A finales del siglo XVIII, las reflexiones en torno a la enseñanza elemental del "lenguaje y de la forma", ocupaban ya el tiempo de educadores como Juan E. Pestalozzi, a decir de quien, los adultos, en el seno del hogar, deberían practicar cotidianamente con sus hijos cierta cantidad de ejercicios, primero fonéticos, para adentrarlos en el amplio y rico campo del lenguaje oral y escrito, antes de que éstos fueran capaces de repetir un sólo sonido. No dejaba a la casualidad tan fuerte responsabilidad, escribió que era importante presentarle al niño el abecedario ". en todo su conjunto, y lo más temprano posible".1 Señalaba, como producto del trabajo derivado de sus observaciones y registros diarios, que "Nadie puede figurarse la facilidad para aprender que adquieren los niños por el conocimiento temprano de esos sonidos".2 A lo que lleva una de sus conclusiones, desprendidas de su labor educativa con la población social y económicamente más desfavorecida de su época, es a poner de manifiesto la importancia que guarda el que la madre y/o el padre de familia cuenten con un mínimo de conocimientos sobre su lengua materna oral y escrita para que puedan enseñar a sus congéneres. En diferentes momentos de la historia de la humanidad, como puede desprenderse del párrafo anterior, ha estado presente la forma en que las madres y los padres deben proceder para la crianza de los niños y las niñas, para que más tarde se incorporen de manera productiva y creativa a la vida en sociedad, sobre todo en tiempos como los que corren, en los que la cantidad de personas que sobreviven en la pobreza extrema crece sin control en varias partes del mundo. En el documento del Fondo de las Naciones para la Infancia, denominado Estado Mundial de la Infancia 1999 se exalta que el aprendizaje comienza ". y se refuerza gracias a un planteamiento integral que ayuda a asegurar el estímulo y la socialización, una buena atención de la salud y de la nutrición, especialmente en los primeros años de vida del niño, que son cruciales".3 No deja duda sobre el impacto que tiene una atención educativa temprana, en el acceso y permanencia del niño en el transcurso de su educación básica. El organismo ha remarcado la importancia de la educación inicial y preescolar como base para el desarrollo psicológico, sensorial-motor y social de los niños, y en particular para un "mejor" desempeño académico en la educación formal: preescolar, primaria y etapas posteriores, y por lo tanto en la productividad en el mercado laboral. El presente artículo, sobre la educación inicial y preescolar en cuatro países de centroamérica, está integrado en dos apartados: el primero es una caracterización de los desafíos de la niñez de los cero a los seis años; y, el segundo, muestra esquemáticamente los programas de educación inicial y preescolar que han estado bajo la responsabilidad de los gobiernos de El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras y Nicaragua, así como las tendencias gubernamentales en torno a los servicios de educación inicial y preescolar. ; Toward the end of the 18th century, reflections around basic teachings of "language and form" had taken a place in the minds of educators such as Juan E. Pestalozzi. He thought that adults should spent some daily time with their off-spring, within the house, practicing some amount of exercises, starting from phonetics to guide them inside the comprehensive and resourceful area of spoken and written language, even before they are capable of making any sounds. He didn't leave such an important obligation to fortuitousness, he pointed out the importance of providing the child with the abc ".complete and as soon as possible." 1 He said, based in his work derived from his observations and daily records that "Nobody can imagine how easy is for children to learn by the early knowledge of those sounds" 2. One of his conclusions, derived from his educational work among the poorer and marginal population of his time, is to highlight the importance of either parent to count with a number of knowledge on his/her spoken and written mother tongue so they can teach their relatives. Based on what was said above, in different moments of human history the way mothers and fathers should proceed for rising their children has been present, in order for them to get incorporated in a productive way to life in society, mainly in current times, when the amount of people living in extreme poverty grows with no control in several parts of the world. In the document of United Nations for Children, named, World Status of Children 1999, the starting knowledge is highlighted and is supported thanks to a whole approach that helps to secure the stimuli and socialization, a good health and nurturing attention, particularly in the first years of the child, which are of major importance." 3 The impact provided by an early education in the access and remain of the child in his/her basic education has been proved in some longitudinal studies, from where we may infer it helps to improve the psychological, psychomotor and social development of children, particularly preparing them for a better school performance in elementary and following stages, and in work productivity. This article on basic and preschool education in four countries from Central America, is based on two parts: the first one is an outline of childhood challenges from cero to six years old and, the second one, shows the programs' schemes of basic and preschool education that have been under government responsibility in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, as well as the government tendencies around the services on basic and preschool education.
466 p., illustrated, 30 cm. ; Emilia Serrano, the Baroness of Wilson (1834?-1922) was a Spanish writer who produced historical and sociological works, as well as novels, literary translations, and guides to conduct for young women. The book this excerpt was taken from is considered her most ambitious work. In it she displays an encyclopedic range of interests, including history, ethnology, climatology, and botany, and it clearly reflects her three overriding passions: literature, traveling, and a fascination with the Americas. In this Introduction, she provides autobiographical information about her personal life, how she became fascinated with the Americas, and her controversial decision to travel to the Americas alone. ; This document is an English translation of the Introduction from "América y sus mujeres." Translated by Lorena Gauthereau-Bryson. The language of the original document is Spanish.
466 p., illustrated, 30 cm. ; Serrano de Wilson (1834?-1922) was a Spanish writer who produced historical and sociological works, as well as novels, literary translations, and guides to conduct for young women. In this, her most ambitious work, Serrano de Wilson displays an encyclopedic range of interests, including history, ethnology, climatology, and botany, and it clearly reflects her three overriding passions: literature, traveling, and a fascination with the Americas. The product of firsthand research conducted during two voyages, over the course of which she traveled, unaccompanied for the most part, to every country in Latin America, including extended periods of time in Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, Cuba, and Mexico. The length of these voyages kept her away from her native Spain for close to 15 years. Serrano de Wilson employs a geographical approach to handling the vast amount of material at her disposal, describing the landscapes, detailing the flora and fauna unique to each place, the indigenous peoples, the European settlers, as well as current politics and literature. She visits haciendas in Brazil and Argentina, hikes the Andes in Ecuador and Chile, collects antiquities in Mexico and beside the shores of Lake Titicaca in Peru, and enjoys the company of fellow writers in literary salons throughout the continent. An interesting feature of her methodology is her reliance on a network of female friends with shared intellectual habits and interests, including Juana Gorriti, Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera, and Soledad Acosta de Samper, all of whom were invaluable in providing Serrano de Wilson invitations to historical sites and archives which her position as a single woman would have normally barred her access to. She frankly acknowledges the dependency of intelligent women on such networks of 'sisterhood' and endorses them as a model for enterprising women. While the majority of the work deals with Latin America, early chapters discuss stereotypes, both racial and gender, popular in European intellectual circles, while a later chapter describes her visit to the United States, specifically New York City and Washington, D.C.
466 p., illustrated, 30 cm. ; Serrano de Wilson (1834?-1922) was a Spanish writer who produced historical and sociological works, as well as novels, literary translations, and guides to conduct for young women. In this, her most ambitious work, Serrano de Wilson displays an encyclopedic range of interests, including history, ethnology, climatology, and botany, and it clearly reflects her three overriding passions: literature, traveling, and a fascination with the Americas. The product of firsthand research conducted during two voyages, over the course of which she traveled, unaccompanied for the most part, to every country in Latin America, including extended periods of time in Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, Cuba, and Mexico. The length of these voyages kept her away from her native Spain for close to 15 years. Serrano de Wilson employs a geographical approach to handling the vast amount of material at her disposal, describing the landscapes, detailing the flora and fauna unique to each place, the indigenous peoples, the European settlers, as well as current politics and literature. She visits haciendas in Brazil and Argentina, hikes the Andes in Ecuador and Chile, collects antiquities in Mexico and beside the shores of Lake Titicaca in Peru, and enjoys the company of fellow writers in literary salons throughout the continent. An interesting feature of her methodology is her reliance on a network of female friends with shared intellectual habits and interests, including Juana Gorriti, Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera, and Soledad Acosta de Samper, all of whom were invaluable in providing Serrano de Wilson invitations to historical sites and archives which her position as a single woman would have normally barred her access to. She frankly acknowledges the dependency of intelligent women on such networks of 'sisterhood' and endorses them as a model for enterprising women. While the majority of the work deals with Latin America, early chapters discuss stereotypes, both racial and gender, popular in European intellectual circles, while a later chapter describes her visit to the United States, specifically New York City and Washington, D.C. ; This document is an English translation of the "América y sus mujeres." Translated by Lorena Gauthereau-Bryson. The language of the original document is Spanish.
The work is a compendium of information and a study of Polish-Latin American relations, with particular emphasis on the implications of Poland's accession to the structures of the European Union in the context of the country's policy towards Latin America. The monograph is the first in the literature on the subject in which the title issue has been presented within the framework of the entire post-cold war period, i.e. 1989/1990–2016, and in a comprehensive way, on the political, economic, scientific and cultural levels. The author has focused on the analysis of bilateral relations with Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela. The determinant of such a choice was the desire to discuss Poland's relations with its main Latin American partners. In accordance with the government document Strategia RP w odniesieniu do pozaeuropejskich krajów rozwijających się [Strategy of the Republic of Poland with regard to non-European developing countries] of 2004, Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Mexico were included among the priority partners, while Colombia and Venezuela were defined as important. These are the Latin American countries with which Poland conducts political dialogue both bilaterally and multilaterally (within the EU or the Pacific Alliance, which includes three of the countries listed in the Strategy – Mexico, Chile and Colombia), and Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and Chile account for the largest percentage of Poland's trade with the region (about 75%). As far as the historical experience of mutual contacts is concerned, it should be noted that these countries, especially Brazil and Argentina, were the main directions of emigration from Poland to Latin America. The work also mentions Poland's relations with other countries of the region, such as Cuba, Peru, Panama and Ecuador. The study is devoted to the post-war period, but it takes into account the context of Poland's earlier policy towards Latin America, divided into the most characteristic stages, corresponding to continuity and change in the bilateral relations. It discusses Poland's contacts with the countries of this region in the 17th and 18th centuries, as well as in the 19th century, when there was an increased emigration of Poles, especially to Brazil (the so-called Brazilian fever) and Argentina. The title issue has been presented in the bilateral and multilateral dimension, taking into account the formal and legal basis and the results of meetings at the highest and lowest levels. Factors hindering and facilitating relations between Poland and Latin American countries and the position of these countries in the foreign policy of Poland have been identified. Determinants and tendencies in Polish policy towards the Latin American region, its manifestations, as well as dilemmas and challenges that appeared in the 21st century have been presented. Moreover, arguments for intensification of mutual relations in bilateral and multilateral forums and potential areas of cooperation in the field of political, economic, scientific and cultural relations have been indicated.
Im Mittelpunkt der Arbeit stehen die Figur des Räubers und seine Entwicklung zum literarischen Protagonisten im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert. Eine zentrale These der Arbeit ist, dass der faktisch vorhandene Räuber über den performativen Akt der Hinrichtung fiktionalisiert und so zu einem Element des literarischen Systems werden kann. Die in Form einer Theateraufführung inszenierte Hinrichtung markiert nicht nur den Übergang vom Leben in den Tod, sondern auch von Realität in Fiktion. Der Räuber, der die Rolle des reuigen Sünders zu spielen hat, wird durch sie zum Gesprächsstoff der Zuschauer, die in der Folge mehr über die hingerichtete Person wissen möchten. Zahlreiche, zunächst parajournalistische, später literarische Werke entstehen. Dabei kommt es zu Stilisierungen, die von anderen Systemen wie Religion oder Pädagogik bewusst genutzt werden. Der Räuber wird außerliterarisch funktionalisiert. Durch gesellschaftliche Veränderungen entsteht jedoch eine zunehmende Autonomisierung des Literatursystems, das nicht mehr von anderen Systemen instrumentalisiert werden soll: eine Veränderung, die sich an der Räuberfigur zeigen lässt, die zunehmend eine Ent-Realisierung und Fiktivierung erfährt, bis sie, gänzlich auf Selbstreferenz umgestellt, zum literarisierten Phänomen wird. Die enge Verkettung von gesellschaftlicher und literarischer Entwicklung wird unter Rückgriff auf Luhmanns Gesellschaftstheorie dargelegt und durch eine Analyse des historischen Bezugsrahmens eingeleitet, um den Weg vom faktischen über den faktisch-fiktionalisierten und faktisch-fiktivierten zum literarisierten Räuber nachzuzeichnen. Neben anonym erschienenen werden hierfür Werke von Nodier, Defoe, Swift, Ainsworth, Schiller, Abel und Zschokke herangezogen. Schließlich wird ein Ausblick auf die Rezeption des Räubers im 20. Jahrhundert gegeben, der mit dem Entstehen der Kriminalliteratur nicht aus der Literatur verschwindet, sondern in der Trivial- und Kinderliteratur sowie im Medium Film präsent bleibt. ; This dissertation focuses on the transition of the character of the brigand to literary protagonist over the course of the 18th and 19th century. As a result of the performative act of execution, the brigand is fictionalized and henceforth part of the literary system. The public and highly staged execution marks not only the transition from life to death, but also from reality to fiction. The brigand, who at the end of his life has to play the role of the repentant sinner, becomes, due to the public and highly staged spectacle, a subject of interest for the populace, who wants to know more about the person executed. Numerous at first factual and then fictional works are published in order to satisfy the public?s curiosity and sensationalism. As a consequence, various stylizations and romantic transfigurations are willfully exploited by other systems, such as religion, politics, and education, thus functionalizing the bandit outside the literary system. Simultaneously, as a result of societal changes, the literary system becomes increasingly autonomous and is no longer functionalized by other systems. The brigand is no longer factual, but fictional and even fictitious. As the literary system passes finally into self-reference, the brigand becomes a fully literarized phenomenon. The close relation between social and literary evolution is demonstrated taking recourse to Niklas Luhmann?s social theory. This study is framed by an analysis of the historical context in order to be able to trace the brigand?s journey from a factual and factual-fictionalized to a literarized figure, utilizing prose works by Nodier, Defoe, Swift, Ainsworth, Abel, Schiller, and Zschokke, as well as anonymous works. Finally, a preview of the brigand?s role in 20th-century literary works is provided. With the birth of crime fiction, the brigand does not disappear; rather, he survives in popular literature, children?s literature, and film. ; eingereicht von Elke Lackner ; Abweichender Titel laut Übersetzung der Verfasserin/des Verfassers ; Zsfassung in dt. und engl. Sprache ; Graz, Univ., Diss., 2012 ; OeBB ; (VLID)224900
For those who have conducted research on the fauna and flora of China and who have been curious about the "Reeves" in Muntiacus reevesi (the Chinese muntjac) or the "Cunningham" in Cunninghamia lanceolata (the Chinese fir), this book is a great revelation. Many wild plants and animals from China bear scientific names honouring Western naturalists, and this book is the first historical analysis of how Westerners conducted natural history research in China from the mid-18th to the early 20th century. By focusing on British naturalists during a period of dramatic change in the relationship between China and the West, the author has developed a richly textured account of the encounter between vastly different systems of knowledge and representation of the natural world. As such, this work is sure to be of great interest for scholars of the social sciences, cultural studies and the social construction of nature.Drawing on a vast and diverse array of scientific journals, personal correspondence, memoirs and administrative records from the period, the author convincingly ties British natural history research to larger imperial demands for useful information on natural resources in a vast area that was scarcely known by outsiders before the Opium War (1839–1842). The connection between commerce and natural history is exemplified by the English East India Company's interest in botanical, biogeographic and horticultural information on tea trees. Of greater significance still, according to the author, was the way in which knowledge of the natural world was produced through an elaborate network of relationships between British naturalists and Chinese people of all walks of life. The latter included not only the bureaucrats who monitored the already highly circumscribed lives of British expatriates in Canton [Guangzhou] at the beginning of the 19th century, but also collectors, who often made long trips into the interior in search of specimens, and painters, who had to learn an entirely new repertoire in order to provide scientific drawings to British patrons from the factories of Guangzhou to Kew Gardens. Indeed, one of the primary goals of the book is to "explain the formation of scientific practice and knowledge in cultural borderlands during a critical period of Sino-Western relations." The author sets himself a difficult task: to reconstruct the economic and cultural lineaments of "scientific imperialism" without ignoring "the indigenous people, their motivations, and their actions." Not only does the book succeed in this effort, it avoids facile demonization of the main Western actors in this drama. Instead, we see a compelling set of portraits of British men of widely differing backgrounds and interests who often made great sacrifices in their quests for scientific knowledge. Generally, these men were keenly aware of the degree to which they relied on local Chinese experts and indigenous knowledge for the success of their own endeavours.
The majority of Croats in Montenegro are the native population traditionally living in the Bay of Kotor, the town of Budva and Bar and its surroundings. A minority of them are immigrants or their descendants. As early as during the Austro–Hungarian rule over the Montenegrin coast, and especially during the Yugoslav period, they inhabited the area of today's Montenegro, mostly its inland towns. This paper primarily aims to present and analyse the size of the Croatian population in Montenegro in general and at the level of its administrative units. To do so, it uses data from the censuses conducted from 1948 to 2011, which recorded national affiliation, among other things. In the context of those censuses, one can argue that, during their conduct, it was possible to declare oneself as a Croat, and that a major share of the population avoided declaring themselves as such although they could, based on their ethnic characteristics. Accordingly, the second aim of the paper was to attempt to determine, in the context of the 2011 census, which is a source of plenty of relevant data, not only the number of declared Croats but also those who were undeclared as such, but could certainly be considered to belong to the same linguistic, religious and cultural community as Croats. For this paper, that wider unit was termed the Slavic Catholic community (Slavic–Catholic), which is already recognised in language as the Central South Slavic area (Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro), among other things as a certain "opposite" of the Slavic–Orthodox and Slavic–Muslim communities of the same spatial scope. To better understand the position of Croats in Montenegro, and especially their reluctance to declare Croatian national affiliation, which is more and more evident over time, an integral part of the paper is an appropriate presentation of historical circumstances that have framed their past and present identity positioning. The first data on the presence of Croats in today's Montenegrin area refers to the period of Slavic settlement of South-east Europe, which took place until the beginning of the 7th century. According to the work of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (945–959), "On the Governance of the Empire", during their settlement, Croats occupied the former Roman province of Dalmatia (which, according to the author, "started from the surroundings of Durrës and Bar and stretched to the Istrian mountains and to the river Danube in width"), as well as Pannonia and Illyricum. According to the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, probably written by the (Arch)Bishop of Bar Gregory in the period 1177–1189, upon settlement the Slavs had founded a state, the backbone of which was on the coast, between Istria and today's northern Albania. According to the Chronicle, that coastal belt was divided into White and Red Croatia, which stretched from Duvanjsko Polje further south. Besides, Byzantine 11th- and 12th-century writers mention Croats and Croatia in the context of the area of today's Montenegro. However, from the beginning of the 9th century, that is, the point in time from which one can continuously follow the political development in the Adriatic–Dinaric belt, or the area of the former Roman Dalmatia, it is certain that four smaller Slavic principalities existed between the rivers Cetina and Bojana: Neretva, Zahumlje, Travunia and Duklja. In the mid 11th century, Duklja, Travunia and Zahumlje were united into a state at the initiative of the rulers of Duklja. The expanded state of Duklja, ruled by the Vojislavljević dynasty, gained international acknowledgement since the papacy recognised it as a separate kingdom and a strong lever for maintaining its own identity, manifested in the existence of a state religious centre in the form of the Catholic metropolis of Bar. Such circumstances could have suggested the emergence of a much wider state unit, located approximately between the rivers Neretva and Drim on the one side and the Adriatic and the river Tara on the other, which would have implied the formation of an ethnic body. However, events unfolded in a different direction. Since the mid 12th century the state of Duklja had been losing ever more power, completely falling under the ruler of neighbouring Orthodox Serbia at the end of the same century. During that time the Schism of 1054 acquired full significance. The 1204 establishment of the Latin Empire, with its seat in Constantinople, led to a strong polarisation between Catholicism and Orthodoxy. In such conditions, upon establishment of its own church in 1219, the Serbian dynasty of Nemanjić began to carry out mass Orthodoxisation of the Zahumlje and Duklja areas to ensure their loyalty. Primarily exposed to religious conversion were Slavic Catholic people, who, at that time, shared many similarities with the neighbouring Orthodox in the entire area of the Adriatic–Dinaric belt in terms of external manifestations of their Christian identity, significantly marked by the tradition of Cyril and Methodius. Coastal, communal centres in the area of today's Montenegro, Kotor, Budva and Bar, at the time still largely Romanesque, but eventually Slavicised, and their "belonging" or gravitating Slavic population, as well as the Albanian population located next to gradually Albanianised Ulcinj, along the river Bojana and in Malesia, were left Catholics. The territorial relations between Catholics and Orthodox established at the time have largely remained relevant until modern times. In the area of today's Montenegro, the Slavic Catholic population was in principle reduced to a distinct minority concentrated in and around the coastal communes. As the Serbian state weakened from the mid 14th century, those communes gradually merged with the western states, and ultimately with the Venetian Republic. They remained under its rule until the end of the 18th century. After that, they were mainly part of the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia until 1918. Under those conditions, sharing the social climate with the population of the eastern Adriatic coast, who spoke the same language and shared the same religion, from the mid 19th century the Slavic Catholic population of today's Montenegrin coast became involved in the processes leading to the constitution of the Croatian nation. The political and social development of the Orthodox population in Montenegro took a different course. By integrating into the de facto Serbian Orthodox Church, they began acquiring Serbian ethnic characteristics. However, given the disintegration of the Serbian state on a part of today's Montenegrin territory, a new state emerged in the form of Zeta, centred in sub-Lovćen Montenegro and ruled by the Balšić dynasty and the Crnojević dynasty. During the Ottoman rule, which began in the late 15th century, sub-Lovćen Montenegro retained a certain autonomy, which became the basis for the formation of the Montenegrin state close to its current borders in the late 17th century. While the Montenegrin population "remained" in the identity sphere of proto-national Serbs due to Orthodoxy, imbued with the cult of the Nemanjić dynasty, its peculiar development enabled them to acquire own ethnic consciousness. The dichotomy between the Montenegrin and Serbian sense of identity has not been overcome to this day, which is becoming increasingly clear in the division of the Orthodox population between the national Montenegrins and the national Serbs. With the disintegration of Austro–Hungary and the emergence of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, that is, Yugoslavia, the Slavic Catholic population in the area of today's Montenegro found itself permanently separated from the political, or at least administrative framework defined by the Catholic majority, after almost five hundred years. Instead, it became a distinct minority group in an environment that was continuously exposed to strong Serbian influences, even after Montenegro gained independence. Over time, following the processes of migration towards the coast, it also became a minority in settlements where it once represented the only or majority population. Under those conditions, strongly marked by latent or real contradictions in the relations between Croats and Serbs and often radical manifestations of Serbian identity in their environment, for the Slavic Catholic population in Montenegro, the declaration of Croatian identity became a kind of burden that not everyone was ready or able to bear. In that context, among other things, it is worth looking at the data presented, which points to a decline in the share of Croats in Montenegro. Equally, attention should be paid to the data from the 2011 census, which indicates a kind of mass declaration of "alternative" forms of ethnicity on the part of the Slavic–Catholic population. According to the first census, the one of 1921, which covered the population of all parts of today's Montenegro, 313,432 inhabitants lived on its soil, of which between 11,380 and 12,145 were Croats and other members of the Slavic–Catholic community. According to that census, which took no account of the national determinant, but recorded the religious and linguistic ones, the share of members of that community in the total population inhabiting the area of today's Montenegro was between 3.6% and 3.9%. The censuses after 1945, which, as pointed out, covered the national determinant and were conducted in socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1991), Federal Republic of Yugoslavia / the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro (1991–2006) and in independent Montenegro (since 2006) recorded the following shares of Croats in Montenegro: 6,808 (in 1948), 9,814 (in 1953), 10,664 (in 1961), 9,192 (in 1971), 6,904 (in 1981), 6,244 (in 1991), 6,811 (in 2003), and 6,021 (in 2011). It is evident from the first censuses that part of the Slavic–Catholics in Montenegro did not declare themselves as Croats. This is primarily the case in Bar and its surroundings, where the declaration of Montenegrin nationality has permanently prevailed. Since 1971, a large number of people formerly declared as Croats began to declare themselves as "Yugoslavs". Following the disintegration of Yugoslavia, in the 2003 and 2011 censuses, that type of declaration lost significance. However, no "return" to the declaration of Croatian national affiliation occurred, but rather the adoption of Montenegrin identity, rejection of the declaration of nationality, declaration of regional affiliation, etc. The analysis conducted in the context of the 2011 census shows that only a small part of the total Slavic–Catholic community in Montenegro declared themselves as Croats. Basically, only 5,931 people did so, if the total share of Croats (6,021) is reduced by 90 Orthodox who are probably registered as Croats for family reasons. At the same time, 29 Bosnians, 5,667 Montenegrins, 68 Yugoslavs, three Muslims, 569 nationally undeclared persons, 376 regionally declared persons, 112 Serbs and one Serb Montenegrin declared their affiliation with Catholicism. According to the insight into the share of the native Slavic Catholic population in Montenegro in 1921 and the share of Croats in the 1953–1971 censuses, it can be stated with a high level of certainty that those 6,825 respondents belonged to the Slavic Catholic population. The total share of the Slavic Catholic population in Montenegro in 2011 was larger than the sum of Croats (5,931) and the mentioned 6,825 persons, which amounted to 12,756, given that it should be increased by a certain number of respondents, primarily among Bosnians, Montenegrins, Yugoslavs, nationally undeclared and regionally declared who declared themselves as agnostics, atheists, unidentified Christians or refused to declare their religion. Primarily based on a comparison of the share of such persons within the municipalities of Boka Kotorska (Herceg Novi, Kotor, Tivat), where it is extremely high, with their shares in other Montenegrin municipalities, it could be argued that in 2011, the total share of Croats and other members of the Slavic–Catholic community amounted to approximately 15,000 or 2.4% of the population of Montenegro.
Since the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the question of Islamic Governance has become a hot debate among Islamic scholars, among others the appointment of leaders. Hence, the Islamic history has proven that there are various concepts of leadership appointments that make it possible to pinpoint the best one, especially for today's state of affairs. The objective of this study was to explain the position of the theories of Islamic scholars on the appointment of leaders from the perspective of Fiqh Siyasah. This study was qualitative because it involved library researches on political books and Islamic history. The findings showed that there were seven forms of leadership appointments in the context of Fiqh Siyasah, based on three theories of Islamic thought. The first was Islamic thought in the 7th to 13th AD, second was Islamic thought in the 14th and 18th centuries of Islam and the third was Islamic thought of the 19th century until present day. In conclusion, these theories showed that the appointment of leaders was a matter of ijtihad. As compared to the today's concept of the appointment of leaders, it is not contrary to Islamic values according to Fiqh Siyasah.Keywords: al-Hall wa al-'Aqd, Fiqh Siyasah, Mushawarah, Islamic Political Thought and Leader Appointment Sejak kewafatan Rasulullah s.a.w. persoalan ketatanegaraan Islam menjadi perdebatan hangat dalam kalangan para sarjana Islam antaranya perlantikan pemimpin. Justeru, sejarah Islam telah membuktikan bahawa terdapat pelbagai konsep perlantikan pemimpin sehingga tidak dinyatakan konsep terbaik untuk diamalkan pada masa kini. Objektif kajian ini menjelaskan kedudukan teori-teori para sarjana Islam berhubung perlantikan pemimpin dari perspektif fiqh siyāsah. Kajian ini bersifat kajian kualitatif kerana melibatkan penelitian perpustakaan terhadap buku-buku politik dan sejarah Islam. Dapatan kajian ini menjelaskan terdapat tujuh bentuk pelantikan pemimpin dalam konteks fiqh siyasah berasaskan tiga teori pemikiran Islam iaitu pertama pemikiran Islam pada abad 7 hingga 13 Masihi, kedua pemikiran Islam pada abad 14 hingga 18 Masihi dan ketiga pemikiran Islam pada abad 19 hingga sekarang. Kesimpulannya, teori-teori ini menunjukkan perlantikan pemimpin merupakan perkara ijtihad. Jika dibandingkan konsep pelantikan pemimpin pada masa sekarang ini, ianya tidak berlawanan dengan nilai-nilai keislaman menurut fiqh siyasah. Kata kunci: al-Hall wa al-'Aqd , Fiqh Siyasah, Mushawarah, Pemikiran Politik Islam dan Perlantikan Pemimpin
Исследуется творчество и социально-политическая деятельность Кунчен Жамьян Шадпы, сыгравшего значительную роль в формировании и распространении буддизма в Тибете. Представленный фрагментарный перевод сиддханты тибетского мыслителя, выполненный автором статьи, о концептуальных положениях ранних буддийских школ в некоторой степени позволяет раскрыть суть егоучения. ; Kunchen Zhamyan Shadpa Dorje (1648-1722) was a prominent Tibetan politician, an outstanding teacher and a universal scholar, made a huge contribution to the development of Buddhism in Central Asia. The political weight of Zam'an Sadpy and its activities in central Tibet and Amdo are directly linked to its prestige as a scientist-philosopher-encyclopaedist and scholastic. He is the author of fundamental works on logic, history, iconography, hagiography, sacred geography and bibliography spelling, Linguistics, Lexicology, poetics, history of philosophy, philosophy, madhiamika, jogachara, Abhidharma, etc. All his works are represented in the 15-volume collection. So far, they are considered the most significant works on the history of religion and philosophy of ancient India, Tibet, China and Mongolia. Kunchen Zhamyan Shadpa lived and worked in the period of political sharing of power and influence between contenders for power in Tibet, accompanied by ideological confrontation and armed conflict. Second half of xVII century marked by large-scale rebuilding political order throughout inner Asia, from the late 17TH to early 18TH centuries in the Tibetan tradition, there was considerable internal transformation of the Gelugpas, both in the sphere of Scholasticism, and against political role and one of the most important role in this process was played by Kunchen Zhamyan Shadpa Dorje. Thanks to its creative, educational, and political activities of the position They have increased not only in Tibet but throughout Buddhist inner Asia. In modern science Kunchen Zhamyan Shadpa name is better known. Firstly, through its scientific productivity, closely involving proselytizing, has had an impact on the distribution of the philosophical Sciences in Tibet. Secondly, the largest Buddhist Centre founded by him scholarship north-eastern outskirts of Tibet has played a significant role in training and self-development of the followers of the Gelug tradition. However, despite this popularity, there is still no special study about the life and work of Kunchen Zhamyan Shadpa, collected biographical, historical, political, creative data as well as religious and philosophical views, illuminating the diversity aspects of this outstanding person. In this connection, the relevance of the information provided by the article is unquestionable, as its practical value.
El 18 de enero de 1837, D. Juan Manuel Irisarri, vicario de los conventos de religiosas de la ciudad de México, ordenó a la madre María Josefa de la Pasión de Jesús, recopilar las visiones tenidas por Matiana del Espíritu Santo y escribir un opúsculo que llevó por tituló: Noticia de la revelación que la señora Matiana del Espíritu Santo, tuvo en este convento de San Jerónimo de la ciudad de México. Matiana fue conocida por el imaginario popular como profetiza, signo que la hizo famosa por anunciar los cambios políticos y sociales del México independiente, y que fue utilizado a favor de la causa católica durante el siglo XIX. Los rasgos de su personalidad remiten a un perfil en el que logró estados de conciencia alterada que la acercaron al misticismo; sin embargo, se le conoció más por sus profecías apocalípticas, y en la ciudad de México, se le consideró "abogada de los imposibles", se le asoció a las calaveras y se aludía a ella como "la bruja Matiana", razón por la cual pasó a formar parte del acervo de las leyendas populares. Matiana: Mystic of the Imaginary and a "Voice from Beyond"The 18th of January, 1837, D. Juan Manuel Irisarri, vicar of the convents of nuns of Mexico city, ordered mother Maria Josefa of the Passion of Jesus, to collect the details of the vision which Matiana had of the Holy Spirit and to write a précis which, when finished, bore the title: The News of the Revelation that Mrs. Matiana of the Holy Spirit, had in this Convent of San Jerónimo of the Mexico City. Matiana was well-known in popular circles as a prophet; she became famous when she announced political and social changes in independent Mexico, revelations which were utilized in favor of the catholic cause during the nineteenth century. The traits of her personality reveal a profile in which she was transported to states of altered consciousness whioch bordered on mysticism; nevertheless, she was better known for her apocalyptic prophecies and, in Mexico city, she was considered as the "advocate of the impossible" associated to skulls and she was alluded to as "Matiana the witch", for which reason she formed part of the collection of popular legends.
