Studies of youth subcultures have been carried out for decades from various theoretical perspectives (including functionalism, social ecology, neo‐Marxism, deviance and labeling, cultural studies, sports and leisure studies) as well as from various methodological standpoints (e.g., deductive and inductive approaches, insider and outsider perspectives, ethnographic, historical comparative, and semiotics). The sociological study of youth subcultures thus offers a wide range of opportunities to bring together an interesting topic for young people and theoretical or methodological pedagogies.Suggested booksThe significance of youth‐subcultural studies is evident in the plethora of current books on the topic. Here, I provide a brief summary of some recent books, as well as a few classics that should not be overlooked.Cohen, Stanley 2002 [1972]. Folk Devils and Moral Panics (3rd edn). London, UK: Routledge.This study of the infamous mods and rockers clashes in Britain in the mid‐1960s focuses attention on the media's role in construction youth subcultures as deviant social phenomena. Its significance lies not only in its analysis of how the British media created a moral panic by stereotyping, exaggerating, and mishandling representations of youth, but also in its more general insight into the social construction of social categories such as 'youth', 'subculture', and 'deviance'. Readers of the third edition will benefit from Cohen's introductions to the second and third editions (both printed in the third edition), which give an updated analysis of the two concepts he originally proposed in his title (i.e., folk devil and moral panic).Gelder, Ken (ed.) 2005. The Subcultures Reader (2nd edn). London, UK: Routledge.This book represents the single most comprehensive collection of original research in youth‐subcultural studies. The edited volume has 48 chapters divided into 8 thematic sections, each with its own introductory chapter (in addition to the 48), and covers a broad range of theoretical and empirical research.Greenberg, Arielle (ed.) 2007. Youth Subcultures: Exploring Underground America. New York, NY: Pearson Longman.Unlike some books on youth cultures or subcultures that develop theory at the expense of readability and engagement, Greenberg's edited volume is very friendly to less experienced social science readers. The contributed chapters are written both by professional scholars and undergraduate students. Greenberg has sought to avoid jargon‐ and reference‐laden research and succeeded in developing a book that undergraduates, especially those who are not taking an entire course on youth subcultures, will find most useful.Haenfler, Ross 2006. Straight Edge: Hardcore Punk, Clean‐Living Youth, and Social Change. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.In recent years, there have been several thorough ethnographic studies of youth subcultures. Along with Paul Hodkinson's study of goths and Lauraine Leblanc's study of female punks, Haenfler's book offers keen sociological insight into the contemporary culture of straight edge. His book frames the subculture in terms of its nonmaterial culture, its status as an agent of social change, and its masculine and feminine dimensions. It is well written and serves as a tool for engaging students on notions of gender and social change, especially.Hall, Stuart and Tony Jefferson (eds) 1998 [1975]. Resistance through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post‐War Britain. London, UK: Routledge.This is the classic edited text from the Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at the University of Birmingham, UK, which established youth‐subcultural studies as a subdiscipline of both cultural studies and sociology. The editors offer a significant theoretical expose on the links between critical theory and youth subcultures. The subsequent empirical and theoretical chapters further express their collective stance, which although it has come under serious criticism over the years, is still a must‐read for students of youth subcultures. Most of work relates directly to British youth subcultures of the 1950s to the 1970s and, therefore, may seem quite foreign to younger American readers. Teachers relying on this book may need to do some homework of their own to get up to speed on the substantive issues covered.Hebdige, Dick 1979. Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London, UK: Routledge.This book is considered by many scholars to be the quintessence of British subcultural studies. Hebdige takes a rather nonsociological view of subcultures in the book, emphasizing a humanist semiotic approach instead. Many scholars have criticized the book as unnecessarily dense and devoid of the voices of subcultural participants, yet the author's insights into the cultural significance of style still make it a very significant text.Hodkinson, Paul and Wolfgang Deicke (eds) 2007. Youth Cultures: Scenes, Subcultures, and Tribes. London, UK: Routledge.This edited collection is based on a 2003 conference in which youth culture scholars discussed the relative utility of the subculture concept in the face of pressure from competing concepts such as scenes and neotribes. The book consists of a rather eclectic set of chapters that tackle both theoretical and substantive issues. While its weakness is perhaps its lack of coherence, this is balanced by its wide coverage of contemporary issues, including gender, race/ethnicity, commodification, and new media.Huq, Rupa 2006. Beyond Subculture: Pop, Youth and Identity in a Postcolonial World. London, UK: Routledge.Focusing on music cultures at the turn of the millennium, Hug offers a solid synthetic analysis of subcultural studies in the UK during the latter half of the twentieth century. She then moves through a series of case studies on various music genres – including bhangra, rave/club, hip‐hop/rap, and grunge – as she attempts to articulate how the cultures that consume such music have moved beyond the 'subculture' label.Leblanc, Lauraine 2001. Pretty in Punk: Girls' Gender Resistance in a Boys' Subculture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.While many books look at core cultural dimensions of particular youth subcultures, Leblanc dedicates her book to young women's participation. Focusing on punk, she investigates the historical structures of the subculture that result in the marginalization of women, how female participants construct the significance of punk in their lives, and how they deal with males both within and outside subcultural contexts.Muggleton, David 2000. Inside Subculture: The Postmodern Meaning of Style. Oxford, UK: Berg.Playing off the name of Dick Hebdige's famous book, this monograph offers a very different reading of youth‐subcultural participation than classic CCCS texts. Muggleton takes an empirical rather than semiotic approach, using interviews and fieldnotes from his study of young people in Britain who dress in alternative fashions. His work offers new insights into the relations between youth culture, fashion, and identity.Muggleton, David and Rupert Weinzierl 2003. The Post‐Subcultures Reader. Oxford, UK: Berg.This edited volume focuses on recent work by scholars working, for the most part, from a postmodern perspective. Rather than seeing subcultures as class‐based, ideologically pinned or static, the authors collectively explore the more fluid and negotiated terrain upon with contemporary Western youths live. The book would be best used for a graduate course, as much of the writing is relatively sophisticated.Thornton, Sarah 1996. Club Cultures: Music, Media and Subcultural Capital. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan.Starting with Pierre Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital, Thornton moves into the world of rave/club culture to study how subcultural participants articulate their own form of status, power, and identity. Another significant dimension of the book is her articulation of the role various media (from mass to micro to niche) play in subcultural worlds.Films and videosAs discussed by Leblanc (1998), films provide opportunities for students to practice casting a sociological eye on the world around them. While Leblanc's focus was on teaching ethnography, her substantive interests in youth and youth subcultures provide a useful discussion for teachers interested in teaching a course on youth subcultures. Over the years, I have used many films and videos, both in whole and part, either to emphasize a particular sociological concept, to provide documentary evidence of particular subcultural styles, practices, and worldviews, or to facilitate relatively safe student engagement with a topic that many of them might shy away from in a face‐to‐face context. In the following list, I will make reference to particular parts of my syllabus (further below) where the film/video might be most useful.Between Resistance and CommunityThis is an independently made documentary film by Joe Caroll and Ben Holtman (2002) about the Long Island, New York DIY (do‐it‐yourself) hardcore scene. The documentary provides an in‐depth look at the scene through the eyes of its members. It is full of raw footage of hardcore music shows and interviews with scene participants and offers a coherent standpoint analysis of the concepts of resistance and community (thus living up to its title). I typically use parts of the film in connection with the concept of resistance, as well as societal responses/reaction and identity/authenticity.Merchants of CoolFrontline's documentary of the relationship between cultural production and consumption emphasizes not only mainstream fashion, but specifically how cultural industries take advantage of young people that live on the cutting edge of style through basic marketing tools. The video is available online (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cool/view/) and is broken down into six parts. I sometime show parts 1–3 and 6 during a single class in order to have time for discussion. The video is relevant to discussions of style, consumption/culture industries, authenticity, and media.Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood HillsThis is a lengthy documentary film about the so‐called West Memphis Three: three young men who were convicted of torturing and murdering three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas, in 1993. The case surrounding the murders and trials remains highly contested, and to this day there are serious doubts by many as to the guilt of the accused. As the documentary shows, the West Memphis Three were heavy metal fans, one of whom dabbled in the Wiccan religion. While the film is too long for most classes, I used two sections of the film to highlight (i) the 'dominant' Christian culture of West Memphis and (ii) the attempts by prosecutors to create a strong tie between the defendants' appearance and style on one hand and Satanism on the other. The film offers students insight into the harsh reality of labeling, moral panic, and societal response (there is also a follow‐up documentary entitled Paradise Lost 2: Revelations).QuadropheniaA film produced during the 1970s by the British rock band The Who, Quadrophenia looks back at the mod and rocker subcultures of the mid‐1960s through the eyes of a mod. The film is best viewed in Section 2 of my course syllabus, while students are reading about the Birmingham tradition (in the USA especially, since many students have never heard of mods and rockers). Mods are cited repeatedly in the CCCS literature; thus, the film gives students something more tangible to engage. The film is particularly good and facilitating student engagement with certain subcultural concepts learned in Sections 1 and 2, including frame of reference, strain, homology, bricolage, and 'magical' solutions.The SourceThis documentary looks at the Beat culture. I use sections of the film to highlight the dominant American culture of the 1950s and how individuals who felt marginalized or otherwise nonnormative moved to big cities in search of other people who were similar. The film works well with a discussion of Albert Cohen's theory of subcultural strain.The WarriorsHaving attended a formal gathering of all the gangs in New York, a local gang called the Warriors are wrongly accused of assassinating a would‐be gang lord and are forced to fight their way back home to Coney Island. The film is full of stereotypical images of subcultural style and deviant behavior. This film fits in well with a review of the Chicago School, in particular a deviance or criminological approach to youth subcultures. The film offers insight into class, gender, strain, and the urban environment.Other film titles and the subcultures to which they relate include:
A Clockwork Orange – abstract representation of subcultural deviance Afro Punk – punk subculture and race American Hardcore – punk and hardcore music subculture Another State of Mind – early hardcore punk scene, highlights music Boyz in the Hood –marginalized black culture that produced hip‐hop and rap music Dogtown and Z‐Boys – skateboarding Dreadheads: Portrait of a Subculture – new age travelers, deadheads Heavy: The Story of Metal – heavy metal Metal: A Headbanger's Journey – extreme metal culture, including death metal and black metal Punk: The Early Years – history of punk Red Light Go – Bike messengers Romper Stomper– racist skinheads Sid and Nancy– punk, focusing on The Sex Pistols SLC Punk– punk Surburbia– interesting mix of disaffected youth, mainly punk with skinheads and goths as well This is England– looks at the intersection of racist and non‐racist skinhead culture in the UK
http://www.youtube.com contains a vast collection of subculture‐related material. I troll the site every few months looking for new resources to use in the classroom.Sample syllabus outlineCourse descriptionYouth as a social phenomenon arose largely as a cultural derivative of the industrial revolution in Europe and the USA and is now global. In the twentieth century particularly, youth became an object of sociological, cultural, and psychological analyses. The concept of 'subculture' has been used with various degrees of success to analyze youths' individual and collective behaviors. This course surveys some of the many strands of youth‐subcultural theory during the twentieth century. It begins with early sociological work from the University of Chicago, followed by an overview of the cultural studies approach from the University of Birmingham, UK. It then moves on to examples of contemporary subcultural theory and research, focusing on a number of discrete sociological concepts and youth‐subcultural groups.Purpose and objectivesThe purpose of the course is to try and arrive at some consensus as to the worth of 'subculture' as an analytic concept as well as the various concepts that drive subcultural studies. The objectives of the course are: to familiarize students with various strands of subcultural theory in sociology and cultural studies; to review a variety of historical and contemporary youth subcultures as well as the concepts and methods used to study them; and to improve students' understanding of how and why youth subcultures emerge, exist, and change.1 Section 1: Introduction to youth‐subculture studiesHoward Becker 1986. Culture: A Sociological ViewSarah Thornton 1997. General Introduction to The Subcultures Reader, 1st edn.Ken Gelder 2005. Introduction: The Field of Subculture Studies* Section 2: American subculture studiesKen Gelder 2005. Introduction to Part One: The Chicago School and Urban Ethnography* Subculture as deviance Paul Cressey 1932. The Life‐Cycle of the Taxi‐Dancer* Subculture as strain Robert Merton 1938. Social Structure and AnomieAlbert Cohen 1955. A General Theory of Subcultures* The ethnographic study of subcultures Howard Becker 1963. The Culture of a Deviant Group*Ned Polsky 1967. Research Method, Morality, and Criminology*Paul Hodkinson 2005. 'Insider Research' in the Study of Youth Cultures Section 3: British subculture studiesKen Gelder, 2005. Introduction to Part Two: The Birmingham Tradition and Cultural Studies* Marxism and class Phil Cohen 1972. Subcultural Conflict and Working‐Class Community*John Clarke et al. 1975. Subcultures, Cultures and Class* The semiotic study of resistance Tony Jefferson 1975. Cultural Responses of the TedsDick Hebdige 1979. Subculture: The Meaning of Style* Section 4: Subsequent theoretical strands Criticisms and Revisions Gary Fine and Sherryl Kleinman 1979. Rethinking Subculture: An Interactionist AnalysisStanley Cohen 1980. Symbols of Trouble* New directions Andy Bennett 1999. Subcultures or Neo‐Tribes?Rupert Weinzierl and David Muggleton 2003. What Is Post‐Subculture Studies?David Hesmondhalgh 2005. Subcultures, Scenes or Tribes? None of the Above Section 5: Analytic topics Style Ken Gelder 2005. Introduction on Part Five: Style, Fashion, Signature*Dick Hebdige 1983. Posing ... Threats, Striking ... Poses*Jeffrey Kidder 2004. Style and Action: A Decoding of Bike Messenger Symbols Resistance Paul Willis 1977. Culture, Institution, Differentiation*Kathleen Lowney 1995. Teenage Satanism as Oppositional Youth SubcultureKristin Schilt 2003. I'll Resist You with Every Inch and Every Breath Space and media Ken Gelder 2005. Introduction to Part Four: Territories, Space, Otherness*Peter Marsh et al. 1978. Life on the Terraces*Iain Borden 2001. Performing the City* Societal responses and reaction Jill Rosenbaum and Lorraine Prinsky 1991. The Presumption of InfluenceClaire Wallace and Raimund Alt 2001. Youth Cultures under Authoritarian Regimes Identity and authenticity Kembrew McLeod 1999. Authenticity Within Hip‐Hop and Other Cultures Threatened with AssimilationJ. Patrick Williams 2006. Authentic Identity, Straightedge Subculture, Music and the InternetMurray Healy 1996. Real Men, Phallicism, and Fascism* Consumption and play Jock Young 1971. The Subterranean World of Play*J. Patrick Williams 2006. Consumption and Authenticity in the Collectible Strategy Games SubcultureSharon Kinsella 2000. Amateur Manga Subculture and the Otaku Incident*Assignments and projects1. Portfolio project: The portfolio project facilitates students' interaction with the theories and concepts being learned in the classroom.Over the course of the semester, you will be responsible for collecting and summarizing information about one subculture of your choice. I will expect you to analyze the information you collect in a sociological manner, but we will practice this throughout the semester so that you should continually improve your analytic skills. During the second week of the semester, I will divide the class into several groups and each group will choose a particular youth subculture to study (e.g. punk, riot grrrl, goth, hardcore, hip‐hop, skateboarding, graffiti, gaming). You will negotiate with other students to decide collectively what subculture you will study. Individually, you will be responsible for collecting and analyzing information about your topic as it pertains to theories and concepts being covered in class. To do this, you will first need to identify subcultural objects for analysis. These may include (i) a definition of the subculture you are studying, (ii) a song and/or music lyrics, (iii) a research article (historical, sociological, cultural, etc.), (iv) an Internet discussion forum, (v) an event at a local hangout, bar, or club, (vi) a zine, blog, or other publication, (vii) cartoon, album cover, or other art, (viii) journalistic account of a subcultural event, (viiii) a pop culture item (e.g. clip from television, magazine article), or (x) a video (e.g. YouTube) or documentary. Second, you will need to follow the course outline and use a specific theory or concept (e.g. hegemony, societal response, style, resistance, homology, identity, media, diffusion, class, gender) to analyze each item. By the end of the semester, your portfolio should consist of a minimum of 10 items that deal with your assigned subculture. Plan on collecting one item per week beginning in week 4. During week 3, I will show you some examples to get you started as well as bring in a completed portfolio from a previous student. You should not use the same type of subcultural object more than twice, nor should you use the same theory or concept more than twice. The purpose, as stated above, is to have you collect and analyze the information over time rather than collect everything in a mad rush during the last week. Every other week you will give a 2‐ to 3‐minute summary of your most recent portfolio entry.2. Group portfolio presentations: The group presentation requires that students combine many different portfolio entries together and develop a coherent, analytically informed presentation of a specific youth subculture.At the end of the semester, your group will give a 15‐ to 20‐minute multimedia presentation of whatever subculture you have been studying by combining the information collected in individual portfolios.3. Film assignment: The film assignment facilitates the development of the sociological imagination when consuming popular cultural treatments of youth subcultures. I reserve the university auditorium to give the students a fuller cinematic experience. Use the list of films and videos above and the course outline to decide what to show and when to show it. We will watch one film outside of class during the semester, entitled (name of film). In case you are unable to attend the film viewing, you may rent or buy the film from a number of different sources. Make plans as soon as possible to be available to watch the film. Watching it at home is your prerogative, but watching it with other students will enable you to participate in discussion afterward. After viewing the film, you will write a (x)‐page paper addressing specific questions that I will provide before the film begins (as one example, I often show Quadrophenia and ask that four specific questions be answered in their papers: (i) What aspects of the actors' lives are informed by CCCS theory? What aspects are informed by Chicago School theories? Link your answers to specific readings or citations when appropriate. (ii) How important is 'conspicuous consumption' for mods in the film? Be sure to give multiple examples of consumption as you answer the question. How does consumption relate to our discussion of style? (iii) In what way is the ending of the film 'magical', in the CCCS sense of the term? (iv) How do the concepts of hegemony, bricolage, or homology play out in the film? Pick one of them to discuss and use a detailed example). Note
1 In the sample outline below, I list only the readings I might assign to an upper‐level undergraduate course during one semester. See my main article in Sociology Compass 1(2) for a much more detailed discussion of articles and chapters that might be used in each section. An asterisk (*) marks readings from Ken Gelder's The Subcultures Reader (2nd edn), listed above.ReferenceLeblanc, Lauraine 1998. Teaching Sociology 26: 62–68.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF INDEPENDENT READING ON MINI STORIES IN TEACHING WRITING NARRATIVE TEXT IN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Agita Putri Aisyiah English Education Program, Faculty of Language and Arts, Surabaya State University Email: ag1t.ndutz@gmail.com Him'mawan Adi Nugroho, S.Pd., M.Pd. English Education Program, Faculty of Language and Arts, Surabaya State University Email: himmawan_95@yahoo.com Abstrak Sejak Bahasa Inggris menjadi Bahasa Internasional yang digunakan untuk berkomunikasi, pemerintah Indonesia memasukkan Bahasa Inggris menjadi mata pelajaran wajib yang harus dikuasai oleh siswa SMA. Oleh karena itu, siswa harus menguasai keterampilan dasar yang tidak hanya diucapkan tetapi juga ditulis sebagai teks meliputi mendengar, berbicara, membaca dan menulis. Dari keterampilan tersebut, menulis adalah salah satu keterampilan yang paling sulit karena siswa mengumpulkan informasi sebanyak mungkin sebagai sumber dan mengatur pikiran di atas kertas. Itulah mengapa menulis selalu menggabungkan membaca untuk mendapatkan ide-ide saat mulai menulis. Ide-ide itu sendiri didapat dari apa yang telah dibaca. Krashen di Bray (2003) menyatakan bahwa siswa yang membaca terus-menerus dapat memperoleh kemampuan menulis. Oleh karena itu dengan menggunakan Independent Reading pada cerita-cerita mini, siswa dapat berlatih menulis dan meningkatkan nilai tulisan mereka terutama yang berupa narasi. Djuharie (2008:41) menyatakan bahwa teks narasi adalah semacam cerita yang bertujuan untuk menghibur pembaca. Cerita tersebut dapat berupa cerita fiksi dan non - fiksi seperti cerita mini. Cerita-cerita mini itu sendiri berbicara tentang cerita rakyat. Dalam pengajaran menulis narasi dengan menggunakan strategi ini, guru memberikan enam langkah yang harus dilakukan oleh siswa setelah mereka menerapkan membaca independen. Ada tiga puluh lima siswa kelas XI di kelas XI - A5 di SMAN 22 Surabaya yang menjadi subjek dalam penelitian kualitatif ini yang menggambarkan pelaksanaan membaca independen cerita mini untuk mengajarkan keterampilan menulis teks naratif. Mereka dibagi menjadi tiga kategori; baik, cukup, dan buruk untuk mengetahui kemampuan siswa dalam menulis ulang. Data dari penelitian ini adalah dalam bentuk kata-kata, frase dan kalimat. Kemudian instrumen yang digunakan untuk mendapatkan data adalah lembar observasi dan penilaian menulis komposisi menggunakan rubrik. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, guru meminta siswa untuk membaca cerita di luar kelas sebagai pekerjaan rumah. Kemudian, guru melakukan konferensi, mengulas pemahaman siswa tentang teks narasi, dan menulis ulang di kelas. Dalam melaksanakan membaca independen pada cerita mini, siswa antusias melakukan pembacaan independen di luar kelas, dan ditemukan bahwa sebagian besar dari mereka dikategorikan ke dalam tingkat yang baik dan ada beberapa dari mereka masih dikategorikan ke dalam tingkat rendah. Kemampuan menulis mereka masih dalam kriteria rata-rata. Hal ini ditunjukkan berdasarkan komposisi mereka yang telah dianalisis menggunakan ESL Komposisi Profil rubrik . Akhirnya siswa menikmati membaca cerita Mini di luar kelas, mendapat kesempatan untuk membaca banyak tentang teks naratif, membangun kebiasaan membaca, dan mengorganisir komposisi yang baik dengan menggunakan kata-kata sendiri setelah membaca cerita sebagai praktek menulis mereka. Disarankan kepada guru harus memilih cerita Mini yang menarik yang masih berkaitan dengan tujuan pembelajaran sebagai bahan bacaan, guru harus memberikan siswa komentar yang baik untuk mendorong mereka untuk membaca lebih lanjut dan menggabungkan strategi membaca dengan keterampilan lain selain menulis. Selain itu, disarankan bagi peneliti lain yang bisa dilakukan dalam tingkat yang berbeda dari mahasiswa dan dikombinasikan dengan teknik atau permainan lain atau kegiatan yang menarik. Kata Kunci: pengajaran keterampilan menulis, naratif, membaca independen, cerita mini Abstract Since English becomes an International language which is used to communicate, Indonesian government include English into a compulsory subjects which has to be mastered by senior high school students. Therefore the students have to master basic skills not only spoken but also written texts as listening, speaking, reading and writing. From those skills, writing is one of the most difficult skills because the writer gathers information as much as possible as sources and organizes the thought on their paper. That's why writing always combines reading to get ideas to start writing. The ideas itself were got from what have already read. Krashen in Bray (2003) stated that the students who read continuously can gain in writing ability. Therefore by using Independent Reading on mini stories, the students can practice writing and increase their writing score especially narrative. Djuharie (2008:41) stated that narrative text is a kind of stories which purposes to entertain readers. It can be fictional and non-fictional story such as mini stories. The mini stories itself are talking about folktales. In teaching writing narrative using this strategy, the teacher gives six steps that should be done by the students after they implement independent reading. There are thirty-five eleventh grade students in XI-A5 class in SMAN 22 Surabaya were the subject in this qualitative research which described the implementation of Independent Reading on mini stories to teach writing narrative texts. They were divided into three categorized; good, fair, and poor to know the students' ability in rewriting. The data of this study is in the form of words, phrases and sentences. Then the instruments used to gain the data are the observation checklist and rubric assessment of writing a composition. Based on the result, the teacher asked students to read stories outside the classroom as homework. Then, the teacher did conference, reviewed the students' understanding about narrative text, and did rewriting in class. In implementing independent Reading on mini stories the students were enthusiastic doing independent reading outside the class, and it is found that most of them categorized into good level and there is a few of them still categorized into low level. The ability of their writing is still in average criteria. It is shown based on their composition which has been analysed using ESL Composition Profile rubric. Finally the students enjoyed reading mini stories outside the classroom, got an opportunity to read a lot about narrative texts, built reading habit, and organized a good composition by using their own words after reading stories as their practice writing. It suggests that the teacher should select the interesting mini stories which are still related to the learning objective as reading material, the teacher should give the students good comments to encourage them to read more and combine the reading strategy with other skill besides writing. In addition it is suggested for other researcher that it could be conducted in different level of students and combined with other technique or game or interesting activities. Keywords: teaching writing, narrative, independent reading, mini stories. INTRODUCTION Realizing the importance of English, Indonesian government involves English as compulsory subject that should be taught in formal schools from primary school to secondary school. As stated on 2006 English Competence Standard, the students must be able to understand and produce both spoken and written text. For the eleventh grade of senior high school students, they should master some texts which cover report, narrative, analytical exposition, spoof, and hortatory exposition. Those are the genre of the text which is required to be mastered by them in the end of learning process. Moreover, there are four skills that should be mastered by students. One of them is writing. Writing is very needed to be mastered by the students since it can affect other skills. Writing can be a great tool to help students to learn how to form language, how to spell, how to put together a plot, and how to make a logical argument. Hence, writing is needed to be mastered by the students. Unfortunately, writing is one of the skills that most students are not interested in. It is the most complex skill since every single error is counted and it cannot be easily produced. Bell and Burnaby in Nunan (1991:6) said that: "Writing is an extremely complex cognitive activity that inquires the writer to demonstrate control of several variables at once. At sentences level, they include control of contents, format, sentence structure, vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling and letter formation. Beyond the sentence, the writer must be able to structure and integrate information into cohesive and coherent paragraphs and texts". Teaching learning writing is not easy to do. Dhiasa (2009) stated that the students often face difficulties in learning writing. They are difficult to show their imagination. They spend much time to get the ideas to start writing. They do not have enthusiasm to write. Moreover, they have a few of literary review. These are caused by many reasons such as poor knowledge, and lack of time to practice writing. Finally, they cannot write creatively and well then they get bad score and nasty comments. Hadaway et al. in Diaz-Rico (2004:166) declared that writing can make us reach beyond ourselves. It is truly the most complex of the communication arts that combines reading and oral language. It is meant that writing is not a single activity. It is not only about writing but also about reading. Reading is completely important to start to write. It is impossible to write without having any ideas. The ideas itself can be taken from what have already been read. Reading and writing are connected each other. A new idea might appear after finishing reading, and writing is the patch to put that new idea. It means that they are inseparable activities. Krashen in Kusumawardhani (2006:2) stated that reading can help the students become a good reader, get an adequate vocabulary, master grammar, become a good speller and develop a good writing style. Reviewing the problem mentioned above, it is needed many kinds of methods, techniques or strategies to teach writing. There is a strategy to learn writing which is integrated with reading. It is called Independent Reading. Krashen (1993) in (Bray, 2002) provides an overview of research indicating that learners who read continuously can gain in reading comprehension, vocabulary development, and writing ability. Moreover, Elbow and Belanoff (2000) cited in Day (2004) stated that there is an activity which involves students in free writing. However, they are not asked to rewrite any topic they want; they are asked about what have been read, especially on mini stories. It allows the students a set period of time to think about their texts before they begin to rewrite. Therefore, Independent Reading on mini stories is seen to be the effective way in getting the students' knowledge as literary review about activities in the past before they start writing something. This strategy is applied in Senior High School which is integrated with one genre of texts that eleventh graders have to be mastered. It is a narrative text. Narrative text is a text that tells a story in the past. By mastering this text, the students are expected to be able to express their feeling, thought and ideas about the past activities after they read the mini stories. RESEARCH METHOD This research is design based on descriptive qualitative research. It described the implementation of Independent reading on mini stories in the teaching writing narrative text in senior high school. Charter (1972:78) in Rifa'i (2007) said that descriptive qualitative studies include current condition which concerns the nature group of person, a group of objects, a class, etc. and it involves of inductive, analysis, classification, or measurement. It is meant that the purpose of this study is to describe an event that happens in the society and does not examine any hypothesis. The subject of the study was the English teacher and the students of eleventh graders, XI-A5 class in SMA Negeri 22 Surabaya. This class was chosen because narrative was taught in the eleventh graders. The teacher is also implemented Independent Reading on mini stories to teach writing narrative to the eleventh graders in three meetings. The data of this study are in form of information which is taken by observing the real situation when the teaching and learning happened in the class and collecting the students' rewriting tasks in form of composition after being taught using Independent Reading. Then, the researcher classified the students' rewriting in form of composition based on its organization, content, vocabulary, language use and mechanic using ESL Composition Profile. There are two instruments are used in getting the data. They are observation checklist in the form of "yes" or "no" option and students' task to investigate the students' writing ability after being taught by using of Independent Reading on mini-stories. The data for this study are taken by observing the real situation when the teaching and learning happened in the class and collecting the students' rewriting tasks in form of composition after being taught using Independent Reading strategy. The topic was about folklore. Then, the researcher would classify the students' rewriting in form of composition based on its organization, content, vocabulary, language use and mechanic using ESL Composition Profile. This method made the researcher easier to classify and identify the elements of writing that used by the students in their narrative text writing composition. This study was analysed descriptively. There are several steps to analyse the data. The observation checklist was used to check the observed aspect by checking "yes" or "no" in the real activities which happened in the classroom when the teacher applied Independent Reading on mini stories in each step during teaching writing narrative text. The result of observation was described, presented and analysed related to the facts that happened in the class. Then, the students' task in form of composition which has been analysed by using ESL Composition Profile was divided into three groups, good, fair, and poor. It was used to describe the students' writing result after being taught by using Independent Reading strategy on mini stories. Finally all of the data was combined to make a conclusion and suggestion. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Findings The researcher used the data from observation checklist. It was limited to the material, the strategy, and the teaching learning process. Moreover, the researcher used the data from the students' task in form of composition which were collected in three meetings. They were presented through description. Then, the data were analysed and categorized into three different levels; good, fair, and poor. The Implementation of Independent Reading on Mini Stories in Writing The first observation was done on Tuesday, 4th February 2014 in XI IPA 5 class. In this meeting, the teacher introduced the Independent Reading strategy and reviewed narrative text. The students should read a mini story then rewrite it by using their own words. The teacher gave folklore story because it was familiar with the students. The folklore story was given in order to make the students read easily and happily. It is given because the folklore was based on the learning objectives. In pre-activity, the teacher greeted and checked the students' attendance list. Unfortunately, three students were absent. Then, the teacher reviewed a little bit about simple past tense and narrative text which has been taught last semester. The explanation covered the function, the generic structure and the language features of the text. Mostly, the students still remember the elements of narrative text which is shown that they could answer the teacher's questions about it. Moreover, they could analyse the generic structure of narrative text. In introducing the strategy which would be done, the teacher started to discuss about the books or texts that the students have read in their whole life. He also asked the students' feeling after they read. Surprisingly, most students like reading books but they did not read any books or texts in English. They prefer reading in Bahasa Indonesia to English. After that, he asked the benefit of their reading activity. Most students answered that they felt very happy and gave respond enthusiastically. In whilst-activity, the teacher gave the first story about Aji Saka as the reading material to the students. The story is from their English book. This story has already given in the last semester. It is chosen because the students have already comprehended the story very well to make the students feel free to read and rewrite easily. It is the way the teacher used to introduce the strategy which integrated with writing. The students were asked to read the text in the classroom. This text was the easiest and the shortest one which was aimed to make the students enjoy reading. After the students finished reading the story, the teacher asked the students to collect the story in front of class and prepared a piece of paper. Then, he started to do the writing activity. The teacher gave instruction step by step to the students to start rewriting the story they have just read. In post-activity, the teacher asked students to collect their rewriting task. Before the teacher closed the meeting, the teacher gave new stories as the second material. The students should read them at home as homework. Then, the teacher reviewed some tips on enjoying reading. In summary, in the first meeting, the researcher found that the students were lazy and bored to read the story although the story was familiar. It is because the lesson was started after the break time. It was not only that, but there also was no van which made the class hot, so the students could not read with pleasure. Moreover, the students were not sure about the instruction of writing. It is showed when the teacher gave instruction step by step; some students seemed to not understand well what they had to do. They were so confused. It is because the teacher gave the instruction in English too fast. Seeing the students did not know what they had to do, the teacher combined the language he used with Bahasa Indonesia and English slowly. He also analysed the task in order to know the students' shortcoming in rewriting a story in form of composition. It is hoped that the students could realize their mistakes and did not repeat the same mistakes for the next writing tasks. The second observation was conducted on Friday, 7th February 2014. The teacher has already analysed the students' task in rewriting narrative text on the previous meeting, so that, the teacher knew the initial ability of the students. In this meeting the teacher would ask the students to rewrite one of the stories about Jaka Tarub and Nawang Wulan or The King, The Young Poor Fisherman, and The Fish which have already been given on the previous meeting as their homework by using the same instruction. Just like in the first observation, the teacher did the same activities in the class. In addition, in this meeting the teacher asked the students' obstacles during reading, the differences between reading inside and outside the classroom and also the students' feeling after reading. Most students gave their respond after they read the stories. The obstacles that the students had were varied such as they felt sleepy during the reading and they were not interested in the material because there were not enough pictures that made them enjoy reading. However, the students felt better when they read the stories outside the classroom. It is because they did not need to read in rush so they had much time to finish their reading. Therefore they could understand the story well. Then, the students also gave their respond about their feeling after reading. Most of them were excited to read more and more. They enjoyed reading because the material that they read were understandable and the words in the story were very common. After that, the teacher reviewed the previous story for a while in order to correct the students' mistakes that they made in rewriting the story on the previous meeting. Therefore, the teacher knew the students' ability in writing. In summary, in the second meeting, the teacher found that the students have enjoyed reading outside the class and understood what they had to do in writing activity. Therefore teacher used English in giving the instruction of rewriting. It is not only that, the teacher also gave music to make the students relax. They seemed to be more confident on their ability to remind, rethink and rewrite the story than previous meeting. Then the third observation was conducted on Tuesday, 11th February 2014. It was conducted in the same class. In this meeting, the teacher asked the students to rewrite one of the stories they have already read about The Gift of Jackal, The Wicked Magician or Love Conquers Death as reading material. All the process of this meeting was the same as the second meeting. The Students' Narrative Text Result after the Implementation of Independent Reading On Mini Stories in Teaching Writing Narrative Text In this part, it deals with the students' narrative writing result after the implementation of independent reading on mini stories in teaching writing narrative text from the first, the second and the third task. The students' narrative writing were analysed by using ESL Composition Profile; that are organization, content, vocabulary, language use, and mechanic. Afterwards, they were divided into three levels. They are good, fair and poor. The result can be showed in the table below, Level Number of the students First task Second task Third task Very Good - - - Good 6 9 13 Fair 8 10 12 Poor 18 16 10 Table 4.1 The Result of Students' Narrative Writing in the first, the second and the third task. In the first task, the teacher used the story about Aji Saka to rewrite. It is because the story was the easiest and the shortest. There are five aspects which have to be analysed in rewriting narrative story in form of composition. The content is the first and the most important aspect. It tells the ideas of the writer which they wanted to write. The second aspect is organization. In this part of writing narrative text, the students should write the story based on the generic structure of narrative. It deals with orientation, complication and resolution. Then, the third aspect in writing narrative text is vocabulary. It is about the words choice and usage of the writer which they want to share. The students applied the vocabulary they have learned while doing independent reading on mini stories to make their own words more different than the original. The next important aspect is language use. This aspect deals with the students' ability in language which include with sentence construction, tenses, word order or function, pronoun, and preposition. The last aspect in writing narrative text is mechanic. The term mechanics deals with convention, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphing. Based on the first task in the first meeting, it can be concluded that there were many students who were still confused to develop the ideas, composing the generic structure of the narrative text, making good sentences by using sophisticated range of vocabulary, creating good construction, and also demonstrating mastery of convention. Meanwhile in the second task, it is stated that some students showed a few good changes in writing narrative text. They occasionally made errors in delivering ideas, composing generic structure and mastering convention. However, in choosing the vocabulary and using the correct tenses, the students still got difficulties to practice it into a good story. It is because most students considered that the tenses were too difficult to be understood, and also it is because the teacher usually conducts the test for only the tenses. The teacher used Jaka Tarub and Nawang Wulan and The King, The Young Fisherman and the Fish as the second mini stories as reading material. They are still about folklore. They are also longer than the first. It is because the students had some times to read them outside the class as their homework. The students could choose one of the stories above to rewrite into a good composition. In the third task, the students' writing narrative result was better than in the first and second task. They could deliver the organization of the story, rarely made the same mistakes of using past tense, arrange the story in a good paragraph. The teacher used the stories about The Gifts of The Jackal, The Wicked Magician, and Love Conquers Death as reading materials. The collections of short stories were from Indian folktale. Moreover, those stories were covered in a book which titled as Love Conquers Death and other stories. Discussions From the data through observation checklist, it is obvious that the implementation of Independent Reading on mini story can be integrated with writing in teaching writing narrative text. It is shown that the students more enjoyed reading mini stories outside the class which can be seen from their conference with the teacher before starting to rewrite. It helped the students to build their interest in reading without any forces. It is in line with Harris (1998:3) stated that independent reading refers to the outside reading activity that students do on their own with no help or guidance from the teacher. In addition, it was normal if there were some students got difficulties in understanding the steps of rewriting the story during the teaching process. From this situation, the teacher switched the language to Bahasa Indonesia. By using bilingual which covers English and Bahasa Indonesia, the teacher could know the students' comprehension in steps of rewriting a story. Thus, the students could rewrite the story using the steps of rewriting well. In the process of rewriting narrative text itself; it would need a lot of energy. It is because it had long process and need more times. Therefore, the teacher role was much needed. It is to help the students develop viable strategies for pre-writing (getting started, generating indefinite ideas, and collecting information), drafting (scrawling down the ideas, making rough draft), revising (checking rough draft, adding, deleting, modifying, and rearrange ideas), and editing (attending to vocabulary, sentence, structure, grammar and mechanic) (Gebhard, 1996). On the other side to answer the second statements of problem, which is 'How is the students' writing result after being taught by using of Independent Reading strategy on mini stories?' The data was gathered from the students' task of rewriting a mini story after being taught by using Independent Reading. The data was discussed from the first, second and the third observation in form of a composition narrative text. Based on the first students' task, the students got difficulties to compose text based on the generic structure, to implement the past tenses in the story, and also to develop the ideas more detail. Few of them were confused in using the correct spelling, punctuation, paragraphing and capitalization and selecting the appropriate vocabulary. However, most students have shown changes in their narrative writing in the second and third tasks. It means that the students practiced writing well in term of content, organization, vocabulary, language feature and mechanic from the first task to the second task then the third task and they comprehended the elements of writing well. In the end, the students got better understanding in presenting their ideas to the development of narrative text, providing vocabulary better and richer, using their knowledge of English, implementing the convention rules in their narrative writing and achieved adequate result. It is in line with was stated by Krashen (1993) in Bray (2002) that reading continuously can help the students develop a good writing style. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion It was concluded that by using Independent Reading on mini stories in writing activities, the eleventh graders of SMA Negeri 22 Surabaya have enjoyed reading mini stories outside the classroom, got an opportunity to read a lot about mini-story, built reading habit, reviewed grammar, and have organized a good composition by using their own words after reading stories as their practice writing. Moreover, in the process of doing this strategy, the teacher selected the material according to the criteria for standard competence of curriculum and based on the students' level of difficulty in vocabulary, content and sentence construction. The teacher also gives a model and steps how to rewrite a short story. The last is about the process of writing itself. This is the time when the students were asked to rewrite the story they have already read at home to know the students' result during the implementation of Independent Reading on mini stories in writing activities. The result is found that the students generally grouped as "GOOD" and few of them still grouped as "POOR". It is because the students' ability in that class is still in low level. However, this strategy could help students getting fluency in expressing their ideas in rewriting the story. It could be seen from their result that they rarely made mistakes in their rewriting. Suggestion Based on the conclusion above, it is important to give some suggestion to the teacher and other researcher. This suggestion is pointed to the teacher related to the implementation of independent reading on mini stories. First, the teacher should select the interesting mini stories which are still related to the learning objective as reading material. It is used to avoid the students' boredom on reading folklore and to make students more enjoy on reading. Second, the teacher should give the students good comments to encourage them to read more and practice more in writing. Third, the teacher should find another ways to encourage students to practice writing regularly, so the ability of students on writing is getting better. In addition the suggestion is also pointed to the other researcher. It is suggested that it could be conducted in different level of students and combined with other technique or game or interesting activities REFERENCES Abbot, Gerry et al. (1981). The teaching of English as an International Language: A practical guide. London: William Collin Sons and Co. Ltd Agustien, Helena. I.R. (2004). The 2004 English curriculum in a Nutshell (paper): presented at national seminar the teaching of ESL in Indonesia; A Reflection. 2 October 2004. Malang. Universitas Negeri Malang. Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan. (2006). Standard Kompetensi Lulusan Bahasa Inggris untuk Sekolah Menegah Atas dan Madrasah Aliyah. Jakarta: Depdiknas Bamford, J. &Day, R. R., Extensive Reading: What Is It? Why Bother? Retrieved from http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/97/may/extensive.html Bell, T. (1998). Extensive Reading: Why? and How? The Internet TESL Journal, IV(12). Bray, E. (2002). Using Task Journals with Independent Readers. Retrieved from www.americanenglish.state.gov on March 19th, 2013. Brown, H. Douglas. (2001). Teaching by Principle: An Interactive Approach To Language Pedagogy, Second Edition. New York: Longman: Inc. Bryne, Donn. (1991). Teaching Writing Skills. Hongkong: Longman Group Ltd. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2005). Research Methods in Education. London and New York: Taylor & Francis Group. Day, R. R. (2004). Two Writing Activities for Extensive Reading. English Teaching Forum. Day, R. R. and Bamford, J. (2002).Top Ten Principles For Teaching Extensive Reading. (Online), (http://nflrc.hawaii.edu, diakses 19 Maret 2013). Depdiknas. (2004). Kurikulum 2004: Standar Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris Sekolah Menengah Pertama Dan Madrasah Tsanawiyah. Jakarta Dhiasa, Indah Swandewi. (2007). The Implementation of "Response Journal" Strategy in Teaching Reading Narrative to the Eight Graders of SMP Negeri 5 Sidoarjo. S-1 Unpublished Thesis: UNESA Diaz-Rico, L.T. (2004). Teaching English Learner: Strategies and Methods. Boston. Pearson Education, Inc. Gebhard, Jerry Greer. (1996). Teaching English as a Foreign or Second Language. USA: The University of Michigan Press. Heaton, J.B. (1975). Writing English Language Test. London: Longman. Krashen, S. (1993). The power of reading: Insights from the research. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Knoester, M. (2010). Independent Reading and the 'Social Turn': How Adolescent Reading Habits and Motivation Relate to Cultivating Social Relationships. Networks an Online Journal, 12(1). Kusumawardhani, Rahardian. (2010). The Implementation of Extensive Reading to the Tenth Grade Students of Senior High School. S-1 Unpublished Thesis: UNESA. Menrath, J. (2003), from http://www.menrath-online.de/documents/shortst1.pdf Nunan, David. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology: A textbook for teachers. Great Britain. Prentice Hall International Ltd. Oczkus, L. (2010). Super Practical Ways to Build an Independent Reading Program in Your Classroom: Guidelines and TOP 5 Independent Reading Strategies. Retrieved from http:// www.lorioczkus.com on February 28, 2013. O'Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House/Harper & Row. Rahmawati, Yunyta Puji. (2009). The implementation of Extensive Reading in Senior High School. S-1 Unpublished Thesis: UNESA. Reid, Joy M. (1993). Teaching ESL Writing: Los Angeles. University of California. Rifa'i, A. (2007). Unpublished S-1 Thesis: the writing of analytical exposition text by the students who join English club activity in SMA Negeri 2 Nganjuk. Surabaya: UNESA Richards, J.C., Platt J. & Platt H. (1992). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Essex: Longman. Sim, Sangmin. (2007). Unpublished Thesis for achieving Doctor of Philosophy degree: A study on reading strategies in KSL class. Retrieved from http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/vital/access/services/Download/unsworks:1136/SOURCE02?view=true on November 26th, 2013. Wenden, A. & J. Rubin. (1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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Previously posted on May 10/22 and Jan 30/23 Kissinger in Washington, May 7, 2022Henry Kissinger will be one hundred years old in a few weeks and has published five books since he turned ninety. Along with President Nixon, he futilely prolonged and escalated the Vietnam War for four years when defeat was already inevitable. But he also received the Nobel Peace Prize precisely for negotiating the ceasefire for that same war. His doctrine also has these two faces. On the one hand, he conceives international politics as the interaction between states seeking power. On the other hand, he favors the balance of powers so that no one is able to fully impose its dominance on the others. In the academic literature, Kissinger's approach is called "realism" and is widely accepted. The main alternative is the so-called "liberal" approach, which trusts in the ability of institutions to prevent wars and keep peace. From there arose the League of Nations, which failed, and the United Nations and its specialized organizations, which have had significant success on many issues, but are also currently showing their insufficiency. The most accurate postulate of the realists is that the world is more peaceful when there are multiple powers than when there are only two, as in the Cold War, or a single super-dominant one, as seemed to be the case with the United States after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The success of the formula requires that the multilateral equilibrium could only be overthrown by an effort of a magnitude too difficult to mount. As a historical example, Kissinger has analyzed and praised the so-called Concert of Europe that was formed, after the defeat of Napoleon's France, by Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and also recovered France. According to his interpretation, the Concert "came close to constituting the government of Europe" and achieved a long period without European-wide wars. The balance was upset by the unification of Germany at the end of the 19th century and its consequent aggressive expansionism, which led to the absurd and catastrophic First World War. Taking a similar approach, Kissinger continues to praise the construction of the European Union, which has prevented new general wars on the continent. During his time in government, the biggest concern was that communism would end up dominating the world according to the domino theory, whereby the fall of a piece like Indochina would be followed by Burma and Thailand, as well as Indonesia (which, in fact, was very close), and from there, India, Japan, the Middle East... That's why the Vietnam war extended to Laos and Cambodia. But this is also the reason for the diplomatic opening to China, to break the Sino-Soviet bloc and achieve a certain multilateral balance. The current interest of the discussion is that the role of the United States as the only superpower may be less exclusive and exclusionary than it seemed. A version of political realism in academia tends to analyze international relations "after hegemony" as a ground for "anarchy", that is, destructive conflicts and wars. However, the changes around the Ukrainian war can be read as a new opportunity for multilateral cooperation. The United States has the initiative and many economic and military resources, but, paradoxically, it may have a good opportunity to expand pluralism. In the new situation of divided government between the Presidency and Congress, the most ambitious projects in domestic policy are paralyzed, so Joe Biden can focus on foreign policy, where he has more power, and expand multilateral cooperation. The European Union is beginning to develop, for the first time, a spirited common international policy, in contrast to the dissent during the Iraq war, when the governments of Britain and Spain were on one side and those of France and Germany on the other. The rulers of China and India, which are rivals to each other, have told Russia that the world is not ready for war. This configuration with more than three major powers points to a balance of powers capable of avoiding polarization, since, otherwise, a coalition of two-to-one preludes conflict. Specifically, the Group of Seven, which is the nucleus of a latent world government, needs to work more closely with some members of the Group of Twenty, which includes India and China, so that its decisions are widely accepted and effective. Negotiations between the US and the EU for the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP), in which substantive agreements had been reached, were paralyzed by Trump, and could now be revived. The Trans-Pacific Agreement for Economic Cooperation was also abandoned by Trump, but the other eleven initial countries went ahead on their own and ended up signing the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), to which China has presented its candidacy. Many in the United States are clamoring for re-entry in what had been its own initiative. And after the war in Ukraine, a new international structure will have to be defined, especially for Central and Eastern Europe, in which, as Kissinger said in a recent interview, "Russia should find a place." Realism shows that the seeking for power explains many things, and the balance of power can prevent a general war. But when there is neither a single dominant power nor a confrontation between two, "liberal" rules and institutions may be the best mechanism for peace and multilateral cooperation.Also in Spanish in the daily La Vanguardia-click While President Biden is not clear, and sometimes he is confusing about how the war in Ukraine could end, some other voices in Washington can speak and suggest more clearly. Several of them did it a few days ago at the Financial Times Weekend Festival, which was held, for the first time outside England, at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington.The first surprisingly constructive intervention was from William J. Burns, the current CIA Director. Just a year ago, he came from retirement after a long career as a diplomat, and as such, in his presentation, the conversation with an FT journalist, and the dialogue with the audience, he showed a broader vision than the usual spies. When he was Ambassador in Boris Yeltsin's Moscow in the mid-1990s, Burns already felt that the NATO expansion until the borders of Russia was "premature at best, and needlessly provocative at worst." More specifically, to push for NATO membership of Ukraine and Georgia was "a serious strategic mistake that did indelible damage" –an opinion that at the time was shared by the governments of France and Germany. In an official encounter, Putin had told him that Ukraine in NATO "would be a hostile act toward Russia."Burns emphasized, of course, that there is "absolutely no justification for the invasion of Ukraine." Yet, he resumed that kind of strategic explanation while dismissing the ideological elaborations that pretend either justify or condemn the attack. In short: Russia has "pushed back" after Ukraine moved westward away from Russian influence.In his view, nevertheless, Putin miscalculated regarding the power of the Russian Army (which was sent to a "special operation" not planned by its generals), about Ukrainian resistance, and with the supposition that the West would be distracted by elections in Germany and France. He tried to explain the recent candidacies of Sweden and Finland to NATO as a deterrent against Putin's other potential attacks in the future. But the Director of the CIA did not utter a word that could be interpreted as supporting Ukraine's NATO membership.Even more thrilling was the participation of Henry Kissinger on "the new world disorder." The former Secretary of State is 99 years old this month, announced a new book of immediate publication, and for nearly one hour was focused, clear, and insightful, also in a dialogue with the audience. Kissinger started by using his academic background and remarking that the foreign policy's main priority of Russia, which is the largest country in the world, has always been to protect its huge territory from invasions. From this perspective, after the Cold War, the country's leadership was "offended" by NATO's absorption of Eastern Europe.Now –he noted— public discussion on Ukraine is all about confrontation, but by reflecting on the previous failures of the several governments he advised, he lamented that, again, nobody knows where we are going. Kissinger had already opposed Ukraine's candidacy to NATO when President Bush and Vice-president Cheney launched it in 2008. Six years later, at the Russian occupation of Crimea, he warned that Ukraine should not join either the East or the West, but it should function as "a bridge" between the two. He had predicted that otherwise, "the drift toward confrontation would accelerate."Most striking was his warning about the use of nuclear weapons. "I would not make Ukraine's membership to NATO a key issue," he remarked at the Kennedy Center. It would be "unwise to take an adversarial position," mainly because of the horrible danger of a nuclear war. His approach was certainly in contrast with that in the 1970s, of which he was reminded, when the gibberish theory of the "domino" was used to attack one country after another. Bush and Cheney still used that approach in the early 2000s to justify "preventive wars." I got the impression that with aging, intelligent people like Kissinger may feel that it is not worth trying to deceive himself again, and despite his physical frailness (or perhaps because of that), his more mature brain moves in the direction of more honest and clear thinking. His main argument was that in the past, although confrontation was addressed to "preserve the balance of power" between the US and the Soviet Union, at the same time, he also promoted agreements for nuclear arms reduction and control. Nowadays, modern technology would produce much worse destruction, so he claimed for a "new era" in which the governments should take more care about the consequences of nuclear arms and favor diplomacy above all. Kissinger reminded the audience that, in the past, nuclear countries such as the Soviet Union and the United States accepted military defeats from non-nuclear countries, such as in Vietnam and (both) in Afghanistan. Even more now, "we have to deescalate to conventional arms and learn to live with adversarial relations." Kissinger has met Putin more than twenty times and asserted that "there is still room for negotiation" with him. In Spanish in the daily La Vanguardia
Construction, reconstruction, deconstruction.
Integration of theoretical perspectives.
Intradisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity.
Extradisciplinarity too.
Openness to literature.
Openness to new influences.
Time spent mind-wandering.
Inquiry into the past, present, and future.
Responsiveness to a changing present.
Readiness to reinvigorate old perspectives.
Disclosure of other possibilities.
Discovery of novel ideas.
Clarification, elaboration, justification.
Preflexivity and reflexivity.
Intersubjectivity and communicativeness.
No fixed eternal standard.
If you have paid attention to the title for my essay, you might have noticed that it is a paraphrase of a pioneering article by Richard Swedberg (2016): "Before theory comes theorizing or how to make social science more interesting." Like Swedberg I am highly interested in theorizing and creativity. In this short text, I will introduce a conceptualisation of that kind of thinking which per definition precedes the coming up with a novel idea. By the use of basic etymology, I have named this cognitive phenomena preflexivity (Engstam 2023). As thereby indicated, I propose that preflexivity, on an analytical level, comes before reflexivity. What I aim to highlight through the lens of preflexivity is the generative power of imaginative, loose, undecided thinking, as unbounded thought of this kind might, but only might, result in something novel coming up and thus give rise to prescientific impulses to clarify and elaborate that something into a rather sharp idea – perhaps an idea that will be recognized as really something. Without downplaying reflexivity, I accordingly emphasize the importance of preflexive thinking.
To which extent following prescientific impulses is feasible depends on material conditions, however. Therefore, the possibilities for spending time thinking, discussing, and writing in a preflexive rather than reflexive manner are well worth considering for sociologists and other social scientists. And what about our style of thought? (Or perhaps: stylesof thought.) As sociologists we are overall more well-trained in convergent thinking than divergent thinking, even though results of divergent thinking might be of more interest to us. More specifically, our collective knowledge on how to take a methodical attitude towards an established phenomenon (Merton 1987), prepared to cure specified ignorance (ibid.), is larger than our knowledge on how to come up with novel ideas and make something unexpected out of them – a heretofore not established social phenomenon – through exploratory studies and creative theorizing (Swedberg 2014, 2016, 2020). Did you know that theories which are generally considered interesting deny certain collectively accepted assumptions? I did not until I read an interesting piece of work on "[the] sociology of phenomenology and [the] phenomenology of sociology" (Davis 1971). As far as the suggested theory on interestedness is correct, we may presume that research generally considered interesting by sociologist's challenges one or more of those assumptions which we normally retain – almost as a rule. In other words, impactful theories stimulate us to think differently, because they break new ground for us! As per definition, it takes unnormal creativity to develop theories of that calibre; courage too, I would say, and on top of that self-confidence – temporarily unconstrained confidence in your intuition and the power of preflexivity. Impact and adequacy are different matters, though, and sometimes worlds apart. Strictly speaking, a break with the past is not always a breakthrough. What is truly valuable is not novel-only; in the light of our knowledge interests, it is advantageous too. This indicates the importance of finding adequate ways to investigate the adequacy of novel ideas. Doesn't that too take unnormal creativity?
One of the core ideas that constitute the growing field of theorizing is the conception of theories as fallible results of ongoing, veritably incompletable, relational, and historical production processes, driven by human problems, astonishment, consternation, and sometimes nothing less than despair. The world is rather messy, and not a very well-lighted place. And all of us who theorize – all theorizers of the world – are situated, embodied, and incomplete. As human beings of flesh and blood, we think and write for, with and against others; striving towards better answers to questions that are important to us; against the backdrop of enduring human conditions, attended patterns of continuity and change, and remarkable exceptions to what we had expected; drawing on a subset of what has already been said and written by members of the same thought collective; drawing on imagination and experience, as well; making use of creative and analytical thinking skills, from time to time under circumstances far from optimal; to produce another piece, mostly convergent or mostly divergent, and hopefully adequate-enough. 'Theorizers' is meant to indicate that not only so-called theorists theorize; likewise, we theorize when we do qualitative or quantitative research. Arguably, this holds not only for theorizing, but for philosophizing and criticizing as well. This sociological idea of theorizing (and theorizers) can be further pictured by reusing a thriving definition of sociology of philosophy, taken from Carl-Göran Heidegren´s and Henrik Lundberg´s introduction to this field (2018:10). In the following paraphrase, "sociology of philosophy" is replaced with "a sociological perspective on theorizing," and so on:
The vantage-point [from which to consider theorizing] is not a bloodless knowledge-making subject, but rather human beings, richly equipped with "the abilities of a creature who wants, feels, and think" (Dilthey 1833, xvii). Against this background, [a sociological perspective on theorizing] may be formulated as follows: From a [sociological] perspective, [scholarly thinking-and-writing] is conceived as a socially organized activity, anchored in different historical, social contexts; an activity that comprises the production of [theories], that is, propositions and arguments communicated with claims for validity.
Behind every piece of theory, a person as well as a context is to be constructed, reconstructed, and deconstructed. As for me, I do not do sociology of philosophy, and not sociology of theorizing either. I rather theorize quite freely, drawing on a series of disciplines and traditions as described above – literature and lived experience too. Hence, I am more of a generalist than a specialist. Embodied, situated, and fallible, of course. Limited but curious. I try to extend my thinking through reading, listening, and looking at a lot. And I try to make something fruitful out of novel ideas that now and then come to my mind, usually those moments when I let my mind wander in silence. Occasionally I say to myself: You can think like a genius, even if you aren't one – everybody can. Just let go! I am certainly not a philosopher, still a philosophizer. Perhaps I am not a theorist either, but for sure I theorize. And I try to theorize in an open, critical-theoretical manner. To do Sozialforschung. Even though I cannot. At least I do "something" – pensées and more. What about you? How do you come up with new ideas, yourself? Do you have good opportunities to clarify, elaborate, and justify them? Are you welcoming gifts of prescientific experience to your research? Do you follow your prescientific impulses? Or do you methodically push prescientific impulses away?
Mind-wandering is great, even though the results of unconstrained thinking might not be great at all. Geniality is a matter of what you think, not a matter of how you think (cf. Engstam 2023). What comes to you when you think this way might be worthless; but on the other hand, it might not … That is something to explore subsequently through creative AND critical thinking, as well as openminded exploratory research, by yourself or together with people who are interested in the same not yet well-established social phenomenon. Clarification, elaboration, and justification involve something being clarified, elaborated, justified, and so on. This "something" is a result of thinking beforehand, in my words preflexively. What would be left if we could possibly reduce the life of the mind to a reflexive process of methodical critical thinking? A short preliminary answer is normal thinking. Doing vital and relevant sociology demands much more than that. I envision good sociology as an emerging web, responsively woven by touched free-spirited members of diverse thought collectives, interested in social phenomena and morally dedicated to progressive social change; each one of them begins anew by drawing new wefts across the warp of moral fiber, while simultaneously continuing and contributing to something much larger; thereby, different patterns appear as new sociologists join the ongoing effort, and others drop out or leave earth. I draw inspiration for this metaphor from the work of Hannah Arendt (1959), whose writings on "the human condition" are both eloquent and insightful. Particularly, her philosophizing on plurality, nativity, and mortality holds relevance when reflecting on the processes of theorizing, philosophizing, and criticizing. In the following paraphrase (cf. ibid.:10–11), I have replaced "human action" with "vital sociology," and so forth:
Plurality is the condition of [vital sociology] because we are all the same, that is, [sociologists AND] humans, in such a way that nobody is ever the same as anyone else who ever lived, lives, or will live. [Like all other] activities and their corresponding conditions, [sociology is therefore] intimately connected with the most general condition of human existence: birth and death, nativity and mortality. [---] The new beginning inherent in birth can make itself felt in the world only because the newcomer possesses the capacity of beginning something anew, that is, [of taking an initiative towards something a bit different].
Now, this is hopefully the right moment to round off with some curiosa! Descartes, the innovator of the method of doubt, in his youth considered three dreams that he dreamt on the night of 10–11 November 1619 as divine inspiration for his philosophy. "[T]he sentiment experienced by Descartes that he was invested by God with the mission of constituting the body of the sciences and thus, as a consequence, to establish true wisdom" has been reconstructed through readings of the young Descartes' own account of his dreams and their interpretation in Olympica. Of the manifold questions that might be raised but never highlighted, one crucial question is the following: Was his very, very first idea of methodological skepticism discovered when dreaming?! In that case, we better not stick to the result!! Anyhow, to me the great philosopher seems to have been a highly preflexive thinker.
Let's make sociology more open!
Let's recognize the importance of prescientific experience!
Let's follow prescientific impulse to think further and explore!
Let's establish and reestablish social phenomena through truly exploratory research and creative theorizing!
Let's do free-spirited sociology!
Only sometimes, it's a good thing to know what you are doing.
Anna Engstam
Doctoral student at the Department of Sociology, Lund University
Sandgatan 11, Box 114, 221 00 Lund
anna_helena.engstam@soc.lu.se
Acknowledgements
For invaluable encouragement and responses on earlier drafts, I am grateful to Carl-Göran Heidegren, Richard Swedberg, Mikael Carleheden, and Sven-Olov Wallenstein.
Smart, R. L., et al. (Gaia Collaboration) ; [Aims] We produce a clean and well-characterised catalogue of objects within 100 pc of the Sun from the Gaia Early Data Release 3. We characterise the catalogue through comparisons to the full data release, external catalogues, and simulations. We carry out a first analysis of the science that is possible with this sample to demonstrate its potential and best practices for its use. [Methods] Theselection of objects within 100 pc from the full catalogue used selected training sets, machine-learning procedures, astrometric quantities, and solution quality indicators to determine a probability that the astrometric solution is reliable. The training set construction exploited the astrometric data, quality flags, and external photometry. For all candidates we calculated distance posterior probability densities using Bayesian procedures and mock catalogues to define priors. Any object with reliable astrometry and a non-zero probability of being within 100 pc is included in the catalogue. [Results] We have produced a catalogue of 331 312 objects that we estimate contains at least 92% of stars of stellar type M9 within 100 pc of the Sun. We estimate that 9% of the stars in this catalogue probably lie outside 100 pc, but when the distance probability function is used, a correct treatment of this contamination is possible. We produced luminosity functions with a high signal-to-noise ratio for the main-sequence stars, giants, and white dwarfs. We examined in detail the Hyades cluster, the white dwarf population, and wide-binary systems and produced candidate lists for all three samples. We detected local manifestations of several streams, superclusters, and halo objects, in which we identified 12 members of Gaia Enceladus. We present the first direct parallaxes of five objects in multiple systems within 10 pc of the Sun. [Conclusions] We provide the community with a large, well-characterised catalogue of objects in the solar neighbourhood. This is a primary benchmark for measuring and understanding fundamental parameters and descriptive functions in astronomy. ; The Gaia mission and data processing have financially been supported by, in alphabetical order by country: the Algerian Centre de Recherche en Astronomie, Astrophysique et Géophysique of Bouzareah Observatory; the Austrian Fonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung (FWF) Hertha Firnberg Programme through grants T359, P20046, and P23737; the BELgian federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) through various PROgramme de Développement d'Expériences scientifiques (PRODEX) grants and the Polish Academy of Sciences – Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek through grant VS.091.16N, and the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (FNRS); the Brazil-France exchange programmes Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and Coordenação de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) – Comité Français d'Evaluation de la Coopération Universitaire et Scientifique avec le Brésil (COFECUB); the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) through grants 11573054 and 11703065 and the China Scholarship Council through grant 201806040200; the Tenure Track Pilot Programme of the Croatian Science Foundation and the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne and the project TTP-2018-07-1171 "Mining the Variable Sky", with the funds of the Croatian-Swiss Research Programme; the Czech-Republic Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports through grant LG 15010 and INTER-EXCELLENCE grant LTAUSA18093, and the Czech Space Office through ESA PECS contract 98058; the Danish Ministry of Science; the Estonian Ministry of Education and Research through grant IUT40-1; the European Commission's Sixth Framework Programme through the European Leadership in Space Astrometry (ELSA) Marie Curie Research Training Network (MRTN-CT-2006-033481), through Marie Curie project PIOF-GA-2009-255267 (Space AsteroSeismology & RR Lyrae stars, SAS-RRL), and through a Marie Curie Transfer-of-Knowledge (ToK) fellowship (MTKD-CT-2004-014188); the European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme through grant FP7-606740 (FP7-SPACE-2013-1) for the Gaia European Network for Improved data User Services (GENIUS) and through grant 264895 for the Gaia Research for European Astronomy Training (GREAT-ITN) network; the European Research Council (ERC) through grants 320360 and 647208 and through the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation and excellent science programmes through Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant 745617 as well as grants 670519 (Mixing and Angular Momentum tranSport of massIvE stars – MAMSIE), 687378 (Small Bodies: Near and Far), 682115 (Using the Magellanic Clouds to Understand the Interaction of Galaxies), and 695099 (A sub-percent distance scale from binaries and Cepheids – CepBin); the European Science Foundation (ESF), in the framework of the Gaia Research for European Astronomy Training Research Network Programme (GREAT-ESF); the European Space Agency (ESA) in the framework of the Gaia project, through the Plan for European Cooperating States (PECS) programme through grants for Slovenia, through contracts C98090 and 4000106398/12/NL/KML for Hungary, and through contract 4000115263/15/NL/IB for Germany; the Academy of Finland and the Magnus Ehrnrooth Foundation; the French Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES), the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) through grant ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02 for the "Investissements d'avenir" programme, through grant ANR-15-CE31-0007 for project "Modelling the Milky Way in the Gaia era" (MOD4Gaia), through grant ANR-14-CE33-0014-01 for project "The Milky Way disc formation in the Gaia era" (ARCHEOGAL), and through grant ANR-15-CE31-0012-01 for project "Unlocking the potential of Cepheids as primary distance calibrators" (UnlockCepheids), the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and its SNO Gaia of the Institut des Sciences de l'Univers (INSU), the "Action Fédératrice Gaia" of the Observatoire de Paris, the Région de Franche-Comté, and the Programme National de Gravitation, Références, Astronomie,et Métrologie (GRAM) of CNRS/INSU with the Institut National Polytechnique (INP) and the Institut National de Physique nucléaire et de Physique des Particules (IN2P3) co-funded by CNES; the German Aerospace Agency (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V., DLR) through grants 50QG0501, 50QG0601, 50QG0602, 50QG0701, 50QG0901, 50QG1001, 50QG1101, 50QG1401, 50QG1402, 50QG1403, 50QG1404, and 50QG1904 and the Centre for Information Services and High Performance Computing (ZIH) at the Technische Universität (TU) Dresden for generous allocations of computer time; the Hungarian Academy of Sciences through the Lendület Programme grants LP2014-17 and LP2018-7 and through the Premium Postdoctoral Research Programme (L. Molnár), and the Hungarian National Research, Development, and Innovation Office (NKFIH) through grant KH_18-130405; the Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) through a Royal Society - SFI University Research Fellowship (M. Fraser); the Israel Science Foundation (ISF) through grant 848/16; the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) through contracts I/037/08/0, I/058/10/0, 2014-025-R.0, 2014-025-R.1.2015, and 2018-24-HH.0 to the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF), contract 2014-049-R.0/1/2 to INAF for the Space Science Data Centre (SSDC, formerly known as the ASI Science Data Center, ASDC), contracts I/008/10/0, 2013/030/I.0, 2013-030-I.0.1-2015, and 2016-17-I.0 to the Aerospace Logistics Technology Engineering Company (ALTEC S.p.A.), INAF, and the Italian Ministry of Education, University, and Research (Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca) through the Premiale project "MIning The Cosmos Big Data and Innovative Italian Technology for Frontier Astrophysics and Cosmology" (MITiC); the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) through grant NWO-M-614.061.414, through a VICI grant (A. Helmi), and through a Spinoza prize (A. Helmi), and the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA); the Polish National Science Centre through HARMONIA grant 2018/06/M/ST9/00311, DAINA grant 2017/27/L/ST9/03221, and PRELUDIUM grant 2017/25/N/ST9/01253, and the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (MNiSW) through grant DIR/WK/2018/12; the Portugese Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through grants SFRH/BPD/74697/2010 and SFRH/BD/128840/2017 and the Strategic Programme UID/FIS/00099/2019 for CENTRA; the Slovenian Research Agency through grant P1-0188; the Spanish Ministry of Economy (MINECO/FEDER, UE) through grants ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R, ESP2016-80079-C2-2-R, RTI2018-095076-B-C21, RTI2018-095076-B-C22, BES-2016-078499, and BES-2017-083126 and the Juan de la Cierva formación 2015 grant FJCI-2015-2671, the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports through grant FPU16/03827, the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) through grant AYA2017-89841P for project "Estudio de las propiedades de los fósiles estelares en el entorno del Grupo Local" and through grant TIN2015-65316-P for project "Computación de Altas Prestaciones VII", the Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence Programme of the Spanish Government through grant SEV2015-0493, the Institute of Cosmos Sciences University of Barcelona (ICCUB, Unidad de Excelencia "María de Maeztu") through grants MDM-2014-0369 and CEX2019-000918-M, the University of Barcelona's official doctoral programme for the development of an R+D+i project through an Ajuts de Personal Investigador en Formació (APIF) grant, the Spanish Virtual Observatory through project AyA2017-84089, the Galician Regional Government, Xunta de Galicia, through grants ED431B-2018/42 and ED481A-2019/155, support received from the Centro de Investigación en Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones (CITIC) funded by the Xunta de Galicia, the Xunta de Galicia and the Centros Singulares de Investigación de Galicia for the period 2016-2019 through CITIC, the European Union through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) / Fondo Europeo de Desenvolvemento Rexional (FEDER) for the Galicia 2014-2020 Programme through grant ED431G-2019/01, the Red Española de Supercomputación (RES) computer resources at MareNostrum, the Barcelona Supercomputing Centre – Centro Nacional de Supercomputación (BSC-CNS) through activities AECT-2016-1-0006, AECT-2016-2-0013, AECT-2016-3-0011, and AECT-2017-1-0020, the Departament d'Innovació, Universitats i Empresa de la Generalitat de Catalunya through grant 2014-SGR-1051 for project "Models de Programació i Entorns d'Execució Parallels" (MPEXPAR), and Ramon y Cajal Fellowship RYC2018-025968-I; the Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA/Rymdstyrelsen); the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research, and Innovation through the Mesures d'Accompagnement, the Swiss Activités Nationales Complémentaires, and the Swiss National Science Foundation; the United Kingdom Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (PPARC), the United Kingdom Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), and the United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA) through the following grants to the University of Bristol, the University of Cambridge, the University of Edinburgh, the University of Leicester, the Mullard Space Sciences Laboratory of University College London, and the United Kingdom Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (RAL): PP/D006511/1, PP/D006546/1, PP/D006570/1, ST/I000852/1, ST/J005045/1, ST/K00056X/1, ST/K000209/1, ST/K000756/1, ST/L006561/1, ST/N000595/1, ST/N000641/1, ST/N000978/1, ST/N001117/1, ST/S000089/1, ST/S000976/1, ST/S001123/1, ST/S001948/1, ST/S002103/1, and ST/V000969/1.
The article covers development aspects of the institution of judicial defense of human rights at labour. The analysis of the labour rights defense condition in Soviet Ukraine from adopting the Constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of 1937 and throughout the Second World War is carried out. In the late 30s of the XX century, Ukraine started losing its sovereignty and independence which was a natural consequence of the conducted change in republic constitutional and legal status. This follows from the content of constitutional regulations of various years. Thus, if amendments to the Constitution of the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic adopted in 1925 are taken into account, it was enshrined that the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic was the part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as "an independent republic", thereafter, in the Constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of 1929 it was registered as "an independent contracting state", and there was no union state creation was mentioned. Nevertheless, in the Constitution of 1937 (the name of the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic was changed to the Ukrainian SovietSocialist Republic (UkrSSR) at the XIV Emergency Congress of Soviets in January 1937), these regulations are absent. There is only one record about joining the republics into one union state. Instead of the Congresses of Soviets, Central Election Commission of the UkrSSR and their Executive Committees, the Constitution of the UkrSSR of 1937 determined the Supreme Soviet of the UkrSSR as the republic highest body of state power. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR elected the Executive Committee - a collegial permanent power agency in the periods between the sessions of the Supreme Soviet. Incrementally, the governance of all-union governing bodies by republican economic facilities went to the foreground in Ukraine, the action of all-union laws above the republican laws was the priority - both in the form of copying the content of all-union legislative acts and adopting union regulatory acts as acts with direct effect. Such downward trends also concerned the field of labour law. Theoretically, the adaptation of the Constitution of the UkrSSRof1937 had to be an important step in the way of establishing progressive principles in labour law and consolidating the new approaches to improve the defense of workers' rights; however, the democratic principles and regulations of the Constitution remained declarative. The Constitution declared the right of everyone to work (the regulations on universal labour duty were absent), though the right to work declared by the Constitution of the UkrSSR was actually an obligation to work and, other regulatory acts assigned workers to the enterprises, institutions. It was forbidden to move in order to earn money for the living and so on. In the late 30s - early 40s of the previous century, the initial basis of forced labour was introduced in all union states (including, the UkrSSR) to increase production output in all fields of national economy and to improve productivity. Particularly, people who did not work without valid excuse (so-called parasites, freeloaders, loafers) were brought to executive or criminal responsibilities. There was tougher penalty for violation of labour discipline, for producing items with defects, for non-observance of health and safety rules. During the Second World War, there was a significant deterioration in labour conditions, a decline in workers' rights and guarantees. In general, there was no possibility to defend their labour rights, rather labour law referred to defend workers' rights gained certain regressive features. Such deviation from the general foundations and principles of labour law was attributed to the fact that an essential part of the working population (mostly males) joined the armed forces. In order to provide the defense significance and farming enterprises (collective farms, state farms) with workforce, it was necessary to change the state policy in regulating the labour, since the Code of Labour Laws of 1922-1924, the content of which provided the foundations of voluntary work, acted on the territory of the USSR, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and other union republics. Labour laws foresaw labour duty only if it was necessary to combat natural disasters and to fulfil the most important state issues, but only on certain regulations of the People's Commissar Soviets. Such democratic principles were unable to ensure proper functioning of defense industry, the completion of defense and construction works, the fuel storage, the uninterrupted functioning of transport and so on. To ensure the fulfilment of the mentioned issues, the Soviet government adopted a certain number of Decrees of the Executive Committee of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and Regulations of thePeople's Commissar Soviets of the USSR, according to which the entire state switched to the state of martial law and particularly destroyed all previously gained democratic achievements in labour law. This period is characterized by the labour militarization, mobilization of the working population, the involvement of adolescents from the age of 14 into work, the increase in working hours, the annulment of holidays and the introduction of overtime work. The uniqueness of this phenomenon in terms of research in the domain of judicial defense of population's labour rights in Ukraine lies in the fact that generally such regressive trends did not take place on the territory of the UkrSSR itself, but on the territory of the RSFSR where Ukrainian enterprises were evacuated together with their workers and families due to the temporary occupation of the Ukrainian territory by the Nazi army. Also, the legislative and executive power agencies of the Ukrainian Republic carried out their activities (they were evacuated to Saratov and later located in Ufa and Moscow) on the territory of the RSFSR during the period from August 1941 to February 1943. During war, the labour laws of union republics actually did not function, it followed the law principles and regulations of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics which, therefore, was intended not to ensure and defend the workers' rights and guarantees, but to introduce such methods and actions in work organization which in the shortest period could provide defense industry improvement and military production output in such capacities that it was possible to beat the Nazi invaders. ; Наукова стаття присвячена розкриттю аспектів розвитку інституту судового захисту прав людини у сфері праці. Здійснено аналіз стану захисту трудових прав в Радянській Україні з періоду прийняття Конституції УРСР 1937 р. та за часів Другої світової війни. Наприкінці 30-х рр. ХХ сторіччя Україна починає втрачати свою суверенність та незалежність, що є закономірним наслідком здійсненоїзміни конституційно-правового статусу республіки. Це вбачається зі змісту конституційних положень різних років. Так, якщо взяти до уваги зміст доповнень до Конституції УСРР, прийнятих у 1925 році, то можна побачити, що там було закріплено, що УСРР входить до складу СРСР як «незалежна республіка», згодом у Конституції УСРР 1929 р. зазначалася «суверенна договірна держава», а про створення союзної держави не йшлося. Проте в Конституції 1937 року (найменування УСРР було змінено на УРСР на Надзвичайному XIV з'їзді Рад в січні 1937 р.) ці положення відсутні, є лише запис про об'єднання республік у союзну державу. Конституція УРСР 1937 р. замість з'їздів Рад, ЦВК УРСР та їх Президій визначала найвищим органом державної влади республіки Верховну Раду УРСР. Верховна Рада УРСР обирала Президію -колегіальний постійно діючий орган влади у періоди між сесіями Верховної Ради. В Україні поступово на перший план виходило керування загальносоюзних органів управління республіканськими об'єктами господарства, пріоритетною ставала дія загальносоюзного законодавства над республіканським як у вигляді копіювання змісту загальносоюзних законодавчих актів, так і щодо застосування союзних нормативних актів як актів прямої дії. Такі негативні тенденції не оминули галузь трудового права. Теоретично прийняття у 1937 р. Конституції УРСР мало би бути важливим кроком на шляху встановлення прогресивних принципів трудового права та закріплення нових підходів до вдосконалення захисту прав працівників, проте демократичні засади й положення Конституції залишилися декларативними. Конституцією проголошувалося право кожного на працю (положення про загальну трудову повинність було відсутнє), але проголошене Конституцією УРСР право на працю фактично було обов'язком працювати, а іншими нормативним актами відбувалося закріплення працівників за підприємствами, установами, заборонялося виїжджати на заробітки тощо. Наприкінці30-х - початку 40-хрр. минулого століття у всій союзній державі (зокрема, в УРСР) задля збільшення випуску продукції у всіх галузях народного господарства та підвищення продуктивності вводилися початкові засади примусової праці. Зокрема, особи, які не працювали без поважних причин (так звані тунеядці, дармоїди, нероби), притягувалися до адміністративної або кримінальної відповідальності; було більш жорстке покарання за порушення трудової дисципліни, виробництво продукції з браком, недотримання правил техніки безпеки. У період Другої світової війни відбулося значне погіршення умов праці, падіння рівня прав та гарантій працівників, взагалі була відсутня можливість захисту їх трудових прав, тобто трудове право, покликане захищати права працівників, набуло певних регресивних ознак. Такий відступ від основних засад і принципів трудового права був обумовлений тим, що суттєва частина працездатного населення (переважно чоловічої статі) поповнила лави збройних сил. Задля забезпечення кадрами підприємств оборонного значення та сільгосппідприємств (колгоспів, радгоспів) слід було змінювати політику держави у сфері регулювання праці, оскільки на теренах УССР, РСФСР та інших союзних республік діяли Кодекси законів про працю 19221924 рр., за змістом яких передбачалися засади добровільної праці. Трудовим законодавством трудоваповинність була передбачена лише за необхідності боротьби зі стихійними лихами та для виконання найважливіших державних завдань, а також лише на підставі конкретних постанов Ради Народних Комісарів. Такі демократичні засади не в змозі були забезпечити безперервну роботу оборонної промисловості, проведення оборонних і будівельних робіт, заготівку палива, безперебійного функціонування транспорту тощо. Для забезпечення виконання цих завдань радянський уряд прийняв певну кількість Указів Президії Верховної Ради СРСР та Постанов РНК СРСР, за якими вся держава переходила на воєнний стан, фактично руйнувалися всі набуті раніше демократичні досягнення у сфері трудового права. Цей період характеризується мілітаризацією праці, мобілізацією працездатного населення, залученням до праці підлітків з 14 років, збільшенням тривалості робочого часу, скасуванням відпусток та введенням надурочних робіт. Унікальність цього явища щодо дослідження генези судового захисту трудових прав населення України полягає в тому, що такі регресивні тенденції переважно були не на території УРСР, а на території РСФСР, куди були евакуйовані українські підприємства разом зі своїми працівниками та їх родинами у зв'язку з тимчасовою окупацією німецько-фашистськими військами території України. Також на території РСФСР у період із серпня 1941 р. до лютого 1943 р. здійснювали свою діяльність законодавчі та виконавчі органи влади української республіки (вони були евакуйовані до Саратова, а пізніше перебували в Уфі та Москві). Під час війни трудове законодавство союзних республік фактично не діяло, було повністю підкорено принципам і положенням законодавства СРСР, як мало на меті не забезпечення та захист прав і гарантій працівників, а застосування таких методів і заходів в організації праці, які б у найко-ротші строки сприяли налагодженню оборонної промисловості та випуску воєнної продукції в таких обсягах, щоб можна було отримати перемогу над німецько-фашистськими загарбниками.
ilustraciones, fotografías, tablas ; La investigación realiza una aproximación al análisis de la autonomía alimentaria de las familias agricultoras del Resguardo Indígena Muisca de Fonquetá y Cerca de Piedra de Chía – Cundinamarca, como aporte a su identidad indígena; mediante la caracterización de algunos componentes de su sistema alimentario e identificación de elementos que contribuyen a la autonomía alimentaria y se relacionan con la identidad indígena, para resaltar aspectos de relevancia que puedan ser incorporados en el Plan de Vida de la comunidad que se encuentra actualmente en construcción. Para ello la metodología que guio la investigación, fue de tipo cualitativa con un enfoque etnográfico, desarrollado con nueve familias agriculturas, utilizando como herramientas para la recolección de datos la entrevista, cartografía social y observación participante, información que fue procesada mediante el software MaxQDA, y que posteriormente fue triangulada con la observación realizada y la información sobre datos históricos del pueblo Muisca recabada a partir de fuentes secundarias. A partir de lo anterior, se obtuvieron los resultados que en el documento se presentan en cuatro capítulos alineados a los conceptos base de la investigación: sistema alimentario indígena (SAI), autonomía alimentaria (AA), identidad indígena (II) y plan de vida (PV). Frente al SAI, los resultados más destacados con respecto a la siembra de alimentos son el que la fuerza de trabajo configurada por el núcleo familiar presenta limitantes relevantes como la migración, el estado de salud, la edad y el tiempo dedicado a la adjudicación; así mismo, se encuentra que existe una diferenciación generacional con respecto a las tareas a realizar en los cultivos; también se evidencia que existe una gran variedad de especies sembradas muchas custodiadas durante siglos, al igual que diversas prácticas tradicionales ancestrales que aún perviven, incluso han surgido practicas frente a la adaptación a los cambios ambientales y practicas mixtas que nacen entre lo tradicional y la influencia del conocimiento tecnificado actual. Con respecto a la distribución y venta de alimentos, esta se identifica como una práctica ancestral que ha pervivido, pero que se ha transformado debido a los cambios del territorio y del medio ambiente, al igual que sucedió con las preferencias de consumo. Y en general en donde la pandemia por COVID-19 condujo a varios cambios en la comunidad. Con respecto a la AA, se encontró que el acceso a la tierra está dado por la figura de adjudicación otorgado por el cabildo gobernador quien organiza la distribución de tierras del resguardo; territorio en el cual se ha dado una importante pérdida de fuentes hídricas en el tiempo, hecho que ha conllevado a la revalorización del agua mediante estrategias de regeneración, conservación, recolección y reutilización. Así mismo, se identificó diversas formas de gestión de las semillas y una mayor conciencia frente a los daños sobre la salud y el ambiente que produce la utilización de los agroquímicos. Adicionalmente, se encontró la pervivencia de espacios de construcción social, en su mayoría fortalecidos alrededor de los alimentos. En relación a ello, también se identificaron las estrategias a partir de las cuales la comunidad ha realizado la transmisión de saberes, muchas de las cuales se encuentran debilitadas y en riesgo de desaparecer. Ahora bien, en referencia a la II se tiene que el autorreconocimiento como indígenas, se da fundamentalmente al ser natales del territorio y ser descendientes de los primeros pobladores del resguardo, en donde la tierra es un aspecto de gran importancia. En concordancia a lo anterior, también se destaca la gran pérdida de territorio debido a causas internas y externas a la comunidad. Con respecto a su organización se refieren como limitantes la duración anual del periodo de gobierno y la administración de recursos en consideración a la ausencia del plan de vida. Con respecto al PV, el trabajo permitió identificar la visión de autonomía alimentaria, el ser indígena y el buen vivir, desde los sentires y saberes propios de la comunidad, en los que confluyen y se interrelacionan diversos elementos identificados en el SAI. De igual forma, en este acápite se plantea la priorización de problemáticas frente a lo alimentario e identitario realizada en el trabajo de campo, a partir de la cual emergieron resultados interesantes como causas, consecuencias y alternativas de solución. Finalmente, las conclusiones de la investigación surgen a la luz de las interrelaciones entre el SAIM, la AA y la II, en el marco de lo cual se evidencian las necesidades de la comunidad. Una de las principales conclusiones es el hecho que el SAIM a partir de su adaptación a las transformaciones del medio ambiente y del territorio permitió la conservación de varios elementos milenarios y ancestrales (Velasco, 2013); en donde el COVID-19 ha influido de forma importante en las transformaciones de las dinámicas de la comunidad como el aumento de producción, el retorno al territorio de miembros del hogar, la revalorización de la huerta, así como la inactivación de espacios de reunión y celebración comunitarias. Por otro lado, se tiene que las expresiones de autonomía alimentaria presentes en el SAIM permiten el rescate de las identidades indígenas que se transforman y resignifican alrededor de la memoria histórica y el reconocimiento del territorio, dando paso a un proceso de construcción de nuevas y renacientes identidades étnicas, a partir de la articulación de las prácticas y costumbres ancestrales con las del mundo moderno (Colque, 2015, p. 55). Hecho por el cual la identidad Indígena, debe dejar de comprenderse desde una visión estereotipada, para leerse desde los contextos y las luchas que han gestado las comunidades, en búsqueda del bien común o también llamado buen vivir, la defensa del territorio, la recuperación y/o fortalecimiento de su cosmovisión y el reconocimiento de su historia. Siendo entonces el Buen Vivir, donde se articulan las dimensiones de la autonomía e identidad, desde una perspectiva de armonía, autosuficiencia y recuperación de espacios que fortalezcan los lazos de unión comunitaria. (Texto tomado de la fuente). ; The research approaches the analysis of the food autonomy of farm families in the native reserve Muisca of Fonquetá and Cerca de Piedra de Chía - Cundinamarca, as a contribution to their Indigenous identity; by characterizing certain components of their food system and identifying those that contribute to food autonomy and relate to Indigenous identity, highlight relevant aspects that can be integrated into the life plan of the community currently being built. As such, the methodology that guided the research was qualitative based on an ethnographic approach, developed with nine farm families, using interviews, social mapping and participating observation as data collection tools. Information that was processed using MaxQDA software, and which was subsequently triangulated with observation made and information on historical data of Muisca people collected from secondary sources. The results obtained are presented in four chapters aligned with the basics of research: Indigenous Food System (SAI), Food Autonomy (AA), Indigenous Identity (II) and Life Plan (PV). In reference to the SAI, the most outstanding results regarding the sowing of food are that workforce configured by the family nucleus presents relevant limitations such as migration, health status, age and time spent on the land; also, it is found that there is a generational differentiation in reference of tasks to be carried out in the crops; besides it is evident that there is a great variety of sown species, many guarded for centuries, as well as various ancestral traditional practices that still survive. Practices have even emerged in the face of adaptation to environmental changes and mixed practices that arise between the traditional and the influence of current technical knowledge. Regarding the distribution and sale of food, those are identified as an ancestral practice that has survived but has been transformed due to changes in the territory and the environment, as happened with consumer preferences. And overall, where the COVID-19 pandemic led to several changes in the community. With respect to the AA, it was found that access to land is given by the figure of adjudication granted by the governor cabildo who organizes the distribution of lands in the reserve; territory in which there has been a significant loss of water sources over time, that has led to the revaluation of water through strategies of regeneration, conservation, collection, and reuse. It also was identified various forms of seed management and increased awareness of the damage to health and the environment caused for the using agrochemicals. In addition, was found the survival of spaces of social construction, mostly strengthened around food. In this regard, was also identified the strategies from which the community has carried out the transmission of knowledge, many of which are weakened and at risk of disappearing. However, in reference to the Indigenous Identity, there is the self-recognition as an indigenous person mainly by being native to the territory and being descendants of the first inhabitants of the reserve, where the land is a very important aspect. In accordance with the foregoing, the great loss of territory due to internal and external causes to the community is also highlighted. Referring to its organization, the annual duration of the government period and the administration of resources in consideration of the absence of a life plan are considered as limitations. Regarding the PV, the job made it possible to identify the vision of food autonomy, the indigenous being and the well-being, from the feeling and knowledge of the community, in which various elements identified in the SAI converge and interrelate. In the same way, in this section were proposed the prioritization of food issues and of the identity, from which they arose interesting results emerged such as causes, consequences and alternative solutions. Finally, the conclusions of the research arise at the light of the interrelationships between SAIM, AA and II, in whose framework, the community needs are evident. One of the main conclusions is that SAIM, from its adaptation to environmental and territorial transformations, allowed conservation of several ancient and ancestral elements (Velasco, 2013); where the COVID-19 has had a significant impact on the transformations of community dynamics such as the increase in production, the return of household members to the territory, the revaluation of the vegetable garden, as well as the non-use of community spaces for meeting and celebration. On the other hand, the expressions of food autonomy present in the SAIM, allow to save the indigenous identities that have transformed and redefined themselves around the historical memory and the recognition of the territory, leading to a process of building new and re-emerging ethnic identities, based on the articulation of ancestral practices and customs with those of the modern world. Fact by which the indigenous identity must cease to be understood from a stereotypical vision, to be read from the contexts and struggles that have developed the communities, the search for the common good or well-being, the defense of the territory, the restoration and/or strengthening of its world view and the recognition of its history. It is then well-being in which the dimensions of autonomy and identity are articulated, in terms of harmony, self-sufficiency and the recovery of spaces which strengthen the bonds of community unity. ; Incluye anexos ; Maestría ; Magíster en Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional ; Cualitativa. Método etnográfico
The life path, scientific-pedagogical and public activity of Volodymyr Sokurenko – a prominent Ukrainian jurist, doctor of law, professor, talented teacher of the Lviv Law School of Franko University are analyzed.It is found out that after graduating from a seven-year school in Zaporizhia, V. Sokurenko entered the Zaporizhia Aviation Technical School, where he studied two courses until 1937. 1/10/1937 he was enrolled as a cadet of the 2nd school of aircraft technicians named after All-Union Lenin Komsomol. In 1938, this school was renamed the Volga Military Aviation School, which he graduated on September 4, 1939 with the military rank of military technician of the 2nd category. As a junior aircraft technician, V. Sokurenko was sent to the military unit no. 8690 in Baku, and later to Maradnyany for further military service in the USSR Air Force. From September 4, 1939 to March 16, 1940, he was a junior aircraft technician of the 50th Fighter Regiment, 60th Air Brigade of the ZAK VO in Baku. The certificate issued by the Railway District Commissariat of Lviv on January 4, 1954 no. 3132 states that V. Sokurenko actually served in the staff of the Soviet Army from October 1937 to May 1946. The same certificate states that from 10/12/1941 to 20/09/1942 and from 12/07/1943 to 08/03/1945, he took part in the Soviet-German war, in particular in the second fighter aviation corps of the Reserve of the Supreme Command of the Soviet Army. In 1943 he joined the CPSU. He was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War of the 1st degree and the Order of the Red Star (1943) as well as 9 medals «For Merit in Battle» during the Soviet-German war.With the start of the Soviet-German war, the Sokurenko family, like many other families, was evacuated to the town of Kamensk-Uralsky in the Sverdlovsk region, where their father worked at a metallurgical plant. After the war, the Sokurenko family moved to Lviv. In 1946, V. Sokurenko entered the Faculty of Law of the Ivan Franko Lviv State University, graduating with honors in 1950, and entered the graduate school of the Lviv State University at the Department of Theory and History of State and Law. V. Sokurenko successfully passed the candidate examinations and on December 25, 1953 in Moscow at the Institute of Law of the USSR he defended his thesis on the topic: «Socialist legal consciousness and its relationship with Soviet law». The supervisor of V. Sokurenko's candidate's thesis was N. Karieva. The Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Culture of the USSR, by its decision of March 31, 1954, awarded V. Sokurenko the degree of Candidate of Law. In addition, it is necessary to explain the place of defense of the candidate's thesis by V. Sokurenko. As it is known, the Institute of State and Law of the USSR has its history since 1925, when, in accordance with the resolution of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of March 25, 1925, the Institute of Soviet Construction was established at the Communist Academy. In 1936, the Institute became part of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and in 1938 it was reorganized into the Institute of Law of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1941–1943 it was evacuated to Tashkent. In 1960-1991 it was called the Institute of State and Law of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In Ukraine, there is the Institute of State and Law named after V. Koretsky of the NAS of Ukraine – a leading research institution in Ukraine of legal profile, founded in 1949.It is noted that, as a graduate student, V. Sokurenko read a course on the history of political doctrines, conducted special seminars on the theory of state and law. After graduating from graduate school and defending his thesis, from October 1, 1953 he was enrolled as a senior lecturer and then associate professor at the Department of Theory and History of State and Law at the Faculty of Law of the Lviv State University named after Ivan Franko.By the decision of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR of December 18, 1957, V. Sokurenko was awarded the academic title of associate professor of the «Department of Theory and History of State and Law».V. Sokurenko took an active part in public life. During 1947-1951 he was a member of the party bureau of the party organization of LSU, worked as a chairman of the trade union committee of the university, from 1955 to 1957 he was a secretary of the party committee of the university. He delivered lectures for the population of Lviv region. Particularly, he lectured in Turka, Chervonohrad, and Yavoriv. He made reports to the party leaders, Soviet workers as well as business leaders. He led a philosophical seminar at the Faculty of Law. He was a deputy of the Lviv City Council of People's Deputies in 1955-1957 and 1975-1978.In December 1967, he defended his doctoral thesis on the topic: «Development of progressive political thought in Ukraine (until the early twentieth century)». The defense of the doctoral thesis was approved by the Higher Attestation Commission on June 14, 1968.During 1960-1990 he headed the Department of Theory and History of State and Law; in 1962-68 and 1972-77 he was the dean of the Law Faculty of the Ivan Franko Lviv State University. In connection with the criticism of the published literature, on September 10, 1977, V. Sokurenko wrote a statement requesting his dismissal from the post of Dean of the Faculty of Law due to deteriorating health. During 1955-1965 he was on research trips to Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Austria, and Bulgaria. From August 1966 to March 1967, in particular, he spent seven months in the United States, England and Canada as a UN Fellow in the Department of Human Rights. From April to May 1968, he was a member of the government delegation to the International Conference on Human Rights in Iran for one month. He spoke, in addition to Ukrainian, English, Polish and Russian. V. Sokurenko played an important role in initiating the study of an important discipline at the Faculty of Law of the Lviv University – History of Political and Legal Studies, which has been studying the history of the emergence and development of theoretical knowledge about politics, state, law, ie the process of cognition by people of the phenomena of politics, state and law at different stages of history in different nations, from early statehood and modernity.Professor V. Sokurenko actively researched the problems of the theory of state and law, the history of Ukrainian legal and political thought. He was one of the first legal scholars in the USSR to begin research on the basics of legal deontology. V. Sokurenko conducted extensive research on the development of basic requirements for the professional and legal responsibilities of a lawyer, similar to the requirements for a doctor. In further research, the scholar analyzed the legal responsibilities, prospects for the development of the basics of professional deontology. In addition, he considered medical deontology from the standpoint of a lawyer, law and morality, focusing on internal (spiritual) processes, calling them «the spirit of law.» The main direction of V. Sokurenko's research was the problems of the theory of state and law, the history of legal and political studies. The main scientific works of professor V. Sokurenko include: «The main directions in the development of progressive state and legal thought in Ukraine: 16th – 19th centuries» (1958) (Russian), «Democratic doctrines about the state and law in Ukraine in the second half of the 19th century (M. Drahomanov, S. Podolynskyi, A. Terletskyi)» (1966), «Law. Freedom. Equality» (1981, co-authored) (in Russian), «State and legal views of Ivan Franko» (1966), «Socio-political views of Taras Shevchenko (to the 170th anniversary of his birth)» (1984); «Political and legal views of Ivan Franko (to the 130th anniversary of his birth)» (1986) (in Russian) and others.V. Sokurenko died on November 22, 1994 and was buried in Holoskivskyi Cemetery in Lviv.Volodymyr Sokurenko left a bright memory in the hearts of a wide range of scholars, colleagues and grateful students. The 100th anniversary of the Scholar is a splendid opportunity to once again draw attention to the rich scientific heritage of the lawyer, which is an integral part of the golden fund of Ukrainian legal science and education. It needs to be studied, taken into account and further developed. ; Проаналізовано життєвий шлях, науково-педагогічну та громадську діяльність Воло-димира Гавриловича Сокуренка – видатного українського правознавця, доктора юридичних наук, професора, талановитого педагога Львівської правничої школи Франкового універ-ситету.З'ясовано, що В. Г. Сокуренко навчався у Запорізькому авіаційному технікумі та Вольському військовому авіаційному училищі, яке закінчив у 1939 р. У 1939‒1946 рр. служив у радянській армії. Після закінчення у 1950 р. юридичного факультету Львівського університету пройшов шлях від аспіранта до професора, завідувача кафедри, декана юридичного факультету. Упродовж 1960‒1990 рр. завідував кафедрою теорії та історії держави і права; в 1962‒1968 та 1972‒1977 рр. був деканом юридичного факультету Львівського державного університету імені Івана Франка. Протягом 1955‒1965 рр. перебував у наукових відрядженнях у Польщі, Чехословаччині, Румунії, Австрії, Болгарії. Зі серпня 1966 до березня 1967 рр., зокрема сім місяців перебував у США, Англії та Канаді як стипендіат ООН по департаменту прав людини. У квітні-травні 1968 р. був членом у складі урядової делегації на міжнародній конференції по правах людини в Ірані упродовж одного місяця. Володів, окрім української, англійською, польською та російською мовами. В. Г. Сокуренко відіграв важливу роль у започаткуванні на юридичному факультеті Львівсь-кого університету вивчення важливої навчальної дисципліни – Історії політичних і правових учень, яка висвітлювала і до сьогодні продовжує висвітлювати історію виникнення та розвитку теоретичних знань про політику, державу, право, тобто вивчає процес пізнання людьми явищ політики, держави і права на різних етапах історії у різних народів, почи-наючи з ранньої державності і сучасності.Професор В. Г. Сокуренко активно досліджував проблеми теорії держави і права, історії української правової та політичної думки. Він був одним із перших учених-правників у СРСР, хто почав наукові студії основ юридичної деонтології. Велику наукову дослід-ницьку діяльність проводив В. Г. Сокуренко щодо розробки основних вимог до професійно-правових обов'язків юриста, аналогічно до вимог, що стосуються лікаря. У подальших наукових дослідженнях учений аналізував юридичні обов'язки, перспективи розвитку основ професійної деонтології. Крім того, правознавець розглядав медичну деонтологію з позиції юриста, права і моралі, приділивши основну увагу внутрішнім (духовним) процесам, назвавши їх «духом права». Основним напрямом наукових досліджень В. Г. Сокуренка були проблеми теорії держави і права, історії правових та політичних учень.Володимир Гаврилович Сокуренко залишив по собі світлу пам'ять у серцях широкого загалу науковців, колег та вдячних учнів. 100-річний ювілей Вченого – добра нагода для того, щоб ще раз привернути увагу до багатої наукової спадщини правознавця, яка є невід'ємною складовою золотого фонду української юридичної науки і освіти. Вона потребує вивчення, врахування та подальшого розвитку.
The article covers development aspects of the institution of judicial defence of human rights at labour. The analysis of the labour rights defence condition in Soviet Ukraine from adopting the Constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of 1937 and throughout the Second World War is carried out. In the late 30s of the XX century Ukraine started losing its sovereignty and independence which was a natural consequence of the conducted change in republic constitutional and legal status. This follows from the content of constitutional regulations of various years. Thus, if amendments to the Constitution of the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic adopted in 1925 are taken into account, it was enshrined that the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic was the part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as "an independent republic", thereafter, in the Constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of 1929 it was registered as "an independent contracting state", and there was no union state creation was mentioned. Nevertheless, in the Constitution of 1937 (the name of the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic was changed to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (UkrSSR) at the XIV Emergency Congress of Soviets in January 1937), these regulations are absent. There is only one record about joining the republics into one union state. Instead of the Congresses of Soviets, Central Election Commission of the UkrSSR and their Executive Committees, the Constitution of the UkrSSR of 1937 determined the Supreme Soviet of the UkrSSR as the republic highest body of state power. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR elected the Executive Committee – a collegial permanent power agency in the periods between the sessions of the Supreme Soviet. Incrementally, the governance of all-union governing bodies by republican economic facilities went to the foreground in Ukraine, the action of all-union laws above the republican laws was the priority – both in the form of copying the content of all-union legislative acts and adopting union regulatory acts as acts with direct effect. Such downward trends also concerned the field of labour law. Theoretically, the adaptation of the Constitution of the UkrSSR of 1937 had to be an important step in the way of establishing progressive principles in labour law and consolidating the new approaches to improve the defence of workers' rights; however, the democratic principles and regulations of the Constitution remained declarative. The Constitution declared the right of everyone to work (the regulations on universal labour duty were absent), though the right to work declared by the Constitution of the UkrSSR was actually an obligation to work and, other regulatory acts assigned workers to the enterprises, institutions. It was forbidden to move in order to earn money for the living and so on. In the late 30s – early 40s of the previous century, the initial basis of forced labour was introduced in all union states (including, the UkrSSR) to increase production output in all fields of national economy and to improve productivity. Particularly, people who did not work without valid excuse (so-called "parasites", "freeloaders", "loafers") were brought to executive or criminal responsibilities. There was tougher penalty for violation of labour discipline, for producing items with defects, for non-observance of health and safety rules. During the Second World War, there was a significant deterioration in labour conditions, a decline in workers' rights and guarantees. In general, there was no possibility to defend their labour rights, rather labour law referred to defend workers' rights gained certain regressive features. Such deviation from the general foundations and principles of labour law was attributed to the fact that an essential part of the working population (mostly males) joined the armed forces. In order to provide the defence significance and farming enterprises (collective farms, state farms) with workforce, it was necessary to change the state policy in regulating the labour, since the Code of Labour Laws of 1922–1924, the content of which provided the foundations of voluntary work, acted on the territory of the USSR, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and other union republics. Labour laws foresaw labour duty only if it was necessary to combat natural disasters and to fulfil the most important state issues, but only on certain regulations of the People's Commissar Soviets. Such democratic principles were unable to ensure proper functioning of defence industry, the completion of defence and construction works, the fuel storage, the uninterrupted functioning of transport and so on. To ensure the fulfilment of the mentioned issues, the Soviet government adopted a certain number of Decrees of the Executive Committee of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and Regulations of the People's Commissar Soviets of the USSR, according to which the entire state switched to the state of martial law and particularly destroyed all previously gained democratic achievements in labour law. This period is characterized by the labour militarisation, mobilization of the working population, the involvement of adolescents from the age of 14 into work, the increase in working hours, the annulment of holidays and the introduction of overtime work. The uniqueness of this phenomenon in terms of research in the domain of judicial defence of population's labour rights in Ukraine lies in the fact that generally such regressive trends did not take place on the territory of the UkrSSR itself, but on the territory of the RSFSR where Ukrainian enterprises were evacuated together with their workers and families due to the temporary occupation of the Ukrainian territory by the Nazi army. Also, the legislative and executive power agencies of the Ukrainian Republic carried out their activities (they were evacuated to Saratov and later located in Ufa and Moscow) on the territory of the RSFSR during the period from August 1941 to February 1943. During war, the labour laws of union republics actually did not function, it followed the law principles and regulations of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics which, therefore, was intended not to ensure and defend the workers' rights and guarantees, but to introduce such methods and actions in work organization which in the shortest period could provide defence industry improvement and military production output in such capacities that it was possible to beat the Nazi invaders. ; Наукова стаття присвячена розкриттю аспектів розвитку інституту судового захисту прав людини у сфері праці. Здійснено аналіз стану захисту трудо-вих прав у Радянській Україні з періоду прийняття Конституції УРСР 1937 року та за часів Другої світової війни. Наприкінці 30-х років ХХ сто-річчя Україна починає втрачати свою суверенність та незалеж-ність, що є закономірним наслідком здійсненої зміни конституційно-правового статусу республіки. Це вбачається зі змісту конститу-ційних положень різних років. Так, якщо взяти до уваги зміст допов-нень до Конституції УСРР, при-йнятих у 1925 році, то там було закріплено, що УСРР входить до складу СРСР як «незалежна рес-публіка», згодом у Конституції УСРР 1929 року зазначалося, як «суверенна договірна держава», а про створення союзної держави мови не було. Проте в Конститу-ції 1937 року (найменування УСРР було змінене на УРСР на Надзви-чайному XIV з'їзді Рад у січні 1937 року) ці положення відсутні, є лише запис про об'єднання респу-блік у союзну державу. Конститу-ція УРСР 1937 року замість з'їздів Рад, ЦВК УРСР та їх Президій визначала найвищим органом дер-жавної влади республіки Верховну Раду УРСР. Верховна Рада УРСР вибирала Президію – колегіальний постійно діючий орган влади у пері-оди між сесіями Верховної Ради. В Україні поступово на перший план виходило керування загально-союзних органів управління респу-бліканськими об'єктами господар-ства, пріоритетною ставала дія загальносоюзного законодавства над республіканським як у вигляді копiювання змiсту загальносо-юзних законодавчих актів, так і застосуванням союзних норматив-них актів як актів прямої дії. Такі негативні тенденції не оминули і галузь трудового права. Теоретично прийняття у 1937 році Конституції УРСР мало б бути важливим кроком на шляху встановлення прогресивних принципів трудового права та закріплення нових підходів до удосконалювання захисту прав працівників, проте демократичні засади і положення Конституції залишилися деклара-тивними. Конституцією проголошувалося право кожного на працю (положення про загальну трудову повинність було відсутнє), але проголошене Конституцією УРСР право на працю фактично було обов'язком працювати, а іншими нормативним актами відбувалося закріплення працівників за під-приємствами, установами, заборо-нялося виїжджати на заробітки тощо. Наприкінці 30-х – початку 40-х років минулого століття у всій союзній державі (у тому числі і в УРСР) з метою збільшення випуску продукції у всіх галузях народного господарства та підви-щення продуктивності вводилися початкові засади примусової праці. Зокрема, особи, які не працювали без поважних причин (так звані «тунеядці», «дармоїди», «нероби»), притягувалися до адміністратив-ної або до кримінальної відповідаль-ності; мало місце більш жорстке покарання за порушення трудової дисципліни, за виробництво про-дукції з браком, за недотримання правил техніки безпеки. У період Другої світової війни відбулося значне погіршення умов праці, падіння рівня прав та гаран-тій працівників, взагалі була від-сутня можливість захисту їхніх трудових прав, тобто трудове право, покликане захищати права працівників, набуло певних регре-сивних ознак. Такий відступ від основних засад і принципів трудового права був зумовлений тим, що суттєва частина працездатного населення (в основному чоловічої статі) поповнила лави збройних сил. З метою забезпечення кадрами підприємств оборонного значення та сільгосппідприємств (колгос-пів, радгоспів) слід було змінювати політику держави у сфері регулю-вання праці, оскільки на теренах УССР, РСФСР та інших союзних республік діяли Кодекси законів про працю 1922–1924 років, за зміс-том яких передбачалися засади добровільної праці. Трудовим зако-нодавством трудова повинність була передбачена лише у разі необ-хідності боротьби зі стихійними лихами та для виконання найважливіших державних завдань, та лише на підставі конкретних постанов Ради Народних Коміса-рів. Такі демократичні засади не в змозі були забезпечити безперервну роботу оборонної промисловості, проведення оборонних і будівель-них робіт, заготівлю палива, без-перебійного функціонування тран-спорту тощо. Для забезпечення виконання цих завдань радянський уряд прийняв певну кількість ука-зів Президії Верховної Ради СРСР та постанов РНК СРСР, за якими вся держава переходила на воєнний стан і фактично руйнувалися всі набуті раніше демократичні досяг-нення в сфері трудового права. Цей період характеризується міліта-ризацією праці, мобілізацією пра-цездатного населення, залученням до праці підлітків з 14 років, збіль-шенням тривалості робочого часу, скасуванням відпусток та введен-ням надурочних робіт. Унікальність цього явища у плані дослідження ґенези судового захисту трудових прав населення України полягає в тому, що такі регресивні тенденції в основному мали місце не на території УРСР, а на території РСФСР, куди були евакуйовані українські підприєм-ства разом зі своїми працівниками та їхніми родинами у зв'язку з тимчасовою окупацією німець-ко-фашистськими військами тери-торії України. Також на території РСФСР у період із серпня 1941 року до лютого 1943 року здійснювали свою діяльність законодавчі та виконавчі органи влади української республіки (вони були евакуйовані до Саратова, а пізніше перебували в Уфі та Москві). Під час війни трудове законодавство союзних республік фактично не діяло, було повністю підкорене принципам і положенням законодавства СРСР, яке, своєю чергою, мало на меті не забезпечення та захист прав і гарантій працівників, а застосування таких методів і заходів в організації праці, які б у найкоротші строки сприяли налагодженню оборонної промисловості та випуску воєнної продукції в таких обсягах, щоб можна було здобути перемогу над німецько-фашистськими загарбниками.
Relevance of the research problem. Sport is a value of every nation, which includes the system of physical, spiritual and cultural education, sports achievements, scientific knowledge, international communication (Karoblis, 2005). High level sport is inseparable from competitive activities, the pursuit of sports results (Hargreaves & MacDonald, 2000; Karoblis, 2005). The special training of athletes in the chosen sports is a part of general education of personality, which has a close connection with social, educational, political, economic issues of humanity development (Johnson et al., 2007). The athlete training process is a multi-year educational process of a specific structure and organizational form, which develops physical characteristics of an athlete, determines his activity, behavior, independence and responsibility, promotes to achieve excellent results. However, optimization of athlete training technology, construction of training system and its filling with full content still have the greatest impact on the improvement of sports results (Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2018; Karoblis, 2005; Платонов, 2004). Management of high-performance athlete training is related to prognostication, individual model characteristics of sport fitness, general and special load ratio, search for new effective directions of workout methodology, modeling of competition activity indicators, workout process planning, competition program conclusion, sport training adjustment (Karoblis, Raslanas, Steponavičius, 2002). Track-and-field athletics is integral sports that combine cyclic and acyclic exercise competitions: running, throws, vertical and horizontal jumps (Armonavičius, 1995). Short distance running is one of the most prestigious track-and-field athletics competitions. An exceptional short distance motor feature is the maximum intense activity of the whole body, especially the nervous and muscular systems, lasting from 0.1 to 40–50 s (Stanislovaitis et al., 2008). The ever-improving sports results reveal new human mental and physical abilities, vast resources of the body that could not even be dreamed of before. The organization of exercise, methodology, their scope and intensity, their combination with the means of recovery according to the main laws of phenotypic adaptation form the basis for the training of high-performance athletes (Платонов, 2004; Stonkus, 2000; Issurin, 2008; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). The particularity of the sport is based on competition. The results recorded in sport receive global recognition and become a true human achievement standard. In the world, they are constantly progressing, promoting the development of the sport community, therefore the greatest human intellectual and material resources are directed to the training of high-performance athletes (Skernevičius, 2015; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). However, the results of a research conducted by scientists showed that over the past nearly 20 years, elite athletes, including Olympic, world champions and prizewinners, have achieved personal best results in key competitions of the season by only in 50 percent cases (Yakimovich & Ovchinnikov, 2016). This shows that the opinion that contemporary coaches are high-performance and knowledgeable in the training of elite athletes and immaculately control and manage the process of sport training of athletes is not sufficiently substantiated. It has been established that the development of high-performance sprinters depends on many factors, the most important of which is the directionality of the training process, its management, taking into account the individual characteristics of the athlete's body adaptation to workout and competition loads (Stanislovaitis, 2008; Бондаренко, 1999; Нбанекова, Филин, 1995). The training of sprinters and their competitive activities have been extensively studied not only by foreign (Smith, 2005; Doscher, 2009; Kale & Bayrak, 2009; Prins, Murata, Derenne, Morgan, & Solomon, 2010; Dickin, Reyes, & Dolny, 2009; Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008; Eikenberry, Mcauliffe, Welsh, Zerpa, Mcpherson, & Newhouse, 2008; Oзoлин, 1986), but also by Lithuanian sport scientists (Stanislovaitis, 2008, 2006, 2005; Grūnovas, 2006; Butkus, 2006, 1995; Skurvydas, 1999, 2003; Bradauskienė, 2006). Although the world record of female sprinters in a 100 m distance is quite high (10.49 s), the search for new training methods and their application in the process of female sprinter workouts continues. Scientists are not only analyzing and evaluating existing workout methodological tools, but also looking for new methods for an advanced sprinter training process. Thus, in search of new methods to increase running speed, through more research and the application of the latest training technologies, methods can be discovered to help athletes to become faster and to develop a running speed, which has never been achieved before. Recently, in a 100 m running, as in many track-and-field athletics competitions, the results of athletes are progressing rapidly. That progress depends heavily on the selection of talented athletes, scientifically and practically sound and effective workout methodologies, the selection and application of remedial measures, the material compensation of athletes, which greatly increases motivation of athletes, and etc. Therefore, in order to achieve good results and prizes in high rank competition in contemporary sport, it is necessary to know the peculiarities of the application of training methodology, to properly select the most important starts of the annual training cycle, taking into account all conditions at the place and time of competition. An athlete and a coach must not only follow the innovations of training methodology, science and medicine, but also look back, be able to analyze his own results and the results of athletes, who have shown significant results theretofore, the peculiarities of workout tools and methods applied by them, the reasons for successful and unsuccessful starts, and then all this to apply to the management of his own training process. Discovering, revealing and learning about new technologies through the theory and didactics of sport workout is the most important function of sport science (Mester, 2003), and it is important for a coach to be able to use scientific results and recommendations, be insightful and be able to successfully model the training of elite athletes (Karoblis, Raslanas, Poteliūnienė, Steponavičius, Petkus, & Žilinskienė, 2011). The purposeful training of female sprinters and the search for effective technologies in order to increase the maximum running speed become a scientific problem. The presented scientific problem is relevant for the following reasons: ● It is important to analyze the change in results in terms of age and to determine the age, at which the highest results are achieved; ● It is important to research and theoretically substantiate, which components determine the sports result in short distance running; ● To research the effectiveness of training measures in order to increase maximum running speed; ● The contribution of running at maximum speed to the sports result in a 100 m run has not been sufficiently researched; ● It is important to establish criteria that affect the progress of athletes' mastery and the change of sport performance. Hypothesis. It is likely that sports results of female sprinters are not improving due to the integrated and concentrated training models applied separately. A universal speed training model is more effective. Object of the research is the process of female sprinter training. Aim is to identify the peculiarities of optimizing the training of high-performance female sprinters. Objectives of the research: 1. On the basis of the data of the theoretical analysis of scientific sources, to reveal the change of the results of high-performance female sprinters in terms of age. 2. To perform a comparative analysis of the preparation of high-performance female spriners for the Athens, Beijing, London and Rio Olympic Games. 3. To review the technologies of sports training of female sprinters and to examine the factors influencing their results. 4. To determine the effectiveness of a universal method for training the speed of high-performance female sprinters. 5. To reveal/identify the opinion of high-performance female sprinters about the factors determining their training system. Theoretical and practical significance Researching the structure and content of sports training for female sprinters of different ages and sports mastery, analyzing the change of sports results in terms of age, evaluating workout methods, running speed components, the provisions for effective running speed increase were identified: ● Running speed is determined by the speed of muscle contraction, the length of leg support, the frequency of steps, and the sports result in a 100-meter run depends mainly on the maximum running speed. ● In order to improve the results of the maximum running speed of female sprinters, it is important to apply a universal, combined method in the workout process, running with weight and stretching with an elastic band. These provisions are relevant to the theory and practice of female sprinter training. The results of the study can be used in the development of training programs for sports schools and high-performance female sprinters. CONCLUSIONS 1. The age for achieving the best personal result in the women's 100 m running competition is 24.69 ± 3.27 year. The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė achieved her best result in this running competition at the age of 25 – 11.19 s. At the beginning of their athletic career, American sprinters had the highest running scores and dominated until the age of 17, however later is observed leadership of the Caribbean Region female sprinters up to the age of 35. The results of European sprinters were average in almost all age groups. 2. Analysis of the four Olympic Games revealed a significant improvement in the results of the 100 m running and starting reaction speed (p < 0.05). In order to get to in the 100 m running final, athletes should run an average of 10.96 ± 0.03 s, and to become the prizewinners of the competition – 10.86 ± 0.08 s. Sprinters become the prizewinners of the 100 m run at the age of 25.42 ± 3.18 year. 3. Lithuanian female sprinters lose to the best sprinters of Europe and the world in the competition requiring the maximum running speed – 40 m in acceleration (11.99 %). The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė reduces this difference to 4.05 % in the 100 m running distance, the gap between Europe's and the world's best female sprinters is gradually declining due to improved European sprinters' maximum running speed results. 4. The resisted/assisted running method is the most effective way to increase the running speed and starting acceleration, as this speed training method significantly improves the values of step length and support duration than running normally. 5. High-performance female sprinters lack attention to an important component of training – psychological training – in the process of their sports training. It was found out that their sports training and improvement of results are more influenced by external (monetary prizes, premiums) than internal motives (desire to improve results, honor to represent their country). A coach's personality also has impact. The coach is valued not only as a specialist, but distinguishing his personal qualities, such as sincerity, friendliness, motivation, promotion is considered an integral part of the training process.
Relevance of the research problem. Sport is a value of every nation, which includes the system of physical, spiritual and cultural education, sports achievements, scientific knowledge, international communication (Karoblis, 2005). High level sport is inseparable from competitive activities, the pursuit of sports results (Hargreaves & MacDonald, 2000; Karoblis, 2005). The special training of athletes in the chosen sports is a part of general education of personality, which has a close connection with social, educational, political, economic issues of humanity development (Johnson et al., 2007). The athlete training process is a multi-year educational process of a specific structure and organizational form, which develops physical characteristics of an athlete, determines his activity, behavior, independence and responsibility, promotes to achieve excellent results. However, optimization of athlete training technology, construction of training system and its filling with full content still have the greatest impact on the improvement of sports results (Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2018; Karoblis, 2005; Платонов, 2004). Management of high-performance athlete training is related to prognostication, individual model characteristics of sport fitness, general and special load ratio, search for new effective directions of workout methodology, modeling of competition activity indicators, workout process planning, competition program conclusion, sport training adjustment (Karoblis, Raslanas, Steponavičius, 2002). Track-and-field athletics is integral sports that combine cyclic and acyclic exercise competitions: running, throws, vertical and horizontal jumps (Armonavičius, 1995). Short distance running is one of the most prestigious track-and-field athletics competitions. An exceptional short distance motor feature is the maximum intense activity of the whole body, especially the nervous and muscular systems, lasting from 0.1 to 40–50 s (Stanislovaitis et al., 2008). The ever-improving sports results reveal new human mental and physical abilities, vast resources of the body that could not even be dreamed of before. The organization of exercise, methodology, their scope and intensity, their combination with the means of recovery according to the main laws of phenotypic adaptation form the basis for the training of high-performance athletes (Платонов, 2004; Stonkus, 2000; Issurin, 2008; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). The particularity of the sport is based on competition. The results recorded in sport receive global recognition and become a true human achievement standard. In the world, they are constantly progressing, promoting the development of the sport community, therefore the greatest human intellectual and material resources are directed to the training of high-performance athletes (Skernevičius, 2015; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). However, the results of a research conducted by scientists showed that over the past nearly 20 years, elite athletes, including Olympic, world champions and prizewinners, have achieved personal best results in key competitions of the season by only in 50 percent cases (Yakimovich & Ovchinnikov, 2016). This shows that the opinion that contemporary coaches are high-performance and knowledgeable in the training of elite athletes and immaculately control and manage the process of sport training of athletes is not sufficiently substantiated. It has been established that the development of high-performance sprinters depends on many factors, the most important of which is the directionality of the training process, its management, taking into account the individual characteristics of the athlete's body adaptation to workout and competition loads (Stanislovaitis, 2008; Бондаренко, 1999; Нбанекова, Филин, 1995). The training of sprinters and their competitive activities have been extensively studied not only by foreign (Smith, 2005; Doscher, 2009; Kale & Bayrak, 2009; Prins, Murata, Derenne, Morgan, & Solomon, 2010; Dickin, Reyes, & Dolny, 2009; Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008; Eikenberry, Mcauliffe, Welsh, Zerpa, Mcpherson, & Newhouse, 2008; Oзoлин, 1986), but also by Lithuanian sport scientists (Stanislovaitis, 2008, 2006, 2005; Grūnovas, 2006; Butkus, 2006, 1995; Skurvydas, 1999, 2003; Bradauskienė, 2006). Although the world record of female sprinters in a 100 m distance is quite high (10.49 s), the search for new training methods and their application in the process of female sprinter workouts continues. Scientists are not only analyzing and evaluating existing workout methodological tools, but also looking for new methods for an advanced sprinter training process. Thus, in search of new methods to increase running speed, through more research and the application of the latest training technologies, methods can be discovered to help athletes to become faster and to develop a running speed, which has never been achieved before. Recently, in a 100 m running, as in many track-and-field athletics competitions, the results of athletes are progressing rapidly. That progress depends heavily on the selection of talented athletes, scientifically and practically sound and effective workout methodologies, the selection and application of remedial measures, the material compensation of athletes, which greatly increases motivation of athletes, and etc. Therefore, in order to achieve good results and prizes in high rank competition in contemporary sport, it is necessary to know the peculiarities of the application of training methodology, to properly select the most important starts of the annual training cycle, taking into account all conditions at the place and time of competition. An athlete and a coach must not only follow the innovations of training methodology, science and medicine, but also look back, be able to analyze his own results and the results of athletes, who have shown significant results theretofore, the peculiarities of workout tools and methods applied by them, the reasons for successful and unsuccessful starts, and then all this to apply to the management of his own training process. Discovering, revealing and learning about new technologies through the theory and didactics of sport workout is the most important function of sport science (Mester, 2003), and it is important for a coach to be able to use scientific results and recommendations, be insightful and be able to successfully model the training of elite athletes (Karoblis, Raslanas, Poteliūnienė, Steponavičius, Petkus, & Žilinskienė, 2011). The purposeful training of female sprinters and the search for effective technologies in order to increase the maximum running speed become a scientific problem. The presented scientific problem is relevant for the following reasons: ● It is important to analyze the change in results in terms of age and to determine the age, at which the highest results are achieved; ● It is important to research and theoretically substantiate, which components determine the sports result in short distance running; ● To research the effectiveness of training measures in order to increase maximum running speed; ● The contribution of running at maximum speed to the sports result in a 100 m run has not been sufficiently researched; ● It is important to establish criteria that affect the progress of athletes' mastery and the change of sport performance. Hypothesis. It is likely that sports results of female sprinters are not improving due to the integrated and concentrated training models applied separately. A universal speed training model is more effective. Object of the research is the process of female sprinter training. Aim is to identify the peculiarities of optimizing the training of high-performance female sprinters. Objectives of the research: 1. On the basis of the data of the theoretical analysis of scientific sources, to reveal the change of the results of high-performance female sprinters in terms of age. 2. To perform a comparative analysis of the preparation of high-performance female spriners for the Athens, Beijing, London and Rio Olympic Games. 3. To review the technologies of sports training of female sprinters and to examine the factors influencing their results. 4. To determine the effectiveness of a universal method for training the speed of high-performance female sprinters. 5. To reveal/identify the opinion of high-performance female sprinters about the factors determining their training system. Theoretical and practical significance Researching the structure and content of sports training for female sprinters of different ages and sports mastery, analyzing the change of sports results in terms of age, evaluating workout methods, running speed components, the provisions for effective running speed increase were identified: ● Running speed is determined by the speed of muscle contraction, the length of leg support, the frequency of steps, and the sports result in a 100-meter run depends mainly on the maximum running speed. ● In order to improve the results of the maximum running speed of female sprinters, it is important to apply a universal, combined method in the workout process, running with weight and stretching with an elastic band. These provisions are relevant to the theory and practice of female sprinter training. The results of the study can be used in the development of training programs for sports schools and high-performance female sprinters. CONCLUSIONS 1. The age for achieving the best personal result in the women's 100 m running competition is 24.69 ± 3.27 year. The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė achieved her best result in this running competition at the age of 25 – 11.19 s. At the beginning of their athletic career, American sprinters had the highest running scores and dominated until the age of 17, however later is observed leadership of the Caribbean Region female sprinters up to the age of 35. The results of European sprinters were average in almost all age groups. 2. Analysis of the four Olympic Games revealed a significant improvement in the results of the 100 m running and starting reaction speed (p < 0.05). In order to get to in the 100 m running final, athletes should run an average of 10.96 ± 0.03 s, and to become the prizewinners of the competition – 10.86 ± 0.08 s. Sprinters become the prizewinners of the 100 m run at the age of 25.42 ± 3.18 year. 3. Lithuanian female sprinters lose to the best sprinters of Europe and the world in the competition requiring the maximum running speed – 40 m in acceleration (11.99 %). The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė reduces this difference to 4.05 % in the 100 m running distance, the gap between Europe's and the world's best female sprinters is gradually declining due to improved European sprinters' maximum running speed results. 4. The resisted/assisted running method is the most effective way to increase the running speed and starting acceleration, as this speed training method significantly improves the values of step length and support duration than running normally. 5. High-performance female sprinters lack attention to an important component of training – psychological training – in the process of their sports training. It was found out that their sports training and improvement of results are more influenced by external (monetary prizes, premiums) than internal motives (desire to improve results, honor to represent their country). A coach's personality also has impact. The coach is valued not only as a specialist, but distinguishing his personal qualities, such as sincerity, friendliness, motivation, promotion is considered an integral part of the training process.
Ein leistungsstarkes, international wettbewerbsfähiges Innovationssystem setzt voraus, dass Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft ihre Kräfte in neuartigen Innovationsprozessen vereinen, um gemeinsam Lösungen zu entwickeln, die nur im Zusammenwirken ihrer unterschiedlichen Perspektiven, Kompetenzen und Ressourcen möglich werden. Dieses Innovationsparadigma entwickelte sich erst im Laufe des letzten Jahrzehnts, ist heute auf deutscher und europäischer Ebene jedoch bereits prägend für die politische Steuerung des Innovationsgeschehens. Es gründet auf den heute gesteigerten Leistungsanforderungen an Forschung und Innovation, deren Güte sich nicht mehr alleine an Erkenntnisgewinn und Neuartigkeit bemisst, sondern zunehmend an ihrem weitreichenderen Nutzen. Forschung und Innovation sollen durch effektiven Wissens- und Technologietransfer die Wirtschaft stärken, mit disruptivem Potenzial und gleichsam auf verantwortliche Weise gesellschaftsrelevante Fragestellungen adressieren, transformativen Wandel anstoßen und damit zur Lösung der großen gesellschaftlichen Herausforderungen beitragen. Der Schlüssel, um all diesen Ansprüchen gerecht zu werden – darin stimmen politische Steuerungskonzepte und die Innovationsforschung überein –, heißt Kollaboration. Dem theoretischen Modell der Quadruple Helix folgend, sollen Akteure aus Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft im Zusammenspiel ihrer jeweiligen Stärken eine neue Qualität in Forschung und Innovation erzielen. In der Praxis bedeuten der Einbezug neuer Akteure in das Innovationsgeschehen und die Weiterentwicklung traditioneller organisationaler Innovationskonzepte hin zu einer kollaborativen Logik jedoch eine fundamentale Veränderung der Innovationsziele, der Innovationspraktiken und damit auch der Rolle jedes einzelnen Akteurs im Gefüge des Innovationssystems. Für diesen Transformationsprozess liefern weder der politische noch der wissenschaftliche Diskurs, die sich vor allem auf die Ebene des Innovationssystems beziehen, konkrete Ansatzpunkte, an denen sich die Akteure aus Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft orientieren können. Welche Rolle können und sollen Forschungseinrichtungen, Unternehmen, Start-ups, Ministerien oder Bürgerinnen und Bürger heute und zukünftig in den neuen, kollaborativen Innovationsprozessen einnehmen? An dieser Frage setzt die vorliegende Dissertation an. Ihr Ziel ist es, ein tiefgehendes Verständnis dafür zu schaffen, in welcher Weise die zahlreichen und heterogenen Akteure in kollaborativen Innovationsprozessen nach dem Modell der Quadruple Helix zusammenwirken. Dazu wird das kollaborative Innovationshandeln unter einer Geschäftsmodell-Perspektive betrachtet: Mittels einer qualitativen empirischen Analyse von 17 Quadruple-Helix-Netzwerken wird zum einen erforscht, in welcher Architektur aus funktionalen Rollen die 184 in den Netzwerken involvierten Akteure zusammenwirken, um einen Innovationsmehrwert im Sinne der eingangs dargestellten neuen Leistungsanforderungen zu erzielen. Zum anderen wird untersucht, welche Ertragsmodelle die einzelnen Akteure zur Übernahme ihrer jeweiligen Rolle incentivieren. Durch einen neuen, für diese Arbeit eigens entwickelten methodischen Ansatz der empirisch begründeten Typenbildung gelingt es erstmals, 25 typische Rollen und deren Ertragsmodelle zu beschreiben und damit aufzuzeigen, wie kollaborative Forschungs- und Innovationsprozesse auf Akteurs-Ebene funktionieren. Dies bildet den empirischen Kern der Dissertation. In drei daran anschließenden empirischen Studien wird das Verständnis bezüglich des Geschäftsmodells kollaborativer Innovation weiter vertieft: Mit einem Blick in unterschiedliche, auf Forschung und Entwicklung ausgerichtete Unternehmen und Forschungseinrichtungen untersucht die erste Studie, inwieweit das kollaborative Innovationsparadigma aus Innovationsforschung und Innovationspolitik bereits Eingang in die Innovationspraxis gefunden hat. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass organisationale Logiken das Innovationshandeln in den untersuchten Unternehmen und Forschungseinrichtungen weiterhin prägen. Jedoch besteht ein deutliches Bewusstsein für die eingeschränkte Leistungsfähigkeit derartiger Innovationsprozesse sowie für die Mehrwerte kollaborativer Ansätze. Aus dem Bestreben, die Wettbewerbs- und Zukunftsfähigkeit der eigenen Organisation zu sichern, resultiert ein hohes Interesse – insbesondere der Unternehmen – an kollaborativer Innovation. Dieses Interesse mündet in der Praxis jedoch in ein Phänomen, welches in der Studie als neue lineare Innovationsprozesse bezeichnet und bezüglich seines Innovationsmehrwertes kritisch reflektiert wird. Die zweite Studie analysiert die Rolle der Gesellschaft als neustes der vier Teilsysteme der Quadruple Helix und beleuchtet vor allem das kontroverse Rollenverhältnis zwischen wissenschaftlichen Expertinnen und Experten und außerwissenschaftlichen, gesellschaftlichen Akteuren. Die Ergebnisse zeigen auf, dass das gesellschaftliche Bedürfnis nach Partizipation in Forschung und Innovation nicht als Wunsch nach deren Demokratisierung fehlinterpretiert werden sollte. Stattdessen erhoffen sich die befragten gesellschaftlichen Akteure den bidirektionalen Dialog mit Expertinnen und Experten aus Wissenschaft und Forschung über mögliche und wünschbare Zukünfte. Sich selbst sehen sie dabei in der Rolle eines "gesellschaftlichen Sensors". Die Studie trägt durch die Klärung der durch die Gesellschaft in kollaborativen Innovationsprozessen favorisierten Rolle dazu bei, Abwehrhaltungen gegen partizipative Ansätze – insbesondere auf Seiten der Wissenschaft – zu verringern. Mit einer Typologie von gesellschaftlichen Teilnehmenden kollaborativer Prozesse gibt sie darüber hinaus Hinweise zur Gestaltung geeigneter Ertragsmodelle für den Einbezug der Zivilgesellschaft in Forschung und Innovation. In der dritten Studie werden die Herausforderungen und Potenziale des neuen Innovationsparadigmas für Forschungseinrichtungen beleuchtet, die traditionell als zentraler Akteur des Forschungs- und Innovationsgeschehens fungierten. In der Analyse zeigt sich, dass sich Universitäten und Forschungsorganisationen bereits in unterschiedlichen Rollen in kollaborative Innovationsprozesse einbringen. Jedoch wird auch deutlich, dass heute heterogene Akteure des Innovationssystems Funktionen im Innovationsprozess übernehmen, die vormals alleine den Forschungseinrichtungen vorbehalten waren. In Konkurrenz mit außerwissenschaftlichen Wissensquellen wächst der Druck auf die etablierten Forschungseinrichtungen, ihr eigenes Geschäftsmodell für Forschung und Innovation weiterzuentwickeln und in kollaborativen Prozessen auch neue Rollen zu übernehmen. Die starre Logik des Wissenschaftssystems und das Fehlen für kollaborative Innovationsprozesse geeigneter Ertragsmodelle, die sich an den Relevanzen der Forschung orientieren, führen jedoch dazu, dass der Sprung von bilateralen Push- und Pull-Kooperationen zu Quadruple-Helix-Kollaborationen für Forschungseinrichtungen eine große Herausforderung darstellt. Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung verweisen auf mögliche neue Rollen für Universitäten und Forschungsorganisationen, deren künftige Übernahme ein Potenzial für die Qualität kollaborativer Innovation und die Leistungsfähigkeit des Innovationssystems darstellt. Durch ihren hohen empirischen Gehalt schafft die vorliegende Arbeit ein Verständnis für das Geschäftsmodell kollaborativer Forschung und Innovation und liefert Erkenntnisse über die Akteurs-Ebene der Quadruple Helix, die deutlich über bisherige wissenschaftliche Arbeiten hinausgehen. Die Analyse und Beschreibung des Zusammenspiels heterogener Rollen veranschaulicht die Funktionsweise kollaborativer Innovationsprozesse und weist gleichzeitig auf deren Herausforderungen hin. Damit leistet die vorliegende Dissertation einen entscheidenden Beitrag, um das theoretische Quadruple-Helix-Modell zu einem empirischen Modell weiterzuentwickeln. Aus den empirischen Ergebnissen werden Implikationen für Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft abgeleitet, die aufzeigen, wie eine kollaborative Geschäftsmodell-Logik zukünftig nicht nur theoretisch, sondern praktisch im deutschen Innovationssystem verankert werden kann. Mit einem wissenschaftlich fundierten Tool zur Analyse und Gestaltung von Innovationsnetzwerken, wird die Innovationspraxis darin unterstützt, ihrem kollaborativen Innovationshandeln zukünftig eine reflektierte Geschäftsmodell-Logik zugrunde zu legen und alle relevanten Potenziale des Innovationssystems auszuschöpfen. ; An effective, internationally competitive innovation system depends on novel innovation processes through which academic research, business, government and society combine their respective perspectives, expertise and resources in the joint development of solutions that would not have come about otherwise. Despite only having arisen in the course of the past decade, this innovation paradigm is already shaping not only German but also European innovation policy. This is in keeping with the increased demands placed on research and innovation, the value of which is no longer measured purely in terms of knowledge gain and technological novelty, but rather in terms of broader impact. Research and innovation are expected to strengthen the economy through effective knowledge and technology transfer, to harness disruptive potential in addressing socially relevant issues while doing so responsibly, and to instigate transformative change, thus helping to solve major societal challenges. The key to meeting all of these demands – and here research policy and innovation research are in agreement – is collaboration. In accordance with the theoretical Quadruple Helix model, the interplay of the respective strengths of academic, business, government and societal actors should improve the overall quality of research and innovation. In practice, the involvement of new actors and the move away from traditional organisation-centric approaches towards a collaborative understanding of innovation entail certain fundamental changes – to the goals of innovation, to the ways innovation is realised in practice, and to the roles of individual actors within the innovation system. Yet when it comes to this transformation process, specific practical guidance for academic, business, government and societal actors is conspicuously absent from policy and academic discourse, both of which primarily deal with innovation systems at the macro level. In these new, collaborative innovation processes, what roles can and should be taken up by research institutions, start-ups and other companies, government departments and members of the public, both now and in the future? This question forms the starting point of this dissertation, which aims to establish a deeper understanding of the ways in which the numerous heterogeneous actors involved in collaborative innovation processes cooperate in accordance with the Quadruple Helix model. To this end, collaborative innovation practices are examined from a business model perspective. A qualitative empirical analysis of 17 Quadruple Helix networks is used to identify the architecture of functional roles via which the 184 involved actors aim to meet the aforementioned current demands placed on innovation, as well as the profit models that incentivise individual actors to take up their respective roles. A new method of empirically grounded typology construction, specially developed for this project, makes it possible to describe 25 typical roles and their accompanying profit models, and thus to demonstrate for the first time how collaborative research and innovation processes function on actor level. This forms the empirical core of the dissertation. Three subsequent empirical studies provide an even deeper understanding of the business model underlying collaborative innovation. Looking at various research and development-oriented companies and research institutions, the first study examines the extent to which the collaborative innovation paradigm has made its way from innovation research and policy into innovation practice. The findings clearly show that within the investigated companies and research institutions, innovation processes are still shaped by organisation-centric principles. At the same time, there is a marked awareness of the limited efficacy of such innovation processes, and of the value that can instead be created via collaborative approaches. Respondents' desire to ensure the competitiveness and future viability of their respective organisations can be seen to result in a pronounced interest in collaborative innovation, especially on the part of the companies that form part of the study. Nonetheless, in practice this has given rise to what can be called new linear innovation processes, which are likely to be of limited benefit with respect to the creation of new value within innovation. The second study analyses the role of society as the newest of the four subsystems of the Quadruple Helix, looking in particular at the controversial distribution of roles between experts from the academic sector on the one hand, and non-specialist societal actors on the other. The findings indicate that the societal sector's desire to participate in research and innovation should not be misinterpreted as a wish for these processes to be democratised. Instead, the societal actors who took part in the study express an interest in bidirectional dialogue regarding possible and desirable futures with experts from the field of academic research. In this kind of exchange, they see their own role as that of "societal sensor", reflecting and giving voice to society's needs and ethical concerns with respect to innovation. In thus clarifying the preferred role of societal actors in collaborative innovation processes, this study should help diminish resistance to participatory approaches, especially on the part of academic actors. Moreover, the resultant typology of societal participants in collaborative processes can aid in the creation of appropriate profit models for the inclusion of civil society in research and innovation. In the third study, the focus falls on challenges and opportunities the above-mentioned new innovation paradigm holds for research institutions, which have traditionally occupied a central position in research and innovation. The analysis reveals that universities and research organisations have been contributing to collaborative innovation processes in a variety of roles. At the same time it becomes clear that current innovation systems see a range of heterogeneous actors performing functions that were previously the exclusive domain of research institutions. Given that they are now competing with sources of knowledge from outside the academic sector, established research institutions find themselves under increasing pressure to rethink their research and innovation business models and to take up new roles in collaborative processes. However, due to the rigid nature of the academic system and a lack of suitable incentive models for collaboration that take the realities of said system into account, the leap from bilateral push-pull cooperation to Quadruple Helix-collaboration poses a significant challenge for research institutions. Nonetheless, the study's findings point towards potential new roles through which universities and research organisations could in future contribute to improved collaborative innovation, and thus to the establishment of a more effective innovation system. Thanks to its extensive empirical basis, this dissertation is able to construct an understanding of the business model underlying collaborative research and innovation, and to attain insights into Quadruple Helix systems at actor level that far exceed the state of research on the topic. The presented analysis and description of the interplay between heterogeneous roles illustrate how collaborative innovation processes function, while simultaneously highlighting the challenges these processes entail – thus constituting an important contribution towards further development of the theoretical Quadruple Helix model into an empirical model. The implications of the empirical findings for academic research, business, government and society show how in future, collaborative innovation strategies can be not only theoretically but above all practically embedded in the German innovation system. Lastly, the scientifically sound tool for analysing and shaping innovation networks presented herein can aid the establishment of well-founded business model principles to govern future collaborative innovation processes, which would in turn make it possible to harness the full potential of the innovation system.
La presente tesis tiene por objetivo generar un sistema de indicador de sustentabilidad a fin de evaluar la sostenibilidad económica, social y ambiental de la producción, organización y de comercialización desde una triple perspectiva: Agroecológica, Economía Social Solidaria y Economía de los Bienes Comunes. Además, también de formular una alternativa al Sistema Agroalimentario (SAG) actual, que tenga como base la agroecología, la ESS y la EBC. Para eso, como punto de partida, se ha hecho una breve introducción y justificación, del contexto en el que se desarrolla la investigación. Para abordar los objetivos propuestos, el presente trabajo se centra en la utilización de una perspectiva metodológica participativa, en la que se combina enfoque cualitativo (Taylor y Bogdan, 1987; Cuenya & Ruetti, 2010) con cuantitativo (Galeano, 2004:24), para adecuarse a la investigación y a fin de llegar a los objetivos planteados. El uso simultáneo de estas metodologías se llevó a cabo a través de un proceso continuado de construcción del objeto de estudio. Para el enfoque cualitativo se eligió el método de estudio de caso (Yin, 2015), a través de técnicas de investigación social, desde un enfoque cualitativo, inductivo y descriptivo. Para eso fueron realizadas las investigaciones en las cooperativas de la Asociación de los Agricultores Ecologistas de Ipê y Antonio Prado (AECIA), Grupo de Agroecología ECONORTE, Cooperativa de Irituia y en la Cooperativa Mista de la Agricultura Familiar de Marabá (COOMFAMA) por su representatividad. En el enfoque cuantitativo fue utilizada una integración entre distintos métodos de análisis multicriterio y herramientas, a fin de obtener un sistema de indicadores de sustentabilidad basados en la triple perspectiva. Para obtener esos indicadores, en primer lugar, se elaboró una selección de los datos obtenidos en la primera parte de la investigación, junto a los agricultores participantes en la investigación, con la que se formó un conjunto preliminar de varios PCI, a través del previo análisis de grupos ya existentes, creados en su momento para evaluar la sostenibilidad. Se consideraron los siguientes sistemas de indicadores: sistema de indicadores para una política de distribución sostenible de frutas y verduras ecológicas (Begiristain Zubillaga, 2018), el Sistema Finca-Hogar (Lucero, 2016) y MESMI (Masera et al, 1999). Los sistemas citados se agruparon, eliminándose por otra parte los PCI ya que evidentemente no aportaban nada significativo al sistema de indicadores propuesto; así como también fueron eliminados los elementos repetitivos. Asimismo, se adecuó el lenguaje de la redacción, al contexto de la agroecología, la ESS y la EBC. Seguidamente, el conjunto preliminar resultante se sometió a una evaluación, por parte de expertos en el área. Una vez elaboradas las evaluaciones por partes de estos expertos, se abrió un debate sobre los resultados, para la obtención definitiva de los PCI genéricos, que pudieran servir posteriormente para generar una lista específica, aplicable al sistema de indicadores necesario. De este debate se generó un PCI definitivo. Al considerar nuevamente el marco conceptual, y enriquecerlo con referencias a experiencias en PCI y a revisiones de información, se logró definir al menos un verificador recomendado para cada indicador. A partir de ese método de indicadores de sostenibilidad, se obtuvieron 3 principios, 8 criterios y 39 indicadores para evaluar la sustentabilidad, que sirvieron para evaluar a las distintas organizaciones. Así mismo, se utilizó la metodología del caso para el contraste empírico del sistema de indicadores propuesto. Para alcanzar el objetivo de formular una alternativa al SAG actual, primero fue hecho una problematización de SAG Mundial y en Brasil, un análisis de los conceptos existentes, e introduciremos una contextualización histórica; tanto a nivel global, como del ámbito de Brasil; con el objeto de generar herramientas que nos permitan discutir, sobre los problemas económicos, sociales, sanitarios y ambientales, ocasionados por el actual SAG. También, se proponen las posibles alternativas al mismo dentro de un SAG con bases en la Agroecología, ESS y EBC. Para eso fue hecho para cada uno de ellos un análisis de conceptos, histórico y su relación con las dimensiones ecológicas, productivas, sociopolíticas, culturales y socioeconómicas para el cambio del SAG. Para obtener los resultados del objetivo de los sistemas de indicadores, observaremos los datos obtenidos en cada una de las experiencias, tanto en la primera fase de la investigación (donde analizamos sus producciones, certificaciones, formas de comercializaciones adoptadas, ESS y EBC); como también en la segunda parte, en que fue hecha la evaluación de los indicadores de sostenibilidad. Los resultados encontrados en la AECIA en relación con los indicadores de sostenibilidad, la experiencia presenta sus fortalezas en la soberanía alimentaria y en la democratización y una debilidad mayor en la economía de los cuidados. En la ECONORTE, la experiencia presenta fortalezas y debilidades que causan que los indicadores de sostenibilidad de la experiencia necesiten de mejoras para que se obtengan unos mejores resultados a medio y largo plazos. La Cooperativa de Irituia, presenta una sustentabilidad mediana, debido principalmente a los problemas apuntados en algunos criterios, haciendo que sea necesaria la adopción de los cambios sugeridos, para que en una próxima evaluación tengamos mejores resultados. Para la COOMFAM los resultados encontrados muestran pequeñas fortalezas y muchas debilidades con relación a los indicadores de sostenibilidad en esta experiencia. La conclusión encontrada, en primer lugar, es que en el sistema de indicadores ha conseguido evaluarse de forma satisfactoria la experiencia, teniendo capacidad de ser utilizado en otras experiencias. También se concluye que los resultados obtenidos con este sistema de indicadores demuestran que las experiencias están desarrollando distintos grados de sustentabilidad dentro de los principios de la Agroecología, Economía Social Solidaria y Economía de los Bienes Comunes. Basado en estos resultados fue posible formular recomendaciones y sugestiones para la mejora de los indicadores de sostenibilidad de cada una de ellas. Además, esta investigación corrobora con la idea de que es necesaria la construcción de un Sistema Agroalimentario de base agroecológica, ESS y EBC para conseguir cambiar el actual SAG. ; This thesis aims to generate a system of sustainability indicator in order to evaluate the economic, social and environmental sustainability of production, organization and marketing from a triple perspective: Agroecological, Social Solidarity Economy and Economy of Common Goods. In addition, also to formulate an alternative to the current Agrifood System (SAG), which is based on agroecology, ESS and EBC. For this, as a starting point, a brief introduction and justification has been made from the context in which the research is carried out. To address the proposed objectives, this paper focuses on the use of a participatory methodological perspective, in which qualitative approach is combined (Taylor and Bogdan, 1987, Cuenya & Ruetti, 2010) with quantitative (Galeano, 2004: 24), to adapt to the research and in order to reach the proposed objectives. The simultaneous use of these methodologies was carried out through a continuous process of construction of the object of study. For the qualitative approach, the case study method was chosen (Yin, 2015), through social research techniques, from a qualitative, inductive and descriptive approach. For this, research was carried out in the cooperatives of the Association of Ecological Farmers of Ipê and Antonio Prado (AECIA), Agroecology Group ECONORTE, Cooperative de Irituia and Cooperative Mista de la Agricultura Familiar de Marabá (COOMFAMA) for their representativeness. In the quantitative approach, an integration was achieved between the different methods of multicriteria analysis and tools, in order to obtain a system of sustainability indicators in the triple perspective. To obtain these indicators, first, a selection of the data obtained in the first part of the investigation was elaborated, together with the farmers participating in the research, with which a preliminary set of several PCI was formed, through the previous analysis of existing groups, created at the time to evaluate sustainability. The following indicator system was considered: system of indicators for the sustainable distribution of organic fruits and vegetables (Begiristain Zubillaga, 2018), the Farm-House System (Lucero, 2016) and MESMI (Masera et al, 1999). The systems were grouped, on the other hand they eliminated the PCI that evidently did not contribute anything to proposed system of indicators; as well as the repetitive elements were eliminated. Also, the language of the writing, the context of agroecology, the ESS and the EBC were adapted. At once, the previous preliminary set was subjected to an evaluation, by experts in the area. Once the evaluations have been prepared by the experts, a debate on the results was opened, for the definitive procurement of PCI generics, that could be used to generate a specific list, applicable to the system of necessary indicators. From this debate a definitive PCI was generated. By considering the conceptual framework again and enriching with references to experiences in PCI and information reviews, it was possible to define a verifier for each indicator. Based on this method of sustainability indicators, 3 principles, 8 criteria and 39 indicators were obtained to assess sustainability, that served to evaluate the different organizations. Likewise, the case methodology has been used for the empirical contrast of the system of proposed indicators. To achieve the objective of formulating an alternative to the current SAG, first the global problematization was made and in Brazil, the analysis of the existing concepts and the introduction of a historical contextualization; both globally and at the Brazilian level; Generate tools that give us the opportunity to discuss, about the economic, social, health and environmental problems caused by the current SAG. Also, possible alternatives to it are proposed within a SAG with bases in Agroecology, ESS and EBC. For that purpose, an analysis of concepts, historical and its relationship with the ecological, productive, sociopolitical, cultural and socioeconomic dimensions for the change of the SAG was made for each of them. To obtain the results of the indicator system objective, the data obtained in each of the experiences was observed, both in the first phase of the investigation (where we analyze your productions, certifications, commercialization forms, ESS and EBC); as well as in the second part, in which the evaluation of sustainability indicators was made. The results found in the AECIA in relation to sustainability indicators, the experience presents its strengths in food sovereignty and democratization and a greater weakness in the care economy. In the ECONORTE, the experience has strengths and weaknesses that make the sustainability indicators of the experience need improvements to obtain better results in the medium and long term. The Cooperative de Irituia, presents a medium sustainability, due to the problems noted in some criteria, making the adoption of the suggested changes necessary, so that in a future evaluation we have better results. For COOMFAM, the results show small strengths and many weaknesses in relation to sustainability indicators in this experience. The conclusion found first is that in the system of indicators it has managed to satisfactorily evaluate the experience, being able to be used in other experiences. It is also concluded that the results obtained with this system of indicators show that the experiences are developing different degrees of sustainability within the principles of Agroecology, Social Solidarity Economy and Economy of Common Goods. Based on these results, it was possible to formulate recommendations and suggestions for the improvement of the sustainability indicators of each one of them. In addition, this research corroborates with the idea that it is necessary to build an agroecological system based on agroecology, ESS and EBC in order to change the current SAG.
