidatos, gracias a ventajas como su alta resistencia al desgaste o estabilidad química. La combinación de ambas estrategias supone un reto, pero también la opción más sostenible. En este sentido, los cermets Ti(C,N)-Fe15Ni han demostrado alcanzar muestras densas con microestructuras homogéneas, evidenciando una excelente mojabilidad metal-cerámica. Además, se ha evitado la evolución de una estructura de tipo core-rim en el carburo, aproximándose así a la configuración bifásica de los carburos cementados. En esta tesis se ha continuado con dicha línea de investigación, proponiendo una metodología flexible y sistemática para el diseño y producción de materiales duros alternativos con la que facilitar esta tarea. Este método aúna las herramientas de simulación termodinámica, validación y procesamiento experimental. Se ha estudiado la adición de nuevos elementos – Cr y Al – y diferentes composiciones, comparando los roles del WC y el Ti(C,N). Además, se han enfocado los esfuerzos en la evaluación de los efectos provocados por la ruta de procesamiento, un importante parámetro del que dependen en gran medida las propiedades finales del material. Al mismo tiempo, éstas también están altamente influenciadas por la microestructura final, que a su vez se ve afectada por el procesado o la composición, además de otros factores. Esta sinergia entre parámetros y la caracterización de sus efectos en el material han permitido llegar a una óptima combinación de composición, microestructura y propiedades mecánicas. Los materiales se han caracterizado en base a su densidad, composición final – espectroscopía de rayos-X y difracción de rayos-X a temperatura ambiente/alta –, microestructura, propiedades magnéticas, resistencia a corrosión o propiedades mecánicas, entre otras técnicas. Respecto a la evaluación mecánica, cabe destacar los análisis de nanoindentación masiva con los que se han extraído los valores intrínsecos de dureza de cada una de las fases constituyentes. ; This Doctoral Thesis was a collaboration between Universidad Carlos III de Madrid – Grupo de Tecnología de Polvos (GTP) – and Universidad Politècnica de Catalunya – Centro de Integridad Estructural, Fiabilidad y Micromecánica los Materiales (CIEFMA). This investigation was financed by the Spanish Government (Agencia Estatal de Investigación) through the projects MAT2015-70780-C4-P and PID2019-106631GB-C41/C43, and grant BES-2016-077340 (FPI-2016), as well as the Regional Government of Madrid through the programmes MULTIMAT-CHALLENGE – ref. S2013/MIT-2862 – and ADITIMAT – ref. S2018/NMT-4411. ; Programa de Doctorado en Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales por la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid ; Presidente: Daniele Mari.- Secretario: José Manuel Sánchez Moreno.- Vocal: Ana María de Oliveira e Rocha Seno

In the narrative territory, the fable has been established from a male conception since the foundational times of culture. Nevertheless, strong female characters (heroines) have existed from Aristófanes (Lysistrata) to the present day; Joan of Arc, the Celtic Queen Boudicca, Juana Azurduy (Argentine historical character); Mérida from "Brave", Katniss Everdeen in The Hunger Games, Khalessi in Game of Thrones; female Captain Marvel, Wonder Woman; Beatrix Kiddo from Kill Bill, Trinity in Matrix, Rey the scavenger in Star Wars (who incarnates "The Force" and stands up to the Empire). Hundreds of examples exist where we can find a structural, aesthetic and ethical change which refresh narratives and their fables. Women have advanced noticeably in every field in these past years thanks to the struggle of feminist movements. As a consequence of the permanent quest in search of their social role, and the evident failure of the patriarchal system, cracks in the social structure are appearing. The transformation powered by the Women's movements traverse the core structure of our society, making itself evident in different aspects of culture, in its more ample definition. The emergence of a new female character -a restricted role model before now- challenges the existing archetypical structures and promises changes towards a new, wider, more inclusive and diverse narrative. In the present day, empowered women's participation in all social strata is on the rise. This is true for the social, material world and is also observable in the cultural mirror through diverse artistic productions; narrative in film and television, literature, mass media and digital platforms. A democratization process of information, aesthetic and argumentative criteria appears to inaugurate -at a slow but steady pace- a new figurative view of the world. One of the more present, recognizable and active forms is the audiovisual account in which new archetypes of heroic characters, with intrinsically feminine attributes conquer the stories, the audience and box office. If for humanity storytelling has been founding of its own culture, the change in form, manner and point of view, -thus a transformation in the way we narrate- changes the historical conception and cosmovision of the world. The new fable shall not be the like the on before it, neither will it be like its opposite: it shall be a completely different conception, transversal, multidimensional, inclusive and creative. This projects aims to breach dominant ways of thinking and generate a new map in the narrative territory towards the discovery of new worlds. ; En el territorio de la narrativa, los relatos se han establecido a partir de una concepción patriarcal desde los tiempos fundacionales de la cultura. Sin embargo, las heroínas han existido desde Aristófanes (Lisistrata: La rebelión de las mujeres): personajes como Juana de Arco, la reina celta Boudicca, Juana Azurduy hasta Mérida de Valiente de PIxar, Katniss Everdeen en Los Juegos del Hambre, Khalessi o Arya de Juego de Tronos, Capitana Marvel o Mujer Maravilla, Beatrix Kiddo de Kill Bill, Trinity en Matrix, Rey la chatarrera de Star Wars que encarna "La Fuerza" y enfrenta al imperio. Así, existen cientos de ejemplos donde se observa un cambio estructural, estético y ético que aporta una nueva mirada a la narrativa. En los últimos tiempos se observa un importante avance de la mujer en distintos ámbitos sociales gracias a la potencia individual de algunas pensadoras de avanzada y a las luchas de los movimientos feministas. Como consecuencia del trabajo permanente de las mujeres y en línea directa con el fracaso del modelo patriarcal, puede verse un resquebrajamiento en las estructuras sociales, cuya epidermis ha sido cuarteada por los acontecimientos históricos. Es decir que el proceso de transformación social hacia la equidad de género atraviesa la estructura misma de nuestra sociedad, y se hace patente en los diferentes aspectos de la cultura en su definición más amplia. La aparición de un nuevo tipo de personaje femenino -hasta ahora vedado como modelopone en jaque las estructuras sociales arquetípicas existentes y se erige como una promesa de cambio para una nueva narrativa más amplia, inclusiva y diversa. Hoy día puede observarse una creciente participación de mujeres empoderadas en todos los estratos de la sociedad. Esto sucede tanto en el ámbito del mundo real como en su espejo cultural a través de las más diversas producciones del cine, la televisión, la literatura, los medios de comunicación y las plataformas digitales. Esta suerte de democratización de la información y de los criterios estéticos y argumentales inaugura de forma lenta pero segura una nueva manera de interpretar al mundo. Uno de sus aspectos más activos, reconocibles y presentes puede observarse en el relato audiovisual, en donde la aparición de nuevos modelos de mujeres heroicas, con valores intrínsecamente ligados a lo femenino e igualitario, arrasan, no sólo en el discurso sino también en las plateas y en las elecciones del público. Si para la humanidad el narrar historias ha sido fundante de sus propias culturas, el cambio de signo en la manera y forma en que se mira y por ende relata cambia el sentido de la historia, brindando una nueva cosmovisión. El nuevo relato ya no será igual al anterior ni su opuesto: será una concepción totalmente diferente, transversal, multidimensional, integradora y creativa. ; No território da narrativa, as histórias foram estabelecidas a partir de uma concepção de corte masculino desde os tempos fundacionales da cultura, no entanto têm existido desde os tempos de Aristófanes (A rebelião das mulheres), personagens como Juan de Arco, a rainha celta Boudicca, Juana Azurduy até Mérida de Brave (Valente), Katniss Everdeen nos Jogos da Fome, Khalessi de Jogo de Tronos, Capitã Marvel, a mesma Mulher Maravilha, Beatrix Kiddo de Kill Bill, Trinity em Matrix, Rei a chatarrera de Star Wars que encarna "a Força" e enfrenta ao império. Assim, existem centos de exemplos onde se observa uma mudança estrutural, estético e ético que contribui uma visão refrescante à narrativa. Nos últimos tempos observou-se um avanço extraordinário da mulher em todos os campos graças às lutas dos movimentos femininos. Como consequência de uma busca permanente das mulheres de seu papel social no mundo e em linha direta com o evidente fracasso do modelo patriarcal, pode ver-se um craqueamento nas estruturas sociais que cuja epiderme tem sido cuarteada pelos acontecimentos da história. Isto é, que o processo de transformação social impulsionado pelo feminino, atravessa a estrutura mesma de nossa sociedade, evidenciando-se nos diferentes aspectos da cultura em sua definição mais ampla. O aparecimento de um novo tipo de personagem feminina –até agora vedado como modelo- põe em xeque as estruturas arquetípicas existentes e são uma promessa de mudança para uma nova narrativa mais ampla, inclusiva e diversa. Hoje em dia pode observar-se uma crescente participação de mulheres empoderadas em todos os estratos da sociedade. Isto se dá tanto no âmbito do mundo real como em seu espelho cultural através das mais diversas produções artísticas e narrativas do cinema, a televisão, a literatura, os meios de comunicação e nas plataformas digitais. Esta sorte de democratização da informação e dos critérios estéticos e argumentales inaugura de forma lenta mas segura, uma nova forma de visualização do mundo. Uma de suas formas mais ativas, reconocibles e presentes pode observar-se em no relato audiovisual em onde o aparecimento de novos arquetipos de mulheres heroicas, com valores intrinsecamente unidos ao feminino, arrasam, não só no discurso sina nas plateias e nas eleições do público. Se para a humanidade o narrar histórias tem fundado sua própria cultura, a mudança de signo na maneira e forma em que se olha e portanto relata muda o sentido da história, e assim muda a cosmovisión do mundo. O novo relato já não será igual ao anterior nem seu oposto: será uma concepção totalmente diferente, transversal, multidimensional, integrador e criativo. Este projeto propõe-se abrir uma brecha no pensamento dominante e gerar um novo mapa para a reflexão no território da narrativa, rumo à descoberta de novos mundos.

Relevance of the study. The field of musical performance, as probably the most sensitive to the relevance of ancient art, over the last century it communicates more and more closely with the antiquity of music. "Musical archeology" personalized in art critics and performers-historians actively studies the world's musical heritage, revives on the modern stage authentic sounds in all the richness of their expression, variety of styles and forms. It is also important and justified to study the integral components of succeeding in the creation and execution of certain works, the recognition of creative personalities. It is hardly possible to find a better example in this direction than the musical theater of mature Baroque and gallant Rococo. But even in the then opera "industry" success (in the sense of mastering impeccable professional and artistic qualities, achieving a high level of demand, professional reputation, status, material well-being) was determined by a set of characteristics, among which integration into the historical context, social and political relations did not play the last role. Therefore, today it is necessary to apply a comprehensive approach to study the experience of highly professional, talented, active, and passionate artists of the late 17 — first third of the 18 century, to apply the tools hermeneutic analyze for reading their creative heritage. Main objective(s) — to reveal the historical context in which work by J. A. Hasse was created, to comprehensively consider the musical and poetic texts of the serenata "Mark'Antonio and Cleopatra" for the successful implementation of its performing reconstruction and stage production in the approach of modern Historical informed performance.Methodology based on an interdisciplinary approach at the intersection of musicology, theater studies, and historical science, using the cultural-historical method, the method of hermeneutic analysis of the text and the method of historical reconstruction, which allows us to consider the process of creating a musical-dramatic work in the unity of the subject, functional and historical aspects, expanded by in-depth analysis historical and political context.Results/findings and Conclusions. An important component of successful creativity in the field of musical theater and, more broadly, the success of works of art — the response of the audience, the ability of a piece of art to evoke empathy, a sense of belonging, and personal involvement — has been investigated. Bearing in mind the exemplary historical experience of the development and spread of Italian opera, the art of the first third of the 18 cent. was chosen as the area of study of these issues. As an example, considered one of the first works of I. A. Hasse — the serenate "Mark Antonio and Cleopatra", written and presented by him in Naples, in 1725.The musical form of the serenata is analyzed, the stylistic and genre features of its elements, which determine the musical language of the young Saxon composer, are characterized. The libretto text is considered using the tools of hermeneutic content analysis.The historical and political aspect of the life of the Kingdom of Naples in the late 17th — early 18 centuries is researched. Based on archival materials, information about the customer of the work by Carlo Carmignano and the librettist Francesco Ricciardo have been clarified. An attempt was made to the historical reconstruction of the circumstances of the composition, the details of the stage design of the performance, assumptions were made about the personalities of the audience present. The hidden content layer of a musical and dramatic work, born of its connection with the history of everyday life, cultural and political context, is discovered. The effectiveness of using the semantic potential of plots from the life of historical personalities is emphasized, their main property is revealed — the ability to allegorical personifications, symbolic artistic "gestures", disguised similarities ; Актуальность исследования. Музыкальное исполнительство как искусство, наиболее чувствительное к вопросам релевантности произведений прошлого, последние сто лет все плотнее коммуницирует со старинной музыкой. «Музыкальная археология» в лице искусствоведов и исполнителей-истористов активно изучает мировое музыкальное наследие, возрождает на современной сцене аутентичные звучания во всем их богатстве, разнообразии стилей и форм.Важным и оправданным является также изучение неотъемлемых составляющих успешности в создании и исполнении определенных сочинений, признании творческих личностей. В этом направлении вряд ли возможно найти лучший пример, чем музыкальный театр зрелого Барокко и галантного Рококо. Но даже в тогдашней оперной «индустрии» успех (в значении овладения безупречными профессиональными и артистическими качествами, достижения высокого уровня востребованности, профессиональной репутации, статуса, материального благосостояния) определялся комплексом характеристик, среди которых интегрированность в исторический контекст, общественные и политические отношения играли отнюдь не последнюю роль. Следовательно, сегодня следует использовать комплексный подход в изучении опыта высокопрофессиональных, талантливых, увлеченных своим делом художников конца XVII — первой трети XVIII века, применить инструменты герменевтического анализа для максимально полного прочтения их творческого наследия.Цель статьи — раскрыть исторический контекст, в котором создавалась серената «Марк Антонио и Клеопатра» И. А. Хассе, всесторонне рассмотреть музыкальный и поэтический текст произведения для успешной реализации его исполнительской реконструкции и сценической постановки в русле современного исторически информированного исполнительства.Методология исследования основана на междисциплинарном подходе на пересечении музыковедения, театроведения и исторической науки, с применением культурноисторического метода, метода герменевтического анализа текста и метода исторической реконструкции, что позволяет рассмотреть процесс создания музыкально-драматического произведения в единстве предметного, функционального и исторического аспектов, расширенного углубленным анализом историко-политического контекста.Основные результаты и выводы исследования. Исследована важная составляющая успешного творчества в сфере музыкального театра и, шире, успешности произведений искусства — отклик аудитории, способность художественного произведения вызвать сопереживание, ощущение причастности, персональной ангажированности. Памятуя об образцовом историческом опыте развития и распространения итальянской оперы, областью изучения указанных вопросов избрано искусство первой трети XVIII века. В качестве примера рассмотрено одно из первых сочинений И. А. Хассе — серената «Марк Антонио и Клеопатра», представленная им в Неаполе в 1725 году.Проанализирована музыкальная форма серенаты, охарактеризованы стилевые и жанровые черты её элементов, определяющие музыкальный язык молодого саксонского композитора. Текст либретто осмыслен с помощью инструментов герменевтического анализа содержания.Рассмотрен историко-политический аспект жизни Неаполитанского королевства в конце XVII — начале XVIII века. На базе архивных материалов уточнены сведения о заказчике произведения Карло Карминьяно и либреттисте Франческо Риччардо. Предпринята попытка исторической реконструкции обстоятельств сочинения, подробностей сценического оформления спектакля, высказаны предположения о персоналиях присутствовавших слушателей. Выявлен скрытый содержательный слой музыкально-драматического произведения, рожденный его связью с историей повседневности, культурным и политическим контекстом. Подчеркнута эффективность использования смыслового потенциала сюжетов из жизни исторических личностей, выявлено их главное свойство — способность к аллегорическим олицетворениям, символическим художественным «жестам», замаскированным уподоблениям. ; Розглянуто важливу складову успішної творчості у сфері музичного театру і, в широкому плані, успішності творів мистецтва — наявність відгуку аудиторії, здатність художнього твору викликати співпереживання, відчуття причетності, персональної ангажованості. Зважаючи на показовий історичний досвід розвитку та поширення італійської опери, полем для вивчення шляхів до позитивного сприйняття та затребуваності творчості в жанрах музичного театру обрано мистецтво першої третини XVIII століття. Як приклад розглянуто один із перших творів Й. А. Хассе — серенату «Марк Антоніо і Клеопатра», презентовану 1725 року в Неаполі. Проаналізовано побудову серенати, охарактеризовано її стильові та жанрові риси, що визначають музичну мову молодого саксонського композитора. Здійснено спробу історичної реконструкції обставин написання твору та подробиць сценічного оформлення вистави, зроблено припущення щодо ймовірного складу її слухачів. Текст лібрето осмислено з точки зору прихованого змістового потенціалу сюжетів із життя історичних особистостей; виявлено його головну властивість — здатність до алегоричних уособлень, символічних художніх «жестів», замаскованих уподібнень. Висвітлено історико-політичний аспект життя Неаполітанського королівства в кінці XVII — на початку XVIII століття. На базі архівних матеріалів уточнено відомості про замовника твору Карло Карміньяно (Аквавіва) та лібретиста Франческо Річчардо. Запропоновано версію подій, під впливом яких було написано серенату «Марк Антоніо і Клеопатра». Підкреслено, що успішність в сфері музичнодраматичної творчості спирається на ширші засади, ніж індивідуальні якості талантів композиторів, лібретистів, співаків, їхньої майстерності та самобутності.

Relevance of the study. The field of musical performance, as probably the most sensitive to the relevance of ancient art, over the last century it communicates more and more closely with the antiquity of music. "Musical archeology" personalized in art critics and performers-historians actively studies the world's musical heritage, revives on the modern stage authentic sounds in all the richness of their expression, variety of styles and forms. It is also important and justified to study the integral components of succeeding in the creation and execution of certain works, the recognition of creative personalities. It is hardly possible to find a better example in this direction than the musical theater of mature Baroque and gallant Rococo. But even in the then opera "industry" success (in the sense of mastering impeccable professional and artistic qualities, achieving a high level of demand, professional reputation, status, material well-being) was determined by a set of characteristics, among which integration into the historical context, social and political relations did not play the last role. Therefore, today it is necessary to apply a comprehensive approach to study the experience of highly professional, talented, active, and passionate artists of the late 17 — first third of the 18 century, to apply the tools hermeneutic analyze for reading their creative heritage. Main objective(s) — to reveal the historical context in which work by J. A. Hasse was created, to comprehensively consider the musical and poetic texts of the serenata "Mark'Antonio and Cleopatra" for the successful implementation of its performing reconstruction and stage production in the approach of modern Historical informed performance.Methodology based on an interdisciplinary approach at the intersection of musicology, theater studies, and historical science, using the cultural-historical method, the method of hermeneutic analysis of the text and the method of historical reconstruction, which allows us to consider the process of creating a musical-dramatic work in the unity of the subject, functional and historical aspects, expanded by in-depth analysis historical and political context.Results/findings and Conclusions. An important component of successful creativity in the field of musical theater and, more broadly, the success of works of art — the response of the audience, the ability of a piece of art to evoke empathy, a sense of belonging, and personal involvement — has been investigated. Bearing in mind the exemplary historical experience of the development and spread of Italian opera, the art of the first third of the 18 cent. was chosen as the area of study of these issues. As an example, considered one of the first works of I. A. Hasse — the serenate "Mark Antonio and Cleopatra", written and presented by him in Naples, in 1725.The musical form of the serenata is analyzed, the stylistic and genre features of its elements, which determine the musical language of the young Saxon composer, are characterized. The libretto text is considered using the tools of hermeneutic content analysis.The historical and political aspect of the life of the Kingdom of Naples in the late 17th — early 18 centuries is researched. Based on archival materials, information about the customer of the work by Carlo Carmignano and the librettist Francesco Ricciardo have been clarified. An attempt was made to the historical reconstruction of the circumstances of the composition, the details of the stage design of the performance, assumptions were made about the personalities of the audience present. The hidden content layer of a musical and dramatic work, born of its connection with the history of everyday life, cultural and political context, is discovered. The effectiveness of using the semantic potential of plots from the life of historical personalities is emphasized, their main property is revealed — the ability to allegorical personifications, symbolic artistic "gestures", disguised similarities ; Актуальность исследования. Музыкальное исполнительство как искусство, наиболее чувствительное к вопросам релевантности произведений прошлого, последние сто лет все плотнее коммуницирует со старинной музыкой. «Музыкальная археология» в лице искусствоведов и исполнителей-истористов активно изучает мировое музыкальное наследие, возрождает на современной сцене аутентичные звучания во всем их богатстве, разнообразии стилей и форм.Важным и оправданным является также изучение неотъемлемых составляющих успешности в создании и исполнении определенных сочинений, признании творческих личностей. В этом направлении вряд ли возможно найти лучший пример, чем музыкальный театр зрелого Барокко и галантного Рококо. Но даже в тогдашней оперной «индустрии» успех (в значении овладения безупречными профессиональными и артистическими качествами, достижения высокого уровня востребованности, профессиональной репутации, статуса, материального благосостояния) определялся комплексом характеристик, среди которых интегрированность в исторический контекст, общественные и политические отношения играли отнюдь не последнюю роль. Следовательно, сегодня следует использовать комплексный подход в изучении опыта высокопрофессиональных, талантливых, увлеченных своим делом художников конца XVII — первой трети XVIII века, применить инструменты герменевтического анализа для максимально полного прочтения их творческого наследия.Цель статьи — раскрыть исторический контекст, в котором создавалась серената «Марк Антонио и Клеопатра» И. А. Хассе, всесторонне рассмотреть музыкальный и поэтический текст произведения для успешной реализации его исполнительской реконструкции и сценической постановки в русле современного исторически информированного исполнительства.Методология исследования основана на междисциплинарном подходе на пересечении музыковедения, театроведения и исторической науки, с применением культурноисторического метода, метода герменевтического анализа текста и метода исторической реконструкции, что позволяет рассмотреть процесс создания музыкально-драматического произведения в единстве предметного, функционального и исторического аспектов, расширенного углубленным анализом историко-политического контекста.Основные результаты и выводы исследования. Исследована важная составляющая успешного творчества в сфере музыкального театра и, шире, успешности произведений искусства — отклик аудитории, способность художественного произведения вызвать сопереживание, ощущение причастности, персональной ангажированности. Памятуя об образцовом историческом опыте развития и распространения итальянской оперы, областью изучения указанных вопросов избрано искусство первой трети XVIII века. В качестве примера рассмотрено одно из первых сочинений И. А. Хассе — серената «Марк Антонио и Клеопатра», представленная им в Неаполе в 1725 году.Проанализирована музыкальная форма серенаты, охарактеризованы стилевые и жанровые черты её элементов, определяющие музыкальный язык молодого саксонского композитора. Текст либретто осмыслен с помощью инструментов герменевтического анализа содержания.Рассмотрен историко-политический аспект жизни Неаполитанского королевства в конце XVII — начале XVIII века. На базе архивных материалов уточнены сведения о заказчике произведения Карло Карминьяно и либреттисте Франческо Риччардо. Предпринята попытка исторической реконструкции обстоятельств сочинения, подробностей сценического оформления спектакля, высказаны предположения о персоналиях присутствовавших слушателей. Выявлен скрытый содержательный слой музыкально-драматического произведения, рожденный его связью с историей повседневности, культурным и политическим контекстом. Подчеркнута эффективность использования смыслового потенциала сюжетов из жизни исторических личностей, выявлено их главное свойство — способность к аллегорическим олицетворениям, символическим художественным «жестам», замаскированным уподоблениям. ; Розглянуто важливу складову успішної творчості у сфері музичного театру і, в широкому плані, успішності творів мистецтва — наявність відгуку аудиторії, здатність художнього твору викликати співпереживання, відчуття причетності, персональної ангажованості. Зважаючи на показовий історичний досвід розвитку та поширення італійської опери, полем для вивчення шляхів до позитивного сприйняття та затребуваності творчості в жанрах музичного театру обрано мистецтво першої третини XVIII століття. Як приклад розглянуто один із перших творів Й. А. Хассе — серенату «Марк Антоніо і Клеопатра», презентовану 1725 року в Неаполі. Проаналізовано побудову серенати, охарактеризовано її стильові та жанрові риси, що визначають музичну мову молодого саксонського композитора. Здійснено спробу історичної реконструкції обставин написання твору та подробиць сценічного оформлення вистави, зроблено припущення щодо ймовірного складу її слухачів. Текст лібрето осмислено з точки зору прихованого змістового потенціалу сюжетів із життя історичних особистостей; виявлено його головну властивість — здатність до алегоричних уособлень, символічних художніх «жестів», замаскованих уподібнень. Висвітлено історико-політичний аспект життя Неаполітанського королівства в кінці XVII — на початку XVIII століття. На базі архівних матеріалів уточнено відомості про замовника твору Карло Карміньяно (Аквавіва) та лібретиста Франческо Річчардо. Запропоновано версію подій, під впливом яких було написано серенату «Марк Антоніо і Клеопатра». Підкреслено, що успішність в сфері музичнодраматичної творчості спирається на ширші засади, ніж індивідуальні якості талантів композиторів, лібретистів, співаків, їхньої майстерності та самобутності.

La lecture joue un grand rôle dans le processus d'enseignement-apprentissage. Elle constitue une base solide de la formation didactique de l'apprenant pour s'adapter à la société. Il existe quatre niveaux de compréhension en lecture : littérale, inférentielle ou interprétative, critique et créative. Les habiletés de ces quatre niveaux de compréhension sont organisées selon la hiérarchie de la taxonomie de Bloom. Notre recherche portait sur le niveau de la compréhension critique en lecture : la lecture critique. À la suite d'une recension de la littérature scientifique, nous avons constaté que les recherches connues à ce jour appuient l'importance de s'intéresser à la didactique de la lecture en classe de français. Cependant, les résultats semblent peu concluants à l'égard de la lecture critique, malgré son importance. La problématique de notre recherche consiste au fait que les apprenants du Français Langue Étrangère (FLE) éprouvent des difficultés en lecture critique. Ils tendent vers une compréhension globale du texte sans chercher ni comprendre le sens implicite. D'une part, différents auteurs ont montré que les raisons de ces difficultés ne sont pas dues seulement aux étudiants eux-mêmes mais aussi aux méthodes d'enseignement non appropriées à enseigner la lecture critique en FLE. Dans le domaine de l'enseignement des langues étrangères aux locuteurs d'autres langues, certains auteurs préconisent également la didactique de la lecture critique où les enseignants ne font pas juste enseigner aux étudiants les compétences linguistiques de base ou de former leurs habiletés de communication, mais aussi le besoin de développer la conscience critique chez les apprenants qui leur permettent de poser des questions plutôt que d'accepter passivement l'information qu'ils trouvent. D'autre part, la recension a montré que l'enseignement basé sur la caricature semble motivant et amène les apprenants à réfléchir, mais que ce support didactique n'a pas été utilisé auprès d'apprenants de français, surtout au niveau universitaire. Des études ont prouvé l'efficacité de la caricature dans l'enseignement de l'histoire, les sciences et la littératie visuelle et politique. Aucune étude, d'après notre recension d'écrits, n'a porté sur la caricature en didactique de FLE. D'ailleurs c'est un domaine peu investigué. Notre recherche exploratoire voulait intégrer la caricature dans l'enseignement de la lecture critique en FLE. En définitive, notre recherche visait à répondre à la question générale suivante : Quelle est la contribution de la caricature comme support didactique au développement des habiletés de la lecture critique chez les apprenants du FLE ? De cette question découlent les questions spécifiques suivantes : 1- Quel est le rôle de la caricature comme support didactique dans le développement de la lecture critique chez les apprenants du FLE ? Et 2- quelles sont les perceptions des apprenants ciblés à l'égard de la caricature ? Pour ce faire, notre recherche a impliqué l'élaboration d'un dispositif didactique au cœur duquel figurait la caricature. Afin de recueillir les données, nous avons choisi un échantillon volontaire parmi des étudiants adultes qui apprennent le FLE, à l'Université de Sherbrooke. Notre expérimentation didactique consistait à leur faire vivre des activités de lecture critique de textes basés sur la caricature en trois séances complémentaires. Les outils de collecte de données étaient les suivants : des prétests qui précédaient chaque séance du dispositif didactique pour diagnostiquer le niveau des étudiants en lecture critique, des posttests en lecture critique qui suivaient chacune des séances, des entrevues pour identifier les perceptions et les productions des participants. Nous avons analysé l'ensemble des données. Il s'agissait d'une analyse évaluative des réponses des participants dans les pré/posttests; d'une analyse thématique du verbatim des entrevues afin d'identifier les perceptions des participants ; et d'une analyse du contenu des caricatures produites par les participants pour appuyer les résultats obtenus. Les résultats de l'analyse ont indiqué que la caricature a contribué au développement de la lecture critique chez les apprenants du FLE : grandement chez les débutants et les intermédiaires et partiellement chez les avancés. En parallèle, la caricature était positivement perçue par tous les participants. Ceux-ci ont avancé que la caricature était pour eux une expérience originale, motivante et transférable. Ces résultats combinés avec ceux des recherches antérieures dans le même domaine laissent entrevoir que la caricature comme support didactique pourrait favoriser la compréhension en lecture en général chez les apprenants adultes. ; Abstract: Reading plays an important role in the teaching / learning process. It constitutes a solid basis for the didactic training of the learner to adapt to society. There are four levels of reading comprehension: literal, inferential or interpretive, critical and creative. The skills of these four levels of understanding are organized according to the hierarchy of Bloom's taxonomy. Our research focused on the level of critical reading comprehension: critical reading. Following a review of the scientific literature, we found that the research known to date supports the importance of taking an interest in reading literacy in French. However, the results seem inconclusive with regard to critical reading, despite its importance. The problem of our research is that the learners of the French Foreign Language (FFL) have difficulties in critical reading. They tend towards a global understanding of the text without going further in the implicit sense. On the one hand, different authors have shown that the reasons for these difficulties are not only due to the students themselves but also to the teaching methods not appropriate to teach critical reading in FFL. In the field of foreign language teaching to speakers of other languages, some authors also advocate the teaching of critical reading where teachers do not just teach students basic language skills or train their communication skills, but also the need to develop critical awareness in learners that allow them to ask questions rather than passively accepting the information they find. On the other hand, the review showed that teaching based on caricature seems motivating and leads learners to think, but that this didactic support was not used with learners of French, especially at the university level. Studies have proven the effectiveness of caricature in the teaching of history, science and visual and political literacy. No study, according to our review of writings, has focused on the caricature in didactics of FFL. Besides, it is a little investigated field. Our exploratory research wanted to integrate caricature into the teaching of critical reading in FFL. As a conclusion, our research aimed to answer the following general question: What is the contribution of caricature as a didactic medium to the development of the skills of critical reading in the learners of the FFL? From this issue arise the following specific questions: 1- What is the role of caricature as a didactic medium in the development of critical reading in the learners of the FFL? And what are the perceptions of targeted learners about caricature? To do this, our research involved the development of a didactic system at the heart of which caricature was included. In order to collect the data, we chose a sample of adult learners who were studying at the University of Sherbrooke. Our didactic experimentation consisted in making them live the activities of critical reading of texts based on caricature in three complementary stages. The data collection tools included pre-tests that preceded each stage of the didactic experimentation to diagnose the participant's level in critical reading; post-tests that followed each stage; interviews to identify their perceptions, and drawings produced by them. We analyzed all the data. This was an evaluative analysis of the students' responses in pre / posttests; a thematic analysis of the interview verbatim in order to identify their perceptions; and an analysis of the content of the caricatures produced in support of the results obtained. The results of the analysis showed that caricature has greatly contributed to the development of critical reading in FFL among the beginners and intermediates and partially among the advanced students. At the same time, the caricature was positively perceived by all participants. These ones argued that caricature was an original, motivating and transferable experience. These results, combined with previous research in the same field, suggest that caricature as a didactic medium could promote reading comprehension in adult learners in general.

AVRUPA BİRLİĞİ'NDE VE TÜRKİYE'DE SERBEST TİCARET ANLAŞMALARIÖzetSon dönemde iletişim, ulaşım ve taşımacılık alanlarındaki teknolojik yenilikler; ülkeler, bölgeler ve kıtalar arasındaki ticareti hem yoğunlaştırmış hem de hızlandırmıştır. Bu sayede günümüzde siyasi açıdan olmasa bile iktisadi ve ticari yönden bütünsel bir dünyadan bahsedilebilir bir noktaya gelinmiştir. Diğer bir ifadeyle ekonomik vizyon bağlamında, artık mali olarak daha az görünür sınırlara sahip bir yerküre ifade edilebilmektedir. Güncel olarak pek kullanılan ''küreselleşme'' kavramı da, şekillendirilen bu tablonun bir anlamda çerçevesini oluşturmaktadır. Globalleşme olarak da ifade edilen bu yeni akım, eski düzene karşı olan, ya da geçmişe rağmen ortaya konan bir model değildir. Aksine tarihsel sürecin ortaya çıkardığı ve geniş bir arka planı olan öğretidir. Ancak denk geldiği dönemin özelliği gereği organizasyonundan kurallarına ve terimlerine kadar batı elbisesi giymiştir. Ancak 80'li yıllardan itibaren etkisi artan biçimde hissedilen küreselleşmenin bileşenleri, doktrinin menşei olan kıta üzerindeki halklar tarafından bile tam olarak özümsenememiştir. Aslında tüm dünya uluslarının, tarihsel varlık süreci bağlamında karşılaşmadıkları uygulamaları da içermemektedir. Ancak ticaret boyutuyla ele alındığı zaman, üretim sürecinden pazara sunulmasına kadarki olan tüm iktisadi faaliyetlerin farklı coğrafi alanları kapsaması, meseleye her biri değişik özelliklere sahip pek çok faktörün katılmasına sebep olmaktadır. Bu anlamda en basit işlemin dahi uluslararası bir hüviyeti olmaktadır. Sonuç olarak da hesaplanması gereken değişken sayısı artmaktadır. Fakat sistem tarafından geliştirilen çeşitli araçlar, söz konusu sorunlara çözümler üretebilmiştir. Ancak bu mekanizmaların karmaşık bir yapısının olmasının yanında, çok taraflılığa dayanan bir yönü de bulunmaktadır. Bu enstrümanlara verilebilecek en iyi örneklerden bir tanesi ise serbest ticaret anlaşmalarıdır (STA). Bu etkin kavram, gerek uluslararası, gerek uluslarüstü, gerekse de bölgesel yapılar tarafından en ideal yöntem olarak benimsenmektedir. Özellikle AB ve ABD tarafından çok sık başvurulan etkin bir araç konumundadır. Hatta kendi aralarında yapmayı düşündükleri bir STA da uzun zamandır gündemde önemli bir yer işgal etmektedir. Bu da STA konusunun gelecekte daha da geniş kapsamlı ve etki gücü yüksek bir kavram ve önemli bir ekonomik ve mali unsur olacağının işareti olarak yorumlanabilir. Aynı şekilde tercihli ya da imtiyazlı ticaret ortamı olarak tanımlanan STA düzenine odaklanılmasının gerekliliğini de buradan anlayabiliriz. Ancak çalışmanın amacı doğrultusunda AB perspektifinden ele aldığımız STA'lara dair meseleler, konunun içeriği gereği, diğer ülke ve kurumlardan tamamen arındırılarak analiz edilmesi çok net ve gerçekçi sonuçlar veremeyeceği kanısındayız. Zira AB'nin kendisi bile 28 üye devletten oluşmaktadır ve öte yandan dünyanın hemen her bölgesinde Birliğin ticari ilişkiler geliştirdiği başka aktörler de bulunmaktadır. Tüm bunlar birlikte düşünüldüğünde AB'nin STA düzeninin oluşumunda etkin olan diğer faktörlerden bağımsız olarak ele alınması güçleşmekte, hatta imkansızlaşmaktadır. Aynı şekilde AB ile Gümrük Birliği tesis eden Türkiye'nin, STA süreçlerinin de, Birlik ile kurulan bağların yok sayılarak incelenmesi mümkün değildir. Dolayısıyla AB'de ve Türkiye'de STA'lara ilişkin durum, belirtilen hususlar göz önünde tutularak ve konunun taraflarının yayımladığı resmi metinler temel alınarak ancak belirli kurallar bağlamında ele alınmış ve düzenlenebilmiştir. Makro yönden kurumlar ve kurullar tarafından denetim, güvenlik ve hesap verilebilirlik öne çıkan başlıklar olurken mikro açıdan bireyler nezdinde düşük maliyet, az ve basit prosedür işlemleri ile sürecin hızlandırılması konuları üzerinde durulan hususlardır. Dolayısıyla çalışmanın faydalı olabilmesi için gündelik yaşamla ilişkilendirilme ihtiyacı doğmuştur. Bu da tutarlı, özgün ve güncel kaynaklardan yararlanmayı gerekli kılmıştır. Bunun neticesinde de görülmüştür ki, şahıslara çok ilgisiz gibi duran başta STA sistemi olmak üzere, yeni uluslararası ve hatta uluslarüstü düzen, aslında kişilerin sosyo-ekonomik durumlarını çok derinden etkilemektedir.Anahtar Kelimeler: Serbest ticaret anlaşmaları (STA), çok taraflı ticaret düzeni, menşe kuralları ve kümülasyonu, müzakere turları.FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND IN TURKEYAbstractRecently, technological innovations in the fields of communication, transportation, and transportation have accelerated and also intensified trade between regions and continents and countries. In this way, today, we have reached a point where the world can be reported as a holistic world, even if not politically, from the economic and commercial aspects. In other words, in the context of an economic vision, the earth can be expressed as it has financially less visible boundaries now. 'Globalization' which is a frequently used up to date concept, in a sense, constitutes the framework of this embodied table. This new wave, which is expressed as globalization, is not a model against the old order or a model which is put forth despite the past. On the contrary, it is a doctrine brought out with a historical process and has a broad background. However, because of the nature of the period it occurred, it has worn a Western suit to the terms and rules of the organisation. However, the components of globalization, whose impact has been increasingly felt since the 80s, have not been fully internalized by people even on the continent, where is the origin of the doctrine. In fact, it includes applications that all the nations of the world have already encountered in the context of their historical process. However, when taken together with trade dimension, all economic activities cover different geographical areas from the production process to market introduction, and that adds many factors each have different features to this issue. In this sense, even the simplest process has an international identity. As a result, the number of variables to be calculated increase. But a variety of tools developed by the system have been able to produce solutions to the case in point. However, these mechanisms have a complex structure, in addition to this; there is one aspect that is based on multilateralism. Free trade agreements (FTA) are one of the best examples that can be given to these instruments. This effective concept is being adopted as the most ideal method by international, transnational, as well as by regional structures. It is an effective tool that is referenced by especially the EU and the USA very often. As a matter of fact, an FTA which they are thinking to do among themselves has occupied an important place on the agenda for a long time. And this can be interpreted as a sign that the issue of FTA will be an even more comprehensive and effective concept and an important economic and financial factor in the future. Similarly, we can also deduce from this the necessity of a focus on layout of FTA, which is defined as the preferential or privileged trading environment. However, the FTA issues at hand, from the perspective of the EU for the purposes of the study, we believe that analysis cleansed completely from other countries and institutions cannot give very clear and realistic results due to the content of the topic. Because the EU even itself consists of 28 Member States and on the other hand there are other actors that has developed commercial relations of the Union in almost every region of the world. When all of these are considered together, addressing EU independent of other factors that are effective in the formation of the FTA scheme is difficult, even impossible. In the same way it is also impossible to examine the FTA process of Turkey which is a country establishing a Customs Union with the EU, by ignoring the ties with the Union. Therefore, the situation with regard to the FTA in Turkey and in the EU has been taken up and edited in the context of specific rules, in consideration of the matters specified and based on texts published in the official parties of the subject. In macro level, audit, security, and accountability are featured titles by institutions and bodies while in micro level, low-cost, accelerating the process with less and simple procedure are the matters focused by individuals. Therefore, to enable the study to be useful there has been a need to associate it with everyday life. And this has made it necessary to benefit from consistent, original and contemporary sources. As a result it is seen that particularly FTA system, new international and even supranational system that seem to be unrelated, in fact, have a profound influence on the socio-economic conditions of the individuals.Key Words: Free trade agreements, (FTA), the multilateral trading scheme, rules and cumulation of origin, tours in negotiation.

Актуальность и цели. Строительная отрасль в настоящее время является одной из ключевых отраслей в российской экономике, призванных решать важнейшие задачи по совершенствованию социально-экономического развития регионов и государства в целом. Развитие строительного комплекса обеспечивается развитием отдельных организаций, поэтому наряду с созданием внешних благоприятных условий функционирования предприятий строительной отрасли, заключающихся в совершенствовании законодательства, формировании равных конкурентных условий на рынке инвестиций, снижении стоимости кредитов, огромное значение на рост эффективности оказывает совершенствование управления строительным предприятием. Современные предприятия поставлены в условия, когда они вынуждены действовать в условиях нестабильного рынка. В связи с этим в последнее время появилась необходимость адаптации к быстроизменяющейся среде. Решение встающих перед предприятиями строительного комплекса проблем невозможно без формирования механизма устойчивого развития организации, обеспечивающего стабильное функционирование в рыночных условиях. Цель работы рассмотреть механизм устойчивого развития строительной отрасли. Материалы и методы. Проведенный анализ зарубежной и отечественной экономической литературы показывает, что наука до сих пор не выработала единого подхода к изучению проблем устойчивости развития строительного предприятия. Решение данной проблемы на сегодняшний день признано актуальной, важнейшей задачей и находится в центре внимания ученых-эконо­мистов, и многие научные работы посвящены разработке устойчивости функционирования предприятия. С другой стороны, до сих пор не проработаны вопросы стабильного поступательного развития предприятия строительной отрасли. Хотя определенные особенности развития строительных предприятий выявлены исследователями, однако строительная организация как объект устойчивого развития пока недостаточно освещена в научных работах по данной тематике. Анализ экономической литературы показал, что часто понятия экономического роста и устойчивого развития предприятия используются в качестве синонимов, что во многом неверно. Проблемы обеспечения устойчивого развития промышленного предприятия нашли отражение в публикациях таких отечественных авторов, как С. И. Валянский, И. С. Галеев, С. Ю. Глазьев, В. И. Данилов-Данильян, Л. В. Донцова, В. Заболоцкий, В. В. Ковалев, Д. М. Ковалев, Д. В. Колюжный, Э. М. Коротков, З. В. Коробкова, О. В. Латута, И. Пригожин, А. И. Романов, В. А. Садовничий, И. Стенгерс, Т. Сухорукова, Е. В. Фахрутдинов, А. Д. Шеремет, Й. Шумпетер, Р. Юсупов, Ю. В. Яковец. Следует заметить, что основное внимание исследователей, занимающихся устойчивым развитием предприятия, как правило, сосредоточено на промышленных, в основном машиностроительных, предприятиях, в то время как вопросы устойчивого развития строительных предприятий по-прежнему остаются нерешенными. Вопросам экономики строительства были посвящены работы А. Н. Асаула, В. В. Бузырева, Б. Б. Хрусталева, Ю. С. Артамоновой, П. Б. Люлин, Н. В. Чепаченко, Н. М. Чикишевой, Т. В. Щуровской и др. Из зарубежных специалистов, занимающихся проблемой устойчивого развития предприятия, стоит отметить таких исследователей, как И. Ансофф, П. Ф. Друкер, Е. Домара, Д. Таргет, Б. Карлофф, У. Кинг, Д. Клиланд, М. Мескон, Ф. Тейлор, А. Файоль, Р. Ф. Харрода, Р. Харгсхорн, Ч. Ричардсон, Т. Питерс, Р. Уотермен и др. Результаты. Проведена оценка факторов, ограничивающих финансовую и инновационную активность строительных организаций. Определен тип финансовой ситуации на примере ОАО «Пензастрой». Выводы. Для выживания модель инвестиционно-строительного комплекса, как модель открытой системы, должна иметь следующие подсистемы: подсистему управления; подсистему адаптации, отслеживающую экономическую обстановку и обеспечивающую соответствие строительной продукции меняющейся ситуации на рынке; подсистему контроля поступлений, контролирующую приток ресурсов; подсистему производства, преобразующую материальные, технические, людские и другие ресурсы предприятий в строительную продукцию; подсистему контроля распределения продукции, связанную с распределением строительной продукции; подсистему поддержки, обеспечивающую эффективную совместную работу других подсистем и координирующую все осуществляемые действия. В данный перечень подсистем необходимо добавить также седьмую подсистему социальную подсистему, отвечающую за социальный климат внутри корпорации. Связано это с тем, что с появлением новых экономических отношений в России огромное влияние на деятельность любой организации приобрели межличностные отношения, складывающиеся внутри самих коллективов. Исследование деятельности успешных корпораций за рубежом показало, что их эффективность во многом зависит от того, насколько комфортны условия работы для каждого работника предприятия. ; Background. The construction industry is currently one of the key industries in the Russian economy, dedicated to solve important tasks on improving the socio-economic development of regions and the state as a whole. Development of the construction complex is ensured by the development of individual organizations, therefore, along with creation of favorable external conditions of functioning of the enterprises of the construction industry, namely improvement of legislation, formation of equal competitive conditions on the market of investments, decrease in the cost of loans, great influence on efficiency growth has been exerted by enhancement of management of building and construction companies. Modern enterprises are put in conditions when they are forced to operate in unstable market conditions. In this regard, lately there has appeared a need to adapt to the fast-changing environment. Solution of the problems, faced by the companies of the construction complex, is impossible without formation of a mechanism of sustainable development of the organization, ensuring stable functioning in the market conditions. The purpose of this work is to consider a mechanism of sustainable development of the construction industry. Materials and methods. The analysis of the foreign and domestic economic literature shows that science has not yet worked out a unified approach to study of the problems of sustainable development of the construction enterprise. The solution of this problem today is recognized as the most important and topical task, examined by many scientists-economists, and many scientific works are devoted to development of stability of functioning of the enterprise. On the other hand the problems of stable progressive development of construction industry enterprises are still not considered properly. Although the specific features of development of construction enterprises are identified by the researchers, the construction organization as an object of sustainable development is still poorly described by scientific works on the subject. Analysis of the economic literature showed that often the conception of economic growth and sustainable development of the enterprise are used as synonyms, which largely is not true. Problems of ensuring sustainable development of the industrial enterprises are reflected in the publications by such Russian authors as S. R. Valyansky, I. S. Galeev, S. Y. Glazyev, V. I. Danilov-Danilyan, L. V. Dontsova, V. Zabolotsky, V. Kovalev, D. M. Kovalev, Z. V. Korobkova, I. Prigogine, A. I. Romanov, V. A. Sadovnichy, I. Sukhorukova, E. V. Fakhrutdinov, A. D. Sheremet, Th. Schumpeter, R. Yusupov, Yu. V. Yakovets. It should be noted that the attention of the researchers specializing in sustainable development of enterprises, as a rule, is concentrated on industrial, mainly machine-building enterprises, while stable development of the construction enterprises still remains uncovered. The eco­nomy of construction is described in the work by the following scientists: Yu. S. Artamonova, P. B. Lyulin and others. Among the foreign specialists intersted in the issue of sustainable development of the enterprise are the following: I. Ansoff, P. F. Drucker, E. Domar, D. Target, B. Karloff, D. King, D. Mescon, F. Taylor, A. Fayolle, R. F. Harroda, H. Richardson, T. Peters, R. Waterman and other. Results. The authors estimated the factors limiting the financial and innovation activity of construction organizations and determined the type of financial situation by the example of «Penzastroy» Plc. Conclusions. In order to survive, the model of investment-construction complex, as a model of an open system, must have the following subsystems: a control subsystem; an adaptation subsystem, that monitors economic environment and provides conformity of construction products to the changing situation on the market; a revenue control subsystem, that controls the flow of resources; a subsystem of production, transforming material, technical, human and other resources of enterprises in the construction products; a control subsystem in distribution of products associated with distribution of construction products; a subsystem that supports and collaborates with other subsystems and coordinates all current actions. The list of subsystems should be added also by the seventh subsystem a social subsystem that is responsible for the social climate within the corporation. It is connected with the fact that in occurrence of new economic relations in Russia a huge impact on activities of any organization purchased is exerted by the interpersonal relations within the groups. The study of successful corporations abroad showed that effectiveness thereof depends on how comfortable are the work conditions for each employee.