Drawing on the current debates, both political and academic, this doctoral research deals with the political legitimacy of European integration. Although political legitimacy is not a new concept in political science, it has attracted increased attention over the last two decades in the context of reflections on democracy, governance and the "crisis" of legitimacy at the European level, the sphere on which this research is founded. This thesis takes a sociopolitical approach to legitimacy, beyond any normative considerations. More specifically, it focuses on legitimacy understood as the acceptance of a changing political order by ordinary citizens, this acceptance being more or less conscious and active. The specificity of this approach lies in addressing this problem in all its complexity, analyzing both its latent and its manifest aspects. As a result, it contributes to the study of the processes of acceptance and/or resistance to the current process of European integration and its possible or desirable politicization. More precisely it is focused on the indifference of ordinary citizens to this process. Indeed the politicization of the European political order is at the heart of many academic debates and as a result a better understanding of this indifference is essential. Ameliorating our understanding of the lack of salience of European issues for a growing part of the public is the fundamental task tackled in this thesis. Beginning with a critical review of the literature on European legitimacy that underlines some of its weak points, the first chapter of this thesis provides a synthesis of the different theoretical models of legitimation that have been used in the course of European construction. The presentation of these different models provides the backdrop against which we are able to understand how citizens' attitudes towards European integration have been analyzed in the existing literature. This first chapter demonstrates how the citizen, from being a simple spectator, has been constructed as a key actor in the processes legitimizing European integration. Mobilizing a new longitudinal analysis of Eurobarometer data, the results of the second chapter lead us to conclude that the principal limitation of the way the notion of support is used in the literature is its over-reliance on a one-dimensional understanding of citizens' attitudes towards European integration. Contrary to this, we defend the idea that these attitudes are much more complex. The evolution of the post-Maastricht period cannot simply be reduced to an increase in "euroscepticism", particularly amongst lower socio-economic groups. This chapter concludes that it is necessary to take into account indifferent or undecided citizens to fully comprehend the question of the legitimacy of European integration, in all its components. The non-polarization of a significant number of citizens is indeed an overwhelming phenomenon. However, the study of this non-polarized category of citizens is not without posing substantial methodological problems. The third chapter thus deals with the issues surrounding the choice of methodology for the analysis of ordinary citizens' lack of polarization. With the goal of contributing to the renewal of research on citizens' attitudes towards European integration, we chose to put into place a methodology that is both qualitative and exploratory, whilst continuing with efforts to quantify the different processes observed, along the lines of existing European studies. This research therefore adopts a triangulation strategy that commonly comes under the term of mixed-methods. In this chapter we outline the reasons for our choice of focus groups as a research tool and set out our comparative research design in detail. 24 focus groups were conducted in the context of the research project Citizens Talking About Europe in (francophone) Belgium, in France, and in Great Britain. The additional perspective gained by the use of focus groups in three countries leads us in the fourth chapter to refute the underlying premise of the "constraining dissensus", already visible in the model of the "permissive consensus": the premise of the uniformity of national attitudes towards European integration. Building on the work of Juan Diez Medrano, in his book Framing Europe, the systematic coding analysis of our collective interviews leads us to confirm that different groups have different structures of perception and therefore of evaluation of European integration. Having radically questioned the uniformity of national attitudes towards the European Union, the fifth chapter demonstrates that the plurality of perceptions not only differs from one country to another but also within a given national context. In each of the three countries we studied, we observed the same increase in the number of citizens who expressed neither explicit support nor rejection of integration. In this chapter we focus our analysis on these undecided or indifferent citizens, distinguishing three forms of non-polarization: ambivalence, distance and exteriority, and fatalism. These three forms correspond to different framings in three different national categories however. In conclusion, our overall results lead us to interrogate the relevance of the affirmation according to which the permissiveness as understood in the thesis of the "permissive consensus" ended with the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty. We propose an alternative interpretation, which argues that the acceptance of a European political order stems from at least two rationales. On one hand, amongst the elites (understood in a broad sense as political or economic or even simply citizens interested in the political sphere) we observe a polarization of opinion characterized by a decline in support and a reinforcement of opposition to the processes of European integration. This tendency is emphasized and explained by the model of "constraining dissensus". On the other hand, we observe the reinforcement of indifference and/or indecision amongst ordinary citizens not expert in political matters, faced with this same process. The first rational of appropriation is linked to an active form of contentment or rejection, whereas the second demonstrates a mode of tacit acceptance, illustrating that the "permissive consensus" has not disappeared in the post-Maastricht era, although it has been transformed over the course of the integration process. In this respect, European legitimacy must be understood as both direct and indirect: as a double process. It must be seen as the extension and/or transformation of the acceptance of the national political order. Our results therefore suggest that we reconsider two commonly accepted premises, firstly that the European Union has become a salient issue for citizens and secondly that European public opinion has become polarized on the question of Europe. More generally, the conclusion of this thesis invites us to question the acceptance of change in the political order by investigating not only the degree of support citizens have for the European political system and the type of support they express, but also at the intensity of this support. Although the contrast between the pre- and post- Maastricht periods in terms of the parallel growth of the competences of the European Union and the publicity around European issues is not called into question, an interpretation based on the binary permissive consensus/euroscepticism appears incomplete if not erroneous. In emphasizing the complexity of the dynamics of politicization, this thesis suggests that the alleged break in the "permissive consensus" amongst citizens needs to be put into perspective. Thus, it is not clear that the "popular mood" towards Europe is the mirror image of the level of dissensus amongst elites . The politicization of European issues does not necessarily lead to the polarization of citizens opinions; we argue here that it is necessary to incorporate the notion and the role of indifference into any reflection on the legitimacy of the European integration process. ; Partant des débats actuels, à la fois scientifiques et politiques, cette recherche doctorale aborde la question de la légitimité politique dans le cas de l'intégration européenne. Si la légitimité politique n'est pas un concept nouveau de la science politique, cette notion a connu un regain d'intérêt au cours des deux dernières décennies dans le cadre de réflexions sur la démocratie, la gouvernance ou encore la 'crise' de légitimité au niveau européen, échelon sur lequel se concentre notre travail. Notre thèse repose sur une approche sociopolitique de la légitimité, étudiée en dehors de considérations normatives. Nous nous intéressons plus exactement à la légitimité comprise comme l'acceptation par les citoyens ordinaires d'un ordre politique en changement, cette acceptation pouvant être plus ou moins consciente et active. La particularité de notre approche réside dans le fait que nous nous sommes efforcées de cerner cette problématique dans toute sa complexité analysant autant ses aspects actifs que latents. Par conséquent, elle contribue à l'étude actuelle des processus d'acceptation et/ou de résistance à l'égard du processus en cours et à sa possible ou souhaitable politisation. Elle se concentre plus précisément sur l'indifférence des citoyens ordinaires. En effet, la politisation de l'ordre politique européen est au centre de nombre de questionnements académiques. Dès lors, comprendre l'absence de saillance des enjeux européens au sein d'une part grandissante de l'opinion publique revêt un caractère essentiel, tâche à laquelle cette thèse s'est attelée. Partant d'une revue de la littérature sur la légitimité européenne destinée à souligner certains de ses points faibles, la thèse propose dans un premier chapitre une synthèse des différents modèles théoriques et de légitimation qui ont été utilisés au fil de la construction européenne. La présentation de ces différents modèles sert de « toile de fond » pour comprendre comment les attitudes des citoyens à l'égard de l'intégration européenne ont été analysées. Ce premier chapitre montre comment, de simple spectateur, le citoyen a été construit comme un acteur clé du processus de légitimation de l'intégration européenne. Grâce à une nouvelle analyse longitudinale des données Eurobaromètres, les résultats du deuxième chapitre amènent à conclure que la principale limite des utilisations faites de la notion de soutien est de reposer sur une acception unidimensionnelle des attitudes des citoyens à l'égard de l'intégration européenne. Nous défendons au contraire l'idée que ces attitudes recèlent une plus grande complexité. L'évolution dans la période post-Maastricht ne peut être résumée par une augmentation de l' « euroscepticisme », en particulier parmi les catégories sociales les plus populaires. Ce chapitre conclut à la nécessité de prendre en compte la catégorie des citoyens indifférents ou indécis pour saisir la question de la légitimité de l'intégration européenne dans toutes ses composantes. La non-polarisation d'une part importante des citoyens est en effet un phénomène massif. Cependant, étudier cette catégorie non-polarisée de citoyens n'est pas sans poser des problèmes méthodologiques importants. Le troisième chapitre aborde la question des méthodes retenues en vue d'analyser la non-polarisation des citoyens ordinaires. Désirant contribuer au renouvellement des études des attitudes des citoyens à l'égard de l'intégration européenne, nous avons choisi de mettre en œuvre une méthodologie qualitative et exploratoire, tout en prolongeant l'effort de quantification des processus observés, dans le droit fil des études européennes. Notre travail adopte donc une stratégie de triangulation, qu'on désigne couramment sous le terme de mixed-methods. Nous justifions dans ce chapitre du choix de recourir au focus group comme outil d'enquête et détaillons notre design de recherche comparatif. 24 focus groups ont été réalisés dans le cadre du projet de recherche Citizens Talking About Europe en Belgique (francophone), en France et en Grande-Bretagne. Ils permettent d'appréhender dans toutes leurs composantes les rapports des citoyens ordinaires à l'intégration européenne. Le regard complémentaire porté grâce à l'utilisation de focus groups réalisés dans ces trois pays nous amène dans le quatrième chapitre à réfuter le postulat, sous-jacent à la thèse du « dissensus contraignant », déjà présent dans le modèle du « consensus permissif », d'une uniformité des attitudes nationales à l'égard de l'intégration européenne. Inspirée des avancées réalisées par Juan Diez Medrano dans son ouvrage Framing Europe, l'analyse systématique par codage de nos entretiens collectifs amène à confirmer que des publics différents ont des structures de perception, et donc d'évaluation, différentes à l'égard de l'intégration européenne. Après avoir remis en cause l'uniformité des attitudes nationales à l'égard de l'Union européenne, le cinquième chapitre démontre que la pluralité de perceptions diffère non seulement d'un pays à l'autre, mais qu'elles peuvent également par ailleurs coexister au sein d'un même contexte national. Dans chacun des pays enquêtés, on observe la même croissance de la catégorie de citoyens n'exprimant ni soutien explicite, ni rejet du processus d'intégration. Dans le cadre de ce dernier chapitre, nous concentrons nos analyses sur les citoyens indécis ou indifférents en différenciant trois visages de non-polarisation : l'ambivalence, la distance et l'extériorité et le fatalisme, lesquels correspondent cependant, dans chacun des trois pays, à des framing différents. En conclusion, l'ensemble de nos résultats nous conduit à interroger la pertinence de l'affirmation selon laquelle la permissivité telle que comprise dans le cadre de la thèse du « consensus permissif » a pris fin avec la ratification du Traité de Maastricht. Nous proposons une interprétation complémentaire, qui souligne que l'acceptation de l'ordre politique européen relève de deux logiques au moins. D'un côté, on assiste parmi les élites, entendues au sens large, tant politiques, qu'économiques, voire tout simplement les citoyens qui portent un intérêt à ce qui se joue dans le champs politique, à une polarisation des opinions marquées par un déclin des opinions favorables et un renforcement des oppositions au processus d'intégration européenne, tendance soulignée et expliquée par le modèle du « dissensus contraignant ». D'un autre côté, on constate un renforcement de l'indifférence et/ou de l'indécision des citoyens profanes en matière politique face à ce même processus. Là où la première logique d'appropriation renvoie à un mode actif de consentement ou de rejet, la seconde relève d'un mode d'acceptation tacite actualisant le modèle du « consensus permissif » dont nous montrons qu'il n'a pas disparu dans l'ère post-Maastricht, même s'il s'est transformé au fil de l'intégration. A cet égard, la légitimité européenne doit être comprise comme étant, à la fois, directe et indirecte, dans un double processus. Elle doit être perçue comme l'extension et/ou la transformation de l'acceptation de l'ordre politique national. L'ensemble de nos résultats invite par conséquent à reconsidérer deux postulats communément perçus comme acquis, à savoir non seulement que l'Union européenne serait devenu un enjeu saillant pour les citoyens, mais aussi que les opinions publiques européennes se seraient polarisées. Plus généralement, la conclusion de cette thèse invite à aborder la question de l'acceptation d'un changement dans l'ordre politique en s'intéressant non seulement au degré de soutien des citoyens au système politique européen et au type de soutien exprimé, mais également à son intensité. Si le contraste entre les périodes pré et post-Maastricht en termes de croissance concomitante des compétences de l'Union européenne et de publicisation des enjeux européens n'est pas remis en cause, la lecture basée sur le diptyque consensus permissif / euroscepticisme semble incomplète sinon erronée. En soulignant la complexité des dynamiques de politisation, cette thèse amène à relativiser la rupture du « consensus permissif » des citoyens. Ainsi, il n'est pas évident que l' « humeur populaire » à l'égard de l'Europe et le niveau de dissensus des élites se répondent en miroir . La politisation des enjeux européens ne menant pas nécessairement à une polarisation des opinions des citoyens, nous soutenons qu'il convient d'intégrer l'indifférence dans toute réflexion portant sur la légitimité du processus d'intégration européenne. ; (POL 3) -- UCL, 2010
In my postgraduate formation during the last years of the 80's, we had close to thirty hospital beds in a pavilion called "sépticas" (1). In Colombia, where abortion was completely penalized, the pavilion was mostly filled with women with insecure, complicated abortions. The focus we received was technical: management of intensive care; performance of hysterectomies, colostomies, bowel resection, etc. In those times, some nurses were nuns and limited themselves to interrogating the patients to get them to "confess" what they had done to themselves in order to abort. It always disturbed me that the women who left alive, left without any advice or contraceptive method. Having asked a professor of mine, he responded with disdain: "This is a third level hospital, those things are done by nurses of the first level". Seeing so much pain and death, I decided to talk to patients, and I began to understand their decision. I still remember so many deaths with sadness, but one case in particular pains me: it was a woman close to being fifty who arrived with a uterine perforation in a state of advanced sepsis. Despite the surgery and the intensive care, she passed away. I had talked to her, and she told me she was a widow, had two adult kids and had aborted because of "embarrassment towards them" because they were going to find out that she had an active sexual life. A few days after her passing, the pathology professor called me, surprised, to tell me that the uterus we had sent for pathological examination showed no pregnancy. She was a woman in a perimenopausal state with a pregnancy exam that gave a false positive due to the high levels of FSH/LH typical of her age. SHE WAS NOT PREGNANT!!! She didn't have menstruation because she was premenopausal and a false positive led her to an unsafe abortion. Of course, the injuries caused in the attempted abortion caused the fatal conclusion, but the real underlying cause was the social taboo in respect to sexuality. I had to watch many adolescents and young women leave the hospital alive, but without a uterus, sometime without ovaries and with colostomies, to be looked down on by a society that blamed them for deciding to not be mothers. I had to see situation of women that arrived with their intestines protruding from their vaginas because of unsafe abortions. I saw women, who in their despair, self-inflicted injuries attempting to abort with elements such as stick, branches, onion wedges, alum bars and clothing hooks among others. Among so many deaths, it was hard not having at least one woman per day in the morgue due to an unsafe abortion. During those time, healthcare was not handled from the biopsychosocial, but only from the technical (2); nonetheless, in the academic evaluations that were performed, when asked about the definition of health, we had to recite the text from the International Organization of Health that included these three aspects. How contradictory! To give response to the health need of women and guarantee their right when I was already a professor, I began an obstetric contraceptive service in that third level hospital. There was resistance from the directors, but fortunately I was able to acquire international donations for the institution, which facilitated its acceptance. I decided to undertake a teaching career with the hope of being able to sensitize health professionals towards an integral focus of health and illness. When the International Conference of Population and Development (ICPD) was held in Cairo in 1994, I had already spent various years in teaching, and when I read their Action Program, I found a name for what I was working on: Sexual and Reproductive Rights. I began to incorporate the tools given by this document into my professional and teaching life. I was able to sensitize people at my countries Health Ministry, and we worked together moving it to an approach of human rights in areas of sexual and reproductive health (SRH). This new viewpoint, in addition to being integral, sought to give answers to old problems like maternal mortality, adolescent pregnancy, low contraceptive prevalence, unplanned or unwanted pregnancy or violence against women. With other sensitized people, we began with these SRH issues to permeate the Colombian Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, some universities, and university hospitals. We are still fighting in a country that despite many difficulties has improved its indicators of SRH. With the experience of having labored in all sphere of these topics, we manage to create, with a handful of colleagues and friend at the Universidad El Bosque, a Master's Program in Sexual and Reproductive Health, open to all professions, in which we broke several paradigms. A program was initiated in which the qualitative and quantitative investigation had the same weight, and some alumni of the program are now in positions of leadership in governmental and international institutions, replicating integral models. In the Latin American Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FLASOG, English acronym) and in the International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FIGO), I was able to apply my experience for many years in the SRH committees of these association to benefit women and girls in the regional and global environments. When I think of who has inspired me in these fights, I should highlight the great feminist who have taught me and been with me in so many fights. I cannot mention them all, but I have admired the story of the life of Margaret Sanger with her persistence and visionary outlook. She fought throughout her whole life to help the women of the 20th century to be able to obtain the right to decide when and whether or not they wanted to have children (3). Of current feminist, I have had the privilege of sharing experiences with Carmen Barroso, Giselle Carino, Debora Diniz and Alejandra Meglioli, leaders of the International Planned Parenthood Federation – Western Hemisphere Region (IPPF-RHO). From my country, I want to mention my countrywoman Florence Thomas, psychologist, columnist, writer and Colombo-French feminist. She is one of the most influential and important voices in the movement for women rights in Colombia and the region. She arrived from France in the 1960's, in the years of counterculture, the Beatles, hippies, Simone de Beauvoir, and Jean-Paul Sartre, a time in which capitalism and consumer culture began to be criticized (4). It was then when they began to talk about the female body, female sexuality and when the contraceptive pill arrived like a total revolution for women. Upon its arrival in 1967, she experimented a shock because she had just assisted in a revolution and only found a country of mothers, not women (5). That was the only destiny for a woman, to be quiet and submissive. Then she realized that this could not continue, speaking of "revolutionary vanguards" in such a patriarchal environment. In 1986 with the North American and European feminism waves and with her academic team, they created the group "Mujer y Sociedad de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia", incubator of great initiatives and achievements for the country (6). She has led great changes with her courage, the strength of her arguments, and a simultaneously passionate and agreeable discourse. Among her multiple books, I highlight "Conversaciones con Violeta" (7), motivated by the disdain towards feminism of some young women. She writes it as a dialogue with an imaginary daughter in which, in an intimate manner, she reconstructs the history of women throughout the centuries and gives new light of the fundamental role of feminism in the life of modern women. Another book that shows her bravery is "Había que decirlo" (8), in which she narrates the experience of her own abortion at age twenty-two in sixty's France. My work experience in the IPPF-RHO has allowed me to meet leaders of all ages in diverse countries of the region, who with great mysticism and dedication, voluntarily, work to achieve a more equal and just society. I have been particularly impressed by the appropriation of the concept of sexual and reproductive rights by young people, and this has given me great hope for the future of the planet. We continue to have an incomplete agenda of the action plan of the ICPD of Cairo but seeing how the youth bravely confront the challenges motivates me to continue ahead and give my years of experience in an intergenerational work. In their policies and programs, the IPPF-RHO evidences great commitment for the rights and the SRH of adolescent, that are consistent with what the organization promotes, for example, 20% of the places for decision making are in hands of the young. Member organizations, that base their labor on volunteers, are true incubators of youth that will make that unassailable and necessary change of generations. In contrast to what many of us experienced, working in this complicated agenda of sexual and reproductive health without theoretical bases, today we see committed people with a solid formation to replace us. In the college of medicine at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and the College of Nursing at the Universidad El Bosque, the new generations are more motivated and empowered, with great desire to change the strict underlying structures. Our great worry is the onslaught of the ultra-right, a lot of times better organized than us who do support rights, that supports anti-rights group and are truly pro-life (9). Faced with this scenario, we should organize ourselves better, giving battle to guarantee the rights of women in the local, regional, and global level, aggregating the efforts of all pro-right organizations. We are now committed to the Objectives of Sustainable Development (10), understood as those that satisfy the necessities of the current generation without jeopardizing the capacity of future generations to satisfy their own necessities. This new agenda is based on: - The unfinished work of the Millennium Development Goals - Pending commitments (international environmental conventions) - The emergent topics of the three dimensions of sustainable development: social, economic, and environmental. We now have 17 objectives of sustainable development and 169 goals (11). These goals mention "universal access to reproductive health" many times. In objective 3 of this list is included guaranteeing, before the year 2030, "universal access to sexual and reproductive health services, including those of family planning, information, and education." Likewise, objective 5, "obtain gender equality and empower all women and girls", establishes the goal of "assuring the universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights in conformity with the action program of the International Conference on Population and Development, the Action Platform of Beijing". It cannot be forgotten that the term universal access to sexual and reproductive health includes universal access to abortion and contraception. Currently, 830 women die every day through preventable maternal causes; of these deaths, 99% occur in developing countries, more than half in fragile environments and in humanitarian contexts (12). 216 million women cannot access modern contraception methods and the majority live in the nine poorest countries in the world and in a cultural environment proper to the decades of the seventies (13). This number only includes women from 15 to 49 years in any marital state, that is to say, the number that takes all women into account is much greater. Achieving the proposed objectives would entail preventing 67 million unwanted pregnancies and reducing maternal deaths by two thirds. We currently have a high, unsatisfied demand for modern contraceptives, with extremely low use of reversible, long term methods (intrauterine devices and subdermal implants) which are the most effect ones with best adherence (14). There is not a single objective among the 17 Objectives of Sustainable Development where contraception does not have a prominent role: from the first one that refers to ending poverty, going through the fifth one about gender equality, the tenth of inequality reduction among countries and within the same country, until the sixteenth related with peace and justice. If we want to change the world, we should procure universal access to contraception without myths or barriers. We have the moral obligation of achieving the irradiation of extreme poverty and advancing the construction of more equal, just, and happy societies. In emergency contraception (EC), we are very far from reaching expectations. If in reversible, long-term methods we have low prevalence, in EC the situation gets worse. Not all faculties in the region look at this topic, and where it is looked at, there is no homogeneity in content, not even within the same country. There are still myths about their real action mechanisms. There are countries, like Honduras, where it is prohibited and there is no specific medicine, the same case as in Haiti. Where it is available, access is dismal, particularly among girls, adolescents, youth, migrants, afro-descendent, and indigenous. The multiple barriers for the effective use of emergency contraceptives must be knocked down, and to work toward that we have to destroy myths and erroneous perceptions, taboos and cultural norms; achieve changes in laws and restrictive rules within countries, achieve access without barriers to the EC; work in union with other sectors; train health personnel and the community. It is necessary to transform the attitude of health personal to a service above personal opinion. Reflecting on what has occurred after the ICPD in Cairo, their Action Program changed how we look at the dynamics of population from an emphasis on demographics to a focus on the people and human rights. The governments agreed that, in this new focus, success was the empowerment of women and the possibility of choice through expanded access to education, health, services, and employment among others. Nonetheless, there have been unequal advances and inequality persists in our region, all the goals were not met, the sexual and reproductive goals continue beyond the reach of many women (15). There is a long road ahead until women and girls of the world can claim their rights and liberty of deciding. Globally, maternal deaths have been reduced, there is more qualified assistance of births, more contraception prevalence, integral sexuality education, and access to SRH services for adolescents are now recognized rights with great advances, and additionally there have been concrete gains in terms of more favorable legal frameworks, particularly in our region; nonetheless, although it's true that the access condition have improved, the restrictive laws of the region expose the most vulnerable women to insecure abortions. There are great challenges for governments to recognize SRH and the DSR as integral parts of health systems, there is an ample agenda against women. In that sense, access to SRH is threatened and oppressed, it requires multi-sector mobilization and litigation strategies, investigation and support for the support of women's rights as a multi-sector agenda. Looking forward, we must make an effort to work more with youth to advance not only the Action Program of the ICPD, but also all social movements. They are one of the most vulnerable groups, and the biggest catalyzers for change. The young population still faces many challenges, especially women and girls; young girls are in particularly high risk due to lack of friendly and confidential services related with sexual and reproductive health, gender violence, and lack of access to services. In addition, access to abortion must be improved; it is the responsibility of states to guarantee the quality and security of this access. In our region there still exist countries with completely restrictive frameworks. New technologies facilitate self-care (16), which will allow expansion of universal access, but governments cannot detach themselves from their responsibility. Self-care is expanding in the world and can be strategic for reaching the most vulnerable populations. There are new challenges for the same problems, that require a re-interpretation of the measures necessary to guaranty the DSR of all people, in particular women, girls, and in general, marginalized and vulnerable populations. It is necessary to take into account migrations, climate change, the impact of digital media, the resurgence of hate discourse, oppression, violence, xenophobia, homo/transphobia, and other emergent problems, as SRH should be seen within a framework of justice, not isolated. We should demand accountability of the 179 governments that participate in the ICPD 25 years ago and the 193 countries that signed the Sustainable Development Objectives. They should reaffirm their commitments and expand their agenda to topics not considered at that time. Our region has given the world an example with the Agreement of Montevideo, that becomes a blueprint for achieving the action plan of the CIPD and we should not allow retreat. This agreement puts people at the center, especially women, and includes the topic of abortion, inviting the state to consider the possibility of legalizing it, which opens the doors for all governments of the world to recognize that women have the right to choose on maternity. This agreement is much more inclusive: Considering that the gaps in health continue to abound in the region and the average statistics hide the high levels of maternal mortality, of sexually transmitted diseases, of infection by HIV/AIDS, and the unsatisfied demand for contraception in the population that lives in poverty and rural areas, among indigenous communities, and afro-descendants and groups in conditions of vulnerability like women, adolescents and incapacitated people, it is agreed: 33- To promote, protect, and guarantee the health and the sexual and reproductive rights that contribute to the complete fulfillment of people and social justice in a society free of any form of discrimination and violence. 37- Guarantee universal access to quality sexual and reproductive health services, taking into consideration the specific needs of men and women, adolescents and young, LGBT people, older people and people with incapacity, paying particular attention to people in a condition of vulnerability and people who live in rural and remote zone, promoting citizen participation in the completing of these commitments. 42- To guarantee, in cases in which abortion is legal or decriminalized in the national legislation, the existence of safe and quality abortion for non-desired or non-accepted pregnancies and instigate the other States to consider the possibility of modifying public laws, norms, strategies, and public policy on the voluntary interruption of pregnancy to save the life and health of pregnant adolescent women, improving their quality of life and decreasing the number of abortions (17).
In Madagaskar ist ein Großteil der ländlichen Bevölkerung von Armut betroffen und ist damit auf kleinbäuerliche Landwirtschaft und die Nutzung natürlicher Ressourcen zur Grundversorgung angewiesen. Folglich sind die natürlichen und artenreichen Ökosysteme des Landes einem hohen Landnutzungsdruck ausgesetzt. Vor allem die Regenwälder im Nordosten des Landes weisen eine bemerkenswerte Vielfalt an Baumarten und eine hohe Endemismusrate auf, sind jedoch von einer raschen Umwandlung in eine von Menschen veränderte Mosaiklandschaft bedroht. In dieser Mosaiklandschaft im Nordosten Madagaskars findet sich noch ein kleiner Anteil geschützter alter Wälder, ansonsten setzt sich die Landschaft aus einem Mosaik landwirtschaftlicher Flächen, Waldfragmente und Agroforste zusammen. Diese Agroforste dienen dem kleinbäuerlichen Anbau von Gewürzvanille, die Madagaskars wichtigstes Exportprodukt darstellt. In diesen Agroforsten spielen Bäume eine entscheidende Rolle. Sie werden entweder als Schattenbäume oder als Stützbäume für die kletternde Vanille-Orchidee (Vanilla planifolia) dauerhaft in das Anbausystem integriert. Vanille-Agroforste decken bezüglich ihrer Struktur und ihrer Artenzusammensetzung ein breites Spektrum ab. Somit weisen sie vielversprechende Landnutzungsoptionen auf, um die Erhaltung der biologischen Vielfalt mit den Produktionszielen im Nordosten Madagaskars in Einklang zu bringen. Da es bisher nur wenige Belege gibt, die eine soziale und ökologische Bewertung der Vanille-Agroforstwirtschaft erlauben, befasst sich das Forschungsprojekt "Diversity Turn in Land Use Science" mit dieser Forschungslücke. Im Rahmen des Diversity Turn-Projekts befasst sich die vorliegende Doktorarbeit mit dem Naturschutzwert von Agroforsten, indem sie die Vielfalt, Bestandsstruktur und Zusammensetzung von Baumgemeinschaften in Vanille-Agroforsten untersucht und sie mit anderen baumbasierten Landnutzungstypen in der Mosaiklandschaft im Nordosten Madagaskars vergleicht. Um dies zu erreichen, entwickelt die vorliegende Doktorarbeit zunächst einen konzeptionellen Rahmen, der eine Naturschutzbewertung von Agroforstsystemen erleichtert. Anschließend werden einzelne Aspekte dieses konzeptionellen Rahmens anhand von Fallstudien untersucht. Die Fallstudien setzen unterschiedliche Schwerpunkte und decken damit ein umfassendes Spektrum ab, das von der Baumartenvielfalt und Bestandsstruktur, über die Baumartenzusammensetzung, die Vielfalt der Agroforst-Stützbäume bis zur Erfassung des oberirdischen Kohlenstoffbestands reicht. Die Fallstudien stützen sich auf Bauminventurdaten, die in Vanille-Agroforsten mit unterschiedlicher Landnutzungsgeschichte erhoben wurden, sowie in weitgehend ungestörten Wäldern, Waldfragmenten und holzigen Brachflächen, die alle Teil der kleinbäuerlichen Mosaiklandschaft im Nordosten Madagaskars sind. In der konzeptionellen Studie (Kapitel 1) wird zunächst dargelegt, dass sich tropische Agroforste in ihrer Landnutzungsgeschichte unterscheiden: sie können entweder im Wald oder auf Brachland angelegt werden. Jedoch wird dieser Unterschied in der Agroforstforschung und -politik bisher kaum beachtet. Auf der Grundlage von Literaturdaten und einem Beispiel aus eigenen Bauminventurdaten zeigt die Studie, dass sich Agroforste mit unterschiedlicher Landnutzungsgeschichte in Bezug auf biologische Vielfalt, Ökosystemfunktionen und Ökosystemdienstleistungen unterscheiden. Die Studie legt nahe, dass die Unterscheidung basierend auf der Landnutzungsgeschichte in verschiedenen Regionen und Agroforstsystemen anwendbar sein könnte, um lokale Naturschutzziele und Landschaftsmanagement besser aufeinander abzustimmen. Kapitel 2 analysiert die Bestandsstruktur und die Artenvielfalt von Bäumen in den verschiedenen Landnutzungstypen der kleinbäuerlichen Mosaiklandschaft. Dabei steht insbesondere im Fokus, wie sich die Landnutzungsgeschichte in Vanille-Agroforsten auf deren Bestandsstruktur und die Baumartenvielfalt auswirkt: die Studie zeigt, dass Agroforste, die im Wald etabliert wurden, wichtig für die Erhaltung der Lebensraumstruktur und der Baumvielfalt sind, während Agroforste, die auf Brachland etabliert wurden, eine Möglichkeit zur Wiederherstellung der Baumbestände auf diesen ehemals bewaldeten Brachflächen bieten. Kapitel 3 quantifiziert die Vielfältigkeit und Zusammensetzung der Baumartengemeinschaften innerhalb und zwischen verschiedenen Landnutzungstypen in der Mosaiklandschaft. Die Studie verwendet Beta-Diversitätsmaße, die Veränderungen in der Baumartenzusammensetzung und -häufigkeit in diesen verschiedenen Landnutzungstypen widerspiegeln, und zeigt, dass (bis jetzt) viele Baumarten in dieser Mosaiklandschaft überleben können. Allerdings sind die Fluktuationsraten innerhalb und zwischen den Baumgemeinschaften in den verschiedenen Landnutzungstypen hoch, was darauf hindeutet, dass sich die Baumgemeinschaften sowohl in ihrer Identität als auch in ihrem Abundanz verändern. Die Studie befürwortet die Durchführung von Maßnahmen zur Aufforstung und Renaturierung ehemals bewaldeten Brachlands, um die einzigartigen Baumartengemeinschaften in der vom Menschen veränderten Mosaiklandschaft zu erhalten, und schlägt als Einstieg die Etablierung von Agroforsten auf ehemals bewaldeten Brachflächen vor. Die Studie betont jedoch, dass die hohe Fluktuationsrate von Baumartengemeinschaften bei der Planung solcher Aktivitäten zu berücksichtigen ist. Kapitel 4 befasst sich mit der Vielfalt und Zusammensetzung von Agroforst-Stützbäumen, denen bisher wenig wissenschaftliche Aufmerksam zukam. Die Studie stützt sich auf Daten aus der Bestandsaufnahme von Agroforst-Stützbäumen in Vanille-Agroforsten mit unterschiedlicher Landnutzungsgeschichte, sowie auf Befragungen der Besitzer:innen der jeweiligen Vanille-Agroforste. Die Studie analysiert die Artenvielfalt, die Zusammensetzung und die geographische Herkunft der Stützbäume in diesen Vanille-Agroforsten und zeigt, dass Stützbäume wesentlich zur Baumvielfalt dieser Agroforste beitragen, aber abhängig von der Landnutzungsgeschichte werden deutliche Unterschiede zwischen Stützbaum-Beständen sichtbar: Stützbäume in Agroforsten, die im Wald etabliert wurden, umfassen viele einheimische und endemische Stützbaumarten und weisen einen viermal höheren Artenreichtum auf als Agroforste, die auf Brachland etabliert wurden und einen hohen Anteil an eingeführten Stützbaumarten beherbergen. Da auf Brachland etablierte Vanille-Agroforste eine wichtige Rolle bei der Aufforstung und Renaturierung ehemals bewaldeten Brachlands spielen können, empfiehlt die Studie bei deren Etablierung verstärkt auf einheimische oder endemische Baumarten als Stützbäume zurück zu greifen. Kapitel 5 quantifiziert die oberirdischen Kohlenstoffvorräte in den verschiedenen Landnutzungstypen der kleinbäuerlichen Mosaiklandschaft. Dabei wird insbesondere analysiert, wie die Landnutzungsgeschichte die oberirdischen Kohlenstoffvorräte in Agroforstsystemen beeinflusst. Die Studie zeigt, dass Agroforste als Kohlenstoffspeicher in einer multifunktionalen Landschaft fungieren können, dass es aber wichtig ist, ihre Landnutzungsgeschichte und ihre Bewirtschaftung zu berücksichtigen, um ihren Naturschutzwert zu maximieren: Agroforste, die im Wald etabliert wurden, weisen größere oberirdischen Kohlenstoffvorräten auf und haben das Potenzial, eine waldähnliche Struktur mit einheimischen und endemischen Bäumen in der Landschaft zu erhalten, während Agroforste, die auf Brachland etabliert wurden, dieses ehemalig bewaldete Brachland in dauerhaft baumdominierte Landnutzungssysteme zurückführen. Zusammenfassend tragen die Studien im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit dazu bei, die ökologische Bewertung tropischer Agroforste zu verbessern. Die Studien liefern datengestützte Erkenntnisse aus Fallstudien in der Mosaiklandschaft im Nordosten Madagaskars, welche die ökologische Bewertung der Vanille-Agroforstwirtschaft in dieser Region ermöglichen. Die vorliegende Doktorarbeit beleuchtet die Vielfalt, die Zusammensetzung und die Bestandsstruktur von Baumgemeinschaften in der Mosaiklandschaft im Nordosten Madagaskars und liefert damit wichtige Informationen, um die Folgen von Landnutzungsänderungen in dieser tropischen Landschaft zu quantifizieren und zu verstehen. Ein solches Verständnis ist unerlässlich für die Entwicklung von regional angepassten Landnutzungsplänen und Schutzmaßnahmen, die darauf abzielen, die Artenvielfalt, Ökosystemfunktionen und Ökosystemdienstleistungen zu erhalten, und ist somit sowohl für die Forschung als auch für den angewandten Naturschutz von hohem Wert. ; In Madagascar, a large percentage of the rural human population faces multifaceted poverty and depends on agriculture and natural resources as main livelihood sources. Consequently, the country's biodiverse natural ecosystems experience high land-use pressure. Especially the north-eastern rainforests comprise a remarkable diversity of trees species with high endemism rates but face rapid transformation into a human-modified mosaic landscape. This human-modified mosaic landscape in north-eastern Madagascar still contains a small share of protected old-growth forest and is otherwise composed of smallholder agricultural land, forest fragments, and smallholder agroforests to cultivate Madagascar's major export product vanilla. In these agroforests, trees are permanently integrated into the crop cultivation system either as shade trees or as support trees for the climbing vanilla orchid (Vanilla planifolia). Vanilla agroforests cover a wide range of structural and compositional characteristics and might offer promising land use options to reconcile biodiversity conservation with production goals in north-eastern Madagascar. Since evidence on the social and environmental benefits and tradeoffs of vanilla agroforestry has been scarce so far, the research project "Diversity Turn in Land Use Science" addresses this research gap. Within the frame of the Diversity Turn project, this thesis addresses the conservation value of agroforests by examining the diversity, stand structure, and composition of tree communities in vanilla agroforests and contrasting them to other tree-based land-use types in the mosaic landscape of north-eastern Madagascar. To do so, this thesis first establishes a conceptual framework on agroforestry systems and then works through the individual aspects of this framework, using case studies on species diversity and stand structure, species composition, support tree diversity, and aboveground carbon stocks. The case studies build on tree inventory data from vanilla agroforests of contrasting land-use history, old-growth forests, forest fragments, and woody fallows after slash-and-burn shifting cultivation, which all contribute to the smallholder mosaic landscape of north-eastern Madagascar. The conceptual study (chapter 1) elaborates that tropical agroforests differ in land-use history and may be either established inside a forest or on open land but this difference is often neglected in agroforestry research and policy. Based on literature data and an example from own tree inventories, the study shows that agroforests of contrasting land-use history differ in biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and services. The study suggests that the differentiation based on land-use history might be applicable in various regions and agroforestry systems, to better align landscape management with conservation goals. Chapter 2 analyses the stand structure and species diversity of trees in the different land-use types of the smallholder mosaic landscape. Therein, the study puts a special focus on how land-use history affects stand structure and species diversity in vanilla agroforests and demonstrates that forest-derived agroforests are important for maintaining habitat structure and tree diversity, whereas fallow-derived agroforests offer tree cover rehabilitation opportunities on open but formerly forested land. Chapter 3 quantifies the variation of tree species communities within and among different land-use types in the mosaic landscape. The study uses beta-diversity metrics that reflect changes in both species composition and abundance in these different land-use types and demonstrates that (thus far) many tree species can persist in this mosaic landscape. However, turnover rates are high within and between tree communities in the land-use types, indicating that tree communities are transforming both in identity and abundance. The study endorses the implementation of conservation and restoration activities to maintain the unique tree species assemblages in the human-modified mosaic landscape and suggests the establishment of agroforests on formerly forested degraded land as an entry point. However, the study emphasizes considering the high turnover rates of tree species communities in the planning of such activities. Chapter 4 focuses on the diversity and composition of agroforest-support trees, which have received little scientific attention so far. The study builds on support tree inventory data and farmer interviews from vanilla agroforests of contrasting land-use history. The study analyses the species diversity, composition, and geographic origin of support trees in these vanilla agroforests and shows that support trees substantially contribute to the tree diversity in these agroforests, but show clear differences based on land-use history: support trees in forest-derived agroforests encompass many native and endemic species richness and have four times higher species richness compared to fallow-derived agroforests, which harbor a high share of introduced species. Since fallow-derived vanilla agroforests can play an important role in restoration and rehabilitation, the study suggests a stronger consideration of native or endemic tree species in new to establish vanilla agroforests. Chapter 5 estimates aboveground carbon stocks across stem diameters and geographic origin of tree species in the different land-use types of the smallholder mosaic landscape. Therein, the study particularly analyses how land-use history influences aboveground carbon stocks in agroforestry systems. The study demonstrates that agroforests can act as carbon reservoirs in a multifunctional landscape, but considering their land-use history and management is important to maximize their benefits: forest-derived agroforests support higher aboveground carbon stocks than fallow-derived agroforests and have the potential to maintain a forest-like structure with native and endemic trees in the landscape, whereas fallow-derived agroforests take land out of the slash-and-burn cycle by converting it into permanent tree-dominated land-use systems. In conclusion, the studies within this thesis contribute to refining the conservation evaluation of tropical agroforests and provide data-based evidence to assess the conservation value of vanilla agroforests in the mosaic landscape of north-eastern Madagascar. The thesis sheds light on the diversity, composition, and stand structure of tree communities in the mosaic landscape of north-eastern Madagascar and thereby provides vital information to quantify and understand the consequences of land-use change in this tropical landscape. Such understanding is essential to develop land-use management schemes and conservation measures that aim to maintain species diversity, ecosystem functions, and services and is thus important for research and applied conservation alike. ; 2022-01-21
The behavioural location theory emphasises high importance of the limited rationality and the subjective perception of space in selecting of the location for a business activity. The article discusses key competencies from the scope of behavioural location theory. Ac-cording to the Authors, the behavioural location theory is rather complementary than competitive in relation to the neoclassical or modern approach, as it allows to explain the deviations of the decision-makers from the optimisation behaviour.
Business location theory has already been discussed in this journal in various contexts, for example in articles by H. Godlewska-Majkowska, K. Kuciński, A. Rutkowska-Górak, A. Kałowski. However, to our knowledge, the behavioural approach has not yet been presented here and we would like to fill the gap and offer a review of selected authors' works and concepts from this field and hopefully inspire other scholars to develop this promising research direction. In addition, a quantitative analysis of publications on behavioural location theory will be presented.
For the purposes of this article we will define the behavioural location theory as the inclusion of psychological and subjective circumstances of the decision makers into location theory, such as bounded rationality, heuristics usage and subjective spatial perception.
The behavioural approach seems underutilised in location theory despite its potential to explain many of business location decisions which are inconsistent with the profit maximisation principle. According to R. Domański [1995]: so far it has not been satisfactorily examined how the perception of space influences spatial behaviour of people. Nobody objects that many decisions, at least in part, depend on how people perceive the space surrounding them, how they differentiate it and what value they place on different elements of this space.According to W. Dziemianowicz [1997]: the assessment of location factors by decision makers most often depends on specific qualities of the business and qualities of the decision maker. Surprisingly, decades have passed since last important contributions in the field of behavioural location theory.
Location theory has its roots in XIX century, when J.H. von Thuenen offered the agricultural activity location theory in 1826. The interest in location theory revived more than 50 years later, mainly thanks to the works of W. Launhardt [1882] and A. Marshall [1886]. Important dates are also 1909, when A. Weber developed his industrial location theory and proposed the notion of a location factor and 1933, when the first theory of services location emerged, authored by W. Christaller.
Then the development of location theory accelerated, with contributions of such authors as A. Loesch [1939], F. Perroux [1964] or P. Krugman [1991]. It can be argued that thanks to P. Krugman location theory entered the mainstream economics, which neglected spatial issues for a long time.
Different location theory traditions put the emphasis on different aspects. For example, classical approach theorists indicate minimising production cost as the goal of the location decision maker while behavioural approach suggests satisfactory choice as a goal. According to H. Godlewska-Majkowska, there are five approaches to location theory: classical, neo-classical, structural, behavioural and contemporary. Their focus points are briefly explained in Table 1.
There are three similar but distinct terms related to the business location choice: • location factors – specific qualities of particular places which have direct impact on investment volume during building of the company's plant (plants) and the net profitability of business activity run in those places [Godlewska-Majkowska, 2001], • location virtues – specific qualities of places which contribute to it that identical investments will differ depending on location in terms of investment volume, total production cost, sales revenue and taxes [Godlewska-Majkowska, 2015],
ocation circumstances – internal and external phenomena which transform a location virtue into a location factor. Internal phenomena can be for example: industry, size and ownership structure of the business. External phenomena include among others economic, environmental and cultural issues [Godlewska-Majkowska, 2013]. Clearly, location requirements are different for various sectors. Therefore, location factors are divided into general (those applying to all or many sectors) and sector-specific (those applying to one or few sectors).
There are also other classifications of location factors. The importance of subjective factors in the location choice is reflexed in the classification by Grabow et al. [1995] into soft and hard location factors, on the basis of H. GodlewskaMajkowska [2015]. Hard factors are more traditional, have direct influence on business activity and are easily measurable, while soft factors have indirect influence on business activity and are difficult to quantify.
It is worth to note that authors of this classification consider both kinds of factors as equally important and find even the soft factors as ones, which can be parametrised, measured and compared. Figure 1 presents the classification in a more detailed way.
In our view, Grabow et al. [1995] showed an excessive scepticism when it comes to measurability of some factors. For example, the local government attitude towards investor may be measured by places in investment attractiveness rankings, such as 'Gmina na 5!' conducted every year by Institute of Enterprise at Collegium of Business Administration at Warsaw School of Economics. Apart from it, the classification should be considered to be validated as more than 20 years had passed since its publication and made more precise, because as H. GodlewskaMajkowska [2015] points out, some factors seem to overlap – social climate is presented as separate factor than local government attitude towards investor, but in fact the former includes the latter.
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Each business has to choose its location and the effect of business location selection is called location decision. Location decision may be the result of a more or less formal procedure. There is a consensus among scholars that business location decision is important for entity's economic performance. At the same time, it is acknowledged in the literature that subjective factors (such as bounded rationality) play a non-negligible role in location choice. As R. Domański [2004] outlines, location decision makers usually have limited knowledge and incomplete information and in many cases the decision maker does not behave like the homo oeconomicus. Sometimes he has limited or biased information about his decision situation and at the same time he assessed the incomplete information in a subjective way.If the situation is complicated, he has to simplify it by using intuitional rules in decision making. He does not try to achieve the optimal result but rather a satisfactory one. Such statements suggest R. Domański finds bounded rationality model convincing.
According to classical, neoclassical and contemporary business location theory the decision maker undertakes the optimal choice, while heterodox approaches such as behavioural location theory claim making an optimal choice is impossible. The classical, neoclassical and contemporary theorists assume decision makers are homo oeconomicus, a person with perfect information about the present and the future, able and willing to make complicated calculations and not prone to psychological biases.
Behavioural economics accepts different set of assumptions about the human nature: limited (imperfect) knowledge of the decision maker, limited ability to process the knowledge and searching for satisfactory result rather than optimal. Decision maker who behaves in line with those assumptions is purposefully called homo satisfaciendus.
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Homo satisfaciendus is the concept of decision maker used in the bounded rationality model created by H. Simon [1955], which is fundamental for behavioural economics, including behavioural location theory. In the model it is assumed that the decision makers do not aim to maximise utility from choice made (making an optimal decision) but rather search for a good enough (satisfactory) option and once they find such an option they also stop search. In practice, it means that typically a decision maker will accept the first location that meets his minimum criteria, the so called aspiration level and will not even check alternative locations. Simon points out that people may use so called heuristics, which are decision making patterns simplifying their decision problems but he did not elaborate on it.
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The gap has been filled by D. Kahneman and A. Tversky [1975] who singled out three famous heuristics: availability, representativeness and anchoring. H. Godlewska-Majkowska [2016] argues that such heuristics are used to assess location virtues of places which a location decision maker had visited within business location decision making process.
The bounded rationality model has served as the basis for the A. Pred [1967] behavioural matrix, which linked information availability, investor's information processing ability and profitability of chosen business location. The general rule is that the more information (or information processing ability) one has, the more profitable location one chooses, caeteris paribus. An adapted version of Pred matrix is presented in Figure 2. Point A represents homo oeconomicus, who has perfect information and perfect ability to use it, so he or she will choose the optimal location. All other decision makers make suboptimal decisions and the extreme is reached in point B, where the decision maker has little information and low ability to process it, so he or she will choose a poor location that may result in a loss.
In: Van Hove , R 2018 , ' A Dream on Trial : The Contest of Oracular Interpretations and Authorities in Hyperides ' In Defence of Euxenippus ' , Mnemosyne , vol. 72 , no. 3 . https://doi.org/10.1163/1568525X-12342558
This paper re-examines Hyperides' speech In Defence of Euxenippus as evidence for the role of divination in fourth-century BCE Athens. The oration recounts an occasion of oracular divination through incubation at Amphiaraos' sanctuary in Oropos, whereby the Athenian Assembly ordered individuals to undergo incubation to resolve an issue concerning land ownership. This paper argues that Hyperides' speech not only furnishes crucial evidence which broadens our understanding of divination beyond the famous oracle at Delphi, it also provides us with a valuable case study for the process of oracular consultation. The paper analyses the different stages of this process, including the selection of incubants, the nature of the dream received and the aftermath of incubation, demonstrating how the dream could be contested. It thereby sheds new light on the complexities of oracular transmission and interpretation, both of which are open to contestation as a result of the multiplicity of religious authority. Some time in the late 330s or early 320s BCE, a dispute arose over ownership of a hill near Oropos, a territory near the border of Boeotia and Attica.1 Oropos had recently been restored to Athenian control, most likely by Alexander in 335, and the Athenian Assembly had subsequently divided the five hills surrounding Oropos into lots and allocated them to the ten Athenian tribes in groups of two, as a speech by the orator Hyperides recounts (Hyp. 4.16).2 A dispute arose, however, about one particular hill, appointed to the tribes Hippothoönthis and Acamantis: it was claimed this land actually belonged to the god Amphiaraos, whose sanctuary stood in Oropos, and that the hill was thus unlawfully allocated to the two tribes. In order to resolve this conflict the Assembly of Athens decided to send a group of men to Amphiaraos' sanctuary to undergo incubation and ask the god himself for his opinion on the matter. A question of land ownership therefore became, as this article will show, one of competing oracular interpretations. The orator Hyperides recounts these events in his speech In Defence of Euxenippus (Hyp. 4) written for Euxenippus Ethelokratous of Lamptrai, who was one of the incubants in the affair. The speech is unusual and exceptional: it is the only oration preserved from classical Athens which discusses an instance of oracular divination by way of a dream.3 Moreover, this oracular enquiry does not present the god with a therapeutic request, as is customary at Amphiaraos' Oropian sanctuary in the fourth century, but rather submits to the god a question of public decision-making. Divination in the ancient Greek world constituted an assemblage of techniques and methods used to seek the counsel of the gods. The most prestigious form of divination in the classical period was oracular, which itself existed in various forms, whether functioning through dreams—as in the case of Oropos—or prophets.4 The affair of Euxenippus raises a number of intriguing questions regarding the role of oracles in public decision-making, which forces us to rethink the usual picture of oracular divination, built up as it is largely from sources concerning the more famous oracle of Apollo at Delphi. Why did the Athenians decide to consult the oracle here with a question of land allocation? How did oracular consultation through incubation, usually employed for individual, therapeutic consultations, work with regards to a collective, public issue which involved two of the city's tribes? And, most significantly, what does this rare source for the process of oracular consultation tell us about how authority was negotiated in this public decision-making process, in which a divine dream undergoes human transmission and multiple interpretations, in order to become a decision-making tool in a matter of land allocation? This paper offers a re-examination of Hyperides' speech In Defence of Euxenippus, which intends to both deconstruct the oracular case at its heart and contextualise the speech as a source for the role of divination in the public life of classical Athens. Of course, the exceptionality of the case means we cannot automatically or unquestioningly regard it as representative of general oracular practice. Furthermore, the use of the speech as a source is made complex by the rhetorical nature of Hyperides' oration: his narrative evidently shapes and constructs events in such a way as to best substantiate his argument of defence in Euxenippus' impeachment trial. Nonetheless, if we proceed with caution and awareness of both the case's singularity and of the rhetorical nature of the depiction found in Hyperides' speech, the affair of Euxenippus can illuminate certain aspects of the divinatory process which remain largely hidden in other sources. Hyperides' speech affords us a valuable rare glimpse into the process of how divine signs were employed by presenting the different stages involved: from the type of issue which requires oracular advice to the decision to consult the oracle, from the functioning of the divinatory consultation itself to the subsequent interpretation of the sign and the final resolution of the problem. Yet this process and its results have not received the attention they deserve: general studies of divination largely ignore Euxenippus' case.5 The few scholars who have examined it, meanwhile, limit themselves primarily to the question of purpose: they merely weigh up the political, economic or religious considerations which affected why the Athenians here decided to consult the oracle, but they do not go far beyond this reason for the consultation.6 In contrast, this paper sets out to explore the important ignored issues of the functioning of the oracle and its consequences, investigating how divination is here actually used for conflict resolution. As divination provided the ancient Greeks with the most direct means of accessing indications of the will of their gods, the role of oracles in Athenian life has long been an object of study and has functioned as a cornerstone of the wider debate on the role of religion in Athenian democracy. Scholarship on 'official' oracular divination, the consultation of oracles by officials or city states, in matters concerning public, political or military affairs, has focused largely on Apollo's oracle at Delphi, for which we have the most evidence, both literary and epigraphic.7 Recently, the publication of the lead inscriptions from the oracle at Dodona has opened up the debate somewhat beyond Delphi.8 Yet the nature of the Dodonian oracular questions, sustaining and sustained by a growing scholarly interest in the role of the individual in religion, has been very much geared towards recognising the importance of divination in private everyday life.9 With regards to divination in public discourse, in the political and legal decision-making of Athens, Delphi still rules the roost. Scholars have concentrated on the question of the function of official consultations: from early-twentieth-century attitudes which derided oracular divination as charlatanism or mere formalities, theories have evidently moved on to focus on the role of divination in its social setting, or as a lens through which to view the mentalities of cultures which make use of such practices.10 Public divination has come to be seen as a regulatory device, used to gain consensus in situations where this is lacking, or—taking it more seriously—as a way of dealing with contingency and risk.11 This paper aims to throw new light on the subject of Greek public divination by examining a source—and oracle—neglected in this regard, proposing an alternative way of interpreting the function of oracular consultations. Who eventually makes the decision regarding the disputed land in Oropos, and how do they do so? This study sets out to answer this question by paying attention to the different actors involved in the decision-making process, their assigned roles, and their authority. After a short introduction to the speech itself, the analysis will deconstruct the different stages of the oracular consultation. It will commence, first, with the Assembly's decision to consult the oracle, paying particular attention to the selection and identity of the incubants. Second, it will move on to Oropos and the incubation rite itself, scrutinising the way in which the nature of the dream is experienced and articulated by the dreamer. As Hyperides' account of the events leading up to the court case are rather confused, it will be necessary here to attempt to reconstruct the details of the speech's narrative, in particular to clarify the content of the dream and its relationship to the subsequent trial. The third section of this paper will put Euxenippus' dream in a wider context by surveying comparable evidence for oneiromancy in the Greek world. The final section will examine the aftermath of the consultation, which constitutes the stage of the oracle's interpretation. It will demonstrate how contested this interpretation of the dream was, as expressed through the discussion of the Assembly upon Euxenippus' return, the decree proposal which a man called Polyeuctus made regarding the dream, and Polyeuctus' subsequent prosecution of the dreamer Euxenippus. This analysis will therefore provide an investigation into the different agents invested with authority in this decision-making process—the god, the demos, and various individuals—as well as the challenges made to different holders of authority throughout the whole process.
Розглянуто питання управління бюджетними коштами в умовах децентралізації у контексті нових підходів до методики його здійснення. На основі ґрунтовного та всебічного аналізу управління бюджетними коштами визначено низку удосконалень, які можуть бути застосовані з огляду на сучасний стан розвитку міжбюджетних відносин та законодавче забезпечення функціонування об'єднаних територіальних громад місцевого самоврядування загалом. Означено характерні особливості кожного з удосконалень та окреслено порядок їх застосування для управління бюджетними коштами. ; Problem setting. The process of decentralization, which was initiated in order to strengthen the material and financial basis of local self-government, requires the latest approaches to its implementation, given the complexity of the process, the large number of issues of the functioning of the territorial communities, which it covers and the ambiguity of the consequences it leads to. Since it, on the one hand, can contribute to the development of separate territorial communities at the expense of additional financial resources and, on the other hand, create barriers for the development of other communities with less economic potential and can not compete with more developed regions, provided that the transition to a self-financing model of local self-government is preferable .This is particularly evident in the management of budgetary funds that are available to territorial communities and should be used most rationally and efficiently on the one hand and have enough to finance their aspirated needs from another. And in view of this, there is a need for an analysis of the methods of managing budget funds in a decentralized environment that would correspond to the current trends in the development of territorial communities and were of a new character.Recent research and publications analysis. A number of scholars in their writings touched upon issues of budget activity in the conditions of decentralization, including in its fiscal aspect, among them: V. Bodrov, T. Buturlakin, A. Vasiliev, G. Voznyak, O. Kyrylenko, A. Lelechenko, Z. Lobodina, G. Lopushniak, M. Vlivdar, V. Kuybida, I. Lunin, S. Romaniuk, A. Tkachuk, G. Shakhov and others. Among foreign scholars should mention Sh. Blankarta, G. Bivaleets, M. J. Byukenen, R. A. Masgraveva, Y. Kulyavika and others.The scholars and the questions of the concept of fiscal decentralization were considered, which were reflected in the works of O. Borislavskaya, I. Volokhova, V. Hamana, M. Goncharenko, Y. Grinchenko, O. Kyrilenko, N. Kryshtof, O. Lisenko, O. Onishchenko, S. Romanyuk, M. Ruban, A. Yakymchuk, V. Yaroshchuk and others like that.However, the question of the methodology of managing budget funds in conditions of decentralization and its improvement was not the subject of a separate scientific analysis.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. In general, the issue of budget activities in the context of decentralization was considered mainly from the point of view of the functioning of individual budgets and the needs of their adaptation to this process. That is, the scholars considered separate issues of budget activity in a decentralized environment without analyzing the methodology of managing budget funds in the course of decentralization processes.At the same time, it is the methods of management of budget funds that would correspond to the current state of decentralization processes taking place in local self-government were not the subject of separate scientific research, and therefore there is a need for scientific research in this direction.Paper main body. From the point of view of public administration of budgetary funds in the conditions of decentralization, it is necessary to determine the method of management of budget funds in the conditions of decentralization as a set of consistent actions aimed at achieving the result in the form of improved management of such budgetary funds. In view of the complex nature of budget relations and the issues of legal and practical regulation of fiscal decentralization, it is advisable to choose an approach based on development, with subsequent practical application, not one and a number of new methods that should improve the management of budgetary funds in conditions of decentralization. Having grasped the most important issues of managing budget funds in the territorial communities.At the state level, the relevant financial, property and budgetary rights of local self-government are guaranteed, with the allocation of local budgets as independent components in the budget system of Ukraine, and the opportunities for transferring resources to the bodies of self-organization of the population are guaranteed, which must be taken into account during the management of budget funds in conditions of decentralization.Until the start of a new budget period, territorial communities are not able to take advantage of all the financial opportunities provided to united territorial communities. Including receive corresponding revenues to the budget of the united territorial community, as provided for in Article 64 of the Budget Code of Ukraine. And this reduces the budget opportunities of the united territorial community, especially when the union took place at the beginning of the fiscal year. Therefore, it is expedient to allow such associations to be held and in the future, without limiting them only in the framework of 2018, by making appropriate amendments to the current legislation and adding in this part of the Methodology for the formation of capable territorial communities.The territorial community is estimated by the population criterion and the area without taking into account the particulars of the area (the mountainous location, the severity of the availability of particular settlements or parts of the territories), the existing infrastructure on the ground (its degree of development, wear, suitability for use), natural and climatic conditions, etc. Therefore, it is advisable to supplement the Methodology, as well as the Law of Ukraine "On Voluntary Association of Territorial Communities", with norms that would take into account a greater number of factors for the financing needs of territorial communities.The resources available to the territorial communities should be the basis of their activities and the effectiveness of their use will be directly dependent on the possibility of functioning of such communities, on the principle – the lack of resources dictates the need for joining another territorial community. Also, not all territorial communities are fully capable of self-financing, and therefore need support from the State Budget.An important issue is the transfer of powers without their proper funding, which leads to the creation of a significant amount of deficit within the local budgets to cover the use of funds that could be used to develop the territorial communities. Therefore, it is important in the Methodology for the formation of capable territorial communities to consider the mechanism of management of budget funds, which should be based on the appropriate level of financing of delegated powers, without which the execution of such powers or other functions of local self-government may be endangered. Also, during the management of budget funds, it should be possible to borrow all the budgets of local self-government bodies, especially the budgets of the joint territorial communities, which at the expense of the received funds will be able to implement projects that are important for the communities and develop the economies of such communities. At the same time, the restrictions contained in the Budget Code of Ukraine, regarding the financial possibilities of borrowing funds of territorial communities and their use within the budgets of development should be kept.There is a legal framework for involving civil society organizations in the consideration of budget issues of local self-government and their control by the budget process at the level of territorial communities. However, the Methodology for the formation of capable territorial communities does not provide for the possibility of conducting public financial control over the formation of the budget, primarily through its public discussion, and further control over its implementation by the public and public organizations of such a community. This shortcoming must be corrected by making appropriate additions to this Methodology.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. The main new approaches to improving the methodology for managing budget funds in the territorial communities are as follows:– transition to the budget of the united territorial community from the budgets of the territorial communities that united without setting the time frame for such a transition;– management of budget funds in terms of allocating financial support between the budgets of the joint territorial communities, which needs to be improved and taking into account additional factors influencing the need for features of location (in particular landscape), natural and climatic conditions;– management of the budget funds of a territorial community is based on the following key provisions: 1) territorial communities should receive at least 50% (according to the model of European states) from taxes, fees, payments paid on the territory of the community; 2) territorial communities should be self-financing, which, on the one hand, will put them in an effective use of resources, and on the other, create additional incentives for the formation of united territorial communities that will be financially self-sufficient; 3) support from the state budget should be provided on the basis of functions, including social, carried out by the territorial communities, with full financing of these functions;– management of local budgets, which consists of borrowing opportunities for all budgets of local self-government bodies, especially budgets of united territorial communities;– introduction of public control in the field of local budgets, the formation and implementation of the budget of territorial communities.The prospect of further research is the detailed elaboration of the identified ways of improving the methodology of budget funds management and the formation of legislative acts for its implementation.
Розглянуто питання управління бюджетними коштами в умовах децентралізації у контексті нових підходів до методики його здійснення. На основі ґрунтовного та всебічного аналізу управління бюджетними коштами визначено низку удосконалень, які можуть бути застосовані з огляду на сучасний стан розвитку міжбюджетних відносин та законодавче забезпечення функціонування об'єднаних територіальних громад місцевого самоврядування загалом. Означено характерні особливості кожного з удосконалень та окреслено порядок їх застосування для управління бюджетними коштами. ; Problem setting. The process of decentralization, which was initiated in order to strengthen the material and financial basis of local self-government, requires the latest approaches to its implementation, given the complexity of the process, the large number of issues of the functioning of the territorial communities, which it covers and the ambiguity of the consequences it leads to. Since it, on the one hand, can contribute to the development of separate territorial communities at the expense of additional financial resources and, on the other hand, create barriers for the development of other communities with less economic potential and can not compete with more developed regions, provided that the transition to a self-financing model of local self-government is preferable .This is particularly evident in the management of budgetary funds that are available to territorial communities and should be used most rationally and efficiently on the one hand and have enough to finance their aspirated needs from another. And in view of this, there is a need for an analysis of the methods of managing budget funds in a decentralized environment that would correspond to the current trends in the development of territorial communities and were of a new character.Recent research and publications analysis. A number of scholars in their writings touched upon issues of budget activity in the conditions of decentralization, including in its fiscal aspect, among them: V. Bodrov, T. Buturlakin, A. Vasiliev, G. Voznyak, O. Kyrylenko, A. Lelechenko, Z. Lobodina, G. Lopushniak, M. Vlivdar, V. Kuybida, I. Lunin, S. Romaniuk, A. Tkachuk, G. Shakhov and others. Among foreign scholars should mention Sh. Blankarta, G. Bivaleets, M. J. Byukenen, R. A. Masgraveva, Y. Kulyavika and others.The scholars and the questions of the concept of fiscal decentralization were considered, which were reflected in the works of O. Borislavskaya, I. Volokhova, V. Hamana, M. Goncharenko, Y. Grinchenko, O. Kyrilenko, N. Kryshtof, O. Lisenko, O. Onishchenko, S. Romanyuk, M. Ruban, A. Yakymchuk, V. Yaroshchuk and others like that.However, the question of the methodology of managing budget funds in conditions of decentralization and its improvement was not the subject of a separate scientific analysis.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. In general, the issue of budget activities in the context of decentralization was considered mainly from the point of view of the functioning of individual budgets and the needs of their adaptation to this process. That is, the scholars considered separate issues of budget activity in a decentralized environment without analyzing the methodology of managing budget funds in the course of decentralization processes.At the same time, it is the methods of management of budget funds that would correspond to the current state of decentralization processes taking place in local self-government were not the subject of separate scientific research, and therefore there is a need for scientific research in this direction.Paper main body. From the point of view of public administration of budgetary funds in the conditions of decentralization, it is necessary to determine the method of management of budget funds in the conditions of decentralization as a set of consistent actions aimed at achieving the result in the form of improved management of such budgetary funds. In view of the complex nature of budget relations and the issues of legal and practical regulation of fiscal decentralization, it is advisable to choose an approach based on development, with subsequent practical application, not one and a number of new methods that should improve the management of budgetary funds in conditions of decentralization. Having grasped the most important issues of managing budget funds in the territorial communities.At the state level, the relevant financial, property and budgetary rights of local self-government are guaranteed, with the allocation of local budgets as independent components in the budget system of Ukraine, and the opportunities for transferring resources to the bodies of self-organization of the population are guaranteed, which must be taken into account during the management of budget funds in conditions of decentralization.Until the start of a new budget period, territorial communities are not able to take advantage of all the financial opportunities provided to united territorial communities. Including receive corresponding revenues to the budget of the united territorial community, as provided for in Article 64 of the Budget Code of Ukraine. And this reduces the budget opportunities of the united territorial community, especially when the union took place at the beginning of the fiscal year. Therefore, it is expedient to allow such associations to be held and in the future, without limiting them only in the framework of 2018, by making appropriate amendments to the current legislation and adding in this part of the Methodology for the formation of capable territorial communities.The territorial community is estimated by the population criterion and the area without taking into account the particulars of the area (the mountainous location, the severity of the availability of particular settlements or parts of the territories), the existing infrastructure on the ground (its degree of development, wear, suitability for use), natural and climatic conditions, etc. Therefore, it is advisable to supplement the Methodology, as well as the Law of Ukraine "On Voluntary Association of Territorial Communities", with norms that would take into account a greater number of factors for the financing needs of territorial communities.The resources available to the territorial communities should be the basis of their activities and the effectiveness of their use will be directly dependent on the possibility of functioning of such communities, on the principle – the lack of resources dictates the need for joining another territorial community. Also, not all territorial communities are fully capable of self-financing, and therefore need support from the State Budget.An important issue is the transfer of powers without their proper funding, which leads to the creation of a significant amount of deficit within the local budgets to cover the use of funds that could be used to develop the territorial communities. Therefore, it is important in the Methodology for the formation of capable territorial communities to consider the mechanism of management of budget funds, which should be based on the appropriate level of financing of delegated powers, without which the execution of such powers or other functions of local self-government may be endangered. Also, during the management of budget funds, it should be possible to borrow all the budgets of local self-government bodies, especially the budgets of the joint territorial communities, which at the expense of the received funds will be able to implement projects that are important for the communities and develop the economies of such communities. At the same time, the restrictions contained in the Budget Code of Ukraine, regarding the financial possibilities of borrowing funds of territorial communities and their use within the budgets of development should be kept.There is a legal framework for involving civil society organizations in the consideration of budget issues of local self-government and their control by the budget process at the level of territorial communities. However, the Methodology for the formation of capable territorial communities does not provide for the possibility of conducting public financial control over the formation of the budget, primarily through its public discussion, and further control over its implementation by the public and public organizations of such a community. This shortcoming must be corrected by making appropriate additions to this Methodology.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. The main new approaches to improving the methodology for managing budget funds in the territorial communities are as follows:– transition to the budget of the united territorial community from the budgets of the territorial communities that united without setting the time frame for such a transition;– management of budget funds in terms of allocating financial support between the budgets of the joint territorial communities, which needs to be improved and taking into account additional factors influencing the need for features of location (in particular landscape), natural and climatic conditions;– management of the budget funds of a territorial community is based on the following key provisions: 1) territorial communities should receive at least 50% (according to the model of European states) from taxes, fees, payments paid on the territory of the community; 2) territorial communities should be self-financing, which, on the one hand, will put them in an effective use of resources, and on the other, create additional incentives for the formation of united territorial communities that will be financially self-sufficient; 3) support from the state budget should be provided on the basis of functions, including social, carried out by the territorial communities, with full financing of these functions;– management of local budgets, which consists of borrowing opportunities for all budgets of local self-government bodies, especially budgets of united territorial communities;– introduction of public control in the field of local budgets, the formation and implementation of the budget of territorial communities.The prospect of further research is the detailed elaboration of the identified ways of improving the methodology of budget funds management and the formation of legislative acts for its implementation.
Розглянуто передумови становлення та історичні аспекти розвитку кафедри обліку та оподаткування НУБіП України, проаналізовано основні напрями її діяльності, що стали визначальними у формуванні наукового світогляду студентів. Розкрито зміст базових досліджень науковців, їх вклад у професійне становлення конкурентоспроможних сучасних фахівців з бухгалтерського обліку в умовах навчального процесу. Систематизовано результати науково-дослідної роботи студентів як невід'ємної складової навчального процесу і одного із найважливіших засобів підвищення якості підготовки і виховання фахівців з вищою освітою, професійної компетентності і конкурентоспроможності майбутніх випускників на ринку праці, здатних творчо застосовувати в практичній діяльності наукові досягнення. Окреслено стратегію розвитку кафедри обліку та оподаткування, що спрямована на всебічне оновлення всіх сфер її діяльності, інтенсифікацію навчально-виховного процесу, поглиблення науково-дослідницької роботи зі студентами, зростання кваліфікації майбутніх бухгалтерів і престижу професії.Ключові слова: кафедра обліку та оподаткування, підготовка кадрів, професорсько-викладацький склад, навчально-методична робота, науково-дослідна робота ; The preconditions of formation and historical aspects of development of the accounting and taxation Department of NULES of Ukraine are considered. In particular, it is substantiated that the Department of Accounting and Taxation is leading in the training of specialists in the field of specialty (training direction) "Accounting and Taxation" ("Accounting and Audit"). Periodization of the history at the Department with refinement names (Accounting and Auditing, Accounting, Analysis and Audit) appears as a consistent change at the chronological stages. Its founder-organizer and first head in 1959 became Associate Professor S.M. Rogachenko. With his participation, calculation type of the estimated accounting Plan in the collective farms, which was officially recognized in Ukraine, and subsequently became the all-union, which contributed to the creation of integrated system of Accounting in agriculture instead of an autonomous. Historically, a powerful scholarly school has been formed, aimed at further development of fundamental search and applied research on Accounting, and over time - Audit and Taxation. The emergence, development and enrichment of the academic accounting school coincides with the leadership at the Department of the Doctor of Economics, Professor I.V. Malyshev, who carried out a fundamental scientific research with an impact on the theory of Accounting by substantiating the method of double recording.The content of the basic researches of scientists, their contribution to the professional formation of competitive modern accountants in the conditions of the educational process is revealed. In particular, Professor Kireytsev G. G. prepared 32 Candidates and two Doctors of Economic Sciences (L.V. Gutsalenko, P.L. Suk); carried out scientific research at the most important theoretical socio-economic and scientific and technical problems of Accounting development in Ukraine. The scientist carried out his scientific research in two main areas: theoretical and methodological principles of Accounting development and training of accounting personnel in the system of higher agroeconomic education. The results of scientific research were published in more than 200 scientific and methodological works, among them were monographs, textbooks, manuals. Among the scientific works in the nomination "Monograph in the field of economic knowledge in the direction of: Accounting, Audit and Statistics", in particular the monograph "Globalization of the Economy and the unification of the Accounting methodology" (2008), was recognized as the best one by NAAS of Ukraine. The scientific achievements of the Professor at the Department L.K. Suk are outlined: he has developed the Recommendations of the check form of control of the internal economic calculation, Recommendations of the application of the journal-order form of Accounting, Typical standards for the planning, accounting and calculation of the production (works, services) cost of agricultural enterprises; the imitative accounting and analytical model of reproduction management of long-term biological plant production assets has been formed; in practice, proposals have been approved to reflect and group the costs of their cultivation. 14 candidate dissertations have been defended under scientific guidance of the scientist.The directions of modern researches of leading scientists, which became the decisive factors in forming the scientific outlook of students, were determined. In particular, head of the Department Professor E.V. Kaliuga within the Strategy for the Modernization of the Accounting System in the Public Sector for 2007-2015 (Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 34 of 16.01.2007) took a direct part in the elaboration and final editing of national accounting standards drafts (public accounting standards) (forward - NP(S)APS: 122 "Intangible assets", 124 "Revenue", 126 "Rent", 127 "Impairment of assets", 136 "Biological assets", built on the basis of the IPSAS, taking into account the IMF GFSM 2001). E. V. Kalyuga was awarded with gratitude of the Methodological Accounting Board under the Ministry of Agrarian Policy of Ukraine (2010), with the Honorary Diploma of the Ministry of Finance of Ukraine (2011), with other awards for a significant contribution to the development of Ukraine's Accounting and high professionalism. Effective scientific and methodological work on updating and improving the normative-methodical providing of Accounting and financial reporting was carried out by E.V. Kaliuga in the composition of the Methodological Accounting Council of the Ministry of Finance of Ukraine (from 2007 for the next eight years). In scientific researches of Professor E.V. Kaluga theoretical and methodological principles of Accounting in the state sector of Economy, the estate of economic control in Ukraine and directions of its reform are prioritized. Various problematic issues of Accounting, Auditing and Taxation in the conditions of harmonization of domestic Accounting and Control to the requirements of international standards are consistently developed in secured dissertations under the direction of Professor E.V. Kaluga (five Candidates of Economic Sciences have been prepared and defended).The article systematizes the results of research work of students as an integral part of the educational process and one of the most important means to improve the quality of training and education of specialists with higher education, professional competence and competitiveness of future graduates in the labor market, able to creatively apply in practical activities scientific achievements.Significant attention is dedicated to the international activity at the Department, which became an integral part of its evolutionary development. Professors carry out joint research on the problems of the theory and methodology of Accounting with scientists from foreign educational institutions through the preparation of scientific articles, reports for international conferences, postgraduate students for the implementation of dissertation papers; lecturers undergo a scientific-pedagogical internship at the Warsaw University of Life Sciences under a program of scientific exchanges organized by UNESCO (Ph.D., Associate Professor Litvinenko V.S., 2016). The activization of international activity at the Department with the direct participation of students is emphasized. In particular, the American Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), which has more than 80,000 members from 120 countries, has provided six scholarship grants to the most talented Master students: A. Dudnichenko, R. Gorbunenko, V. Chekarev, V. Vovchenko, O. Gnesy and N. Pinchuk. The program provides free training and passing exams to one of the most popular among practitioners international qualifications in managerial Accounting, "Certified Management Accountant (CMA)", and as a result - the acquisition of complex competencies which are necessary for the work of specialists in the field of Accounting, Audit and Taxation or related financial sector at domestic and international companies. Within international cooperation the University Bachelors, Masters and Postgraduate Students of the Department of Accounting and Taxation successfully study abroad at leading universities and study internships at enterprises in Poland, Czech Republic, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Japan, USA, gaining experience in European education and innovative knowledge in specialty.The necessity of cooperation not only with foreign ones, but also with domestic scientific and educational institutions is substantiated because the issue of graduate`s employment has special importance for the Department of Accounting and Taxation. The Department's own experience in shaping the bases of passing students' practice and ensuring the employment of graduates is revealed. Range of business and scientific partners are used in full measure, among them are the Research Financial Institute DNNU «Academy of Financial Management», State Audit Office of Ukraine, leading consulting company EBS and others. The need and high value of cooperation with experts-practitioners, representatives of government bodies is confirmed by the cycle of recent meetings.The strategy of Accounting and Taxation Department aimed at the comprehensive updating of all spheres of its activity, the intensification of the educational process, deepening of research work with students, the growth of qualifications of future accountants and the prestige of the profession is outlined. The presented scientific achievements, the developed partnership relations testify that the Department is not just a certain contingent of scientific and pedagogical workers, the place of transfer of their knowledge to the next generation. This, above all, is traditions based on the years and style of study, the motivational atmosphere of scientific knowledge with the involvement of students in this process. At the same time, the new challenges of society development, the current world crisis of education and, finally, the scientific achievements of the Department of Accounting and Taxation require its modern faculty members to formulate and implement new tasks and goals. Among the priorities are identified the search for alternative and rational ways to strengthen positions at the educational field, multiplying and disseminating at the domestic and international levels scientific achievements that would meet modern European challenges, including life-long learning, reorientation of the educational process from traditional ways of transferring existing knowledge to students to development their abilities and innovations, their ability to learn. At the same time, it is important to integrate the directions of educational, research and educational work of students, which must be realized both during studying and outside the educational process. The driving principles of the Department of Accounting and Taxation are defined: combination of the best existing educational traditions of the Department and the experience of domestic and international higher educational institutions; flexibility in responding to existing social changes, creativity and innovation of faculty members.
Historiografía y Teoría de la Historia del Pensamiento, la Literatura y el Arte is the latest publication by the Research Group "Humanism-Europe", led by Prof. Aullón de Haro from the University of Alicante, Spain. A radically comparative work, prepared with a team spirit, that presents in a single volume the result of a body of research that has been maturing for two decades.Since 1994, when the Research Group was first founded -with the aim to highlight the relevance of Juan Andrés as the creator of the History of universal and comparative literature through the Group's publication of his work Origen, progresos y estado actual de toda la literatura (1997)-, a reflection on the Historiography and the Theory of History has been an on-going work, having been partially published in the now defunct university magazine Teoría/ Crítica (1994). During the maturation of this work other very remarkable works by the Group have been brought to light, such as Metodologías Comparatistas y Literatura Comparada (2012), and the seven volumes that make up the Teoría del Humanismo (2010). Now, with the approaching of the bicentennial of Juan Andrés' death (1740-1817), Historiografía y Teoría de la Historia del Pensamiento, la Literatura y el Arte has been published as the first contribution to the marking of this anniversary.The need for this reflection on Historiography lies, as the director of the Group explains in the Preface, in the need to overcome the progressive reductionism established in modern times, which has led to the current-day situation. Synthesizing its argument, while it is true, in the opinion of Prof. Aullón de Haro, that during modernity Historiography reached its highest relevance and depth, it is also true that due to the progressive internal and external fragmentation of its object into various specialized and disconnected branches, besides the divisions of country and language, it has lost sight of what its specific objective and its fields of study are. This is especially a result of a timeless definition of the object of study, which ended in both the generation of contempt for Historiography, and for the humanistic object in general. The reorganization of disciplines conducted by Enlightenment had some mixed effects on the historiographical discipline, deeply undermining its relationship with human time, a relationship that the imposition of structural-formalism finished off, eliminating the concepts of time and history from the field of Human Sciences, leading these to an impoverishing assimilation into disciplines of a sociological nature. Human Sciences, and the emphasis placed here, are not sociology.Currently, this humanistic impoverishment inherited from modernity reaches its culmination by the widespread educational reorientation in favour of simple work practices that ignore traditional humanistic arts, from the art of reading to the art of memory, and humanistic literary, artistic or philosophical subjects, properly understood in their complete and related entity, as their world of existence requires. This volume aims to contribute to a historiographical recreation of the History of Thought, Literature and Art, epistemologically founded in the Human Sciences framework. All this with the hope of a universal, comparative and humanistic historiography, as a response and contribution to our Globalization era, governed by the inertia of its economic-financial and cybernetic nature, on the margins of both the interpretation of culture and history, and of a moral concept that goes beyond simplistic political correctness.The work, composed of twenty-nine chapters, approaches the problem of the dissolution of the literary historiography that took place during the past century, analysing its three main aspects: ontological isolation, which requires clarification of exactly what it is to be understood as historiography and its object, literature; the isolation of the discipline, which leads to the discipline issue, the issue of discourse, the terms of relationship and the literary genres; and the problem of national isolation, which demands making explicit the false identification between literature and language, as the trend to establish divisions of the literary object using nations as basis has resulted in the cancellation of its original possibility of universal scope. Here come into play, then, the shortcomings of a history of translation and of the non assumed comparative relations. Therefore, the work has been divided into three parts depending on the problem addressed. The result will be the redefinition of the concept of literature, liberating it from its assimilation to a unilateral artistic discourse, i.e., a poetic, narrative or dramatic discourse, and to consider literature every highly developed discourse, along with the liberation of the concept of literature from identification with the national language. And finally, the establishment of literature as a universal mode of experience and humanistic expression, and the subsequent need for its universal and comparative historiographical treatment, that founds a culture of a global nature.After the initial chapter by the editor, "Introducción a una Epistemología historiográfica como Historia universal de las Ideas y las Formas literarias y artísticas" come three chapters dedicated to clarifying concepts and terms in order to overcome misunderstandings and inherited problems. The chapters "Historia de los términos 'Historia'/ 'Historiografía'" by Juan Francisco Mesa-Sanz, "Historiografía griega y método comparatista" by Alfonso Silván, and "El concepto de 'Historia' y su campo terminológico en las fuentes enciclopédicas modernas" by Mª Teresa del Olmo, serve this purpose. The main range of concretions are exposed next, as well as the recent theory of the history of concepts, with "Historiografía e Historia de la filosofía" by Fernando Perez Herranz; "Verdad y tiempo en la historiografía de la Historia de la Filosofía: Kant y las derivas del método kantiano" by Ángel Poncela González; and "La Historia de los conceptos y su relación con la historia de la filosofía y la historia social" by Antonio de Murcia Conesa.The second part proceeds with the reconstruction of literary historiography as a discipline, using a large series of paradigms, which are either fundamental to the great fields inherited or characterize the extremes and singularities. It begins with "La evolución de la historiografía literaria clásica" by José Joaquín Caerols; "Una síntesis de la historiografía patrística" by Fernando Rivas; "Historiografía de la traducción", a chapter shared by Francisco Lafarga and Luis Pegenaute; "La historiografía estética: pasado y presente", completely realised for the first time by Vicente Carreres; " Introducción a la 'Historia de la Ciencia' como género " by Javier Hernandez Ariza; "Musicología histórica e historiografía" by Teresa Cascudo; "La historiografía artística: las artes plásticas" by Javier Portús; and "Historiografía y cine" by José Carlos Rueda. The third part addresses the opening up to the Middle East, Asia, Africa and America, trying to interpretively characterize and to reconstruct, selectively, the horizon of literary historiographies as large fields, without losing sight of the comparative sense, intended to set up a sense of universality as a way of overcoming the national divisions and restrictions. All this is addresssed in chapters by Ana Agud, "Una historiografía difícil: India"; "El estudio comparatista de la historia literaria de Asia del Este según Cho Dong-Il", prepared by Lee Hye-Kyung; by Alfonso Falero, "Hacia una historiografía literaria en Japón"; by Isaac Donoso, "Historiografía de las letras filipinas". Meanwhile, the two large blocks of American historiography are solved by Ricardo Miguel Alfonso with "Evolución de la historiografía literaria angloamericana"; and by Efrain Kristal with "En torno a la historia del concepto de historia literaria hispanoamericana"; plus the study on Brazil, by Margarida Maia Gouveia: "Análisis de la historiografía literaria en Brasil". Thirdly, Rosario Martí Marco reconstructs "La historiografía literaria alemana"; Jesús García Gabaldón "La evolución de la historiografía literaria eslava" and Natalia Timoshenko completes the historiographical reconstruction with an "Introducción a la historiografía literaria rusa". There is not any monography reconstructing a Roman historiography (Spanish, French, Italian) as this is the most comprehensive and less problematic field in regard to availability and is the best known to Western readers.And finally, the African world, including chapters by Antonio Constán Nava, with "Historiografía árabe islámica (Siglos XVIII-XX) Perspectiva española y europea"; by José Manuel Mora Fandos with "La historiografía de la literatura Africana"; and by M'bare M'gom, whose article "Sobre la historiografía literaria hispanoafricana" serves both to complement and as conclusion to this volume.According to the editor, Aullón de Haro, the idea of action and human sense depends on the concept and knowledge of history. The possibility to overcome the decline of the discipline -and even civilizational- divisions depends on an alive historical self-consciousness. After the fall of structural-formalism, a form of self-consciousness has ended, being now necessary to re-establish a historiographical methodology of ethical, critical and humanistic value, and with this, a philosophical, literary and artistic History: a project capable of assuming a conception of the object as synthesis of idea and form, and where it is universal, not the mere sum of parts. With this contribution, the Research Group Humanism-Europe provides a tool for examining a great humanistic problem that now, for a necessarily common future, demands a proper interpretation, in accordance to this current era of Globalization.
From Point to Pixel:A Genealogy of Digital AestheticsbyMeredith Anne HoyDoctor of Philosophy in RhetoricUniversity of California, BerkeleyProfessor Whitney Davis, Co-chairProfessor Jeffrey Skoller, Co-chairWhen we say, in response to a still or moving picture, that it has a digital "look" about it, what exactly do we mean? How can the slick, color-saturated photographs of Jeff Wall and Andreas Gursky signal digitality, while the flattened, pixelated lanscapes of video games such as Super Mario Brothers convey ostensibly the same characteristic of "being digital," but in a completely different manner? In my dissertation, From Point to Pixel: A Genealogy of Digital Aesthetics, I argue for a definition of a "digital method" that can be articulated without reference to the technicalities of contemporary hardware and software. I allow, however, the possibility that this digital method can acquire new characteristics when it is performed by computational technology. I therefore treat the artworks covered in my dissertation as sensuous artifacts that are subject to change based on the constraints and affordances of the tools used in their making. But insofar as it describes a series of technological operations, the word digital often references the tool used to make the art but does not help a viewer/user relate to the art as a sensorially apprehensible artifact. Consequently, I gather together artworks that disclose visible evidence of their digital construction in order to identify the perceptible characteristics of digitally processed artifacts. I foreground not the hidden operations of computers--the intricacies of binary code and programming languages--but rather the surface qualities of digital graphics. While acknowledging that internal processes govern the aesthetic properties of these surfaces, I investigate the extent to which it is possible to encounter digitality at the level of the interface. Taking into account that the sensuous object will be informed by an underlying conceptual and technological framework or genotype, I set out to discover whether certain phenotypic aspects of digitality will be inherently accessible at a phenomenological level. Much of the best scholarship in media studies has offered cogent analyses of the political, social, and economic formations that emerge alongside digital technologies. These readings of "networked culture" focus on the systems of power/knowledge that arise from the Web 2.0 and a globalized world economy. Although this research proves invaluable to the understanding of a culture shaped by ubiquitous computing, a well-developed methodology for interpreting the role of digital technology in art practice must also situate digital artifacts in a specifically art historical and theoretical context. When do digital artifacts overcome their dubious status as mere demonstrations of technical novelty, and become artworks worthy of serious consideration? What is the importance of digital technology as an artistic medium, and how do affordances and constraints and technical parameters of digital processing influence the sensible configurations of computationally generated artifacts?Despite its foundation in immaterial electronic pulses, digital technology produces material effects on culture and communication. The assessment of digital images is often based on their "reality quotient"--the degree to which they accurately reproduce the optical and haptic conditions of external world. The fascination in digital cultural studies with virtual reality, second life, and other such practices supports this view, and also leans dangerously towards the notion that progress in art is achieved by producing ever more sophisticated techniques for rendering illusions of spatial depth. This concentration on the immersive capacities of digital graphics runs the risk of assuming a teleological progression in art towards "accurate" spatialization and virtualization. But this is not a tenable model for art historical investigation, given that the evaluation of art objects based on culturally determined signifiers of naturalism is exclusionary of alternate visual models and historical traditions. It is therefore imperative to consider depictions that exhibit visible evidence of digital construction--digital aesthetic characteristics--independently of the virtualizing capability of computational technology. My dissertation examines a subset of digital image-making practices that suppress virtualization in order to examine the structural principles undergirding digital graphics. In parsing these often abstract, highly formalized pictorial strategies, I conclude that they convey a different aesthetic and architectonic sensibility than analog depictions. Over the course of five chapters, my argument moves between theoretical analysis and case studies of artworks produced both with and without the aid of computers. Chapter One outlines the theoretical models used to differentiate digital and analog properties, and illustrates how and why art historical discourse has accorded value to artworks based on analog principles, such as fineness of color, texture, and line. It argues that discrete, particulate digital artifacts are constructed according to different principles than analog artifacts, which are relatively smooth and continuous with no absolute division between parts. My review of the formal characteristics of digital systems sets the stage for my argument that an observable model of digital facture--a digital method--preexists electronic, binary computers and that this digital process results in a digital aesthetic. Understanding this aesthetic is useful for theorizing the genealogy of contemporary computational graphics. Additionally, it provides for alternate theorizations of artifacts that have not traditionally found a secure place in the artistic canon, and it affords a new interpretive schema with which to examine artists and artworks whose position in the art historical demands renegotiation. In my second chapter, I support the claims of the preceding chapter by evaluating the extent to which the work of several modernist painters, including Paul Cezanne, Georges Seurat, and Paul Klee, exhibits constitutive features of a digital system. I use my findings to argue that understanding these artists' roles as experimenters with a digital method adds a new dimension to the theoretical, aesthetic, and historical significance of their work. The following two chapters provide comparisons between artists who apply a digital method without electronic computation and artists whose digital aesthetic is computationally driven. Chapter 3 attempts to recuperate the value and relevance of Op-Artist Victor Vasarely. Through an inspection of his writings and his algorithmic painting practices, I trace Vasarely's lifelong goal to develop a programmable visual language, and demonstrate how, without ever touching a computer, he was attempting in his practice to adopt a visual model of a digital system. In the second half of the chapter, I introduce the example of Marius Watz's computationally-generated homage to Vasarely's work in order to ascertain whether the use of a computer alters the visible qualities of Vasarely's plastic language. In Chapter 4, I examine Casey Reas's fraught and often contradictory response to the legacy of conceptual art in programming-based practices. Through a comparison between Reas and Sol LeWitt, I maintain that Reas occupies an oscillatory position with respect to the values traditionally attached to analog aesthetics, such as immediacy and uniqueness/irreproducibility. By mobilizing algorithmically encoded instructions to automate artistic production, Reas reinforces the turn away from the cult of the artist achieved in conceptual art. But at the same time, Reas's fascination with handmadeness and organicism preserves a link to analog aesthetic principles. Finally, my conclusion shifts away from direct comparison between computationally and non-computationally digital art, and instead assays the discursive resonances between Jason Salavon's software-based computational "paintings" and the increasingly widespread use of information visualization as primary mode of mapping the vast amounts of data produced by the mechanisms of the "culture industry".The works under consideration in my dissertation cohere around questions and problems related to painting. Part of the difficulty in defining "digital art" as a singular medium or genre is that the range of artifacts potentially contained under the rubric of digital art is massive and therefore resistant to canonization. A concentration on painting initially allowed me to refine my analytic method. However, the broader rationale behind this constraint grows out of the fact that the screen-based computational pictorialization analogizes painting. I contend that painting, despite, or perhaps due to its status as a two-dimensional mode of depiction, is deeply concerned with spatial and material architectonics. Painting is invested not only in the problem of how to graphically render volume and depth, but also the dynamic spatial relationship between bodies and concrete objects. Similarly, digital rendering must cope with the question of how to present the relationship between objects and spaces in two, three, or multiple dimensions. My goal is to discover whether the technical parameters of computation affect the way pictures are constructed, the kinds of subjects for which computers have the greatest representational facility, and by extension, the way digital pictures--the graphical index of digital technesis--will ultimately look. Overall, my dissertation offers a methodology for speaking about and contextualizing digital practices within the history of art and visual culture. While programming literacy is important for many scholars, producers, and users of digital hardware and software, if artifacts made using computational technology remain inaccessible to all viewers except those with a background in programming or engineering, we are faced with an art practice that is technically dexterous but phenomenologically bankrupt. Unless the possibility of translation between two languages is realized, a communicative gap will continue to yawn between art history and "media studies," which makes more urgent than ever the need to grant digital artifacts and processes the possibility of making a significant intervention into and contribution to the artistic canon.
Le Sénégal se situe à l'extrême ouest du continent africain entre 12 ° 20' et 16 ° 40'de latitude Nord et 11° 20' et 17° 30' de longitude Ouest. Il est à cheval sur le domaine sahélien au nord, soudanien au centre, et sub-guinéen au sud avec à l'ouest une côte maritime longue de plus de 700 km. Cette situation détermine des conditions favorables à une diversification des écosystèmes et des espèces. Au plan écologique, le pays est subdivisé en six zones éco géographiques et présente quatre grands types d'écosystèmes : des écosystèmes terrestres, des écosystèmes fluviaux et lacustres, des écosystèmes marins et côtiers et des écosystèmes dits particuliers. En plus de cette diversité écosystémique, le Sénégal présente une richesse spécifique importante avec plus de 3500 espèces végétales et 4330 espèces animales. Parmi ces espèces végétales, 33 seraient endémiques du Sénégal. Les espèces animales considérées comme endémiques appartiennent à la classe des poissons et sont présentes dans les eaux douces ou saumâtres. La plupart des écosystèmes connaissent une dégradation importante et plusieurs espèces sont menacées. En effet, la superficie des forêts a connu une diminution sensible en passant de 9 203 153 ha en 1990 à 8 558 153 ha en 2005, soit environ une baisse de 7 %. Cette dynamique régressive s'accompagne également d'une diminution des espèces. Dans le Parc National du Niokolo Koba, on note une baisse d'environ 25% des espèces végétales. De même, certaines espèces animales comme le Damalisque et la Girafe ont disparu de cette zone depuis le début du vingtième siècle. L'Eléphant et l'Eland de Derby y sont devenus rares. Les superficies des savanes boisées sont passées de 5 300 876 ha à 5 100 876 ha soit environ une baisse de 6 %. Dans les écosystèmes fluviaux et lacustres, les milieux saumâtres sont en régression au profit des zones salées. Les écosystèmes côtiers, estuariens et marins sont aussi affectés par la dégradation. Dans le Delta du Saloum, les mangroves et la végétation des îles sableuses ont connu une régression estimée à plus de 25% entre Foundiougne et Kaolack. Dans la zone des Niayes, la réserve botanique de Noflaye a perdu 212 espèces entre 1957 et 1992. La diversité biologique joue un rôle très important. Elle est utilisée dans divers domaines tels que l'alimentation, la médecine, l'industrie et l'énergie. Ces diverses formes d'utilisation interagissent avec d'autres facteurs anthropiques de dégradation que sont les feux de brousse,le surpâturage, la pression agricole, la fragmentation et la destruction des habitats, la pauvreté, les pollutions…). Les feux de brousse affectent presque tous les sites de haute densité de biodiversité. A ces facteurs s'ajoutent le déficit pluviométrique, l'érosion et la salinisation. Cette péjoration climatique s'est traduite par une translation des isohyètes vers le sud d'environ 100 Km. Actuellement, quatre des six zones éco géographiques sont touchées par la salinisation qui affecte environ 1 231 100 ha. Les conséquences liées à la perte de biodiversité sont nombreuses et affectent l'environnement biophysique et les conditions de vie des populations. Cette perte a engendré une modification de la composition floristique, de la structure de la végétation et une diminution de la disponibilité en ressources biologiques. En effet, les feux et l'exploitation ont entrainé la destruction d'espèces de valeur telles que Pterocarpus erinaceus, Cordyla pinnata, Prosopis africana au profit d'autres espèces (Combretum glutinosum, Terminalia macroptera). La dégradation des ressources biologiques a entraîné des difficultés d'approvisionnement en combustibles domestiques surtout dans les zones qui n'ont pas accès à des sources d'énergie alternatives. L'érosion de la biodiversité entraîne également la baisse des revenus tirés de l'exploitation des ressources forestières et accroît en même temps la pauvreté des populations rurales. L'érosion de la biodiversité a entraîné des modifications dans les systèmes de production. En effet, la pratique de pêche quotidienne est de plus en plus abandonnée au profit de la pêche à long séjour. Dans le secteur de l'élevage, la raréfaction des ressources fourragères des régions Nord a engendré des déplacements saisonniers du cheptel vers le Sud. Dans les Niayes, la perte de biodiversité a fortement affecté les activités maraichères. La perte de biodiversité constitue ainsi un obstacle sérieux à la lutte contre la pauvreté qui explique d'ailleurs dans une large mesure la surexploitation des ressources naturelles. Dans le chapitre II, le rapport fait le point sur l'état d'avancement de la mise en œuvre de la Stratégie et le Plan National d'Actions pour la conservation de la biodiversité. Le Sénégal a élaboré une SPNAB autour de quatre objectifs stratégiques majeurs que sont la conservation de la biodiversité dans les sites de haute densité, l'intégration de la conservation de la biodiversité dans les programmes et activités de production, le partage équitable des rôles, responsabilités et bénéfices dans la conservation de la biodiversité, l'information et la sensibilisation sur l'importance de la biodiversité et la nécessité de sa conservation.Pour atteindre ces objectifs, des options stratégiques ont été définies par rapport aux problèmes globaux des différents écosystèmes et aux problèmes spécifiques pour chaque site de haute densité de biodiversité. Ces options se sont traduites par des actions prioritaires dont certaines ont été exécutées dans le cadre de la mise en œuvre de la Stratégie. Malgré le faible niveau d'exécution des actions prioritaires définies dans la SPNAB, le Sénégal a atteint des résultats non négligeables en matière de conservation des écosystèmes. L'objectif national qui était de 12% a été largement dépassé. Les résultats portent essentiellement sur la création d'une nouvelle génération de réserves (Aire Marine Protégée, Réserve Naturelle Communautaire, Réserve Communautaire de Biodiversité, Unité Pastorale…), le renforcement des capacités de gestion des aires protégées, l'élaboration et la mise en œuvre de plans d'aménagement et de gestion participatifs. Ces résultats sont l'œuvre de divers acteurs (Etat, populations, société civile, ONG, associations diverses…). Cependant, beaucoup reste à faire en termes de vulgarisation de la SPNAB, d'évaluation de l'impact des résultats obtenus sur la conservation, d'élaboration d'indicateurs au niveau national, de renforcement des capacités, d'intégration des connaissances, innovations et pratiques locales. Malgré les efforts consentis dans la mise en œuvre de la SPNAB, de nombreuses difficultés ont été notées. Elles concernent essentiellement l'insuffisance dans la coordination de la mise en œuvre de la Stratégie, sa faible vulgarisation, l'absence de mécanismes de financement, l'insuffisance des capacités des acteurs, la faible participation des populations dans la mise en œuvre et l'absence de suivi-évaluation de la Stratégie. Ces difficultés ont amené les différents acteurs de la conservation a tiré un certain nombre de leçons notamment la nécessité d'avoir un cadre institutionnel fort, un mécanisme de financement durable, un Centre d'échange d'Informations (CHM) fonctionnel. L'amélioration de la gestion de la biodiversité passe par l'intégration des différents secteurs de développement économique et social. Ainsi, dans le souci d'une prise en compte des préoccupations environnementales dans toutes les politiques sectorielles, le Sénégal a mis sur pied une Commission Nationale pour le Développement Durable. Ainsi, les aspects de conservation et de gestion durable de la diversité biologique sont progressivement intégrés dans les différents secteurs. Dans les secteurs de l'agriculture et de l'élevage, l'un des objectifs majeurs vise la préservation des ressources naturelles et de la biodiversité. Dans le domaine de l'énergie, de l'industrie et des mines, les grands axes de la nouvelle politique prennent en compte la nécessité d'une gestion durable des ressources naturelles et de l'environnement. Quant au secteur de la pêche, les objectifs globaux portent sur la protection et l'exploitation rationnelle des ressources halieutiques, la protection des habitats et la lutte contre la pollution marine. Dans le secteur du tourisme, la protection de la biodiversité constitue un des objectifs fondamentaux du Plan Stratégique de Développement Touristique et de la Charte Sénégalaise du Tourisme. Malgré les efforts d'intégration notés dans les différents secteurs, des faiblesses persistent dans la prise en compte de la biodiversité. Dans les politiques et stratégies sectorielles, les questions liées à la diversité biologique sont abordées dans le cadre global du secteur de l'environnement. Au niveau juridique, on note un déficit d'harmonisation entre les différents textes notamment les codes (environnement, forestier, minier, chasse, pêche…). Au niveau institutionnel, les problèmes sont liés aux difficultés rencontrées par les différentes structures à prendre en compte le caractère transversal de la biodiversité. Par ailleurs, l'insuffisance de l'information et de la sensibilisation sur l'importance de la biodiversité et la nécessité de sa conservation a été un facteur qui a limité l'intégration de la diversité biologique dans certains secteurs. En conclusion, le rapport souligne que le Sénégal avec l'appui de ses partenaires a consenti de nombreux efforts dans la conservation de la diversité biologique. Cependant, compte tenu des nombreuses difficultés rencontrées et des efforts supplémentaires à fournir, il se dégage un certain nombre de besoins et priorités qui concernent : - La mise en place d'un CHM fonctionnel ; - La mise en place d'un mécanisme de financement durable pour la conservation de la biodiversité ; - Un suivi-évaluation de la SPNAB ; - La mise sur pied d'un comité national fonctionnel sur la biodiversité ; - La réactualisation de la monographie et de la SPNAB ; - Le renforcement des capacités pour une meilleure conservation de la biodiversité ; - L'approfondissement des connaissances sur la biodiversité ; Published ; écosystéme ; biodiversité ; érosion ; aire marine protégée ; convention ; diversité biologique ; surexploitation ; salinité ; pollution ; gestion durable ; changement climatique
Le aree protette sono quei territori sottoposti ad uno speciale regime di tutela e di gestione, nei quali si presenta un patrimonio naturale e culturale di valore rilevante. Nel presente lavoro si è presa in esame la pianificazione della Riserva Naturale di Tuscania (provincia di Viterbo, alto Lazio), con gli obiettivi di: conservazione dei valori ambientali e di sviluppo economico sostenibile, come disposto della legge istitutiva L.R. 29 del 1997. La sfida è quindi quella di riuscire a promuovere nelle aree protette uno sviluppo economico e sociale rispettoso della conservazione dei ritmi e dei valori della natura, ma allo stesso tempo capace di favorire il rilancio degli antichi saperi artigianali e la creazione di nuove professionalità nel campo dei beni ambientali e culturali e delle attività turistiche compatibili. Si è esaminato lo stato ambientale della Riserva Naturale di Tuscania, rilevando lo stato della flora e della fauna presente, l'ambiente fisico e l'archeologia, lo stato del centro storico (che è all'interno della Riserva), e gli impatti dell'attività agricola delle attività antropiche presenti, cercando di arrivare ad una zonazione della Riserva che rispetti le vocazionalità del territorio. Il coinvolgimento degli Enti per la realizzazione del piano d'assetto della Riserva Naturale di Tuscania, è stato continuo e costruttivo ed ha visto nell'ufficio del parco (istituito verso la fine del 2004), un punto di riferimento per tutti i cittadini di Tuscania e non solo. Quindi compito della gestione sostenibile è quello di regolare l'uso degli ecosistemi e delle risorse su livelli che siano tollerabili dal sistema e che quindi non depauperino le risorse a nostra disposizione. Per la Riserva Naturale di Tuscania è stato predisposto un SIT-GIS per gestire e rielaborare, tutte le informazioni che sono state raccolte nella fase di indagine dello studio scientifico, per definire le vocazioni analizzando tutti gli aspetti caratterizzanti il territorio dell'area naturale,percependola non come una parte geografica a se, ma inserendola nel più vasto concetto di pianificazione intercomunale, provinciale, regionale e nazionale. Il ruolo fondamentale della zonazione è quindi, quello di garantire la conservazione dei valori del territorio assegnando vincoli di tutela diversi alle diverse zone. Lo studio effettuato ha evidenziato la vocazione della Riserva Naturale di Tuscanica (RNT), che è di "parco rurale", che vede nel paesaggio culturale, ovvero storicamente influenzato dall'uomo, la peculiarità principale. A questa si aggiunge la propensione a "parco archeologico", date le antichissime vicende di questo territorio, importante centro etrusco. Dallo studio è emerso che al centro della problematica ambientale c'è il fiume Marta, che scorre nel cuore della Riserva da nord a sud. Il Marta è profondamente perturbato dalla regolazione del lago di Bolsena (paratoie all'incile), dalle centrali idroelettriche ENEL, che interrompono per lunghi e numerosi tratti il corso medio-alto del fiume Marta e dalla presenza di prese irrigue lungo il suo corso. La qualità delle acque è modesta, con ripercussioni sulla microfauna (indice IBE) che sui pesci. Ad appesantire il carico sul fiume c'è anche una cartiera ed il depuratore comunale che oltre gli scarichi civili sopporta anche le acque nere del mattatoio. Per quanto riguarda le fonti diffuse agricole di inquinamento, il problema non appare di estrema urgenza, se non altro paragonato a quanto esaminato sino ad ora, sulle altre fonti di inquinamento; se ne può dedurre quindi, che le attività agricole presenti ad oggi nella RNT possono essere ascritte alla categoria delle pratiche compatibili, nel senso che attribuisce a tale termine la legge 394/1991 e la L.R. 29/1997 (art. 26). Ma la normativa, troppo indirizzata verso una zonazione riferita quasi esclusivamente sul tasso di antropizzazione del territorio, ha reso abbastanza difficoltoso il compito di assegnazione delle zone e sottozone alla RNT. Le disposizioni da rispettare derivano: della legge regionale istitutiva n. 29/97, delle Linne Guida della Regione Lazio e dello schema standard della Regione. Il problema fondamentale della zonazione è quello di cadere facilmente in una separazione netta tra gli habitat, causando quindi una disomogeneità interna all'area protetta. Allo stesso modo, si creano disomogeneità esterne nel momento in cui il parco diventa un'area avulsa a tutto quello che è esterno ai propri confini. A tale scopo, il Piano di Assetto redatto propone un Agenda 21 per permettere agli enti locali di poter gestire in modo compatibile ed unitario la questione ambientale attraverso una polita locale che abbia come obiettivo comune una condivisione di responsabilità per uno sviluppo sostenibile. Ad oggi le restrizioni dettate delle norme di salvaguardia limitano in maniera seria lo sviluppo di Tuscania. Ciò fa avvertire la Riserva come un ente burocratico, un soggetto vincolate lo sviluppo del territorio. Per tali ragioni si auspica una celere approvazione del PdA da parte della Provincia di Viterbo e della Regione Lazio, in modo da poter permettere alla RNT di sviluppare tutte le azioni finalizzate alla tutela e conservazione dell'ambiente ed allo stesso tempo, la concretizzazione di uno sviluppo sostenibile per il territorio. ; The protected areas are those territories subordinates to a special program of protection and management, in which is present a natural and cultural patrimony of important value. In the present job the planning of the Natural Reserve of Tuscania, (country of Viterbo, north Lazio), has been considered with objects of conservation of the environmental values and sustainable economic development, like disposed of law L.R. 29 of 1997. The challenge is to promote in the protected areas an economic development and in the same time conservation of the rhythms and the values of the nature. We examined the state of the flora and the fauna present in the Reserve, the physical atmosphere and archaeology, the state of the historical center (that is inside of the Reserve), and the impacts of the agricultural activity and the anthropic activities present, trying to arrive to a zonation of the Reserve who respect the vocation of the territory. The involvement of the Pubblic Agencies for the realization of the plan in order of the Natural Reserve of Tuscania, has been continuous and constructive and has seen in the office of the park (instituted towards the end of 2004), a point of reference for all the citizens of Tuscania and not only. Therefore, task of the sustainable management is to regulation the use of the ecosystems and the resources on levels that are tolerable from the system and that respect the resources to our disposition. For the Natural Reserve of Tuscania it has been predisposed a SIT-GIS in order to manage all the informations that have been collections in the phase of surveying of the scientific study, in order to define the vocations, analyzing all the characterizing aspects of the territory of the natural area, perceiving it not like a geographic part but inserting in the immensest concept than intercomunale, provincial, regional and national planning. The fundamental role of the zonation is therefore to guarantee the conservation of the values of the territory being assigned various ties of protection to the various zones. The study has evidenced the vocation of the Natural Reserve of Tuscania (RNT), that it is of "rural park", that sees in the cultural landscape, that is historically influenced from the man, the main peculiarity. To this joins the vocation "to archaeological park", like an important Etruscan center. From the study it is emerged that to the center of the problematic is the Marta river, that slides in the heart of the Reserve from north to south. The Marta is disturbed from the regulation of the lago of Bolsena (floodgates to the incile), from hydroelectric centers of ENEL, that they interrupt for long and numerous features the uppermiddle course of the Marta river. The quality of waters is modest, with repercussions on the microfauna (index IBE) that on the fish. To weight down the cargo on the river there is also one paper factory and the communal water conditioner for the civil drainages and also black waters of the slaughterhouse. As far as the diffused sources of agricultural pollution, the problem does not appear of extreme urgency, if not other compared with the other pollution sources; can some deduce therefore, that the agricultural activities presents today to the category of the compatible ones, in the sense that attributes to such term the law 394/1991 and L.R. 29/1997 (art. 26). But the norm, too much addressed towards a zonation reported nearly exclusively on the rate urbanization of the territory, has rendered enough difficult the task of allocation of the zones and subzones to the RNT. The dispositions to respect derive: of the institutive regional law n. 29/97, of the guide line of the Lazio Region and the outline standard of the Region. The fundamental problem of the zonation is that easy falling in one clean separation between the habitats. To such scope, the Plan in Order proposes an Agenda 21 in order to allow to the local agencies of being able to manage in compatible way the environmental system through one local politicy that has like common objective a sustainable development. Today the restrictions dictated of the safeguard norms, limit seriously the development of Tuscania. That makes to perceive the Reserve like a bureaucratic agency, a subject bound the development of the territory. For such reasons hope a quick approval of the PdA from part of the Country of Viterbo and the Lazio Region, so as to be able to allow the RNT to develop a sustainable development for the territory.
Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on vallankäytön luonteen ja sen ilmenemisen tulkinta ja ymmärtäminen ammattikorkeakoulujen vakinaistamis- ja laajentumisprosessissa vuosina 1995-2000. Tutkimus jakautuu kahteen pääosaan: teoreettiseen ja tapausesimerkkinä toteutettavaan empiiriseen osaan. Työn lähtökohtana on teoreettisen viitekehyksen kautta jäsentää, tulkita ja ymmärtää tutkimuskohteena olevaa ilmiötä eli vakinaistamis- ja laajentumisprosessiin liittynyttä vallankäyttöä. Työn metodinen painopiste lähenee teoriaperusteista analyysia ja arviointia. Tiivistäen ilmaistuna teoria saa työssä tulkintavälineen aseman. Tavoitteena on teorian ja sen pohjalta luodun viitekehyksen ja aineiston välinen dialogimainen vuoropuhelu, jota täydennetään eri tutkijoiden esittämillä näkemyksillä. Työn dokumenttiaineisto painottuu kirjoitetussa muodossa olevaan, aitoon ja alkuperäiseen sekä selkeästi rajattuun tekstikorpukseen, jolle annettiin ja jolle muodostui keskeinen asema korkeakoulupoliittisia ratkaisuja tehtäessä. Työn tulkintaprosessin myötä voidaan päätyä mm. toteamaan, että valta ei paikantunut tai sijoittunut ammattikorkeakoululaitoksen luomisen prosessin osalta ainoastaan valtakunnan tason toimijoille ja päätöksentekijöille eli suunta ei ole yksinomaan ylhäältä alhaalle. Kokonaisuuden onnistuminen ja toimivuuden turvaaminen jäivät ja jäävät pitkälti anojien eli paikallistason vastuulle. Vaihtoon liittyvää ulottuvuutta ja vuorovaikutusta tarvitaan prosessin jatkokehittämisen onnistumiseksi. Tarkasteltavassa prosessitodellisuudessa ilman paikallistason työpanosta ja muutoksen syvällisyyttä ja hallintaa - nimenomaan ammatillisen korkeakoulutuksen näkökulmasta - todellinen muutos jää puutteelliseksi. Viitekehyksen keskeisimmät ulottuvuudet nousevat selkeästi esille empiirisen aineiston tulkinnan myötä; vallankäyttö prosessitodellisuuden eri toimijatasojen menettelyjen osalta liikkui nollasummapeli - positiv-summekonflikt -ulottuvuudella, kuten myös mahdollistamisen ja antienergisoinnin ja toimintaa hankaloittavien ratkaisujen puitteissa. Vallankäyttö seurauksineen liikkui ylivallan ja yhteistoiminnallisen vallan kentissä. Valta kapasiteettina ja kykynä tulkita sekä omaa että toisten todellisuutta sekä kokonaisuuden hallintana - jopa edellä mainittujen ulottuvuuksien puutteenakin - saa keskeisen sisällön tarkasteltavan tapausesimerkin puitteissa. Vallan suhdeperusteinen ja muuttuva luonne tulee selvästi esille. Vallankäyttö näkyy selkeästi konkreettisessa toiminnassa paikallisella, alueellisella ja valtakunnallisella toimijatasolla. Kun tilannetta tarkastellaan työn viitekehyksestä käsin, paljastuu valtakäsitteen hyödyntämisen ja tulkinnan jääneen prosessin kuluessa osittain rajautuneeksi. Työn pohjalta voi tulkita vallankäytön heijastusvaikutusten ja mahdollistamisulottuvuuden pohdinnan jääneen osittain keskeneräiseksi. Tehtyjen ratkaisujen ja valittujen periaatteiden seurauksena vallankäyttöön olennaisesti liittyvä kokonaisuuden hallinta ja kyky taata muutoksen syvällisyys eivät olleet ongelmattomia. Kaiken kaikkiaan kyse on työn otsikon mukaisesti vallankäytön oppimisesta. Samalla paljastuu vallankäytön haasteellisuus korkeakoulupolitiikkaa laajemminkin hallinnon kannalta. Valtaan liittyvän todellisuuden tulkinta laajentaa prosessin ymmärtämistä. Samalla paljastuu viitekehyksen laajempi sovellettavuus ja tutkimuksen käyttökelpoisuus sekä vallan suhdeperusteinen ja muuttuva luonne. Perehtyminen työ viitekehykseen ja sen pohjalta tehtyyn empiiriseen tarkasteluun voi edistää muutosta ja sen hallittavuutta. Työ viitekehyksenä oleva mallikombinaatio, synteesi mahdollistaa suoraa vallan harjoittamista laajemman prosessinäkökulman ja auttaa ymmärtämään laaja-alaisemmin organisationaaliseen vallankäyttöön liittyvän toiminnan seurauksia. Siten käytetty malli monipuolistaa vallan tulkintaa. ; The purpose of this study is to interpret and understand the nature and presence of the use of power in polytechnics during the years 1995 - 2000 when they were both being made permanent and undergoing expansion. The study is divided into two main parts: the theoretical and the empirical case study. The use of power within the process examined is interpreted through the theoretical part. Put concisely the theory becomes an interpretative tool in this study. The study concerns itself with two principle levels, the national and the provincial / local: the relationship between and within these two is analysed and interpreted from the viewpoint of the use of power. The basic arrangement of the study is to consider the use of power through and with the help of the two earlier mentioned levels. The workings of the evaluation board of the polytechnics and its licensing section (initially a separate working group), government, parliament, the commission of education and culture, and the ministry of education form the national level of the empirical part of the study. These bodies can be broadly divided into two working groups: the political decision makers, and the specialists. The second level is made up of local and provincial questions of power, resources and dependency. North Savo Polytechnic and Pirkanmaa Polytechnic, both of which could not get permanent official status immediately on first application, have been chosen as examples of the local level. During the period studied North Savo Polytechnic applied for permanent status three times and made one application to broaden the mandate sought. Thus the process reality and entirety and its power dimensions and its changes can be seen. After these submissions the process continued in North Savo provisionally or as education based on agreement making certain units permanent. Pirkanmaa Polytechnic was assessed at the start of the process and again at the end of it when it got provisional approval for making the school permanent. Thus in the time period studied we can examine two different cases as examples within the local process. The study covers issues on both micro and macro levels. The central theme is to look at the process and its content dimension in its entirety. The views of both local and national influencers have been included to make the research more substantive. The use of power as part of process reality is modelled with the aid of two intersecting lines. At the ends of the horizontal line there are the power dimensions of authoritarian (power over) and co-operative (power with). The vertical line describes energy and anti-energy power dimensions; empowerment and action that hinders or even blocks it. Thus we have a four-field model that describes power dimensions in the building process and serves as a technical tool for the study and its theoretical framework. The starting point of the study is that "power moves" as a result of actions in the aforementioned four-field model even during the same process reality, and then the use of power takes different forms and has different consequences. The positions of the power wielders and power targets vary during social interaction and action. Power as a phenomenon manifests itself in varying non-static process relationships and a conclusion as a nil sum game or open conflict is not enough to keep the process developing positively. They are counterbalanced by reciprocal exchange relationships and the positive sum conflict dimension. The interpretation of process reality, securing a change, and management of the entirety become central. The starting point of the study is, through the above-mentioned theoretical framework, to analyse, interpret and understand the phenomenon studied, i.e. the use of power in the process of awarding permanent status and broadening a mandate already received. The methodological emphasis comes close to theory based analyses and evaluation. The aim is a dialogue between on one hand the theory and the framework it's based on and on the other hand the data. This dialogue is then completed with views from various researchers. The documentary data consists mainly of written original, genuine and clearly defined bodies of text which were submitted and which formed a central part in the making of political decisions in the polytechnic field. Through the interpretation process of the study it can be stated that as regards the creation of the polytechnics that power was not only located at the level of national decision makers i.e. the direction is not only from the top to the bottom. Successful implementation and feasibility were and still are the contributory responsibility of the local level applicants. Interaction and reciprocity exchange are needed to make further development successful. Real change in the process reality will be incomplete if local level work input, management and depth of the change - especially from the viewpoint of the polytechnics - are not taken into consideration. The most central dimensions of the framework are brought out with the interpretation of the empirical data; the use of power in the differing action levels of the process reality was moving in the nil sum game - positive sum conflict dimension, as also in the facilitating / empowering and anti-energising / solution retardation dimension. The use of power with its results was moving in the fields of authoritarian (power over) and co-operative (power with). Power as capacity and as ability to interpret one's own and others´ reality and also as management of the entirety - even lacking of all the before mentioned dimensions - receives a central role in the case study examined. The changing and relationship based nature of power is brought out. The use of power can be seen clearly in the tangible actions at the local, provincial and national levels. When the situation is looked at from the framework of the study it can be seen that the utilisation and interpretation of the concept of power has remained partly limited in the course of the process or that the decision makers have not thought about it from the viewpoint of the framework. On the basis of the study it can be interpreted that the study of the reflex effects and facilitating / empowering dimension of the use of power has remained somewhat incomplete or that at least the knock on effects have not been studied in all aspects. As a result of the decisions made and the principles chosen the management of the entirety and the ability to secure the depth of the change that essentially go together with the use of power were not problem free. All in all it is about, in accordance with the title of the study, learning to use power. At the same time the challenging nature of the use of power in administration other than in the polytechnics is revealed.