This study quantifies the effects introduced by the COVID-19 pandemic on air connectivity and passenger travel behaviour. Our analysis suggests that the pandemic has led to significant connectivity loss at all airports, especially at large hubs and tourism destinations. Low-cost carriers' operations at these airports, whose main targets are price-sensitive, non-business travellers, have been significantly reduced, too. There is preliminary evidence that network carriers at hub airports played more important roles amid the pandemic, likely due to the benefits associated with their hub-and-spoke networks. Connectivity losses at the smallest airports tended to be temporary and limited. These airports had limited aviation services to start with and, thus, it was not too costly to maintain the minimum connectivity. Empirical results obtained from a passenger preference study indicate that traveller subgroups are impacted in different ways. When there is no online meeting option, nearly 80% of the respondents prefer, and are willing to pay for, pandemic control measures. These 'pro-control' passengers perceive such measures and the associated high costs/fares as valuable and necessary to lower the health-related risks during air travel. When there is an online meeting option, the share of such passengers decreases to 44.5%, with the remaining 55.5% exhibiting disutility for the increased price and time associated with pandemic control measures. The average willingness-to-pay for pandemic control measures decreases significantly, whereas the value of time saved at health checkpoints increases significantly. The aviation industry thus faces a 'double-hit' problem: operation costs will increase due to pandemic control measures, and the resultant inconvenience and extra time and costs further reduce travel demand. Unlike previous short pandemics, business travel is likely to suffer with an extended decline until the pandemic is fully controlled. These results call for financial and operational support for aviation services, especially at major airports and tourism destinations. Because these large airports are expected to be profitable post the pandemic, they may resort to low-cost finance from the capital market in the short term. Because the value of time saved at checkpoints is very high, it is more important for government agencies to make the pandemic control and health measures efficient and smooth. For operations such as vaccination records, stakeholders in different countries should cooperate to facilitate seamless control and pleasant air travel experiences.
Latest reports suggest that an ambitious high-speed electrified railway track running through Laos and connecting Kunming in China's southwestern province of Yunnan with northeastern Thailand is now 78 per cent complete. All the bridges, tunnels and other structures have been completed; what remains to be done is to lay the track, and to install the signalling and the other 'mechanics' necessary for operations. The first trains are expected to use the line approximately two years from now. Formally announced in 2015, the railway is part of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), and is widely seen as a major step in the Laotian government's long-held desire to turn the country from being land-locked to land-linked. For China, completion of the railway will not only link Yunnan directly to Thailand but also connect it to the Malaysian peninsula further south and ultimately to Singapore. The 420-kilometer north-south line cuts through a large part of northern and central Laos, starting at Boten on the Laos-China border, passing through Luang Namtha province, then wending its way roughly south through Oudomxay, Luang Prabang and Vientiane provinces, before terminating at a station most likely to be built close to the country's capital, Vientiane. Its construction has been a colossal undertaking, requiring more than 70 tunnels and 150 bridges. Indeed, the line will run through tunnels for almost 200 kilometres.) It will have ten stations in Laos, including one at the former royal capital of Luang Prabang, It will thus allow domestic passenger and freight use. The line will also have some 20 'crossing loops' to allow trains to pass each other on what will be largely a single-line railway.
The objective of this paper is to understand the factors driving the location decisions of multinational corporations. The paper uses literature-review and expert-interview techniques to understand what cities can do to be best positioned to attract international capital.
The Marrakesh action plan for statistics (MAPS) was created in 2004 as an important component of an informal partnership whose main goal is to help develop and strengthen national statistical systems through six specific actions with target dates aiming to prepare the way for sustainable improvement in statistical capacity. The objectives of the evaluation are: (i) to assess the effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability of the five partnership programs; (ii) to assess the extent to which MAPS actions remains relevant to the statistical capacity; and (iii) to provide guidance on how support for statistical capacity can be strengthened and made more effective under the Busan action plan for statistics. This report presents the results of a light evaluation of the partnership effort between the World Bank, through the development grant facility (DGF), and a number of key agencies involved in the building of statistical capacity in developing countries under the MAPS. This evaluation covers the five largest partnership programs which include the international household survey network (IHSN), the accelerated data program (ADP), the preparation of national strategies for the development of statistics (NSDSs), the urgent improvement in key statistics, including gender statistics and the support given to countries to participate in the 2010 census round.
Landfill gas (LFG) management can help mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to the overall safe operation of a landfill, sometimes simultaneously generating revenue. However, financing these systems can be a challenge, particularly in low-resource settings. Recognizing that landfill emissions are expected to rise into the foreseeable future, this report outlines a variety of ways that city governments, private landfill owners, or other project developers finance LFG management systems that mitigate these emissions. It is intended to offer policy-makers and practitioners an overview of financing models that have been used around the world and insights from existing projects, including key enabling conditions and risk mitigation strategies.
The year 2020, verging to a close, is one of the most difficult and hardest years in the life of mankind over the last century. Unfortunately, it is in the 20th year of each century for the last several hundred years that human civilization has been suffering from another global pandemic (to say nothing of local and regional pandemics)… Several pandemics of plague killed at least 300 million people, and the highest incidence in Europe occurred in 1720‒1722. In 1817‒1824, the First Cholera Pandemic spread across the world. One hundred years later, in 1918‒1920, fifty million lives worldwide were claimed by the Spanish flu (H1N1). For a year now, starting in December 2019 and throughout 2020, the entire world is fighting the 21st century pandemic – the global COVID-19 outbreak caused by the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. Despite all the difficulties that humanity faces today, life goes on, and the world scientific community is persistently looking for ways to get out of the latest pandemic trap. The world has learned the lessons of pandemics and learned to use the acquired knowledge and scientific legacy of past generations. This led to a quick response to the challenges that life presents us. In December 2020, at this writing, several pharmaceutical companies have already announced the invention of vaccines and the final stages of their trials. We hope that our esteemed authors and readership will witness yet another victory of science over the world's evil. 10 years ago to the day, creation of the History of Science and Technology journal began. Therefore, we would like to summarize some of the work undertaken over the years. The first issue of History of Science and Technology was published in 2011. The founder of the journal was the State Economy and Technology University of Transport. State Economy and Technology University of Transport was one of the three universities in Ukraine that mainly trained specialists for the railway industry. It is the teachers, students and staff of the State Economy and Technology University of Transport who became the primary authors of the first journal issues. Therefore, in the first years after the journal was created, its focus on the study of the history of the development of railway transport and related areas was apparent. Back then the journal was titled History of Science and Technology: Collection of scientific papers of the State Economic and Technological University of Transport. Printed versions of the journal were regularly distributed in libraries of higher educational institutions and research institutions of Ukraine. The electronic version of the full-text issue of the journal (without division into separate articles) was posted on the University library website. Gradually, the journal began to gain popularity, and as far back as in 2013‒2015 it received a large audience of readers and authors across regions and organizations from all over Ukraine. Accordingly, the themes of the articles changed, being no longer limited to rail transport, but extended to the study of the history of all branches of science and various technologies instead. In 2016, the journal History of Science and Technology replaced its founder. It was the State University of Infrastructure and Technologies which was established through the decree of Ukrainian government dated February 29, 2016 by way of merger of two metropolitan higher educational institutions – Kyiv State Maritime Academy named after hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachnyi and State Economy and Technology University of Transport. Accordingly, the name of the journal has changed into History of Science and Technology: Collection of scientific papers of State University of Infrastructure and Technologies. The next stage in the life of the journal was the creation of its separate website in March 2018. Since then, work has begun on a deeper reform of the journal, which continues to this day. History of Science and Technology journal is constantly changing. Thus, steps have been taken to improve the design of the journal and bring it into line with internationally recognized standards. The composition of the journal's editorial board has undergone significant personnel changes. In April 2019, it underwent state re-registration of the print media and acquired its current name – History of Science and Technology journal. However, fundamental steps have been taken towards filling the journal with original and high-qualty scientific content that would be of interest not only to the Ukrainian reader but also to foreign reader. Strict analysis in the selection of articles, strict plagiarism policy, independent double-blind peer review, as well as numerous other steps and innovations, have affected the number of published articles. If in 2019 approximately 25% of submitted articles were rejected, in 2020 this figure reaches almost 60%. Although hopefully, a change in quality of articles for the better followed the change in their number. They have really become interesting to the international world community, as evidenced by statistics on daily visits to the journal's website by representatives from around the world. The journal generated interest among authors from different countries and continents. In the first issue of History of Science and Technology for the year 2020, articles by authors representing universities and research organizations from Ghana, Canada, USA, Spain, Russia and Ukraine were published. Thus, in the second issue of 2020, History of Science and Technology journal introduces its readers to articles by authors from around the world, namely Azerbaijan, India, Indonesia, Italy, Spain and Ukraine. While summing up our 10 years' work, we would like not to be limited to bare figures. Thus, History of Science and Technology has published 10 volumes and 17issues over the years, which include more than 400 articles by various authors. And of course, each of these published articles has undergone a great deal of work by authors, editors, reviewers, proof-readers, print workers, etc. All these people primarily have always been trying to make History of Science and Technology journal interesting for you, our Readers! Our team will keep working enthusiastically and persistently on it! ; The year 2020, verging to a close, is one of the most difficult and hardest years in the life of mankind over the last century. Unfortunately, it is in the 20th year of each century for the last several hundred years that human civilization has been suffering from another global pandemic (to say nothing of local and regional pandemics)… Several pandemics of plague killed at least 300 million people, and the highest incidence in Europe occurred in 1720‒1722. In 1817‒1824, the First Cholera Pandemic spread across the world. One hundred years later, in 1918‒1920, fifty million lives worldwide were claimed by the Spanish flu (H1N1). For a year now, starting in December 2019 and throughout 2020, the entire world is fighting the 21st century pandemic – the global COVID-19 outbreak caused by the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. Despite all the difficulties that humanity faces today, life goes on, and the world scientific community is persistently looking for ways to get out of the latest pandemic trap. The world has learned the lessons of pandemics and learned to use the acquired knowledge and scientific legacy of past generations. This led to a quick response to the challenges that life presents us. In December 2020, at this writing, several pharmaceutical companies have already announced the invention of vaccines and the final stages of their trials. We hope that our esteemed authors and readership will witness yet another victory of science over the world's evil. 10 years ago to the day, creation of the History of Science and Technology journal began. Therefore, we would like to summarize some of the work undertaken over the years. The first issue of History of Science and Technology was published in 2011. The founder of the journal was the State Economy and Technology University of Transport. State Economy and Technology University of Transport was one of the three universities in Ukraine that mainly trained specialists for the railway industry. It is the teachers, students and staff of the State Economy and Technology University of Transport who became the primary authors of the first journal issues. Therefore, in the first years after the journal was created, its focus on the study of the history of the development of railway transport and related areas was apparent. Back then the journal was titled History of Science and Technology: Collection of scientific papers of the State Economic and Technological University of Transport. Printed versions of the journal were regularly distributed in libraries of higher educational institutions and research institutions of Ukraine. The electronic version of the full-text issue of the journal (without division into separate articles) was posted on the University library website. Gradually, the journal began to gain popularity, and as far back as in 2013‒2015 it received a large audience of readers and authors across regions and organizations from all over Ukraine. Accordingly, the themes of the articles changed, being no longer limited to rail transport, but extended to the study of the history of all branches of science and various technologies instead. In 2016, the journal History of Science and Technology replaced its founder. It was the State University of Infrastructure and Technologies which was established through the decree of Ukrainian government dated February 29, 2016 by way of merger of two metropolitan higher educational institutions – Kyiv State Maritime Academy named after hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachnyi and State Economy and Technology University of Transport. Accordingly, the name of the journal has changed into History of Science and Technology: Collection of scientific papers of State University of Infrastructure and Technologies. The next stage in the life of the journal was the creation of its separate website in March 2018. Since then, work has begun on a deeper reform of the journal, which continues to this day. History of Science and Technology journal is constantly changing. Thus, steps have been taken to improve the design of the journal and bring it into line with internationally recognized standards. The composition of the journal's editorial board has undergone significant personnel changes. In April 2019, it underwent state re-registration of the print media and acquired its current name – History of Science and Technology journal. However, fundamental steps have been taken towards filling the journal with original and high-qualty scientific content that would be of interest not only to the Ukrainian reader but also to foreign reader. Strict analysis in the selection of articles, strict plagiarism policy, independent double-blind peer review, as well as numerous other steps and innovations, have affected the number of published articles. If in 2019 approximately 25% of submitted articles were rejected, in 2020 this figure reaches almost 60%. Although hopefully, a change in quality of articles for the better followed the change in their number. They have really become interesting to the international world community, as evidenced by statistics on daily visits to the journal's website by representatives from around the world. The journal generated interest among authors from different countries and continents. In the first issue of History of Science and Technology for the year 2020, articles by authors representing universities and research organizations from Ghana, Canada, USA, Spain, Russia and Ukraine were published. Thus, in the second issue of 2020, History of Science and Technology journal introduces its readers to articles by authors from around the world, namely Azerbaijan, India, Indonesia, Italy, Spain and Ukraine. While summing up our 10 years' work, we would like not to be limited to bare figures. Thus, History of Science and Technology has published 10 volumes and 17issues over the years, which include more than 400 articles by various authors. And of course, each of these published articles has undergone a great deal of work by authors, editors, reviewers, proof-readers, print workers, etc. All these people primarily have always been trying to make History of Science and Technology journal interesting for you, our Readers! Our team will keep working enthusiastically and persistently on it! ; The year 2020, verging to a close, is one of the most difficult and hardest years in the life of mankind over the last century. Unfortunately, it is in the 20th year of each century for the last several hundred years that human civilization has been suffering from another global pandemic (to say nothing of local and regional pandemics)… Several pandemics of plague killed at least 300 million people, and the highest incidence in Europe occurred in 1720‒1722. In 1817‒1824, the First Cholera Pandemic spread across the world. One hundred years later, in 1918‒1920, fifty million lives worldwide were claimed by the Spanish flu (H1N1). For a year now, starting in December 2019 and throughout 2020, the entire world is fighting the 21st century pandemic – the global COVID-19 outbreak caused by the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. Despite all the difficulties that humanity faces today, life goes on, and the world scientific community is persistently looking for ways to get out of the latest pandemic trap. The world has learned the lessons of pandemics and learned to use the acquired knowledge and scientific legacy of past generations. This led to a quick response to the challenges that life presents us. In December 2020, at this writing, several pharmaceutical companies have already announced the invention of vaccines and the final stages of their trials. We hope that our esteemed authors and readership will witness yet another victory of science over the world's evil. 10 years ago to the day, creation of the History of Science and Technology journal began. Therefore, we would like to summarize some of the work undertaken over the years. The first issue of History of Science and Technology was published in 2011. The founder of the journal was the State Economy and Technology University of Transport. State Economy and Technology University of Transport was one of the three universities in Ukraine that mainly trained specialists for the railway industry. It is the teachers, students and staff of the State Economy and Technology University of Transport who became the primary authors of the first journal issues. Therefore, in the first years after the journal was created, its focus on the study of the history of the development of railway transport and related areas was apparent. Back then the journal was titled History of Science and Technology: Collection of scientific papers of the State Economic and Technological University of Transport. Printed versions of the journal were regularly distributed in libraries of higher educational institutions and research institutions of Ukraine. The electronic version of the full-text issue of the journal (without division into separate articles) was posted on the University library website. Gradually, the journal began to gain popularity, and as far back as in 2013‒2015 it received a large audience of readers and authors across regions and organizations from all over Ukraine. Accordingly, the themes of the articles changed, being no longer limited to rail transport, but extended to the study of the history of all branches of science and various technologies instead. In 2016, the journal History of Science and Technology replaced its founder. It was the State University of Infrastructure and Technologies which was established through the decree of Ukrainian government dated February 29, 2016 by way of merger of two metropolitan higher educational institutions – Kyiv State Maritime Academy named after hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachnyi and State Economy and Technology University of Transport. Accordingly, the name of the journal has changed into History of Science and Technology: Collection of scientific papers of State University of Infrastructure and Technologies. The next stage in the life of the journal was the creation of its separate website in March 2018. Since then, work has begun on a deeper reform of the journal, which continues to this day. History of Science and Technology journal is constantly changing. Thus, steps have been taken to improve the design of the journal and bring it into line with internationally recognized standards. The composition of the journal's editorial board has undergone significant personnel changes. In April 2019, it underwent state re-registration of the print media and acquired its current name – History of Science and Technology journal. However, fundamental steps have been taken towards filling the journal with original and high-qualty scientific content that would be of interest not only to the Ukrainian reader but also to foreign reader. Strict analysis in the selection of articles, strict plagiarism policy, independent double-blind peer review, as well as numerous other steps and innovations, have affected the number of published articles. If in 2019 approximately 25% of submitted articles were rejected, in 2020 this figure reaches almost 60%. Although hopefully, a change in quality of articles for the better followed the change in their number. They have really become interesting to the international world community, as evidenced by statistics on daily visits to the journal's website by representatives from around the world. The journal generated interest among authors from different countries and continents. In the first issue of History of Science and Technology for the year 2020, articles by authors representing universities and research organizations from Ghana, Canada, USA, Spain, Russia and Ukraine were published. Thus, in the second issue of 2020, History of Science and Technology journal introduces its readers to articles by authors from around the world, namely Azerbaijan, India, Indonesia, Italy, Spain and Ukraine. While summing up our 10 years' work, we would like not to be limited to bare figures. Thus, History of Science and Technology has published 10 volumes and 17issues over the years, which include more than 400 articles by various authors. And of course, each of these published articles has undergone a great deal of work by authors, editors, reviewers, proof-readers, print workers, etc. All these people primarily have always been trying to make History of Science and Technology journal interesting for you, our Readers! Our team will keep working enthusiastically and persistently on it!
Ziele und Befunde der Arbeit Das durchgeführte Forschungsvorhaben zeigt durch einen holistischen, gleichzeitig politikwissenschaftlichen wie auch historischen Ansatz Folgendes: Nämlich, warum und wie das liberale, regelbasierte Weltordnungssystem im Untersuchungsraum der US-Präsidentschaften von Clinton bis Obama kontinuierlich durch ein System der realistischen, kurzfristig wirkenden Durchsetzung vitaler Interessen mittels militärischer Instrumentenpräferenz unter fortlaufender militärischer Optimierung ergänzt bzw. ersetzt wird. Dies erklärt auch, warum die "transaktionale Führung Trumps"(1), die nach dem Untersuchungsraum von 1993 bis 2017 mit Außenwirkung die Reduktion idealistischer "Grand Strategy"-Elemente bzw. wohlwollender Ordnungsmacht unter Kostenabwälzung und Vorteilsverringerung europäischer Nato-Verbündeter vornimmt, in Kontinuität zur ausgeübten Führungsmacht der Amtsvorgänger steht. Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation wie die sich ab 1993 immer nachdrücklicher abzeichnende Auflösung der multilateralen Grundordnung legen damit nahe, Trumps bisherige Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik als deutlich spürbares Krisensymptom und nicht als Ursache dieses Abbaus der nach 1945 eingerichteten Weltordnung einzustufen. Diese Auflösung ist mit einer Erosion des letztlich transatlantisch angestoßenen bipolaren "amerikanischen Systems" gleichzusetzen. Die Implementierung dieses Systems erfolgte als "Lernstunde zweier Weltkriege" auf Basis der mit der Aufklärung und den amerikanischen Gründungskennziffern eingeleiteten neuzeitlichen Ordnungskonzeptionen: Daher ist diese Auflösung auch ein Indikator für das Scheitern neuzeitlicher Ordnungskennziffern, die sich im "American way of life" entfalten konnten. Als ursächlich für die geschilderte Entwicklung wird eine von Clinton bis Obama konstant ansteigende Gesamtbedrohung nachgewiesen, mit der die konsequente Schwächung amerikanischer Vormacht verknüpft ist. Diese fußt u.a. auf der Basis von seit 1979 postulierten Klimawandeleffekten als Bedrohungsverstärker bei erreichter amerikanischer Förderspitze in fossilen Rohstoffen und ansteigendem Ressourcenbedarf im Kontext schrumpfender Rohstoffvorkommen. Weiter sind für den Untersuchungsraum die zunehmende Einwirkung der in den 1980er Jahren begonnenen "US-Konservativen Revolution" auf die Ausübung der Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik unter Einflusszugewinn von Konzernen und Lobbygruppen auf beispielsweise policy-Implementierung sowie die neuen Rahmenbedingungen zu addieren. Darunter fallen die sich ausformende Digitalisierung, die hohen Ressourcenverbrauch mit sich bringt, und die ansteigende Weltbevölkerung unter spezifischen demographischen Vorzeichen. Darüber hinaus sind beispielsweise die Beibehaltung des bipolar angewachsenen Rüstungssektors als ökonomische Basis militärischer Vormacht und das langsame Abbröckeln der Dollar-Hegemonie seit etwa 1973 zu berücksichtigen. Durch komplexes Zusammenspiel von "Grand Strategy"-Umsetzung gemäß der Prämisse amerikanischen Führungsmachtausbaus unter neokonservativem bzw. christlich-rechtem Einfluss mit asymmetrischen sowie reaktivierten konventionellen Bedrohungsgegenständen, Bedrohungsverstärkern und neuen Rahmenbedingungen wird der lineare Verlauf der Gesamtbedrohung im Zeitraum von 1993 bis 2017 verständlich: Im Kontext der "Grand Strategy"-Ausführungen erklären insbesondere das Bedrohungsabwehr-, Bedrohungsverstärker- und Marktwirtschaftsverständnis der US-Far Right in komplexer Wechselwirkung mit erstarkenden transnationalen Konzernen, Lobbygruppen, Individuen(2), informellen Netzwerken und staatlichen Akteuren in Bezug auf Bedrohungsgegenstände sowie Bedrohungsverstärker(3) im Zusammenhang mit der post-bipolaren, globalen Verankerung amerikanischer Wirtschafts- und Konsummuster das Folgende: Nämlich die Anpassung der amerikanischen Bedrohungsabwehr - unter Aufbau der "imperial presidency"(4) bzw. Einhegung des Systems von "checks and balances" - samt deren Implikationen auf das bipolare liberale Ordnungssystem. Sodann wird die notwendige Weiterführung in der Nato durch amerikanisch aufgeworfenen Nato-Umbau zur entsprechenden Umsetzung transformierter amerikanischer Bedrohungsabwehr bzw. Legitimierung der systemischen Anpassung begreifbar. Genauso wird nachvollziehbar, dass die so eingerichtete Bedrohungsabwehr nur kurzfristig abwehrt: Stattdessen verstärkt sie asymmetrische und konventionelle Bedrohung wie auch Bedrohungsverstärker - unter Einleitung von Rüstungsspiralen bzw. Demontierung der Rüstungskontrolle - und damit die Gesamtbedrohung. Dies lässt einen Konfliktausbruch jenseits des bisher Vorstellbaren konstant näher rücken. Gleichzeitig ist der dringende Bedarf an Mobilisierung der transatlantischen Zusammenarbeit im Hinblick auf Förderung der globalen Kooperation staatlicher, aber auch nichtstaatlicher Akteure hinsichtlich der Bedrohungswurzeln samt der sich verschlechternden Voraussetzungen illustriert: Denn mit jedem Anstieg der Gesamtbedrohung ist durch die eingeleitete amerikanische sicherheitspolitische Anpassung und deren Weiterführung in der Nato ein Abbau der regelbasierten Basiskennziffern im Untersuchungsraum verknüpft. Dies reduziert in fortlaufender Konsequenz die Grundlage für oben genannte, konstant zentraler werdende Zusammenarbeit, um eine sukzessive Erosion des bipolaren "amerikanischen Systems" unter künftigen Dystopien zu verhindern bzw. zumindest zu begrenzen. Durch die Forschungsergebnisse wird der bisherige Forschungsstand auf den Kopf gestellt, da so beispielsweise gezeigt werden kann, dass mittels der Transformation der Nato keine gleichberechtigte transatlantische Lastenteilung oder eine Weiterentwicklung der Nato gemäß der Nato-Gründungskennziffern erzeugt wird. Dies gilt auch für den europäischen Widerstand gegenüber der tatsächlichen Verankerung der Natotransformationspositionen(5), der auf die Erosion des bipolaren liberalen Ordnungssystems bzw. der US-Vorteilsgewährung sowie so begünstigter Partikularinteressensicherung abhebt. Außerdem wird deutlich, dass eine Kontinuitätslinie in der Bedrohungsabwehr von Clinton bis Obama unter unterschiedlicher Außenwirkung und dem Grundmuster "Battleship America" vorliegt - und eben nicht eine multilateral ausgerichtete Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik unter Clinton, die als Folge von 9/11 in einen unilateralen Pendelausschlag unter G. W. Bush 43 mündet, der durch die Obama-Administration wieder zurückgenommen wird. Die Arbeit basiert auf einer umfassenden Fülle an Literatur, die das aufwendige Literaturverzeichnis widerspiegelt: Darunter fallen vielfältige amerikanische und europäische Publikationen, Monographien und entsprechende Sekundärliteratur, wie Biographien, Veröffentlichungen unterschiedlichster Natur wichtiger Vertreter der transatlantischen Forschungselite, Akteure der entsprechenden Politikplanung und -ausführung und wissenschaftliche Artikel aus Fachzeitschriften zu allen Forschungsbereichen bzw. politikwissenschaftlicher Methodik und Theorie. Weiter wurden u.a. Veröffentlichungen bzw. relevante Dokumente von Regierungen, Außenministerien, Verteidigungsministerien, Regierungsorganen, Denkfabriken, universitären Forschungszentren sowie der Nato verwendet. Struktur der Arbeit Konkret ist die vorliegende Dissertation in zwei Bände sowie einen Anhangsband unterteilt: Band 1 umfasst Schwerpunkt 1, eine Prozessanalyse unter offensiver neorealistischer Verortung, Band 2 den darauf aufbauenden Schwerpunkt 2, einen Vergleich ("structured focussed comparison") unter defensiver neorealistischer Verortung. Im Anhangsband finden sich ergänzende Ausführungen zu Kapitel 1, Band 1 in Bezug auf den Forschungsstand, Literatur und Quellenlage, theoretische Verortung sowie Wahl des Untersuchungsraumes bzw. ausgewählter europäischer Nato-Partner. Weiter sind ein historisches Kapitel als Voraussetzung zum "process-tracing" in Kapitel 2, Band 1 und ein Abbildungs- und Abkürzungsverzeichnis wie auch ein Literaturverzeichnis enthalten. Insgesamt ermitteln die beiden aufeinander aufbauenden Schwerpunkte mittels qualitativer Methoden das Folgende: Nämlich die übergeordnete amerikanische sicherheitspolitische Reaktion auf eine neue Gesamtbedrohung sowie deren Weiterführung und Legitimierungschance in der Nato im Untersuchungsraum von Clinton bis Obama. Auf Basis des ersten Teils der Hypothese wird in Schwerpunkt 1, Band 1 ein Zusammenhang zwischen der Beibehaltung des bipolaren "US-Grand Strategy"-Ziels amerikanischer Führungs- und Ordnungsmacht sowie bipolarer außenpolitischer "Grand Strategy"-Kennziffern bzw. einer sich komplex entwickelnden neuen Gesamtbedrohung, amerikanischer sicherheitspolitischer Anpassung und der notwendigen Weiterführung in der Nato durch Natotransformation mittels amerikanisch aufgeworfener Natotransformationspositionen hergestellt. In Schwerpunkt 2, Band 2 wird auf Basis des zweiten Teils der Hypothese der transatlantische Aushandlungsprozess zur Etablierung der amerikanisch vorgeschlagenen Natotransformationspositionen in Augenschein genommen: Vor diesem Hintergrund wird überprüft, ob diese tatsächliche Verankerung bzw. Konkretisierung des Ausbaus amerikanischen Vormacht am Widerstand der ausgewählten europäischen Nato-Bündnispartner Frankreich, Deutschland und Großbritannien scheitert. Im Gesamtergebnis zeigt sich, dass aufgrund einer sich entwickelnden komplexen, linear ansteigenden Gesamtbedrohung die Chance zum Ausbau amerikanischer Führungsmacht konstant abnimmt. Dies muss mittels amerikanischer sicherheitspolitischer Anpassung kompensiert werden. Die daher erfolgende amerikanische sicherheitspolitische Neuausrichtung auf Basis der eingeleiteten "Revolution im Militärwesen" modifiziert wiederum die Kennziffern bipolarer kollektiver Sicherheitsgewährleistung. Alles wird mittels tatsächlicher Verankerung der amerikanischen Natotransformationspositionen ermöglicht bzw. legitimiert. Das tatsächliche Erreichen der - die sicherheitspolitische amerikanische Anpassung konsequent weiterführenden - Transformation der Nato ermöglicht eine missionsorientierte, reaktionsbeschleunigende, flexible und globale Sicherheitsprojektion. Außerdem ist die Voraussetzung für "alliances of choice" innerhalb der Nato geschaffen. Weiter zementiert die Modifikation der "bipolaren Nato" die mittels sicherheitspolitischer amerikanischer Anpassung eingeleitete Erosion zentraler zivilisatorischer Errungenschaften bzw. Aufgaben bipolarer kollektiver Sicherheitsgewährleistung unter Vorteilsverringerung europäischer Nato-Bündnispartner. Die tatsächliche Verankerung der Natotransformationspositionen erfolgt mittels der Reaktivierung konventioneller Bedrohung im Kontext der Ukraine-Krise von 2014 und der Erweiterung der Nato-Partnerschaftsringe auf globaler Ebene, ohne diesen den Status eines Nato-Mitgliedsstaates zu gewähren. Damit wird der Bündnisfall nicht globalisiert. Der ausgeübte deutsch-französische Widerstand wird besonders intensiv durch den Einbezug der europäischen Gründungsstaaten befördert, dagegen unterbleibt die Ausbildung einer europäischen Führungstroika durch Frankreich, Deutschland und Großbritannien. Darüber hinaus zeigt insbesondere die entsprechende Ursachenermittlung, dass trotz konstanter, aufeinander aufbauender amerikanischer sicherheitspolitischer Reaktion unter unterschiedlicher Außenwirkung sowie tatsächlicher Weiterführung in der Nato die Gesamtbedrohung nicht langfristig abgebremst wird: Dies führt zu einem konstanten Anstieg der Gesamtbedrohung unter fortlaufendem Einflussverlust staatlicher Akteure bzw. Machtdiffusion und -konzentration samt einer sukzessiven Chancenerhöhung reaktivierter konventioneller, nuklearer, Cyber- und ökologischer Zerstörungsszenarien. Auf dieser Basis entsteht die Konsequenz einer immer umfassenderen und die Reaktion beschleunigende Präzisionsabwehr unter ansteigender Versicherheitlichung, um die kontinuierliche Einengung amerikanischer Vormacht auszugleichen. Dies erzeugt im Fortlauf einen konstanten Abbau der Strahlungs- und Schlagkraft des liberalen, regelbasierten, bipolaren "amerikanischen Systems" sowie der Etablierung "idealistischer, liberaler" "Grand Strategy"-Elemente. Weiter ist damit - auf der Grundlage der aufeinander aufbauenden Natotransformationspositionen sowie Obamas "smart power"(6) im Untersuchungsraum - eine zunehmende Vorteilsverringerung der europäischen Nato-Verbündeten bzw. ein ansteigender Bedarf an US-Kostendämpfung verquickt. Zudem entwickelt sich eine immer geringer werdende Chance zur Entfaltung des postbipolar als "nicht verhandelbar" postulierten und global ausgebreiteten amerikanischen Lebensentwurfes in individueller, innerstaatlicher Ausprägung: Deren Artikulation erfolgt beispielsweise mittels zunehmendem Rechtspopulismus, Wahl von Außenseiterkandidaten, Zerfall traditioneller Parteiensysteme, isolationistischen Tendenzen unter ethnischer, regionaler Erstarkung, und Ablehnung von Supranationalität oder religiösem Fundamentalismus. Gleichzeitig ist die fortlaufende Erosion der globalen öffentlichen Güter identifizierbar. Damit ebnet all das oben Genannte den Boden für die Begrenzung amerikanischer wohlwollender Ordnungsmacht bzw. der Handlungsspielräume staatlicher Akteure - und für die Rückkehr zu klassischer Machtpolitik im Kontext entstandener Machtdiffusion bzw. -konzentration. Dies erschwert angesichts der Dringlichkeit einer langfristigen Eindämmung asymmetrischer bzw. konventioneller Sicherheitsbedrohungsgegenstände, -verstärker, -cluster und globalen Rahmenbedingungen folgende Chance: Nämlich die zu transatlantischer Zusammenarbeit in der Nato unter Wiederbelebung der politischen Organisation derselben sowie Erweiterung auf zusätzliche Ebenen und Akteure im Sinne von Vorbeugung bzw. vernetzter Sicherheit zur Erreichung entsprechender globaler Kooperation in Bezug auf Einhegen der Bedrohungswurzeln. Insgesamt wird durch diese Forschungsarbeit transparent, wie und warum die für den Untersuchungsraum von 1993 bis 2017 antizipierte "Friedensdividende" und das durch Präsident Clinton postulierte "age of hope" kaum spürbar wurden. Fußnoten (1) Vgl. Braml, Josef (2018), Trumps transaktionaler Transatlantizismus, in: Jäger, Thomas (Hrsg.), Zeitschrift für Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik, Oktober 2018, Volume 11, Ausgabe 4, S. 439-448, Wiesbaden. (2) Vgl. National Intelligence Council (Hrsg.) (2012), Global Trends 2013: Alternative Worlds (NIC 2012-001), https://publicintelligence.net/global-trends-2030/, letzter Zugriff: 12.04.19. Vgl. dazu auch das "international financial leadership, self-selected at Davos" bei McCoy, Alfred W. (2017), In the Shadows of the American Century. The Rise and Decline of US Global Power, Chicago. (3) Vgl. zu Bedrohungsverstärkern beispielsweise Mazo, Jeffrey (2010), Climate Conflict. How global warming threatens security and what to do about it, London, Abingdon. 1990 wurde bereits in Bezug auf den Bedrohungsverstärker Klimawandel für die entstehenden asymmetrischen bzw. konventionellen Bedrohungsgegenstände komplexe Cluster konstatiert: "Over the next half century, the global average temperature may increase by approximately 4 degrees C. (…) All nations will be affected. (…) How much time will there be to confirm the amount of change and then to act? (…) However, many believe that we will have waited too lang to avoid major dislocation, hardship and conflict - on a scale not as yet seen by man". Vgl. Kelley, Terry P. (1990), Global Climate Change. Implications For The United States Navy (The United States Naval War College, Newport, RI), http://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/weather/climatechange/globalclimatechange-navy.pdf, letzter Zugriff: 30.03.19. Dies lässt Hinweise auf die sich entwickelnde, konstant ansteigende Gesamtbedrohung im Untersuchungsraum von 1993-2017 zu. (4) Vgl. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. (1973), The Imperial Presidency, Boston. (5) Die amerikanisch vorgeschlagenen Positionen zur Anpassung der Nato, die Nato Response Force sowie die Global Partnership Initiative, werden als "Natotransformationspositionen" bezeichnet: Mit deren tatsächlicher Etablierung war eine Transformation der Nato in konsequenter Weiterführung amerikanisch erfolgter sicherheitspolitischer Anpassung verknüpft. (6) Smart power geht auf Suzanne Nossel, Mitarbeiterin des UN-Botschafters Holbrooke während der Clinton-Administration, zurück: Vgl. Nossel, Suzanne (2004), Smart Power. Reclaiming Liberal Internationalism, http://www.democracyarsenal.org/SmartPowerFA.pdf, letzter Zugriff: 26.08.17. Weiter wird er Joseph Nye im Jahre 2003 als Reaktion auf die unilaterale Konzentration auf das militärische Instrument der G.W. Bush–Ära zugeschrieben. Vgl. Nye, Joseph S. Jr. (2011), The Future of Power, New York bzw. Nye, Joseph S. Jr. (2011), Macht im 21sten Jahrhundert. Politische Strategien für ein neues Zeitalter, München. Vgl. Rodham Clinton, Hillary (2010), Leading Through Civilan Power. Redefining American Diplomacy and Development, in: Foreign Affairs, November/December 2010, Vol. 89, No.6, S. 13-24. ; Aims and findings of the dissertation The completed research uses holistic, politological and historical approaches to present how, during the studied period of the administrations of Clinton to Obama, the liberal, rule-based world order system is gradually supplemented and replaced by a system of realist imposition of vital interests that have short-term effects, preferring military means combined with continuous military optimisation. This also explains a continuity between the leading-power policy of administrations in this study (1993-2017) and the subsequent period of the "transactional leadership of Trump"(1), with its recognizable, far-reaching effects of aiming to reduce idealistic Grand Strategy elements and measures of a benevolent order by passing on costs to and reducing the benefits of European NATO allies. The results of this dissertation, such as the increasingly evident dissolution of a multilateral fundamental order, therefore indicate that Trump's foreign and security policy to date should be regarded as a clearly noticeable crisis symptom, rather than the cause of a decline in the world order established after 1945. This decline is synonymous with the erosion of the transatlantically initiated bipolar "American system". Its implementation was the result of the "lesson of two world wars", based on modern concepts of order introduced by the Enlightenment and the founding criteria of the United States: thus its dissolution is also an indicator of the failure of contemporary criteria of order that thrive in the "American way of life". The cause of the described development is shown to be a constantly exacerbating overall threat, from Clinton to Obama, which is connected to the consistent erosion of US supremacy. Among other aspects, this is based on climate change effects postulated in 1979, which multiply the threat while coinciding with American peak production of fossil fuels and increased demand on resources in the context of dwindling raw material resources. Furthermore, during the period of this study, the "US conservative revolution", which began in the 1980s, increasingly affected foreign and security policy, combining with a consolidation in the influence of corporations and lobby groups in fields such as policy implementation and new underlying conditions. They include the onset of digitisation, entailing a high consumption of resources, and a growing world population faced with specific demographic indicators. Additionally, the maintenance of the armaments sector, originally a result of bipolar development, as the economic basis of military supremacy and the slow decline of the Dollar hegemony since around 1973, should also be taken into account. Complex interaction between Grand Strategy implementation according to the premise of expanding US-American dominance under neoconservative and Christian Right-wing influences, as well as asymmetrical and reactivated conventional security threats and threat multipliers clearly indicate the linear development of the overall threat in the period between 1993 and 2017: in the context of Grand Strategy statements, above all the understanding of defence against this threat, of the latter's multiplying factors and the market economy explains the following with respect to the US far-right in a complex interaction with the growth of transnational corporations, lobby groups, individuals(2), informal networks and state actors with respect to objects of threat and threat multipliers(3) in connection with the post-bipolar, global anchoring of US economic and consumer patterns: US adaptation of its reaction to this threat – while consolidating imperial presidency(4) and weakening the system of checks and balances – including its implications of a bipolar liberal order. In this way, the necessary continued leadership within NATO through the US-proposed NATO reform can be seen as an appropriate implementation of transformed threat-reaction measures and the legitimisation of systemic adaptation. It equally becomes clear that the established threat reaction measures only provide a short-term defence: instead, they enhance the asymmetric and conventional threat, as well as threat multipliers – by introducing arms races and breaking down arms control – thereby heightening the overall threat. The consequence is the consistently growing likelihood of a conflict of hitherto unimaginable proportions. At the same time, the urgent need to mobilise transatlantic cooperation with respect to supporting global cooperation between state and non-government actors is illustrated with respect to the roots of the threat and its deteriorating underlying conditions: each increase in the overall threat, the adapted US security policy and its continuation in NATO is connected to an erosion of rule-based underlying criteria during the studied period. This continuously and consistently undermines the basis of the above-stated, ever-increasingly important cooperation, to prevent or at least limit the successive erosion of the bipolar "American system" under future dystopias. The research results completely overturn the state of research to date, since for instance it is possible to show that, by means of NATO transformation findings, no transatlantic sharing of burdens on an equal footing and no NATO reform in accordance with its founding principles can be achieved. The same also applies to European opposition to the actual anchoring of NATO transformation positions(5), which is based on the erosion of the bipolar liberal order system and the maintenance of US advantages as well as the consolidation of particular interests they facilitate. Furthermore, it is apparent that a line of continuity in the threat-reaction measures from Clinton to Obama exists with varying external effects, along with an underlying pattern of "Battleship America" – as opposed to a multilaterally orientated foreign and security policy under Clinton, which merged into a unilateral, radical swing under G. W. Bush 43 following 9/11, but was reverted by the Obama administration. A comprehensive wealth of literature was used of the doctoral thesis, as reflected by the extensive bibliography: they firstly include diverse American and European publications, monographs and relevant secondary literature, including biographies, publications of various kinds of important political planning and implementation, as well as collected volumes and research articles from specialist journals on all fields of research and politological methodology and theory. The same applies to publications by leading European and American institutions, research centres and think tanks. Furthermore, this author used publications and documents by governments, foreign ministries, defence ministries, other government bodies and Nato. Dissertation structure This dissertation is divided into two volumes and one Appendix: Volume 1 discusses Focus 1, namely a process-tracing in the context of offensive neorealist positioning. Volume 2 presents Focus 2, which is based on the preceding focus in making a structured, focussed comparison in the context of defensive neorealist positioning. The Appendix volume contains further discussion of Chapter 1, Volume 1 with respect to the state of research, literature and sources, theoretical positioning and the choice of the region of study and selected European NATO partners. Furthermore, a historical chapter provides underlying information for process-tracing in Chapter 2, Volume 1, an index of images and abbreviations, and a bibliography. The entire dissertation uses qualitative methods to focus on these two mutually supporting, building on each other, themes to investigate the following from a US-perspective: firstly the overriding US security-policy reaction to a new overall threat and secondly, its continuation combined with the opportunity of for enabling and legitimising it within and through NATO during the studied period from Clinton to Obama. Based on the first part of this hypothesis, Focus 1 (Volume 1) establishes a connection between, on the one hand, maintaining the bipolar Grand Strategy target of consolidating the USA as a leading, regulating power, bipolar foreign-policy Grand Strategy indicators and a new overall threat that is developing in a complex way, and, on the other, the necessity of its continued leadership within NATO and the required NATO transformation according to US-proposed NATO transformation positions. Focus 2 (Volume 2) is based on the second part of the hypothesis, investigating the transatlantic negotiation process to establish these US-proposed NATO transformation positions: in this context, Volume 2 investigates whether the attempt to actually secure and consolidate such US supremacy was unsuccessful in the face of resistance from selected European NATO partners, namely France, Germany and the United Kingdom. The overall result shows that due to a complex, developing, linear increase in the overall threat, the chance for the USA to consolidate its status as a leading power is steadily diminishing. This must be compensated by adapting US security policy. The resulting American security-policy realignment based on the initiated "revolution in military affairs" in turn modifies the indicators of bipolar collective security guarantees. Everything is enabled and legitimised by means of actually securing US NATO-transformation positions. The actual implementation of such NATO transformation – representing the consistent adaptation of US security policy – enables a mission-orientated, rapid response, flexible, global security projection. It also creates conditions for "alliances of choice" within NATO. Furthermore, the modification of a "bipolar NATO" exacerbates the erosion of key achievements of civilisation as a result of adapted US security policy, as well as undermining the tasks of bipolar collective security guarantees through diminished benefits to European NATO partners. The actual anchoring of NATO transformation positions is achieved by reactivating the conventional threat in the context of the Ukraine crisis of 2014 and the extension of NATO partnership rings on a global level, without providing them with NATO membership status, thus avoiding globalisation in a mutual defence case. The German and French resistance is particularly intensive through the involvement of European founder states, while the formation of a European leadership triumvirate consisting of France, Germany and the United Kingdom does not take place. Moreover, a relevant investigation of causes particularly shows that despite constant mutually supporting US security reaction measures with varying international effects and actual continued leadership within NATO, the overall threat is not receding: this leads to a constant increase in the overall threat, a loss of influence of state actors, the diffusion and concentration of power and the increased probability of reactive conventional, nuclear, cyber and ecological destruction scenarios. On this basis, the consequence is an increasingly comprehensive and rapidly responding precision defence combined with growing securitization to compensate for the ongoing containment of US supremacy. This developing process steadily diminishes the reach and power of a liberal, rule-based, bipolar "American system" and the establishment of "idealistic, liberal" elements of US-Grand Strategy. This entails a further reduction in benefits for European NATO allies and increasing US cost-cutting demands – based on the successive NATO transformation positions that build on each other and Obama's "smart power"(6) during the period studied in this dissertation. Thus the chance is receding of developing the post-bipolar, globally adopted American way of life with individual national character, which is regarded as "non-negotiable": for instance its articulation is expressed through increasing right-wing populism, the election of outsider-candidates, the dissolution of traditional party systems, isolationist tendencies combined with burgeoning ethnic, regional movements, the rejection of supranationalism, and religious fundamentalism. At the same time, the ongoing erosion of global public goods is apparent. This all paves the way to limiting the benevolent American regulating power and state actors' leverage – and therefore to a return to classic power politics in the context of a resulting diffusion and concentration of power. In view of the urgency of a long-term containment of asymmetrical or conventional threats to security, or aspects that exacerbate such threats or clusters thereof, as well as underlying global conditions, this undermines the ability to achieve the following: to achieve transatlantic cooperation by broadening the range of levels and actors in the spirit of proactive and expanded, networked security to achieve according global cooperation with respect to containing the root causes of threats. Overall, this research work reveals how and why the anticipated "peace dividend" and the notion of an "age of hope", as postulated by President Clinton, were hardly perceptible during the period of study between 1993 and 2017. Notes (1) Cf. Braml, Josef (2018), Trumps transaktionaler Transatlantizismus, in: Jäger, Thomas (Hrsg.), Zeitschrift für Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik, Oktober 2018, Volume 11, Ausgabe 4, S. 439-448, Wiesbaden. (2) Cf. National Intelligence Council (Ed.) (2012), Global Trends 2013: Alternative Worlds (NIC 2012-001), https://publicintelligence.net/global-trends-2030/, last accessed: 12.04.19. See also the "international financial leadership, self-selected at Davos" cit. McCoy, Alfred W. (2017), In the Shadows of the American Century. The Rise and Decline of US Global Power, Chicago. (3) In 1990, the threat-enhancing nature of climate change was already postulated with respect to asymmetric objects of threat as well as conventional and complex clusters: "Over the next half century, the global average temperature may increase by approximately 4 degrees C. (…) All nations will be affected. (…) How much time will there be to confirm the amount of change and then to act? (…) However, many believe that we will have waited too long to avoid major dislocation, hardship and conflict – on a scale not as yet seen by man". Cf. Kelley, Terry P. (1990), Global Climate Change. Implications For The United States Navy (The United States Naval War College, Newport, RI), http://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/weather/climatechange/globalclimatechange-navy.pdf, last accessed: 30.03.19. Cf. Mazo, Jeffrey (2010), Climate Conflict. How global warming threatens security and what to do about it, London, Abingdon. This supports the thesis of a developing, constant overall threat during the period between 1993 and 2017. (4) Cf. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. (1973), The Imperial Presidency, Boston. (5) In this dissertation, the proposed US positions on NATO adaptation, the NATO Response Force and the Global Partnership Initiative are described as "NATO transformation positions": Their actual establishment was connected to a NATO transformation with the consistent continuation of adapted US security policy. (6) Cf. Nossel, Suzanne (2004), Smart Power. Reclaiming Liberal Internationalism, http://www.democracyarsenal.org/SmartPowerFA.pdf, last accessed: 26.08.17, Nye, Joseph S. Jr. (2011), The Future of Power, New York, Nye, Joseph S. Jr. (2011), Macht im 21sten Jahrhundert. Politische Strategien für ein neues Zeitalter, München, Rodham Clinton, Hillary (2010), Leading Through Civilan Power. Redefining American Diplomacy and Development, in: Foreign Affairs, November/December 2010, Vol. 89, No.6, S. 13-24.
Rangelands sind weltweit Lebensgrundlage für hunderte von Millionen Bauern. Eine weithin akzeptierte Definition stammt von der American Society for Range Management (zitiert nach McGuire 1978): Rangelands are "…lands on which the native vegetation is predominantly grasses, grass like plants, forbs or shrubs suitable for grazing or browsing use which includes lands revegetated naturally or artificially to provide a forage cover that is managed like native vegetation….". Vorrangig sind Rangelands in semi-ariden Gebieten zu finden – dort sind aufgrund von zu geringen oder ungleich im Jahresgang verteilten Niederschlägen zumeist andere agrarwirtschaftliche Nutzungen als Weide, wenn überhaupt, nur nachrangig zu finden. Im Iran sind die semi-ariden Rangelands die flächenmäßig größten terrestrischen Ökosysteme. Die in der Literatur genannten Schätzungen variieren – mit Badripour et al. (2006) kann man von knapp 55 % der Landoberfläche des Iran ausgehen. Rangelands sind für den Iran von herausragender gesellschaftlicher Bedeutung (mehr als 2,5 Mill. Menschen leben als Semi-Nomaden in verschiedensten Form von der Weidenutzung der Rangelands) und von großer ökonomischer Bedeutung (rund 6 % des inländischen Bruttosozialprodukts werden in den Rangelands erwirtschaftet, insbesondere durch Produkte wie Fleisch, medizinische Pflanzen und Kräuter sowie Honig). Darüber hinaus kommt den Rangelands hohe ökologische Bedeutung zu (Schutzfunktionen, Biodiversität). Seit vielen Jahrzehnten wird in der Literatur von dramatischen Degradationen der Rangelands berichtet, verursacht durch Fehl- und Übernutzungen (Weide zur Unzeit, jahreszeitlich zu lange Weide, Überbesatz an Vieh usw.). Staatliche Programme wie der "Rangeland Management Plan" (RMP) und "Grazing Licences" (GL) haben diese Zerstörungen der Rangelands durch Fehl- und Übernutzung nur partiell aufhalten können. Offensichtlich ist die tatsächliche Nutzung der Rangelands maßgeblich durch informale (nichtstaatliche, lokale) Regeln und nicht durch staatliche Regulierung geprägt. Fragestellungen der Arbeit Zentrale Anliegen vorliegender Arbeit sind • die Beschreibung der Nutzungssysteme der Rangelands im Iran, wie sie in der Praxis tatsächlich vorzufinden sind und • die Erklärung der Prozesse der dramatischen Degradationen der Rangelands als Auswirkungen des Handelns der Semi-Nomaden im Spannungsfeld von staatlichen Programmen und informalen Institutionen vor Ort. Zur Grobgliederung Die Arbeit ist in drei große Hauptkapitel gegliedert. Basierend auf den Theorien der Neuen Institutionenökonomik, besonders auf den Arbeiten von Ostrom, wird in Kapitel B eine sozioökonomische Analyse der Landnutzung in Iran durchgeführt. Diese bildet den theoretischen Rahmen für die nachfolgenden empirischen Studien. Die Übernutzung des Weidelands wird erklärt als Auswirkung des Handelns der lokalen Nutzer, die nicht die Möglichkeit haben, die sozialen Bedingungen wie die Eigenschaften der Ressourcen oder die kulturellen Traditionen direkt zu beeinflussen. In Kapitel C werden die Ergebnisse der empirischen Fallstudie präsentiert sowie die verschiedenen identifizierten Landnutzungssysteme der Untersuchungsregion Semnan vorgestellt. In Kapitel D werden die Ergebnisse der sozioökonomischen Analyse, die hauptsächlich auf Literaturrecherchen basieren, in Verbindung gebracht mit den Ergebnissen der empirischen Studie. Abschließend werden Schlussfolgerungen zur Rangeland-Nutzung im Iran gezogen und offene Forschungsfragen angesprochen. Literaturüberblick: Probleme des Managements der Rangelands im Iran (Kapitel B I) Kapitel B I dient der ausführlichen Information zu der o. g. Problemstellung. Es wird ein Überblick gegeben über die ökologischen Eigenschaften der Rangelands des Iran, ihre Produktivität für Viehwirtschaft sowie ihre Vielgestaltigkeit aus Sicht der Nutzung durch Nomaden und Bauern. In einem umfänglichen historischen Rückblick werden die staatlichen Bemühungen um Steuerung der nachhaltigen Nutzung der Rangelands seit der islamischen Revolution 1978 erläutert. Theoretischer Bezugsrahmen: Management von Common Pool Ressourcen aus Sicht der Neuen Institutionenökonomik (NIE) (Kapitel B II) Theoretische Grundlegung für die Arbeit sind die Theorien der NIE, insbesondere die Arbeit von Ostrom. In Abgrenzung vor allem zur neoklassischen Ökonomik wird zunächst dargelegt, worin der wissenschaftliche Fortschritt mit der zusätzlichen Betrachtung von informalen und formalen Institutionen zur Erklärung von Nutzungssytemen von Common Pool Ressourcen besteht. Die diesbezüglichen Grundlagen der NIE werden ausführlich dargelegt und dienen schließlich (in enger Anlehnung an die Arbeiten von Ostrom) zur Entwicklung eines Modells der Nutzung von Rangelands im Iran. "Property in Use Systeme" (PUR) werden strukturiert durch die so genannte "action arena", umschrieben als alle das jeweilige lokale Handeln bestimmenden formalen und informalen Institutionen. Dieses Nutzungshandeln hat ökologische, ökonomische und soziale Gegebenheiten zur Folge (die so genannten "outcomes"). Die empirisch feststellbaren Unterschiede lokaler PURs werden erklärt mit unterschiedlich vorzufindenden Eigenschaften der Ressource Rangeland, der lokalen Gruppenzugehörigkeit, des Dorfes/der Stadt und der vorgebenen Märkte. Dieses Modell dient als theoretischer Bezugsrahmen für die folgenden empirischen Studien. Gründe für die Auswahl der Untersuchungsregion Semnan Die Hauptkriterien für die Auswahl der Untersuchungsregion waren: • Zugang und ausreichende Daten und Informationen zu den ökologischen Bedingungen der Rangelands • Die Vergleichbarkeit der eigenen Daten mit anderen Forschungsprojekten und Studien über Rangeland-Nutzung in Iran Zugang zu ausreichenden Daten und Informationen über die ökologischen Bedingungen der Rangelands des Iran zu bekommen ist keine triviale Angelegenheit aufgrund der großen räumlichen Ausdehnung der Ranglands. Daher war der Zugang zu ausreichenden Informationen zu den ökologischen Bedingungen eines der Hauptkriterien für die Auswahl der Untersuchungsregion. Für nahezu alle Rangelands der Untersuchungsregion waren Informationen zu der Futtermittel-Produktivität der Weiden mit Bezug zu den Rangeland Management Plänen (RMP) oder den Weide-Lizenzen (GL) zugänglich. Die Vergleichbarkeit der Daten mit anderen Forschungsprojekten und Studien über Weideland-Nutzung in Iran war das zweite Auswahlkriterium. Die Auswahl der Kriterien erfolgte mit Hilfe der staatlichen "Forest, Range and Watershed Management Organization" im Iran. Die Ziele der empirischen Studie Die Ziele waren • den Diffusionsprozess und die Diffusionsgeschwindigkeit des "Rangeland Management Plans" in der Region Semnan zu analysieren, • die Landparzellen in der Region Semnan zu beschreiben sowie die Wahrnehmung der Nutzer in Bezug auf die Rangeland-Bedingungen and den Zweck der Landnutzung zu untersuchen, • die Reaktion der Nomaden bzw. Halb-Nomaden auf die staatlichen Regulationsversuche zu analysieren, • die Typen der informellen Institutionen, die aktuell in Semnan angewendet werden, zu identifizieren, • die Typen der informellen Institutionen in Bezug auf das jeweils angewendete Nutzungsregime zu klassifizieren, • Faktoren zu identifizieren, die das jeweils angewendete Nutzungsregime beeinflussen, • die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Umsetzung des "Rangeland Management Plans" in der Region Semnan aus Sicht der Nutzer mit Hilfe der identifizierten Faktoren abzuschätzen. Methoden An den Fragestellungen pragmatisch orientiert kamen verschiedenste Methoden zur Anwendung: Dokumentenanalysen (v. a. offizielle Statistiken und Dokumente), Literaturanalysen (wissenschaftliche Arbeiten verschiedenster Disziplinen zur Nutzung der Rangelands in Semnan, darüber hinaus für Vergleichszecke aber auch mit Bezug zu anderen Regionen im Iran und weltweit) sowie Methoden der quantitativen empirischen Sozialforschung (Interviews, Datenauswertung mittels beschreibender und schließender Statistik) und der qualitativen empirischen Sozialforschung. Ergebnisse Teilstudie 1: Der Diffusionsprozess der staatlichen Poltikinstrumente "Rangeland Management Plans"(RMP) und "Grazing Lizence"(GL) (Kapitel C IV) Dieses Kapitel beginnt mit einer Beschreibung des Diffusionsprozesses des "Rangeland Management Plans" in der Untersuchungsregion. Auf die Analyse der regionalen Unterschiede folgt eine Einführung in das so genannte "Bass Modell" (nach Bass (1969); siehe auch Kapitel B II 4.1). In dem "Bass Modell" werden die Koeffizienten geschätzt, die den Diffusionsprozess der RMP und GL in Semnan beschreiben. Das Modell liefert u. a. Hinweise zur Diffusionsgeschwindigkeit, mit der die lokalen Nutzer die Innovation umsetzen. Die Geschwindigkeit wird mit den folgenden Koeffizienten geschätzt: • Koeffizient p schätzt die individuelle Tendenz die Innovation anzuwenden • Koeffizient q schätzt den Einfluss von vorherigen Nutzern auf potentielle Nutzer Ergebnisse Teilstudie 2: Einstellungen der lokalen Nutzer der Rangelands zu den staatlichen Programmen RMP und GL (Kapitel C V) Dieses Kapitel beginnt mit einer Beschreibung der Landparzellen in Semnan, die für die Analyse der Perspektive der Nutzer im Hinblick auf RMP und GL genutzt werden. Die Stichprobe wird zunächst hinsichtlich soziodemographischer Charakteristika der Befragten beschrieben (n = 70). Die Nutzer wurden zu ihren Wahrnehmungen bezüglich der Bedingungen der Rangelands sowie bezüglich der Zwecke der Landnutzung befragt. U. a. werden folgende Aspekte von den Nutzern herausgestellt: • Vorteile wie die Bestimmung der Landgrenzen • Nachteile wie fehlender Zugang, hohe Anpassungskosten und reduziertes Einkommen • Kompatibilität der "Rangeland Management Plans" mit den Traditionen • Problem der "Sichtbarkeit" der Auswirkungen des RMP • Trockenheit als (vermeintlicher) Hauptgrund für Degradationen • Mißtrauen in das staatliche Regulierungssystem • Eigentumsverhältnisse und Privatisierung Das Kapitel endet mit einer Diskussion zu den wichtigsten Ergebnissen. Ergebnisse Teilstudie 3: Aktuelle informelle Institutionen (Kapitel C VI) Zunächst wird ein historischer Überblick zum Rangland-Management in der Untersuchungsregion gegeben. Staatliche Programme und die Reaktion der Nomaden auf diese Programme werden literaturgestützt beschrieben. Anhand der Analyse der derzeitigen informellen Institutionen werden Gründe für die Etablierung von Nutzungsregeln (Strategien) identifiziert sowie die Existenz von Sanktionen erklärt. Ergebnisse Teilstudie 4: Aktuelle "Property in Use Systeme" (PUR) (Kapitel C VII) Dieses Kapitel knüpft an die vorherigen Teilstudien mit einer Klassifikation der identifizierten informellen Strategien an. Es werden "Property in Use Strategien" (in Bezug auf Eigentumsrechte), "Production in Use Strategien" (in Bezug auf Produktion) und "Exclusion in Use Strategien" (in Bezug auf Ausschluss-Optionen) identifiziert. Jede dieser Strategie wird detailliert in Beziehung gesetzt zu den jeweils vorgefundenen Eigentumsrechten im Untersuchungsgebiet. Der Begriff "Property in Use Regimes" (PUR) dient zur Klassifizierung von typischen "Mustern" der kombinierten Nutzung von oben genannten Strategien. Es wurden vier Nutzungsregime identifiziert: • unregulated common property regime (UCPR) ("nicht reguliertes Nutzungsregime") • common property regime with rotational access (CR) ("Nutzungsregime mit turnusmäßigem Zugang") • common property regime with a unique decision maker (CU) ("Nutzungsregime mit einem einzigen Entscheidungsträger") • Mini common property regime (Mini) ("Mini-Nutzungsregime") Diese Nutzungsregime unterscheiden sich deutlich bezüglich wesentlicher Einflussfaktoren wie "resource characteristics" (Eigenschaften der Ressourcen), "village characteristics" (Eigenschaften der untersuchten Gemeinden) und "group characteristics" (Eigenschaften der Gruppen bzw. Gruppenzugehörigkeit"). Um die jeweils zentralen Einflussfaktoren für die verschiedenen Nutzungsregime zu bestimmen, kamen die statistischen Modelle der Faktorenanalyse, der Varianzanalyse und der multinomialen logistischen Regression zur Anwendung. Als wesentliche Größen werden bezüglich "resource characteristics" die Faktoren Winter-, Sommer- und Frühlings- Weideland), bezüglich der "village characteristics" die Faktoren Bevölkerungsdichte und "Dorf-Typ" sowie bezüglich der "group characteristics" die Faktoren Alter, Beruf, Bildung, Einkommen, Wohnort und Größe der Herde in die Analyse einbezogen. Mittels der multinomialen logistischen Regression kann einerseits die Wahrscheinlichkeit bestimmt werden, mit der das jeweilige Nutzungsregime tatsächlich zur Anwendung gelangt. Zum anderen kann gezeigt werden, dass die verschiedenen Nutzungsregime in unterschiedlichem Maße zur Degradation der Rangelands beitragen. Schlussfolgerung Die empirischen Ergebnisse zur Nutzung der Rangelands in Semnan zeigen, dass die Nutzer unabhängig von den staatlichen Regulierungsversuchen ihre eigenen Regeln entwickelt haben. Ein großer Teil der lokalen Institutionen, die mit dem Rangeland-Management verknüpft sind, haben den Status von "Strategien" und sind nicht als Normen internalisiert. Daher kann geschlussfolgert werden, dass die lokalen Institutionen noch in der Entwicklung sind. Dies kann als große Chance der Gestaltung gesehen werden. Es scheint Möglichkeiten zu geben, die existierenden Institutionen des Rangeland-Managements zu verbessern oder gar neue institutionelle Regeln zu entwickeln. Die Befragungen haben verschiedene Gründe für die Nicht-Umsetzung des RMP aufgedeckt: • Die "Nicht-Sichtbarakeit der oben definierten "outcomes" und der Nutzenstiftungen, die mit dem Plan verbunden sind • Fehlendes Wissen über den RMP • Fehlendes Vertrauen in den Staat und die Besitzverhältnisse • Einschätzungen zum Problem der Trockenheit . Ein Lösungsvorschlag zur "Nicht-Sichtbarkeit" der Wirkungen der RMP ist die Bereitstellung von Informationen, z.B. durch Informationskampagnen. Öffentlichkeitsarbeit und Zugang der lokalen Bevölkerung zu derartigen Informationen sollte sichergestellt werden. Workshops, Fernsehen und Radio sowie symbolische Zeremonien für die kooperativen Gruppen sind Vorschläge aus der ausgewerteten Literatur (siehe hierzu Hejazi 2007). Ein Lösungsvorschlag für das fehlende Vertrauen in den Staat sowie in die Besitzverhältnisse könnte die Privatisierung sein. Zwar hatten die Nutzer kein besonderes Interesse an der Privatisierung der Rangelands. Die Ergebnisse haben aber gezeigt, dass Sommer-Weiden im Gegensatz zu Winter-Weiden bevorzugt wurden. Allerdings konnten keine Gründe für diese Präferenzen in der vorliegenden Untersuchung identifiziert werden. Für das Problem der Einschätzungen zur Bedeutung von Trockenheit für die Degradationen wird empfohlen, ein ausführliches Monitoring von Trockenheitsperioden bzw. -zyklen mit ihren Langzeitwirkungen auf die Nutzungsregime zu etablieren. Im Hinblick auf die Equilibrium-Theorie (Gleichgewichtstheorie) sollte beispielsweise untersucht werden, ob und inwiefern Rangelands im Iran die Bedingungen des Gleichgewichts überhaupt erfüllen. Ein derartiges Monitoring könnte positiven Einfluss auf den Erfolg von staatlichen Programmen wie RMP haben. Ein weiterer Lösungsvorschlag wäre die Folgen von Trockenperioden mit entsprechenden Managementmaßnahmen zu begegnen - z. B. die Fütterung während der Weide-Pausen sicherzustellen und Pläne hierfür weiter zu entwickeln. Eine Alternative zu den staatlichen Regulierungen könnten schließlich selbstregulierte Systeme sein. Ohne Zweifel würde die Entwicklung von selbstregulierten Systemen der gemeinsamen Nutzung der Rangeland insbesondere wegen der Vielfalt und der Vielschichtigkeit der Interessen der lokalen Nutzer sowie der Transaktionskosten für Vereinbarungen bzw. Verhandlungen große Anstrengungen erfordern (Houtte 2001, Macadam and Drinan 2004, McAdams and Rasmusen 2007), Derartige Systeme böten aber immerhin eine Option, die derzeitige Situation im Hinblick auf die Bedürfnisse der lokalen Nutzer zu verändern bzw. eventuell zu verbessern – z. B. zu veränderter Einkommenssituation beizutragen. Die Weitergabe von für das Rangeland-Management wichtigen Informationen könnten innerhalb eines selbstregulierten Systems - unabhängig von staatlichen Regulierungen - eine Lösungsstrategie für das fehlende Wissen sein. Ein selbstreguliertes Systems würde schließlich dem Problem des fehlenden Vertrauens in die staatlichen Regulierungen entgegen wirken. ; Rangelands are the livelihood for hundreds of millions of farmers-. An widely accepted definition from the American Society for Range Management (cited after McGuire 1978) is: Rangelands are "…lands on which the native vegetation is predominantly grasses, grass like plants, forbs or shrubs suitable for grazing or browsing use which includes lands revegetated naturally or artificially to provide a forage cover that is managed like native vegetation….". Rangelands can be found previously in semi-arid areas – due to this fact other agricultural uses than pasture can be found rarely. In Iran, the semi-arid rangelands cover the majority of the terrestrial areas. Regarding the area of rangeland in Iran, different figures can be find in the literature, due to using various definitions. Badripou et al. (2006) estimate that 55% of the Iranian land is occupied by rangelands. Rangelands have a great importance for the society - more than 2.5 million people live as semi-nomads in different regions. The rangelands are also of great economic importance, 6% of the gross national product are meat, medical plants, herbs, and honey. Moreover, the rangelands fulfil important ecological functions such as the provision of biodiversity and the maintenance and preservation of biotic cycles. Since several decades there has been reported dramatic degradation of the rangelands, mainly affected by overuse (untimely grazing, overexploitation and overstocking). Governmental plans as the rangeland management plan and grazing licences rarely contributed to the problem of overgrazing. Obviously the informal institutions play the most important role in extracting the rangeland resources. The central aims of the thesis are • to describe the practical systems of rangeland management in Iran (the case study of Semnan) • To find explanations of the processes of the dramatic degradation of the rangelands as effects of acting of the semi-nomads in the face of governmental programs and informal institutions applied in Semnan Province Structure of the thesis The thesis is structure in three main parts. The following two research approaches are used to answer these central objectives: • Based on the theories of New Institutional Economics, especially Elenor Ostrom 's literature on the common property management and an extensive socio-economic analysis of land use in Iran, the theoretical framework for the empirical study is developed in chapter B. This framework presents the overuse of rangelands as effect of local institutions that were rarely influenced by the cultural traditions, instead the "resource characteristics", "group characteristics", "village characteristics" and "market. • Based on this theoretical framework, chapter C presents the empirical case study to describe and explain the different rangeland use regimes in Semnan Province. • In chapter D, the results from the predominantly literature based analysis of socio-economic conditions in Semnan Province are connected with results from the empirical case study. Conclusions for rangeland management in Iran are drawn and questions for further research are recommended. Literature overview: Problems of the management of the rangelands in Iran (Chapter BI) Chapter BI gives detailed information on the stated problem. An overview is being given in terms of ecological characteristics of the rangelands in Iran, the productivity of livestock, diversity in terms of usage by nomads and farmers. A historical outline of the governmental programs to regulate sustainable use of rangelands since the Islamic revolution in 1978 is given. Theoretical frame: management of common pool resources from the perspective of New Institutional Economics (NIE) (Chapter BII) The theoretical frame of the thesis are the findings of New Institutional Economics (NIE), especially Ostrom. Against the background of neoclassical economics the scientific progress of the view of informal and formal institutions in terms of explanation of using systems of common pool resources is presented. The background of NIE is described in detail (mainly referring to Ostrom) and serve for the development of a model of rangeland management in Iran. Property in-use regimes (PURs) are being structured by the so-called "action arena", and are referred to the informal institutions associated with property rights. Empirically observable differences of local PURs are explained in terms of characteristics of the rangeland resources, the characteristics of the users' groups, characteristics of the study villages and the given markets. The model serves as theoretical background for the following empirical studies. Reasons for choosing Semnan Province as research area The main criteria for the selection of Semnan Province as the research area were: • Access and sufficient data information on ecological conditions of the rangelands including ecological quality • An accessibility to a rich source of collected data since many research studies on Iranian rangelands have been conducted in this area To get access and sufficient data information on ecological conditions of the rangelands in Iran is not trivial due to the difficulty of the large size of the rangelands. Therefore, accessibility to rich information on the ecological quality of investigated rangelands formed the main criteria for the site selection. For almost all of rangelands in the study area, information on the forage productivity in terms of grazing (carrying capacity) was accessible through either Range Management Plans or Grazing Licenses. In addition, many research studies in Iranian rangelands, on the field of rangeland ecology were conducted in this area. The selection criteria were based on the Forest, Range and Watershed Management Organization . The specified objectives of the case study are: • To analyse the diffusion process and the diffusion speed of the RMP in Semnan Province • To describe the land parcels in Semnan Province and to identify the perception of the rangeland conditions and the purpose of land use from the perspective of the users • To analyse the reaction of the nomads on Governmental campaigns • To identify the type of the informal institutions currently applied in the study area • To classify the applied property regimes based on the informal property institutions • To identify factors that influence the applied regime • To estimate the possibility of implementing the defined property regimes by the users 'groups Methods According to the research questions, different methods were used for collecting data and data analysis: literature review (scientific papers from different disciplines on the use and management of rangeland of Semnan Province but also other regions in Iran for the comparison of results), document analysis (mainly official statistics such as excel data files and documents), methods of quantitative social research such as interviews and descriptive statistics as well as methods of qualitative social research. Results from the first part of the case study: diffusion process of the governmental policy instruments - the rangeland management plan (RMP) and Grazing Licences (GL) (Chapter C IV) This chapter starts with a description of the diffusion process of the RMP in the study area. Having the analysis of regional differences, the Bass model, derived from the theory of diffusion, is applied (see also chapter B II 4.1). The Bass model is used to estimate the coefficients related to the rates of adoption of the two study areas Semnan and Damghan to the RMP. The model describes the diffusion speed, at which the potential adopters implement the innovation. The speed is estimated via two coefficients • coefficient p measuring the individual tendency to apply the innovation • coefficient q measuring the influence of the former adopters on the potential adopters' to apply the innovation Results from the second part of the case study: attitude and perception of local users of the rangelands towards the governmental policy instruments RMP and GL (Chapter C V) This chapter starts with a description of the land parcels in Semnan Province which are used for the analysis of the users' perspective towards the RMP. The study sample is described in terms of socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents (n = 70).The users perspective of rangeland is presented in terms of landholders perception of the rangeland conditions and the purpose of land use. Several attributes are identified from the perspective of the users: • advantages such as determination of land boundary • disadvantages such as lack of accessibility, high adjustment costs and reduced income • compatibility such as match of the plan with the local knowledge • observability such as visible effects of the plan • other factors such as drought and trust about the state system • common ownership such as privatization The chapter ends with a discussion on the main findings. Results from the third part of the case study: The currently applied informal institutions (Chapter C VI) Chapter six starts with an overview of the history of rangeland management in the study area. Governmental campaigns and the reaction of the nomads on these campaigns are described. The analysis of current informal institutions results in the identification of reasons for rule establishment and the existence of sanctions. The institutions for the study region are identified as strategies. The chapter ends with a conclusion of the main findings. Results from part four of the case study: Current Property in-use regimes in Semnan Province (Chapter C VII) This chapter begins with the classification of the identified informal strategies. The classification results in property in-use strategies, production in-use strategies and exclusion in-use strategies. Each strategy is described in detail in relation to the aim of the establishment. Paying attention to the group-established property strategies, the whole implemented system is called property in-use regime (PUR) because the groups are governors on the study parcels of rangeland. The four identified regimes are • the unregulated common property regime (UCPR) • the common property regime with rotational access (CR) • the common property regime with a unique decision maker (CU) • Mini CPR within CPR (Mini) In the following section, influential factors on the applied property in-use regimes are being identified. The influential factors are resource characteristics, village characteristics and group characteristics. In order to develop an indicator for the resource characteristics a factor analysis is being conducted on variables related to ecological conditions of the rangeland. For the group characteristics, in addition to the relevant theoretical variables, the "sources of income" and "living location" are found through the exploratory survey. The cluster analysis was used to distinguish various patterns in the "group characteristics" and "village characteristics". An ANOVA analysis was conducted to examine the differences among the PURs in terms of "resource characteristics" (winter, summer and spring rangeland), "group characteristics" (demographic variables of age, education, income, flock size, heterogeneity in age and heterogeneity in flock), and "village characteristics" (type of the village, city and population density). The last part of chapter seven presents the model of property in use regimes in Semnan Province. The model includes the three scopes of characteristics identified in the previous section. The resource characteristics include factors for winter, summer and spring rangelands. The group characteristics include the variables such as age, occupation, flock size and the living location. The village characteristics include the variables such as population density, the type of village, and city. A multinomial logit regression is used to estimate the probability of selecting a property in use regime by the rangeland holders. The key variables are found "population density", "heterogeneity in flock size" and "spring rangelands". Conclusion The empirical results of Semnan rangelands reveal that RMP holders developed their own regulations. A major part of local institutions associated with rangeland management are still in the form of strategies and have not been internalized as norms. It can be concluded that the local institutions are still in transition. This can be seen as a great chance due to they have the opportunity to improve the existing institutions associated with rangeland management, or even to establish new institutional rules. The study reveals several reasons for not implementing the RMP regulations • non visibility of potential outcomes and benefits • lack of knowledge about the plan • lack of trust in the government and type of ownership • the problem of drought in some areas of the study region Proposed solutions to the non visibility of potential outcomes and benefits as well as the lack of knowledge about the plan are to provide information. These should be distributed among the local population e.g. through information campaigns. Public ceremonies should be established to make sure that the local population has access to this information. Training sessions, TV and radio programs, symbolic ceremonies and organization of cooperative groups are proposed as well (Hejazi 2007). According to the literature, a solution to the problem of rangeland degradation might be privatization. However, the rangeland holders did not present a dramatic interest in privatizing rangelands. But it was found that the interest of rangeland holders for privatizing summer lands was greater than for the winter lands or spring lands. However, reasons for this preference could not be identified in this study. Due to the frequent event of drought in some areas of the study region, it is recommend to conduct an in-deep monitoring of specific drought cycles as well as the long-term impact of droughts on dynamic of property regimes. With consideration to the fact that locating in the non-equilibrium environment is a major concern for all rangelands in arid and semi-arid regions, it is strongly recommended to investigate whether the Iranian rangelands meet the non-equilibrium conditions. If the conditions of the non-equilibrium do not meet, the drought management should be still the basic purpose of any improvement program. An alternative to the policies of the government might be a self-regulated system. Even if the common nature of rangeland resources, the diversity of interests of the local users, and the transaction costs of negotiation might be a challenge in a self-regulated system (Houtte A.V. 2001; Macadam R. and Drinan J. 2004; McAdams and Rasmusen 2007), applying this policy is still an effective option. Implementation of this system requires the government to support the rangeland holders in establishing their own system, and provide them with some facilities in which they have difficulty, such as establishing enforcement system, sanctions and provision of necessary information. By applying this policy, the needs of the rangeland holders, such as changes in the income situation e.g. getting cheaper loans for equipment or finding additional occupation opportunities to should be considered. The lack of trust towards the government supports the suggestion for the implementation of this policy.
Baskground. One of the priority directions of scientific research in the field of social medicine and health care is the development and substantiation of the best models for the organization of an affordable, high-quality and efficient PHC System in Ukraine, that requires the formation of a state policy of the PHC support and its implementation with taking into account the best international and national experience, opportunities and conditions of the country. The urgency of the problem and the global need for PHC are growing in connection with the unbridled aging of the population and the spread of severe chronic progressive diseases, including those, a treatment of which is ineffective or hopeless. Purpose: to carry through a medical and social analysis of the current legal framework (CLF) of Ukrainian and some international documents regulating the PHC providing organization, that are the basis for the creation and development of affordable, high-quality and efficient PHC System to the population in Ukraine. Materials and methods. In our analysis Ukrainian and international normative and legal documents, scientific literature were used. The following research methods were applied: system-analytical, comparative content analysis, system approach, generalization and grouping. Results. The legal regulation of the provision of PHC to the population of Ukraine at the state level is carried out by the relevant Laws of Ukraine, decrees of the President of Ukraine, resolutions of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, orders of the Ministry of Health (MOH) of Ukraine and the Ministry of Social Policy of Ukraine. In particular, the Law of Ukraine "On the Basis of the Legislation of Ukraine on Health Care" dated 19.11.1992, No. 2801-XII, for the first time at the legislative level in 2011, palliative care was recognized as a form of medical care, as well as the definition of the term "palliative care" was defined. Provision of PHC to cancer patients and TB patients was foreseen in the relevant Laws of Ukraine, which are not valid today. Currently, only the "National Targeted Social Program for HIV/AIDS Response for 2014-2018" is in force, which was approved by the Law of Ukraine dated 20.10.2014 No.1708-VII, which defined certain tasks related to the organization and access to PHC to people who live with HIV, training the appropriate staff to provide such care. Unfortunately, the tasks defined by these laws were not implemented: the PHC standards to patients in the facilities of palliative and hospice medicine (PCM) of the MOH of Ukraine have not yet been approved, the system of training has not been implemented, etc. Also today, PHC in Ukraine are regulated by a number of departmental regulatory acts, in particular, by Order of the MOH of Ukraine of 21.01.2013 № 41 "On the organization of palliative care in Ukraine", but there is now a significant need to complete and improve this order, taking into account Ukrainian and international development PHC experience, the results of reforming the Health Care System in Ukraine, new WHO documents, Council of Europe, EAPC, ІАНРС. It is important that valid clinical protocols from different nosologies are complemented by sections "PHC" or "Palliative Medical Care and Care at the End of Life", which has both practical and legal significance. Of particular importance is the Order of the Ministry of Social Policy of Ukraine dated January 29, 2016, No. 58 "On Approval of the State Standard of Palliative Care", which regulates the activities of social protection institutions for the provision of PHC to patients in outpatient settings and at home, and other orders. Conclusions. 1. The content-analysis of the current Laws of Ukraine and some documents of WHO, the Council of Europe, ЕАРС, ІАНРС and other authoritative international institutes on the PHC organization allowed us to identify positive trends, in particular, the legislative approval of palliative care in Ukraine as a type of medical care, but only in relation to incurable patients with limited predictive life expectancy, and this fact goes in to a discrepancy with modern international documents. 2. The main shortcomings of the acts regulating the PHC organization delivery in Ukraine are the lack of systematic and coordinated regulatory norms, the uncertainty of the criteria of PPs with different nosologies, the lack of mechanisms for determining the status of PPs, the problems of the organization of the PHC providing for incurable sick in both in-patient and out-patient conditions and at home. 3. The aforecited statements require the urgent development and approval of the Order "About the Procedure for the Providing of Palliative Medical Care to the Population in Ukraine and the List of Medical Indications for Its Delivery" by the MOH of Ukraine, in which mechanisms and coordination of the various levels of medical care providing, standards of palliative care and maintenance of various category of PPs, criteria for the status of PPs definition, etc should be determined. 4. In order to optimize Ukrainian legislation in its part of the PHC providing organization to the population of Ukraine, there is an urgent need for the elaboration and adoption of a Law of Ukraine "About Palliative Care" by Ukrainian Parliament, in which the priorities of state policy, adequate financing of PHC from the State and Regional Budgets and extrabudgetary sources, clearly outline the system of such type of care, determine the state regulation of the provision of PHC, provide a systemicity, continuity and structuring of Ukrainian PHC, help to eliminate inter-departmental barriers on personnel policy issues, provide motivation for specialists in PHC training, PPs and their families with adequate drugs, care facilities, social, psychological and spiritual support etc. 5. An extremely urgent task that will ensure the development of an accessible, high-quality and efficient PHC System is the development and approval of the "State Social Program for the Development of Palliative and Hospice Care in Ukraine" by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine and Parliament of Ukraine. This document will help to realize a right of palliative patients and their families members for appropriate quality of life and its worthful ending. ; Актуальность. Одним из приоритетных направлений научных исследований в области социальной медицины и организации здравоохранения является разработка и обоснование оптимальных моделей организации доступной, качественной и эффективной системы паллиативной и хосписной помощи (ПХП) населению в Украине, что требует формирования государственной политики поддержки ПХП и внедрение оптимальной нормативно-правовой базы (НПБ), которая учитывает лучший международный и национальный опыт, возможности и условия страны. Глобальная потребность в ПХП будет и дальше возрастать в связи с неуклонным старением населения и распространением тяжелых хронических прогрессирующих заболеваний, в т.ч. в терминальной стадии их развития, лечение которых, направленное на излечение (выздоровление пациента), является неэффективным или бесперспективным. Цель исследования: осуществление медико-социального анализа действующей НПБ Украины и некоторых международных документов, регулирующих организацию оказания ПХП, что является основой для создания и развития доступной, качественной и эффективной системы ПХП в Украине. Материалы и методы. В работе были использованы отечественные и международные нормативно-правовые документы, отечественная и зарубежная научная литература и применены следующие методы исследования: системно-аналитический, сравнительный контент-анализ, системного подхода, обобщения и группировки. Результаты. Правовое регулирование оказания ПХП населению Украины на государственном уровне осуществляется Конституцией Украины, соответствующими Законами Украины, указами Президента Украины, постановлениями Кабинета Министров Украины, приказами Министерства здравоохранения (МЗ) Украины и Министерства социальной политики Украины. В частности, в 2011 году Законом Украины «Основы законодательства Украины о здравоохранении» от 19.11.1992 года № 2801-XII впервые на законодательном уровне паллиативная помощь была определена как вид медицинской помощи, а также дано определение понятия «паллиативная помощь». Оказание ПХП онкологическим больным и больным туберкулезом было предусмотрено в соответствующих законах Украины, которые сегодня не действуют. На сегодня действует только «Общегосударственная целевая социальная программа противодействия ВИЧ-инфекции/СПИДа на 2014-2018 годы», которая была утверждена Законом Украины от 20.10.2014 № 1708-VII, в которой определены конкретные задачи по обеспечению организации и доступа к ПХП людям, живущих с ВИЧ, подготовка соответствующих кадров для оказания такой помощи. К сожалению, задачи, которые были определены этими законами не были выполнены: стандарты оказания ПХП больным в условиях учреждений паллиативной и хосписной медицины (ПХМ) МОЗ Украины до сих пор не утвердило, система подготовки кадров не внедрена и т. д. Также сегодня ПХП в Украине регулируется рядом ведомственных нормативно-правовых актов, в частности, приказом МЗ Украины от 21.01.2013 № 41 «Об организации паллиативной помощи в Украине», но сейчас существует значительная потребность дополнить и усовершенствовать этот приказ, учитывая украинский и международный опыт развития ПХП, результаты реформирования системы здравоохранения в Украине, новые документы ВОЗ, Совета Европы, ЕАРС, ІАНРС. Важно, чтобы действующие клинические протоколы по разным нозологиям были дополнены разделами «ПХП» или «Медицинская помощь и уход в конце жизни», что имеет как практическое, так и юридическое значение. Чрезвычайно важным является приказ Министерства социальной политики Украины от 29.01.2016 № 58 «Об утверждении Государственного стандарта паллиативного ухода», регламентирующий деятельность учреждений социальной защиты населения в вопросах предоставления паллиативного ухода пациентам в амбулаторных условиях и на дому, и другие приказы. Выводы. 1. Контент-анализ действующей НПБ Украины и некоторых документов ВОЗ, Совета Европы, ЕАРС, ІАНРС и других авторитетных международных организаций по вопросам организации оказания ПХП населению позволил определить положительные тенденции, в частности законодательное определение в Украине паллиативной помощи как вида медицинской помощи, которая применяется только в отношении инкурабельных больных с ограниченным прогнозом продолжительности жизни, что не соответствует современным международным документам. 2. Основными недостатками законодательных и нормативно-правовых актов, регламентирующих организацию оказания ПХП в Украине, является отсутствие системности и скоординированности регулирующих норм, неопределенность критериев паллиативных пациентов (ПП) с различными нозологиями соответствующими клиническими протоколами, отсутствие механизмов определения статуса ПП, недостаточно решены проблемы организации оказания ПХП инкурабельным больным как в стационарах заведениях ПХМ, так и в амбулаторно-поликлинических условиях и дома, что требует оптимизации нормотворческой деятельно МЗ Украины и скоординированности разрабатываемых нормативно-правовых актов, с действующими постановлениями КМУ, приказами Министерства социальной политики Украины и других органов государственной власти. 3. Указанное выше требует неотложной разработки и утверждения МЗ Украины приказа «О порядке оказания паллиативной медицинской помощи населению в Украине и Переченя медицинских показаний для ее оказания», который определит и обеспечит механизмы и скоординированность различных уровней оказания медицинской помощи, стандартов паллиативного лечения и содержания различных категорий ПП, критерии определения и порядок предоставления статуса ПП, особенности ПП детского и старческого возраста и т. п. 4. С целью оптимизации отечественного законодательства по организации оказания ПХП и паллиативного ухода в Украине есть необходимость в разработке и принятию Верховным Советом Украины отдельного Закона Украины «О паллиативной помощи», который должен определить приоритеты государственной политики, обеспечить адекватное финансирование ПХП и паллиативного ухода из Государственного и региональных бюджетов и внебюджетных источников, четко очертить систему такой помощи, главные аспекты межведомственной координации в этой области, определить порядок государственного регулирования оказания ПХП и основные требования к учреждентям ПХМ, а также обеспечить системность, преемственность и структурированность отечественного законодательства в области ПХП и паллиативного ухода, способствовать устранению межведомственных барьеров, с четким определением юридической, медицинской, социальной составляющей ПХП. 5. Очень актуальной задачей, которая обеспечит развитие доступной, качественной и эффективной системы ПХП, является разработка и утверждение Кабинетом Министров Украины и Верховным Советом Украины «Государственной целевой социальной программы развития паллиативной и хосписной помощи населению в Украине», что позволит реализовать право паллиативных больных и членов их семей на соответствующее качество жизни и достойне его завершение. ; Актуальність. Одним з пріоритетних напрямів наукових досліджень у галузі соціальної медицини і організації охорони здоров'я є розробка та обґрунтування оптимальних моделей організації доступної, якісної та ефективної системи паліативної та хоспісної допомоги (ПХД) населенню в Україні, що потребує формування державної політики підтримки ПХД та впровадження оптимальної нормативно-правової бази (НПБ), яка враховує кращий міжнародний і національний досвід, можливості та умови країни. Глобальна потреба у ПХД буде і далі зростати у зв'язку з неухильним постарінням населення і поширенням важких хронічних прогресуючих захворювань, у т.ч. у термінальній стадії їх розвитку, лікування яких, що спрямоване на вилікування (одужання пацієнта), є неефективним або безперспективним. Мета дослідження: здійснення медико-соціального аналізу чинної НПБ України і деяких міжнародних документів, які регулюють організацію надання ПХД, що є основою для створення і розвитку доступної, якісної та ефективної системи ПХД населенню в Україні. Матеріали та методи. У роботі були використані вітчизняні та міжнародні нормативно-правові документи, вітчизняна та зарубіжна наукова література та застосовані наступні методи дослідження: системно-аналітичний, порівняльний контент-аналіз, системного підходу, узагальнення та групування. Результати. Правове регулювання надання ПХД населенню України на державному рівні здійснюється Конституцією України, відповідними Законами України, указами Президента України, постановами Кабінету Міністрів України, наказами Міністерства охорони здоров'я (МОЗ) України та Міністерства соціальної політики України. Зокрема, у 2011 р. Законом України «Основи законодавства України про охорону здоров'я» від 19.11.1992 року № 2801-XII вперше на законодавчому рівні паліативну допомогу було визнано як вид медичної допомоги, а також дано визначення поняття «паліативна допомога». Надання ПХД онкологічним хворим та хворим на туберкульоз було передбачене у відповідних Законах України, які сьогодні не чинні. На сьогодні чинна лише «Загальнодержавна цільова соціальна програма протидії ВІЛ-інфекції/СНІДу на 2014-2018 роки», що була затверджена Законом України від 20.10.2014 № 1708-VII, якою визначені певні завдання щодо забезпечення організації та доступу до ПХД людям, які живуть з ВІЛ, підготовка відповідних кадрів для надання такої допомоги. На жаль, завдання, що були визначені цими законами не були виконані: стандарти надання ПХД хворим в умовах закладів паліативної і хоспісної медицини (ПХМ) МОЗ України досі не затвердило, система підготовки кадрів не впроваджена тощо. Також сьогодні ПХД в Україні регулюється низкою відомчих нормативно-правових актів, зокрема, наказом МОЗ України від 21.01.2013 № 41 «Про організацію паліативної допомоги в Україні», але зараз існує значна потреба доповнити і удосконалити цей наказ, враховуючи український і міжнародний досвід розвитку ПХД, результати реформування системи охорони здоров'я в Україні, нові документи ВООЗ, Ради Європи, ЕАРС, ІАНРС. Важливо, щоб чинні клінічні протоколи з різних нозологій були доповнені розділами «ПХД» або «Медична допомога і догляд наприкінці життя», що має як практичне, так і юридичне значення. Надзвичайно важливим є наказ Міністерства соціальної політики України від 29.01.2016 № 58 «Про затвердження Державного стандарту паліативного догляду», який регламентує діяльність закладів соціального захисту населення у питаннях надання паліативного догляду пацієнтам в амбулаторних умовах і вдома, та інші накази. Висновки. 1. Контент-аналіз чинної НПБ України та деяких документів ВООЗ, Ради Європи, ЕАРС, ІАНРС та інших авторитетних міжнародних організацій з питань організації надання ПХД населенню дозволив визначити позитивні тенденції, зокрема законодавче затвердження в Україні паліативної допомоги як виду медичної допомоги, яка застосовується тільки стосовно інкурабельних хворих з обмеженим прогнозом тривалості життя, що має невідповідність з сучасними міжнародними документами. 2. Основними недоліками законодавчих та нормативно-правових актів, що регламентують організацію надання ПХД в Україні, є відсутність системності і координованості регулюючих норм, невизначеність критеріїв паліативних пацієнтів (ПП) з різними нозологіями відповідними клінічними протоколами, відсутність механізмів визначення статусу ПП, недостатньо вирішені проблеми організації надання ПХД інкурабельним хворим як в стаціонарних закладах ПХМ, так і в амбулаторно-поліклінічних умовах та вдома, що потребує оптимізації нормотворчої діяльності МОЗ України і координованості нормативно-правових актів, що розробляються, з чинними постановами КМУ, наказами Міністерства соціальної політики України та інших органів державної влади. 3. Зазначене вище вимагає нагальної розробки та затвердження МОЗ України наказу «Про порядок надання паліативної медичної допомоги населенню в Україні та Перелік медичних показань для її надання», що визначить та забезпечить механізми та скоординованість різних рівнів надання медичної допомоги, стандартів паліативного лікування та утримання різних категорій ПП, критерії визначення та порядок надання статусу ПП, особливості ПП дитячого і старечого віку тощо. 4. З метою оптимізації вітчизняного законодавства щодо організації наданні ПХД та паліативного догляду в Україні є нагальна потреба розробки і прийняття Верховною Радою України окремого Закону України «Про паліативну допомогу», який мав би визначити пріоритети державної політики, забезпечити адекватне фінансування ПХД та паліативного догляду з Державного і регіональних бюджетів та позабюджетних джерел, чітко окреслити систему такої допомоги, головні аспекти міжвідомчої координації у цій галузі, визначити порядок державного регулювання надання ПХД й основні вимоги до закладів ПХМ, а також забезпечити системність, наступність та структурованість вітчизняного законодавства у галузі ПХД та паліативного догляду, сприяти усуненню міжвідомчих бар'єрів, із чітким визначенням юридичної, медичної, соціальної складової ПХД. 5. Надзвичайно актуальним завданням, що забезпечить розвиток доступної, якісної та ефективної системи ПХД, є розробка та затвердження Кабінетом Міністрів України та Верховною Радою України «Державної цільової соціальної програми розвитку паліативної та хоспісної допомоги населенню в Україні», що дозволить реалізувати право паліативних хворих і членів їх родин на належну якість життя і гідне його завершення.
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On September 25, Mali's military government announced it will delay elections that were slated for February 2024. The authorities cited technical reasons for the postponement and did not name a replacement date.
Viewed against the backdrop of the junta's actions since taking power in 2020, the delay appears the latest in a series of maneuvers by the junta to extend its rule, even as the junta has failed egregiously in its promises to restore security. The United States has little influence over what happens in Bamako, but by taking a clear and public stand against open-ended military rule in Mali and other countries in the region, Washington can enhance its credibility in the long term.
A recent wave of coups in the Sahel and elsewhere in Africa has involved officers who show no serious willingness to hand power back to civilians. Military officers have now seized power in Mali (2020), Chad (2021), Burkina Faso (2022), and Niger (2023). Add to this the coups in Guinea (2021) and Sudan (2021) and one has a "coup belt" that evokes the dark days of the Cold War. Amid much talk of "coup contagion," each putsch has had its own, primarily domestic causes — but what has been contagious is coup-makers' playbooks.
Mali's Colonel Assimi Goita and associates have been key movers in elaborating this playbook, extending their "transition" time and again. Goita and company came to power in August 2020, appointed a civilian-led transition, overthrew their own civilian appointees in May 2021's "coup within a coup," defied sanctions from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), compromised on a transition for 2024, and have now begun to tamper with that timetable.
Mali's colonels have repeatedly exposed the weak hand of regional and Western diplomats. ECOWAS first sought to impose an 18-month timetable in August 2020 — meaning the February 2024 elections should have already occurred in February 2022. What happens in Mali has serious ramifications for how officers in the other countries — some of whom are in close contact with Mali's junta — will approach their own transition timetables.
The U.S. has few good options in Mali or elsewhere in the region. In Washington, there are concerns that criticizing and antagonizing juntas would diminish whatever influence the U.S. may command in the Sahel. Washington also prefers to take the region's countries and their coups case by case, frowning on those in Mali and Burkina Faso while showing a significantly more ambivalent and even lenient attitude towards those in Chad and Niger.
And certainly there are diplomatic costs to criticism, as France has learned in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, where its soldiers and diplomats are effectively unwelcome.
Yet U.S. "influence" in the region is overstated — what is there to preserve? After 20 years of military training programs, the U.S. has no significant and enduring counterterrorism accomplishments to report. On the political side, if the U.S. has avoided the backlash that has greeted France, it has also not been able to convince soldiers to return to barracks, or even to temper the overreach of some of its favored civilian leaders (the decision by Senegalese President Macky Sall not to seek a third term in 2024 is one bright spot in the region, and may reflect behind-the-scenes international pressure, but Sall continues to crack down severely on the opposition).
Given that U.S. influence has not appreciably bent the curve of the region when it comes either to endemic insecurity or the militarization of politics, it would be better for the U.S. to be consistent, vocal, and clear when it comes to denouncing coups and distorted transition timetables. As of September 30, for example, there was no statement by the U.S. on the Malian junta's delay of the elections. Nor has the U.S. clarified, more than two months after the coup in Niger, whether it considers that takeover to be a coup in legal terms — a decision that would trigger a suspension of much assistance to Niger.
As one analyst recently commented, allowing ambiguity to fester when it comes to the U.S. stance on Niger is a recipe for exacerbating conspiracy theorizing about whether the U.S. and other Western powers actually support the coups in the region.
Speaking out at key moments would elicit rebukes from Bamako and Niamey, but it would also send vital signals to the actual people of the Sahel. The region's populations are Washington's most important audience at this point, because it is more important to shape positive perceptions of the U.S. over the long term than it is to tiptoe around generals and colonels who rule capitals by force.
Over the long term, moreover, it is in the U.S. interest to give moral support to genuine grassroots democratic culture in the region, which has been a serious force in Sahelian history time and again. At the moment, the U.S. should not materially support civilian organizations that seek to challenge the juntas politically, because doing so could pose profound risks to such civilians (of being arrested and/or tarred with the charge of being Western puppets) and could create unnecessary credibility risks for the U.S. itself.
But by being blunt and forthright that military rule is unacceptable, the U.S. can help set the expectation that norms, and not crass and misguided efforts at realpolitik, will guide Washington's and others' policies towards the Sahel. Publicly criticizing and privately pressuring the region's military rulers does not mean that Washington will be loathed as much as Paris is. Washington does not have Paris's colonial baggage, and French officials, from President Emmanuel Macron down to individual ambassadors, have been particularly imperious and insensitive to Sahelian concerns, squandering numerous easy opportunities to appear flexible and humble.The U.S. can be a more friendly critic, clarifying that it disapproves of juntas' choices but leaving the door open to conversation
The Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) learned with immense shock and sadness of the passing on of Professor Samir Amin on Sunday, 12th August 2018. Subsequently, Prof. Samir Amin's body was interned at Père Lachaise in Paris on 1st September 2018 at a site provided by the French Communist Party. The Council was represented at the burial by Prof. Fatow Sow and Dr. Cherif Sy; two members of the CODESRIA community who have worked with Samir Amin for a while. For CODESRIA, this marks nothing less than the end of an era in the history of African social research given the many pioneering roles the late Professor Amin played as a scholar, teacher, mentor, friend, and revolutionary. Samir was many things to us as a Council; for the younger members of the community, it meant much more to be in his company at the numerous CODESRIA meeting he attended. A model for three generations of African and, indeed, radical scholars globally, Samir was that giant Baobab tree whose grandeur of intellect and spirit made him a worthy role model. While serving as Director of the United Nations African Institute for Economic Development and Planning (IDEP), he hosted the initial scaffolding of the CODESRIA at IDEP, brought together and nurtured new talent that laid the foundations which launched Council on a path of growth and resilience to what it is to-date. As the final note on his reflections contained in this Bulletin illustrates, while serving as CODESRIA's founding Executive Secretary, Samir worked very closely with Abdalla Bujra and later Thandika Mkandawire, to shape the initial years of CODESRIA's intellectual identity and trajectory. After CODESRIA relocated from the premises of IDEP to a new home in the Fann Residence part of Dakar, Samir Amin remained engaged with Council and its community of scholars, participating actively and effectively in all its activities. This 15th General Assembly of CODESRIA is perhaps the first Assembly without Samir Amin presence. In all previous General Assemblies, Samir has been a notable presence even giving the Cheikh Anta Diop Lecture at the 10 Assembly in Kampala, Uganda. It is at the General Assembly that many young academics interacted with Samir, often for the first time and indeed experiencing the awe of his presence. Though Samir is absent at the current Assembly, there is no doubt that his intellectual and revolutionary spirit is definitely present just as the thoughts and ideas that he shared so generously and to the very end will continue to inspire reflection and debate. Samir Amin's intellectual journey was a long and illustrious one. It was a journey marked by commitments that distinguished him as a scholar of unparalleled convictions. He died still an unapologetic socialist academic or, as the title of his memoir reads, 'an independent Marxist' whose work was driven by an unshakeable conviction to confront and oppose totalizing economic orthodoxies. He treated this confrontation and opposition as a prelude to social transformation. He was steadfast in his belief that the world must shift away from capitalism and strive to build new 'post-capitalist' societies. He described capitalism as a small bracket in the long history of human civilization. His works identify and record the multiple crises of capitalism, a system he described as senile and obsolete. In its place, Samir Amin formulated a political alternative that he envisioned would proceed by i) socializing the ownership of monopolies, ii). definancializing the management of the economy and iii) deglobalising international relations [cited in Campbell, 2015: 286]. For him, these three directions provided the basis of an active politics of dismantling capitalism; a politics he committed his skill and energy mobilizing for. Even as he grew older, he mustered fresh bursts of energy to continue the struggle and to the very last days when he was in Dakar, he was apart of the team of scholar/ activists gathered together by International ENDA Third World Network to draft the Alternative Report on Africa (Dakar, 2018). CODESRIA was apart of this process and the Report will by shared at this General Assembly. Many of Samir Amin's writings make the point repeatedly on the urgent necessity to dismantle the 'obsolete system' known as capitalism. However, none was as emphatic in rethinking the underlying cultural underpinning of the 'obsolete system' like Eurocentricism. In that engaging publication, he provided a rggesounding critique of world history as is centered around Eurocentric modernity and invites us to understand modernity as an incomplete process that, to survive its current crises, will need 'economic, social and political reconstruction of all societies in the world.' Embedded in this argument is a long held position about the importance of the Bandung moment (1955) as a moment of an alternative globalization based on Afro-Asian solidarity. It is from this perspective that one understands why Samir Amin emphasized the importance of China [see tribute by Sit Tsui and Yan Xiaohui in this bulletin]. Afro-Asian solidarity was the basis upon which Samir Amin located his alternative politics which also defined his towering global outlook and presence. There is no doubt that Samir Amin's intellectual presence was defined by depth of knowledge, complexity of thought and fidelity to Marxist organising principles. There is no way of summarizing the corpus of work he produced, the revolutionary engagements he undertook and the transformative potential that led him to remain steadfast even when many others were only too happy to find a good reason to backtrack and conform. His work is enormous in volume but also in the depth of its knowledge and relevance to society. He provoked and joined debates across the globe but more importantly with comrades in Latin America and Asia, those of the dependency and underdevelopment school but also later from a South-South perspective. In CODESRIA's flagship journal Africa Development alone, Samir Amin published twenty articles. A biodata document he shared with the Council has 24 books in English and 41 in French. He is published in English, French, Arabic, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish to name but these few languages. In all these publications and in the various languages, Samir Amin articulated his belief in alternatives, and as indicated above, this belief remained strong even to the last month of his life on earth. Born to an Egyptian father and French mother on 3rd September 1931 in Cairo, Egypt, Samir Amin's convictions owe much to the context of his childhood all the way from Port Said in northern Egypt to Cairo where he schooled. He spent his early life in Egypt where he attended his formative schooling before proceeding to France to pursue higher education at Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris ("Sciences Po"). Here, he earned a diploma in 1952 and later a PhD in 1957 at the Sorbonne. Samir later earned another diploma in mathematical statistics from L'institut national de la statistique et des etudes economiques. He had always been interested in radical thought and action from early on, noting in an interview that he already considered himself a communist in Secondary School. Even though he and his cohort did not know what communism really meant in their early childhood, they assumed it meant "equality between human beings and between nations, and it meant that this has been done by the Russian revolution." It is not surprising that with this pedigree, Samir Amin focused in his graduate research on "The origins of underdevelopment – capitalist accumulation on a world scale" and emphasized in his work that underdevelopment in the periphery was, in large measure, due to the working of the capitalist system. He consequently underscored the need to search for socialist alternatives to liberal globalisation. Samir Amin returned to Cairo in 1957, worked briefly in Gamal Abdel Nasser's Institute for Economic Management (1957–1960) before heading to work as an adviser in the Ministry of Planning in Mali (1960- 1963). Subsequently, Samir Amin's intellectual life became largely internationalist in orientation, and anchored principally on the question of accumulation as key to understanding underdevelopment. He maintained the sojourn between France where he took up a Professorship in 1966 and Dakar, Senegal his adopted home where he worked for ten years, from 1970 to 1980 at IDEP. Later in 1980, he founded the Third World Forum, originally hosted at the CODESRIA Secretariat, and lent his considerable weight to the institutionalisation of ENDA and the World Forum for Alternatives. His support for revolutionary politics is marked not just in the books and papers he published but also in the lecture circuit where he spoke to audiences about the undeniable relevance of radical politics. Samir Amin's thinking was in large measure defined by the solidarity built around the Bandung Confer- ence of 1955. This remained a critical touchstone in his work in which non-western civilisations and his- tories played an important role. Bandung, for him, inaugurated a different pattern of globalisation, the one he called 'negotiated globalisation.' Though not asufficientbasisforcomplete"de-linking"from'ob- solescent capitalism', Samir Amin saw in Afro-Asian solidarity possibilities and pathways to that delinking; the process, as he explained, by which you submit "ex- ternal relations to the needs of internal progressive so- cial changes and targets." The notion of 'delinking' oc- cupied a major place in Samir Amin's thinking and is positioned in contrast to 'adjustment' that was the pre- ferred approach of the Bretton Woods Institutions. As Mamdani shows elsewhere in this Bulletin, there are major problematic elements of this notion that Samir Amin continued to grapple with. But ultimately, Samir Amin noted that delinking is in fact a process that, de- pending on the societies implementing it, can be used to install graduated level of autonomous development instead of countries in the periphery remaining locked into and merely adjusting to the trends set by a funda- mentally unequal capitalist system. In Samir Amin, we found the true meaning of praxis; a thinker who insisted that his work has immediate relevance to society. His departure deprives us of the practical energy he brought to our meetings and debates; and denies radical thinkers a model around whom they found the compass that enabled them to navigate the treacherous, indeed murderous, waters of capitalism. We however are lucky to have lived in his company, to have learned from his fountain of knowledge and to have shared in the passion of his convictions. The Council plans to invigorate the value of his legacy by celebrating him during this 15th General Assembly but also beyond the confines of the Assembly. Thus, this edition of the Bulletin contains two intertwined sets of essays; all organised around Samir Amin. In the one instance, we have a selection of messages in his memory. One the other, we have a selection of essays he authored. Separately, we will re-publish all the essays he published in Africa Development in a special issue of the journal to provide them in one collection for posterity. But whichever way, and as his own reflection in the essay published in this volume and his memoirs show, CODESRIA is an inheritance that Samir Amin bequeathed the African social science community. As such, it is fitting that the Bulletin designed for the 15th CODESRIA General Assembly is also a Bulletin that publishes essays in his honour. The choice of theme for the General Assembly predates the passing on of Samir Amin. But the theme itself is one that was dear to Samir Amin. It is our pleasure therefore to present the essays contained here as essays that shed light on a life lived fully but also that open up a space to explore the unfulfilled promises of globalisation. We hope that at the end of it, this will be a fitting study in honour of our departed icon but also a commentary on the key issues the 15th General Assembly explored.
To implement state policy in the fields of civil protection, protection of the population and territories from emergencies and their prevention, emergency response, rescue, fire fighting, fire and man-made safety, emergency services, as well as hydrometeorological activities There is the State Service of Ukraine for Emergencies (hereinafter SES of Ukraine) [1]. 7 emergency rescue formations (central subordination), including aviation, are subordinated to it; 25 emergency rescue teams of special purpose and 1182 district fire and rescue units (territorial subordination) [2]. According to the main capabilities of the units of the Rescue Service of Civil Defense are divided into: 1) units intended for extinguishing fires, rescuing people and property in case of fires, at facilities and territories, regardless of subordination and form of ownership, conducting emergency rescue operations, providing primary medical care to victims. 2) formation (detachments, centers) designed to eliminate accidents (catastrophes) of technogenic, natural and military nature, the consequences of natural disasters (earthquakes, storms, landslides, landslides, mudslides, floods, snow snowdrifts, icing, etc.), search and rescue, fire and rescue operations, international rescue operations, demining activities and civil and territorial defense measures, national and regional in nature. They include: - fire and rescue units - for firefighting, rescue of people and property at facilities and territories, regardless of subordination and form of ownership. - rescue units - designed to deploy and carry out rescue and other urgent work in the shortest possible time, to search (including the use of service dogs) and rescue people who are in destroyed, burning buildings, under the rubble, including excavation of victims from collapsed buildings, as well as to provide first aid to victims; - engineering - for conducting engineering reconnaissance of routes and centers of destruction, clearing of blockages, excavation of victims from under the damaged constructions, creation of special passages in blockages, collapse of designs, detection of damages in utility and energy and technological networks, preparation and maintenance of roads, formation of fencing anti-fire lanes; - radiation and chemical protection - conduct radiation and chemical reconnaissance, carry out dosimetric and chemical control of units, perform degassing, decontamination of uniforms and other material means, areas, roads and structures; - pyrotechnic - detect and destroy unused ammunition, including aircraft bombs and other explosive devices, neutralize the affected structural elements of buildings and houses, as well as pierce passages in the rubble by explosive methods; --water supply - designed for the development of water sources and equipment of water supply points; - communication - to establish and maintain reliable communication, which provides communication between departments, governing bodies and various forces of interaction; - material support - must timely meet the urgent needs of units with special equipment, fuel, products, protective equipment, clothing, medical, technical property and other material means. Units of the SES of Ukraine have at their disposal a significant amount of equipment, which can be divided, depending on its functionality and purpose for fire and rescue vehicles, vehicles for special work in emergencies and special cars. [3] Of the self-propelled vehicles for emergency response, wheeled vehicles for all types of work have become the most widespread. ; Для реалізації державної політики в сферах цивільного захисту, захисту населення і територій від надзвичайних ситуацій та запобігання їх виникненню, ліквідації надзвичайних ситуацій, рятувальної справи, гасіння пожеж, пожежної та техногенної безпеки, діяльності аварійно-рятувальних служб, а також гідрометеорологічної діяльності існує Державна служба України з надзвичайних ситуацій (далі ДСНС України) [1]. Їй підпорядковані 7 аварійно-рятувальних формувань швидкого реагування (центрального підпорядкування), в тому числі авіація; 25 аварійно-рятувальних загонів спеціального призначення та 1182 районних пожежно-рятувальних підрозділи (територіального підпорядкування) [2]. За основними можливостями підрозділи Оперативно-рятувальної служби цивільного захисту поділяються на: 1) підрозділи, призначені для гасіння пожеж, рятування людей та майна при пожежах, на об'єктах та територіях незалежно від підпорядкування та форми власності, проведення першочергових аварійно-рятувальних робіт, дання первинної медичної допомоги потерпілим. 2) формування (загони, центри), призначені для ліквідації аварій (катастроф) техногенного, природного та військового характеру, наслідків стихійних лих (землетрусів, буревіїв, зсувів ґрунту, обвалів, сельових потоків, повені, снігових заметів, обледеніння, тощо), проведення пошуково-рятувальних, пожежно-рятувальних робіт, міжнародних рятувальних операцій, здійснення заходів з розмінування територій та заходів цивільної і територіальної оборони, загальнодержавного та регіонального характеру. У їхньому складі функціонують: - пожежно-рятувальні підрозділи − для гасіння пожеж, рятування людей і майна на об'єктах і територіях незалежно від підпорядкування та форми власності. - рятувальні підрозділи − призначені для розгортання й проведення рятувальних та інших невідкладних робіт у найкоротші терміни, для розшуку (у тому числі з використанням службових собак) та порятунку людей, які знаходяться у зруйнованих, палаючих будівлях, під завалами, зокрема і відкопування постраждалих із завалених споруд, а також для надання першої медичної допомоги потерпілим; - інженерні − для ведення інженерної розвідки маршрутів та осередків ураження, розчищення завалів, відкопування постраждалих із-під пошкоджених споруд, створення спеціальних проїздів у завалах, обвалу конструкцій, виявлення пошкоджень у комунально-енергетичних та технологічних мережах, підготовки та утримання шляхів, утворення огороджувальних протипожежних смуг; - радіаційного та хімічного захисту − проводять радіаційну та хімічну розвідку, здійснюють дозиметричний та хімічний контроль підрозділів, виконують дегазацію, дезактивацію обмундирування та інших матеріальних засобів, ділянок місцевості, доріг та споруд; - піротехнічні − виявляють та знищують невикористані боєприпаси, у тому числі авіаційні бомби та інші вибухонебезпечні предмети, знешкоджують уражені елементи конструкцій споруд та будинків, а також пробивають проходи в завалах вибуховим методом; --водопостачання − призначені для розвідки джерел води та обладнання пунктів водопостачання; - зв'язку − для встановлення й підтримки надійного зв'язку, який забезпечує комунікацію між підрозділами, керівними органами та різними силами взаємодії; - матеріального забезпечення − мають своєчасно задовольнити нагальні потреби підрозділів спеціальним обладнанням, пальним, продуктами, засобами захисту, речовим, медичним, технічним майном та іншими матеріальними засобами. Підрозділи ДСНС України мають в своєму розпорядженні значну кількість техніки, яку умовно можна розділити, в залежності від її функціональних можливостей та призначення на пожежно-рятувальні автомобілі, машини для виконання спеціальних робіт в надзвичайних ситуаціях та спеціальні автомобілі. [3] Із самохідної техніки для ліквідації надзвичайних ситуацій найбільшого розповсюдження набула колісна техніка для всіх видів робіт.
To implement state policy in the fields of civil protection, protection of the population and territories from emergencies and their prevention, emergency response, rescue, fire fighting, fire and man-made safety, emergency services, as well as hydrometeorological activities There is the State Service of Ukraine for Emergencies (hereinafter SES of Ukraine) [1]. 7 emergency rescue formations (central subordination), including aviation, are subordinated to it; 25 emergency rescue teams of special purpose and 1182 district fire and rescue units (territorial subordination) [2]. According to the main capabilities of the units of the Rescue Service of Civil Defense are divided into: 1) units intended for extinguishing fires, rescuing people and property in case of fires, at facilities and territories, regardless of subordination and form of ownership, conducting emergency rescue operations, providing primary medical care to victims. 2) formation (detachments, centers) designed to eliminate accidents (catastrophes) of technogenic, natural and military nature, the consequences of natural disasters (earthquakes, storms, landslides, landslides, mudslides, floods, snow snowdrifts, icing, etc.), search and rescue, fire and rescue operations, international rescue operations, demining activities and civil and territorial defense measures, national and regional in nature. They include: - fire and rescue units - for firefighting, rescue of people and property at facilities and territories, regardless of subordination and form of ownership. - rescue units - designed to deploy and carry out rescue and other urgent work in the shortest possible time, to search (including the use of service dogs) and rescue people who are in destroyed, burning buildings, under the rubble, including excavation of victims from collapsed buildings, as well as to provide first aid to victims; - engineering - for conducting engineering reconnaissance of routes and centers of destruction, clearing of blockages, excavation of victims from under the damaged constructions, creation of special passages in blockages, collapse of designs, detection of damages in utility and energy and technological networks, preparation and maintenance of roads, formation of fencing anti-fire lanes; - radiation and chemical protection - conduct radiation and chemical reconnaissance, carry out dosimetric and chemical control of units, perform degassing, decontamination of uniforms and other material means, areas, roads and structures; - pyrotechnic - detect and destroy unused ammunition, including aircraft bombs and other explosive devices, neutralize the affected structural elements of buildings and houses, as well as pierce passages in the rubble by explosive methods; --water supply - designed for the development of water sources and equipment of water supply points; - communication - to establish and maintain reliable communication, which provides communication between departments, governing bodies and various forces of interaction; - material support - must timely meet the urgent needs of units with special equipment, fuel, products, protective equipment, clothing, medical, technical property and other material means. Units of the SES of Ukraine have at their disposal a significant amount of equipment, which can be divided, depending on its functionality and purpose for fire and rescue vehicles, vehicles for special work in emergencies and special cars. [3] Of the self-propelled vehicles for emergency response, wheeled vehicles for all types of work have become the most widespread. ; Для реалізації державної політики в сферах цивільного захисту, захисту населення і територій від надзвичайних ситуацій та запобігання їх виникненню, ліквідації надзвичайних ситуацій, рятувальної справи, гасіння пожеж, пожежної та техногенної безпеки, діяльності аварійно-рятувальних служб, а також гідрометеорологічної діяльності існує Державна служба України з надзвичайних ситуацій (далі ДСНС України) [1]. Їй підпорядковані 7 аварійно-рятувальних формувань швидкого реагування (центрального підпорядкування), в тому числі авіація; 25 аварійно-рятувальних загонів спеціального призначення та 1182 районних пожежно-рятувальних підрозділи (територіального підпорядкування) [2]. За основними можливостями підрозділи Оперативно-рятувальної служби цивільного захисту поділяються на: 1) підрозділи, призначені для гасіння пожеж, рятування людей та майна при пожежах, на об'єктах та територіях незалежно від підпорядкування та форми власності, проведення першочергових аварійно-рятувальних робіт, дання первинної медичної допомоги потерпілим. 2) формування (загони, центри), призначені для ліквідації аварій (катастроф) техногенного, природного та військового характеру, наслідків стихійних лих (землетрусів, буревіїв, зсувів ґрунту, обвалів, сельових потоків, повені, снігових заметів, обледеніння, тощо), проведення пошуково-рятувальних, пожежно-рятувальних робіт, міжнародних рятувальних операцій, здійснення заходів з розмінування територій та заходів цивільної і територіальної оборони, загальнодержавного та регіонального характеру. У їхньому складі функціонують: - пожежно-рятувальні підрозділи − для гасіння пожеж, рятування людей і майна на об'єктах і територіях незалежно від підпорядкування та форми власності. - рятувальні підрозділи − призначені для розгортання й проведення рятувальних та інших невідкладних робіт у найкоротші терміни, для розшуку (у тому числі з використанням службових собак) та порятунку людей, які знаходяться у зруйнованих, палаючих будівлях, під завалами, зокрема і відкопування постраждалих із завалених споруд, а також для надання першої медичної допомоги потерпілим; - інженерні − для ведення інженерної розвідки маршрутів та осередків ураження, розчищення завалів, відкопування постраждалих із-під пошкоджених споруд, створення спеціальних проїздів у завалах, обвалу конструкцій, виявлення пошкоджень у комунально-енергетичних та технологічних мережах, підготовки та утримання шляхів, утворення огороджувальних протипожежних смуг; - радіаційного та хімічного захисту − проводять радіаційну та хімічну розвідку, здійснюють дозиметричний та хімічний контроль підрозділів, виконують дегазацію, дезактивацію обмундирування та інших матеріальних засобів, ділянок місцевості, доріг та споруд; - піротехнічні − виявляють та знищують невикористані боєприпаси, у тому числі авіаційні бомби та інші вибухонебезпечні предмети, знешкоджують уражені елементи конструкцій споруд та будинків, а також пробивають проходи в завалах вибуховим методом; --водопостачання − призначені для розвідки джерел води та обладнання пунктів водопостачання; - зв'язку − для встановлення й підтримки надійного зв'язку, який забезпечує комунікацію між підрозділами, керівними органами та різними силами взаємодії; - матеріального забезпечення − мають своєчасно задовольнити нагальні потреби підрозділів спеціальним обладнанням, пальним, продуктами, засобами захисту, речовим, медичним, технічним майном та іншими матеріальними засобами. Підрозділи ДСНС України мають в своєму розпорядженні значну кількість техніки, яку умовно можна розділити, в залежності від її функціональних можливостей та призначення на пожежно-рятувальні автомобілі, машини для виконання спеціальних робіт в надзвичайних ситуаціях та спеціальні автомобілі. [3] Із самохідної техніки для ліквідації надзвичайних ситуацій найбільшого розповсюдження набула колісна техніка для всіх видів робіт.
To implement state policy in the fields of civil protection, protection of the population and territories from emergencies and their prevention, emergency response, rescue, fire fighting, fire and man-made safety, emergency services, as well as hydrometeorological activities There is the State Service of Ukraine for Emergencies (hereinafter SES of Ukraine) [1]. 7 emergency rescue formations (central subordination), including aviation, are subordinated to it; 25 emergency rescue teams of special purpose and 1182 district fire and rescue units (territorial subordination) [2]. According to the main capabilities of the units of the Rescue Service of Civil Defense are divided into: 1) units intended for extinguishing fires, rescuing people and property in case of fires, at facilities and territories, regardless of subordination and form of ownership, conducting emergency rescue operations, providing primary medical care to victims. 2) formation (detachments, centers) designed to eliminate accidents (catastrophes) of technogenic, natural and military nature, the consequences of natural disasters (earthquakes, storms, landslides, landslides, mudslides, floods, snow snowdrifts, icing, etc.), search and rescue, fire and rescue operations, international rescue operations, demining activities and civil and territorial defense measures, national and regional in nature. They include: - fire and rescue units - for firefighting, rescue of people and property at facilities and territories, regardless of subordination and form of ownership. - rescue units - designed to deploy and carry out rescue and other urgent work in the shortest possible time, to search (including the use of service dogs) and rescue people who are in destroyed, burning buildings, under the rubble, including excavation of victims from collapsed buildings, as well as to provide first aid to victims; - engineering - for conducting engineering reconnaissance of routes and centers of destruction, clearing of blockages, excavation of victims from under the damaged constructions, creation of special passages in blockages, collapse of designs, detection of damages in utility and energy and technological networks, preparation and maintenance of roads, formation of fencing anti-fire lanes; - radiation and chemical protection - conduct radiation and chemical reconnaissance, carry out dosimetric and chemical control of units, perform degassing, decontamination of uniforms and other material means, areas, roads and structures; - pyrotechnic - detect and destroy unused ammunition, including aircraft bombs and other explosive devices, neutralize the affected structural elements of buildings and houses, as well as pierce passages in the rubble by explosive methods; --water supply - designed for the development of water sources and equipment of water supply points; - communication - to establish and maintain reliable communication, which provides communication between departments, governing bodies and various forces of interaction; - material support - must timely meet the urgent needs of units with special equipment, fuel, products, protective equipment, clothing, medical, technical property and other material means. Units of the SES of Ukraine have at their disposal a significant amount of equipment, which can be divided, depending on its functionality and purpose for fire and rescue vehicles, vehicles for special work in emergencies and special cars. [3] Of the self-propelled vehicles for emergency response, wheeled vehicles for all types of work have become the most widespread. ; Для реалізації державної політики в сферах цивільного захисту, захисту населення і територій від надзвичайних ситуацій та запобігання їх виникненню, ліквідації надзвичайних ситуацій, рятувальної справи, гасіння пожеж, пожежної та техногенної безпеки, діяльності аварійно-рятувальних служб, а також гідрометеорологічної діяльності існує Державна служба України з надзвичайних ситуацій (далі ДСНС України) [1]. Їй підпорядковані 7 аварійно-рятувальних формувань швидкого реагування (центрального підпорядкування), в тому числі авіація; 25 аварійно-рятувальних загонів спеціального призначення та 1182 районних пожежно-рятувальних підрозділи (територіального підпорядкування) [2]. За основними можливостями підрозділи Оперативно-рятувальної служби цивільного захисту поділяються на: 1) підрозділи, призначені для гасіння пожеж, рятування людей та майна при пожежах, на об'єктах та територіях незалежно від підпорядкування та форми власності, проведення першочергових аварійно-рятувальних робіт, дання первинної медичної допомоги потерпілим. 2) формування (загони, центри), призначені для ліквідації аварій (катастроф) техногенного, природного та військового характеру, наслідків стихійних лих (землетрусів, буревіїв, зсувів ґрунту, обвалів, сельових потоків, повені, снігових заметів, обледеніння, тощо), проведення пошуково-рятувальних, пожежно-рятувальних робіт, міжнародних рятувальних операцій, здійснення заходів з розмінування територій та заходів цивільної і територіальної оборони, загальнодержавного та регіонального характеру. У їхньому складі функціонують: - пожежно-рятувальні підрозділи − для гасіння пожеж, рятування людей і майна на об'єктах і територіях незалежно від підпорядкування та форми власності. - рятувальні підрозділи − призначені для розгортання й проведення рятувальних та інших невідкладних робіт у найкоротші терміни, для розшуку (у тому числі з використанням службових собак) та порятунку людей, які знаходяться у зруйнованих, палаючих будівлях, під завалами, зокрема і відкопування постраждалих із завалених споруд, а також для надання першої медичної допомоги потерпілим; - інженерні − для ведення інженерної розвідки маршрутів та осередків ураження, розчищення завалів, відкопування постраждалих із-під пошкоджених споруд, створення спеціальних проїздів у завалах, обвалу конструкцій, виявлення пошкоджень у комунально-енергетичних та технологічних мережах, підготовки та утримання шляхів, утворення огороджувальних протипожежних смуг; - радіаційного та хімічного захисту − проводять радіаційну та хімічну розвідку, здійснюють дозиметричний та хімічний контроль підрозділів, виконують дегазацію, дезактивацію обмундирування та інших матеріальних засобів, ділянок місцевості, доріг та споруд; - піротехнічні − виявляють та знищують невикористані боєприпаси, у тому числі авіаційні бомби та інші вибухонебезпечні предмети, знешкоджують уражені елементи конструкцій споруд та будинків, а також пробивають проходи в завалах вибуховим методом; --водопостачання − призначені для розвідки джерел води та обладнання пунктів водопостачання; - зв'язку − для встановлення й підтримки надійного зв'язку, який забезпечує комунікацію між підрозділами, керівними органами та різними силами взаємодії; - матеріального забезпечення − мають своєчасно задовольнити нагальні потреби підрозділів спеціальним обладнанням, пальним, продуктами, засобами захисту, речовим, медичним, технічним майном та іншими матеріальними засобами. Підрозділи ДСНС України мають в своєму розпорядженні значну кількість техніки, яку умовно можна розділити, в залежності від її функціональних можливостей та призначення на пожежно-рятувальні автомобілі, машини для виконання спеціальних робіт в надзвичайних ситуаціях та спеціальні автомобілі. [3] Із самохідної техніки для ліквідації надзвичайних ситуацій найбільшого розповсюдження набула колісна техніка для всіх видів робіт.
