Suchergebnisse

It is interpreted that government information must be exposed to the legislature, the control bodies and the citizens in order to be accountable for what has been done and must allow, among other aspects, the management evaluation of those who have the responsibility of managing resources. In our opinion, there is a very important relationship between transparency in accountability and governance. We emphasize the importance of incorporating better corporate governance practices in the public sector, as a generator of management control and risk administration in decision making at the central government level, as well as in state-owned companies. It is for this reason that it is confusing to find, on one hand, regulations emanating from the Ministry of Finance of the Nation (Resolution 25/95 of the SH) that defines assets using obsolete concepts, which ignore the natural and cultural heritage. On the other hand, the Investment Account itself refers to transparency in accountability and also explains the concepts that allow different users to generate the necessary capacities for the understanding and analyzing public accounts, for whose preparation, ignore a significant heritage. Although in a Constitutional State, transparency through access to public information is considered one of the mainstays of the democratic and republican system, from preliminary investigations, it comes up the lack of integrity in the information by not presenting the natural and cultural heritage in the Investment Account. It is the hypothesis of this study, that from the regulations that refer to the right of public information and financial administration and the control systems of the national public sector, among others, the need to incorporate advances in doctrine and accounting technology arises, in order to contribute to the accessibility and transparency of government public information. It is the objective to help in the adequacy and/or the updating of public government information regarding natural and cultural heritage to improve its accessibility and transparency and, thereby, contribute to objectively discovering the potential of the country. A theoretical investigation is carried out. It is taken into account that the definition of assets of Resolution 25/95 of the Ministry of Finance of the Nation should be updated and, among others, the right to access public information (Law No. 27,275 Right to Public Information and Law No. 25,831 on the regime of free access to public environmental information); governance and natural and cultural heritage (Law No. 24,156 on Financial Administration and Control Systems of the National Public Sector, guidelines of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean -CEPAL- and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development -OECD-) and the normative political principles answerability and enforcement are selected. Critical and comparative analyzes are performed and conclusions are inferred. Among the conclusions it is expressed that the construction of a bridge between current regulations and the most advanced criteria in terms of recognition, measurement and exposure of assets for the Public Sector is required, respecting at all times the spirit that should govern Government Accounting to represent the economic and social reality of the respective States. ; Se interpreta que la información gubernamental debe ser expuesta a la legislatura, los órganos de control y a la ciudadanía con el fin de rendir cuentas de lo actuado y deberá permitir, entre otros aspectos, la evaluación de gestión de quienes tienen la responsabilidad de administrar recursos públicos. En nuestra opinión, existe una relación muy importante entre la transparencia en la rendición de cuentas y la gobernanza. Enfatizamos la importancia de incorporar mejores prácticas de gobierno corporativo en el sector público, como generador de valor en la dirección, control de gestión y administración de riesgos en la toma de decisiones a nivel de gobierno central, así como también en las empresas estatales. Es por ello que resulta confuso encontrar por un lado normativa emanada de la Secretaría de Hacienda de la Nación (Resolución 25/95 de la SH) que define activo utilizando conceptos perimidos, los que ignoran al patrimonio natural y cultural. Por otra parte, la misma Cuenta de Inversión hace referencia a la transparencia en la rendición de cuentas y también se explican los conceptos que posibilitan que los diferentes usuarios generen las capacidades necesarias para el entendimiento y posterior análisis de las cuentas públicas, para cuya elaboración, entendemos, ignora un patrimonio significativo. Si bien en un Estado Constitucional la transparencia a través del acceso a la información pública es considerada uno de los pilares basales del sistema democrático y republicano de gobierno, de investigaciones preliminares surge que existe falta de integridad en la información al no presentar en la Cuenta de Inversión el patrimonio natural y cultural. Es la hipótesis de este estudio que de las normativas referidas al derecho de información pública y administración financiera y de los sistemas de control del sector público nacional, entre otras, surge la necesidad de incorporar los avances en la doctrina y tecnología contable para aportar a la accesibilidad y transparencia de la información pública gubernamental. Es el objetivo aportar a la adecuación y/o actualización de la información pública gubernamental en lo referido al patrimonio natural y cultural para mejorar su accesibilidad y transparencia y, con ello, contribuir a conocer objetivamente las potencialidades con que cuenta el país. Se realiza una investigación teórica. Se tiene en cuenta que la definición de activo de la Resolución 25/95 de la Secretaría de Hacienda de la nación debe ser actualizada y se seleccionan, entre otras, el derecho de acceso a la información pública (Ley nº 27.275 Derecho a la Información Pública y la Ley nº 25.831 sobre el régimen de libre acceso a la información pública ambiental); la gobernanza y el patrimonio natural y cultural (Ley nº 24.156 de Administración Financiera y de los Sistemas de Control del Sector Público Nacional, orientaciones de la Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe -CEPAL- y de la Organización para la Cooperación y Desarrollo Económico -OCDE-) y los principios políticos normativos answerability y enforcement. Se realizan análisis críticos y comparativos y se infieren conclusiones. Entre las conclusiones se expresa que se requiere la construcción de un puente entre la normativa vigente y los criterios más a avanzados en cuanto a reconocimiento, medición y exposición de elementos del patrimonio para el Sector Público, respetando en todo momento el espíritu que debe regir a la Contabilidad Gubernamental para representar acabadamente la realidad económica y social de los respectivos Estados.

Dupla diplomação com a UTFPR - Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná ; An unprecedented demographic explosion occurred in the last decades at a global level. The negative impacts of this event stand out, affecting the social, economic and mainly environmental spheres. In the environmental aspect, an important consequence is the growing production of solid wastes, due partially to the population increase. However, the development of effective technologies for the treatment of these wastes did not accompany such growth, and currently the most used method for this is landfill disposal. Even with the possibility of alternatives, the use of landfills for the disposal of solid wastes will be necessary over a long period, with the inevitable consequence of the generation of leachate streams. The objective of this work is the development, design and implementation of processes for physicochemical conversion of leachate liquid effluents from a composting process in liquid fertilizers with a standardized and reproducible composition. The leachate sample was collected in February 2019 from the slurry storage tank of the company "Resíduos do Nordeste", EIM (Urjais, Mirandela, Portugal). The stream is produced and recovered from a composting line from a mechanical and biological waste treatment plant. From this original sample, three additional materials were obtained: a filtered sample for the removal of the solid fraction (Filtro 03/04), two concentrated samples by simple distillation, with two concentration levels in volume basis: 1,19x and 1,85x in relation to the original leachate sample. The four samples (the original leachate and the three processed samples) were submitted to a sequence of analyzes, in order to compare its composition and properties with the current Portuguese and European legislation specifications for liquid fertilizers. The selected characterization parameters were: Total Organic Carbon (TOC), pH, Conductivity, Percentage of Dry Matter, Density, and Heavy Metals, Phosphorus, Potassium and Nitrogen contents. Adsorption tests were performed with the Filter 03/04 sample, with two adsorbents of different origin, the first produced from an organic compound, resulting from a centralized composting process, obtained from the same landfill that provided the Original sample. The second adsorbent tested is activated clays, originating from four different deposits in Kazakhstan. After treatment with the adsorbents, the same analyzes were performed previously, aiming to evaluate the efficiency of the adsorbents. The characterization results were then used to verify the framework for later use of the original leachate and/or the processed samples as liquid organomineral fertilizers, and to assess the specific needs of composition tuning for the non-processed leachate sample. A concentration process for the original sample of 1,19x (v/v) has been determined to allow the reaching of at least 3% TOC, a content legally required. Additionally, treatment is required for the removal of nickel and chromium from the samples. The metals zinc, copper, cadmium and lead have been quantified and are within the limits specified in the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council (2019). A flowchart for the proper treatment of this leachate was proposed, with the intention of using it as liquid organomineral fertilizer. ; Uma explosão demográfica sem precedentes ocorreu nas últimas décadas a nível global. Destacam-se os impactos negativos deste evento, afetando as esferas social, econômica e principalmente ambiental. No aspeto ambiental, uma consequência importante é a crescente produção de resíduos sólidos, em parte devido ao aumento populacional. No entanto, o desenvolvimento de tecnologias eficazes para o tratamento desses resíduos não acompanhou esse crescimento, e atualmente o método mais utilizado para isso é o descarte em aterros sanitários. Mesmo com a possibilidade de alternativas, o uso de aterros sanitários para a disposição de resíduos sólidos será necessário por um longo período, com a inevitável consequência da geração de caudais de chorume. O objetivo deste trabalho é o desenvolvimento, proposta e implementação de processos de conversão físico-química de efluentes líquidos lixiviados, de um processo de compostagem, em fertilizantes líquidos com uma composição padronizada e reprodutível. A amostra de lixiviados foi coletada em fevereiro de 2019 a partir do tanque de armazenamento de chorume da empresa "Resíduos do Nordeste", EIM (Urjais, Mirandela, Portugal). O fluxo é produzido e recuperado de uma linha de compostagem de uma estação de tratamento de resíduos mecânica e biológica. Desta amostra original, três materiais adicionais foram obtidos: uma amostra filtrada para a remoção da fração sólida (Filtro 03/04), duas amostras concentradas por destilação simples, com dois níveis de concentração em base volumétrica: 1,19x e 1,85x em relação a amostra original. As quatro amostras (o lixiviado original e as três amostras processadas) foram submetidas a uma sequência de análises, de modo a comparar a sua composição e propriedades com as atuais especificações da legislação portuguesa e europeia para fertilizantes líquidos. Os parâmetros de caracterização selecionados foram: teor de carbono orgânico total (TOC), pH, condutividade elétrica, percentagem de matéria seca, densidade e metais pesados, fósforo, potássio e nitrogênio. Foram realizados testes de adsorção com a amostra Filtro 03/04, com dois adsorventes de origem diferente, o primeiro produzido a partir de um composto orgânico, resultante de um processo de compostagem centralizada, obtido do mesmo aterro sanitário que forneceu a amostra Original. O segundo adsorvente testado, são as argilas ativadas, originárias de quatro depósitos diferentes do Cazaquistão. Após o tratamento com os adsorventes foram realizadas as mesmas análises feitas anteriormente, com o objetivo de avaliar a eficiência dos adsorventes. Os resultados da caracterização foram então utilizados para verificar a estrutura para posterior utilização do lixiviado original e/ou as amostras processadas como fertilizantes organominerais líquidos, e para avaliar as necessidades específicas de ajuste da composição. Um processo de concentração para a amostra original de 1,19x (v/v) foi determinado para permitir o alcance de pelo menos 3% de TOC, um conteúdo legalmente requerido no Regulamento do Parlamento Europeu e do Concelho (2019). Além disso, é necessário um tratamento para a remoção de níquel e cromio das amostras. Os metais zinco, cobre, cádmio e chumbo foram quantificados e estão dentro dos limites especificados no Regulamento do Parlamento Europeu e do Conselho (2019). Um fluxograma para o tratamento adequado desse lixiviado foi proposto, com o intuito de utilizá-lo como fertilizante organomineral líquido. ; This work was carried out under the scope of Project VALORCOMP, funded by FEDER through Programme INTERREG V-A Spain − Portugal (POCTEP) 2014–2020. Finally, to all who have somehow been part of this period and collaborated to carry out this work, I will be eternally grateful.

ABSTRAK Efektifitas Kerjasama Antar Daerah (Studi tentang Kerjasama Pemerintah Kota Surabaya dengan Pemerintah Kabupaten Sidoarjo dalam Pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya) Nama : Qur'anin Riedha Hidayati NIM : 140406740456 Program Studi : S1 Administrasi Negara Jurusan : Administrasi Publik Fakultas : Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Hukum Nama Lembaga : Universitas Negeri Surabaya Pembimbing : Muhammad Farid Ma'ruf, S.Sos., M.AP. Penyelenggaraan otonomi pemerintah daerah memberikan manfaat adanya otoritas pemerintah daerah untuk menjalin hubungan dengan pemerintah daerah lainnya. Pentingnya kerjasama pada hakekatnya adalah sebuah interaksi yang bersifat dinamis untuk mencapai tujuan bersama. Pemerintah Kota Surabaya dan Pemerintah Kabupaten Sidoarjo telah bersepakat untuk melakukan kerjasama dalam hal pelayanan dan penyediaan Terminal Purabaya. Tujuan dari diselenggarakan kerjasama tersebut ialah untuk mengisi konsep pengembangan wilayah GERBANGKERTOSUSILA. Pengelolaan atau penyediaan fasilitas umum diruang publik khususnya di perkotaan pada dasarnya terkendala ketersediaan lahan. Tujuan penelitian adalah mengukur seberapa efektif pelaksanaan kerjasama antara Pemerintah Kota Surabaya dan Pemerintah Kabupaten Sidoarjo dalam pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya. Penelitian ini menggunakan penelitian deskriptif dengan pendekatan kualitatif. Fokus penelitian ini dilihat dari indikator-indikator efektifitas kerjasama antar daerah yaitu: Transparansi, kekokohan dan keluwesan, perubahan aturan, kapasitas pemerintah, distribusi kekuasaan, tingkat ketergantungan, ide intelektual. Teknik pengumpulan data melalui observasi, wawancara dan sedangkan teknik analisis data dalam penelitian ini menggunakan teknik analisis kualitatif meliputi reduksi, data, penyajian data, penarikan kesimpulan. Pada kerjasama pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya. Mengukur pelaksanaan kerjasama berdasarkan variabel efektifitas. Pada variable efektifitas transparansi dijabarkan kerjasama ini tidak efektif, karena tidak adanya laporan secara periodik kepada Pemerintah Kabupaten Sidoarjo mengenai aktifitas operasional maupun pendapatan. Pada variabel kekokohan dan keluwesan pada pelaksanaan kerjasama kedua belah pihak masih berpegang teguh pada naskah perjanjian yang lama dengan tujuan konsistensi pada masing-masing anggota yang bekerjasama. Pada Indikator perubahan aturan menilai kerjasama berdasarkan banyaknya perubahan aturan. Dalam perkembangan perubahan aturan selama menjalankan kerjasama terdapat perubahan aturan kerjasama yang signifikan. Pada indikator kapasitas pemerintah dalam pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya telah diberikan hak dan kewajiban pada masing-masing anggota. Pada indikator distribusi kekuasaan, dalam pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya terjadi ketimpangan kekuasaan pihak yang berperan adalah Pemerintah Kota Surabaya. Pada indikator tingkat ketergantungan antar anggota, kedua pihak Pemerintah sering merasa rugi. Pada indikator ide intelektual diukur mempertimbangkan peran strategis antar pihak dalam pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya. Peneliti menyarankan pada aspek transparansi UPTD Terminal melakukan pelaporan kepada Pemerintah Kabupaten Sidoarjo dan Pemerintah Kota Surabaya dengan berbagai ruang lingkup. Indikator kekokohan dan keluwesan mengajukan adanya norma baru dalam peraturan perundang-undangan. Indikator Perubahan aturan usulan addendum perjanjian Pemerintah Kota Surabaya ke Pemerintah Kabupaten Sidoarjo disertai pengajuan penghentian perjanjian sementara hingga selesainya permasalahan. Indikator kapasitas pemerintah, dalam pelaksanaan pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya Pemerintah Kabupaten Sidoarjo lebih meningkatkan kapasitasnya dalam kerjasama pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya. Indikator distribusi kekuasaan, perlunya peninjauan ulang komposisi pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya sebaiknya menimbang kesetaraan kewenangan. Indikator tingkat ketergantungan, Sebaiknya antara kedua daerah menimbangkan keuntungan namun, dalam hal jasa transportasi publik menyesuaikan kondisi sosial masyarakat. Indikator Ide Intelektual, dalam kerjasama pengelolaan Terminal Purabaya para pihak teknis pelaksana sebaiknya diikutsertakan dalam proses pengambilan keputusan. Kata Kunci: Efektifitas, Kerjasama Antar Daerah, Pengelolaan Terminal ABSTRACT Effectiveness of Inter-Regional Cooperation (Study of Surabaya City Government Cooperation with Government of Sidoarjo Regency in Purabaya Terminal Management) Name : Qur'anin Riedha Hidayati NIM : 14040674056 Study Programme : S1 Science of Public Administration Departement : Public Administration Faculty : The Faculty of social and law Institution : Universitas Negeri Surabaya Lecturer : Muhammad Farid Ma'ruf, S.Sos., M.AP. Implementation of local government autonomy provides the benefit of local government authorities to establish relationships with other local governments. The importance of cooperation is essentially a dynamic interaction to achieve a common goal. Surabaya City Government and Sidoarjo Regency Government have agreed to cooperate in service and provision of Terminal Purabaya. The purpose of the organized cooperation is to fill the concept of development of GERBANGKERTOSUSILA region. The management or provision of public facilities in public spaces, especially in urban areas, is basically constrained by land availability. The purpose of this study is to measure how effective the implementation of cooperation between the Government of Surabaya and the Government of Sidoarjo Regency in the management of Purabaya Terminal. At the management of Terminal Purabaya. Measuring the implementation of cooperation based on effectiveness variables. In variable of transparency effectivity, this cooperation is not effective, because there is no periodical report to Sidoarjo Regency Government about operational activity and income. On the variables of robustness and flexibility in the implementation of cooperation both parties still cling to the old agreement with the goal of consistency in each member who cooperate. In the indicator of change rules assess the cooperation based on the many changes in the rules. In the development of regulatory changes during the implementation of cooperation there is a significant change of cooperation rules. In the indicator of government capacity in the management of Purabaya Terminal has been granted rights and obligations on each member. In the power distribution indicator, in the management of Purabaya Terminal, there is an imbalance of power of the party that plays the role of Surabaya City Government. In the indicator of the level of interdependence between members, both sides of the Government often feel the loss. In intellectual idea indicator is measured considering strategic role between parties in management of Terminal Purabaya. Researcher suggest on transparency aspect UPTD Terminal do reporting to Government of Sidoarjo Regency and Surabaya City Government with various scope. The indicators of robustness and flexibility suggest a new norm in legislation. Indicators The proposed amendments to the proposed amendment of the Surabaya City Government to the Sidoarjo Regency Government together with the submission of a temporary agreement to the completion of the matter. Indicator of government capacity, in the management of Purabaya Terminal Government of Sidoarjo regency further increase its capacity in Purabaya terminal management cooperation. The power distribution indicator, the need to review the management composition of Purabaya Terminal should weigh the equality of authority. Indicators of degree of dependence, It is preferable between the two regions to consider the benefits but, in the case of public transportation services adjust the social conditions of the community. Intellectual Idea indicator, in cooperation of terminal management Purabaya the executing technical party should be included in decision making process. Keywords: Effectiveness, Cooperation

Bioetiikan tieteenala syntyi 1960- ja 1970-luvuilla Yhdysvalloissa. Bioetiikka käsittelee lääke-, terveys- ja biotieteiden eettisiä, moraalisia ja yhteiskunnallisia kysymyksiä. Keskeistä alalle on pyrkimys näiden teemojen moniääniseen ja -arvoiseen pohtimiseen. Bioetiikan syntyyn johti erityisesti radikaali pyrkimys haastaa lääketiedettä ja sen ikiaikaista etiikkaa, jotka koettiin aikanaan yksiäänisiksi ja elitistisiksi. Sitten bioetiikan alkuaikojen paljon on muuttunut. Nykyisin bioetiikka on laaja ja varsin vakiintunut ala synnyinmaassaan ja monin paikoin ympäri maailmaa. Suomessa bioetiikka on tosin yhä suhteellisen tuntemattomassa ja vähäisessä roolissa niin akateemisesti kuin yhteiskunnallisestikin. Menneestä menestyksestään huolimatta bioetiikka käy parhaillaan läpi keski-iän kriisiä, jonka myötä monet tahot alalla ja sen ulkopuolella kysyvät keskeisiä kysymyksiä bioetiikan merkityksestä ja olemuksesta, jopa sen olemassaolon oikeutuksesta. Bioetiikka on selvästi saapunut eräänlaiseen kehityksensä taitekohtaan. Pölyn laskeuduttua bioetiikan alkuaikojen jäljiltä monet kysyvät nykyisin, oliko bioetiikka loppujen lopuksi tervetullut lisä vallitsevaan henkiseen ilmastoon ja mitä tarkoitusta ala tarkalleen ottaen palvelee sekä akateemisessa maailmassa että tämän ulkopuolella. Paljon kritiikkiä on esitetty: joillekin bioetiikka ei ole ikinä ollut mitään todellista, ainakaan myönteisessä mielessä. Pikemmin näille kriitikoille bioetiikka on näyttäytynyt lähinnä rasitteena, joka on ollut lääke-, terveys- ja biotieteiden ja niiden soveltamisen tiellä, varsinkin terveydenhuollon piirissä. Toiset keskustelijat taas ovat vahvasti eri mieltä. Kaikkineen ilmassa on paljon erilaisia näkemyksiä eikä yhteistä maaperää ole paljon. Joka tapauksessa on varmaa, että tämän keskustelun lopputulos tulee keskeisesti vaikuttamaan alan tulevaisuuden kehitykseen, joten panokset ovat korkeat. Tämä tutkimus pyrkii tarjoamaan tuoreita vastauksia käynnissä olevaan keskusteluun bioetiikan luonteesta valottamalla alan menneisyyttä ja nykyistä tilaa aate- ja oppihistorian sekä kulttuurihistorian näkökulmasta. Tämän viitekehyksen puitteissa sovelletaan yhä kattavaa teoreettista kirjoa, johon ammennetaan muun muassa poliittisten instituutioiden rappion, poliittisen filosofian sekä sosiaalisen pääoman tutkimuksen parista. Tarkoituksena on kaivaa esille syvempi bioetiikan luonne, erityisesti alan kulttuurillinen ydinolemus. Tutkimuksen keskeinen argumentti tiivistyy kahteen havainnoituun bioetiikan ydinpiirteeseen: alan pyrkimykseen olla avoin erilaisille henkisille lähestymistavoille sekä sosiaalisesti uusille osanottajille: siis toisin sanoen alan pyrkimykseen olla moniääninen ja -arvoinen. Nämä havainnot johtavat tutkimuksessa yhä uusien bioetiikan alan puolien valottamiseen, joista mainittakoon esimerkiksi bioetiikan pyrkimys pysytellä tarkoituksellisesti tietyssä mielessä henkisesti pinnalla, menemättä liian syvälle mihinkään tiettyihin eettisiin, moraalisiin ja yhteiskunnallisiin näkemyksiin. Tutkimuksessa argumentoidaan, että tällaisten bioetiikan piirteiden kokonaisvaltaisempi ymmärtäminen auttaa samalla hahmottamaan selvän haasteen näiden ominaisuuksien kattavammaksi hyväksymiseksi ja tukemiseksi. Samalla tässä haasteessa muotoutuu eräs mahdollinen tie bioetiikalle siirtyä pois sen alun ja nykyisten ajatusmallien parista ja kukoistaa paremmin tulevaisuudessa. Syvimmiltään tutkimuksessa puolustetaan näkemystä, jonka mukaan bioetiikka voidaan – ja se pitäisi – nähdä kulttuurillisena jättiläisenä, joka on tärkeä osa ainakin länsimaista kulttuuripiiriä. Toisin sanoen bioetiikka nähdään kulttuurillisena voimana, joka voi osaltaan auttaa poliittisia ja sosiaalisia instituutioita uudistumaan nykyisin vallitsevien yhteiskunnallisten tarpeiden mukaan. Tämän ohella tutkimuksessa argumentoidaan, että bioetiikka on kulttuurillisesti itseisarvoinen asia, jota ei tulisi arvioida ainoastaan sen hyötyjen kautta vaan pikemmin hyväksyä vallitsevana kulttuurin osana. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa pyritään auttamaan bioetiikkaa kehittymään tulevaisuudessa hahmottelemalla joitakin konkreettisempia ehdotuksia etenemiselle. Erityinen painoarvo asetetaan aidosti uuden ajatusjärjestelmän kehittämiselle tämän pyrkimyksen tukemiseksi. Tässä hengessä tutkimuksessa luodaan alustavasti "orgaanisen bioetiikan" käsite, jonka tarkoitus on auttaa paremmin käsitteellistämään ja omaksumaan bioetiikan luonnetta ja alan parhaita puolia. ; The field of bioethics was established in the United States during the sixties and early seventies. The field addresses the ethical challenges of life sciences--the science of living organisms, from plants to humans--and tries to incorporate various perspectives in doing this. It mostly came into being as a radical challenge to the medical profession and its age-old tradition of ethics, which were seen as exclusivist and elitist. A lot has changed since the early days. Today, bioethics is a broad and somewhat established field in its country of origin and in many places throughout the world. However, despite its past successes, bioethics now appears to be undergoing a middle age crisis in which people in the field, along with others, are asking perplexing questions about its meaning, essence, and even its reason for being. Bioethics has clearly arrived at some kind of turning point. As the dust has settled from the early days, many are asking whether bioethics was, after all, a welcome addition to prevailing intellectual vocabulary and what precise purpose it serves in academia and in society today. Much criticism has been raised: to some, bioethics has never been a real thing, at least in any positive sense. Rather, for them bioethics is only a nuisance that gets in life sciences' and their application's way, especially in health care. Others strongly disagree with this. And then there are other views. All in all, everyone seems to have her own conception of the way things are. However, what is certain is that the outcome of this debate will have a significant impact on determining the future of the field. The stakes are high. This study seeks to offer fresh answers to the ongoing debate about the nature of bioethics by exploring bioethics' past and current state from the perspective of intellectual and cultural history. Under this umbrella, a range of theories from political decay to political philosophy to social capital are applied to unearth the deeper nature of the field, especially its cultural essence. A central argument revolves around two identified core characteristics of bioethics: its aspirations to be intellectually open-ended and to be socially inclusive. This observation leads to further identification of the field's features such as the "deliberative shallowness of bioethics." The study argues that by appreciating these aspects of bioethics, a clear challenge to embrace and support them emerges. At the same time, this offers a potential way for bioethics to move forward from its early and present schemes and for it to flourish in the future. Eventually, the study argues that bioethics could, and should, be seen as a "cultural giant," an important part of at least Western culture--a cultural force that could help, for its part, to renew political and social institutions according to present needs. Besides this, bioethics is also argued to have an intrinsic cultural value, in other words, bioethics should not only be judged by its merits; rather, it should be accepted as a matter of fact of the current cultural landscape. Moreover, to assist bioethics to move forward, the study sketches a few more precise suggestions of how this could be done. Particular emphasis is placed on developing a genuinely new kind of body of thought to support this endeavor. To this end, preliminarily, the study coins a new term, "organic bioethics," to help in better conceptualizing and embracing the nature of the field and its best qualities.

Die vorliegende Arbeit trägt den Titel: Intellektuellen-Rolle in Günter Grass Werken : "Die Plebejer proben den Aufstand"(1966), "Örtlich betäubt"(1969), "Aus dem Tagebuch einer Schnecke"(1972), und "Ein weites Feld"(1995). Das erste Kapitel befasst sich insgesamt mit drei Haupttiteln II. Der Intellektuelle II.1 Das allgemeine Umfeld In diesem Teil der Dissertation sollen Aussagen getroffen werden, die auf folgende und weitere Fragen eine Antwort geben: Was ist ein Intellektueller? Wie kam der Begriff zustande? Gibt es Unterschiede zwischen den Intellektuellen und wie werden sie eingeteilt? II.2 Das deutsche Umfeld Die Behandlung des Nazisystems und dessen historische Hintergründe vermittelt bedeutsame Lehren. Aber wozu braucht man diese Lehren? Gibt es Spuren von Nationalsozialismus heutzutage? Wo waren die Intellektuellen bei der Bildung des Nationalsozialismus? Ist der Nationalsozialismus erst mit Hitler aufgetaucht? Wenn zuvor, in welcher Phase hat er sich im Bewusstsein der Deutschen verankert? Ob theoretische bzw. geistige Tendenzen dazu beigetragen haben? II.3 Das Bild von Grass als Intellektueller II.3.1 Positionierung Eine Hauptthese für Grass intellektuelle Positionierung wird durch die Verbindung zwischen Grass' Grundkonzeption der gesellschaftspolitischen Intellektualität und der Gruppe 47 ermittelt. Dann bezweckt die Behandlung von Grass Bild nach Erscheinen seines autobiographischen Werks: "Beim Häuten der Zwiebel" (2006), dass seine Intellektualität nicht nur aus dem positiven, sondern auch aus dem negativen Profil beleuchtet wird. Aus der Darstellung zahlreicher Ansichten von Günter Grass werden fünf thematische Kernpunkte als Konzepte behandelt. Unter jedem Konzept sollen spezifische Vorschläge zur gesellschaftlichen Positionierung aufgezeigt werden. II.3.2 Grass' politische Merkmale Es handelt sich hier um die intellektuellen Charaktereigenschaften. Dadurch kommen manche Fragen zu Wort: Hat Günter Grass gesellschaftliche Aktivitäten? Hat er die Voraussetzungen dafür? Wie ist der Umfang seiner Aktivitäten? Hat die Gruppe 47 Einfluss auf Grass intellektuelle Merkmale? Steht bei Grass eine Methode der gesellschaftspolitischen Arbeit zur Verfügung? Dann wird die politische Sprache von Günter Grass und ihre Wirkung auf den Rezipienten untersucht. Danach wird nach Grass' Auffassung von der Revision gefragt und ob sie mit seiner Auffassung der Aufklärung zusammenpasst. Darauf wird die Funktion der Revision in seinem literarischen Werk und in seiner gesellschaftspolitischen Aktivität gezeigt. Abschließend werden die Argumente seiner Intellektualität untersucht: Wie hat Grass' gesellschaftspolitische Aktivität den konkreten politischen Rahmen berücksichtigt? Um diese Frage zu beantworten, muss der Zusammenhang zwischen Politik und Moral verdeutlicht werden. III. Historischer Kontext und Inhalt der Werke Unter diesem Titel wird erstens der historische Zusammenhang der untersuchten Werke skizziert. Dann werden meistens durch Argumente aus jedem Werk selbst nicht nur der Kern des Werkes und sein Handlungsverlauf, sondern auch die dafür angewandte Methode dargestellt. IV. Bezug der untersuchten Werke zu konkreten gesellschaftspolitischen Fragen IV.1 Interaktionswege des Intellektuellen mit der Gesellschaft, vor allem beim Wandel gesellschaftspolitischer Prozesse Zentralkonzepte des ersten Werkes sind: Vermittlung, Engagement, Solidarität und die Aktualität als Maßstab. Diese werden durch zwei Konzepte des zweiten Werkes: Appell an Generationen beim Wechsel und Zusammenhaltsprinzip an Revision gebunden, sowie durch die Behandlung vom Prozess der Meinungsbildung im vierten Werk ausgearbeitet. IV.2 Thematische Aspekte zur Vermeidung eines Naziregimes Aus den thematischen Perspektiven der drei letzten Werke geht eine bunte Sammlung intellektueller Konzepte aus, die zur Bekämpfung von Nazivorsprünge verwendet werden können. V. Pädagogische Strategien der untersuchten Werke Die pädagogischen Aspekte der untersuchten Werke sollen intellektuelle Werte vermitteln, die einen bedeutenden Beitrag zur Lösung gesellschaftspolitischer Probleme und Konflikte leisten. VI. Entwicklung der literarischen und gesellschaftspolitischen Vision Hier wird die Entwicklungslinie der gesellschaftspolitischen Vision in den untersuchten Werken verfolgt. VII. Zur Rezeption der vier Werke Durch die Auseinandersetzung mit der negativen Kritik wird angestrebt, ihre Subjektivität darzulegen, damit der gesellschaftspolitische Wert der vier Werke enthüllt wird. ; The present work carries the title: The role of intellectuals in Günter Grass works: "The plebeians rehearse the uprising"(1966), "locally dazes"(1969), "from the diary of a snail"(1972) and "a wide field"( 1995). The first chapter deals all together with three full titles II. The intellectual II.1 The general sphere In this part of the dissertation the statements which give an answer on the following and other questions should be met: what is an intellectual? How did the concept come about? Are there differences between the intellectuals and how are they divided? II.2 The German Sphere The treatment of the Nazi system and his historical backgrounds provides significant apprenticeships. For what does one need these apprenticeships? Are there tracks of national socialism nowadays? Where were the intellectuals during the forming of the national socialism? Has national socialism appeared only with Hitler? If before in which phase it has anchored itself in the consciousness of the Germans? Whether have theoretical or intellectually trends contributed it towards? II.3 The picture of Grass as an intellectual II.3.1 positioning A main thesis for Grass intellectual positioning is determined by the connection between Grass' basic concept of the society-political intellectuality and the group 47. Then the treatment of Grass picture after appearance of his autobiographical work: "with the skin of the onion"(2006) aims, that his intellectuality not only from the positive, but also from the negative profile is lighted up. From the representation of numerous views of Günter Grass are five thematic quintessential points treated as concepts. Under every concept should specific proposals be indicated to the social positioning. II.3.2 Grass' political signs It concerns here around the intellectual traits. Some questions thereby get a chance to speak: Does Günter Grass have social activities? Does he have the conditions for it? How is the extent of his activities? Does the group 47 have influence on Grass' intellectual signs? Is a method of the society-political work available with Grass? Then the political language is examined by Günter Grass and its effect on the recipient. Then Grass' view of Revision is asked and whether it fits with his view of the clarification. The function of the Revision is consequently offered in his literary work and in his society-political activity. Finally, the arguments of his intellectuality are examined. How has Grass' society-political activity considered the concrete political frame? To answer this question, the connection must be made clear between politic and morality. III. Historical context and contents of the works Under this title the historical connection of the examined works is outlined first. Then are mostly shown with arguments from every work not only the core of the work and its action course, but also the method applied for it. IV. Relation of the examined works to concrete society-political questions IV.1 Interaction ways of the intellectual with the society, above all with the change of Society-political processes Central concepts of the first work are: Mediation, engagement, solidarity and the actuality as a graduation. These become by two concepts of the second work: Appeal at generations in case of change and cohesion principle engaged in the revision, as well as by the treatment of the education of opinion in the fourth work worked out. IV.2 Thematic aspects for the avoidance of a Nazi regime From the subject of the three last works goes a coloured collection of intellectual concepts out, which can be used to the fight against Nazi projections. V. Educational strategies of the examined works The educational strategies of the examined works should provide intellectual values, which make an important contribution to solve society-political problems and conflicts. VI. Development of the literary and society-political vision Here the line of development of the society-political vision is pursed in the examined works. VII. To the reception of the four works The discussion with the negative criticism aims to clear the subjectivity, so that the society-political value of the four works is revealed.

This is the first and most concise biography of a Russian émigré gay poet, Valerii Pereleshin (1913-1992). The biographer, Olga Bakich, takes on the self-described role of an "accompanist" (xiv) to this prolific, yet understudied poet by painstakingly illuminating the joys and sorrows of his spiritual journey over eight decades. This work causes the reader to reconsider how a biography could be written. The key historical events surrounding his personal life are mentioned but not discussed in the context of historiographical theory. To do so would only distract the reader from the humble existence of Pereleshin as a biographical figure. His unique talent, personality, and literary footprint span vast distances from China's northeast to Brazil. This rather atypical biography consists primarily of the artist's aesthetically subjective testimony- his own poetry.As a former resident and survivor of war-time Harbin, Bakich herself is well aware of the backdrop of turbulent historical events in the 20th century Far East: Imperial Russia's eastward expansion, the forced and voluntary settlement of migrants from Eastern Europe, the Korean peninsula and Japanese archipelago, Qing China's semi-colonization and its subsequent collapse, the encroachment of Western and Japanese imperialism, the establishment of Japan's puppet state of Manchukuo, World War II and the USSR's advance into the region followed by civil war and the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The poet is a witness, survivor, and victim of these events.Bakich lets Pereleshin speak through letters, poems and photographs, a testimony of White Russians fleeing from the Eurasian Continent. Part One of Life of a Silkworm covers the period 1920 – 1952 in China, following Pereleshin's intellectual development from childhood to young adulthood. Each of the six chapters in this part is divided into multiple subtopics, covering periods of four to five years: the noble roots of the Salatko-Petrishche family, its relocation to Siberia amidst the chaos of revolution and horrors of civil war, education under the tsarist Russian system in Harbin, and most importantly his growing love for poetry and philosophy.The personal events of Pereleshin's early years document the still understudied but rich history of Russian Orthodox Ecclesiastical Mission in the Far East. Pereleshin, being sensitive and deeply religious, enrolled in the Mission's Theological Faculty in 1937, was ordained a Monk Herman(in honour of St. Herman of Kazan' and Sviiaga) in 1938, and a Priest-Monk Herman in 1941.Harbin émigré literary circle "Churaevka" and the lively interaction among its intellectuals also add new cultural dimensions to the study of Russian émigré society in Asia.Pereleshin began publishing his books of poetry in 1937.The poet, however, was rather a dissonance in his own conservative community. For example, as a monk, his participation in public poetic activities was limited. Moreover, he was inclined toward Catholicism and admired St. Francis of Assisi and St. Thérèse of Lisieux- a liberal expression of his spiritual interest. He began to travel and preach in Chinese cities with foreign concessions such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin with a determination to live his life to the fullest by serving God. But Pereleshin had difficulty finding inner peace with his vow of celibacy. While his poetry is infused with divine inspiration, passion and kindness, he was often tormented by the social stigma of his sexuality.In addition, the volatile political situation in the Far East made Pereleshin mistaken at times for a Japanese spy, a Fascist spy, a Soviet spy, and a Communist. Adversity, however, ignited his poetic creativity, especially after his departure to a third home, Brazil.Part Two consists of seven chapters covering 39 years of Pereleshin's life in Brazil during the period 1953-1992. The main focus shifts towards his growth as a poet. As a polyglot, he engaged in translations of poetry to and from Russian, Chinese and Portuguese languages. He also wrote some pieces in an avant-garde style, the so-called futurism, as well as preserving his lyrical poetic style. There were some bright moments: émigré scholars and critics in the US, such as Alexis Rannitand Simon Karlinsky recognized Pereleshin as an authentic Russian poet, and offered praise and support. It is an important gesture by Bakich to highlight this aspect of Pereleshin's life. Otherwise, his portrayal as a "tasteless" émigré poet from the east who lacked "Parisian culture" (171), according to one US literary professor, G. Struve, might be accorded more weight than it should. Pereleshin's animosity toward I. Brodsky is also interesting from the perspective of literary history. Whether the result of his jealousy toward this Nobel Prize winner or his anti-Semitic sentiment is unclear; yet in any case, a careful reading of the text reveals that the core issue originated in the poetic language itself, not ethno-religious identity. Even the last country he could have called home offered no respite. Pereleshin faced many financial difficulties and the pain of unrequited love. In the end,he had three homelands, and experienced three exiles. Yet, before his departure for Brazil, he had already sensed that for him, Kitai (China in Russian) should be his place to die, because of his fascination with the vivacious and affectionate people who "understood [him] and reciprocated [his] love." (139)The title of this work is drawn from Pereleshin's own words: "A tender, sticky web, /a fine material, /is produced by a silkworm/ twisting like an invisible snake/from its own self/ (There is nothing else)." (Silkworm, 29.12.1967, xiii) Pereleshin spun more than two thousand poems in his life. Bakich has re-entered his world and has woven a veritable tapestry of his life and art, using the poet's creative work as the warp, and personal events as the weft. The author's effort to present this complex poet in an approachable way using short chronological intervals may, to a certain extent, sacrifice the attractive depth of thematic components expressed in his poetry, namely, Russian émigré identity, religion, philosophy, homosexuality, and poetic inspiration. These topics would be worth pursuing more intensively in Pereleshin's anthology in the near future. For the present, it is the author's willingness to embrace the poet's extremes that is most impressive here. Bakich causes the reader to consider a life lived at the margins of ethnicity, citizenship, spirituality and sexuality – all prominent themes today as we seek to build an inclusive society. For Pereleshin, who was not a social activist, poetry was his only means of self-advocacy. Thankfully, Bakich's work introduces it to us: gentle, lonely, yet so brilliantly strong.

[spa] En esta tesis se analiza el grado de correspondencia entre la demanda de los servicios de seguridad y la oferta pública de los servicios ofrecidos por la Administración, con el fin de satisfacer la demanda. Para ello, a través de un punto de vista metodológico, las relaciones establecidas entre los participantes en el sistema de seguridad y varios factores con posible impacto en la correspondencia que se encuentran en estudio. Por lo tanto, la oferta y la demanda de la seguridad pública, así como su relación se observa a través de tres perspectivas diferentes: la visión de los ciudadanos, la organización policial y la autoridad política. A través de ellos, se estudian los posibles factores de confusión que pueden conducir a la falta de correspondencia entre la demanda y la oferta de la seguridad pública, y las características de las relaciones que se establecen entre los distintos participantes en el sistema de seguridad pública. Después de desarrollar los principales conceptos relacionados con la materia objeto - como los que participan en las relaciones de poder y los conflictos en la organización, la gestión de la seguridad, el modelo de seguridad pública y la agenda de gobierno - se presentan los resultados de la investigación. La metodología se basa en el análisis cualitativo de varias entrevistas con informantes clave de la comunidad. Desde este enfoque, se estudian aspectos como los siguientes: la visión de la seguridad como un concepto global; la participación de la policía, los ciudadanos y los políticos en la gestión de la seguridad; el papel de la prevención; la resolución de conflictos; la importancia de los diferentes indicadores de seguridad; rendición de cuentas y resultados de la evaluación como herramientas para el buen gobierno de la gestión de la seguridad pública. A partir de ella se deduce la existencia de múltiples relaciones de poder que condicionan el desarrollo de la agenda del gobierno y una variedad de factores que inciden en la relación que se establece entre la demanda y suministra seguridad. Las influencias ejercidas por los diversos participantes y el efecto de estos factores sobre los desajustes provocan la seguridad entre los requisitos de seguridad y los servicios ofrecidos por la Administración. El resultado es un sistema de seguridad pública ineficiente. Se concluye que un profundo cambio en las características y la gestión del sistema de seguridad pública actual es necesario. Un sistema que requiere un análisis de seguridad del protocolo, además de la correcta verificación de la información permite una mayor identificación de las causas de la demanda, a través de la correcta utilización de los nuevos indicadores de seguridad. Un cambio a un modelo de seguridad mixto que permite combinar reacción y prevención, a través del desarrollo de programas de planificación estratégica para hacer efectiva una asignación eficiente de los recursos. Un nuevo enfoque apoyado por un acuerdo de seguridad social y relacionados con la mejora en la calidad de la comunidad de vida. Un cambio en la manera de tratar con seguridad basada en la participación comunitaria en el desarrollo de políticas y la responsabilidad de todos los participantes en el sistema de gestión de seguridad pública. De esta manera, el gobierno, como responsable de la gestión de la seguridad pública, tiene que democratizar la agenda de gobierno y abra el análisis de la seguridad de nuevos indicadores, que complementa la existente, proporcionar o mejorar la seguridad de la información. ; [eng] This thesis analyzes the degree of correspondence between the demand for security services and the public offering of services offered by the Administration, in order to satisfy demand. To do so, through a methodological perspective, the relations established between the participants of the security system and various factors with possible impact on that correspondence are under study. Therefore, the demand and supply of public security, as well as their relationship is observed through three different perspectives: the vision of citizens, the police organization and the political authority. Through them, the possible confounding factors that may lead to mismatch between demand and supply of public security, and the characteristics of the relationships established between the various participants in the public security system are studied. After developing the main concepts related to the subject matter - such as those involved in power relations and conflict in the organization, the management of security, public safety model and the government agenda – the research results are presented. The methodology is based on qualitative analysis of various interviews with key informants in the community. From this approach, aspects like the followings are studied: the vision of security as a global concept; the involvement of the police, citizens and politicians in the management of safety; the role of prevention; conflict resolution; the importance of different safety indicators; accountability and results evaluation as tools for good governance of public security management. From it follows the existence of multiple power relations that condition the development of the government's agenda and a variety of factors that impact on the relationship established between the demand and supplied security. The influences exerted by various participants and the effect of these factors on the safety cause mismatches between the security requirements and the services offered by the Administration. The result is an inefficient public security system. It is concluded that a profound change in the characteristics and management of current public security system is necessary. A system that requires a protocol security analysis, in addition to correctly verify the information enables greater identification of the causes of the demand, through the correct use of new safety indicators. A change to a mixed security model that allows to combine reaction and prevention, through the development of strategic planning programs to make effective an efficient allocation of resources. A new approach supported by a social security agreement and related with the improvement in the community's quality of life. A change in the way of dealing with security based on community participation in the development of public security policies and responsibility of all participants in the system management. In this way, the government, as head of public security management, has to democratize the government agenda and open the safety analysis to new indicators, that complementing the existing, provide or improve the security of information.

Energy is considered as an important element to the economic and social development for the Modern Societies, because it is crucial for generating growth and employment. The proper use of the energy resources lets to develop different productive sectors, for making possible in that way to generate substantial improvements in the lives of the citizens. The signs of several energy agreements, as well as the creation agreement of the Expert Group on Energy (EGE), that works with OLADE advice and are responsible for making an analysis of the South America energy balance, are providing the tools needed to boost the creation of an energy action plan that involves all members of UNASUR. Other agreements were signed to ensure the defense of the resources of the region, by making up an ad-hoc expert group on legal and political matters, which aims to give a concrete regulatory content for the South America Energy Agreement`s structure. This group also is going to work with the Expert Group on Energy (EGE), both of these groups have to report to the South America Energy Council. Some oil companies in South America have conformed a group of national companies between countries of UNASUR, to develop gas production projects, refining oil, etc. This group maintains those regional agreements under the guidelines of the Energy Council, as in the case of Enarsa of Argentina; Petrobras in Brazil; Ecopetrol of Colombia; YPFB of Bolivia; Petroamazonas and Petroecuador of Ecuador; Petroperu and National Fuel, Alcohol and Portland (Ancap) from Uruguay, among others. It is noteworthy that the PDVSA, Venezuelan State Oil, has been which more has interacted with other state companies. This thesis aims to analyze the pattern of energy policy that Ecuador has implemented since 2007, with the government of President Rafael Correa and the Citizen Revolution, the transformation of the energy matrix; it means to change the actual hydrocarbons pattern used by a renewable energy sources pattern. This new pattern is really important to the growth and the development; also it could provide the energy sustainability for welfare of the people. Within the analysis, where there were compared several policies, programs and projects implemented by several countries in the region is remarkable to see the radical change that Ecuador has made to transform its energy sector, with policy changes, institutional reforms, by creating new administrative entities to control and regulation. Progress and significant changes that have been not only consistent with the guidelines established in the South American Energy Treaty, also these measures can be taken as a pattern in others countries. In this regard it is significant to point out that the Ecuadorian energy policy within its new vision, is aiming toward the generation of a new energy infrastructure through investment and better distribution of energy resources. Where the supply of energy to reach all citizens, and of course this new model can be consistent with the integration process, which involves the same two aspects that are complementary: Regulations and Infrastructure. ; La energía considerada como elemento central del desarrollo económico y social de las sociedades modernas, constituye una variable decisiva para la generación de crecimiento y empleo. El aprovechamiento y uso adecuado de los recursos energéticos pero se, permiten el crecimiento de los diferentes sectores productivos, posibilitando de esta manera generar sustanciales mejoras en las condiciones de vida de los pueblos. La firma de varios acuerdos políticos en materia de energía como por ejemplo el acuerdo de creación de un Grupo de Expertos en Energía (GEE), que junto con la asesoría de OLADE, se encarga de elaborar el análisis del balance energético de Suramérica, han proporcionado las herramientas necesarias para impulsar el desarrollo de un plan de acción energético que involucre a todos los miembros de UNASUR. (UNASUR, Declaración de la III Reunión del Consejo Energético de Suramérica, 2012).Se han firmado acuerdos para garantizar la defensa de los recursos de la región, por medio de la constitución de un grupo especializado ad hoc en materia jurídica y política, que pretende darle un contenido normativo concreto a la estructura del Tratado Energético Suramericano, el cual además trabajará en forma coordinada con el grupo de expertos enenergía y a su vez reportan al Consejo Energético de Suramérica. En esta línea varias petroleras suramericanas, han conformado una agrupación de empresas nacionales de países miembros de la UNASUR para desarrollar proyectos de producción de gas, refinación, etc. Manteniendo acuerdos regionales bajo los lineamientos del Consejo Energético, tal es el caso de Enarsa, de Argentina; Petrobras, de Brasil; Ecopetrol, de Colombia; YPFB, de Bolivia; Petroamazonas y Petroecuador, de Ecuador; Petroperú y Administración Nacional de Combustibles, Alcohol y Portland (Ancap), de Uruguay, entre otros. Cabe mencionar que la estatal venezolana PDVSA es la que más ha interactuado con otras empresas estatales. (SOLANO, 2014). La presente tesis tiene como objetivo analizar el modelo de política energética que el Ecuador ha implementado desde el año 2007, con el gobierno del Presidente Rafael Correa y la Revolución Ciudadana, orientado principalmente a la transformación de la matriz energética, es decir lograr la transición de un modelo altamente dependiente de los hidrocarburos, hacia un modelo que adopta fuentes renovables de energía, fundamentales en el desarrollo y el crecimiento económico de los pueblos, y que además proporcione la sustentabilidad energética para los pueblos. Dentro del análisis realizado, donde se comparó varias políticas, programas y proyectos aplicados por varios países de la región, es notable ver el cambio radical que Ecuador hizo en transformar su sector energético, con cambios normativos, reformas institucionales, creación de nuevos entes administrativos de control y regulación. Avances y cambios significativos que han sido no solo consecuentes con los lineamientos establecidos en el Tratado Energético Suramericano, sino además ejemplos a seguir para varios países. En este sentido es considerable resaltar que la política energética ecuatoriana, dentro de su nueva visión, esta direccionada hacia la generación de una nueva infraestructura energética, mediante la inversión y mejor distribución de los recursos energéticos. Donde el suministro de energía llegue a todos los ciudadanos, y este nuevo modelo sea consecuente con el Proceso de Integración, el mismo que involucra dos aspectos que son complementarios: Normativa e Infraestructura.

This dissertation examines, through literary and testimonial texts, the transmission and dissemination of narratives about torture that took place during the Algerian War of Independence. Fictional depictions of limit experiences such as torture are deeply rooted in discourses about remembering and forgetting. I argue that the frequently used term "open secret" is a misnomer which is taken up in literature in order to be critiqued through narrative fragmentation and shifting generic frames. My project is interdisciplinary, and studies literary and anthropological discussions of torture as both a politicized and sexualized system. I address the problem of representing torture and raise questions about the status of historiography and its place within French, Algerian, and trans-Mediterranean discourses. My first chapter, "Histories repeating," examines how and why fictional accounts of torture and its aftermath tend to deliberately conflate and intertwine various historical periods. Making individual memories of physical violence the subject of fiction, the authors I discuss narrativize the historical reality of torture in order to illustrate the longue durée and endless repeatability of violence. Being tortured and witnessing torture affects how one is able to transmit the memory of that act, as illustrated by the use of imbricated and hallucinatory narratives in generically diverse texts. Novels by Leïla Marouane and Antonin Varenne, and a short story by Assia Djebar, reveal the persistence of the Algerian War of Independence in contemporary fiction, and oblige readers to adopt a multidirectional approach to reading, as the text employs the same strategy to remember (and forget) extreme violence. In Chapter One, I also argue that texts employing a multidirectional approach to memories of the Algerian War and its aftermaths often work to de-inscribe the law that is written onto bodies. By creating characters that are, in one way or another, survivors and narrators of torture, the texts reject the hegemonic markers of torture, and criticize the systems that uphold victime/bourreau identitarianism. In Chapter Two, "The Tortured Body and the Narrativization of the Impossible," I turn to the oeuvre of Assia Djebar, whose career-long engagement with questions of history and individual and collective memory is evident in all of her texts, to discuss how the transmission of the story of torture is inscribed on the body. I refer to the mise en récit of these stories as a narrativization of the impossible, an impossibility that is predicated on the female body as a concrete trace of an act that is often denied or repressed by the individual. In the collection Femmes d'Alger dans leur appartement (1980) and novel La Femme sans sépulture (2002), Djebar rejects memory as a process at the service of the post-Independence State, and the various forms of transmission of violent narratives in her texts are a movement against monolithic forms of history-making. Rather than taking up positions as lieux de mémoire, static sites that work towards a national conception of memory and history, the narratives I examine refuse memorialization and allow instead an open-ended narrative that must be physically passed down in order to circulate in the face of renewed violence in Algeria.In my final chapter, "Testimonial texts: writing the obscene," I move away from fictional accounts of the aftermath of torture to explore the testimonial genre. Looking to first-person texts by Henri Alleg, Djamila Boupacha and Louisette Ighilarhiz, I argue that metropolitan French intellectuals had to intervene in their circulation and reception in order to mitigate the social and political unacceptability of these texts that are figured as "obscene." Ross Chambers' analysis of testimonial writing as both "untimely" and "obscene" acts in Untimely Interventions: AIDS Writing, Testimonial and the Rhetoric of Haunting underpins my argument that the description of torture in testimonial narratives is an exploration of the obscene; a state of affairs that allows for continual personal and systematic denial of the existence of torture and torture victims. The prevalence of sexual violence and rape and its place in French and Algerian cultural and social memory is also central to Chapter Three and my discussion of the textually obscene: torture is both hors scène, out of sight of the public, and obscene in the kind of limit experience it means for the victim and the torturer. The contrast between private and public discourses and the dissonance that can occur when narratives try to cross the public/private divide complicate how stories of torture are made available and received by readers. Reading testimonial accounts as textual incursions that embody the obscenity of torture and its physical effects, I argue that the paratextual support of French intellectuals was a necessary aspect of the transmission of primary torture narratives during the war. This mediation simultaneously shielded readers from the shock of events that were purposely kept "off-stage," and, paradoxically, highlighted the details of testimony that were the most contentious: descriptions of sexual violence, protracted legal struggles, and the blurred border between the French "us" and the Algerian "them." Multidirectional memory, another form of mediation that transmits narratives of torture, describes a shuttling between separate traumatic memories that are ultimately told together. I use Michael Rothberg's theory to explain and analyze the hinging effect often present more recent fictional texts on the Algerian War that are preoccupied with both the legacy of the War of Independence and the more immediate violence of Algeria's décennie noire. Using these narrative theories, I argue that the transmission of narratives of torture, be they fictional or testimonial, relies on a certain degree of mediation or deferral. I posit the transmission, or making public, of these stories as both individual and collective, and marked by a necessarily complex relationship to history, memory, and the physical traces of violence.By analyzing both Algerian and hexagonal French literature that addresses torture during the Algerian War, my dissertation frames the "Question" of state-sponsored violence as an enduring transnational topos that creates a proliferation of ghosts, unanswerable questions, and unsolvable crimes. As a project that engages with both hexagonal French and Francophone texts, my dissertation offers a new theory of how literature can engage with and defy taboos on memorial transmission and publically-recognizable grievances, and how the memory of torture is narrativized and circulated.

La presente tesis aborda el análisis del modelo de atribución de responsabilidad penal de las personas jurídica en el ordenamiento jurídico español, establecido mediante LO 5/2010 de Reforma del Código Penal. Además de unas breves notas sobre la evolución legislativa, histórica y de derecho comparado, se estudian los problemas mas relevantes de la responsabilidad penal corporativa, como la incapacidad de acción y culpabilidad de la persona jurídica, aspectos diferenciadores entre el derecho administrativo sancionador y el derecho penal, sistemas de prevención a través de compliance program, la cuestiones de orden procesal y la jurisprudencia más relevante en la materia. De manera independiente, se entra en el debate sobre si esta responsabilidad penal, como sostienen algunos autores, implica no solo el nacimiento de un nuevo sujeto para esta rama del derecho, sino si éste sujeto, en la era postindustrial, ha desplazado a la persona física como verdadero protagonista de las relaciones sociales y jurídicas (teoría deshumanizante). PALABRAS CLAVE: Responsabilidad penal, persona jurídica, empresa, antijuridicidad, culpabilidad, compliance program, administrativo sancionador, acción comunicativa, proceso penal. METODOLOGÍA: Estudio de bibliografía jurídica, revistas especializadas y base jurisprudencial, nacional y extranjera. Asistencia y participación en cursos y proyectos de investigación sobre la responsabilidad penal de las personas jurídicas. CONCLUSIONES: 1.- La instauración de la responsabilidad penal de la persona jurídica se debe solo a razones de política criminal. No existe fundamento jurídico, ni filosófico, que sustente la pretendida capacidad de la persona jurídica para ser sujeto activo en derecho penal. 2.- Los diversos modelos de responsabilidad de las personas jurídicas se han visto multiplicados en derecho comparado, si bien su incremento no lo es uniformemente en cuanto a su naturaleza penal. En la historia más reciente fue precisamente el derecho administrativo sancionador el que incluyó (creándola) la responsabilidad de la persona jurídica. 3.- La responsabilidad penal de las personas jurídicas desnaturaliza el derecho penal. La persona jurídica no tiene capacidad de acción ni capacidad de culpabilidad. Es solo un fin patrimonial. 4.-. Ninguna de las teorías construidas por la doctrina para justificar la responsabilidad penal de las personas jurídicas (espíritu normativo, funcional, carácter de la empresa, defecto de organización, cultura empresarial constructivista, etc.) se ajustan al principio de legalidad a la hora de conectar hecho y culpabilidad. 5- La ambigüedad conceptual del artículo 31 bis va a permitir a la jurisprudencia perfilar y definir con absoluta libertad el modelo de responsabilidad penal de la persona jurídica, vulnerándose principios como el de legalidad y taxatividad Penal, seguridad jurídica, o el de prohibición de interpretación extensiva de la norma penal. 6.- Artículo 31 bis. Establece un modelo de responsabilidad por transferencia, combinando un sistema de identificación y un sistema vicarial. No cabe individualizar en ningún caso responsabilidad por hecho propio. todo queda circunscrito a un hecho objetivo del que solo puede derivar una responsabilidad objetiva. Aceptar una idea de culpabilidad corporativa entraña admitir una pura visión teórica y extremadamente especulativa. 7.- Se acepta, como no puede ser de otro modo, que las personas jurídicas intervienen en el tráfico jurídico-económico, llegando a participar en acciones delictivas. Sin embargo, esta participación, que es puramente instrumental, no puede ser objeto directo, sino indirecto, del Derecho Penal. 8.- Desde perspectivas procesales entiendo que el legislador ha improvisado el estatuto procesal de la persona jurídica. ABSTRACT: This dissertation approaches the analysis of legal persons' appointment of criminal responsibility model in the Spanish legal system, established by the organic law LO 5/2010 from the Criminal Code Reform. As well as some brief review about the legislative, historic and comparative law evolution, the most important problems of corporate criminal responsibility are studied. Some of the latter are incapacity of action and legal person's guilt, some distinguishing aspects between disciplinary administrative law and criminal law, prevention systems through a compliance program, procedural matters and the case-law more relevant on the subject. In an independent way, it is brought up for discussion if criminal responsibility, as maintained by some authors, implies not only the birth of a new subject for this branch of law, but also if this subject, in the post-industrial age, has replaced the natural person as the real main character of social and legal relationships (dehumanized theory). KEY WORDS: Criminal responsibility, legal person, company, anti-juridicity, guilt, compliance program, disciplinary administrative, communicative action, criminal proceeding. METHODOLOGY: Domestic and foreign study of legal bibliography, technical journals and jurisprudence basis; Attendance and participation in courses and research projects on the criminal liability of legal persons. CONCLUSIONS: 1. - Criminal responsibility establishment of legal person is only due to criminal policy reasons. There is no legal or philosophical fundamental which maintains the supposed legal person's ability to be an active subject in criminal law. 2. - Legal persons' responsibility different models have been increased in comparative law, although this growth is not uniform in terms of its criminal nature. In the most recent history it was precisely the disciplinary administrative law the one which contained (by creating it) the liability of the legal person. 3. - Criminal responsibility of legal person distorts the criminal law. The legal person has not the ability of action or guilt. It is only an assets purpose. 4. - None of the theories built by the doctrine in order to justify the criminal responsibility of legal persons (normative spirit, practical, company personality, organization defect, constructivist corporate culture, etc. . .) is adjusted to the principle of legality when connecting fact and guilt. 5 - The conceptual ambiguity of Article 31 bis allows the case-law to shape and define with absolute freedom the legal person's criminal liability model. That fact infringes principles such as legality and taxativity of criminal law, legal certainty or prohibition of an over interpretation of criminal rule. 6. - Article 31a sets a responsibility model by transfer, combining identification and a vicarious liability system. It is not possible to pick out liability from the fact itself. So that, everything is confined to an objective fact which can only cause an objective liability. Accepting the idea of corporate guilt involves also the acceptance of a simple theoretical and extremely speculative point of view. 7. - It has been accepted , as it could not be any other way, that legal persons take part in the legal –economic traffic, and they even get to participate in criminal activities . However, that involvement, which is purely instrumental, cannot be a direct but indirect object of Criminal Law. 8. - From procedural perspectives I understand that legislator improvises the legal person procedural statute.

L'analisi delle tappe attraverso cui, tra Rivoluzione e Unità, si sostanzia l'istruzione scolastica, consente di aprire ampie finestre sui progetti di trasformazione delle istituzioni educative e sulla valenza degli itinerari formativi attuati nella Sicilia del Sette-Ottocento. Contro la significativa preponderanza della scuola superiore e l'insegnamento gesuitico, portatore di una cultura umanistico - retorica, l'esigenza di razionalizzare l'insegnamento articolandolo in un sistema di ordini e gradi è proprio delle meditazioni della pedagogia illuministica. Il prototipo prussiano e austriaco, che tende alla creazione di un modello educativo organico, centralizzato e laico, determina in Italia la nascita di veri e propri epicentri di trasformazione politica e culturale. La cacciata dei Gesuiti segna il termine a quo del riformismo agrario meridionale nonché la fine del monopolio religioso sull'assistenza e sull'istruzione. In Sicilia De Cosmi si fa interprete di una riforma regalista, giurisdizionalista e popolare, invitando ad operare una riflessione propositiva sulla fine della cultura gesuitica e sui progetti di riutilizzo, in senso lato, del patrimonio dell'ordine. Tra riformismo e rivoluzione il dibattito relativo all'introduzione delle scuole decosmiane e al rapporto tra queste e le secondarie rivela significative consonanze con altri aspetti della politica borbonica nella sua fase tanucciana e caraccioliana. L'introduzione del metodo lancasteriano porrà l'accento sulla "necessità " di un'istruzione aperta ad una utenza più larga. Le istanze giurisdizionalistiche e i revisionismi successi incideranno in maniera trasversale sul sistema educativo e sull'opportunità o meno di affidarne il controllo al clero. I modi e i tempi di applicazione della normativa al caso Catania sottolineano lo stridente contrasto che caratterizzò l'ipotesi di una società, in bilico tra passato e presente, accarezzata da una monarchia borbonica che dopo le istanze riformistiche si scontrava con la realtà della Restaurazione. Se la ricostruzione della normativa può costituire una prima griglia inter-pretativa , l'esame - attraverso l'uso incrociato di fonti bibliografiche e documentazione d'archivio - delle strutture scolastiche diventa indispensabile chiave di lettura per penetrare nel meccanismo della risposta istituzionale alla volontà centrale. A fronte dell'intelaiatura di base relativa all'istruzione primaria e secondaria, pubblica e privata, così come si strutturava a Catania tra Sette e Ottocento, particolare significato riveste la peculiarità di alcune istituzioni finalizzate all'educazione di specifiche categorie sociali: il Collegio Cutelli dedicato all'istruzione dei nobili, e l'Ospizio di beneficenza, destinato ai diseredati, alla "bassa gente", alla prole dei mendichi, ai "figli di nessuno". Il duro sistema di vita dell'Ospizio, con il suo progetto pedagogico finalizzato all'istruzione "professionale - militare", ci dà la misura della abissale distanza dalla raffinata atmosfera, permeata di studi classici e di "arti liberali", del Collegio Cutelli. La scuola per la formazione dei futuri artigiani e la palestra atta a plasmare il giovane gentiluomo rappresentano le due facce di una medesima medaglia. Il modello proposto dal Collegio a confronto con quello suggerito dall'Ospizio costituiscono in sostanza un emblematico punto d'arrivo di quei mutamenti politico - istituzionali e socio - culturali che contemporaneamente caratterizzavano la formazione dello stato moderno nel Meridione. The analysis of the stages through which, between Revolution and Unity of Italy, the education system takes shape, open ample windows on the transformation plans for educational institutions and on the importance of the formative itineraries effected in eighteenth and nineteenth century Sicily. Against the sígnificant predominance of the high school and the teaching of the Jesuits, holders of a humanistic-rhetoric culture, the need to rationalise teaching, articulating it into a system of orders and degrees is the fruit of the meditatíons of Enlightenment pedagogy. The Prussian and Austrian prototype, that favours the creation of an organic, centralized and secular educational model, determines the birth of authentic centres of political and cultural transformation in Italy. The expulsion of the Jesuits marks the end a quo of agrarian reformism in the south and the end of the religious monopoly on the welfare institutes and education. In Sicily De Cosmi is the interpreter of a regalist, jurisdictional and popular reform, inviting constructive reflection on the end of the Jesuitical culture and on the plans to reutilize, in a broad sense, the patrimony of the Order. Between reformism and revolution the debate on the introduction of Decosmian schools, and the relationship between these and secondary schools reveal meaningful consonances with other aspects of Bourbon policy in its Tanuccian and Caracciolian phases. The introduction of the Lancasterian method will put the accent on the «necessity» of education available to larger numbers. The jurisdíctional demands and the revisionisms of the moment are to have a transversal effect on the educational system and on the opportunity or not of entrusting it to the control to the clergy. The method and the time necessary for the application of the regulations regarding the Catania case underline the sharp contrast that characterízed the hypothesis of a society, in unstable balance between past and present, caressed by a Bourbon monarchy that after the reformistic pressures, encountered the reality of the Restoration. If the reconstruction of the regulations could constitute a first interpretative scheme, the examination (through the cross use of bibliographical sources and filed records) of the scholastic structures becomes the essential reading key in order to penetrate the mechanism of the institutional answer to the central will. With reference to the basic framework regarding primary and secondary, public and private education, as it was structured in Catania between the eightéenth and nineteenth centuries, the distinctive characteristics of certain institutions whose purpose was the education of specific social categories: the Collegio Cutelli, dedicated to the education of the nobles, and the Ospizio di beneficenza, educating the disinherited, 'low people', 'beggars' children and waifs and strays, took on particular meaning. The hard way of life in the Ospizio, with its pedagogical plan aiming at 'professionalmilitary' instruction illustrates the extent of the abysmal distance from the refined atmosphere, impregnated with classica) studies and 'liberai arts', of the Collegio Cutelli. The school for the formation of future artisans and the school where young gentleman were shaped represent the two faces of the same medal. The model proposed by the Collegio and the one suggested by the Ospizio constitute, in essence, an emblematical point of arrivai of those political changes, institutional and social-cultural, that together characterized the formation of the modern state in the south.

Over the course of its 80-year history, the main goal of the subsidized housing program in the United States has been to help poor households live in physically sound affordable housing. Over and above serving the immediate shelter needs of low-income households, an important but not always explicit justification for the program has been the belief that upgrading the housing conditions of the poor will yield broader benefits of social and economic advancement not only to the occupants of subsidized apartments but also to the neighborhoods around them. The various forms that the subsidized housing program has taken over the years have been closely linked both to attitudes towards the proper responses to address poverty and the role that governments can play in the operation of the housing market. My dissertation examines the experiences of residents of subsidized housing before, during, and after their involvement with the program with particular attention to the understanding of poverty and social stratification.Specifically, Chapter 1 investigates the pathways that residents take to enter subsidized housing and exit subsidized housing. I use life table analysis and discrete time hazard modeling with data from two nationally representative panel surveys, the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), spanning the period 1990-2008, and the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), spanning the period 1969-2007. I find that the median time to entry into subsidized housing is 30 years, reflecting the fact that most individuals who are eligible for the subsidy never receive it. On the other hand, the median time to exit from subsidized housing ranges from 5 years for public housing to 3 or 4 years for other types of subsidized housing. The process of entering subsidized housing in a lot of ways mirrors the process of exiting subsidized housing. African Americans are the ones who are most likely to find themselves in subsidized housing and are also the ones most likely to stay in subsidized housing longer. While the amount of household earnings and welfare benefits does not have an overwhelming association with either entering or exiting subsidized housing, the local employment and housing conditions do have an effect on the process, with individuals living in places with higher unemployment rates and higher rents more likely to enter subsidized housing and also less likely to exit subsidized housing. My findings also confirm previous research showing that the residents of public housing programs live in some of the most distressed neighborhoods and any exit from the program improves their neighborhood conditions. My findings also show that the voucher program and the private subsidized housing program do not have the intended effect of providing residents with better neighborhood environments.Chapter 2 examines an understudied aspect of the relationship between government subsidies and household structure, namely how entering subsidized housing, staying in subsidized housing and exiting into the private housing market interacts with the choices that subsidy recipients make regarding the kind of households they live in. I use a multi-state life table, incorporating the monthly longitudinal housing subsidy and household composition histories of all individuals in the SIPP from 1990 through 2008. My results show that entries into subsidized housing are accompanied by changes in household arrangements that reduce the number of adults in households. Moreover, there is a distinct life course pattern to the entry into subsidized housing with younger individuals transitioning into subsidized housing as single parents with children and older individuals transitioning as single householders. On the other hand, individuals tend to exit subsidized housing in the same household arrangement as they were in subsidized housing, indicating that moves out of subsidized housing may be associated with other changing circumstances such as greater economic stability rather than changes in household composition. I find no strong evidence that marriages break up once individuals are in subsidized housing, but I do find that a single mother with a child is much more likely to exit subsidized housing altogether than to get married while in subsidized housing. My multi-state life table allows me to simulate what would happen to the composition of households in subsidized housing given a contraction or expansion of the subsidized housing program. My simulations suggest that the biggest changes in the subsidized program would occur with changes in the rates of entry into subsidized housing rather than the rates of exit from subsidized housing. Increasing the rates of entry into subsidized housing does not have the same multiplicative effect across different types of household arrangements. In fact, a policy that allows individuals across all ages to transition more frequently into subsidized housing would shift the programs towards housing single-person elderly households for longer periods of time compared to younger single parent or married couple households.Chapter 3 is a detailed examination of how children who grew up in subsidized housing make the transition to adulthood. Specifically, I estimate the effect of subsidized housing on the timing of first marriage, first birth, and the establishment of an independent household. I also assess whether living in subsidized housing makes children less likely to complete high school, continue their education after high school, and complete college, and more likely to live in subsidized housing after age 18. I use propensity score matching to statistically match children who grew up in subsidized housing to ones who are similar on observable characteristics but did not live in subsidized housing. I use these "treatment" and "control" groups to derive race- and gender-specific estimates of the effect of subsidized housing on the transition to adulthood. I also assess whether these effects vary by the stage in childhood when the stay in subsidized housing occurred, i.e. early childhood, middle childhood, or adolescence. Using the PSID, I find that subsidized housing accelerates the first birth and the establishment of an independent household only for black girls who were in subsidized housing between the ages of 6 and 11. Moreover, white children who grew up in subsidized housing have consistently worse educational outcomes compared to similar white children who did not grow up in subsidized housing. The most consistent finding in this chapter across all racial and age groups is that children who grew up in subsidized housing during any stage in childhood are also much more likely to reenter subsidized housing as heads of households.

The rational allocation of transportation resources involves both the evaluation of the effectiveness of programs designed to improve transportation systems, as well as the formulation of policies representing a balance of competing public interests in those systems. Such interests often include: curbing automobile emissions, expanding highway infrastructure, providing affordable transit services for inner-city residents, and extending commuter rail services to sprawling suburban areas. Designing policies that cost-effectively further each these objectives can attenuate the degree of inherent tradeoffs between them and expand the frontier of achievable policy goals. This dissertation presents a set of essays addressing two such aspects of transportation policy decisions: 1) an evaluation of programs aimed at increasing transportation safety and public health, and 2) an examination of the processes through which competing public interests and agendas are mobilized in the legislative arena by transportation agencies.Chapter One: Graduated driver license programs (GDL), which progressively move teens through three stages of licensing while limiting driving to lower risk conditions, have become an increasingly popular approach in the past decade to address the high rate of teen driving related fatality and injury crashes. Teens are 2 to 6 times as likely as adults, per mile driven, to die in motor vehicle accident, and teen crashes tend to involve more fatalities per crash than for any other age group. Driving at night past 9pm or with young passengers under the age of 20 are significant risk factors for teen crashes.This research uses a panel data set of teen driver involved fatal vehicle crashes among 16 to 17 year old drivers in 742 counties and 137 commuting zones straddling state borders for the years 1996 to 2009. I use a cross-state policy discontinuity design with an ordinary least squares fixed-effects regression model to identify the effects of graduated driver license laws on teen driver error related fatal crashes and associated fatality counts. Additionally, I analyze the impacts on crash characteristics most likely associated with teen driving mistakes, such as presence of young occupants and those occurring at night or involving alcohol. By taking into account local heterogeneities, the policy-discontinuity design provides more credible identification than previous studies. Importantly, the findings indicate much larger GDL effects than in the extant literature. I find that the strongest GDL programs, as rated by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, reduce teen driving related fatal crash rates by 25 to 34 percent and teen driving error related fatal crash rates by 34 to 45 percent. The most effective components of the GDL were early nighttime driving curfews beginning between 6pm to 10pm at night. Passenger restrictions had statistically significant effects only when controlling for the number of licensed teens on the road. For example, the zero to one passenger limit reduced quarterly county-level young teen driver involved fatal crash rates per 100,000 by -6.388 points, relative to a mean rate of 9.5 in state-periods without restrictions. These passenger limits were also highly effective at reducing nighttime crashes among teens, with a reduction in these crash rates of -5.909. Finally, the extended practice period during which newly licensed teens are only allowed to drive under adult supervision were effective in reducing fatal crashes per unit population but only were statistically significant for nighttime crashes that occur after 9pm when controlling for the number of licensed teen drivers. Chapter Two: Government transportation agencies spend considerable amounts of money attempting to influence state and federal legislation, through their own legislative staff, and the efforts of appointed officials and hired lobbyists. Almost none of the literature to date has examined how transportation agencies use their funding and political influence to shape state and federal policy. By looking at what topics agencies choose to lobby on, or not to lobby on, we can better understand how transportation agencies attempt to shape the transportation legislation, and how potential biases in their agendas are mobilized. This analysis includes four agencies in the San Francisco Bay Area Metropolitan region: the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC), a regional Metropolitan Transportation Planning Organization, the Bay Area Rapid Transit District (BART), the region's commuter rail operator, Alameda-Contra Costa Transit (AC Transit), a local bus agency serving two counties in the East Bay, and the Santa Clara Valley Transit Authority (VTA), a bus and light-rail transit operator in the southern portion of the region. Collectively, these four agencies account for approximately 80 percent of the total spending on lobbying activities by San Francisco Bay Area transportation agencies.This research draws on government reports filed by the agencies, in-house agency legislative agenda records, and interviews with legislative and agency staff. Descriptive statistics and a probit analysis of lobbying data are applied to compare the substance of each agency's lobbying activities to the set of pressing transportation issues the agencies themselves have identified in their planning documents, and the set of transportation issues and needs identified by other key stakeholders including business groups, social justice advocates, and environmentalists. All of the transportation agencies lobbied heavily for finance bills that increase revenue and flexibility in fund use as well as funding redistribution. Equity related bills that address transportation for low-income populations have a significantly higher marginal probability of gaining both MTC and AC Transit support, relative to bills that do not address these issues. Overall, VTA was less likely to support highway bills but did not have biases toward any other particular bill issues. BART overwhelming supported bills promoting smart growth principles and transit oriented development, two strategies believed to increase transit ridership. Both the Santa Clara VTA and BART were strategic in the bills they chose to support, having a greater likelihood of supporting bills authored by transportation committee chairs, perhaps in an effort to both build political capital and to expend resources on bills with a greater chance of passage. MTC was more likely to take a supporting position on social equity related bills; however, the degree of effort in that support is unknown. Notably, MTC was not statistically more likely to support bills specific to expanding public transit, a mode important to low income groups, relative to other bill categories.

Many critics consider Richard Serra the leading sculptor of the 20th century. He is famous not only for inventing something new in sculpture (abstract sculpture compositions existed before him, having been opened by constructivist vanguard of the beginning of the 20th century). Material selections by Vladimir Tatlin and sculptures by Osip Tsadkin, as well as compositions by Henry Moor appeared before Serra. Serra is famous for transferring his works' accent from the works as they are, which could be installed in any place, to their environment. That is he saw in the sculpture a key to understanding the urban space. His crude metal sheets and profiles, rectangular and curvilinear, exceeding regular scale of sculpture, come closer to architecture. Richard Serra places them near architectural constructions as checkpoints of intermediate scale category of space located between so-called «street furniture» – lamp posts, stalls, fountains and benches – and buildings, especially huge modern ones.But the matter is not only in the scale. Serra's sculptures are not only abstract compositions that harmoniously add to the space with their spacious scale. They have some mystery, some implicit sense appearing before a pedestrian as an enigma. Their mystique opposes both street furniture and architecture. But first of all it opposes the historical sculpture with its enigma always overshadowed by historical or biographical topic. Krylov's sculpture in the Summer Garden or Minin and Pozharsky's monument on the Red Square do not strike us, because we know that those monuments are erected IN COMMEMORATION of prominent people, as fellow citizens' tribute to their great contribution to the national history. But the crude metal sheets welded at different angles – what are they for? Who needs them?As an art critic, Edward Goldman, said, fame came to Richard Serra in 1989, when the sculpture composition Tilted Arc erected eight years before it was demolished by request of the public, that did not understand its sense and was exasperated with the obvious absence of this sense. However, Serra sees his sculpture's sense not only in its filling a scale gap in the environment, but also in its instigating a man to think and to concern the environment and the space as a problem, linking this problem with a problem of human's being. Is there any other way to explain the public's indignation? Serra's sculpture compositions do not obstruct pedestrian flow and do not offend anyone's dignity or memory, do they? They act as Zen koans, as if mutely asking a spectator about the sense. Not knowing the answer, the citizen gets exasperated – not with his inability to answer, but with the sculptor (or city government), imposing this enigma to him. Only children are always happy to get an enigma. They like to train their mind in determining the sense, because they believe in the sense of being and consider themselves successors of this sense. A grown-up member of the state, both of a totalitarian one and of one with a market economy, loses this ability, believing neither in God nor in devil, neither in state officers nor in heroes. He only gets annoyed when reminded about a sense. This irritation can be explained in terms of a conflict between conviction in his right to freedom and real feeling of his fatality. He is not disposed to play with the world and the artist. He is willing only to take sedative pills, cheering drinks and all kinds of flattery. Seeing a hero made of bronze or cast iron, he feels free either to share his respect towards the hero, or to spit upon the false idol. In both cases the sense realized by him remains in his power. When this sense escapes, the illusion of his power disappears too, in other words the illusion of his rights in this world where he is kicked by those who have more power and rights.Reasoning from quite Utopian ideals of Democracy, Richard Serra believes that to train such play of mind is as necessary as to brush teeth or to button a shirt. A man with this ability not functioning falls out of the society, officially remaining its member though.But there is also another aspect – relation of such enigmas to architecture. Architecture differs from Richard Serra's sculptures not only in scale. The difference is also in the fact, that, being a plastic object like an abstract sculpture, architectural composition has social and functional status, and therefore it does not represent any special enigma. Looking at a grand construction we understand that it is a City Administration, or a Bank, or a Library, or a Museum, or… whatever having its own socially approved status and sense never doubted. So, one can treat it either with respect or with hatred, not losing the feeling of ability for sense orientation. But Serra's sculptures sometimes lead to this.Nevertheless, architecture has turned out to be sensitive to such things and it currently tries to propose an enigma to a citizen instead of suggesting its status. The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao or the Hundertwasser Viennese House in this regard come closer to sculpture, as if crushing differences between architecture and fine arts and making needless an artistic gesture such as Serra's. The question is to what extent this architectural aping is appropriate. Or maybe it is better to leave the sense space to the sculptor, focusing on the senses peculiar to architecture, which are claimed neither by Serra nor by his possible progeny. Evidently Serra experienced those problems himself, appealing to the authorities and searching for their support. Probably he was looking for support not only as an artist in need of a client, but also as an artist confronting social determinancy of architecture in urban environment. Thus he was indirectly returning to architecture its sense space, which architecture is currently ready to play with, forgetting about its sense limits. So it is a big question: whether his sculpture does harm to architecture with its competition with the latter or releases it from plays that are not appropriate to it in order to perform its maybe more sublime mission – not only to ask but also to answer the questions on the sense of being?However, solution of this problem is to what extent architects and their clients are ready to give such answers, to what extent these answers are sincere and realistic, and to what extent the society is ready to ask itself about the sense of its own being. But it is another topic.

Der vor Ihnen liegende Artikel will einen ersten Eindruck und Überblick zu lösungsfokussierter Therapie geben. Dabei nimmt die Darstellung ihren Ausgangspunkt bei der Entwicklung aus dem Ansatz von M. H. Erickson und liefert somit einen historischen Hintergrund. In einem zweiten Schritt wird das Praxismodell in seinen Grundzügen dargelegt. Der dritte Teil zeigt mögliche erklärungstheoretische Ansätze zur Begründung des lösungsfokussierten Vorgehens. Abschließend werden Fragen der Verträglichkeit mit anderen Therapiekonzepten sowie gesundheitspolitische Fragen erörtert.Schlüsselwörter: Lösungsfokussierte Therapie, Kurzzeittherapie, Ressourcenorientierung, konstruktivistische Therapien. ; The paper intends to give a first impression and overview to Solution Focussed Therapy (SFT) to the appreciated reader. Starting with the influences on Solution Fokussed Therapy by the work of M. H. Erickson, the first part of the paper focusses on the historical background of the development of SFT. The second part outlines the basic assumptions and guidelines of the model in practice, while the last part delineates possible theoretical models for the explanation and foundation of the proceeding. In conclusion questions concerning the fitting with alternative therapy-concepts as well as the mental health policy will be discussed.Keywords: Solution Focussed Therapy, brief therapy, resources of clients, constructivist therapies. ; La présente contribution met en évidence les caractéristiques de la thérapie centrée sur la recherche d'une solution, sous forme d'un narratif que l'auteur se raconte à lui-même. D'entrée on se rend compte de la manière dont le thème se réfléchit lui-même, ainsi que du fait que le langage joue un rôle extrêmement important à la fois au niveau de la procédure thérapeutique et à celui de la tentative faite pour la présenter. Les problèmes inhérents au concept de "thérapie centrée sur la recherche d'une solution" et à la brièveté des traitements impliquée sont d'abord signalés. On présente ensuite un résumé de l'histoire du concept, à partir de Milton H. Erikson et des approches thérapeutiques très variées qu'il a inspirées: thérapie stratégique, thérapie systémique et hypno-thérapie. Les deux principales parties du travail consistent en une description de la manière dont l'application pratique de ce type de thérapie est conçue et d'une présentation de son approche au niveau épistémologique.Concernant le modèle pratique, on en élucide d'abord les conditions-cadres, c'est-à-dire la manière dont le modèle doit être lu- en tant que modèle descriptif qui n'implique pas de prescriptions - et la structure habituellement offerte pendant les séances. Puis l'on décrit l'attitude du/de la thérapeute dans le cadre du traitement, attitude caractérisée d'une part par la manière dont il gère la relation mais aussi et surtout par le type de questions posées. Les mots de passe sont: ressources et avenir. Les types de questions - conçues ici comme instruments utilisés lors de l'interview et désignées par les Américains comme "five useful questions" - sont ensuite décrits en détail. Il s'agit de questions 'invitation' (qui charge qui de quel mandat thérapeutique!), 'émerveillement' (à quoi ressemblerait le monde du client si les problèmes Qui l'on fait consulter étaient résolus?), 'exception' (quand une petite partie de ce 'miracle' s'est-elle déjà produite - même sans qu'on le remarque?), 'échelle d'évaluation' (où situer l'état actuel sur une échelle de 10 points? quel a été le nombre maximum de points jusqu'à maintenant? quelle devrait être la prochaine étape?) et 'accomplissement' (comment avez-vous réussi . à venir ici malgré tous vos problèmes . à gérer les principaux aspects de votre vie . à vous lever le matin .?). Ceci permet de présenter les principaux instruments dont on dispose lors de l'interview. Mais une interview basée sur la solution ne s'arrête pas là, et c'est pourquoi nous consacrons deux chapitres à la construction et à la transmission d'un feedback - fourni (dans la mesure où le travail se fait en équipe) après une brève pause-discussion avec cette dernière. En fait, nous recommandons ce genre de pause même lorsque le travail se fait sans équipe. A la différence de l'interview, le feedback sert alors de synthèse et de renforcement des données acquises; il fournit également une opportunité de corriger certaines données, mais aussi d'introduire de nouveaux éléments - exemple: une nouvelle perspective ou une recommandation surprenante. La partie de l'article traitant de la pratique se termine par de brève explication concernant les séances suivantes. Il s'agit en principe d'abord d'une évaluation: une amélioration s'est-elle produite ou pas? Dans le premier cas, on procède- nous simplifions beaucoup -selon la devise "fais encore plus de ce qui a un effet positif!". Dans le second - et en simplifiant encore -, on tente de déconstruire en cernant ce qui dans la période écoulée peut être considéré comme relativement plus positif. Ceci permet éventuellement de reposer une base à partir de laquelle des questions centrées sur la recherche d'une solution pourront être posées. Dans le chapitre traitant de l'épistémologie, on se réfère d'abord aux approches existantes et surtout au travail de Steve de Shazer, qui a tenté d'élaborer des explications de type linguistico-analytique en se fondant sur les derniers ouvrages philosophiques de Wittgenstein. Puis l'on présente le constructivisme social de Kenneth Gergen, le considérant comme un concept utile au niveau de l'explication. Cette approche nous a paru prometteuse du fait surtout que Gergen s'est beaucoup intéressé à la psychothérapie et a réfléchi à l'utilité de son approche dans ce domaine; en effet, ici aussi se situent au premier plan le langage, ses séductions mais aussi sa fonction de guide à l'action au niveau social. L'avantage de l'attribution d'une base socio-constructive à la thérapie est en rapport avec le fait qu'elle permet de souligner que de nouveaux discours et de nouveaux narratifs peuvent parfaitement être viables - et avec eux de nouvelles impulsions à agir hors de la thérapie, ce qui permet d'accorder à la "vie de tous les jours" une importance suffisante par rapport à la situation quelque peu artificielle de la thérapie formelle. L'article se termine sur une brève discussion critique des rapports entre la thérapie centrée sur la recherche de solutions et d'autres approches thérapeutiques - peu de problèmes ici -, de la question d'une version à long terme de ce type de thérapie -elle dépendra de la définition de la thérapie à long terme -, et du contexte actuel dans le domaine de la politique de la santé, qui favorise les "thérapies brèves" pour des raisons d'ordre avant tout financier. ; unknown ; publishedVersion