Suchergebnisse

Anhörigas insatser utgör en stor del av den hjälp och assistans som ges till Sveriges hemmaboende äldre personer som lever med en eller flera kroniska sjukdomar. Anhöriga bidrar också till den nationella välfärden genom att balansera hälso- och sjukvårdens kostnader. Det kan skönjas ett ökande intresse inom forskning så väl som i politiska beslut för anhöriga som vårdare. Stöd till anhöriga som vårdar tycks vara ett mycket aktuellt begrepp inom flera intresseområden, både i Sverige och internationellt. Men stöd till dessa anhöriga kan bli ett mer komplext uppdrag än vad det initialt ger sken av. Trots att det finns forskning om stöd för anhöriga, kan begreppet ändå anses komplicerat och vara svårt att föreställa sig innebörden av. Ordet stöd är gammalt och har fornsvenskt ursprung. Den engelska motsvarigheten support är inte heller nytt. Vad som är anmärkningsvärt och intressant är istället i vilket sammanhang ordet används. Idag används det bland annat inom IT branschen, militären, juridiken, konsten, arkitekturen, medicinen och omvårdnaden. Inom omvårdnad och omvårdnadsforskning blir begreppet stöd särskilt aktuellt i de situationer då en anhörig vårdar en äldre närstående i hemmet. Antalet sådana situationer förväntas inte minska i framtiden och begreppet stöd kommer därför att fortsätta vara aktuellt. För att ge stöd, förbättra stödet och lära nya sjuksköterskor stödja, måste begreppet förtydligas, eftersom det idag finns väldigt lite forskning om begreppet inom omvårdnad. Från den allmänna debatten i Sverige angående anhörigstöd kan slutsatsen dras att stödet bör finnas. Det är emellertid inte lika självklart vem det är som ska stödja eller vilket innehåll stödet bör ha. Allteftersom fokus för vården av äldre flyttas mot vård i hemmet är det rimligt att anta att sjuksköterskor även i fortsättning kommer att spela en betydelsefull roll i kontakten mellan anhöriga och professionella vårdare. I gruppen professionella vårdare förväntas sjuksköterskor ha en betydelsefull roll som anhörigstödjare. Eftersom det ...

Un débat entre Bilo Høegh Stigsen, Anja Kervanto Nevanlinna, Morten Birk Jørgensen, Tor Lindstrand et Håkan Nilsson, mené par Nicolas Escach

This dissertation explores the image of the ideal home in Sweden, an idea closely bound to the spatial dynamics of building norms and the outfitting of the domestic household, from the 1950s through the 1960s. By examining official, commercial, and consumer-cooperative ideals of housing and home, I attempt to understand and analyze correlations between various visions of the ideal apartment home and the social, political, economic, and cultural contexts in which they were conceived during the heyday of the Swedish welfare state. This subject has been extensively researched for the first years of the phenomenon, the 1930s and 1940s, but is relatively ignored for the years following World War II, when the new housing policy was formulated and the Record Years began. The study ends in 1970, when the construction of apartments and the standard of living peaked, followed by a focus on building single-family houses and the questioning of building norms. I argue that the values and visions of an ideal home were expressed in the rhetoric and representations of state, consumer-cooperative, and commercial publications. While scholars have studied individual aspects of this context, I maintain that the interrelationship between them produced a widely circulated vision of domesticity between 1950 and 1970. I highlight how commercial actors—primarily Ikea and the interior design magazine Allt i Hemmet (Everything in the Home)—interacted with state institutions in creating and promoting a discourse of the ideal home. ; Ytterligare finansiärer: Estrid Ericsons stiftelse, Gerda Boëthius stiftelse, Peter och Birgitta Celsings stiftelse, Nationalmusei vänner, Bard Graduate Center.

Denne ph.d.-afhandling bidrager til diskursen om at udvikle ældrevenlige byer og lokalsamfund gennem co-design og en arkitektfaglig tilgang. Vores samfund gennemgår store forandringer og to drivende kræfter er i højsædet: En stigende aldrende befolkning samt øget urbanisering. Dette kræver, at vores byer og lokalsamfund kan imødekomme behovene og kravene fra denne voksende, heterogene og diverse aldrende befolkning. Arkitektur og design er vigtige aktører i denne sammenhæng, dog går disse fagligheder ikke forrest i denne diskussion som er drevet af sundheds- og samfundsvidenskabelige samt politiske perspektiver. Med denne afhandling, er målet at bidrage med en co-design og arkitektfaglig tilgang til denne udfordring ved at undersøge hvordan rumlige udforskninger og en ældrevenlig co-design tilgang kan bidrage til en ældrevenlig rumlig praksis, når man i fremtiden undersøger og udvikler ældrevenlige byer og lokalsamfund. Afhandlingen undersøger derudover, hvad en sådan ældrevenlig rumlig praksis kræver af arkitektrollen. Gennem eksplorativ-, praksisbaseret- og participatorisk designforskning lægger studiet vægt på processen omkring at forstå samt at co-designe ældrevenlige byer og lokalsamfund med grupper af ældre mennesker med lav socioøkonomisk status, som er bosiddende i udsatte boligområder. Fire empiriske studier er blevet udført og præsenteres i tre separate artikler. Den første artikel fokuserer på 'go-along interviewet' som en metode til at involvere ældre mennesker i at forstå deres lokale nærmiljø i Københavns Sydhavn. Artikel 2 præsenterer to co-design processer fra samme område i København og diskuterer, hvad der gør sådanne co-design processer særligt ældrevenlige. Den tredje artikel præsenterer en co-design proces udført med ældre mennesker og lokale aktører i Grønland og fokuserer på de forskellige aktørers perspektiver omkring en sådan co-design proces. Afhandlingen bidrager med praktiske og teoretiske perspektiver på, hvordan ældre mennesker kan deltage i at udvikle ældrevenlige byer og lokalsamfund ved at udvikle lokalt og samtidigt adressere samfundsmæssige problemstillinger. De empiriske studier er blevet udført i en tværfaglig forskningskonstellation med bidrag fra arkitektur, co-design, gerontologi og antropologi. Denne tilgang afspejles ligeledes i den teoretiske positionering, hvor perspektiver fra 'environmental gerontology', co-design samt rumlig praksis bruges som teoretiske linser til at diskutere det empiriske materiale samt afhandlingens forskningsspørgsmål. Emner på tværs af felterne inkluderer rumlige dimensioner i forhold til aldring, hverdagsliv, rumlig praksis, ressourcer, ekspertise og kreativitet. Ældre mennesker er omdrejningspunktet i disse diskussioner. Ph.d.-afhandlingen bidrager til diskursen omkring udvikling af ældrevenlige byer og lokalsamfund ved at definere en 'ældrevenlig rumlig praksis' samt at demonstrere, hvordan ældre mennesker og andre aktører kan involveres i at co-designe ældrevenlige rum samt udforske rumlige dimensioner af ældrevenlige byer og lokalsamfund. I afhandlingen diskuteres betydningen af sådanne samarbejdsprocesser og hvordan de kan bidrage til at opdatere og revidere aldringsbilledet (internt og eksternt). Derudover diskuteres arkitektens rolle i en sådan ældrevenlig rumlig praksis. Denne diskussion inkluderer at indskrive arkitektfagligheden i ældre menneskers hverdagsliv samt at samarbejde med seniorer, praksis interessenter og andre fagligheder gennem socio-rumlige, kreative og undersøgende arbejdsprocesser. ; This thesis inscribes itself in the discourse of developing Age-friendly Cities and Communities (AFCCs) from an architectural and a co-design perspective. Our society is changing, and two major societal forces are at the forefront: a rapidly ageing population and increasing urbanisation. This means that cities and communities are required to meet the needs and demands of this growing, heterogeneous and diverse ageing population. Architecture and design are important actors in this development; however, they are often not at the forefront of the discussion, which is mostly driven by health, social science and political perspectives. Hence, the objective of this study is to present a co-design and an architectural approach to the issue of AFCCs through an investigation of how an age- friendly co-design approach and spatial explorations can contribute to an age-friendly spatial practice when understanding and developing AFCCs. Further, this thesis seeks to explore the role of the architect in an age-friendly spatial practice. Through exploratory, practice-based and participatory design research the study places emphasis on the process of understanding and co-designing AFCCs with older people of low socio-economic status living in deprived areas. Four empirical studies have been carried out and will be presented in three separate articles. The first article focuses on the 'go-along interview' as a method of involving older people in understanding their local neighbourhood in Copenhagen. The second article presents two co-design processes carried out in Copenhagen and discusses what makes the co-design process particularly age-friendly. The third article presents a co-design process carried out with older people and local municipal stakeholders in Greenland and focuses on the various stakeholder perspectives in such a process. The thesis offers practical and theoretical perspectives on how to engage older people in the development of AFCCs when working locally while at the same time addressing societal matters. The empirical studies have been carried out in an interdisciplinary research constellation which spans across the fields of architecture, co-design, gerontology and anthropology. This is reflected in the theoretical positioning, where perspectives from environmental gerontology, co-design and spatial practice serve as lenses for discussing the empirical data and the research objective. Topics across the fields include the spatialities of ageing, everyday life and spatial practices as well as resources, expertise and creativity with older people at the centre of these discussions. This PhD thesis defines what can be understood as age-friendly spatial practice and demonstrates how older people and other actors can be involved in co-designing age- friendly spaces as well as exploring the spatial dimensions of AFCCs. The thesis discusses the significance of such collaborations and how they can contribute to updating and revising the image of ageing (internally and externally). It further discusses the role of the architect in an age-friendly spatial practice, which includes situating the profession in the everyday life of the older people and collaborating with seniors, practice stakeholders and different disciplines through socio-spatial, creative and exploratory working modes.

Transport plays essential roles in almost all economic activities and our daily lives. Transport flows are often agglomerated in soͲcalled transport corridors linking urban and/or commercially important areas.Clearly, it is desirable for transport to be efficient and sustainable, thus there are several onͲgoing initiatives to develop major, often transnational, transport corridors.Diverse stakeholders are affected by and/or involved in the development of these corridors, including travellers, transport buyers,transport service providers and transport authorities (local, regional, national and transnational). Governance of the corridors can be regarded as the interactive involvement of these stakeholders in their development and subsequent management.This is a licentiate by publications based on a covering essay that summarises and synthetises four articles. The topic focuses on the development of a framework for designing governance structures formajor transport corridors, by examining the variables that should be considered, the structural and procedural organisational possibilities, and both stakeholders' participation and interactions. A qualitative research approach has been applied, as deeper understanding of the underlying issues is needed. Several studies have been performed, in conjunction with the Bothnian green logistic corridorproject, to illustrate key concerns. These studies have included literature reviews, studies of documents describing governance of major European transport initiatives, and interviews with key individualsinvolved in the development of European transport corridors. An international study has been established and supervised to gather experiences from other research projects, including an open workshop for discussion between representatives of various stakeholder groups. In addition, a casestudy of the Bothnian corridor has been performed, including focus group discussions with principal stakeholders.Main findings from the literature studies concern both the design of governance structures and their socioͲpolitical integration. The findings show that there is no universal solution for governance structuresas they have to be adapted to the social, economic and political context, and should have a sufficient flexibility to meet changing requirements. They also show that collaboration between public, private and other stakeholders to address issues earlier handled by a single authority is becoming increasinglycommon, also within the field of transport, particularly when public investment budgets are restricted. Another main finding is that broad stakeholder inclusion is advantageous and engaged leadership crucial for a successful outcome. Both structural and procedural aspects of a governance structure influence theoutcome and need to be considered when designing one. The international study and the workshop confirmed most of these literature findings and additionally highlighted the need for clear goals, objectives and rules for collaboration. Stakeholders´ diverse needs of connecting to a governancestructure were discussed in the workshop. The document studies and the interviews enhanced knowledge of European transport corridor establishment and management practices. ; Godkänd; 2014; 20140516 (obemar); Nedanstående person kommer att hålla licentiatseminarium för avläggande av teknologie licentiatexamen. Namn: Maria Öberg Ämne: Arkitektur/Architecture Uppsats: Governance Structure for Transport Corridors Examinator: Professor Kristina L Nilsson, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Diskutant: PhD, Senior Advisor/Research Fellow Björn Hasselgren, Div. Samhällsplanering och miljö, KTH, Stockholm Tid: Fredag den 19 september 2014 kl 10.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

Increasingly, eGovernment (the use of ICTs in order to achieve better government) is moving its focus from web presence and electronic service provision to striving for an interoperable public sector. Interoperability refers to the ability for information exchange across organizational borders, concerning technology as well as business aspects. Policy for such change has been formulated and implementation is currently taking place in many government sectors. In such programs there is a strong need for coordination with regard to the way in which interoperability is to be implemented. Interoperability work requires coordination, as it is a complex endeavour because of the interrelatedness of information systems, public services, departments and organizations, as well as policies, constraints and regulations. In order to achieve interoperability, architectural approaches are increasingly used in the public sector to try to coordinate interoperability work. One such approach, Enterprise Architecture (EA), is becoming increasingly influential. EA has been defined as an overview of the complete business processes and business systems, both in terms of how they overlap and their interrelatedness. However, previous research show that state-of-the-art EA is seldom fully applied in practice. Previous research has also proposed that information infrastructures and architectures should be seen as evolving dynamically during the implementation process through changing relationships between actors. The implementation of IS architecture for interoperability is thus seen as an evolving process of social production. As the research field is still immature further research on the evolution of public information infrastructures and architectures is needed, as well as how the strategic alignment of handling of goals, and ambiguities in implementation is done. This thesis hence addresses the challenges of implementing national public sector interoperability as an evolving process by addressing the research question: How is interoperability interpreted and enacted by different actors in public sector implementation? In order to approach the research question, an interpretive case study is performed. The case studied in this thesis is from the implementation of the Strategy for eHealth in Sweden, where healthcare is mainly publicly funded, and catered for by 20 county councils (who mainly focus on healthcare, and 290 municipalities (who also cater for a great deal of other public services). The case is an example of how interoperability is implemented, from the early stages of outlining a general picture of goals and requirements, to the formulation of a strategy and an architecture. This case is also an example of how EA influences an interoperability program through enterprise thinking. The research uses an interpretive case study approach influenced by Actor-Network Theory (ANT). ANT is used as a toolbox for telling stories about technology in practice, as emergent in socio-material relations. A number of complementary qualitative methods are used. These include semi-structured interviews, observations and document analysis, with the foremost part of the empirical material being first-hand. In order to understand interoperability implementation in the public sector I examine the background to eGovernment implementation, by contrasting conceptualizations of eGovernment evolution to contemporary theories of public policy implementation. It is shown that, during the last decade, stage models have been used as tools for describing, predicting and directing the evolution of eGovernment. The stage model approach has been criticized for presenting a linear development which has little empirical support and delimits the understanding of eGovernment development as a dynamic process. Newer stage models have started to take this criticism into consideration and alternative models on eGovernment have also been developed. Consequently, eGovernment implementation is in this thesis perceived as a process in which technologies, policies and organizations are in a process of mutual shaping, where policymaking and policy implementation are intermingled. Implementing interoperability is hence not a matter of disseminating a policy that is to be implemented in every setting exactly as stated on paper, but a process in which the goals and means of interoperability are constantly being negotiated. Also, EA has been proposed as an approach to treat technology and business in the public sector as interrelated. However, since previous research show that state-of-the-art EA is seldom fully applied in public sector practice, the concept of enterprise thinking is developed in this thesis. Enterprise thinking is intended to be a concept that describes EA as a contemporary zeitgeist which in practice is adopted in varying ways. The results of the thesis show how interoperability in eHealth was roughly outlined before implementation although still containing conflicts and ambiguities. Central to this thesis is the controversy of defining "the enterprise", as the health care sector was delimited as one enterprise, which became increasingly problematic during implementation. This to a large extent concerned municipalities, whose business area stretched much wider than just the health care sector, and hence the definition of the enterprise became problematic. Another central aspect was legal obstacles to cooperation, as there was a clash between the values of efficiency and patient privacy as a result of a new law that had been implemented in order to allow for information sharing. The legal grounds for sharing information proved to be problematic, which lead to that several involved actors perceived that a large portion of the patients in health care could not benefit from interoperability as their information could not be shared despite this law. The legal challenges also dampened the enthusiasm for the eHealth program as a whole. The program had also outlined a technology architecture before implementation. This architecture was however treated in conflicting ways, both as a blueprint (something to be implemented) and a tool for communication (as a way of discussing what was to be implemented). For instance, several municipalities perceived that the planned infrastructure was unsuitable to their business needs (as it did not meet the requirements of other actors in eGovernment), and thus questioned it, using it as a tool for communication rather than a blueprint. Meanwhile, other actors argued that the blueprint had already been decided, and thus needed to be implemented. The case also shed light on the use of informal networks, outside traditional bureaucracy, as a means to deal with interoperability. Such networks were used in order to align actions and perceptions of a large number of autonomous municipalities. This revealed issues concerning local decision as knowledge of, and resources for, ICT and architectural work was lacking in several municipalities. Also, as the networks lacked formal power no decisions could be taken jointly, but in the end had to be negotiated locally. This made coordinated decision making hard as the processes were lengthy and often lacked clear incentives. Furthermore, ambiguous feedback from national authorities, as well as an overall lack of understanding among local actors, concerning what was legal to do in terms of procurement and information sharing, complicated the situation further. These findings are summarized in four main conclusions; The process of defining which organizations are to be made interoperable, or what is to be considered as "the enterprise", is a political process which might be brought into question and require re-negotiations throughout implementation, as the drawing of boundaries of "the enterprise" can be filled with conflict. Different perspectives on an enterprise, from different architectural viewpoints, are often described as complementary, and it has previously been shown that different architectural metaphors can be used by different actors during implementation. However, in practice, different use of metaphors for architectures can open up for discussion and conflict. These may not only be different, but may also contradict other actors' use of metaphors, since different metaphors might clash. Interoperability work can be a novel task for some local governments. Therefore, there is a need for negotiation and to establish forms of formal decision making and informal dissemination because such structures might be lacking. It should be anticipated that implementation might be slow because of a lack of understanding about interoperability programs (particularly in terms of something other than ICT). In addition, there may be few forums for coordinated decision making, or there may be obstructions in the form of prior formal and legal arrangements. Enterprise thinking is interconnected with Enterprise Architecture as a zeitgeist for interoperability work. It draws upon EA as an ideal, whilst acknowledging that public organizations are influenced by this zeitgeist, although practical conditions might not allow for adoption of an EA approach. Enterprise thinking thus refers to the notion of EA as an ideal, not as a specific way of applying EA. Enterprise thinking has a process focus on interoperability. ICT, business goals, and work practices are perceived as interconnected, and hence need to be treated from a holistic perspective. How this is approached is, however, dependent upon the context in which it is implemented. Further research efforts could approach how enterprise thinking affects interoperability work in the long run with a longitudinal approach. Also, as this thesis has shown how the use of different architectural metaphors can clash, further research could focus on the positive and negative effects of negotiations being initiated by such conflict. From a project management perspective the risks and benefits of using smaller projects as "enrolment devices" for interoperability programs, where an architecture cannot be pushed but is voluntary, should be of interest. Furthermore the use of EA as an ideal which cannot be fully followed in several public settings, although might intentionally be used as a guiding light, is interesting for further research. For instance, it would be of interest to see how the rhetoric of EA may be applied in practice in order to legitimate programs. This is of interest as to examine to which extent the use of such concepts influence actual practice, or if they are only "empty words". The conceptualization of enterprise thinking proposed in the conclusions of this thesis can be used in further research. Indeed, they could be useful for investigating different approaches, influenced by EA, in different contexts. For instance, it may be of interest to countries that might not share the same institutional characteristics of Sweden, but are influenced by enterprise thinking in different ways. This would be of interest for outlining different practical approaches to enterprise thinking. Also, the further development in Sweden specifically could be of interest, as other sectors are at the time of writing preparing their own interoperability programs, and aim to benefit from the lessons learned in the healthcare sector. ; I ökande utsträckning har e-förvaltningens (användningen av IKT för att förbättra verksamheten i offentlig sektor) fokus förflyttats från webb-närvaro och elektroniska tjänster mot att sträva efter en interoperabel offentlig sektor. Interoperabilitet avser möjligheten för informationsutbyte över verksamheters olika gränser, vilket innefattar teknologiska såväl som organisatoriska aspekter. Policys för sådana förändring har utarbetats och implementeras för närvarande i flera offentliga organisationer. I sådana program finns det ett starkt behov av samordning gällande det sätt på vilket interoperabilitet skall genomföras. Interoperabilitetsarbete kräver således samordning, eftersom det är en komplex uppgift på grund sammanvävda informationssystem, offentliga tjänster, organisationer, policys, begränsningar och regler. För att uppnå interoperabilitet används arkitekturella tillvägagångssätt alltmer inom den offentliga sektorn, för att försöka samordna arbetet. Ett sådant tillvägagångssätt, Enterprise Architecture (EA), har fått ett ökande inflytande. EA har definierats som en översikt av hela affärsprocesser och affärssystem, både vad gäller hur de överlappar med varandra och hur de hänger samman. Dock visar tidigare forskning att EA i praktiken sällan tillämpas fullt ut. Tidigare forskning har också påvisat att informationsinfrastrukturer och arkitekturer bör ses som dynamiskt framväxande under implementeringsprocessen, genom förändrade relationer mellan aktörer. Implementering av informationssystemsarkitektur för interoperabilitet bör därmed ses som en framväxande och socialt producerad process. Då forskningsområdet fortfarande är omoget behövs ytterligare forskning om framväxten av offentliga informationsinfrastrukturer och arkitekturer, samt hur strategisk sammanjämkning av mål och oklarheter i implementeringen sker. Denna avhandling behandlar därför utmaningarna som finns i implementeringen av interoperabilitet i offentlig sektor, som en framväxande process, genom att behandla frågeställningen: Hur tolkas och sätts interoperabilitet i praktiken av olika aktörer under implementering i offentlig sektor? För att närma sig frågeställningen utförs en tolkande fallstudie. Fallet som studerats i denna avhandling är från implementeringen av strategin IT-strategin för vård och omsorg (eHälsostrategin) i Sverige, där vården i huvudsak är offentligt finansierad, och tillhandahålls av 20 landsting (som huvudsakligen fokuserar på sjukvård), och 290 kommuner (som också tillhandahåller en mängd andra offentliga tjänster). Fallet är ett exempel på hur interoperabilitet implementeras, från de tidiga skeden då en generell bild av mål och krav målas upp, till utformningen av en strategi och en arkitektur. Detta fall är också ett exempel på hur EA påverkar ett interoperabilitetsprogram via "enterprise thinking". En fallstudie genomförs med en tolkande ansats, influerad av Actor-Network Theory (ANT). ANT används som en verktygslåda för att berätta historier om teknik i praktiken, som framväxande genom sociomateriella relationer. Merparten av det empiriska materialet har samlats in i förstahand och ett antal kompletterande kvalitativa metoder används. Dessa metoder inkluderar semi-strukturerade intervjuer, observationer och dokumentanalys. För att förstå interoperabilitetsimplementering i offentlig sektor undersöker jag bakgrunden till implementation av e-förvaltning, genom att kontrastera begreppsbildningar av hur e-förvaltningen växer fram mot samtida teorier om implementation i offentlig sektor. Jag påvisar att under det senaste decenniet har stegmodeller använts som verktyg för att beskriva, förutsäga och styra utvecklingen av e-förvaltning. Denna typ av modeller har kritiserats då de framhåller en linjär utveckling som har bristande empiriskt stöd och begränsar förståelsen för e-förvaltningens framväxt som en dynamisk process. Nyare stegmodeller har börjat ta hänsyn till denna kritik och alternativa modeller på e-förvaltning har också utvecklats. Följaktligen ses i denna avhandling implementeringen av e-förvaltning som en process där teknik, policy och organisationer är i en ständig process av ömsesidig påverkan, där policyskapande och policyimplementering är sammanvävt. Att implementera interoperabilitet är därför inte en fråga om att sprida en policy som skall genomföras av varje aktör så som det står angivet på pappret, utan en process där mål och metoder för interoperabilitet ständigt omförhandlas. EA har föreslagits som ett tillvägagångssätt för att behandla teknik och verksamhet som integrerade. Dock, eftersom tidigare forskning visar att EA sällan tillämpas fullt ut i praktiken i offentlig sektor, så utvecklas begreppet enterprise thinking i denna avhandling. Enterprise thinking är avsett att vara ett koncept som beskriver EA som en samtida tidsandan som i praktiken närmas på olika sätt. Resultaten i avhandlingen visar hur interoperabilitet i e-hälsa skisserades ut grovt innan implementeringen, i en bild som innehöll konflikter och tvetydigheter. Centralt för denna avhandling är problematiken i att definiera verksamheten ("the enterprise"), då hälso- och sjukvårdssektorn var avgränsad som en verksamhet, vilket blev allt mer problematiskt under implementeringen. Detta berörde till stor del kommuner, vars verksamhetsområde sträcker sig mycket bredare än bara hälso- och sjukvården. Därmed blev definitionen av verksamheten problematisk. En annan central aspekt var juridiska hinder för samverkan, då det fanns en konflikt mellan värdena effektivitet och patientens integritet. Detta var delvis en följd av en ny lag som hade införts just i syfte att möjliggöra informationsutbyte. De rättsliga grunderna för att dela information visade sig vara problematiska, vilket ledde till att flera inblandade aktörer uppfattade att en stor del av patienterna i vården inte kunde dra nytta av interoperabilitet, eftersom deras information inte kunde delas trots denna lagändring. De rättsliga utmaningarna dämpade också entusiasmen för eHälsoprogrammet som helhet. Programmet hade också skisserat ut en teknikarkitektur innan implementeringen. Denna arkitektur behandlades dock på motstridiga sätt, både som en "ritning" (en klar bild av vad som skulle genomföras) och som ett verktyg för kommunikation (som ett sätt att diskutera vad som skulle genomförts). Till exempel uppfattade flera kommuner att den planerade infrastrukturen var olämpliga för deras verksamhetsbehov (då den inte uppfyllde kraven från andra aktörer inom e-förvaltning), och ifrågasatte därmed den genom att använda arkitekturen som ett verktyg för kommunikation snarare än en ritning. Samtidigt menade andra aktörer att man redan hade tagit beslut om denna ritning och att den därmed skulle följas. Fallstudien kastar också ljus på användningen av informella nätverk, utanför den traditionella byråkratin, som ett sätt för att arbeta med interoperabilitetsfrågor. Sådana nätverk användes i syfte att sammanjämka åtgärder och uppfattningar hos ett stort antal självstyrande aktörer. Detta visade på en problematik gällande lokalt beslutsfattande och resurser gällande IKT och arkitekturellt arbete, då kompetenser och erfarenheter för detta saknades hos flera kommuner. Relaterat till detta är att i de nätverk där diskussionerna fördes saknades även formell makt, och inga beslut kunde fattas gemensamt därigenom. I slutändan var man istället tvungna att diskutera de frågor som togs upp där lokalt. Detta gjorde samordnat beslutsfattande svårt eftersom processerna var långa och ofta saknade tydliga incitament. Dessutom fanns en problematik i att nationella aktörer ofta gav tvetydig respons på frågor, samt en allmän brist på förståelse bland lokala aktörer, gällande vad som var lagligt att göra beträffande upphandling och informationsutbyte. Detta komplicerade situationen ytterligare. Dessa resultat sammanfattas i fyra huvudsakliga slutsatser; 1. Processen med att definiera vilka organisationer som skall göras interoperabla, eller vad som ska betraktas som "verksamheten", är en politisk process som kan ifrågasättas och kräva omförhandlingar under implementeringen, eftersom hur man definierar gränserna kring "verksamheten" kan vara konfliktfyllt. 2. Olika perspektiv på en verksamhet, från olika arkitekturella perspektiv, beskrivs ofta som komplementära, och det har tidigare visats att olika arkitekturella metaforer kan användas av olika aktörer under implementeringen. I praktiken kan dock olika användning av arkitekturella metaforer öppna upp för diskussion och konflikt. Dessa är inte nödvändigtvis bara annorlunda och komplementära, utan kan också motsäga andra aktörers användning av metaforer, då olika metaforer kan kollidera. 3. Interoperabilitetsarbete kan vara en ny uppgift för lokala aktörer. Det finns därför ett behov av förhandlingar och att upprätta former för formellt beslutsfattande och informell "spridning" av information eftersom strukturer för detta kan saknas. Detta kan vara en långsam process på grund av bristande förståelse för interoperabilitetsprogram (särskilt i fråga om att de skulle handla om något annat än bara IKT). Dessutom finns ibland få (om ens några) forum för samordnat beslutsfattande, och det kan även finnas formella och legala hinder för detta. 4. Enterprise thinking ("verksamhetstänkande") är sammankopplat med Enterprise Architecture, som är en tidsanda för interoperabilitetsarbete. Det bygger på EA som ett ideal, då offentliga organisationerna påverkas av denna tidsanda, men att praktiska förutsättningar kanske inte möjliggör att man antar en EA-strategi. Enterprise thinking hänvisar således till EA-begreppet som ett ideal, och är alltså inte ett specifikt sätt att tillämpa EA. Enterprise thinking har ett processfokus på interoperabilitet. IKT, verksamhetens mål och arbetsrutiner ses som sammanlänkade och måste därför behandlas utifrån ett helhetsperspektiv. Hur man närmar sig detta i praktiken är dock beroende på i vilken kontext det implementeras. Vidare forskning skulle kunna behandla hur enterprise thinking påverkar interoperabilitetsarbete på lång sikt, med en longitudinell ansats. Då denna avhandling visar på hur användningen av olika arkitekturella metaforer kan kollidera föreslås ytterligare forskning som fokusera på de positiva och negativa effekterna av att förhandlingar initieras av sådana konflikter. Från ett projektledningsperspektiv kan riskerna och fördelarna med att använda mindre projekt som symboler för att få med flera aktörer i interoperabilitetsprogram fokuseras. Detta är i synnerhet intressant i arkitekturprogram där en arkitektur inte kan tvingas på aktörerna, men att implementation är frivillig. Användning av EA som ett ideal som ofta inte kan följas fullt ut i offentlig sektor, men avsiktligt användas som en ledstjärna, är intressant för vidare forskning. Till exempel skulle det vara intressant att se hur EA-retorik kan tillämpas i praktiken för att legitimera program. Det är av intresse att undersöka i vilken utsträckning användningen av dessa begrepp påverkar verksamheten, eller om de bara är tomma ord. Begreppet enterprise thinking föreslås som användbart för vidare forskning. Det kan vara användbart för att undersöka olika tillvägagångssätt, influerade av EA, i olika kontexter. Exempelvis kan det vara av intresse att se till länder som inte har samma institutionella egenskaper som Sverige, men påverkas av enterprise thinking på olika sätt. Detta skulle vara av intresse för att undersöka på vilka olika sätt enterprise thinking närmas i praktiken. Även den fortsatta utvecklingen i Sverige kan vara av särskilt intresse, då andra sektorer i skrivande stund förbereder egna interoperabilitetsprogram och ämnar dra nytta av lärdomar från arbetet inom vårdsektorn.

This licentiate thesis is part of a larger case study that examines the built cultural heritage in Kiruna's urban transformation. The research study presupposes it is necessary to address cultural significance of the built environment in urban planning practice. In Sweden, a conservation planning strategy emerged during the 1980s, in response to the extensive urban renewals that took place in many towns over the decades before. In spite of this, there are many examples of how demands for urban renewal challenge urban conservation.The aim of the thesis is to explore how the concept of built cultural heritage is understood in contemporary urban planning and how urban planning practice affects the built cultural heritage. The main research question is: how are buildings and built environments transformed into cultural heritage?The analysis draws on concepts such as 'heritagisation', 'heritage' and 'authorised heritage discourse'. Heritagisation is defined as a process in which something, such as a built environment, turns into heritage. Heritage is perceived as a social and cultural construction in which values and meanings are attributed to, for instance, built environments. There is a distinction between official heritage that is authorised by legislation and unofficial heritage, which is not formally recognised. The authorised heritage discourse is characterised as a hegemonic heritage discourse favouring the monumental and aesthetically appealing, being a concern for heritage specialists.The research is performed as a qualitative, interpretative intrinsic case study of Kiruna's contemporary urban transformation. The case study is triangulated using multiple methods and a variety of data. The main methods used are text analysis of records, planning documents and media coverage as well as semistructured interviews and observations.Kiruna was established in 1900, with the mining company LKAB as the main stakeholder, in order to provide housing for the large number of workers required in the iron ore industry. The hopes were very high for the design of the new town and some of Sweden's most famous architects, planners and artists at the time were hired. From the 1980s until 2005, the town's built environments were recognised as built cultural heritage. Local, regional and national authorities collaborated in protecting designated buildings. In 2004, it became publicly known that subsidence caused by mining activities would affect the settlement; the town would, therefore, be relocated. This has caused controversies around the management of the built cultural heritage in the urban transformation processes. The case of Kiruna illustrates the impact of legislation in defining built cultural heritage and the influence of the authorised heritage discourse on urban planning practice. There are, however, difficulties in implementing the notion of cultural heritage as socially and culturally constructed into urban planning processes; rather, the heritage is perceived as a fixed entity. It is suggested that also unofficial heritage should be recognised in the urban planning processes, in order to manage the long-term urban transformation process. ; Godkänd; 2013; 20130428 (jensjo); Tillkännagivande licentiatseminarium 2013-05-06 Nedanstående person kommer att hålla licentiatseminarium för avläggande av teknologie licentiatexamen. Namn: Jennie Sjöholm Ämne: Arkitektur/Architecture Uppsats: Heritagisation of Built Environments : A Study of the Urban Transformation in Kiruna, Sweden Examinator: Professor Kristina L Nilsson, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Diskutant: Teknisk doktor Krister Olsson, Riksantikvarieämbetet, Stockholm Tid: Måndag den 27 maj 2013 kl 13.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

An unknown entity rose out of the war in Syria – Rojava. As the world's attention fixated on the Kurds' fight against ISIS, their revolution began to restructure society along democratic confederalist ideals. The built environment, therefore, had to follow suite. KKH research conducted in northern Syria examined the politics of space in society-building and revolution, and explored the rise and fall of the Commune, architecture's role in state-building, as well as memory and destruction. The multimedia project is an intersection, both in the methodology and its outcomes, between journalism, architectural research, and storytelling. ; AUTHORBenas GerdžiūnasEDITING SUPPORTJonathan Brown and Justinas ŠuliokasDESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATIONRokas Anisas The project does not aim to be a comprehensive account of the revolution, and many of the key contextual factors – such as the PKK and other 20th century Kurdish movements – are barely touched upon. The crucial women's rights movement and other socioeconomic accomplishments in Rojava, such as the incorporation of ethnic minorities into the decision-making apparatus, as well as economic and educational advances, also deserve to be explored in more detail. Since 2015, I've been reading and collecting material on Rojava's revolution from mostly secondary sources. Since 2018, I've held interviews with Kurdish diaspora representatives in Europe, including, but not limited to, PYD and the Kurdish National Council representatives in Brussels. The research trip in Rojava lasted from October 26 to November 22, 2018, and was partly funded by a research grant from the Stockholm Royal Institute of Art. I was dependent on translators, although, I chose them based on recommendations from other colleagues in an attempt to find impartial people. Kobane was chosen as the main point of investigation due to its symbolic role in the fight against ISIS and its importance in the opening stages of the revolution. However, the situation varies dramatically across the SDC, especially in the Arab-dominated provinces. During the course of the investigation, I spoke to more than 40 activists and representatives from all tiers of self-administration, as well as the military. Many more local people were also kind enough to share their stories, opinions and experiences with me. Due to the aforementioned limitations, this work does not intend to be an in-depth look at the Rojava revolution as a whole, but is merely an attempt to critically examine some aspects of what happened to this ambitious project and its revolutionary communes.

Robotter vil om få år blive en del af vores daglige liv. Inden for produktionsindustrien har det allerede være tilfældet i mange år, men anvendelsen af mobile robotter har hidtil været henvist til isolerede områder som græsslåning, overvågning, landbrugsproduktion og militære funktioner. Fremskridt i forskningen gør, at robotter vil kunne assistere os i mange af vore daglige gøremål i en ikke så fjern fremtid. En af de teknologier, der skal gøre dette muligt, er navigation, og navigation er emnet for denne afhandling. Navigation for autonome robotter handler om robottens evne til autonomt at manøvrere fra den nuværende position til et ønsket bestemmelsessted. Denne afhandling præsenterer og validerer eksperimentelt løsninger til detektering af farbar vej, omgåelse af forhindringer og gennemførelse af missioner. Vejklassifikationen er baseret på laserscanner-målinger og assisteret med vision for længere rækkevidde. Vejklassifikationen er tilstrækkelig selektiv til at kunne adskille selv flade vejrabatter fra selve vejen og kan isolere asfaltveje fra grusveje. Vejgenkendelse ud fra kamerabilleder tager udgangspunkt i klassifikationen fra laserscanneren og bruger en kombination af farve og kantdetektering til at estimere farbar vej på længere afstande. Resultatet af disse to sensorer anvendes under planlægning af en farbar rute, og her er det især robottens evne til at følge vejens kanter, der er undersøgt. Navigationen i en mission er styret af et sekventielt manuskript. Manuskriptsproget giver mulighed for detektering af vejkryds, for beregninger til brug under passagen af disse kryds og til valg a styringsmetode i øvrigt. Det samlede system er testet på en kombination af asfalt- og grusveje, med et antal forgreninger og vejkryds. Missioner på op til 3km længde er gennemkørt autonomt med det beskrevne system. Fokus i afhandlingen har været den eksperimentelle validering af de implementerede metoder og metodernes evne til at løse problemer i en virkelig verden. Der skal en betydelig mængde software til for at styre en autonom robot, emner som software genbrug og distribueret udvikling er derfor essentielle. Denne afhandling beskriver yderligere en komponentbaseret arkitektur for robotter, som kan fremme software genbrug og distribueret udvikling og vedligeholdelse. ; Abstract Robots will soon take part in everyone's daily life. In industrial production this has been the case for many years, but up to now the use of mobile robots has been limited to a few and isolated applications like lawn mowing, surveillance, agricultural production and military applications. The research is now progressing towards autonomous robots which will be able to assist us in our daily life. One of the enabling technologies is navigation, and navigation is the subject of this thesis. Navigation of an autonomous robot is concerned with the ability of the robot to direct itself from the current position to a desired destination. This thesis presents and experimentally validates solutions for road classification, obstacle avoidance and mission execution. The road classification is based on laser scanner measurements and supported at longer ranges by vision. The road classification is sufficiently sensitive to separate the road from flat roadsides, and to distinguish asphalt roads from gravelled roads. The vision-based road detection uses a combination of chromaticity and edge detection to outline the traversable part of the road based on a laser scanner classified sample area. The perception of these two sensors are utilised by a path planner to allow a number of drive modes, and especially the ability to follow road edges are investigated. The navigation mission is controlled by a script language. The navigation script controls route sequencing, junction detection, junction crossing calculations and drive mode selection. The entire system is tested on a combination of narrow asphalt and gravelled roads connected by a number of junctions. Missions of up to 3km in length have been successfully completed using the described system. The main focus of the thesis has been the experimental validation of the implemented solutions and the ability of the methods to solve real world problems. The amount of software needed by an autonomous robot can be overwhelming. Software reuse and distributed development are therefore important issues. The thesis describes a new component architecture for robotics software that promotes software reuse and distributed development and maintenance.

"Riksäpplet deals with a shipwreck that has a neglected position in the grand narrative of the history of the Swedish navy. The story of its destiny and the missing accounts in scholarly and popular works in history says something about heritage processes within Swedish maritime archaeology. On 5 June 1676 Riksäpplet came loose and adrift from its moorings outside Dalarö Sea fortress. The hull struck a rock and sank. The loss was considered both ignominious and embarrassing and the ship's fate has been overlooked in all major history books. The rock onto which Riksäpplet sank was named 'Äpplet' after the incident, and the wreck itself has become an integrated component of the underwater seascape. As a consequence the wreckage has never enjoyed a proper 'discovery' or undergone documentation under the sensational forms that many other famous shipwrecks have, even though they have sunk in more inconvenient places.
In Eriksson's study the official handling of Riksäpplet's wrecked body is compared to the more wellknown ships Kronan and Svärdet, which both sank during battle only days before. Eriksson draws on different motifs and driving forces behind the study of naval wrecks from the period from his comparison, and the differences are discussed. Riksäpplet has never achieved a prominent position with the romanticising works of history that honour the national heroes and their deeds which are associated with this era of the Swedish Empire. The first half of the book thus sets out to unpack the ideas that have led to the relative disinterest in Riksäpplet in comparison to other shipwrecks.
The second half of the book sets out to analyse Riksäpplet from a specific archaeological perspective, with focus on the ship as material culture. Eriksson's departure is to explore the relatively low budget fieldwork that has been done at the wreck site. He the combines those facts with a survey of the artefacts recovered from the wreck, of which all are kept in museum archives and private collections. This, in addition to his studies of preserved written correspondence concerning the construction of the ship, has brought new insights into seventeenth-century shipbuilding and how the balance between the global political superpowers affected this trade. In this context Riksäpplet has great potential to show how military alliances are materialized through ships' architecture. - Riksäpplet: Arkeologiska perspektiv på ett bortglömt regalskepp handlar om kulturarvsprocesser inom svensk marinarkeologi. Men boken handlar också om ett skeppsvrak som hamnat en hårsmån utanför den stora vedertagna sjökrigshistoriska berättelsen: regalskeppet Riksäpplet. Den 5 juni 1676 slet sig Riksäpplet från förtöjningarna vid Dalarö skans. Skrovet högg i en klippa och sjönk. Förlisningen kom att betraktas som både snöplig och pinsam och har i efterhand kommit att förtigas i historieböckerna. Klippan bär idag namnet Äpplet och vraket har kommit att bli en integrerad och självklar del av landskapet. Som en konsekvens av detta har vraket inte kunnat påträffas och dokumenteras under de sensationella former som gällt för andra välkända skeppsvrak trots att de förlist på mer otillgängliga platser.
I boken jämförs hanteringen av Riksäpplets vrak med de mer välkända regalskeppen Kronan och Svärdet, vilka gick under i strid fem dagar före Riksäpplets förlisning. Utifrån jämförelsen diskuterar Eriksson motiv och drivkrafter som legat till grund för studiet av vrak efter svenska örlogsfartyg från stormaktstiden. Riksäpplet har inte kunnat erövra någon framträdande roll i den romantiserande historieskrivning som lyfter fram nationens hjältar och deras stordåd. Boken första hälft syftar till att synliggöra de mekanismer och drivkrafter som ligger bakom att Riksäpplet prioriterats bort till förmån för undersökningar av andra vrak.
Bokens andra hälft ägnas åt att fokusera på ett nytt, mer renodlat arkeologiskt perspektiv på skeppet som materiell kultur. Erikssons utgångspunkt är ett till resurserna tämligen begränsat arkeologiskt fältarbete på vrakplatsen som ändå har genererat stora resultat. Han kombinerar detta med en genomgång av de föremål som genom åren har bärgats från vraket och som finns arkiverade i olika museimagasin och hos privata samlare. Tillsammans med bevarad skriftlig korrespondens kring skeppets byggande väcks nya insikter om 1600-talets skeppsbyggeri och hur detta kunde påverkas av den globala politiska maktbalansen över världshaven. Satt i en sådan kontext har Riksäpplet stor potential att visa hur stormaktens militärallianser materialiserades genom skeppens arkitektur. "

This dissertation explores media practices in and of refugee camps. In the wake of forced migration becoming ever more digitized both in its experiences and its governance, this thesis historicizes media practices in refugee camps as a space of the refugee regime. In various historical contexts in Germany after 1945, this study analyses archival material in order to trace media practices in the making of refugee camps' space, time, and politics, and thereby provides historical insights into circularities, ruptures, and continuities of media practices and their entanglement with being and being made a refugee. Refugee camps spatialize the modern "refugee regime" (Betts, 2010) as a hegemonic mode of governing forced migration. Being paradoxical tools of both shelter and humanitarian relief and at the same time segregation and exclusion, refugee camps are "heterotopian and heterochronic spaces" (Foucault, 1967/1997): othered, paradoxical spaces and times, simultaneously inside and outside of society, a temporary limbo, withholding outcasts from nation-based, bordered societies while at the same time constituting these very societies. The holistic concept of media practices (Couldry, 2004) describes how social practices of mediation and communication enable, shape, and condition socialities and materialities of the refugee camp: media as enabling environments, technologies, and techniques (Peters, 2015) construct, negotiate, and make the camp's heterotopian and heterochronic condition. By way of media practices, camp residents, staff and authorities, NGOs and governments as well as activists, establish, maintain or alter the social relations of the camp heterotopia and heterochronia. Relating to the space, time, and politics of the camp, these media practices are conceptualized as heterotopian, heterochronic and heteropolitical media practices, which shape and negotiate the differentiation, other-ness and paradoxical inclusions and exclusions from time and space, which refugee camps thrive on. Archival records from the post-war period of ca. 1945 to 1960, and the 1980s and 1990s, provide traces of historical media practices from camp residents, authorities within the refugee regime, and activists and other communities. Three analytical chapters explore heterotopian, heterochronic and heteropolitical media practices. Firstly, heterotopian camp space is produced, governed and controlled through media practices around media infrastructure, such as architecture, media-technological equipment, and administrative practices. Secondly, refugee camps are heterochronic limbos with multiple ruptured temporalities that are managed through media practices of memory and witnessing. Thirdly, heteropolitical media practices are forms of altering and challenging the othering politics of the camp space and camp time through forms of resistance and protest. This thesis re-evaluates historical media practices in and of the refugee camp from the perspective of the digitized refugee regime and experience, and showcases trajectories of media practices that (regardless of media technological environment) have been employed in projects of negotiating and coping with being and being made a refugee. This thesis thereby challenges a rhetoric of newness around digital technologies and contributes theoretically, epistemologically, and empirically to the study of media and migration. By pointing out the complicitness and existentiality of media practices in making, differentiating, and relating space, time, and politics in bordered states, the thesis ultimately argues for an approach to media studies from the margins to help understand how seemingly peripheral spaces mirror and co-construct media practices in society more generally. ; Denna avhandling utforskar mediepraktiker i och som flyktingläger. I kölvattnet av en allt mer digitaliserad tvångsmigration, dess reglering och de erfarenheter den ger upphov till, avser denna avhandling att historisera mediepraktiker i flyktingläger. Studien analyserar arkivmaterial ur olika historiska kontexter i Tyskland efter 1945, för att spåra mediepraktikers roll i skapandet av flyktinglägrens tid, rum och politik. Därmed ger avhandlingen en historisk inblick i mediepraktikers cirkulering, avbrott och kontinuitet och på vilket sätt de är en del av tillståndet av att vara och bli gjord till flykting. Flyktingläger förrumsligar den moderna "flyktingregimen" (Betts, 2010) som ett hegemoniskt sätt att styra och reglera tvångsmigration. Flyktingläger är paradoxala verktyg som ger skydd och humanitär hjälp samtidigt som de segregerar och stänger ute. Därför är flyktingläger att betrakta som "heterotopiska och heterokroniska rum" (Focault, 1967/1997). De är "det andra", motsägelsefulla i tid och rum, på samma gång innanför och utanför samhället; en tillfällig limbo som håller kvar de som blivit utestängda från nationalstaternas avgränsade samhällen samtidigt som de på samma gång skapar och bekräftar dessa samhällen. Teoretiskt utgår avhandlingen ifrån mediepraktiker, ett holistiskt begrepp som utgår ifrån mediering och kommunikation som sociala praktiker (Couldry 2004), som möjliggör, formar och upprätthåller flyktinglägret både socialt och materiellt. Den utgår också från medier som möjliggörande miljöer, tekniker och teknologier (Peters, 2015) som konstruerar, förhandlar och skapar lägrets heterotopiska och heterokroniska tillstånd. Mediepraktiker hos lägerboende, personal, myndigheter, organisationer och aktivister etablerar, underhåller och alternerar de sociala relationer som utgör flyktinglägret som heterotopi och heterokroni. Genom att relatera dessa praktiker till lägrets tid, rum och politik, konceptualiseras flyktinglägrets mediepraktiker som heterotopiska, heterokroniska och heteropolitiska mediepraktiker, som formar och förhandlar den differentiering, annan-het och de motsägelsefulla in- och exkluderingar i tid och rum som utgör flyktinglägrets förutsättningar. Arkivmaterial har samlats in från tiden omkring 1945 till 1960 samt från 1980- och 1990-talet. Materialet har samlats in från institutionella arkiv samt community-arkiv som tillhandahåller spår av historiska mediepraktiker från lägerboende och myndigheter, liksom från aktivister och andra gemenskaper och organisationer. Tre analyskapitel utforskar heterotopiska, heterokroniska och heteropolitiska mediepraktiker i flyktingläger i Tyskland efter 1945. Analysen visar för det första att heterotopiskt lägerutrymme produceras, regleras och kontrolleras genom mediepraktiker som rör medieinfrastruktur, till exempel arkitektur, medieteknisk utrustning och administration. För det andra är flyktinglägret ett heterokroniskt limbo med avbrutna temporaliteter, som hanteras genom mediepraktiker som minne och vittesmål. För det tredje innebär heteropolitiska mediepraktiker, i former av motstånd och protester, en möjlig förändring och utmaning av den politik som konstitutionerar lägret som "det andra". Denna avhandling omvärderar historiska mediepraktiker i och som flyktingläger, med utgångspunkt i en digitaliserad flyktingregim och de erfarenheter den ger upphov till. Avhandlingen visar på genealogier av mediepraktiker som, oavsett medieteknologisk miljö, har använts i olika situationer för att förhandla och hantera ett tillstånd av att vara och att göras till flykting. Därmed utmanar avhandlingen den retorik som framställer digitala teknologier som nya, och bidrar teoretiskt, empiriskt och epistemologiskt till fältet för medie- och migrationsstudier. Genom att peka på mediepraktikers roll i skapandet, särskiljningen och sammanbindningen av tid, rum och politik i gränsbaserade stater, argumenterar avhandlingen för en medievetenskap från marginalerna för att bidra till en förståelse för hur till synes perifera platser speglar och med-konstruerar mediepraktiker i samhället i stort.

Klimaforandring er et enormt problem for styring, koordinering og incitamentskabelse. For at nå vores klimamål kræver det et langvarigt samarbejde mellem mennesker. Dette omfatter en lang række styringsniveauer, der spænder fra ikke-statslige, subnationale, nationale og internationale aktører. Parisaftalen, den første multilaterale miljøaftale, bygger på en bottom-up og decentral koordinering mellem alle disse aktører. Denne decentraliserede styringstilgang muliggjorde gennembruddet i klimaforhandlingerne men udgør også en enorm ledelses- og styringsudfordring. Tidligere klimastyringssystemer, såsom Kyoto-protokollens mekanismer, var alle centralt koordineret og førte til fragmenterede og ensartede systemdesigns. For at muliggøre en effektiv koordinering af klimaindsatsen på tværs af styringsniveauerne skal disse systemer bindes sammen for at eliminere informationsasymmetri samt skabe gennemsigtighed og tillid. I denne sammenhæng nævnes blockchain ofte som en lovende teknologi. Dog er blockchain stadig en ny og ofte misforstået teknologi der skaber både hype og antagonisme. Denne afhandling har til formål at analysere denne teknologi baseret på en systematisk tilgang til at forstå hvad den kunne bruges til og hvor den ikke bør anvendes. Afhandlingen fokuserer på anvendelsesmuligheder inden for rammerne af Parisaftalen, navnligt CO2-markedsmekanismer og energieffektivitet. En detaljeret forståelse af de specifikke anvendelsesbetingelser er bydende nødvendigt, da blockchain med rette kritiseres for at være en teknologi på jagt efter efter anvendelse. Derfor skal betingelserne for at anvende en blockchain-løsning være stærkt begrundede, da teknologien medfører betydelige afvejninger sammenlignet med konventionelle databasesystemer. Teknologien bør kun anvendes hvis blockchain er den eneste løsning til at udvikle nye økonomiske- eller styringsmodeller, eller som minimum føre til en betydelig forbedring i forbindelse med automatisering og transaktionseffektivitet. For at foretage denne systematiske vurdering fremfører denne afhandling nogle kriterier og en beslutningsramme for at evaluere om det er gavnligt at anvende blockchain-teknologien, og i så fald, hvilken type blockchain er mest nyttig. Dernæst trækker afhandlingen denne beslutningsramme ud over de forskellige anvendelser inden for kulstofmarkeder og energieffektivitet. På baggrund af denne evaluering fastslås det at anvendelse af blockchain-teknologien på disse brugstilfælde er nyttig. Analysen viser også at valget af blockchain-design, eksempelvis i forhold til de gavnlige teknologiske egenskaber og styringstyper, varierer væsentligt. Der er således ikke tale om en ensartet blockchain der "passer til alt", men derimod at den pågældende anvendelse i hvert enkelt tilfælde resulterer i et særskilt blockchain-design. Efter at have bekræftet brugsrelevansen for blockchain ved brugstilfælde inden for rammerne af Parisaftalen, kom spørgsmålet om "hvordan denne teknologi kan bruges til at skabe reel forandring og fremskynde koordineringen af klimahandlinger?" Parisaftalen består af et betydeligt antal aktører med vidt forskelligartede kapaciteter og interesser. Disse kapaciter spænder fra aktører med et stort fravær af teknologisk eller organisatorisk parathed til at kunne gennemføre klimaregnskaber samt inddrage blockchain-teknologi, over til aktører med meget avancerede handlemuligheder. Som følge deraf udviser aktører også forskellighed i deres åbenhed over for forandring, alt fra en parathed til at tage tigerspring ind i nye teknologier, og i den anden ende en teknologisk fastlåshed og stiafhængighed. På samme måde varierer interesserne og de økonomiske incitamenter blandt aktørerne meget. Denne heterogenitet blandt aktørerne er allerede evident på den politiske forhandlingsscene, hvor nationale parter hidtil ikke har kunnet nå til enighed omkring regelbogen for de nye mekanismer for kulstofmarkedet (Artikel 6). I dette heterogene og politiske miljø ville anvendelse af en blockchain-applikation være gavnlig, men vedtagelsen og innovationen kompliceres af de mange forskellige aktørers kapacitet og interesser. Blockchain er en teknologi der formes af det miljø, hvor det anvendes, og derefter fungerer som en platform der muliggør ledelse af det pågældende miljø. Disse indbyrdes afhængigheder mellem blockchainen og dets adoptionsmiljø afføder nye teoretiske overvejelser for adoption og innovation af blockchain-teknologien. På trods af disse kompleksiteter og usikkerheder er det nødvendigt at indtænke blockchain-teknologien til at fremskynde og muliggøre en accelereret klimahandling. Vi befinder os i en afgørende tid hvor de nuværende konventionelle systemer og teknologier ikke er i stand til at levere den nødvendige koordinering til at opnå vores klimamål. Vi er i gang med at skabe fremtidens systemer og arkitekturer; post-2020-systemerne. Dette giver os mulighed for at overgå fra manuelle og analoge processer til automatiserede og digitale designs, aktiveret af nye teknologier, såsom blockchain-teknologien. ; Climate change is an enormous governance, coordination and incentive challenge. To achieve our climate goals, a multitude of governance levels, ranging from non-state, to sub-national, to national and to international actors need to collaborate over a long-time period. The Paris Agreement, as the first multilateral environmental agreement, is built on bottom-up and decentralized coordination among all of these actors. This decentralized governance approach enabled the breakthrough in climate negotiations but also posed an immense governance challenge. Previous climate governance systems, such as the Kyoto Protocol mechanisms, were all centrally coordinated and led to the establishment of fragmented and heterogeneous system designs. To enable the effective coordination of climate action through governance, these systems need to be connected to eliminate information asymmetry and create transparency and trust. In this context, blockchain is frequently mentioned as a promising technology. However, blockchain is still a new and often misunderstood technology, causing both hype and antagonism. This thesis analyses this technology based on a systematic approach to understanding what it could and what it shouldn't be used for. The thesis focuses on use cases inside the Paris Agreement, namely carbon market mechanisms and energy efficiency. A detailed understanding of the specific case requirements is critical as blockchain is rightfully criticised as a technology in search of use cases. Accordingly, the case requirements need to provide a strong justification for a blockchain application as the technology comes with significant trade-offs compared to conventional database systems. Only if blockchain is the sole technological solution to develop novel economic or governance models or significantly improves automation and transaction efficiency should it be applied. For this systematic assessment, the thesis develops criteria and a decision framework to evaluate if a blockchain application is beneficial and, if so, what type of blockchain is most feasible. As a next step, the thesis applies this framework to the different carbon market and energy cases. This evaluation establishes that a blockchain application towards these cases is suitable. In addition, the analysis demonstrates that the blockchain design, e.g. in terms of beneficial technological features and governance type, vary substantially. Hence, there is no uniform blockchain that "suits all", but each case requirement results in a distinct blockchain design. After confirming the relevance of blockchain for cases inside the Paris Agreement, the question became, "how can this technology be used to have an actual impact and accelerate climate action coordination?" The Paris Agreement consists of a vast number of actors with very different capacities and interests. Such capacities range from almost no technological or organisational capacities to conduct climate accounting and adopt blockchain technology to very advanced actors. Consequently, actors also show diverse attitudes manifesting in openness to leapfrog into new technologies or technology lock-in and path-dependence. Similarly, the interests and economic incentives among actors vary widely. This actor heterogeneity was already expressed at the political and negotiation stage, where national Parties could thus far not agree on the rulebook for the new carbon market mechanisms (Article 6). A blockchain application would be beneficial in this heterogeneous and political environment, but its adoption and innovation is complicated by the diverse range of actors' capacities and interests. Blockchain is a technology that is shaped by its application environment and then acts as a platform to enable governance of that environment — these blockchain inherent interdependencies with its adoption environment present novel theoretical considerations for blockchain adoption and innovation. Despite these complexities and uncertainties, blockchain needs to be considered to enable and accelerate climate action. We are at a crucial time where the established legacy systems and technologies are insufficient to provide the coordination needed to achieve our climate goals. We are currently designing the systems and architectures of the future, the post-2020 systems. This allows the transition from manual and analogue processes into automated and digital designs, enabled by emerging technologies, such as blockchain.

Den digitale sky gennemsyrer det daglige liv. 3,6 milliarder brugere føder den 174 $ millionindustri som udgør 3% af det globale energiforbrug. Afhandlingen undersøger metaforen og de datacentre som det er tegn på for at afsløre skyens midlertidighed, rumlighed og materialitet fra et arkitektonisk perspektiv. Ved at skabe analogier med skyvariationer – meteorologiske, fiktive og nedfalds-skyer – søger undersøgelsen at afdække hvad sky-metaforen afslører om digitale arkiver. På trods af den (digitale) skys omfattende tilstedeværelse i beslægtede fagområder, har den stadig ikke etableret en teoretisk ramme i arkitektur. Gennem "planetary imaginary" viser jeg at digitale arkiver legemliggør det meteorologiske modus: som meteorlogiske skyer er de ekstremt responsive og opdaterer konstant deres animerede mobile data, styret af en arkiveringsimpuls til at opdatere. Del I undersøger geologiske konsekvenser af datacentre, skyens fysiske rygrad, da servere er lavet af materialer udvundet af jorden: metaller, mineraler, sjældne jordarter (Parikka). Da geologi var en ung videnskab defineredes planeten som et arkiv. I dialog med en række tænkere (Ruskin, Smithson, Ernst, Leopold, Bjornerud, Cohen, Deleuze og Guattari) udvikler jeg den geologiske modus – en tidslig, materiel og rumlig metode der legemliggør jordens/terrænets logik. Det guider min analyse af tre casestudier. Først Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. Det arkiverer sedimentkerner udtaget af fra havbunden, der indeholder geofysiske og miljø historier legemliggjort i fossiler. Med Meillassoux undersøger jeg de store tidslige horisonter i det før animerede stof. For yderligere at vurdere terrænets tidsligheder, vender jeg mig mod stor-skala mindesmærket Il Grande Cretto (1984–2015) af kunstneren Alberto Burri. Det arkiverer geologisk materiale der engang udgjorde Gibellina´s byggede struktur, før det blev ødelagt af jordskælv. I tråd med planetens immanente bevægelse (Nigel Clark), affekt teori (Sara Ahmed og Lauren Berlant) og kunsthistoriske referencer, forstår jeg Cretto som Burri's forsøg på at skabe et ophold, en pause i de vedvarende geologiske aktiviteter. Den geologiske modus frembringer arkiver der uafbrudt opdaterer deres indhold. Denne modus er legemliggjort i Nordeas hovedkvarters datacenter af Henning Larsen, 2017. Datacentre tæmmer det geologiske stofs kapacitet til at arkivere. Deres indgroede hemmelighedsfuldhed modstandsdygtighed og redundans inviterer den arkitektoniske sammenligning til bunkeren (Virilio, Hu). Bunkeren er som en modvægt overfor den omfattende infrastruktur som datacentrerne ikke kan isoleres fra (Koolhaas, Easterling). I Del II med datacentrers faste men aktive (geologiske) terræn som baggrund, har jeg vendt mig mod skyen og den meteorologiske modus. Begyndende med den filosofiske kontekst af skyen og dets skyer som medie (Durham Peters) beskriver jeg de meteorologiske skyers drivgas som datapunktskyer, der bogstaveligt lagrer og overfører information. Som data i den digitale sky, komponerer den konstant foranderlige og omskiftelige drivgas stadigt nye forbindelser og sammenstillinger. Med reference til tidlig "computing" (Babbage) taler jeg for meteorologiske skyer som analoge computere. For en arkitektonisk konstellation af vejr og "computing" vender jeg mig mod meteorologen Richardsons spekulative Forecast Factory (1922) – en kombination af en sky og en klode, designet til at beregne og arkivere planetens vejr. Jeg vender mig mod den arkiveringshistorie som har påvirket skymetaforen. Eksemplet med en tidlig databank foreslået af den amerikanske regering i 1966, afslører hvordan det kybernetiske arkiv i kombination med den kolde krigs konstante tilstedeværelse af radioaktivitet, gav næring til arkiv- og netværk- feber, kulminerede afslutningsvis i vores digitale sky. Udlicitering af ubevidste kognitive processer (Hayles) til "technical beings", er et forsøg på at dæmpe disse febertilstande. Jeg kobler den digitale skys domæne af ubevidstes "mschine learning" og big-data med forestillingen om et "great outdoors" (Meillassoux, Bennett). Kunstige skyer medierer det utilgængelige. Arkitektoniske eksempler fra 1960-erne (Wright, Ant Farm) aktualiserer skymediatoren i en tid hvor det globale, øjeblikkelig kommunikation og rumrejser spirede. Den digitale sky udgør et eksteriørt og fysisk utilgængeligt domæne der paradoksalt nok er fyldt med intime og identitet-definerende information om dets eksternaliserede brugere. Den digitale sky er mere end en metafor: den artikulerer, stadig mere gennemtrængende, tærsklens rumlighed, af kroppe uden overflader, af medie som rum, af vores byggede verden udvidet til det uhåndgribelige – kort sagt et "great outdoors". ; The digital cloud permeates daily life. The $174 billion industry is fuelled by 3.6 billion users and constitutes three per cent of global energy consumption. This thesis examines the cloud metaphor and the data centres it denotes to reveal the cloud's temporality, spatiality and materiality from an architectural perspective. By creating analogies with cloud variations—meteorological, fictional and artificial clouds—the research seeks to uncover what the metaphor discloses about digital archives. Despite the (digital) cloud's ample presence in adjacent fields, a theoretical framework for it has yet to be established in architecture. Tapping into the planetary imaginary, I show that digital archives embody the meteorological mode: like meteorological clouds, they are extremely responsive and governed by an archival impulse to continuously update their animated, mobile data. Part I addresses the geological implications of data centres, the physical backbone of the cloud, as servers are made of materials extracted from the ground: metals, minerals, rare earth elements (Parikka). The beginnings of geology as a science (Hutton, Lyell) defined the planet as an archive. In dialogue with a variety of thinkers (Ruskin, Smithson, Ernst, Leopold, Bjornerud, Cohen, Deleuze and Guattari), I develop the geological mode—a temporal, material and spatial method that embodies the logic of the ground. It guides my analysis of three case studies. The first is the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, New York. This archives sediment cores, extracted from ocean floors, which contain geophysical and environmental histories embodied in fossils. Thinking with Meillassoux, I explore the vast temporal horizons stored in the formerly animated matter. To further gauge the ground's temporalities, I turn to the large-scale memorial Il Grande Cretto (1984–2015) by artist Alberto Burri. It archives geological matter that used to constitute the built fabric of Gibellina before the latter was destroyed in an earthquake. In line with the planet's intrinsic movement (Clark), affect theory (Ahmed, Berlant) and art-historical references, I understand Il Grande Cretto as Burri's attempt to suspend persistent geological activities. The geological mode engenders archives that incessantly update their content. This mode is embodied in Henning Larsen's Nordea Bank headquarters data centre (2017). Data centres harness the archival capacities of geological matter. Their ingrained secrecy, resilience and redundancy invite architectural comparison to the bunker (Virilio, Hu). The bunker is positioned in tension with vast infrastructure networks from which data centres cannot be isolated (Koolhaas, Easterling). In Part 2, against the backdrop of the firm but active (geological) ground of data centres, I turn to the cloud and the meteorological mode. Beginning with the philosophical context of the sky and its clouds as media (Durham Peters), I describe meteorological clouds' aerosols as data points that literally store and transmit information. Like data in the digital cloud, the continuously transforming and shifting aerosols compose ever- new adjacencies and juxtapositions. Referring to early computing (Babbage), I postulate meteorological clouds as analogue computers. For an architectural constellation of weather and computing, I turn to meteorologist Richardson's speculative Forecast Factory (1922)—a combination of a cloud and a globe, designed to compute and archive the planet's weather. I then turn to the archiving history that has affected the cloud metaphor. The example of an early databank proposed by the American government in 1966 reveals how the cybernetic archive, in combination with the constant presence of radioactivity during the Cold War, fuelled archive (Derrida) and network fever (Wigley), finally culminating in our digital cloud. The outsourcing of nonconscious cognitive processes (Hayles) to technical beings is an attempt to cool these fevers. I pair the digital cloud's nonconscious realm of machine learning and Big Data with the notion of a great outdoors (Meillassoux, Bennett). Artificial clouds mediate the inaccessible. Architectural examples during the 1960s (Wright, Ant Farm) actualised the cloud mediator at a time of budding instant global communication and space travel. The digital cloud thus constitutes an exterior, a physically inaccessible realm that is paradoxically filled with intimate and identity-defining information about its externalised users. The digital cloud is more than a metaphor: it articulates an increasingly pervasive spatiality of the threshold, of bodies without surfaces, of space as media, of our built world extended into the intangible—in short, a great outdoors.

En stigende efterspørgsel efter satellitbaserede kørselsafgiftssystemer er på vej i Europa. Satellitbaserede kørselsafgifter omfatter opkrævning af trafikanterne for deres vejforbrug ved at at lade køretøjerne bestemme deres position indenfor et givent afgiftsområde ved hjælp af Global Navigation Satellit Systemer (GNSS). Den forskning, der præsenteres i denne afhandling, beskæftiger sig med performanceniveauet samt de teknologiske udfordringer ved bestemmelse af køretøjets placering inden for GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer. GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer kan antage en række forskellige former. Afhængigt af systemets formål kan disse kørselsafgiftssystemer være udformet på forskellig vis og varieret efter både politiske og teknologiske hensyn, men de har alle til formål at taksere trafikanterne for deres brug af vejnettet. Den første del af afhandlingen præsenterer en omfattende oversigt og klassificering af forskellige former for kørselsafgiftssystemer samt mulige teknologier, suppleret med en gennemgang af forskellige eksisterende systemer. Efterfølgende defineres det grundlæggende kørselsafgiftssystem og dette sættes ind i en begrebsramme, der danner grundlag for forskningen præsenteret i denne afhandling. For at forstå GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemers struktur og virkemåde er det vigtigt at fremhæve den overordnede systemarkitektur og definere de væsentlige funktioner samt beskrive forholdet mellem dem. Arkitekturen er brugt som et middel til at strukturere diskussionen om de teknologiske udfordringer i GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer. Afhandlingen diskuterer de overordnede krav til afgiftsprocessens ydeevne indenfor GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer. GNSS muliggør kilometer-baseret afgiftsopkrævning, hvor afgifterne beregnes for hvert enkelt køretøj baseret på den kørte afstand, tidspunktet for turen samt bilens geografiske position. Kilometerbaseret afgiftsopkrævning betragtes derfor som en mere retfærdig og effektiv form for afgiftsopkrævning, da disse systemer opkræver afgiften i forhold til den tilbagelagte afstand, og afspejler dermed den forbrugsbaserede tilgang mere præcist end andre afgiftsopkrævningspolitikker. Men kørselsafgifter på grundlag af den tilbagelagte afstand er teknisk udfordrende og betragtes ofte som en af de mest komplekse ordninger. Fastsættelsen af den faktisk kørte distance er den centrale del af afgiftsopkrævningen, og de vigtigste betænkeligheder omkring pålideligheden vedrører derfor denne del af afgiftsprocessen samt resultaterne af køretøjets lokaliseringsfunktion. Denne afhandling præsenterer endvidere en grundig gennemgang af de forskellige GNSS-baserede forsøg og eksperimenter, der er udført inden for de seneste år, for at vurdere resultater og muligheder ved brug af GNSS-baserede afgiftssystemer. I 2007–2009 blev et teknisk forsøg med et GNSS-baseret kørselsafgiftssystem udført i København som en del af denne forskning i samarbejde med Siemens. Forsøget blev udført for at vurdere resultater og tekniske udfordringer ved GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer baseret på den nyeste kørselsafgiftsteknologi. Denne afhandling præsenterer det udførte eksperiment og giver en vurdering af køretøjets lokaliseringsfunktion inden for GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer. Tidligere forsøg og vurderinger af ydeevnen af GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer har generelt fokuseret på mulighederne i afgiftssystemerne i stedet for begrænsningerne. Ofte har det ikke været klart beskrevet, hvilke fejl og mangler der eksisterede i de indsamlede data, men i stedet er de blot blevet udelukket som ugyldige data forud for de foretagne vurderinger, som derefter konkluderede, at mere fokus bør lægges på de fundne fejl. Derfor har det været bevidst i denne ph.d.-forskning, ikke at udelukke fejlagtige og forkerte data i vurderingen af ydeevnen. Resultaterne der er præsenteret i denne afhandling er baseret på alle de indsamlede data fra forsøget, i sin oprindelige form, som det ville være input til den automatiserede afgiftsberegningsproces i et kørselsafgiftssystem. Endvidere er der udviklet nye metoder til vurdering af køretøjets lokaliseringsfunktion i form af datapålidelighed og lokaliseringsfunktionens performance. Resultaterne af vurderingerne foretaget i denne afhandlingen viser, at selvom betydelige performanceforbedringer er sket i løbet af de sidste fem år, er der væsentlige udfordringer at overvinde i forbindelse med implementering og drift af GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer. Det tekniske forsøg i dette ph.d.-studie viste sig at lide under forskellige tekniske udfordringer, som havde forskellig indvirkning på den samlede systemp˚alidelighed. På grund af disse udfordringer, omfatter data både unøjagtige og ufuldstændige informationer, og det konkluderes derfor at med disse høje niveauer af datainvaliditet og -mangel, kan data ikke anvendes i sin nuværende form som grundlag for en afgiftsberegningsproces. Disse resultater understreger betydningen af at anvende en dataprocesseringsfunktionalitet før afgiftsberegningen og vejforbrugsbestemmelsen i afgiftsprocessen. Vurderingen af køretøjets lokaliseringsfunktion viser en signifikant forskel i den ønskede lok´aliseringsperformance. Mens nøjagtighedskravet delvist var opfyldt i København, led kontinuiteten og dermed tilgængeligheden nødvendig for bestemmelsen af køretøjets lokalitet af alvorlige udfald i positioneringsdata. Disse udfald skyldtes både satellitutilgængelighed, forårsaget af ringe signalmodtagelse i byområder og lang signalerhvervelsestid hos modtageren, og endvidere de forskellige tekniske problemer og konfigurationsfejl, der opstod under forsøget. Da både satellitsynligheden og positioneringsnøjagtigheden gennem de seneste år er forbedret markant, viser resultaterne at de største udfordringer i forbindelse med bestemmelse af køretøjets lokalitet ikke som ofte antaget, er positioneringsunøjagtigheder, men snarere et højt niveau af positioneringsafbrydelser hovedsageligt forårsaget af GPS. På baggrund af resultatvurderingen konkluderes det endvidere, at de væsentligste bekymringer vedrørende den manglende tilgængelighed til køretøjets lokaliseringsbestemmelse bør være, hvordan den lange systemnedetid og konfigurationsudfaldene kan fjernes samt hvordan forekomsten af de mange GPS-udfald kan reduceres. Da dataudfald og -svigt kan påvirke bestemmelsen af den kørte afstand i kontinuerlige afgiftssystemer, giver denne afhandling mulighed for at vurdere og forstå forskellige forekomster, bidrag og effekter af udfald i relation til GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer. I denne afhandling præsenteres en vurdering af distancebestemmelsens tolerance overfor disse forskellige positioneringsudfald. Vurderingen er foretaget på grundlag af en simuleringsmetode der er udviklet i denne afhandling. Metoden analyserer indflydelsen af positioneringsudfald i forhold til bestemmelsen af kørte kilometer i både distancebaserede og distancerelaterede kørselsafgiftssystemer. Udfaldstolerancen i afstandsbestemmelsen i begge typer afgiftssystemer er vigtig for kørselsafgiftssystemets evne til at opfylde kravene til ydeevne samt i forhold til at taksere brugerne korrekt for deres vejforbrug. Simuleringsanalyserne af indflydelsen af udfald på bestemmelsen af den kørte afstand viser at afstandsbestemmelsesfunktionen er forholdsvis robust over for småudfald på mindre end 10 sekunder i positioneringen. Men med flere mellemstore og store udfald i turene, har begge afstandsbestemmelsesmetoder svært ved med at reproducere den kørte afstand med afstandsafvigelser på mere end 1 % fra den sande værdi. Det vigtige ved disse resultater er, at den kørte afstand kan fastlægges med mindre end 1 % afvigelse for hovedparten af turene eftersom forekomsten af småudfald er hyppigst i de kørte ture. GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer anses for at være ansvarskritiske syste-mer, hvor nægtet service samt uopdagede fejl og mangler har betydelige retslige eller økonomiske negative konsekvenser. Fejl eller mangler, der fører til ukorrekt afgiftsopkrævning, kan forårsage økonomiske tab eller føre til forkerte juridiske afgørelser, idet det økonomiske ansvar er knyttet til de juridiske aspekter som følge af potentielle klager. Derfor introducerer denne ph.d.- afhandling anvendelsen af begrebet systempålidelighed i forbindelse med GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer. Begrebet systempålide lighed, som er tilpasset fra informationsteknologien, er en effektiv metode til håndtering af de forskellige betænkeligheder i forbindelse med kørselsafgiftssystemer inden for en fælles begrebsramme. Pålidelighed er en vigtig forudsætning for et GNSS-baseret kørselsafgiftssystem, som skal levere en retfærdig afgiftsopkrævning og sikre brugernes tillid ved at sikre systemets p˚alidelighed og ansvar. Denne afhandling diskuterer konsekvenserne af vurderingsresultaterne i forhold til systemets driftssikkerhed og præsenterer en kvalitativ risikomatrix for driftssikkerheden af køretøjets lokaliseringsfunktion. For at sikre afgiftsprocessen en høj driftssikkerhed, skal fejltolerant design derfor overvejes i forhold til de mange forskellige komponenter og funktioner der indgår i processen. Baseret på fejltolerante metoder, giver denne afhandling retningslinjer for hvordan man kan opretholde korrekt service ved tilstedeværelsen af forskellige fejl, der skyldes tekniske problemer i forbindelse med bestemmelse af køretøjets lokalitet. Hovedformålet med fejl-tolerant design inden for afgiftsprocessen er at sikre retfærdig taksering af brugerne. Det betyder, at redundante systemer, procedurer og komponenter bør indføres for at sikre, at når fejl og svigt forekommer inden for afgiftsprocessen vil kørselsafgiftsfundamentet stadig være pålideligt og give retfærdige resultater for både brugerne og kørselsafgiftssystemet. Denne afhandling konkluderer derfor, at selv om performanceniveauet for bestemmelsen af køretøjets lokalitet er fair, bør opmærksomheden omkring systemets performance rettes imod hvordan fremtidige GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftssystemer kan designes til at virke driftsikkert med forekomsten af både data invaliditet og datamangler. Det er derfor vigtigt at udvide fokus fra tekniske udfordringer og komponentunøjagtigheder alene til et fokus på pålideligheden af systemet som helhed. Der er dog stadig nogle teknologiske udfordringer at overvinde, som i højere grad elimineres ved bedre samarbejde på tværs af de mange forskellige involverede fagområder. Som med mange andre ITS-systemer, kan vellykket design, implementering og drift af et system kun opnås, når de mange forskellige interessenter forstår hinandens krav til systemet. Systemarkitekturen som konceptuelt design sammen med den systemteoretiske metode kan bidrage til at involvere alle de forskellige parter i systemudviklingen og dermed minimere de misforst˚aelser, der i sidste ende kan blive meget dyre for systemet. Baseret på de mange resultater af dette ph.d.-studie, er nogle generelle retningslinjer endeligt formuleret for fremtidige GNSSbaserede kørselsafgifts-systemer. De foreslåede retningslinjer, der er beskrevet i afhandlingen omfatter både GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftsforsøg i almindelighed og et fremtidigt GNSS-baserede kørselsafgiftsssystem i Danmark. ; An increasing demand for satellite-based road charging systems is developing in Europe. Satellite-based road charging involves charging road users for their road usage by allowing the vehicles to locate themselves within a certain charge area using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). The research presented in this thesis deals with the performance and technological challenges of vehicle location determination within GNSS-based road charging systems. GNSS-based road charging systems may take on a number of different forms. Depending on the charging objective, these road charging systems can be designed in various forms and varied by both policy and technology but they all share the overall function of charging vehicle users for their road usage. The first part of the thesis presents a comprehensive overview and classification of the various forms of road charging systems and enabling technologies; supplemented with a review of different worldwide examples. Next the system fundamentals are defined and presented in a conceptual framework which forms the basis for the research presented in this thesis. In order to understand the structure and behaviour of GNSS-based road charging systems, it is important to highlight the overall system architecture and define the essential system functions and describe the relationship among them. The framework is used as a means to structure the discussion about the technological challenges of GNSS-based road charging systems. The thesis discusses the overall performance requirements for the road charging process within GNSS-based road charging systems. GNSS allows for time-distance-place charging, where charges are calculated for each individual vehicle based on the distance driven, the time of the trip and the vehicle's geographic position. Timedistance- place charging is therefore considered a more fair and efficient way of charging as these systems levy charges proportionally to the distance travelled, and thereby reflects a usage-based approach more accurately than other charging policies. However, road charging on the basis of the distance travelled is technically challenging and is seen as one of the most complex schemes. Determining the distance driven is the key part of the charging process and the main dependability concerns therefore revolve around the road charging process and the performance of the vehicle location determination function. The thesis provides a thorough review of the different GNSS-based trials and experiments conducted within recent years to assess the performance and possibilities of GNSSbased charging systems. In 2007–2009, a GNSS-based road charging experiment was conducted in Copenhagen as part of this research in cooperation with Siemens to assess the performance and technical challenges of GNSS-based road charging systems based on state of the art road charging technology. This thesis presents the experiment conducted and provides an assessment of the vehicle location determination function within GNSS-based road charging systems. Previous trials and performance assessments of GNSS-based road charging systems have generally focused on the possibilities of the charging systems rather than on the impossibilities. Often it has not been clearly described which errors and shortages existed in the collected data, but instead they have just been excluded as invalid data prior to the assessments which then concluded that more focus should be placed on the errors occurred. Hence, it has been deliberate in this PhD research not to exclude faulty and incorrect data in the assessment. The results presented in this thesis are based on all the collected data from the experiment, in its original for, as it would be used as input for the automated charge calculation process in a road charging system. Furthermore, new methodologies are developed for assessing the performance of the vehicle location determination function in terms of data reliability and navigation function performance. The results from the assessments conducted in this thesis demonstrate that although significant performance improvements have happened during the last five years, there are significant challenges to overcome in relation to implementation and operation of GNSS-based road charging systems. The technical experiment conducted in this PhD study proved to suffer from different technical challenges which had different impacts on the overall system dependability. Due to these challenges, data includes both inaccurate and incomplete data information, and it is hence concluded that with these high levels of data invalidity and deficiency, data could not be used in its current form as basis for a road charging process. These results underline the importance of a data processing functionality prior to the road charge calculation and usage determination in the road charging process. The assessment of the vehicle location determination function show significant difference in the required navigation performance. While the accuracy requirement in Copenhagen was partly met, the continuity and hence availability required for vehicle location determination suffered from severe gaps in the positioning data. These gaps were due to both satellite unavailability, caused by poor urban signal reception and long receiver acquisition times, and furthermore due to the various technical problems and configuration faults which occurred during the experiment. As both the satellite visibility and the positioning accuracy had improved significantly, the results indicate that the main challenges related to vehicle location determination are not as often stated due to positioning inaccuracies but rather due to a high level of positioning interruptions mainly caused by GPS. From the performance assessment it is furthermore concluded that the main concerns regarding the unavailability of the vehicle location determination should be how to eliminate the large downtime and configuration gaps and reduce the occurrence of the many GPS gaps. As data outages and failures may affect the determination of the distance driven in continuous charging schemes, the thesis provides means to assess and understand the positioning gap occurrence, contribution and effects in relation to GNSS-based road charging systems. Hence, an assessment of the driven distance determination tolerance towards these different positioning related outages is provided. The assessment is conducted on the basis of a simulation methodology developed in this thesis. It analyzes the influence of positioning gaps on the determination of the driven distance in both distance-based and distance-related GNSS-based road charging schemes. The gap tolerance of the distance determination in both types of charging schemes is important for the road charging system's ability to meet the performance requirements and charge the road users correctly for their road usage. The simulation analyses of the gap influence on the driven distance determination show that the distance determination function is relatively robust against small gaps of less than 10 seconds in the positioning. However, with several medium and large gaps in the trips, both distance determination methods have trouble in reproducing the driven distances with distance deviations more than 1 % from the truth. The importance of these results is that for the majority of trips the distance driven can be determined with less than 1 % distance deviation as the occurrence of small gaps is most frequent in trips. GNSS-based road charging systems are considered liability-critical systems, where denial of service and undetected fault and failures generate significant legal or economic negative consequences. Any fault or failures that lead to incorrect charging may cause economic loss or provoke wrong legal decisions as the economic liability is associated to the legal aspects due to the repercussion of potential claims. Hence, the thesis introduces the use of system dependability of GNSS-based road charging systems. The concepts of system dependability, adapted from computer engineering, provide an effective means of managing various concerns for road charging systems within a single conceptual framework. Dependability is an important requirement for a GNSS-based road charging system as the system must provide fair charging and gain user trust by ensuring system reliability and liability. This thesis discusses the impact of the assessment results in relation to system dependability and provides a qualitative dependability risk matrix for the vehicle location determination function. To ensure high dependability of the road charging process, fault tolerant design should hence be considered in relation to many different components and functionalities within the process. Based on fault tolerant methodologies, this thesis provides guidelines of how to maintain correct service in the presence of different faults caused by technical problems related to vehicle location determination. The main objective of fault tolerant design within the road charging process is to ensure fair charging of the road users. This means that redundant systems, procedures and components should be implemented to ensure that when fault and failures occur within the road charging process, the road charge foundation will still be dependable and provide fair results towards both the road users and the road charging system. This thesis therefore concludes that though the vehicle location determination performance is fair, the focus of the system performance concerns should be placed on how future GNSS-based road charging system can be designed to work reliably with the occurrence of both data invalidity and data deficiency. It is therefore important to widen the focus from technical challenges and component inaccuracies alone to a focus on the system dependability as a whole. There is however still some technological challenges to overcome, which to a greater extent are remediated by better collaboration across the many different subject areas. As with many other ITS systems, a successful design, implementation and operation of a system is only achieved when the many different stakeholders understand each other's requirements to the system. The system architecture as a conceptual design together with the system engineering methodology can help to involve all the different parties in the system development and hence minimize the misunderstandings which at the end can become very costly for the system. Based on the several findings of this PhD research, some general guidelines are finally formulated for future GNSS-based road charging systems. The proposed guidelines described in the thesis address both GNSS-based road charging trials in general and a future GNSS-based road charging system in Denmark.