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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Muradihalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 591 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 580 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 11 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 3 per cent area are shallow (25 - 50 cm), 40 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 23 per cent area soils area moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 31 per cent area are deep (100 - 150 cm).  About 14 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 45 per cent area loamy and 39 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 95 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 7 per cent area medium (101-150 mm/m), 64 per cent area low (51- 100 mm/m) and 3 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 8 per cent area.  About 67 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha), 23 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) available phosphorus.  About 86 per cent area is medium (145 – 337 kg/ha) and 12 per cent area is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 32 per cent.  About 81 per cent area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 44(7) 413(70) Guava - 130(22) Maize 130(22) 335(57) Sapota - 130(22) Bajra 130(22) 328(55) Pomegranate - 219(37) Groundnut 130(22) 135(23) Musambi 44(7) 175(30) Sunflower 44(7) 175(30) Lime 44(7) 175(30) Redgram - 219(37) Amla 130(22) 283(48) Bengal gram 44(7) 45(8) Cashew - 130(22) Cotton 44(7) 148(25) Jackfruit - 130(22) Chilli 130(22) 312(53) Jamun - 44(7) Tomato 130(22) 223(38) Custard apple 174(29) 284(48) Brinjal 130(22) 223(38) Tamarind - 44(7) Onion 130(22) 223(38) Mulberry - 130(22) Bhendi 130(22) 312(53) Marigold 130(22) 312(53) Drumstick - 174(29) Chrysanthemum 130(22) 312(53) Mango - 218(37)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Muradihalli is located at North latitude 160 33' 25.84" and 160 32'10.098" and East longitude 770 23' 17.872'' and 770 21' 4.201" covering an area of about 590.22 ha coming under Chandapura, Duppalli, Baddepalli and Kadechoora Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Muradihalli micro watersheds of Ajalapur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Muradihalli micro-watershed among households surveyed 6 (17.14%) were marginal, 10 (28.57%) were small, 15 (42.86 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers. 1 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 84 (62.69%) men and 50 (37.31 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4, marginal farmers were 3, small farmers were 3.8, semi medium farmers were 4.1 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (37.31%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 64.18 per cent of illiterates, 21.64 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.24 per cent middle school education, and 8.21 per cent high school education, 1.49 per cent of them had PUC education and 1.49 them had other education.  About, 88.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 78.36 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 82.86 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 85.71 per cent possess TV, 74.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 25.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 28.57 per cent possess plough, 8.57 per cent possess Power Tiller, 2.86 per cent possess Thresher, 34.29 per cent possess Weeder, 5.71 per cent possess tractor and 5.71 per cent possess Sprinkler.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.89, women available in the micro watershed was 1.49, hired labour (men) available was 6.49 and hired labour (women) available was 6.49. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 97.80 per cent (73.43 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram and Cotton, cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 31.43 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 77.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 100 per cent have borrowed loan from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 50.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram and Cotton was Rs.27720.80 and 20643.65 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90 and 1: 2.10 respectively.  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 113685.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 77914.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 11 horticulture trees and 80 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7685.71 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 65.71 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 71.43 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 28.57 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 94.29 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 11.43 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households. 3  In the study area, 37.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (94.29%) and oilseeds (77.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (94.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (91.43%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.43%), high rate of interest on credit (91.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (94.29%), inadequate extension services (65.71%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (91.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nazarapur-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 539 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 404 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 123 ha by rock outcrops and 12 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 6 per cent area is very shallow (150 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 10 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 51 per cent loamy soils and 14 per cent clayey soils at the surface  An area of 30 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 11 per cent area in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 29 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) and 35 per cent has gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 64 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 11 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 3 per cent area is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) in soil reaction, 8 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 63 per cent soils is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4)  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of entire soils of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%).  42 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha)in available phosphorus and 33 per cent area is high (> 57 kg/ha).  About 63 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 12 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed  Available boron is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 8 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 106 (20) - Guava - - Maize - 106 (20) Sapota - - Bajra - 106 (20) Pomegranate - 106 (20) Groundnut - - Musambi 106 (20) - Sunflower 106 (20) - Lime 106 (20) - Redgram - 105 (20) Amla 19 (3) 87 (16) Bengal gram 106 (20) - Cashew - - Cotton 106 (20) - Jackfruit - - Chilli - 105 (20) Jamun - 106 (20) Tomato - 87 (16) Custard apple 106 (20) - Brinjal 87 (16) 19 (3) Tamarind - - Onion 60 (11) - Mulberry - - Bhendi 87 (16) 19 (3) Marigold - 105 (20) Drumstick - 105 (20) Chrysanthemum - 105 (20) Mango - 87 (16)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Nazarapur-1 is located at North latitude 160 50' 1.92" and 160 48'28.869" and East longitude 770 25' 14.222'' and 770 23' 14.268" covering an area of about 538.42 ha coming under under Najarapura, Keshawar and Borabanda Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Nazarapur-1 micro watersheds of Gurmatkal subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 total respondents, 19 (55.88 %) were marginal and 12 (35.29%) were small farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (55.84%) men and 68 (44.16 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (47.40%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 61.04 per cent of illiterates, 14.94 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.09 per cent middle school education, and 8.44 per cent high school education, 3.25 per cent of them had PUC education and 2.60 per cent attained graduation  About, 85.29 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.71 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 62.99 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 61.76 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.65 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 70.59 per cent possess TV, 14.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.18 per cent possess mobile phones and 17.65 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess plough, 14.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 17.65 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 23.53 per cent possess local cow and 26.47 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 6.73 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.59.  Further, 2.94 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 84.58 per cent (27.27 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 15.42 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 7.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 20.59 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 70.59 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 20.59 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 52.63 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 26.32 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 89.47 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.40948.74, 74253.61, 57058.51, 89347.24 and 39386.59 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 3.40, 1: 2.00, 1: 1.50 and 1:1.30 respectively.  Further, 52.94 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 0.00 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 123908.82 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 49932.35 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 4 horticulture trees and 65 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10617.65 for land development and Rs. 4411.76 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 23.53 per cent depends on own funds and 11.76 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 64.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 32.35 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 73.53 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (58.82%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.18 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 73.53 per cent of the households and 38.24 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 55.88 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. 3  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.12%), pulses (97.06%) and oilseeds (79.41%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (105.88%) wild animal menace on farm field (91.18%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (97.06%), inadequacy of irrigation water (76.47%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.18%), high rate of interest on credit (91.18%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.18%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (55.88%), inadequate extension services (50.00%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.24%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Shethalli-3Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 762 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 403 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 5 ha area is covered by railway line, 323 ha area is covered by mining/industrial and 31 ha area is covered by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 403 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent of area is moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 30 per cent of area is moderately deep (75-100 cm), 10 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 3 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 30 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 10 per cent of area is low (51- 100 mm/m).  Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 47 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 6 per cent of area is severely (e3) eroded.  About 19 per cent area is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 35 per cent area is strongly alkaline to very strongly alkaline (pH 8.4->9) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) is 0.75%), 35 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 5 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur content is low (1 ppm) in an area of 8 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in an area of 41 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 12 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 371 (49) Guava - - Maize - 371 (49) Sapota - - Bajra - 371 (49) Pomegranate - 200 (26) Groundnut - 77 (10) Musambi - 200 (26) Sunflower - 200 (26) Lime - 200 (26) Redgram - 294 (39) Amla - 272 (35) Bengal gram 195 (26) 99 (13) Cashew - - Cotton - 200 (26) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 277 (36) Jamun - - Tomato - 77 (10) Custard apple - 277 (36) Brinjal - 77 (10) Tamarind - - Onion - 77 (10) Mulberry - 195 (26) Bhendi - 277 (36) Marigold - 277 (36) Drumstick - 196 (26) Chrysanthemum - 277 (36) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Shethalli-3 is located at North latitude 160 31' 50.879" and 160 29' 29.691" and East longitude 770 18' 30.581'' and 770 16' 48.138" covering an area of about 772.15 ha coming under Shettilli, Kadechoora and Badiyala villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Shethalli-3 micro watersheds of Kadechur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Shethalli-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 8 (23.53%) were marginal, 11 (32.35%) were small, 11 (32.35 %) were semi medium and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers. 3 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 71 (54.20%) men and 60 (45.80 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4, marginal farmers were 4.1, small farmers were 3.5, semi medium farmers were 4 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (41.98%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 41.98 per cent illiterates, 54.21 per cent pre university education and 1.53 per cent attained graduation.  About, 88.24 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 63.36 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 79.41 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.88 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.24 per cent possess TV, 32.35 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 2.94 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess tractor, 26.47 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.94 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.88 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.31, women available in the micro watershed was 1.25, hired labour (men) available was 5.78 and hired labour (women) available was 6.09. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 98.24 per cent (50.54 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 1.76 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 live bore wells and 2.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 5.88 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton and Sorghum and cropping intensity was recorded as 80.63 per cent.  Out of the sample households 94.12 percent possessed bank account and 26.47 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 67.65 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 66.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 16.67 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton and Sorghum was Rs.20437.92 , 25768.30 and 11224.23 with benefit cost ratio of 1:5.40, 1: 1.70 and 1: 2.10 respectively.  Further, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 84117.65 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57205.88 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 1 horticulture trees and 25 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 2.94 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3485.29 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 38.24 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 58.82 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 32.35 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 76.47 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (97.06%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 88.24 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.12 per cent of the households and 5.88 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 35.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.06 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (94.12%) and oilseeds (88.24%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (100.00 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.24%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.35%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.24%), high rate of interest on credit (85.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.18 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (61.76%), inadequate extension services (41.18 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (50.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Buragapalli-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 391 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 375 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soil and 16 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 375 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 41 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) and 55 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm).  About 55 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 41 per cent has clayey soils.  About of 38 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) and 55 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area falls under very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands in the microwatershed.  An area of about 11 per cent is slightly (e1) eroded and 85 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  About 56 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 40 per cent area is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 58 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha), 10 per cent area is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  Available potassium is high (>337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Except one ha where it is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent area and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 32 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 86(22) 31(8) Guava - - Maize - 117(30) Sapota - - Bajra - 117(30) Pomegranate - 117(30) Groundnut - - Musambi 86(22) 31(8) Sunflower 86(22) 31(8) Lime 86(22) 31(8) Redgram - 117(30) Amla - 86(22) Bengal gram 86(22) 31(8) Cashew - - Cotton 86(22) 31(8) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 117(30) Jamun - 86(22) Tomato - - Custard apple 86(22) 31(8) Brinjal - - Tamarind - 86(22) Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - 117(30) Marigold - 117(30) Drumstick - 86(22) Chrysanthemum - 117(30) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Buragapalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 54' 42.322" and 160 53' 23.247" and East longitude 770 26' 57.655'' and 770 25' 40.042" covering an area of about 388.59 ha coming unde Buragapalli Village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Buragapalli-1 micro watersheds of Gurmatkal subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Buragapalli-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 6 (17.14%) were marginal, 14 (40.00%) were small, 8 (22.86 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 59 (50.00%) men and 59 (50.00 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3, marginal farmers were 3.3, small farmers were 3.5, semi medium farmers were 3.3 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (40.68%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 37.29 per cent illiterates, 61.87 per cent pre university education and 6.78 per cent attained graduation.  About, 91.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 28.81 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 68.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 97.14 per cent possess TV, 45.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 65.71 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.00 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 20.00 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.38, women available in the micro watershed was 1.24, hired labour (men) available was 15.18 and hired labour (women) available was 15.35.  Further, 91.43 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 0.85 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 500.00 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 97.48 per cent (51.56 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 2.52 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 1.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 5.72 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Bengal gram, Sorghum and Onion and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.71 percent possessed bank account and 85.71 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 85.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 36.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 46.67 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (96.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 96.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Bengal gram, Sorghum and Onion was Rs.20883.79, 10823.21, 23248.08, 14623.48 and 362565.84 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.40, 1: 5.70, 1: 0.92, 1: 2.10 and 1:0.72 respectively.  Further, 80.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 83515.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62572.86 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 13 horticulture trees and 42 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 28.57 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 428.57 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. 3  Regarding marketing channels, 51.43 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 37.14 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 80.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (80.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.29 per cent of the households and 8.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.29 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 48.57 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 2.86 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (82.86%), pulses (82.86%) and oilseeds (14.29%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.86%) wild animal menace on farm field (60.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (42.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (20.00%), high rate of interest on credit (11.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (8.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), inadequate extension services (14.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (34.29%), Less rainfall (45.71%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (40.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tatalageri-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 488 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 301 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 91 ha by forest, 87 ha by rock outcrops and about 9 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 17 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to deep (75 - 150 cm) and 45 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 15 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 34 per cent area very low (0.75%) and 40 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 1 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About an area of 10 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 52 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 7 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 64(13) 71(15) Guava - 17(4) Maize - 135(28) Sapota - 17(4) Bajra - 135(28) Pomegranate - 81(17) Groundnut - 17(4) Musambi 53(11) 28(6) Sunflower 64(13) 17(4) Lime 53(11) 28(6) Redgram - 81(17) Amla - 135(28) Bengal gram 64(13) 71(15) Cashew - - Cotton 64(13) 71(15) Jackfruit - 17(4) Chilli - 135(28) Jamun - 64(13) Tomato - 124(26) Custard apple 70(14) 65(13) Brinjal 64(13) 71(15) Tamarind - 64(13) Onion 11(2) 71(15) Mulberry - 17(4) Bhendi 64(13) 71(15) Marigold - 135(28) Drumstick - 81(17) Chrysanthemum - 135(28) Mango - 64(13)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Tatalageri-1 is located at North latitude 160 50' 1.629" and 160 48' 42.931" and East longitude 770 18' 4.419" and 770 16' 11.331" covering an area of about 487.74 ha coming under Tatalagera, Mugadhamapoora, Kandhakura, Chinthanapalli and Yampada Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 32 respondents, - 10 (31.25%) were marginal, 9(28.13%) were small and 7 (21.88%) were semi medium and 1 (3.13%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 112 (54.90%) men and 92 (45.10 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (48.04%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 67.65 per cent illiterates, 28.42 per cent pre university education and 1.96 per cent attained graduation.  About, 78.13 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 10.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural laborers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 66.67 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 59.38 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 21.88 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 71.88 per cent possess TV, 12.50 per cent possess mixer grinder, 93.75 per cent possess mobile phones and 37.50 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 56.25 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.13 per cent possess tractor, 15.63 per cent possess bullock cart and 28.13 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 37.50 per cent possess local cow and 25.00 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 13.47 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 2.71.  Further, 3.13 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 1.96 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1200.00 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 67.83 per cent (36.88 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 32.17 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 11.00 live bore wells and 3.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Jowar, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.91 per cent.  Out of the sample households 93.75 percent possessed bank account and 31.25 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 93.75 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 21.88 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks, 3.12 per cent from Cooperative bank and 18.75 per cent from grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (86.67%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 0.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 0.00 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Jowar, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.51814.70 , 30754.26, 79012.15, 62877.45 and 46302.23 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.2 , 1:0.8 , 1:1.2 , 1:0.9 and 1:4 , respectively.  Further, 31.25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25.00 per cent of them opined dry fodder was inadequate. With respect to green fodder availability, 3.13 percent of them opined it was adequate and 3.13 percent of them opined it was inadequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 172312.50 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 61335.94 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have horticulture species growm coconut, Mango and sapota trees in the fields.  Sample households have forest species grown 24 neem, 2 tamarind, acacia and banyan trees and 1 pongamia trees in their field.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs 4062.5. for land development. Rs 6562.5 for irrigation facility creation and Rs. 5000 for improved crop production.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 9.09 per cent for land development and 12.1 per cent for irrigation facility depends on Government subsidy activities 3.03 per cent for improved crop production depend on loan from bank activities  Regarding marketing channels, 96.88 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 96.88 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (59.3%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 84.38 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 12.50 and 6.25 per cent of farmers practicing feld bunding and graded bund as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 81.25 per cent of the households and 25.00 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 84.38 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 75.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 93.75 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 3.13 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 6.25 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (68.75%), pulses (71.88%) and oilseeds (40.63%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (59.38%) wild animal menace on farm field ( 59.38%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (84.38%), inadequacy of irrigation water (53.13%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (84.38%), high rate of interest on credit (87.50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (84.38%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (56.25%), inadequate extension services (43.75%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (53.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Esta tesis estudia la evolución de los sistemas lagunares en Tierra de Campos a lo largo de cien años a través de la caracterización de una serie de variables ambientales adoptándolas a un sistema de análisis acorde con el método científico, desarrollando una metodología aplicada. Para llevar a cabo dicho estudio primero se ha realizado un reconocimiento de la zona a través del trabajo de campo, ejecutado desde noviembre de 2007 hasta octubre de 2011, con el fin de monitorizar los parámetros fisicoquímicos más importantes del agua e identificar la variación anual de la superficie lagunar. A continuación se han generado capas cartográficas que han permitido observar la evolución de los sistemas lagunares en el siglo XX. Para ello primero se han identificado las lagunas reveladas por el levantamiento del Mapa Topográfico Nacional de 1900 a 1933 realizado por el Ejército Español. Posteriormente se han digitalizado y georreferenciado 387 fotografías aéreas analógicas del Vuelo Americano de 1956-1959 y del vuelo del Instituto Geográfico Nacional de 1983-1984 donde se han identificado las lagunas y zonas húmedas existentes en la zona de estudio. Para completar el estudio del siglo se han reconocido las lagunas existentes en 2007 y 2008 con las ortofotografías del Plan Nacional de Ortofotografía Aérea. En tercer lugar se ha realizado una descripción medioambiental de la zona: A nivel geológico el territorio se compone en su totalidad por rocas sedimentarias del terciario y del cuaternario, principalmente terrígenos y algunos carbonatos. Se sitúa en una cuenca endorreica ubicada entre las cuencas del río Esla y la del río Carrión, destacando la unidad estratigráfica de "Tierra de Campos". La geomorfología se caracteriza por presentar formas suaves que otorgan una homogeneidad del relieve, carente de desniveles abruptos, dando lugar a un paisaje abierto de llanura alomada. La edafología de la zona muestra una fuerte antropización, por su predisposición al cultivo de cereales. Así dentro de la clasificación de los suelos de la FAO en esta área hay que destacar la unidad litológica de "Tierra de Campos" compuesta por asociaciones de suelos de Cambisol calcáreo y Regosol calcáreo. Destacar los suelos pertenecientes a la unidad de las lagunas históricas (Villafáfila) conformados por asociaciones de Cambisol gleíco y Gleysol eútrico. La red hídrica se caracteriza por la presencia de ríos de poca envergadura con una gran variabilidad del caudal y por una densa red de arroyos. Esta red muestra una morfología completamente artificial a consecuencia de las actuaciones realizadas sobre ella. Los sistemas lagunares se abastecen de los aportes de la lluvia y de los afloramientos del nivel freático. Su nivel del agua varía a lo largo del año llegando a secarse algunos meses. Entre las lagunas existen canales de conexión que las otorgan de un comportamiento de llenado en cascada por rebose de la fuente o manantial. El clima de la zona se caracteriza por la crudeza y duración de los inviernos y un verano corto y caluroso; con un episodio de aridez importante abarcando desde junio a septiembre. La pluviometría anual es de 408 a 475 mm/año, las temperaturas medias de mínima y máxima oscilan de 6⁰C a 19⁰C, la evapotranspiración potencial corregida es de 676,26 mm/año y la evapotranspiración real de 374,23 mm, la lluvia útil alcanza valores de 49,02 mm y los vientos dominantes son de componente oeste suroeste. A nivel de vegetación la zona de estudio se ubica dentro de la región Mediterránea en la provincia biogeográfica Castellano-Maestrazgo-Manchega en el sector Castellano duriense y a nivel bioclimático en el piso Supramediterráneo inferior. La vegetación arbórea se ha visto muy afectada por la adaptación del entorno a la agricultura. La flora presente está asociada a dos tipos diferentes de ecosistemas lagunares: las aguas asociadas a hábitats de saladares y yesos (permiten el desarrollo de especies vegetales adaptadas a condiciones halófitas) y los ecosistemas de agua dulce (favorecen el desarrollo de vegetación béntica, algas y comunidades vegetales de plantas flotantes). En los entornos de estas formaciones existen prados húmedos mediterráneos de hierbas altas. La importancia faunística de este lugar radica en una elevada diversidad, principalmente de aves, las cuales utilizan estas áreas como zonas de nidificación o invernada y por la existencia de especies sedentarias emblemáticas de estos parajes, en estado de protección, como la Avutarda (Otis Tarda) entre otras. El medio social ha sido uno de los factores que más ha influenciado en la modificación de este entorno por la actividad productora y la aplicación de las políticas desarrollistas territoriales. A pesar de ello actualmente, la presencia humana permite el mantenimiento de unas condiciones favorables para la conservación de cultivos de leguminosas y cereales que son el sustento alimenticio de gran parte de la fauna. Para ayudar a la conservación y en la futura gestión de estos hábitats, este estudio describe los cambios que se han producido en estos entornos, utilizando datos de los años 1900-1933, 1956, 1984 y 2007-2008. Varios modelos de regresión logística permitieron la proyección precisa de la ubicación de los humedales que necesitan ser restaurados o regenerados. Estos modelos fueron desarrollados usando una combinación de 21 variables explicativas, incluyendo: datos relacionados con sistemas lagunares históricos, variaciones en las superficies de humedales, físico-química del suelo y los datos meteorológicos y datos de planificación socioeconómicos y espaciales, como se representa mediante cartografía temática. Las imágenes obtenidas que se utilizaron para proyectar los humedales en el área de estudio se clasificaron en diez categorías en función de la probabilidad de la presencia de lagunas. Estos mapas generados muestran que la extensión espacial de los humedales de la comarca de Tierra de Campos fue 1,44% en 1900 hasta 1933 y se redujo a 0,57% en el período 2007-2008. La disminución dramática en la extensión espacial cubierta por estos ecosistemas se observa durante el siglo XX de acuerdo con estos mapas; en consecuencia, estos resultados ponen de manifiesto los efectos de las políticas negativas (de desecación) o positivas (de protección) implementadas en la zona. Finalmente se exponen la discusión de los datos, las conclusiones y los futuros desarrollos. ; This thesis studies the evolution of the wetland systems in Tierra de Campos over one hundred years, through the characterisation of a series of environmental variables adapted to an analysis system in accordance with the scientific method, and with the development of an applied methodology. To carry out this study, first a survey of the area was made by means of fieldwork from November 2007 to October 2011 in order to monitor the most important physicochemical parameters of the water and identify the annual variation of the lakelet surface area. Then, map layers were generated which allow the evolution of the wetland systems in the twentieth century to be seen. For this, first the lakelets were identified that were revealed by the making of the National Topographic Map from 1900 to 1933 by the Spanish Army. Subsequently, 387 analogue aerial photographs were digitalised and georeferenced. These were taken by the American military from 1956 to 1959, and by the National Geographic Institute from 1983- 1984, and the lakelets and wetland areas existing in the area of study have been identified. To complete the study of the century, the lakelets existing in 2007 and 2008 have been examined using the orthophotos from the National Plan for Aerial Orthography. Thirdly, an environmental description of the area is given: Geologically, the territory is entirely made up of sedimentary rocks from the Tertiary and Quaternary, mainly terrigenous and some carbonates. It is located in an endorheic basin between the basins of the river Esla and river Carrión, which defines the stratigraphic unit of "Tierra de Campos". The geomorphology is characterised by smooth forms that confer a homogeneity of relief with no abrupt changes in level, which gives rise to an open landscape of undulating plains. The edaphology of the area shows strong anthropization, due to its predisposition to cereal cultivation. Thus, within the FAO soil classification in this area, the lithological unit of "Tierra de Campos" should be highlighted which is made up of soil associations of calcareous Cambisol and calcareous Regosol. The soils belonging to the unit of historic wetlands (Villafáfila) stand out, these are formed by associations of gleyic Cambisol and eutric Cambisol. The water network is characterised by the presence of small rivers with a large variability in flow and a dense network of streams. This network displays a completely artificial morphology as a consequence of the work carried on it. The wetland systems are supplied with rainfall and upwelling groundwater. Their water level varies over the year, and they dry out for some months. There are connection channels between the lakelets which provide them with cascade filling behaviour due to the overflow of the source or spring. The climate of the area is characterised by the harshness and duration of the winters and a short and hot summer, with a significant arid episode from June to September. The annual rainfall is from 408 to 475 mm/year, the minimum and maximum temperatures oscillate between 6° C and 19° C, the potential evapotranspiration is 676.26 mm/year and the real evapotranspiration is 374.23 mm, the useful rain reaches values of 49.02 mm and the dominate winds are west southwest. As regards vegetation, the study area is located in the Mediterranean region in the biogeographical province of Castellano-Maestrazgo-Manchega in the Castellano duriense sector, and at bioclimatic level, in the lower Supra-Mediterranean belt. The arboreal vegetation has been seriously affected by the adaptation of the environment to agriculture. The flora present is associated with two different types of wetland ecosystems: the waters associated with salt marsh and gypsum habitats (these allow the development of plant species adapted to halophyte conditions) and the fresh water ecosystems (favouring the development of benthic vegetation, algae and floating plant communities). Surrounding these formations are Mediterranean wet meadows of tall grass. The importance of the fauna in this location lies in its great diversity, mainly birds, which use these areas for nesting or wintering, and in the existence of sedentary species emblematic of these protected landscapes, such as the bustard (Otis Tarda), among others. The social context has been one of the most influential factors in the changes in this environment due to productive activity and the application of territorial development policies. Currently, in spite of this, the human presence allows favourable conditions to be maintained for the conservation of leguminous and cereal crops that are the food source for a large part of the fauna. To support the conservation and future management of these habitats, this study describes the changes that have occurred in these environments, using data from 1900-1933, 1956, 1984 and 2007 - 2008. Several logistic regression models allow the accurate forecast of the location of the wetlands that need to be restored and regenerated. These models were developed using a combination of 21 explanatory variables, including: data relating to historic lakelet systems, variations in the surface areas of the wetlands, soil physicochemical data, meteorological data, socioeconomic planning and spatial data, as represented by thematic mapping. The images obtained that were used to forecast the wetlands in the study area were classified in ten categories depending on the probability of the presence of lakelets. These generated maps show that the spatial extent of the wetlands in the Tierra de Campos region was 1.44% in 1900 up to 1933 and this reduced to 0.57% in the period 2007-2008. The dramatic reduction in the spatial extent covered by these ecosystems is observed during the 20th century according to these maps; consequently, these results highlight the effects of negative (drying out) and positive (protection) policies implemented in the area. Finally, there is a discussion on the data, the conclusions and on future developments.

 Watching Barbie reminded me of two essays that I had not read in a long time, Luce Irigaray's "Women on the Market " and "Commodities Among Themselves". In those essays Irigaray considers to what extent Marx's theory of the commodity form can be used to make sense of the status of women in society. Irigaray's texts takes as its start the idea of a society founded on an exchange of women, an idea integral to structural and psychoanalytic theories of kinship. From this it is possible to posit that relations among women would have the fantastic character of Marx's brief foray into describing the world of commodities amongst themselves. It is precisely such a world, Barbie Land, that Barbie: The Movie opens. The only difference is that women, Barbies, in this world do not so much exist as things to be exchanged, as daughters to be given away as wives, but are defined by their use value, or, more to the point, their concrete labor. It is a world of Barbie doctors, presidents, supreme court justices, and so on--a Barbie for every career and full employment for all Barbies. Greta Gerwig's film taps into an aspect of Barbie that often falls beneath the image of the Barbie stereotype, or, in the world of the film, Stereotypical Barbie, and that is the myriad number of Barbies that have been manufactured with different careers, from veterinarian to astronaut. The Barbie stereotype of blond hair, impossible proportions, and pink, well everything, dominates our image of Barbie, it is what adults think of when we think of Barbie, so much so that we forget that for a lot of girls (and boys) who play with her she that is less a supermodel than the model for every kind of activity and career.  Whatever you want to be they have a Barbie for that. I remember once watching a relative's kid play Barbie and it was less a foray into a world of beauty and fashion than it was an hour of being a large animal veterinarian, giving check ups to horses. A far cry from the image of fashion and beauty that comes to mind when you say Barbie to an adult. The two sides of Barbie, the blonde and pink stereotype that adults think of and the various different Barbies of every career and hobby that kids play with, are the central contradiction of the film.The Barbie pet care centerBarbie Land is that imaginary place where Barbies amongst themselves can be anything or anyone. There are Kens in this world too, but since this world is the world of children playing, no one really knows what Ken is for. Ken is more sidekick than boyfriend. (Pietro Bianchi has offered a great Freudian reading of this world of innocence). The Barbies in Barbie Land are aware of the real world, that it exists, and as far as they are concerned they have fundamentally altered it. An imaginary world where Barbie can be anything must in some sense produce a reality where kids can be anyone. It is the logic of meritocratic role models taken to its logical conclusion. All the world needs is the right role models for the world to change. Trouble begins when stereotypical Barbie (played by Margot Robbie) begins to have some very un-Barbie thoughts, like of death, aging, and cellulite. These intrusive thoughts must be the product of the kid that is playing with her so she has to go out into the "real world" to find this kid and fix things. This brings us back to the commodity form. The commodity, as Marx tells us, is both an exchange value and a use value, it is both something with its own properties, or in the case of labor, capacities, and with a value, a capacity to stand in for other commodities, to be exchanged. In the world of the film we get two sides of Barbie, there is the Barbie Land Barbie in which there is a Barbie that can do anything, and there is the real world Barbie, where Barbie is defined not by her capacities, what she can do, but by her appearance, what she looks like. It is on arriving in the real world that Barbie finds herself not as an object of little girl's dreams, but the object of male fantasies. (As A.S. Hamrah points out in this great roundtable discussion of the film, the patriarchy that Barbie is subject to is incredibly mild and gentle, more befitting a cartoon world than the real world). If I wanted to add another grad school reference, namely Jean Baudrillard, I would say that Barbie's conflict is less between use value and exchange value as it is between use value and sign value, between what Barbie can do and what she signifies, what blonde hair, impossibly long legs, and gravity defying curves signify. To put it back in Irigaray's terms, her capacities might define what she is capable of, but her appearance for men defines her place in society. As Irigaray writes, "just as, in commodities, natural utility is overridden by the exchange function, so the properties of a woman's body have to be suppressed and subordinated to the exigencies of its transformation into an object of circulation among men." Use Value/Exchange Value, the two sides of the commodity are dominated by exchange value just as women in society are dominated by the demand to be seen, and exchanged, by men. Upon arrival in the real world, Barbie and Ken learn that making Barbie role models for every career has not ended patriarchy. Barbie and Ken react differently to the persistence of patriarchy. Barbie is horrified and confused. Ken is happy and excited. Ken finds himself being respected just because he is a man. He immediately hatches a plan to bring the patriarchy to Barbie Land with the help of some books checked out from the library. (I thought for a long time about what this particular plot point reminded me of, a story where two characters have opposed reactions to the new world they are transported to, and eventually I thought of Time after Time, The film in which H.G. Welles and Jack the Ripper end up time traveling to the seventies. Welles is horrified of the lack of social progress while Jack the Ripper revels in the violence of the twentieth century. For sake of this digression, and because I really love that film, I include the following clip.)
Back to the film in question, and skipping several plot points, by the time Barbie discovers the source of her angst, an adult playing with Barbies and returns to Barbie Land it has been transformed. The Barbie dream houses have all been remade into Mojo Dojo man caves for Ken and the Barbies have abandoned their various careers as veterinarians and the President to dote after their Kens, bringing them snacks and beer. The spell of patriarchy is broken, however, when Gloria (America Ferrara) , the adult from the real world who has brought anxiety to Barbie, spells out the contradictions of being a woman. This speech is the thematic and emotional core of the film. Since I found the whole thing online, I post it in its entirety below. "It is literally impossible to be a woman. You are so beautiful, and so smart, and it kills me that you don't think you're good enough. Like, we have to always be extraordinary, but somehow we're always doing it wrong.

You have to be thin, but not too thin. And you can never say you want to be thin. You have to say you want to be healthy, but also you have to be thin. You have to have money, but you can't ask for money because that's crass. You have to be a boss, but you can't be mean. You have to lead, but you can't squash other people's ideas. You're supposed to love being a mother, but don't talk about your kids all the damn time. You have to be a career woman but also always be looking out for other people.""You have to answer for men's bad behavior, which is insane, but if you point that out, you're accused of complaining. You're supposed to stay pretty for men, but not so pretty that you tempt them too much or that you threaten other women because you're supposed to be a part of the sisterhood.

But always stand out and always be grateful. But never forget that the system is rigged. So find a way to acknowledge that but also always be grateful.

You have to never get old, never be rude, never show off, never be selfish, never fall down, never fail, never show fear, never get out of line. It's too hard! It's too contradictory and nobody gives you a medal or says thank you! And it turns out in fact that not only are you doing everything wrong, but also everything is your fault.

I'm just so tired of watching myself and every single other woman tie herself into knots so that people will like us. And if all of that is also true for a doll just representing women, then I don't even know."The speech is a long list of the "too contradictory" situation of women in the real world. In the film this bit of wisdom from the real world restores Barbie Land, frees Barbie from the rule of Ken. However, the film does not connect the contradictions of the real world to the contradictory unity of Barbie as a commodity, a commodity with use value, all of Barbie's various careers from doctor to president, and an exchange value, her appearance. In the film there are two worlds, Barbie Land defined by Barbie's capacities to do anything, and our world, where Barbie is defined by her appearance, but it never really reflects on the contradictory unity of those two worlds, on the fact that while Barbie dolls can do anything they still have to look like Barbie. Making a movie about Barbie is strange endeavor because the logic of Barbie is the logic of Hollywood. It is a world where women can be scientists and superheroes, at least some of the time, but in doing so they still have to look like at least one of the varieties of Barbie. Ability is subordinated to appearance, use value to exchange value.The film presents Barbie Land and the real world as two different realities, one dominated by the different abilities of Barbie and the other by the circulation of her appearance, but the reality of the commodity, of capital, is that use value and exchange value exists side by side even as they contradict each other. As Isabelle Garo puts it, "The originality of Marx's approach attaches to the dialectical nature of his analysis of contradictions, which is no mere juxtaposition of opposed tendencies: the capitalist labour process is not alienating in one respect and emancipatory in another, but it interweaves these two tendencies at the very heart of the labourer's individuality and of social relations."Or, to put it back in the terms of the film, it is not that one gets to choose between a land where Barbies are recognized for their abilities and one that they are reduced to their appearances but they are always both. This is the too contradictory situation referenced in Gloria's speech. The fact that the film does not connect these dots connects brings us back to the question the film asks but does not answer, why has a Barbie Land where dolls can be anything not transformed our world where women are all too often reduced to being dolls? That the film has no reflection on the failure of its own world of role models is its real limit. All Barbie the movie can do is diversify Barbie Land, adding a few different body types and a little more diverse product line, but it cannot address the question as to why all the positive role models in the world have not changed patriarchy. Perhaps that question is for the inevitable sequel. 

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yaadahalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 662 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 597 ha (90%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 7 ha (1%) by rock outcrops and 58 ha (9%) by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 32 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 28 per cent soils are deep (100 to 150 cm), 20 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 2 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and 8 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm).  About 22 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 49 per cent loamy soils and 19 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 86 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 84 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 6 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 84 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded in the microwatershed.  An area of about 2 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 44 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 22 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 20 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 2 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 62 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 28 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 88 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 2 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (<10 ppm) in an area of about 75 per cent and 15 per cent of the soils are medium (10-20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (<0.5 ppm) in an area of about 74 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in an area of 16 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 455(69) 87(13) Guava - 130(20) Maize 58(9) 433(65) Sapota - 131(20) Bajra 109(16) 433(65) Pomegranate - 528(80) Groundnut - 138(21) Musambi 389(59) 139(21) Sunflower 389(59) 139(21) Lime 389(59) 139(21) Redgram - 528(80) Amla 66(10) 475(72) Bengal gram 397(60) 81(12) Cashew - 66(10) Cotton 389(59) 88(13) Jackfruit - 131(20) Chilli - 542(82) Jamun - 397(60) Tomato 58(9) 401(60) Custard apple 476(72) 65(10) Brinjal 120(18) 421(64) Tamarind - 397(60) Onion 161(24) 101(16) Mulberry - 131(20) Bhendi 299(45) 242(37) Marigold - 542(82) Drumstick - 528(80) Chrysanthemum - 542(82) Mango - 46(7)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yaadahalli-2 is located at North latitude 160 49' 50.825" and 160 48' 22.582" and East longitude 770 10' 36.282'' and 770 8' 22.441" covering an area of about 661.39 ha coming underYaddalli, Bandhalli and Honagera villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yaadahalli-2 micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Yaadahalli-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 19 (52.78%) were marginal, 6 (16.67%) were small and 5 (13.89 %) were semi medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 127 (55.70%) men and 101 (44.30 %) were women. The average population of landless was 6.7, marginal farmers were 6.5, semi medium farmers were 5.7 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (56.14%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 74.12 per cent illiterates, 25.44 per cent pre university education and 2.63 per cent attained graduation.  About, 77.78 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 60.09 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 52.78 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 33.33 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 61.11 per cent possess TV, 2.78 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.44 per cent possess mobile phones and 33.33 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent possess tractor, 5.56 per cent possess bullock cart and 13.89 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.33 per cent possess local cow and 2.78 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.89, women available in the micro watershed was 1.69, hired labour (men) available was 7.83 and hired labour (women) available was 5.97.  Further, 19.44 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 2.63 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1150.00 kms for about 12.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.61 per cent (24.20 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 30.71 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 9.00 live bore wells and 9.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 25.00 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 107.16 per cent.  Out of the sample households 77.78 percent possessed bank account and 47.22 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 38.89 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 14.29 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 64.29 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 92.31 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.50570.78 , 33213.31, 61554.52, 57120.33, and 40238.12 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.03, 1: 2.90, 1: 2.30, 1: 1.40, and 1:1.50, respectively.  Further, 30.56 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 230574.94 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62213.89 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 14 horticulture trees and 44 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 15694.44 for land development and Rs. 27083.33 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.78 per cent depends on own funds and 11.11 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 61.11 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 25.00 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 80.56 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (55.56%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 77.78 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 83.33 per cent of the households and 16.67 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 83.33 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 41.67 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 91.67 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 8.33 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (83.33%), pulses (88.89%) and oilseeds (52.78%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (63.89 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (47.22%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.78%), inadequacy of irrigation water (58.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.78%), high rate of interest on credit (77.78%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (63.89%), inadequate extension services (27.78 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.22%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 576 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 70 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 30 ha by rock outcrops, others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire cultivated area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 2 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are shallow (25-50 cm), 5 per cent are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 4 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 58 per cent are deep (100-150 cm) and 1 per cent soils are very deep (>150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 2 per cent are sandy soils at the surface, 54 per cent are loamy soils and 14 percent soils are clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum area of about 68 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 57 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 14 per cent area is nearly level (0-1% slope) soils.  An area of about 57 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 14 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) soils in the microwatershed.  About an area of 2 per cent in the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 5 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 49 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8- 8.4) and 15 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) soils.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 1 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 60 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 10 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in 59 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 17 per cent soils.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 23 (4) 234 (41) Guava - 23 (4) Maize 23 (4) 234 (41) Sapota - 23 (4) Bajra 23 (4) 234 (41) Pomegranate - 23 (4) Groundnut - 52 (9) Musambi - 23 (4) Sunflower - 23 (4) Lime - 23 (4) Redgram - 228 (40) Amla 23 (4) 29 (5) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - 23 (4) Jackfruit - 23 (4) Chilli 23 (4) 29 (5) Jamun - - Tomato 23 (4) 29 (5) Custard apple 52 (9) - Brinjal 23 (4) 29 (5) Tamarind - - Onion 23 (4) 29 (5) Mulberry - 23 (4) Bhendi 23 (4) 29 (5) Marigold 23 (4) 29 (5) Drumstick - 23 (4) Chrysanthemum 23 (4) 29 (5) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 5 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-2 is located at North latitude 160 51' 34.686" and 160 50' 14.901" and East longitude 770 12' 14.251'' and 770 10' 18.907" covering an area of about 564.17 ha coming under Hattikuni, Katagi Shahapura, Yadahalli and Honageri villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-2 micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 12 (34.29%) were marginal, 11 (31.43%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 89 (56.33%) men and 69 (43.67 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.8, marginal farmers were 4.4, small farmers were 4.8, semi medium farmers were 3.7 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (39.87%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 50.00 per cent illiterates, 0.63 percent were functional literates, 43.03 per cent pre university education and 2.53 per cent attained graduation.  About, 88.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 33.54 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 82.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 11.43 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 11.43 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, women available in the micro watershed was 1.42, hired labour (men) available was 7.38 and hired labour (women) available was 6.74.  Further, 60.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 6.96 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1114.83 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 72.89 per cent (40.31 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 25.10 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Sorghum, Cotton, Groundnut and Maize and cropping intensity was recorded as 89.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 88.57 percent possessed bank account and 82.86 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 82.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Sorghum, Cotton, Groundnut and Maize was Rs.37227.18, 25478.65, 34967.43, 43716.27 and 27475.11 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.50, 1: 0.80 and 1:1.80 respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 69780.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 33694.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 42 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 14.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5428.57 for land development and Rs. 228.57 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 48.57 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 28.57 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 62.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (74.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 74.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 14.29 per cent of farmers practicing summer ploughing as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households and 8.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 51.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (68.57%) and oilseeds (28.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (65.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (60.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40.00%), high rate of interest on credit (28.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (28.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (34.29%), inadequate extension services (31.43%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%), Less rainfall (34.29%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (31.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Itakal-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 540 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 522 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 18 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 92 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 4 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  About 4 per cent area of the microwatershed has loamy soils and 92 per cent clayey soils.  About of 86 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 20 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 16 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 83 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands of the microwatershed.  An area of about 65 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and 31 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 22 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3), 52 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) and 23 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%), 57 per cent medium (0.50-0.75%) and 9 per cent is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area 89 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) 28 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 60 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 37 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 244(45) Guava - 65(12) Maize 65(12) 179(33) Sapota - 65(12) Bajra 65(12) 179(33) Pomegranate - 220(41) Groundnut 65(12) 24(4) Musambi - 220(41) Sunflower - 220(41) Lime - 220(41) Redgram - 220(41) Amla 65(12) 24(4) Bengal gram - 155(29) Cashew - - Cotton - 155(29) Jackfruit - 65(12) Chilli 65(12) 179(33) Jamun - - Tomato 65(12) 24(4) Custard apple 65(12) 179(33) Brinjal 65(12) 24(4) Tamarind - - Onion 65(12) 24(4) Mulberry - 65(12) Bhendi 65(12) 179(33) Marigold 65(12) 179(33) Drumstick - 65(12) Chrysanthemum 65(12) 179(33) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Itakal-1 is located at North latitude 160 54' 13.021" and 160 53' 26.25" and East longitude 770 24' 24.188'' and 770 23' 10.84" covering an area of about 118.39 ha coming under Gurumitkal village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Itakal-1 micro watersheds of Mothakapalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Itakal-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 21 (60.00%) were marginal, 4 (11.43%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 107 (62.21%) men and 65 (37.79 %) were women. The average population of landless was 6.2, marginal farmers were 4.7, small farmers were 5, semi medium farmers were 4.3 and medium farmers were 4.5.  Majority of the respondents (40.12%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 24.42 per cent illiterates, 0.58 percent were functional literates, 70.36 per cent pre university education and 7.56 per cent attained graduation.  About, 80.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 47.67 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 40.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 57.14 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 80.00 per cent possess TV, 42.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.43 per cent possess mobile phones and 54.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent possess bullock cart and 20.00 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.03, hired labour (men) available was 5.14 and hired labour (women) available was 8.86.  Further, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 80.49 per cent (29.68 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 19.51 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 3.00 live bore wells and 3.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 97.14 percent possessed bank account and 14.29 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 102.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 40.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 30.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (90.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 54.55 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 36.36 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.43067.31, 90445.62, 39213.13, 139598.90 and 48958.89 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.62, 1: 1.29, 1: 1.96, 1: 1.90 and 1:0.80 respectively.  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 137397.14 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 49711.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 46 horticulture trees and 14 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 8.57 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7571.43 for land development and Rs. 2857.14 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 42.86 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 82.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.86 per cent have sold in regulated markets. 3  Further, 62.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (60.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 71.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 57.14 per cent of the households and 54.29 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.29 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 22.86 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.29 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (80.00%), pulses (37.14%) and oilseeds (40.00%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (77.14%) wild animal menace on farm field (68.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (68.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (68.57%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (48.57%), inadequate extension services (28.57%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (48.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Die Stadtentwicklungspolitik in Deutschland formuliert aufgrund veränderter Rahmenbedingungen wie dem demografischen Wandel, der Globalisierung der Wirtschaftsbeziehungen oder auch veränderter öffentlicher Finanzen, die normative Idee, Stadtquartiere durch eine intensivere Beteiligung privater Akteure zu entwickeln. Bisherige Versuche der Städtebauförderung die Einbindung privater Kleineigentümer in quartiersbezogene Handlungsansätze zu stimulieren zeigen, dass dies bislang nur unzureichend gelingt. Auf rationalen Handlungslogiken basierende Theorien sprechen im Zusammenhang der privaten Erstellung öffentlicher Güter sogar von "Marktversagen". Und trotzdem existieren bereits erste Eigentümerstandortgemeinschaften (ESG) in Deutschland. Was ermöglichte dieses private Engagement? Angesichts fehlender empirischer Daten über freiwilliges kollektives Handeln privater Eigentümer in der Quartiers-entwicklung, geht die vorliegende Dissertation der Frage nach, welche Faktoren die Entstehung von ESG bestimmen und die institutionelle Struktur von ESG charakterisieren. Zur Beantwortung der Forschungsfrage wurde ein vergleichendes Fallstudiendesign mit ESG in Dortmund, Essen und Görlitz gewählt. Die Ergebnisse der Dissertation verdeutlichen, dass ESG als abhängige Variable sowohl durch die individuellen Interessen bzw. Handlungsstrategien der Immobilieneigentümer bei der Bewirtschaftung ihrer Immobilien, als auch durch den Steuerungsanspruch staatlicher Akteure in der Quartiersentwicklung bestimmt werden. Die Autorin leitet die individuellen und kollektiven Handlungsstrategien der Akteure her und setzt sich mit der individuellen Motivation zum Handeln auseinander. Zusätzlich werden grundlegende institutionelle Merkmale von ESG und ihre Eigenheit als Urban Governance-Ansatz diskutiert. Aus den als Hypothesen formulierten Ergebnissen werden abschließend Schlussfolgerungen für die Praxis sowie der weitere Forschungsbedarf abgeleitet.:A Einleitung.23 1 Hintergrund und Problemstellung.25 1.1 Städte im Wandel der Zeit.25 1.2 Die Städtebauförderung im Wandel der Zeit.33 2 Gegenstand und Zielstellung der Untersuchung.37 2.1 Gegenstand der Untersuchung.37 2.2 Ziel und Fragestellung der Untersuchung.42 3 Aufbau der Arbeit.45 4 Grenzen der Arbeit.49 B Kollektives Handeln – theoretische Einordnung der zentralen Problematik.51 1 Über die individuelle Herausforderung, kollektiv zu handeln.53 1.1 Zum Charakter des Kollektivgutes.54 1.2 Kollektives Handeln als rationales Handeln.56 1.3 Kollektives Handeln als soziales Handeln.60 1.4 Zwischenfazit.65 2 Über die Befähigung zum kollektiven Handeln mittels Institutionen.67 2.1 Verwendung des Begriffs und Entstehung von Institutionen.67 2.2 Einflussfaktoren bei der Entstehung von Institutionen.72 2.3 Typen von Institutionen und ihre Interaktionsformen.78 2.4 Charakter von Institutionen und ihre Wirkungen.84 2.5 Zwischenfazit.87 3 Kollektives Handeln als Koordinations- und Kooperationsaufgabe des Staates.91 3.1 Das Verhältnis zwischen staatlichen und privaten Akteuren.91 3.2 Von Planung über Steuerung zu Governance.94 3.3 Wandel im Planungsverständnis in der Stadtentwicklung.101 3.4 Zwischenfazit.108 C Herangehensweise und Methodik .111 1 Wahl des Forschungsdesigns.113 2 Auswahl und Erhebung der Daten.117 2.1 Auswahl der Fallstudien .117 2.2 Auswahl der Interviewpartner .121 2.3 Erhebung der Daten.124 2.4 Wahl der Interviewart und Durchführung der Interviews.126 3 Auswertung der Daten.129 3.1 Erkenntnistheoretische Grundannahmen.129 3.2 Prozess der Analyse.130 3.3 Generierungen der Hypothesen.135 D Einführung in Eigentümerstandortgemeinschaften (ESG) in Deutschland und die Fallstudien .137 1 Eigentümerstandortgemeinschaften in Deutschland.139 1.1 Anlass für Eigentümerstandortgemeinschaften in Deutschland.139 1.2 Entwicklungsstand von ESG in Deutschland .140 1.3 ESG als Regelungstatbestand der Bundesgesetzgebung.143 1.4 ESG als ExWoSt-Forschungsfeld.145 2 Fallstudie ESG Brunnenstraßenviertel in Dortmund .149 2.1 Strukturdaten der Stadt Dortmund.149 2.2 Strukturdaten des ESG-Standortes.151 2.3 Entstehung, Akteure und Inhalte der ESG.155 2.4 Handlungsmotive und -strategien der Beteiligten.157 2.5 Institutionelle Merkmale der ESG.161 3 Fallstudie ESG Vogelheim in Essen .163 3.1 Strukturdaten der Stadt Essen.163 3.2 Strukturdaten des ESG-Standortes.167 3.3 Entstehung, Akteure und Inhalte der ESG.169 3.4 Handlungsmotive und -strategien der Beteiligten.170 3.5 Institutionelle Merkmale der ESG.172 4 Fallstudie ESG Gründerzeitquartier in Görlitz .175 4.1 Strukturdaten der Stadt Görlitz.175 4.2 Strukturdaten des ESG-Standortes.180 4.3 Entstehung, Akteure und Inhalte der ESG.184 4.4 Handlungsmotive und -strategien der Beteiligten.186 4.5 Institutionelle Merkmale der ESG.188 E Vergleichende Analyse der Daten und Generierung übergreifender Aussagen zu ESG….191 1 Zwischen Idealisten und Rationalisten: Akteursgruppen und Rollenbilder.193 1.1 Die Akteursgruppen in ESG.193 1.2 Rollenbilder der Akteure und ihre Rolle in der ESG.199 2 Zwischen öffentlich und privat: Themen und Projekte der ESG.205 2.1 Zur Wahrnehmung der Handlungssituation .205 2.2 Projekte der ESG.209 3 Investition versus Exit: Handlungsstrategien der Akteure.215 3.1 Handlungsoptionen der Eigentümer bzgl. der Immobilie.215 3.2 Handlungsoptionen der Eigentümer bzgl. der ESG.222 3.3 Handlungsoptionen der öffentlichen Hand.226 3.4 Zusammenspiel und Pfadabhängigkeit in der Strategiewahl .229 4 Zwischen Unsicherheit und Sicherung: Motivation der Immobilieneigentümer.239 4.1 Reduzierung von Unsicherheit als übergeordnetes Motiv.240 4.2 Steigerung von Macht und Einfluss durch ESG.243 4.3 Monetäre Vorteile durch ESG.246 4.4 Lösung eines Sachproblems durch ESG.249 4.5 Der Einfluss von Kontextbedingungen auf die Entstehung von ESG.251 5 Hemmnisse und Erfolgsfaktoren im Entstehungsprozess.257 5.1 Hemmnisse für die Entstehung einer ESG.257 5.2 Erfolgsfaktoren für die Gründung einer ESG.263 6 Zwischen strategischem Netzwerk und Gemeinschaftsorganisation: institutionelle Ausprägung bei ESG.271 6.1 Die Generierung von Nutzen durch ESG.271 6.2 Mit der Institution ESG verbundene Kosten.273 6.3 Normen und Diskontierungsraten der Akteure.279 7 Zwischen Anreiz und Zwang: Urban Governance und die Rolle des Staates.283 7.1 Zwischen Anreiz und Zwang: Steuerungsansätze in ESG.283 7.2 Urban Governance: Zur Rolle der öffentlichen Hand in ESG.289 F Diskussion der Hypothesen und Schlussfolgerungen .293 1 Diskussion der Hypothesen zu den Forschungsfragen.295 1.1 Beteiligte und Themen von ESG.296 1.2 Handlungsmotive und -strategien der Beteiligten.301 1.3 Erfolgsfaktoren und Hemmnisse im ESG-Entstehungsprozess.307 1.4 Institutionelle Merkmale von ESG.310 1.5 ESG als Governance in der Stadtentwicklung.314 1.6 Fazit zur Leitfrage.319 2 Schlussfolgerungen und weiterer Forschungsbedarf .323 2.1 Schlussfolgerungen für die Praxis.323 2.2 Weiterer Forschungsbedarf.330 G Verzeichnisse.335 1 Quellen.337 1.1 Literatur.337 1.2 Internet.357 1.3 Interviewpartner.358 2 Abkürzungsverzeichnis.365 3 Abbildungsverzeichnis.367 4 Tabellenverzeichnis.369 ; This PhD thesis deals with a concept of urban development which is at present in a pilot phase in Germany, the Local Property Owner Partnership (LoPOP). These are characterized by a voluntary collective development of the quarter at the initiative of the property owners. The demographic, economic and social structures lead to spatially differentiated changes which induce complex problems in urban development. Among others, this may result in a notable increase of vacant flats, an increasing demand for low-barrier flats or in investment backlogs of the public infrastructure. A large part of the up-coming investment tasks concerns private property and requires action by private property owners, e.g. in the development of living space. Attempts to activate proprietors via urban development funding have shown minor success up to now. Current urban development policy formulates the idea to reach a positive development of structurally weak quarters by a more intensified participation of private actors in collective approaches. In view of the missing of empirical data on voluntary action by private proprietors in the urban development, the PhD thesis investigates which factors determine the establishment of Local Property Owner Partnerships and characterize their institutional structure. Due to the small number of existing LoPOPs in Germany as well as to the limited number of scientific publications dealing with this subject, a comparative case study design was chosen. Fifty-six partially structured interviews were held in three heterogeneously distinctive LoPOPs in Dortmund, Essen and Görlitz. The transcribed interview data were processed by means of reconstructive content analyses and the results were formulated as hypotheses. The results of the thesis show that the subject of examination, LoPOPs, can be discussed with respect to actor-related and institutional theories as well as governance approaches. LoPOPs are defined as a dependent variable with respect to the individual interests and strategies of action of the property owners concerning their real estate management as well as to the governance requirements of state actors concerning the development of the quarter. Thereby, it has become apparent that one should make a distinction between the strategies of action of the state and the private actors. Both groups show three basic types of action strategies which have constructional and social as well as structural impacts on the quarter. The individual strategies of action of the proprietors are invest, wait and exit. With regard to the quarter, the municipal actors have the strategies develop, wait or retract at their disposal. Moreover, the data analyses discovered a path dependency between the individual management strategies of the proprietors and their action in the collective situation. The actors who are focusing on wait or on exit play the role of free riders. With regard to the proprietors who are willing to invest, three collective strategies of action may be noted: wait, individual effort and cooperation. As a central motive for choosing the collective strategy of action cooperation and, thus for commitment to participating in the LoPOP, the reduction of uncertainty could be identified. According to this, the preparedness for cooperation depends on the intensity of uncertainty in the management of the property and, thus, also on the degree of being affected by the above mentioned structural change. Whether the LoPOP is a suitable tool for the elimination of this uncertainty is closely connected with its institutional structure. LoPOPs are - taking into account the specific constellation of actors - characterized by high transaction costs, due to the low legal and social possibilities for sanctions. Therefore, a clear value of the projects and the common standards of the actors are all the more necessary for success. LoPOPs deal with the development of quarters and produce, as a private initiative, also public goods. This establishes the public interest in their development. The results of the thesis show that, due to the constellation of actors, interests and themes in voluntary LoPOPs, the state actors concentrate on the interaction form of the horizontal coordination. Therefore, LoPOPs can be referred to as a form of Urban Governance. Moreover, it becomes obvious that, when the mission statement of a voluntary, informal and private network of small proprietors shall be realised, on the one hand free riders cannot be avoided, on the other hand the public authorities are indispensable providing consulting and financial support. In comparison with traditional approaches of urban development funding, LoPOPs, as collective development approaches, need an intensive involvement of local actors in addition to the thematic debate during their preparation. The thesis terminates with conclusions for practice as well as needs for further research drawn from the generated hypotheses. The needs for further research refer inter alia to the evaluation of effects of the LoPOPs; the analysis of learning processes among the groups of actors in the development process and in the verification of the generated hypotheses in this work.:A Einleitung.23 1 Hintergrund und Problemstellung.25 1.1 Städte im Wandel der Zeit.25 1.2 Die Städtebauförderung im Wandel der Zeit.33 2 Gegenstand und Zielstellung der Untersuchung.37 2.1 Gegenstand der Untersuchung.37 2.2 Ziel und Fragestellung der Untersuchung.42 3 Aufbau der Arbeit.45 4 Grenzen der Arbeit.49 B Kollektives Handeln – theoretische Einordnung der zentralen Problematik.51 1 Über die individuelle Herausforderung, kollektiv zu handeln.53 1.1 Zum Charakter des Kollektivgutes.54 1.2 Kollektives Handeln als rationales Handeln.56 1.3 Kollektives Handeln als soziales Handeln.60 1.4 Zwischenfazit.65 2 Über die Befähigung zum kollektiven Handeln mittels Institutionen.67 2.1 Verwendung des Begriffs und Entstehung von Institutionen.67 2.2 Einflussfaktoren bei der Entstehung von Institutionen.72 2.3 Typen von Institutionen und ihre Interaktionsformen.78 2.4 Charakter von Institutionen und ihre Wirkungen.84 2.5 Zwischenfazit.87 3 Kollektives Handeln als Koordinations- und Kooperationsaufgabe des Staates.91 3.1 Das Verhältnis zwischen staatlichen und privaten Akteuren.91 3.2 Von Planung über Steuerung zu Governance.94 3.3 Wandel im Planungsverständnis in der Stadtentwicklung.101 3.4 Zwischenfazit.108 C Herangehensweise und Methodik .111 1 Wahl des Forschungsdesigns.113 2 Auswahl und Erhebung der Daten.117 2.1 Auswahl der Fallstudien .117 2.2 Auswahl der Interviewpartner .121 2.3 Erhebung der Daten.124 2.4 Wahl der Interviewart und Durchführung der Interviews.126 3 Auswertung der Daten.129 3.1 Erkenntnistheoretische Grundannahmen.129 3.2 Prozess der Analyse.130 3.3 Generierungen der Hypothesen.135 D Einführung in Eigentümerstandortgemeinschaften (ESG) in Deutschland und die Fallstudien .137 1 Eigentümerstandortgemeinschaften in Deutschland.139 1.1 Anlass für Eigentümerstandortgemeinschaften in Deutschland.139 1.2 Entwicklungsstand von ESG in Deutschland .140 1.3 ESG als Regelungstatbestand der Bundesgesetzgebung.143 1.4 ESG als ExWoSt-Forschungsfeld.145 2 Fallstudie ESG Brunnenstraßenviertel in Dortmund .149 2.1 Strukturdaten der Stadt Dortmund.149 2.2 Strukturdaten des ESG-Standortes.151 2.3 Entstehung, Akteure und Inhalte der ESG.155 2.4 Handlungsmotive und -strategien der Beteiligten.157 2.5 Institutionelle Merkmale der ESG.161 3 Fallstudie ESG Vogelheim in Essen .163 3.1 Strukturdaten der Stadt Essen.163 3.2 Strukturdaten des ESG-Standortes.167 3.3 Entstehung, Akteure und Inhalte der ESG.169 3.4 Handlungsmotive und -strategien der Beteiligten.170 3.5 Institutionelle Merkmale der ESG.172 4 Fallstudie ESG Gründerzeitquartier in Görlitz .175 4.1 Strukturdaten der Stadt Görlitz.175 4.2 Strukturdaten des ESG-Standortes.180 4.3 Entstehung, Akteure und Inhalte der ESG.184 4.4 Handlungsmotive und -strategien der Beteiligten.186 4.5 Institutionelle Merkmale der ESG.188 E Vergleichende Analyse der Daten und Generierung übergreifender Aussagen zu ESG….191 1 Zwischen Idealisten und Rationalisten: Akteursgruppen und Rollenbilder.193 1.1 Die Akteursgruppen in ESG.193 1.2 Rollenbilder der Akteure und ihre Rolle in der ESG.199 2 Zwischen öffentlich und privat: Themen und Projekte der ESG.205 2.1 Zur Wahrnehmung der Handlungssituation .205 2.2 Projekte der ESG.209 3 Investition versus Exit: Handlungsstrategien der Akteure.215 3.1 Handlungsoptionen der Eigentümer bzgl. der Immobilie.215 3.2 Handlungsoptionen der Eigentümer bzgl. der ESG.222 3.3 Handlungsoptionen der öffentlichen Hand.226 3.4 Zusammenspiel und Pfadabhängigkeit in der Strategiewahl .229 4 Zwischen Unsicherheit und Sicherung: Motivation der Immobilieneigentümer.239 4.1 Reduzierung von Unsicherheit als übergeordnetes Motiv.240 4.2 Steigerung von Macht und Einfluss durch ESG.243 4.3 Monetäre Vorteile durch ESG.246 4.4 Lösung eines Sachproblems durch ESG.249 4.5 Der Einfluss von Kontextbedingungen auf die Entstehung von ESG.251 5 Hemmnisse und Erfolgsfaktoren im Entstehungsprozess.257 5.1 Hemmnisse für die Entstehung einer ESG.257 5.2 Erfolgsfaktoren für die Gründung einer ESG.263 6 Zwischen strategischem Netzwerk und Gemeinschaftsorganisation: institutionelle Ausprägung bei ESG.271 6.1 Die Generierung von Nutzen durch ESG.271 6.2 Mit der Institution ESG verbundene Kosten.273 6.3 Normen und Diskontierungsraten der Akteure.279 7 Zwischen Anreiz und Zwang: Urban Governance und die Rolle des Staates.283 7.1 Zwischen Anreiz und Zwang: Steuerungsansätze in ESG.283 7.2 Urban Governance: Zur Rolle der öffentlichen Hand in ESG.289 F Diskussion der Hypothesen und Schlussfolgerungen .293 1 Diskussion der Hypothesen zu den Forschungsfragen.295 1.1 Beteiligte und Themen von ESG.296 1.2 Handlungsmotive und -strategien der Beteiligten.301 1.3 Erfolgsfaktoren und Hemmnisse im ESG-Entstehungsprozess.307 1.4 Institutionelle Merkmale von ESG.310 1.5 ESG als Governance in der Stadtentwicklung.314 1.6 Fazit zur Leitfrage.319 2 Schlussfolgerungen und weiterer Forschungsbedarf .323 2.1 Schlussfolgerungen für die Praxis.323 2.2 Weiterer Forschungsbedarf.330 G Verzeichnisse.335 1 Quellen.337 1.1 Literatur.337 1.2 Internet.357 1.3 Interviewpartner.358 2 Abkürzungsverzeichnis.365 3 Abbildungsverzeichnis.367 4 Tabellenverzeichnis.369

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Horanchi-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 511 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 460 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 22 ha covered by rock outcrops and 29 ha by others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 460 ha (90%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 29 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) 9 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100) whereas 1 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm) and 50 per cent soils are shallow (25 -50 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 19 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 47 percent soils are loamy and 24 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 7 percent soils are medium (51-100), 4 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and 50 per cent area is very low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 7 percent of the soils are low (4.5ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 82(16) 87(17) Guava - 11(2) Maize - 198(39) Sapota - 11(2) Bajra - 169(33) Pomegranate - 162(32) Groundnut - 11(2) Musambi 151(29) 11(2) Sunflower 82(16) 80(16) Lime 151(29) 11(2) Redgram - 162(32) Amla - 169(33) Bengal gram 151(29) 18(4) Cashew - - Cotton 82(16) 87(17) Jackfruit - 11(2) Chilli - 169(34) Jamun - 151(29) Tomato - 169(34) Custard apple 162(32) 7(1) Brinjal 52(10) 116(23) Tamarind - 151(29) Onion - 87(17) Mulberry - 11(2) Bhendi 121(24) 48(10) Marigold - 169(33) Drumstick - 162(32) Chrysanthemum - 169(33) Mango - 52(10)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. The survey was conducted in Horanchi-1 is located at 16051'19.293'' to 160 49'49.293'' and East longitude 770 8'1.757'' to 7706'20.417'' covering an area of about 510.57 ha coming under Horunacha, Venkateshwaranagara and Kanchagarahalli Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 respondents, 4 (11.76%) were landless, 11 (32.35%) were marginal and small farmers and 8 (23.53%) were semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 91 (52.60%) men and 82 (47.4%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 5.5 and semi medium farmers' was 5.1.  Majority of the respondents 31 (17.92%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 82 (47.4%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (28.9%) were in 36-60 years of age and 10 (5.78%) were above 61 years of age.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 53.76 per cent illiterates, 24.28 per cent of them had primary school, 6.94 per cent of them had Middle school education, 6.36 per cent of them had high school, 2.89 per cent of them had PUC, 1.16 per cent of them had ITI and 3.47 per cent of them had degree education.  About, 53.76 per cent illiterates, 24.28 per cent of them had primary school, 6.94 per cent of them had Middle school education, 6.36 per cent of them had high school, 2.89 per cent of them had PUC, 1.16 per cent of them had ITI and 3.47 per cent of them had degree education.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 19.65 per cent of the household members, 58.96 per cent were agricultural labourers, 20.23 per cent were student and 1.16 per cent were children.  In this micro watershed, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  In the study area, 17.65 per cent of the households possess thatched, 67.65 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 14.71 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 85.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 58.82 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder and motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 44.12 per cent of the household's possess motor cycle and 73.53 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 14.71 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 64.71 per cent each of the households possess 2 plough, 20.59 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 11.76 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 44.12 per cent of the households possess weeder, 5.88 per cent of the households possess harvester and 17.65 per cent of the households possess thresher.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 41.18 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.76 per cent of the households possess local cow and goat and 2.94 per cent of the households possess buffalo.  The average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.85, average own labour (women) available was 1.68, average hired labour (men) available was 9.69 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.2.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 35.06 ha (88.26%) of dry land and 4.67 ha (11.74%) of irrigated land.  Marginal farmers possess 8.04 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 12.98 ha (88.66%) of dry land and 1.66 ha (11.34 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 14.04 ha (82.36%) of dry land and 3.01 ha (17.64 %) of irrigated land.  There were 8 functioning and 3 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 23.53 per cent of the farmers.  The major crops have cotton (4.28%), groundnut (5.83 Ha), horse gram (1.62 ha), maize (5.59 ha), paddy (0.81 ha), red gram (20.25 ha) and sorghum (1.21 ha).  The sample households possessed 85.29 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  About 85.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Cotton, maize, Red gram, Horse gram, Sorghum, groundnut and paddy was Rs. 38144.92, 15184.09, 26741.88, 16727.24, 33363.87, 34774.16 and 26182.46 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.6, 1:2.02, 1:1.88, 1:2.21, 1:1.11, 1:2.79 and 1:2.22, respectively.  Further, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income was Rs. 41,250 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 68,636.36, for small farmers it was Rs. 79,909.09 and semi medium farmers it was Rs. 137,750.  The average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,695.29. For large farmers it was Rs. 5,750, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,485.95, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,044.63 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,600.45.  Sampled households have planted 6 mango trees in their field to cultivate horticultural crops. 3  Households have planted 1 cashew and pongamia, 45 neem, 2 tamarind, 13 banyan and 4 acacia trees in their field to cultivate forest species.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7,617.65 for land development, Rs. 441.18 for irrigation facility and Rs.705.88 for improved crop production.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned; loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 20.59 per cent for land development, 2.94 per cent for irrigation facility and 14.71 per cent for improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 29.41 for land development and 2.94 for improved crop production.  Regarding marketing channels, 29.41 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 61.76 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market.  Further, 91.18 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  Majority of the households 85.29 per cent have Incidencee of soil and water erosion problems.  The household possess, (85.2%) were interested towards soil testing.  The household possess, 97.06 per cent of the households used fire wood and 2.94 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  Piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 64.71 per cent and 35.29 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. In the study area, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 94.12 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 8.82 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 17.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 26.47 per cent, milk were adequate for 29.41 per cent, egg were adequate were for 11.76 per cent and meat were adequate for 14.71 per cent of the households.  pulses were inadequate for 5.88 per cent of the households, oilseed were inadequate for 82.35 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 85.29 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 55.88 per cent, milk were inadequate for 50 per cent, egg and meat were inadequate for 82.35 per cent of the households.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.18 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (82.35%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (35.29%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (17.65%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (32.35%), high rate of interest on credit ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Horanchi-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 511 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 460 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 22 ha covered by rock outcrops and 29 ha by others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 460 ha (90%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 29 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) 9 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100) whereas 1 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm) and 50 per cent soils are shallow (25 -50 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 19 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 47 percent soils are loamy and 24 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 7 percent soils are medium (51-100), 4 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and 50 per cent area is very low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 7 percent of the soils are low (4.5ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 82(16) 87(17) Guava - 11(2) Maize - 198(39) Sapota - 11(2) Bajra - 169(33) Pomegranate - 162(32) Groundnut - 11(2) Musambi 151(29) 11(2) Sunflower 82(16) 80(16) Lime 151(29) 11(2) Redgram - 162(32) Amla - 169(33) Bengal gram 151(29) 18(4) Cashew - - Cotton 82(16) 87(17) Jackfruit - 11(2) Chilli - 169(34) Jamun - 151(29) Tomato - 169(34) Custard apple 162(32) 7(1) Brinjal 52(10) 116(23) Tamarind - 151(29) Onion - 87(17) Mulberry - 11(2) Bhendi 121(24) 48(10) Marigold - 169(33) Drumstick - 162(32) Chrysanthemum - 169(33) Mango - 52(10)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Horanchi-1 is located at 16051'19.293'' to 160 49'49.293'' and East longitude 770 8'1.757'' to 7706'20.417'' covering an area of about 510.57 ha coming under Horunacha, Venkateshwaranagara and Kanchagarahalli Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 respondents, 4 (11.76%) were landless, 11 (32.35%) were marginal and small farmers and 8 (23.53%) were semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 91 (52.60%) men and 82 (47.4%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 5.5 and semi medium farmers' was 5.1.  Majority of the respondents 31 (17.92%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 82 (47.4%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (28.9%) were in 36-60 years of age and 10 (5.78%) were above 61 years of age.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 53.76 per cent illiterates, 24.28 per cent of them had primary school, 6.94 per cent of them had Middle school education, 6.36 per cent of them had high school, 2.89 per cent of them had PUC, 1.16 per cent of them had ITI and 3.47 per cent of them had degree education.  About, 53.76 per cent illiterates, 24.28 per cent of them had primary school, 6.94 per cent of them had Middle school education, 6.36 per cent of them had high school, 2.89 per cent of them had PUC, 1.16 per cent of them had ITI and 3.47 per cent of them had degree education.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 19.65 per cent of the household members, 58.96 per cent were agricultural labourers, 20.23 per cent were student and 1.16 per cent were children.  In this micro watershed, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  In the study area, 17.65 per cent of the households possess thatched, 67.65 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 14.71 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 85.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 58.82 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder and motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 44.12 per cent of the household's possess motor cycle and 73.53 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 14.71 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 64.71 per cent each of the households possess 2 plough, 20.59 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 11.76 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 44.12 per cent of the households possess weeder, 5.88 per cent of the households possess harvester and 17.65 per cent of the households possess thresher.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 41.18 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.76 per cent of the households possess local cow and goat and 2.94 per cent of the households possess buffalo.  The average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.85, average own labour (women) available was 1.68, average hired labour (men) available was 9.69 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.2.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 35.06 ha (88.26%) of dry land and 4.67 ha (11.74%) of irrigated land.  Marginal farmers possess 8.04 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 12.98 ha (88.66%) of dry land and 1.66 ha (11.34 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 14.04 ha (82.36%) of dry land and 3.01 ha (17.64 %) of irrigated land.  There were 8 functioning and 3 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 23.53 per cent of the farmers.  The major crops have cotton (4.28%), groundnut (5.83 Ha), horse gram (1.62 ha), maize (5.59 ha), paddy (0.81 ha), red gram (20.25 ha) and sorghum (1.21 ha).  The sample households possessed 85.29 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  About 85.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Cotton, maize, Red gram, Horse gram, Sorghum, groundnut and paddy was Rs. 38144.92, 15184.09, 26741.88, 16727.24, 33363.87, 34774.16 and 26182.46 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.6, 1:2.02, 1:1.88, 1:2.21, 1:1.11, 1:2.79 and 1:2.22, respectively.  Further, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income was Rs. 41,250 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 68,636.36, for small farmers it was Rs. 79,909.09 and semi medium farmers it was Rs. 137,750.  The average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,695.29. For large farmers it was Rs. 5,750, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,485.95, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,044.63 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,600.45.  Sampled households have planted 6 mango trees in their field to cultivate horticultural crops. 3  Households have planted 1 cashew and pongamia, 45 neem, 2 tamarind, 13 banyan and 4 acacia trees in their field to cultivate forest species.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7,617.65 for land development, Rs. 441.18 for irrigation facility and Rs.705.88 for improved crop production.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned; loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 20.59 per cent for land development, 2.94 per cent for irrigation facility and 14.71 per cent for improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 29.41 for land development and 2.94 for improved crop production.  Regarding marketing channels, 29.41 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 61.76 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market.  Further, 91.18 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  Majority of the households 85.29 per cent have Incidencee of soil and water erosion problems.  The household possess, (85.2%) were interested towards soil testing.  The household possess, 97.06 per cent of the households used fire wood and 2.94 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  Piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 64.71 per cent and 35.29 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. In the study area, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 94.12 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 8.82 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 17.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 26.47 per cent, milk were adequate for 29.41 per cent, egg were adequate were for 11.76 per cent and meat were adequate for 14.71 per cent of the households.  pulses were inadequate for 5.88 per cent of the households, oilseed were inadequate for 82.35 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 85.29 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 55.88 per cent, milk were inadequate for 50 per cent, egg and meat were inadequate for 82.35 per cent of the households.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.18 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (82.35%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (35.29%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (17.65%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (32.35%), high rate of interest on credit 4 (8.82%), Low price for the agricultural commodities and lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.76%),Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (29.41%), inadequate extension service (14.71%), less rainfall (41.18%) and Source of Agri-technology information (32.35%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

En el norte de la Patagonia argentina, más precisamente en el Alto Valle , se ha desarrollado un sistema urbano-rural en el cual una ciudad ha sobresalido del resto en las últimas décadas, la ciudad de Neuquén. En torno a ella se ha manifestado un proceso de conurbación cuyo centro está conformado por esta ciudad, capital de la provincia de Neuquén, y la ciudad de Cipolletti centro de mayor relevancia de la provincia de Río Negro perteneciente a este bloque. Ambas se presentan como una unidad urbana a partir de la cual se han evidenciado importantes procesos de expansión urbana. Esta conurbación presenta una gran concentración de servicios, capital, tecnologías, transportes e infraestructura en general y un peso y densidad poblacional muy superior al del resto de las áreas urbanas del Alto Valle. Esa dinámica poblacional y económica trajo aparejados inconvenientes para esta zona. Los más notables son los conflictos sociales ante una elevada presión sobre el uso de suelo, la pérdida de tierra agrícola ante la expansión urbana y la especulación del negocio inmobiliario, así como el asentamiento de personas en áreas de riesgo y problemas de circulación de las personas. Ante este contexto la presente tesis tiene como objetivo principal analizar características territoriales, demográficas, ambientales y de movilidad urbana de dicha conurbación con el propósito de ofrecer aportes orientados a la formulación de propuestas de ordenamiento territorial. En consecuencia, la investigación intenta dar un panorama general del desarrollo del área urbana de la conurbación para identificar disfuncionalidades o conflictos que atentan contra un desarrollo urbano armónico. Algunas preguntas que surgen desde el inicio de la investigación han permitido guiar el camino en esta tarea: ¿Qué cambios afectaron a la conurbación en torno a la ciudad de Neuquén? ¿De qué manera la afectaron? ¿Cuál es la magnitud de los problemas generados? ¿Cuáles son las nuevas características de esta área urbana y sus tendencias futuras? ¿Cómo abordar y explicar esas problemáticas generadas? ¿Cuáles serían las propuestas más óptimas para resolver estas dificultades? El desarrollo de la investigación se ha segmentado en 10 capítulos, el primero de ellos se presenta como una introducción a todo el documento, el capitulo 2 desarrolla los principales conceptos de la ciencia geográfica que serán tenidos en cuenta en adelante, los mismos parten de considerar a la geografía como una ciencia social centrada en el estudio del espacio geográfico y sus tiempos. A partir de este nivel conceptual se orientan las reflexiones que involucran conceptos como el de región que permitirá entender de manera más apropiada la dinámica de la conurbación neuquina, para luego avanzar sobre conceptos e ideas empíricas cercanas al proceso de urbanización, a los modelos de las plantas urbanas, a la movilidad urbana y a los problemas ambientales. El tercer capítulo detalla la metodología utilizada para la indagación y búsqueda de resultados. No es sólo una enumeración de actividades, sino que se explica de manera asociada al marco teórico y a ciertos conceptos clave, el cómo será la investigación en cuanto a técnicas y procedimientos. En el capítulo 4 se analiza de manera un tanto detallada las condiciones del medio natural que influyen en el asentamiento urbano del área de estudio. Es decir que este apartado no es una descripción exhaustiva del marco natural, es una búsqueda de los condicionantes que permiten o dificultan el surgimiento de áreas urbanas. Así se trabaja principalmente sobre las geoformas o unidades geomorfológicas atendiendo a los procesos naturales que se manifiestan en cada una de ellas y cómo influyen en la actualidad en el desarrollo urbano y en la vida de las personas que habitan la ciudad. El capítulo 5 realiza una auténtica periodización urbana de la zona del Alto Valle, ya que la mayoría de las que podemos encontrar en los textos referidos a la zona están en sintonía económica o determinadas a partir de cortes arbitrarios, sin debidas evaluaciones teórico metodológicas. El capítulo 6 se encuentra muy en sintonía con la concepción de región, a esta altura de la investigación ya se hace necesario identificar algunos límites de la conurbación en torno a la ciudad de Neuquén. Se trata de establecer algunas precisiones en torno a estos aspectos dejando en claro que esos límites no son rígidos y que están identificados en función de los objetivos de esta investigación. Es así que el análisis se basará en algunas variables y luego en capítulos posteriores se avanzará en profundidad sobre otras. En primer lugar, y haciendo honor a la disciplina, se analiza la situación desde el punto de vista espacial (relacionada con la expansión de las áreas urbanas, particularmente sobre áreas agrícolas), para posteriormente trabajar sobre la variable poblacional y finalmente la funcional. En el capítulo 7 se intenta comparar y aplicar diversos indicadores de flujos vehiculares al ámbito de la conurbación neuquina comentando las potencialidades y falencias de cada uno. Tales indicadores son parte de un conjunto más amplio de información base que, tratada debidamente, nos ayuda a comprender como son las características de la movilidad espacial de las personas en este espacio urbano. Los resultados de la aplicación de los indicadores nombrados manifiestan un incremento de los flujos vehiculares en torno a los tramos de rutas más cercanos a la ciudad de Neuquén y a la vez expresan una cierta centralidad de esta ciudad en todo el conjunto de la conurbación. Esto repercute en la generación de problemas en cuanto a cuestiones viales y de transporte de las personas; cuestiones que deben ser tenidas en cuenta por parte de los decisores políticos a la hora de implementar acciones para un mejor ordenamiento territorial. El recorrido realizado en los apartados anteriores hizo posible la identificación de diferentes problemas ambientales que fueron trabajados en el capítulo 8. Algunos de éstos repetidos en los diferentes municipios, otros puntuales y específicos y otros que afectan de manera integral al sistema. Se destacan así los inconvenientes generados a partir de la instalación de viviendas en áreas de riesgo y la contaminación ambiental generada por efluentes, residuos sólidos urbanos y los generados a partir de la actividad petrolera. El capítulo 9 plantea como resultado del recorrido de la investigación algunas posibles acciones a realizar para la mitigación o solución de los principales inconvenientes detectados en la conurbación. Algunas de estas acciones están referidas a problemas teóricos o metodológicos en el entendimiento de los problemas por parte de las autoridades de gobierno, como el abordaje parcializado de los problemas ya sea en forma espacial o temática. Otras acciones propuestas son más directas como la de limitar la expansión urbana y favorecer una mayor densidad de uso del suelo urbano de algunos sectores. Otro tipo de propuestas hacen mención a las funciones o funcionamiento de la conurbación proponiendo nuevas centralidades, una mejora en la circulación a partir de esto, además de sugerir una diversificación y fortalecimiento de ciertos tipos de movilidad urbana. Por último el capítulo 10, arriba a unas conclusiones o reflexiones finales de la investigación que dejan ciertas certezas pero que también abren la puerta a nuevos temas y nuevas formas de estudiar esta conurbación en torno a la ciudad de Neuquén. ; In the north of the Patagonia Argentina, more precisely in the Alto Valle , a rural-urban system has developed, in which Neuquén city has outstood from the rest during the last decades. Around it, a conurbation process has occurred, whose center is comprised by Neuquén city, which is the capital city of Neuquén province, and Cipolletti city, the most important city in Río Negro province. Both cities are presented as an urban unit from which important processes of urban expansion have been evidenced. This conurbation presents a great concentration of services, capital, technologies, transport and infrastructure in general; and has a much higher population density and proportion compared to those of other urban areas of the Alto Valle. This economic and population dynamic brought with it several drawbacks in the area, of which the most notable are the social conflicts due to a high pressure over land use, the loss of agricultural land due to urban expansion, the speculation of the property business, the settlement of people in risk areas and, problems with the circulation of people. In this context, the present thesis aims at analyzing the territorial, demographic, environmental and urban mobility characteristics of such conurbation, with the purpose of offering contributions aimed at the formulation of land-use zoning proposals. In consequence, the research attempts to bring an overview of the development of the urban area of the conurbation to identify dysfunctions or conflicts threating harmonious urban development. The following questions arising from the beginning of the study have allowed framing it within such objectives: Which changes affected conurbation around the city of Neuquén, and in which ways? What is the magnitude of the generated problems? What are the new characteristics of this urban area, and its future trends? How to address and explain the generated issues? Which would be the most adequate proposals for resolving these issues? The investigation has been divided in 10 chapters, of which the first is an introduction of the whole document. Chapter 2 develops the main concepts of geographic science that are taken up in the text, on the basis of geography as a social science centered in the study of the geographic space and its times. From this conceptual level the reflections involving concepts such as region are oriented, which allows a more appropriate understanding of the conurbation dynamic in Neuquén, to then move forward over concepts and empirical ideas that are close to the urbanization process, urban plant models, urban mobility and environmental problems. The third chapter details the methodology used for the inquiry and search of results. The chapter is not only an enumeration of activities, but it rather explains the techniques and proceedings of the research associated to the theoretical framework and certain key concepts. In chapter 4, the environmental conditions influencing the urban settlements in the study area are analyzed in detail. Instead of an exhaustive description of the natural framework, this chapter aims at identifying the conditioning factors that allow or hamper the emergence of urban areas. Thus, it is mainly focused on the geoforms or geomorphological units, with emphasis on the natural processes that arise in each unit, and their present influence over urban development and livelihoods of the inhabitants. Chapter 5 performs an actual urban periodization of the area of Alto Valle, since most of those available in the literature of the area are in tune with the economy or determined from arbitrary cuts, with no theoretical-methodological evaluations. Chapter 6 is much in tune with the conception of region, and at this stage of the research emerged theneed to identify the boundaries of the conurbation around Neuquén city. Efforts are put in establishing certain precisions with regard to these aspects, making it clear that these boundaries are not rigid and that they are identified based on the objectives of this research. Thus, the analysis is based in certain variables, while the following chapters will move towards other variables. Firstly, and living up to the field, the situation is analyzed from a spatial point of view (related with the expansion of urban areas, particularly over agricultural areas), to posteriorly focus on the population variable, and finally on the functional variable. Chapter 7 aims at comparing and applying several indicators of traffic flow to the scope of the conurbation in Neuquén, discussing the potential and flaws of each one. Such indicators are part of a wider set of base-information that, if properly treated, can help us understand the spatial mobility characteristics of people in this urban space. The results of the application of the mentioned indicators show an increase in the traffic flow around the legs of the route that are closer to Neuquén city; and also denote a certain centrality of the city in the whole conurbation ensemble. This has direct impact on problems related to roads and the transportation of people; issues which must be taken into account by policymakers when implementing actions for a better land-use planning. The process described above allowed for the identification of different environmental issues that were treated in chapter 8. Some of these were generalized in several municipalities, others were more specific and punctual, and others affected the system as a whole. Some of the most important were drawbacks generated from the installation of housing in risk areas and environmental contamination generated by effluents, solid urban waste and waste generated by oil activity. Chapter 9 proposes certain actions to be taken for the mitigation or solution of the main drawbacks detected in the conurbation, as a result of the whole research. Some of these actions refer to theoretical or methodological problems in the understanding of the whole issue by government authorities, such as their biased approach, either spatial or thematic, of such problems. Other proposed actions are more direct, such as the suggestion of limiting urban expansion and favoring a higher density of urban use of land in certain sectors. Other type of proposals make reference to the functions or functioning of the conurbation, suggesting new centralities and a consequent improvement in the circulation; and a diversification and strengthening of other types of urban mobility. Finally, chapter 10 addresses the conclusions and final thoughts of this research, identifying several certainties but also gateways towards new themes, and ways of tackling this conurbation around Neuquén city. ; . ; Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación

Trafficking in human beings includes recruitment, transport, organisation of border-crossing, hiding or receiving persons, by use of threats, force, other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, lies, by abuse of authority or vulnerable position or by giving and receiving money or services in order to obtain consent of the person who has control over another person. Trafficking in human beings exists on all continents and in a great number of states. The lack of knowledge and data about human trafficking among the children and young people as well as among the wider public leads to the prevailing opinion that such things happen somewhere else, outside our country, which is, in fact of benefit to persons involved in the human trafficking chain and their criminal activities. Even though Croatia was until recently just a transit country in the human trafficking chain, today it has been documented that it is also a destination country, as well as a country where the human trafficking victims are being recruited. Children and young people belong to a group which is especially exposed to the risk of victimisation in the human trafficking chain. High school students are a vulnerable group because they will soon face the decision whether to enter the labour market or continue their education, and in the process many will start living independently outside their permanent place of residence. Therefore, the publication entitled " Human Trafficking in the Eyes of the Youth in Croatia – Understanding the Problem and Prevention Possibilities" is dedicated to the trafficking in children and young people as a special segment of trafficking in human beings. It includes the presentation of the problem from the professional and scientific point of view. The introductory part presents definitions and main features of the human trafficking problem with special emphasis on more important international documents related to the subject. It also includes an overview and explanation of forms, methods and causes of human trafficking as well as possible risks. It further deals with the perception of the problem of trafficking in human beings in Croatia. A larger part of the publication includes an overview and explanation of forms, methods and causes of trafficking in children as well as an analysis of results of a research conducted by the International Organization for Migration in cooperation with the Ministry of Science, Education and Sports in 2004. The goals of the mentioned research were to learn what level of information Croatian high school students have about the problem of trafficking in human beings, to get information about their experience and views on human trafficking and to assess their awareness of the risk to become human trafficking victims themselves. The research was conducted with the purpose of contributing to preparations for systematic youth education about possible risks and manners of protection from trafficking in human beings as anticipated by the National Plan for the Supression of Trafficking in Persons in the Republic of Croatia. The study consisted of a survey on the subject and the organisation of focus groups. The survey was based on a questionnaire put together in a special way, with 35 questions, many of which included additional questions, the Likert-type rating scales or a series of proposed answers. Questions were related to the respondents' socio-demographic characteristics, high school students' plans for their professional future, value systems, their attitudes about the roles of men and women in the society, their reactions in hypothetic violent situations in relationships, their general level of information on trafficking in human beings, their sources of information on human trafficking and their attitudes towards human trafficking and the victims of trafficking. The qualitative part of the study was conducted by organising 14 focus groups which included students from 10 high schools, two students' homes and one youth club. The participants in focus groups answered the following questions: How would you define human trafficking? Give an example or describe an occasion when you heard about human trafficking! What are, in your opinion, basic ways in which someone becomes a trafficking victim? What rights are human trafficking victims deprived of most? Do you think that you personally could become a victim of trafficking in human beings and why? What ways and means do you propose for the fight against human trafficking? Altogether 950 high school students of both genders from 25 municipalities/towns in Croatia took part in the survey. The average age of participants in the survey was 16, 6 years. The total of 275 high school students participated in focus groups. Most focus groups participants were 17 years old. The sample had approximately the same number of high school students of each gender. The survey was conducted on a representative sample and qualitative part of the study on an occasional sample. The survey produced numerous interesting results, and the results obtained in focus groups have been largely confirmed by the survey. The results show that a majority of the young have heard of the problem of trafficking in human beings with the purpose of their exploitation. Students attending high schools in Zagreb and surroundings and Dalmatia have above-average knowledge about the problem of trafficking in people. In the regions of Slavonia and Istria, North Coast and Gorski kotar, students' knowledge about the problem is close to the average, and in the Northern Croatia, the Lika, Kordun and Banovina regions, their knowledge is bellow-average. The young from bigger towns are somewhat better informed about the problem of trafficking in human beings than the young from smaller towns. Students of three-year vocational schools are considerably less informed about the problem than students attending four-year college-preparatory schools (gymnasiums) and four-year vocational schools. A little bit more than half of the respondents believe that trafficking in human beings in Croatia is not very prominent. Girls and older students see the problem as being more serious than boys and younger students do. Asked whether there have been any cases of human trafficking in the community where they live, 6, 7 percent of participants in the survey answered affirmatively ; the young from bigger towns have more often heard of such cases. Most students were informed about the problem of trafficking in human beings through television programmes and newspaper articles. A considerably smaller number of young people have learned about it thorough posters, brochures and various promotion materials. Approximately every fifth participant in the survey learned about human trafficking trough Internet, from friends, acquaintances, parents or at school. The level of information on human trafficking possessed by students attending gymnasiums and four-year vocational schools is above-average, whereas it is bellow-average among students of three-year vocational school. The respondents whose information about human trafficking comes from several sources (the media, school, parents or other family members) have a more complete understanding of the problem. The largest number of high school students that have been surveyed holds the traffickers and their desire for profit, as well as the lack of knowledge and information about real risks of human trafficking responsible for this phenomenon. High school students see causes for trafficking in human beings in inadequate legislation and poor moral values. Girls and students attending gymnasiums agree more often than boys and students attending vocational schools with the claim that ignorance and the lack of information about real risks should be blamed for the trafficking in women with the purpose of sexual exploitation. A special risk of youth victimisation results from their wish to become independent and find employment. Our survey has shown that as many as two thirds of high school students agree with the opinion that a lot of money can be easily earned in other states, and just as many of them would feel quite safe if they would be offered a job abroad by someone they know well. At the same time, more than a fourth of students demonstrated unrealistic expectations related to the possibility of legitimate employment abroad, and expressed their belief that they would easily get work permit once they have already arrived in other country. Young people have most faith in information about certain job offers coming from their close relatives and information received through legitimate employment agencies. It is, however, significant that as many as 15, 7 percent of students would accept any job under the condition that it is well paid, and 16 percent of students would accept a job even when they are not well informed about employment conditions and the employer. At the same time, approximately two fifths of the participants would like to move to some other state for a longer period of time. Students who give more importance to entertainment, money and career success have a stronger wish to migrate. Generally, the results show that males, students attending vocational schools and students of lower grades are more inclined to underestimate the risk of becoming victims of trafficking in human beings. They also more often have views and convictions due to which they may be inclined to high-risk behaviour and they have smaller capacity to face negative influences and manipulation attempts of human traffickers. The fact that the knowledge about the risks of trafficking in people is very uneven can be also seen from the data showing that not a single respondent was aware of all aspects of human trafficking ; they had knowledge just of some of its aspects. As possible ways of victimisation, the respondents (mainly participants in focus groups) recognised abduction, poverty, the search for employment, allurement (with false job offers predominating), risky behaviour of potential victims, the trade in children, but also wider social conditions in the states from which victims originate (like poverty, unemployment, lack of respect for human rights etc.). The possibility of victimisation through offered marriage proposals and intimate relationship has been recognised by a disturbingly small number of respondents. The results have also shown that many respondents place the problem of trafficking in human beings in the " third world" countries, whereas they see the possibility of victimisation in Croatia as negligible and unlikely. Majority of the young believe that they could never become victims of human trafficking (because the trafficking is not present in Croatia, because they are cautious, because they keep in good company etc.), yet there is a considerable number of those who think that the possibility exists. Among them, most think that they could become victims because they have not been sufficiently informed about possible difficulties and risks related to the search for employment abroad. Therefore, the fact that about approximately half of the young wish to learn more about human trafficking through some form of school education is not surprising. The requirement for information about concrete examples is especially marked, as well as information about the real extent of trafficking in human beings in our society. There is also a need for effective models of protection against trafficking in human beings. Another requirement is for providing potential victims with information of better quality about legal possibilities of employment abroad. A special group of answers comprises answers which propose that more attention be paid to trafficking in people by the media, including promotional videos, advertisements and thematic leaflets. The respondents have also recognised the need for introducing different security measures into the society (stricter punishments for perpetrators of this criminal act, stricter border control, greater police presence in the streets, higher-quality work of security services, fight against corruption etc.). It is interesting that almost half of the students propose that customers seeking prostitutes be punished as they see them as the cause of the problem. Some of the respondents spoke of the need for a wider social action, including greater respect for human rights, work towards the change of views such as the conviction that the money and wealth are the only paths towards satisfaction and happiness, encouragement of citizens' activism, renovation of the youth gathering places (sports grounds) and schools. They also spoke of the need that basic causes of human trafficking be removed. In the final part of the publication the authors propose different models of education of young people on trafficking in human beings aimed at reducing the risks of their victimisation. The proposed models include, at the girst level, special informative lectures for school classes, according to pre-designed protocol, as well as wide distribution of educational material in high schools. At the second level, additional education of some of the professors is also proposed, together with a further development of preventive programs focused on the development of identity and competence of young people, including providing support for their development which implies cooperation between system of education and other youth-oriented support systems in local communities. The third level of education aimed at preventing the trafficking in human beings includes a wide education on human rights, the encouragement of young people to actively participate in the development of their own social context and, in particular, the development of such an educational and wider social framework in which human rights in general will be promoted and protected to the greatest extent possible.