Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nageshanahalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatersheds. The present study covers an area of 686 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 61 per cent is covered by soils, 37 per cent by rock outcrops and two per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 37 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface, 13 per cent loamy soils and 11 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  About 48 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 8 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) and 53 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 26 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 35 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 3 per cent has soils that are slightly to moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.5), 16 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 41 per cent are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4) and 1 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the entire soils is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 11 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 51 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 57 per cent area and 5 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm).  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 24 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 30 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 109(16) 141 (20) Pomegranate 53 (8) 278 (40) Maize 42 (6) 92 (13) Guava 53 (8) 126 (18) Bajra 42 (6) 183 (27) Jackfruit 53 (8) 126 (18) Red gram 42 (6) 199 (29) Jamun 10 (1) 320 (47) Bengalgram 67 (10) 183 (27) Musambi 119 (17) 211 (31) Groundnut 53 (8) 134 (20) Lime 119 (17) 211 (31) Sunflower 109 (16) 132 (19) Cashew 10 (1) 144 (21) Cotton 67 (10) 183 (27) Custard apple 119 (17) 237 (35) Chilli 42 (6) 58 (8) Amla 53 (8) 304 (44) Tomato 42 (6) 56 (8) Tamarind 10 (1) 231 (34) Drumstick 53 (8) 189 (27) Marigold 42 (6) 208 (30) Mulberry 53 (8) 211 (31) Chrysanthemum 42 (6) 208 (30) Mango 10 (1) 79 (12) Jasmine 42 (6) 56 (8) Sapota 53 (8) 126 (18) Crossandra 42 (6) 90 (13) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Drainage line treatment, soil and water conservation treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 125 (59.24%) men and 85 (40.28%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 5.33, small farmers' was 5.23, semi medium farmers' was 4.64 and medium farmers' was 8.  The data indicated that, 39 (18.48%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 87 (41.23%) were in 16-35 years of age, 60 (28.44%) were in 36-60 years of age and 25 (11.85%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Nageshanahalli-1 had 28.44 per cent illiterates, 36.49 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.37 per cent of them had middle school education, 17.54 per cent of them had high school education, 9.48 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.95 per cent of them did diploma, 2.84 per cent of them had degree education and 0.95 per cent of them did masters.  The results indicate that, 90 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 10 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers and 2.50 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 62.09 per cent of the household members, 10.90 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.95 per cent were general labour, 0.47 per cent were in government service, 2.84 per cent were in private service, 20.85 per cent were students, 0.47 per cent were housewives and 0.95 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 15 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 62.50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 22.50 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 72.50 per cent of the households possess TV, 45 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 40 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 40 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 5 per cent of the households possess landline and 90 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.8413, mixer grinder was Rs.2000, bicycle was Rs. 2000, motor cycle was Rs.37500, landline was Rs.2000 and mobile phone was Rs.2141.  About 7.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 20 per cent of them possess plough, 2.50 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 20 per cent of them possess sprayer, 70 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.23333, plough was Rs.894, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs.500, the average value of sprayer was Rs.1400, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.83.  The results indicate that, 10 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 10 per cent of the households possess local cow, 7.50 per cent possess crossbred cow and 2.5 per cent possess goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 6.83, average own labour (women) available was 12.61, average hired labour (men) available was 1.31 and average hired labour (women) available was 2.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 12.50 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Nageshanahalli-1 micro watershed possess 29.68 ha (54.74%) of dry land and 24.54 ha (45.26%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.80 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 13.07 ha (79.93%) of dry land and 3.28 ha (20.07%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.94 ha (39.28%) of dry land and 10.74 ha (60.72%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.86 ha (31.58%) of dry land and 10.52 ha (68.42%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 266,098.46 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 484,713.06. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 436,983.99 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275,294.12 for dry land and Rs. 852,774.36 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 201,515.15 for dry land and Rs. 539,992.46 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 164,666.67 for dry land and Rs. 313,500 irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 17 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45 per cent of the farmers in micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 44.96 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 1.37 ha, 2.45 ha, 5.32 ha and 2.43 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (8.9 ha), groundnut (10.39 ha), maize (24.81 ha), paddy (9.12 ha), redgram (2.13 ha), sunflower (2.51 ha).  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, groundnut and sunflower. Small farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, paddy and redgram. Semi medium farmers 3 have grown bajra, maize, paddy and redgram. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Nageshanahalli-1 micro watershed was found to be 89.28 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 87.18 and medium farmers it was 79.17 per cent.  The results indicate that, 75 per cent of the households have bank account and 40 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 42.50 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of the households have availed loan from commercial bank, 64.71 per cent of the households have availed loan from grameena bank, 5.88 per cent of them have availed loan from traders and another 5.88 per cent have availed loan from money lender.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs. 57500, Rs. 68571.43, Rs. 400000 and Rs. 83333 respectively.  The results indicate that, 93.75 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production and 6.25 per cent have borrowed for education.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agriculture production.  The results indicated that 68.75 per cent of the households did not repay their loan, 25 per cent partially paid their loan and 6.25 per cent have fully paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households partially paid their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 25 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 56.25 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 18.75 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirements.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 58737.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 79076.74. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 20339.08, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 37036.05. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31634.30. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -5401.75. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85. 4  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 90393.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 102073.97. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 11680.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.13.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 240103.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50533.08. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -189570.58. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.21.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 26893.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28194.14. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 1300.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.05.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 26893.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40997.50. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 14104.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.52.  The results indicate that, 7.50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 15 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results also indicated that 10 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and 2.50 per cent opined that green fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 60,400 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 82,608.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 165,115.38, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 210,090.91 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 270,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 15,259.84. For landless households it was Rs. 5,920, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 9,238.89, for small farmers it was Rs. 14,559.17, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 18,735.54, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 26,000.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for irrigation facility was Rs. 400 and for improved livestock management Rs. 125.  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 7.5 per cent for irrigation facility and 2.5 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, maize, paddy, redgram and sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent and groundnut was sold to the extent of 99.28 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 65 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 5 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society and 42.5 per cent have sold their produce to agents/traders. 5  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 5 per cent have also used truck as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 16.67 per cent of the marginal farmers, 38.46 per cent of the small farmers, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 55 per cent have shown interest in soil test which accounts for 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 84.62 per cent of the small farmers, 27.27 per cent of semi medium farmers and 40 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 92.50 per cent of the households used fire wood, 5 per cent used LPG and 2.50 per cent of the households used dung cake.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 47.50 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 47.50 per cent of the households in the micro watershed, open well and lake were the source of drinking water for 2.50 per cent of the households respectively.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 35 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 33.33 per cent of the marginal, 38.46 per cent of the small, 27.27 per cent of the semi medium and 60 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 97.50 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 5 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 90 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.5 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 2.5 per cent, fruits were adequate for 2.5 per cent, milk was adequate for 95 per cent, eggs were adequate for 87.5 per cent and meat was adequate for 12.5 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 72.50 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (75%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (37.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (22.50%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (25%), high rate of interest on credit (15%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (67.5%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (67.50%), 6 inadequate extension services (65%), less rainfall (12.50%) and source of agri technology information (12.50%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Danakkanadoddi-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the delineated physiographic boundaries were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 631 ha in Koppaltaluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 86 per cent is covered by soils, 13 per cent by rock outcrops and one per cent by settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 27 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 6 per cent of the area is having sandy soils at the surface,62 per cent loamy and 18 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 26 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 72 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 13per cent has gently sloping lands.  An area of about 10 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 76 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 0.75%) in 3 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 70 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 13 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low(4.5 ppm) in 76 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 12 per cent of the soils.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (Class S1) and moderately suitable (Class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 29(5) 138 (22) Pomegranate 29(5) 83(13) Maize - 167 (26) Guava 29(5) 59(9) Bajra 63 (10) 179 (28) Jackfruit 29(5) 58(9) Redgram 29(5) 79 (12) Jamun 29(5) 83(13 ) Bengalgram - 235 (37) Musambi 29(5) 83(13 ) Groundnut 63 (10) 289 (46) Lime 29(5) 83(13 ) Sunflower 29 (5) 79 (12) Cashew 29(5) 76 (12) Cotton 29(5) 138(22) Custard apple 82(13) 361 (57) Chilli 29(5) 113(18) Amla 63(10) 381(60) Tomato 29(5) 113 (18) Tamarind 29(5) 59(9) Drumstick 29 (5) 263(42) Marigold 29(5) 138(22) Mulbery 29(5) 286(45 ) Chrysanthemum 29(5) 138(22) Mango 29(5) 25 (4) Jasmine 29(5) 113(18) Sapota 29(5) 58 (9) Crossandra 29(5) 113(18) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the fiveidentified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 104 (57.14%) men and 78 (42.86%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers was 3.8, marginal farmers' was 3.6, small farmers' was 5.75, semi medium farmers' was 6, medium farmers' was 5.17 and large farmers' was 8. The data indicated that, 28 (15.38%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 90 (49.45%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (28.02%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (7.14 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Danakanadoddi-1 had 32.42 per cent illiterates, 0.55 per cent functional literates, 28.02 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.44 per cent of them had middle school education, 12.09 per cent of them had high school education, 6.59 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.10 per cent of them did diploma, 5.49 per cent of them had degree education and 3 persons were doing masters.  The results indicate that, 65.71 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers, 5.71 per cent were general laborers, 2.86 per cent were housewives and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were involved in other occupation.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 44.51 per cent of the household members, 18.68 per cent were agricultural labourers, 3.85 per cent were general laborers, 22.53 per cent of them were student, 4.40 per cent of them were housewife, 1.10 per cent of them were in private services, 1.10 per cent government service and 1.10 per cent were involved in trade and business.  The results show that 0.55 per cent of the households participated in self help group and 99.45 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 17.14 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 42.86 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 40 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results shows that 97.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 88.57 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 31.43 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 62.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess tempo, 2.86 per cent of the households possess auto, and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results shows that the average value of television was Rs.5617, mixer grinder was Rs.1629, motor cycle was Rs.29000, mobile phone was Rs.1147, Auto was Rs.50000, tempo was Rs.100000, mobile phone was Rs.1147 and bicycle was Rs.1545.  About 34.29 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 40 per cent of them possess plough, 14.29 per cent of them possess tractor, 20 per cent of them posses 2 sprayer, 20 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 94.29 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.892, the average value of tractor was Rs. 420000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.4000, the average value of bullock cart Rs.19416, and the average value of weeder Rs.56.  The results indicate that, 48.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 45.71 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.57 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 11.43 per cent of the households possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.10, average own labour (women) available was 1.50, average hired labour (men) available was 10.13 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.70.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. About 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 100 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium, 100 per cent of medium and large farmers have opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Danakanadoddi-1 micro watershed possess 22.29 ha (38.40%) of dry land and 35.76 ha (61.60%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.37 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 8.20 ha (76.02%) of dry land and 2.59 ha (23.98%) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 6.07 ha (38.95%) of dry land and 9.51 ha (61.05%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 19.21 ha (100%) of irrigated land, large farmers possess 3.64 ha (45%) of dry land and 4.45 ha (55%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 339,989.27 and average value of irrigated was Rs.509,201.  The results indicate that, there were 17 functioning and 4 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 48.57 per cent of the farmers. The depth of bore well was found to be 47.46 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.21 hectares, small farmers had 1.62 hectares, semi medium farmers had 10.81 hectares and medium farmers had 12.15 hectares.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Bajra (6.88 ha), chilly (0.40 ha), groundnut (10.57 ha), ladies finger (0.81 ha), maize (25.13 ha), mango (0.81 ha), paddy (5.75 ha) and tomato (1.21 ha).  Marginal farmers have grown groundnut and maize. Small farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize and mango.  Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize and paddy.  Medium farmers have grown bajra, chilly, ladies finger, maize, paddy, tomato and bajra.  Large farmers have grown groundnut and maize. 3  The cropping intensity in Danakanadoddi-1 micro watershed was found to be 54.50 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, for small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 93.66 per cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 28.38 per cent and for large farmers it was 45.45 per cent.  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households possess bank account and 48.57 per cent of the households possess savings.  The results indicate that, 20 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 62.50 per cent of small, 10 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 13.04 per cent have availed loan from commercial, 4.35 per cent have availed loan from cooperative banks, 13.04 per cent of have availed loan from friends and relatives, 4.35 per cent have availed loan from SHGs/CBOs and 69.57 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers have availed Rs.66000, Rs.93000, Rs.166428, Rs.85000 and Rs.100652 respectively.  The results indicate that, 95 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production and 5 per cent have borrowed for animal husbandry.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 23568.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25247.75. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 1679.36, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.07.  The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 63221.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44460. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. - 18761.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.7.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 24133.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32595.49. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 8462.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 42148.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 58198.83. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 16049.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.38.  The total cost of cultivation for ladies finger was Rs. 15822.57. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 200070. The net income from ladies finger cultivation was Rs. 184247.43, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:12.64.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 67264.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. -17864.06. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73. 4  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 71430.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. - 3505.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.95.  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 60 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs.120800 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs.96510, for small farmers it was Rs.76403, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.120400, for medium farmers it was Rs.79000 and large farmers it was Rs.118000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11425.24. For landless households it was Rs.15333.33, for marginal farmers it was Rs 15,500, for small farmers it was Rs. 4520.83, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 13590, for medium farmers it was Rs. 5608.33 and for large farmers it was Rs.40000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 19 coconut, and 167 mango trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 3 coconut trees in their backyard.  Households have planted 115 neem trees, 11 tamarind trees, 3 pongamia trees and 9 banyan trees.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5628.57 for land development, Rs. 2600 for irrigation facility, Rs. 2514.29 for improved crop production and Rs. 1142.86 for improved livestock management.  The results indicate that, loan from bank is the major source of investment for 42.86 per cent of households and soft loan were the source of investment for 2.86 per cent for land development. For irrigation facility 22.86 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 17.14 per cent depend on own funds and 2.86 per cent depend on soft loan. For improved crop production 17.14 per cent of the households depend on bank loan, 8.57 per cent depend on own funds, 17.14 per cent depend on soft loans. For improved livestock management 11.43 per cent of households depend on loan from bank, 17.14 per cent depend on own funds, and 2.86 per cent depend on soft loan.  The results indicated that, bajra, chilly, groundnut, ladies finger, mango, paddy, tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Maize was sold to the extent of 93.38 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 74.29 per cent of the households sold their produce to local/village, another 22.86 per cent have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society, and 25.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that 28.57 per cent have used cart, 71.43 per cent have used tractor and 22.86 per cent of the farmers have used truck as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems. 5  Around 85.71 per cent of the households are interested in soil testing.  The results indicated that, only 8.57 per cent have adopted field bunding.  The results indicated that 33.33 per cent of the structures were in good condition and 66.67 per cent of the soil conversation structures needed full replacement required.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 68.57 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 31.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 85.71 percent used fire wood, and another 17.14 percent of the households used LPG.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 20 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small, 10 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, and 2.86 per cent did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.43 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 88.57 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 22.86 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 45.71 per cent, fruits were adequate for 34.29 per cent, milk was adequate for 77.14 per cent, eggs were adequate for 82.86 per cent and meat was adequate for 65.71 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were inadequate for 68.57 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 40 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 48.57 per cent, milk were inadequate for 11.43 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 8.57 per cent and meat was inadequate for 22.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, vegetables were market surplus for 2.86 per cent, and fruits were market surplus for 5.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 82.86 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (60%), high rate of interest on credit (62.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (68.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (74.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (57.14%), less rainfall (2.86%) and inadequate extension services (51.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kukanapalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 639 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 99 per cent is covered by soils and one per cent is by habitation. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 28 soil phases (management units) and 9 Land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 3 per cent area has sandy soils, 36 per cent area has loamy soils and 54 per cent area has clay soils.  About 36 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 10 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 82 per cent area has very gently to gently sloping (1-5%) lands.  About 45 per cent area is slight eroded (e1) and 48 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  Very minor (0.75%) in 67 per cent area.  About 36 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 56 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 12 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  About 55 per cent area is low (20 ppm) in available sulphur.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) 12 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 36 per cent area and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 56 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 65 (10) 259 (41) Sapota 28 (4) 16 (3) Maize 28 (4) 296 (46) Pomegranate 28 (4) 162 (25) Bajra 28 (4) 312 (49) Guava 28 (4) 16 (3) Groundnut - 148 (23) Jackfruit 28 (4) 16 (3) Sunflower 65 (10) 125 (20) Jamun - 81 (13) Cotton 37 (6) 288 (45) Musambi 65 (10) 125 (20) Red gram 28 (4) 80 (13) Lime 65 (10) 125 (20) Bengalgram 37 (6) 248 (39) Cashew 39 (6) 5 (<1) Chilli 28 (4) 113 (18) Custard apple 81 (13) 266 (42) Tomato 28 (4) 113 (18) Amla 44 (7) 303 (48) Brinjal 44 (7) 287 (45) Tamarind - 83 (13) Onion 39 (6) 109 (17) Marigold 28 (4) 296 (46) Bhendi 39 (6) 293 (46) Chrysanthemum 28 (4) 296 (46) Drumstick 39 (6) 158 (25) Jasmine 28 (4) 150 (24) Mulberry 39 (6) 168 (27) Crossandra 28 (4) 232 (36) Mango - 39 (6) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 104 (55.32%) men and 84 (44.68%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 6.33, small farmers' was 4.30, semi medium farmers' was 5.82 and medium farmers' was 4.33.  The data indicated that, 37 (19.68%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 78 (41.49%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (28.72%) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (10.11%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kukanpalli-2 had 27.13 per cent illiterates, 27.13 per cent of them had primary school education, 12.77 per cent of them had middle school education, 18.09 per cent of them had high school education, 9.04 per cent of them had PUC education and 3.72 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 80.56 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 8.33 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 11.11 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 62.23 per cent of the household members, 6.38 per cent were agricultural laborers, 6.91 per cent were general labour, 0.53 per cent were in private service, 21.28 per cent were students, 0.53 per cent were housewives and 2.13 per cent were children.  The results show that 98.94 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. Only 0.53 per cent of the population participated in gram panchayat and self help group.  The results indicate that 8.33 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 77.78 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 19.44 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 63.89 per cent of the households possess TV, 38.89 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 13.89 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 44.44 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.78 per cent of them possess car/four wheeler, 2.78 per cent of the households possess landline and 86.11 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.3608, mixer grinder was Rs.1607, bicycle was Rs. 1000, motor cycle was Rs.39060, car/four wheeler was Rs.500000, landline was Rs.2000 and mobile phone was Rs.2929.  About 8.33 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 16.67 per cent of them possess plough, 5.56 per cent of the households possess tractor, 16.67 per cent of them possess sprayer, 8.33 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 38.89 per cent of them possess weeder, 5.56 per cent possess harvester, 2.78 per cent possess thresher and 16.67 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.7000, plough was Rs.1331, the average value of tractor drill was Rs.500000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.416, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3100, the average value of harvester was Rs.200000, the average value of thresher was Rs.166, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.562, and the average value of weeder was Rs.220.  The results indicate that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 30.56 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent possess crossbred cow and 2.78 per cent possess buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 6.83, average own labour (women) available was 12.61, average hired labour (men) available was 1.31 and average hired labour (women) available was 2.  The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Kukanpalli-2 micro watershed possess 35.37 ha (68.46%) of dry land and 16.29 ha (31.54%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.32 ha (89.13%) of dry land and 0.4 ha (10.87%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 13.35 ha (95.65%) of dry land and 0.61 ha (4.35%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 16.27 ha (69.07%) of dry land and 7.28 ha (30.93%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.43 ha (23.39%) of dry land and 8 ha (76.71%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 285,467.44 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 460,134.13. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 753,048.79 for dry land and Rs. 1,729,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 295,741.13 for dry land and Rs. 1,317,333.33 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 205,833.33 for dry land and Rs. 466,555.56 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123,500 for dry land and Rs. 325,000 irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning and 3 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 22.22 per cent of the farmers in micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 17.70 meters.  The results indicate that, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 6.48 ha and 6.70 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (40.31 ha), groundnut (4.34 ha), bajra (4.09 ha), sunflower (1.31 ha), paddy (1.21 ha) and tomato (0.80 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, groundnut and maize. Small farmers have 3 grown maize, groundnut, bajra and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, groundnut, bajra, paddy and tomato. Medium farmers have grown groundnut and maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kukanpalli-2 micro watershed was found to be 89.05 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 79.53 and medium farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 94.44 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 41.67 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 6.67 per cent of the households have availed loan from commercial bank, another 6.67 per cent of the households have availed loan from grameena bank and 13.33 per cent have availed loan from SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicate that, landless, marginal and small farmers have availed Rs. 20000, Rs. 23333 and Rs. 11166.67 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agriculture production (50%) and household consumption (50%).  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  Results indicated that 50 per cent of the households partially paid their loan borrowed from private sources and 50 per cent did not repay it.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53954.05. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 124634.36. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 70680.31, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.31.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 19343.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34686.73. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 15343.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.79.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 28509.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 92872. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 64362.68. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.26.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 30067.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38562.42. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8495.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.28.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 28509.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38216.63. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 9707.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.34. 4  The total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 187339.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 432249.99. The net income from Tomato cultivation was Rs. 244910.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.31.  The results indicate that, 38.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.89 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 100,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 72,975, for small farmers it was Rs. 106,640, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 169,545.45 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 346,666.67.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 8,473.61. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,194.44, for small farmers it was Rs. 3,996.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 6,477.27, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 52,222.22.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 184 coconut and 606 mango tree in their fields.  Households have planted 173 neem trees, 10 teak and 2 tamarind trees in their field. They have also grown 3 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, maize and sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra was sold to the extent of 75 per cent, groundnut 80 per cent, paddy 44.44 per cent and tomato 90 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 30.56 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets and 69.44 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 80.56 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 13.89 per cent have used truck and 5.56 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 36.11 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 50 per cent of the marginal farmers, 50 per cent of the small farmers, 18.18 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 83.33 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 75 per cent of the households used fire wood and 27.78 per cent used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 72.22 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 11.11 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and lake/tank were the source of drinking water for 16.67 per cent of the households respectively.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 5  The results indicated that, 44.44 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 50 per cent of the landless, 33.33 per cent of the marginal, 50 per cent of the small, 27.27 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 97.32 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.78 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 66.67 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 30.56 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 55.56 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.22 per cent, milk was adequate for 58.33 per cent, eggs were adequate for 19.44 per cent and meat was adequate for 5.56 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 63.89 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 38.89 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 75 per cent, milk was inadequate for 36.11, eggs were inadequate for 77.78 per cent and meat was inadequate for 91.67 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 2.50 per cent, vegetables, milk and meat were market surplus for 2.78 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 83.33 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (77.78%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (75%), inadequacy of irrigation water (19.44%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.56%), high rate of interest on credit (30.56%), low price for the agricultural commodities (61.11%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (63.89%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (75%), inadequate extension services (25%) and less rainfall (16.67%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kamanuru-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 749 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 68 per cent is covered by soil, 28 per cent by rock out crops and four per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 33 soil phases (management units) and 5 Land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 19 per cent is sandy (loamy sand) at the surface, 34 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 15 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 36 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) available water capacity.  An area of about 67 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands and 0.75%) in 9 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 30 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (20 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 54 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 6 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 94 (13) 52 (7) Pomegranate - 183(24) Maize 13 (2) 134 (18) Guava - 100(13) Bajra 13(2) 211(28) Jackfruit - 100(13) Redgram - 123 (16) Jamun - 168(22) Bengal gram 82(11) 83(11) Musambi 82(11) 101(13) Groundnut - 326 (43) Lime 82(11) 101(13) Sunflower 82 (11) 42 (5) Cashew 13(2) 147(20) Cotton 82(11) 65(8) Custard apple 94(13) 419(56) Chilli 13(2) 51(7) Amla 13(2) 501 (67) Tomato 13(2) 51(7) Tamarind - 126(17) Drumstick - 353(47) Marigold 13(2) 134(18) Mulbery - 473(63) Chrysanthemum 13(2) 134(18) Mango - 27(4) Jasmine 13(2) 51(7) Sapota - 100(13) Crossandra 13(2) 52(7) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 78 (53.79%) men and 67 (46.21%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers was 4, small farmer was 3, semi medium farmer was 6, medium farmers were 10 and for landless farmers it was 4.  There were 31 (21.38%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 48 (33.1%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (37.24 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (8.28%) were above 61 years of age.  The micro watershed had 22.76 per cent illiterates, 4.83 per cent functional literates, 27.59 per cent of them had primary school education, 11.72 per cent of them had middle school education, 17.24 per cent of them had high school education, 3.45 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.69 per cent of them had ITI, 9.66 per cent of them had degree education and 0.69 per cent of them had masters education.  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 54.48 per cent of the household members, 2.76 per cent were agricultural labourers, 6.9 per cent were general labours,4.14 percent were in government service, 1.38 per cent of them were in private sector, 21.38 per cent of them were students and 3.45 per cent were housewives.  The results shows that 3.45 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 1.38 per cent of them participated in gram panchayat, 1.38 per cent of them participated in cooperative bank, 0.69 percent of them participated in zilla panchayat and 96.19 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicate that 97.14 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess pucca house. 100 percent of the landless, marginal and small farmers possess katcha house.  The results shows that 2.86 per cent of the households possess radio, 77.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 48.57 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 45.71 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The average value of radio was Rs.100, television was Rs.2185, mixer grinder was Rs.1094, DVD player was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.31153 and mobile phone was Rs.890.  About 45.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 34.29 per cent of them possess bullock cart and 31.43 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 20 per cent 2 of them possess chaff cutter and 82.86 per cent of the households possess weeder. The average value of plough was Rs.745, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 18500 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.1913.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.86 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess crossbred cows, 5.17 per cent of the households possess buffalo, 2.86 per cent of the households possess sheep.  Average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.6, average own labour (women) available was 1.1, average hired labour (men) available was 6.5 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.17.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 1 and 3 persons were migrated from micro watershed that belonged to marginal and medium farmer category.  People have migrated on an average of 212 Kms and average duration was 22.5 months. Marginal farmers have migrated 370 kms and on an average for 36 months.  Job/work and education of the children were equally important reasons for migration for all the migrants.  Households of the Kammanur-1 micro watershed possess 30.64 ha (88.85%) of dry land and 3.44 ha (9.98%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs.260995 and average value of irrigated was Rs.348705.  There were 1 functioning and 1 defunct bore wells in the micro watershed. Bore well was the major irrigation source for 2.86 per cent of the farmers and open well was the source of irrigation for 5.71 per cent of the farmers.  There was only 2.43 ha of irrigated area in total in the micro watershed which belonged to semi medium farmers.  Farmers have grown Maize (12.05 ha), Navane (5.09 ha), Sajje (3.64ha), Bajra (4.66ha), Bengal gram (2.63 ha), Paddy (2.02 ha), Horse gram (1.31ha), Sorghum (0.96 ha) and Red gram (0.43ha). Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Navane, Bajra, Sorghum and Redgram. Small farmers have grown Maize, Navane, Bajra, and Horse gram. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, Bengal gram and Paddy. Medium farmers have grown Maize and Bengal gram.  The cropping intensity in Kammanur-1 micro watershed was found to be 97.93 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers it was 113.48 per cent, for small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 79.32 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 97.14 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings. Among landless farmers 80 percent of them possess bank account and 3 savings. Hundred per cent of marginal, small, semi medium and medium category of farmers possess bank account and also savings.  The results indicate that, 56.25 per cent have availed loan in grameena bank, 15.63 per cent have availed loan in money lender and 3.13 per cent have availed loan from SHGs/CBOs.  Landless, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.2500, Rs.35000, Rs. 98846, Rs.148333, and Rs. 70000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 68593.  The results indicate that, 94.44 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture and 5.56 per cent of them have borrowed loan for animal husbandry.  Only small farmers (11.1%) have borrowed credit for the purpose of animal husbandry and all other category of farmers have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  The results indicate that, house hold consumption and other reasons were the main purpose for which landless and small farmers borrowed loan. Another 25 percent of small farmers also borrowed loan for social functions like marriage.  The results indicate that, 47.37 per cent of the households have repaid partially which includes 20 per cent of marginal farmers, 60 per cent of small farmers and 66.67 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The data also shows that 47.37 per cent of households have not repaid their loans and only 5.26 per cent of households have fully repaid their loans. Results indicated that 33.33 per cent of the households have repaid partially, another 33.33 per cent have unpaid their loan and 16.67 percent of the households have full paid their loan.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 14769. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23450.5. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs.8680.82, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.6.  The total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs.14451.57. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 14167. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs.-284.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 37053.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36730.47. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. - 323.12, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 17786.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23546.38. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 5759.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.32.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 19170.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21143.20. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 1972.98. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.1. 4  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 24733.95. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20039.62. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. - 4694.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.81.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 13408.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48465.96. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 35057.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.61.  The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 48019.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 86046.57. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 38027.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.79.  The results indicate that, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate which includes 7.69 per cent of small, 66.67 per cent of semi medium farmers. The data revealed that 22.86 per cent of the farmers opined that dry fodder is inadequate and 2.86 per cent opined that green fodder is inadequate.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 30 coconut trees in their field and 6 in backyard. Mango (6) trees and a jackfruit tree were also grown by the households.  Households have planted 57 neem trees in field and 2 in backyard, 2 acacia, 2 banyan tree, 2 peepul tree and 1 tamarind tree.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs.1428 for land development and Rs.21,142 in irrigation facility. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs.3846 for land development and Rs. 21538 in irrigation facility. Small farm households have an average investment capacity Rs.25384 in irrigation facility. Semi medium households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 43333 for irrigation.  The results indicated that for land development 2.86 per cent dependent on government subsidy. For irrigation facility 68.57 percent depend on government subsidy and 2.86 percent depend on loan from bank loan.  The results indicated that, 60 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants which includes, 46.15 per cent the marginal farmers, 84.62 percent small farmers and 100 percent semi medium farmers. About 34.29 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets which includes 53.85 percent marginal farmers, 23.08 percent small farmers and 100 percent medium farmers.  The results indicated that 77.14 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 17.14 per cent have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 7.96 percent of small farmers and 33.33 percent semi medium farmers.  About 82.86 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 92.31 per cent of marginal farmers, 100 per cent of small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have shown interest in soil testing. 5  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 30.77 per cent of marginal, 69.23 per cent of small farmers, 66.67 per cent of semi medium farmers, 100 per cent of medium farmers. Summer ploughing was adopted by 62.86 per cent of the households i.e. 69.23 per cent of the marginal farmers, 76.92 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent medium farmers. Combination of deep and shallow root crops was followed by 62.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that, 6.67 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that bunds are good, 13.33 per cent opined that bunds are slightly damaged, and 6.67 per cent of the households opined that bunds are severely damaged and 73.33 per cent opined that the bunds required full replacement.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.29 per cent which includes 100 per cent of landless, 84.62 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  About 42.86 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of landless, 53.85 per cent of marginal, 23.08 per cent of small, 33.33 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have sanitary toilet facility.  Around 91.43 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.57 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (57.14%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (57.14%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80%), high rate of interest on credit (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (74.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.86%), inadequate extension services (82.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (82.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hanumanahalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 535 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 94 per cent is covered by soil, 150cm) soils.  About 69 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 24 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 58 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in 48 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 29 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 10 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 37 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0) in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 58 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 81(15) 129(24) Sapota 79(15) 188(36) Maize 69(13) 141(26) Pomegranate 79(15) 188(36) Bajra 81(15) 235(44) Musambi 79(15) 188(36) Groundnut 3(1) 341(63) Lime 79(15) 188(36) Sunflower 79(15) 105(20) Amla 113(21) 375(71) Redgram 79(15) 105(20) Cashew 45(9) 225(42) Bengal gram - 233(44) Jackfruit 79(15) 188(36) Cotton 41(8) 169(31) Jamun 41(8) 214(40) Chilli 71(13) 126(24) Custard apple 113(21) 375(71) Tomato 71(13) 126(24) Tamarind 41(8) 130(24) Brinjal 108(20) 264(50) Mulberry 79(15) 360(68) Onion 105(20) 253(47) Marigold 69(13) 141(26) Bhendi 105(20) 266(50) Chrysanthemum 69(13) 141(26) Drumstick 90(17) 249(47) Jasmine 69(13) 141(26) Mango 41(8) 130(24) Crossandra 79(15) 118(22) Guava 48(9) 219(41) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 155 (58.27%) men and 111 (41.73%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers was 4, marginal farmers' was 5.6, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5.1 and medium farmers' was 6.2.  The data indicated that, 65 (24.44%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 115 (43.23%) were in 16-35 years of age, 62 (23.31%) were in 36-60 years of age and 24 (9.02 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Hanumanahalli-1 had 33.08 per cent illiterates, 0.75 per cent functional literates, 32.71 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.89 per cent of them had middle school education, 14.29 per cent of them had high school education, 7.89 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.88 per cent of them did ITI, 0.75 per cent of them had degree education and 1 persons was doing masters.  The results indicate that, 90.20 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 1.96 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers, 3.92 per cent were in private service, and 5.88 per cent were housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 34.21 per cent of the household members, 23.68 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.63 per cent were in private service, 0.75 per cent were into trade and business, 28.20 per cent were students, 7.14 per cent were housewives and 2.93 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 3.92 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 88.24 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 3.92 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.92 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 98.04 per cent of the households possess TV, 19.61 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 9.80 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 54.90 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 3.92 per cent of them possess auto, 1.96 per cent computer/laptop and 96.08 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results shows that the average value of television was Rs.5700, mixer grinder was Rs.1150, motor cycle was Rs.41666, Auto was Rs.40000, computer/laptop was Rs.30000 mobile phone was Rs.1604 and bicycle was Rs.850.  About 3.92 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 7.84 per cent of them possess plough, 1.96 per cent of them possess power tiller, 7.84 per cent of them possess tractor, 5.88 per cent of them posses sprayer, 3.92 per cent of them possess sprinkler and 27.45 per cent of them possess weeder. 2  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.2050, the average value of tractor was Rs. 475000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.1600, the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18500, sprinkler was Rs.2500, harvester was Rs.8000 and the average value of weeder Rs.59.  The results indicate that, 23.53 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 19.61 per cent of the households possess local cow, 1.96 per cent of them possess crossbred cow, 7.84 per cent of them possess buffalo and 1.96 per cent of them possess goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.25, average hired labour (men) available was 3.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 4.77.  The results indicate that, 49.02 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. About 90 per cent of the marginal farmers, 52.63 per cent of small, 9.09 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium and large farmers have opined that hired labour was adequate. Around 52.94 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Hanumanahalli-1 micro watershed possess 59.31 ha (69.39%) of dry land and 26.16 ha (30.61%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.85 ha (92.34%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (7.66%). Small farmers possess 22.28 ha (92.63%) of dry land and 1.77 ha (7.37%) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 12.36 ha (60.60%) of dry land and 8.04 ha (39.40%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 18.82 ha (54.26%) dry land and 15.86 ha (45.74%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 247,741.54 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 328,620.05. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 597,856.15 for dry land and Rs. 1,029,166.63 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 336,512.26 for dry land and Rs. 451,141.54. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 153,667.32 for dry land and Rs. 385,548.84 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 95,592.35 for dry land and Rs. 264,642.86 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 17 functioning and 7 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 33.33 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 40.94 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 0.49 hectares, small farmers had 0.81 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.04 hectares and medium farmers had 10.20 hectares.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Bajra (13.22 ha), chilly (1.21 ha), cotton (4.45 ha), cowpea (0.4 ha), groundnut (3.64 ha), maize (28.1 ha), navane 3 (1.62 ha), pearlmillet (1.32 ha), redgram (13.57 ha), sorghum (1.21 ha), sunflower (7.74 ha), and Bengalgram (1.21 ha).  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, cowpea, maize and redgram. Small farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, navane, pearlmillet, redgram, sorghum, and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, chilly, cotton, groundnut, maize, redgram, sunflower, bengalgram. Medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, sunflower, redgram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hanumanahalli-1 micro watershed was found to be 70.51 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 79.65 per cent, for small farmers it was 88.24 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 56.98 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 67.95 per cent.  The results indicate that, 39.22 per cent of the households possess bank account and savings in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, 37.25 per cent of the households have availed loan from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 32346.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26614.46. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -5732.35, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.82.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 34153.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21734.20. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 12419.15. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.64.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 13755.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 9880. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -3875.68. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 32700.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 35224.58. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.08.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 32411.10. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27478.75. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -4932.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 32161.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 79619.42. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 47458.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.48.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 55079.47. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 86450. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 31370.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.57.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 11375.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29825.25. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 18449.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.62. 4  The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 39575.10. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. - 2525.10. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.94.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 25646.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27208.96. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 1562.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.06.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 21295.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28690.72. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 7395.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The results indicate that, 11.76 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 21.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. Around 11.76 per cent of the households said that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs.180000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs.47935, for small farmers it was Rs.55857.89, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.262540, and for medium farmers it was Rs.65880.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 4853.22. For marginal farmers it was Rs 6908.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 2460.70, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9400, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 2827.78.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 67 coconut, and 3 mango trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 4 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 96 neem trees, 2 tamarind trees, 4 teak trees and 16 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, bajra, Bengalgram, chilly, cotton, cowpea, navane and sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut was sold to the extent of 89.60 per cent, maize 68.85 per cent, redgram 99.08 per cent and sorghum 75 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 21.57 per cent of the households sold their produce to agrnts/traders, 35.29 per cent of the households sold their produce to local/village, another 5.88 per cent have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society, and 70.59 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that 9.80 per cent have carried head loads, 33.33 per cent have used cart, 90.20 per cent have used tractor as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 27.45 per cent of the farmers opined that they experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 31.37 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 5 60.78 per cent of the households, open well was the source of drinking water for 1.96 per cent and canal/nala was the source of drinking water for 5.88 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 76.47 percent used fire wood, and another 25.49 percent of the households used LPG.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 15.69 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 20 per cent of marginal, 10.53 per cent of small, 18.18 per cent of semi medium, and 10 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 84.31 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 11.76 per cent possess APL card and 3.92 per cent did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 31.37 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 37.25 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 31.37 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 33.33 per cent, fruits were adequate for 15.69 per cent, milk was adequate for 37.25 per cent, eggs were adequate for 19.61 per cent and meat was adequate for 13.73 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 64.71 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.90 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 54.90 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 49.02 per cent, milk was inadequate for 50.98 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 52.94 per cent and meat was inadequate for 21.57 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 60.78 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (56.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (39.22%), inadequacy of irrigation water (33.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (39.22%), high rate of interest on credit (47.06%), low price for the agricultural commodities (45.10%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (45.10%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (64.71%), less rainfall (70.59%), inadequate extension services (21.57%) and source of agri-technology information (47.06%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Haidarnagar microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 668 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 25 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 19 soil series and 32 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 51 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface and 48 per cent loamy soils at the surface.  About 25 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area of about 2 per cent area are nearly level sloping (0-1%) and 96 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 37 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 62 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 21 per cent are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 16 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4), 31 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 14 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 17 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 18 per cent area and and 81 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in soils.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in about 24 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 11 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 74 (11) 314 (47) Sapota 11 (2) 379 (57) Maize 52 (8) 336 (50) Pomegranate 11 (2) 401 (60) Bajra 209 (31) 223 (33) Musambi 32 (5) 379 (57) Groundnut 132 (20) 345 (51) Lime 32 (5) 379 (57) Sunflower 32 (5) 346 (52) Amla 310 (46) 230 (34) Red gram 11 (2) 368 (55) Cashew 41 (6) 301 (45) Bengalgram 22 (3) 376(56) Jackfruit 11 (2) 379 (57) Cotton 22 (3) 376(55) Jamun - 301 (45) Chilli 88 (13) 301 (45) Custard apple 310 (46) 230 (34) Tomato 88 (13) 301 (45) Tamarind - 33 (5) Brinjal 278 (42) 208 (31) Mulberry 11 (2) 488 (73) Onion 121 (18) 343 (51) Marigold 52 (8) 336 (50) Bhendi 121 (18) 364 (55) Chrysanthemum 52 (8) 336 (50) Drumstick 11 (2) 445(66) Jasmine 52 (8) 314 (47) Mango - 11 (2) Crossandra 52 (8) 314 (47) Guava 11 (2) 379 (57)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 97 (57.74%) men and 71 (42.26%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers was 11, marginal farmers' was 5.5, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5.7, and medium farmers' was 5.2.  The data indicated that, 30 (17.86%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 87 (51.79%) were in 16-35 years of age, 39 (23.21%) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (7.14 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Haidarnagar had 27.38 per cent illiterates, 0.60 per cent functional literates, 26.19 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.14 per cent of them had middle school education, 22.62 per cent of them had high school education, 3.57 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.79 per cent of them did diploma, and 3.57 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 86.67 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 3.33 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers, 3.33 per cent were general laborers, 3.33 per cent were housewives and 3.33 per cent of the household heads were in government service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 44.51 per cent of the household members, 18.68 per cent were agricultural labourers, 3.85 per cent were general laborers, 22.53 per cent of them were student, 4.40 per cent of them were housewife, 1.10 per cent of them were in private services, 1.10 per cent government service and 1.10 per cent were involved in trade and business.  The results show that 1.19 per cent of the households participated in sthree shakthi sangha and 98.81 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 3.33 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 53.33 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 3.33 per cent of them possess pucca house and 43.33 per cent of the households possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 3.33 per cent of the households possess radio, 86.67 per cent of the households possess TV, 70 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 3.33 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 40 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 66.67 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 3.33 per cent of the households possess auto, and 83.33 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results shows that the average value of television was Rs.5980, radio was Rs.450, mixer grinder was Rs.2471, motor cycle was Rs.27000, mobile phone was Rs.1796, Auto was Rs.95000, refrigerator was Rs.20000, DVD/VCD player was Rs.5000 and bicycle was Rs.6891. 2  About 20 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 16.67 per cent of them possess plough, 23.33 per cent of them possess tractor, 16.67 per cent of them posses sprayer, 16.67 per cent of them possess chaff cutter, 3.33 per cent of them possess harvester, 6.67 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 46.67 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.2000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 291428 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.2200, the average value of harvester was Rs.100000, chaff cutter was Rs.700, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18000, and the average value of weeder Rs.54.  The results indicate that, 26.67 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.3 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 10 per cent of them possess buffalo and 3.33 per cent of the households possess goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.07, average own labour (women) available was 1.57, average hired labour (men) available was 6.43 and average hired labour (women) available was 4.11.  The results indicate that, 86.67 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. About 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 87.50 per cent of small, 83.33 per cent of semi medium, and 100 per cent of medium have opined that hired labour was adequate. Around 6.67 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, two persons have migrated from the micro watershed, among them one belongs to semi medium household and another one belongs to medium farm household.  The results indicate that, average distance migrated was 528.50 kms and the average duration of migration was 3.50 months.  The results indicate that, job/work was the main reason for migration of households from the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, households of the Haidarnagar micro watershed possess 39.98 ha (70.68%) of dry land and 12.94 ha (22.88%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.82 ha (92.97%) of dry land and 0.36 ha (7.03%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 4.89 ha (61.46%) of dry land and 3.07 ha (38.54%) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 9.58 ha (75.94%) of dry land and 3.04 ha (24.06%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 20.70 ha (67.17%) of dry land and 6.48 ha (21.01%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs.215,000 and average value of irrigated was Rs.347,560. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 539,663 for dry land and Rs. 548,888 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 245,161 for dry land 3 and Rs. 749,472 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 219,138 for dry land and Rs. 362,266 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 130,406 for dry land and Rs. 138,937 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 26.67 per cent of the farmers. The depth of bore well was found to be 30.99 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 0.73 hectares, small farmers had 4 hectares, semi medium farmers had 3.04 hectares and medium farmers had 5.26 hectares.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Bajra (12.15 ha), Bengalgram (3.44 ha), Brinjal (0.4 ha), Cotton (2.06 ha), Greengram (0.81 ha), Groundnut (1.75 ha), Maize (23.98 ha), Sugarcane (2.23 ha), Sunflower (3.65 ha), Cowpea (0.36 ha), Jowar (0.2 ha).  Marginal farmers had grown bajra, maize, sunflower, sugarcane, groundnut and jowar. Small farmers had grown bajra, cotton, maize, sugarcane, sunflower, groundnut, and jowar. Semi medium farmers had grown bajra, bengalgram, greengram, groundnut, maize, and sugarcane. Medium farmers had grown bajra, bengalgram, brinjal, maize and sunflower.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Haidarnagar micro watershed was found to be 78.48 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, for small farmers it was 95.53 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 88.35 per cent and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 66.91 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27917.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. -4661.65. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 1679.36, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.86.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 21285.47. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 11657.89. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -9627.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.55.  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 131216.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 253723.89. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 122506.96. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.93.  The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 35223.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20377.50. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. -14845.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.58.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 66008.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55243.19. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -10765.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.84. 4  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 25760.47. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56686.50. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30926.03. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 47098.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51136.22. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 4037.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 30629.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27787.50. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. -2842.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91.  The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 36556.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27444.45. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. -9111.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.75.  The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 76432.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. -51732.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.32.  The results indicate that, 26.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 30 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 32,500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61,512, for small farmers it was Rs. 146,037, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 196,573 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 61,083.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11425.24. For landless households it was Rs. 6,750, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8,291.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 29,312.50, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 34,433.33, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 11,583.33.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 101 coconut, 3 guava trees, 1 mango tree and 2 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 8 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 96 neem trees and 12 banyan trees in the field.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 71.43 per cent, Bengalgram 86.67 per cent, brinjal 80 per cent, cotton 100 per cent, cowpea 50 per cent, Greengram 80 per cent, groundnut 86.36 per cent, maize 90.67 per cent, sugarcane 96.55 per cent and sunflower 85 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 100 per cent of farmers sold their produce to agent/traders, 13.33 per cent of the households sold their produce to local/village merchants, 3.33 per cent have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society, 3.33 per cent have sold through contract marketing arrangement and another 3.33 per cent have sold in regulated markets. 5  The results indicated that 53.33 per cent have used cart, 43.33 per cent have used tractor, 26.67 per cent have carried headloads, 3.33 per cent of the farmers have used truck and 3.33 per cent have used bus as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 50 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 30 per cent, open well was the source of drinking water for 10 per cent and lake/tank was the source of drinking water for 6.67 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 80 percent used fire wood, 3.33 per cent used dung cake and another 16.67 percent of the households used LPG.  Electricity was the major source of light for 96.67 per cent of the households in micro watershed and 3.33 per cent used kerosene lamp as a source of light.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 12.50 per cent of marginal, 12.50 per cent of small, 50 per cent of semi medium, and 50 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 73.33 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.33 per cent possessed APL card and 23.33 per cent did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 96.67 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 16.67 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 50 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 86.67 per cent, fruits were adequate for 33.33 per cent, milk was adequate for 86.67 per cent, eggs were adequate for 83.33 per cent and meat was adequate for 73.33 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 16.67 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (20%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (56.67%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.67%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (66.67%), high rate of interest on credit (60%), low price for the agricultural commodities (16.67%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (56.67%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (66.67%), less rainfall (93.33%), inadequate extension services (16.67%) and source of agri technology information (46.67%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kodadahalu microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 358 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and 3 per cent by mining/industrial, habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 29 per cent sandy soils at the surface, 28 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and 39 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 40 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 5 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 91 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 24 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 73 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 4 per cent are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 11 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 26 per cent are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 29 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 26 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 0.75%) in 97 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 2 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 94 per cent area in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is low (20 ppm) in the area of about 39 per cent soils.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of about 97 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in an area of about 55 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 97 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 60 (17) 111 (31) Sapota - 73 (21) Maize - 170 (47) Pomegranate - 208 (58) Bajra - 243 (68) Musambi 60 (17) 148 (41) Groundnut - 198 (55) Lime 60 (17) 148 (41) Sunflower 60 (17) 75 (21) Amla - 333 (93) Red gram - 94 (26) Cashew - 73 (21) Bengalgram 79 (22) 90 (25) Jackfruit - 73 (21) Cotton 60 (17) 111 (31) Jamun - 153 (43) Chilli - 36 (10) Custard apple 60 (17) 273 (76) Tomato - 36 (10) Tamarind - 80 (22) Brinjal - 225 (63) Mulberry - 297 (83) Onion - 110 (31) Marigold - 171 (47) Bhendi - 225 (63) Chrysanthemum - 171 (47) Drumstick - 224 (62) Jasmine - 36 (10) Mango - - Crossandra - 77 (21) Guava - 73 (21)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 94 (49.74%) men and 95 (50.26%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.09, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 6.28.  The data indicated that, 35 (18.52%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 91 (48.15%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (25.40%) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (7.94%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kodadahalu had 31.75 per cent illiterates, 34.39 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.05 per cent of them had middle school education, 15.87 per cent of them had high school education, 3.17 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.59 per cent of them had degree education and 0.53 per cent of them did masters.  The results indicate that, 51.52 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 42.42 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 9.09 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 28.04 per cent of the household members, 38.62 per cent were agricultural laborers, 8.99 per cent were general labour, 0.53 per cent were in government service, 20.63 per cent were students, 1.06 per cent were housewives and 2.12 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 39.39 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 39.39 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 21.21 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 90.91 per cent of the households possess TV, 69.70 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 36.36 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 24.24 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.8866, mixer grinder was Rs.1695, bicycle was Rs. 2083, motor cycle was Rs.34375 and mobile phone was Rs.2175.  About 18.18 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 24.24 per cent of them possess plough, 27.27 per cent of them possess sprayer, 96.97 per cent of them possess weeder and 3.03 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18333, plough was Rs.1250, the average value of sprayer was Rs.3333, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.100. 2  The results indicate that, 21.21 per cent of the households possess bullocks, and 21.21 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.10, average own labour (women) available was 1.93, average hired labour (men) available was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.30.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Kodadahalu micro watershed possess 26.12 ha (55.25%) of dry land and 21.15 ha (44.75%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.98 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 11.25 ha (86.72%) of dry land and 1.72 ha (13.28%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (62.50%) of dry land and 1.21 ha (37.50%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.86 ha (21.05%) of dry land and 18.21 ha (78.95%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 313,869.52 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 444,278.61. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 438,387.42 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275,332.61 for dry land and Rs. 811,737.09 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 296,400 for dry land and Rs. 658,666.67 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 205,833.33 for dry land and Rs. 395,200 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 11 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 33.33 per cent of the farmers in micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 31.87 meters.  The results indicate that, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 1.72 ha, 1.21 ha and 16.60 ha respectively.  The farmers have grown bajra (4.17 ha), cotton (0.91 ha), groundnut (5.47 ha), maize (24.31 ha), mango (2.02 ha), navane (0.81 ha), paddy (1.21 ha), sunflower (1.42 ha), tomato (2.02 ha), and water melon (0.81 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, navane. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy, sunflower and tomato. Semi medium farmers have grown maize and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, mango, tomato and water melon.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 19 coconut and 363 mango trees in their fields. They have also grown 2 coconut tree in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 85neem trees, 6 tamarind trees, 10 eucalyptus trees and 1 teak tree in their field. 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kodadahalu micro watershed was found to be 98.92 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 96.38 per cent, in case of semi medium and medium farmers it was 100 per cent.  84.85 per cent of the households have bank account and 39.39 per cent of the households have savings.  54.55 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 5.56 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 5.56 per cent availed loan from cooperative bank, 77.78 per cent availed loan from grameena bank, 11.11 per cent have borrowed from friends/relatives, 16.67 per cent availed loan from money lenders, 11.11 per cent have borrowed from SHGs/CBOs and 11.11 per cent have borrowed from traders.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and medium farmers have availed Rs. 90,000, Rs. 75800, and Rs. 308333 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 88.89 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 11.11 per cent of the households borrowed for the purchase of vehicle.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  Results indicated that 77.78 per cent of the households partially paid their loan and 22.22 per cent of the households did not repay their loans borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 56.25 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 43.75 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, around 22.22 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible in non institutional sources, 11.11 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 55.56 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirements and 11.11 per cent opined that the rate of interest was high in non institutional source of credits.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 23921.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26170.24. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 2248.81, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 47999.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62443.95. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 14444.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.3. 4  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 59019.05. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 77187.50. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 18168.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.31.  The total cost of cultivation for water melon was Rs. 32930.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59280. The net income from water melon cultivation was Rs. 26349.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.8.  The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 26359.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 395200. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. 368840.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:14.99.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 56579.37. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54340. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 2239.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 65694.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 92625. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 26930.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.41.  The total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 22105.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41284.29. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 19179.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.87.  The results indicate that, 30.30 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 30.30 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 86,666.67 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 72,383, for small farmers it was Rs. 94,235, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 78,000, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 83,750.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11,661.36. For landless households it was Rs. 23,888.89, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,383.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,420, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 30,750, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 7,953.13.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 4,818.18, for irrigation facility Rs. 2,181.82, for improved crop production Rs. 2,939.39 and for improved livestock management Rs. 606.06.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 45.45 per cent of the households for land development, 33.33 per cent for irrigation facility, 51.52 per cent for improved crop production and 6 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, mango, navane, paddy, sunflower, tomato and water melon were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. 5  The results indicated that, about 45.45 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets and 63.64 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 12.12 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 63.64 per cent have used truck and 33.33 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 36.36 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 10 per cent of the marginal farmers, 10 per cent of the small farmers, 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 90.91 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood.  Piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 36.36 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, 10 per cent of the marginal, 40 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 25 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 27.27 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 96.97 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 12.12 per cent, fruits were adequate for 24.24 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 75.76 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 100 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 87.88 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 75.76 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 3.03 per cent and meat was inadequate for 21.21 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 90.91 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (87.88%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (54.55%), inadequacy of irrigation water (48.48%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (48.48%), high rate of interest on credit (51.52%), low price for the agricultural commodities (66.67%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (81.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (81.82%), and inadequate extension services (81.82%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Dombarahalli-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 563 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 92 per cent is covered by soil, 150cm) soils.  About 26 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 66 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 29 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 1 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 90 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 14 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 78 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75 %) in 11 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available phosphorus is medium (57 kg/ha) 12 per cent area of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 42 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 50 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 26 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 26 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 67(12) 186(33) Sapota 1(<1) 36(6) Maize 12(2) 241 (43) Pomegranate 1(<1) 134(24) Bajra 24(4) 275(49) Guava 1(<1) 23(4) Redgram 1(<1) 114(20) Jackfruit 1(<1) 23(4) Bengal gram 43(8) 255(45) Jamun 1(<1) 44(8) Groundnut 1 (<1) 141(25) Musambi 10(2) 116(21) Sunflower 10 (2) 116 (21) Lime 10(2) 116(21) Cotton 45(8) 209(37) Cashew 14(2) 51(9) Chilli 24(4) 118(21) Custard apple 67(12) 282(50) Tomato 24(4) 131(23) Amla 24(4) 325(58) Brinjal 24(4) 193(34) Tamarind 1(<1) 33 (6) Onion - 94(17) Marigold 14(2) 240(42) Bhendi - 216(38) Chrysanthemum 14(2) 240 (42) Drumstick 1(<1) 134(24) Jasmine 14(2) 139(25) Mulberry 1(<1) 128(23) Crossandra 14(2) 157(28) Mango 1(<1) - - - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 10 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 92 (57.86%) men and 67 (42.14%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.38, small farmers' was 3.7, semi medium farmers' was 5.25 and medium farmers' was 16.  The data indicated that, 22 (13.84%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 77 (48.43%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (31.45%) were in 36-60 years of age and 10 (6.29%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Dombarahalli-1 had 25.79 per cent illiterates, 22.64 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.81 per cent of them had middle school education, 17.62 per cent of them had high school education, 10.06 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.89 per cent of them did diploma and 0.63 per cent ITI, 10.06 per cent of them had degree education and 1.89 per cent of them did masters.  The results indicate that, 57.14 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 22.86 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 17.14 per cent were general labourers and 2.86 were in private service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 38.36 per cent of the household members, 21.38 per cent were agricultural laborers, 10.69 per cent were general labour, 3.77 per cent were in private service, 24.53 per cent were students and 1.06 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 98.74 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions and 1.26 per cent of the population has participated in cooperative bank.  The results indicate that 17.14 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 51.43 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 31.43 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 94.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 51.43 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 25.71 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 45.71 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 97.41 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.9000, mixer grinder was Rs.1888, bicycle was Rs. 1888, motor cycle was Rs.30000 and mobile phone was Rs.1941.  About 8.57 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 11.43 per cent of them possess plough, 11.43 per cent of them possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of them possess weeder and 5.71 per cent of them possess tractor. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18666, plough was Rs.3125, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2200, the average value of tractor was Rs.350000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.100.  The results indicate that, 8.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 5.71 per cent of the households possess local cow, 14.29 per cent possess crossbred cow and 2.86 per cent possess goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.76, average own labour (women) available was 1.48, average hired labour (men) available was 11.69 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.45.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Dombarahalli-1 micro watershed possess 6.66 ha (23.77%) of dry land and 4.68 ha (16.70%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.91 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 11.25 ha (86.72%) of dry land and 1.72 ha (13.28%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (62.50%) of dry land and 1.21 ha (37.50%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.86 ha (21.05%) of dry land and 18.21 ha (78.95%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 327,956.72 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 622,471.12. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 458,436.44 for dry land and Rs. 1,534,615.39 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 226,605.50 for dry land and Rs. 858,774.84 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 413,231.94 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 329,333.33 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 12 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 34.29 per cent of the farmers in micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 34.05 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 1.37 ha, 2.45 ha, 5.32 ha and 2.43 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (0.40 ha), banana (3.89 ha), cotton (1.21 ha), groundnut (7.13 ha), maize (6.71 ha), onion (2.02 ha), paddy (1.28 ha), papaya (1.21 ha), red gram (1.21 ha) and sunflower (3.15 ha).  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, banana, groundnut, maize, onion and sunflower. Small farmers have grown banana, cotton, groundnut, maize, onion, redgram and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown banana, paddy and papaya. Medium farmers have grown banana and maize. 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Dombarahalli-1 micro watershed was found to be 87.65 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 93.53 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 86.16 and medium farmers it was 50 per cent.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have bank account and 37.14 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 45.71 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 81.25 per cent of the households have availed loan from grameena bank and 18.75 per cent have availed loan from money lender.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs. 77500, Rs. 63571.43, Rs. 135000 and Rs. 45000 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was social functions like marriage which accounted for 66.67 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 33.33 per cent of the households borrowed for agriculture production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households partially paid their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 23.08 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 76.92 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfill their requirements.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 67015.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 290064.95. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 223049.11, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.33.  The total cost of cultivation for papaya was Rs. 62464.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 724533.33. The net income from papaya cultivation was Rs. 662068.58. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:11.6.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 24509.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24009.69. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. - 499.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 61811.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74057.36. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 12246.19. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.2. 4  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 32161.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63975.99. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 31814.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.99.  The total cost of cultivation for banana was Rs. 79292.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19384193.71. The net income from banana cultivation was Rs. 19304901.58. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:244.47.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 78743.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 170626.03. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 91882.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.17.  The total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 29954.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 72453.33. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 42498.39. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.42.  The total cost of cultivation for Redgram was Rs. 22946.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 58868.33. The net income from Redgram cultivation was Rs. 35921.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.57.  The total cost of cultivation for Bajra was Rs. 54734.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from Bajra cultivation was Rs. 19365.66. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The results indicate that, 20 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25.71 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 58,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 126,503.85, for small farmers it was Rs. 194,418.18, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 351,375 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 300,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 21,910.26. For landless households it was Rs. 6,055.56, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 10,386.59, for small farmers it was Rs. 13,681.82, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 73,750, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 150,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 35 coconut and 1 mango tree in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 55 neem trees and 9 tamarind trees in their field. They have also grown 1 cashew tree in their backyard.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 571.43, for irrigation facility Rs. 228.57, for improved crop production Rs. 285.71 and for improved livestock management Rs. 142.86.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 2.86 per cent of the households for land development, 2.86 per cent for 5 irrigation facility, 2.86 per cent for improved crop production and 2.86 per cent for improved livestock management.  All crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 80 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 5.71 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society and 2.86 per cent have sold their produce to agents/traders.  The results indicated that, 71.43 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 17.14 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 14.29 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 23.08 per cent of the marginal farmers, 9.09 per cent of the small farmers and 100 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 88.57 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of irrigation for remaining 8.57 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, 7.69 per cent of the marginal, 9.09 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 48.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 94.29 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.86 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 2.86 per cent, fruits were adequate for 5.71 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 45.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 2.86 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 97.14 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 97.14 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 94.29 per cent and meat was inadequate for 54.29 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 82.86 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (80%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (34.29%), inadequacy of irrigation 6 water (25.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (25.71%), high rate of interest on credit (25.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (71.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (82.86%), and inadequate extension services (82.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Timmapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 501 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 84 per cent is covered by soils, 14 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 5 Land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 43 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface and 41 per cent loamy soils at the surface.  About 13 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 71 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in about 13 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 65 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (320 ppm) in 11 per cent soils.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 83 per cent area and 4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 42 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 160 (32) Sapota - 19 (4) Maize - 159 (32) Pomegranate - 78 (15) Bajra - 200 (40) Musambi - 78 (15) Groundnut - 107 (21) Lime - 78 (15) Sunflower - 75 (15) Amla - 237 (47) Red gram - 66 (13) Cashew - 36 (7) Bengalgram - 176 (35) Jackfruit - 19 (4) Cotton - 160 (32) Jamun - 69 (14) Chilli - 101 (20) Custard apple - 237 (47) Tomato - 101 (20) Tamarind - 66 (13) Brinjal 16 (3) 135 (27) Mulberry - 113 (23) Onion 16 (3) 62 (12) Marigold - 159 (32) Bhendi 16 (3) 120 (24) Chrysanthemum - 159 (32) Drumstick - 93 (18) Jasmine - 101 (20) Mango - 16 (3) Crossandra - 110 (22) Guava - 19 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Timmapur-2 microwatershed among them 4 (11.43%) were marginal farmers, 14 (40%) were small farmers, 8 (22.86 %) were semi medium farmers, 4 (11.43%) were medium farmers and 5 (14.29%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 191 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 106 (55.50%) men and 85 (44.50 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 6, marginal farmer was 4, small and semi medium farmers were 5 and medium farmers were 7. On an average the family size was 5.  The data indicated that 40 (20.94%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 91 (47.64 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 47 (24.61 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (6.81%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Timmapur-2 had 37.17 per cent illiterates, 35.08 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.38 per cent of them had middle school, 11.52 per cent of them had high school education, 5.76 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.52 had diploma education and 1.05 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 17.14 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were general labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 45.55 per cent of the household members, 24.61 per cent were agricultural labourers, 4.71 per cent were general labours and 23.56 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers 54.84 per cent of them were agriculture labours, 29.03 per cent of them were general labour and 12.90 per cent of them were students.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers 58.82 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 17.65 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 23.53 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 51.35 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 20.27 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 28.38 per cent of them were student. In case of semi medium farmers, 76. 92 per cent of them were agriculturist, 10.26 per cent of them were agriculture labour and students. In medium farmers 30 per cent of them were agriculturist, 26.67 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 40 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 45.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 42.86 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 11.43 per cent of the households possess Pucca house. 2  The results showed that, 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 91.43 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 42.86 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 37.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6800, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1656, bicycle was Rs.1750, motor cycle was Rs.29230 and mobile phone was Rs.1544.  The data showed that about 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 45.71 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households possess tractor, 25.71 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of the households possess weeder and 11.43 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.16800; the average value of plough was Rs. 910, the average value of tractor was Rs. 500000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3500, the average value of weeder was Rs. 59 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 2325.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 28.57 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of marginal farmers, 25 per cent of the households possess bullock. In case of small farmers, 50 per cent of households possess bullock and 28.57 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 62.50 per cent of the households possess bullock and 50 per cent of the households possess local cow. 75 medium farmers possess bullock and 50 farmers possess local.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.13, average own labour (women) available was 1.65, average hired labour (men) available was 8.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.16.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was also 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 6.50 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.71, average hired labour (men) was 9.71 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.21. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.38, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 9.13 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.50. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.25, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 6 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.50.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the household opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Timmapur-2 microwatershed possess 20.72 ha (45.57%) of dry land and 24.75 ha (54.43%) of irrigated land. Marginal 3 farmers possess 2.51 ha (86.11%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (13.89%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 16.19 ha (86.21 %) of dry land and 2.59 ha (13.79 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 0.81 ha (6.97 %) of dry land and 10.81 ha (93.03%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 1.21 ha (9.98%) of dry land and 10.95 ha (90.02%) irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 390,761.72 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 501,592.55. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 597,580.64 for dry land and Rs. 1,976,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 333,450 for dry land Rs. 810,468.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 741,000 for dry land and Rs. 573,558.06 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 494,000 for dry land and Rs. 303,045.09 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 19 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 54.29 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 45.37 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.40 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 2.59 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 12.02 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.11 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 21.13 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (4.45 ha), chilly (1.21 ha), cotton (2.91 ha), groundnut (8.22 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), maize (14.40 ha), paddy (4.57 ha), sesamum (0.81 ha), sorghum (1.21 ha), sunflower (0.81 ha) and tomato (1.21 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown groundnut, maize and sesamum. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, horsegram, maize and sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown chilly, cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy and tomato. Medium farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy and sunflower.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Timmapur-2 microwatershed was found to be 98.07 per cent. In case of marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers it was 100 per cent and in semi medium farmers it was 93.03 per cent.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have bank account and 48.57 per cent of the households have savings. 60per cent of the landless farmers have bank account. In marginal farmers 100 per cent of them have bank account and 50 per cent of them had savings. In case of small farmers 100 per cent of them had bank account and 71.43 per cent possess savings. In case of semi medium farmers, 4 100 per cent of possess bank account and 62.50 per cent farmer's savings. In Medium farmers, 100 per cent of farmers possess bank account.  The results indicated that 54.29 per cent of the farmers have borrowed credit from different sources which includes 75 per cent of marginal, 57.14 per cent of small, 75 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 31.58 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 15.79 per cent have availed loan in cooperative Bank, 5.26 per cent have availed loan from friends/relatives, 89.47 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 42.11per cent have availed loan from money lender and 10.53 per cent have availed loan in SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs. 55,000, Rs. 110,062.50, Rs. 74,166.67 and Rs, 195,000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed was Rs. 108,447.37.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 27.27 per cent of the household's barrowed private credit for agriculture production which includes 40 per cent of the small and 50 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  Results indicated that 19.23 per cent of households were partially paid their loan, 61.54 per cent of households were unpaid their loan and 19.23 per cent of households were fully paid their loan.  Results indicated that 63.64 per cent of the households have partially paid their loan, 27.27 per cent have unpaid their private credit and 9.09 per cent of the households have fully paid their loan.  The results indicated that 30.77 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 46.15 per cent of the households were opined that higher rate of interest, 7.69 per cent of the households were opined that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time .  The results indicated that, 9.09 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations and higher rate of interest and 36.36 per cent of the households were not given any opinion.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27597.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29830.49. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 2232.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 61186.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75699.47. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 14512.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24. 5  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 62877.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73035.07. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 10157.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 17933.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25454.72. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 7521.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.42.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 28537.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 103740. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 75202.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.64.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 11451.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26840.67. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 15389.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.34.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 28542.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 71784.37. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 43242.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.52.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 34933.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63232. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 28298.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.81.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 23059.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 181133.33. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 158074.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.86.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 13146.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34382.40. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 21235.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.62.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sesamum was Rs. 15380.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21612.50. The net income from sesamum cultivation was Rs. 6231.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.41.  The results indicated that, 62.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 34.29 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 26000. In marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 26071.43 and agriculture was Rs. 37600. In small farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 6 26071.43, agriculture was Rs. 49050 and dairy farm was Rs. 2112.14. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 14,375, agriculture was Rs. 117,562.50 and dairy farm was Rs.625. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 15000, agriculture was Rs. 71500 and dairy farm was Rs. 750.  The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 13000, in marginal farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.5666.67 and agriculture was Rs.14750. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 11111.11, agriculture was Rs. 23285.71 and dairy farm was Rs. 10,000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 5750, agriculture was Rs. 47875 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 3,000 and agriculture was Rs. 35,000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 20 coconut and 49 mango trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 50 neem, 6 tarmind, 1 banyan and 1 peeple trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.2257.14 for land development, Rs. 1171.43 in irrigation facility, Rs.1314.29 for improved crop production, Rs.600 for improved livestock management and Rs.142.86 for subsidiary enterprises.  The data showed that Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2500 for land development, Rs. 1500 for irrigation facility and Rs.1250 for improved crop production. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2357.14 for land development, Rs. 785.71 in irrigation facility, Rs.1642.86 for improved crop production and Rs.357.14 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2000 for land development, Rs. 1750 in irrigation facility, Rs.1250 for improved crop production and Rs.750 for improved livestock management. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5000 for land development, Rs. 2500 for irrigation facility, Rs.2000 for improved crop production, Rs.2500 for improved livestock management and Rs.1250 for subsidiary enterprises.  The results indicated that, for land development, 20 per cent were depending on loan from the bank and 2.86 per cent of the households were depending on soft loan. For irrigation facility 5.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank and 11.43 per cent were depending on soft loan. Similarly for improved crop production, 5.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank, 2.86 per cent were dependent on their own funds and 14.29 per cent of the households were depending on soft loan. For improved livestock management 2.86 per cent were dependent on own funds and 11.43 per cent were dependent on soft loan. For subsidiary enterprises 2.86 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan. 7  The results indicated that, chilli, cotton, horsegram, sesamum, sorghum, sunflower and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, maize and paddy were sold to the extent of 85.71 per cent, 96.27 per cent, 97.23 per cent and 94.33 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 62.86 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 31.43 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 14.29 percent of the households sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that 11.43 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 57.14 per cent of them have used tractor and 40 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 50 percent of marginal farmers, 42.86 per cent of small farmers, 37.50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 percent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 100 per cent of marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers and 87.50 per cent of the semi medium farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households and 17.14 per cents of the households were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 21.43 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium and 25 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 100 percent of the marginal, 21.43 per cent of the small, 12.50 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 94.29 per cent, 60 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 85.71 per cent, 80 per cent, and 65.71 per cent respectively. Vegetables and fruits were adequate for 48.57 per cent of the households. 8  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 5.71 per cent, 40 per cent, 80 per cent, 42.86 per cent, 40 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 17.14 per cent and 31.43 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 65.71 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 42.86 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 60 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 60 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 65.71 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households and less rainfall was experienced by 25.71 per cent of the farmers. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Early in the year, as the global economy was slowing and the euro area entered a recession, Russia's economy held steady. But now, as 2012 is entering its final quarter, growth is slowing. Just at a time when Russia's output levels have exceeded the pre-crisis peak, the economy is settling onto a lower trajectory, even though oil prices have stayed high. But let us start with the strong points. The economy had a good first half of the year. While growth was stalling in Europe and slowing in other emerging economies, it remained steady in Russia. Key economic indicators were near or at record levels: the current account surplus stayed high and the Central Bank of Russia added to its reserves, helping to bolster market confidence. Capital outflows, long regarded as one of the soft spots of Russia's economy, declined in the second and third quarters of 2012 from the peaks in the previous two quarters. Whereas many countries in Europe are struggling with large public debt and high fiscal deficits, Russia's federal government public debt is close to single digit and the fiscal balance is in surplus. Inflation and unemployment rates declined to their lowest level in two decades. As people's purchasing power improved and more people had jobs, fewer people were in poverty than at any time since the beginning of the economic transition. A challenging external environment and worsening sentiments among businesses and consumers translate into weak growth prospects. Excluding the crisis years of 1998 and 2009, growth in 2012 is set to decline to its lowest rate in a decade and a half. And 2013 is unlikely to look much better. The weak outlook means that strong, three-pronged policy action is essential to reinvigorate the economy. First, economic policies have to ensure stability. The recent tightening in monetary policy was an important step in this direction. Second, Russia has to build buffers against the external volatility. This means replenishing the reserve fund, moving towards inflation targeting and strengthening banking supervision. Finally, the government has to lift the growth potential of the economy. This means raising productivity and competitiveness, diversifying the economy, and improving transport connectivity, as discussed in the last section of this report, in line with its longer-term economic policy goals. Making headway on this agenda will enable Russia to lift growth above 4 percent and more.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanakapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 446 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soil, two per cent by rock out crops and one per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 26 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 10 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 60 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 26 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 31 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 1 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 94 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 23 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 72 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 56 per cent is slightly acid (pH6.0-6.5), 34 per cent has neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3) soils and 7 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 40 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 57 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 38 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 8(2) - Pomegranate - 83(18) Maize - 8 (2) Guava - 75(17) Bajra - 90(20) Jackfruit - 75(17) Redgram - 8 (2) Jamun - 83(18) Bengal gram 8(2) 7(2) Musambi 8(2) 75(17) Groundnut - 303 (68) Lime 8 (2) 75(17) Sunflower 8(2) - Cashew - 184(41) Cotton 8(2) - Custard apple 8(2) 419(94) Chilli - - Amla - 427 (96) Tomato - - Tamarind - 8(2) Drumstick - 236(53) Marigold - 8(2) Mulberry - 421(94) Chrysanthemum 8(2) Mango - - Jasmine - - Sapota - 75(17) Crossandra - 8(2) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 78 (60%) men and 52 (40%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers was 4.3, small farmer was 2.9, semi medium farmer was 4.1, medium farmer was 7 and for landless farmers it was 4.  The data indicated that the there were 22 (16.92%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 50 (38.46%) were in 16-35 years of age, 44 (33.85 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (10.77%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Kanakapura-2 had 23.08 per cent illiterates, 20.77 per cent of them had primary school education, 15.38 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.38 per cent of them had high school education, 6.92 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.77 per cent of them had diploma, 5.38 per cent of them had degree education and 2.31 per cent of them had masters education.  The results indicate that, 64.71 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 2.94 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers, 8.82 per cent were general labourers and 11.76 per cent of the households heads were doing other occupation.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 56.92 per cent of the household members, 0.77 per cent were agricultural labourers, 6.15 per cent were general labours,0.77 percent were in private service, 26.15 per cent of them were students and 3.85 per cent were housewives.  The results shows that 1.54 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 0.77 per cent of them participated in gram panchayat, 4.62 per cent of them participated in cooperative bank, 0.77 percent of them participated in zilla panchayat and 92.31 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 91.18 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 5.88 per cent of them possess pucca house and 8.82 per cent of them possess thatched house. Cent percent of the landless farmers possess katcha house.  The results shows that 79.41 per cent of the households possess TV, 70.59 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 55.88 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 38.24 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 97.06 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  About 50 per cent of the households possess plough, 29.41 per cent of them possess bullock cart and 41.18 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 11.76 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 100 per cent of the households possess weeder. Other implements owned by households in the micro watershed were tractor, sprinkler, harvester, thresher, groundnut decorticator, JCB and earth remover/duster. 2  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.775, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 18200, the average value of sprayer was Rs.1715, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 5000, the average value of harvester was Rs. 30000, the average value of thresher was Rs. 45000 and the average value of tractor was Rs. 300000.  The results indicate that, 44.12 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 29.41 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.88 per cent of the households possess crossbred cows and 2.94 per cent of the households possess sheep.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.67, average own labour (women) available was 1.17, average hired labour (men) available was 4.23 and average hired labour (women) available was 16.39.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. About 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 100 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and medium farmers have opined that the hired labour was adequate.  There was 1 person each migrated from micro watershed who belonged to landless and small farmer category. Total migration in the micro watershed was only 1.54 per cent.  People have migrated on an average of 527 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Landless farmers have migrated 455 kms and on an average for 9 months. Small farmers migrated 600 kms and on an average for 7 months.  Job/work was the most important reasons for migration for all the migrants. Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequences of migration for 100 per cent of the persons migrated.  The results indicate that, households of the Kanakapura-2 micro watershed possess 30.64 ha (88.85%) of dry land and 3.44 ha (9.98%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.48 ha (94.87%) of dry land and 0.4 ha (5.13 %) permanent fallow. Small farmers possess 17.76 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.4 ha (81.64%) of dry land and 1.21 ha (18.36%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.23 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs.233054 and average value of irrigated land was Rs.443202. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 469662 for dry land and Rs. 1235000 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 7 functioning and 1 defunct bore wells in the micro watershed. There were 2 functioning and 1 defunct open well reported among the sampled households in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 20.59 per cent of the farmers and open well was the source of irrigation for 5.88 per cent of the farmers. The depth of bore well was found to be 11.65 meters and the depth of open well was 3.23 meters. 3  The results indicate that, there were around 11.34 ha of irrigated area in kharif and 7.69 ha of irrigated area in rabi.  Farmers have grown Anthorium (0.81 ha), Bajra (4.16 ha), Cotton (0.81 ha), Groundnut-Kharif (1.3 ha), Horse gram (1.43 ha), Jowar (1.21 ha), Maize (23.35 ha), Paddy (2.43 ha), Red gram (1.3 ha), Sorghum (0.85 ha), Tomato (0.4 ha), Groundnut-Rabi (4.6 ha), Navane (2.43 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kanakapura-2 micro watershed was found to be 96.32 per cent.  The results indicate that, 97.06 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings. Among landless farmers 75 percent of them possess bank account and savings. Hundred per cent of marginal, small, semi medium and medium category of farmers possess bank account and also savings.  The results indicate that, 75 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small, 100 per cent semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  Around 66.67 per cent have availed loan in grameena bank and 21.21 per cent have availed loan in money lender.  Landless, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed loans to the exent Rs. 43333, Rs. 48500, Rs. 76250, Rs. 276428 and Rs. 200000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is Rs. 111060.  The results indicate that, from institutional sources around 95.45 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture and 4.55 per cent of them have borrowed loan for social functions like marriage. Landless farmer has borrowed credit for social functions and all other category of farmers have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Around 66.67 per cent farmers borrowed credit for agriculture production purpose, 16.67 per cent borrowed for house hold consumption and another 16.67 percent of small farmers also borrowed loan for education purpose from non-institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs.29848.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45530.08. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs.15681.22, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.53.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 42148.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80968.77. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs.38820.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.92.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 16353.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22620.68. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 6267.51, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.38. 4  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 34734.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20616.37. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 14118.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.59.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 10587.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23547.33. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 12959.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.22. The total cost of cultivation for horse gram was Rs. 13526.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 16781.39. The net income from horse gram cultivation was Rs. 3254.58. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24.  The total cost of cultivation for jowar was Rs. 48019.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 86046.57. The net income from jowar cultivation was Rs. 38027.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.79.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 48019.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 86046.57. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 38027.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.79.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 48019.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 86046.57. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 38027.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.79.  The results indicate that, 26.47 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.88 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The data revealed that 23.53 per cent of the farmers opined that dry fodder is inadequate and 2.94 per cent opined that green fodder is inadequate.  The results indicated that the average annual gross income of households in the micro watershed was Rs.124166. Landless farmers had an income of Rs. 86250, marginal farmers had Rs.109908, small farmers had Rs. 88469, semi medium farmers had Rs. 187994 and medium farmers had Rs. 400000 average annual gross income.  The average annual expenditure of households in the micro watershed was Rs.14792. Landless farmers had an expenditure of Rs.21562, marginal farmers had Rs. 4775, small farmers had Rs. 3720, semi medium farmers had Rs. 16325 and medium farmers had Rs. 210000 average annual expenditure.  The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, horsegram, jowar, maize, navane, paddy, red gram and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  Only 14.71 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants. About 91.18 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets.  Around 44.12 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 61.76 per cent have used tractor. 5  The results indicated that, 8.82 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 8.33 percent of small farmers and 28.57 percent semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 100 per cent of small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 38.24 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding. Summer ploughing was adopted by 55.88 per cent of the farmers. Farm pond was adopted by 42.86 per cent of semi medium farmers.  Around 7.96 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that bunds are slightly damaged, and 92.31 per cent opined that dull replacement required. About 66.67 per cent of the households who adopted farm pond opined that the ponds are in good condition and 33.33 per cent opined that they need full replacement.  About 35.29 per cent of soil conservation structure were constructed by farmers on their own, 29.41 per cent of the soil conservation structures were constructed by the government, 5.88 per cent were constructed.  The results indicated that, 91.18 percent of the households used fire wood as a source of fuel and another 8.82 percent of the households used LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.12 per cent which includes 100 per cent of landless 100 per cent of marginal, 91.67 per cent of small farmers, 85.71 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers. Another 2.94 per cent of the household had bore well as their major source of drinking water.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households in micro watershed and another 2.94 per cent of the households used kerosene lamp.  The results indicated that, 58.82 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 75 per cent of landless, 50 per cent of marginal, 33.33 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farm households had sanitary toilet facility.  Around 82.35 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 17.65 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 64.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 100 percent of the marginal, 25 per cent of the small, 57.14 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 41.18 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (70.59%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (76.47%), inadequacy of irrigation 6 water (82.35%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (79.41%), high rate of interest on credit (91.18%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85,92%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.29%), inadequate extension services (85.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (85.29%), less rainfall (88.24%) and source of agri-technology information was a constraint for 85.29 per cent of the households. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Ohne eine günstige und üppige Energieversorgung, die an Verlässlichkeit nichts vermissen lässt, ist der Wohlstand unserer Gesellschaft undenkbar. Seit der Zeit der Industrialisierung im 19. Jahrhundert ist die Frage der Energieversorgung zunehmend in den Mittelpunkt unserer ökonomischen Interessen gerückt. Damit wurde das Thema Energieversorgung auch zum Gegenstand der Politik. Seit dieser Zeit haben alle deutschen Regierungen sich mit Priorität darum bemüht, dass Energie in Deutschland in ausreichendem Maße zur Verfügung steht und für breite Schichten der Gesellschaft und für möglichst alle Industrieanwendungen zu einem akzeptablen Preis angeboten werden kann.Hat es sich dabei zu Beginn dieses Prozesses vor allem darum gedreht, wie man möglichst günstig und in großen Mengen an primäre Energieträger kam, vornehmlich Kohle, später Öl und Gas, so hat sich in den letzten zwanzig Jahren vieles in Deutschland verändert. Seit die Naturwissenschaften uns immer eindrucksvoller vor Augen führen, dass fossile Energieträger durch den Ausstoß von Treibhausgasen den Klimawandel herbeigeführt haben und in zunehmendem Maße verschärfen, ist der Menschheit und damit auch Deutschland in großem Stil daran gelegen, Energiequellen zu erschließen, die der Umwelt keinen Schaden zufügen, uns gleichzeitig aber nicht in die Vormoderne zurückfallen lassen.Eine breite gesellschaftliche Debatte ist seitdem entstanden, mit welchen Methoden man am besten dieses Ziel erreichen kann und welche sich eher nicht eignen, um dem Klimawandel zu begegnen und gleichzeitig den Industriestandort Deutschland nicht zu gefährden. Insbesondere die Partei Bündnis90/Die Grünen und die ihr nachgeordneten Lobbyorganisationen hatten einen entscheidenden politischen Einfluss auf die deutsche Gesellschaft und Politik, sodass in den letzten zwei Dekaden ein Transformationsprozess in Gang gesetzt wurde, der es sich zum Ziel setzt, die deutsche Volkswirtschaft mit sauberen und erneuerbaren Energien zu versorgen. Dieser Prozess, der gemeinhin als Energiewende bezeichnet wird, ist extrem vielgestaltig und umfasst einen radikalen und durchgehenden Umbau unserer Art, Energie zu erzeugen und zu nutzen, und ist ein international einmaliges und vielbeachtetes Projekt.Energiewende in Deutschland – Begriffsklärung "Der Wohlstand unserer Gesellschaft hängt von einer funktionierenden Energieversorgung ab. Ohne Strom, Wärme und Mobilität ist unser Alltag nicht mehr denkbar. Das Ziel der Energiewende ist es deshalb, eine sichere, wirtschaftliche und umweltverträgliche Energieversorgung zu realisieren. Die Erforschung von Technologien und gesellschaftlichen Konzepten zur nachhaltigen Energieerzeugung, -umwandlung und -verteilung stehen daher im Fokus dieses Projekts." (BMBF 2023)Die Energiewende beschreibt nach dieser Definition also einen umfassenden, aber auch notwendigen Umbau unserer Energieversorgung. Dieser Umbau ist notwendig, da beim Verbrennen von fossilen Energieträgern wie Kohle, Öl oder Gas Treibhausgase entstehen (vgl. BMBF, 2023), welche den Klimawandel verursachen und zunehmend verschärfen. Die Energiewende fußt im Grunde auf zwei Säulen. Erstens geht es um die Versorgung der deutschen Volkswirtschaft und der deutschen Bevölkerung durch Erzeugung und Speicherung von Energie (hauptsächlich Strom), der aus erneuerbaren Quellen stammen soll. Vor allem Wind- und Wasserkraft, aber auch Solarenergie stehen dabei im Vordergrund. So sollen die erneuerbaren Energien bis 2050 rund 60% unseres Bruttoendenergieverbrauchs und sogar 80% unseres Bruttostromverbrauchs decken. (vgl. BMBF, 2023)Da Sonne und Wind ohne Speichertechnik aber nicht grundlastfähig sind, also nicht kontinuierlich zur Verfügung stehen, muss Deutschland neue Technologien entwickeln, um überschüssigen Strom langfristig speichern zu können, um ihn dann in das Netz einzuspeisen, wenn er benötigt wird, oder in anderer Form in nutzbare Energie umzuwandeln und an anderer Stelle zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt zur Verstromung zu nutzen oder für andere Anwendungen. Solche Arten der Umwandlung sind vor allem Power-to-Gas, also die Umwandlung von elektrischem Strom in Wasserstoffgas. Dieses durch Elektrolyseverfahren gewonnene Gas kann entweder durch Brennstoffzellen verstromt werden oder in das Erdgasnetz eingespeist werden. (vgl. BMBF, 2023)"Ebenso denkbar ist die Umwandlung von überschüssigem Wind- oder Solarstrom in Wärme (Power-to-Heat), in flüssige Kraftstoffe (Power-to-Fuel) oder in Basischemikalien (Power-to-Chemicals)." (BMBF, 2023)Die Speicherung von überschüssigem Strom aus erneuerbaren Energien soll also vielerlei Gestalt annehmen. Zweitens ist es notwendig, den Energieverbrauch im großen Stil zu reduzieren, dazu soll bis 2050 rund 50% weniger Primärenergie verbraucht werden als 2008. Erreicht werden soll dies durch verschiedene Innovationen in unterschiedlichen Bereichen. Von effizienteren Motoren und Kraftwerken über Gebäudesanierungen bis hin zu Einsparungen bei Industrieprozessen. Ein weiterer Schritt ist die Nutzung der Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung (KWK) bei der die entstandene Wärme aus der Stromgewinnung bei Industrieprozessen oder zum Heizen genutzt werden soll. (vgl. BMBF, 2023)Diese großflächige Speicherinfrastruktur befindet sich gerade erst im Aufbau und wird erst in der Zukunft eine große Rolle bei der Transformation weg von fossilen Energieträgern hin zu erneuerbaren Energien spielen. Ebenfalls Zukunftsmusik ist die notwendige Dezentralisierung unserer Energieversorgung. Große konventionelle Kraftwerke werden in Zukunft keine Rolle mehr bei der Energiegewinnung in Deutschland spielen, sondern ersetzt werden durch eine dezentrale Struktur mit zahlreichen kleinen Produktionsanlagen. Dafür müssen sich unsere Stromnetze massiv verändern hin zu intelligenten Stromnetzten, an denen alle relevanten Akteure wie Produzenten, Verteiler und Verbraucher beteiligt sein müssen (vgl. BMBF, 2023), wenn das Projekt gelingen soll.Die Energiewende beschreibt also einen massiven Transformationsprozess aller unserer Lebensbereiche, um unsere Gesellschaft und unsere Volkswirtschaft in eine nachhaltige Energieversorgung zu überführen, die auf erneuerbaren Energien fußen soll. Eine Form der erneuerbaren Energien hat hier bisher noch keine Erwähnung gefunden und ist in den Medien und der Forschung auch bei weitem nicht so stark präsent wie Wind- und Solarenergie, nämlich die Geothermie. Um diese Energieform soll es in diesem Beitrag gehen.Funktionsweise der Geothermie"99 % der Erde sind heißer als 1.000 °C – ein gewaltiges Energiepotenzial." (EnBW, 2023) Es ist nach diesem Zitat nicht verwunderlich, dass sich ausgerechnet ein Energiekonzern so sehr für eine erneuerbare Energiequelle einsetzt. Doch bevor man sich anschaut, welches Potenzial Geothermie für Deutschland hat, sollte man sich anschauen, wie diese Form der Energiegewinnung funktioniert, denn daraus leitet sich ab, ob und wo Geothermie genutzt werden kann."Geothermie bezeichnet die in der Erdkruste gespeicherte Wärmeenergie und die ingenieurtechnische Nutzung. Geothermie kann zum Heizen, Kühlen und zur Stromerzeugung eingesetzt werden. In Deutschland steigt die Temperatur in der Erdkruste durchschnittlich um 3 Kelvin pro 100 Meter an. Dementsprechend erschließen oberflächennahe und tiefe Geothermie Bereiche unterschiedliche Temperaturniveaus." (Umweltbundesamt, 2023)Geothermie nutzt also die natürliche Wärme des Erdinneren. Je tiefer man bohrt, desto wärmer wird es. Es werden daher auch grundsätzlich zwei Arten von Geothermie voneinander unterschieden: Die oberflächennahe Geothermie und die tiefe Geothermie. (vgl. UBA, 2023) Bei der oberflächennahen Geothermie handelt es sich um eine Variante dieser Energieerzeugung, die in geringer Tiefe und mit geringer Temperatur arbeitet. Bei tiefer Geothermie werden mehrere Kilometer tiefe Bohrlöcher benötigt, um Erdschichten mit hohen Temperaturen erreichen zu können."Die Oberflächennahe Geothermie nutzt den Untergrund bis zu einer Tiefe von ca. 400 m und Temperaturen von bis zu 25 °C für das Beheizen und Kühlen von Gebäuden, technischen Anlagen oder Infrastruktureinrichtungen. Hierzu wird die Wärme oder Kühlenergie aus den oberen Erd- und Gesteinsschichten oder aus dem Grundwasser gewonnen. Neben klassischen Anwendungsformen zur Bereitstellung von Raumwärme und Warmwasser wird die Oberflächennahe Geothermie auch zur Beheizung von Gewächshäusern sowie zur Enteisung von Weichen oder Parkplätzen eingesetzt." (Bundesverband Geothermie e.V., 2023)Sie ist damit die am häufigsten genutzte Form der Erdwärme, da sie für viele auch private Anwendungen in Frage kommt. In Deutschlands privaten Hauhalten und öffentlichen Gebäuden wie Krankenhäusern oder Schulen sind Stand 2020 über 440.000 Geothermieanlagen unterschiedlichster Machart verbaut. Jährlich kommen etwa 20.500 (vgl. Bundesverband Geothermie e.V., 2023) dieser Oberflächenanlagen dazu. In der folgenden Abbildung (siehe Link) sieht man eine der gängigsten Formen der oberflächennahen Geothermie, wie sie hauptsächlich in privaten Wohnhäusern verbaut wird: https://www.geothermie.de/fileadmin/_processed_/d/9/csm_Schema_Haus_WP_BV_20171024_final_deutsch_ed82c836bd.jpg Bei der oberflächennahen Geothermie werden einige Unterkategorien unterschieden (Abbildung siehe Link): https://www.geothermie.de/fileadmin/_processed_/5/3/csm_181122_Blockgrafik_Geothermie_003-02_bc7ad8b59a.jpg Von allen diesen Unterkategorien hat sich die Erdwärmesonde als die häufigste Variante durchgesetzt. Diese Sonden sind senkrechte Bohrungen, in die mit einer Art Zement befestigte Rohre eingelassen werden. Diese Rohre werden mit einer Trägerflüssigkeit befüllt. Dabei handelt es sich meist um Wasser, welches mit Frostschutzmittel versetzt wurde. Dieses Wasser nimmt die Wärme aus dem Inneren der Erde auf und transportiert sie zur Wärmepumpe an die Oberfläche.Für das Bahnnetz zum Beispiel zum Beheizen von Weichen kommen spezielle Anlagen zum Einsatz, die CO2 als Trägerflüssigkeit nutzen. Wenn mehrere oder größere Einheiten gleichzeitig durch dieselbe Anlage beheizt werden sollen, wird ein ganzes Sondenfeld in den Boden eingebracht. Dies ist aber aufwändiger und bedarf einer sehr genauen Planung, damit sich die einzelnen Sonden nicht gegenseitig die Wärme entziehen. (vgl. Bundesverband Geothermie e.V., 2023)Bei größeren Projekten wie z.B. Wohngebieten können auch Brunnenanlagen verbaut werden. Diese müssen aber mit Filteranlagen ausgestattet sein, um Verunreinigungen des Grundwassers zu verhindern. Daneben können auch Erdwärmekollektoren ins Erdreich eingelassen werden oder sogenannte Energiepfähle. Bei beiden ergibt sich ein finanzieller Vorteil durch die dafür nur in geringem Maße notwenigen Aushubarbeiten. (vgl. Bundesverband Geothermie e.V., 2023)Da die Temperaturen im Sommer an der Oberfläche höher sind als im Erdinneren kann Geothermie auch als Ersatz für herkömmliche Klimaanlagen verwendet werden. Grundsätzlich benötigen alle Arten von Geothermie eine Form von Wärmetauschung, die elektrischen Strom benötigt. In diesen Wärmepumpen befindet sich eine Chemikalie, die bereits bei geringer Temperatur verdampft. Das dabei entstehende Gas wird in einem Kompressor verdichtet. Der so erreichte Druck wird als Wärme an das Heizungssystem abgegeben. Wenn das Gas abkühlt, verflüssigt es sich wieder, der Druck wird durch ein Ventil abgebaut. (vgl. Bundesverband Geothermie e.V., 2023)"Die tiefe Geothermie stößt gegenüber der oberflächennahen Nutzung von Erdwärme in andere Dimensionen vor. Es werden nicht nur Wärmereservoire in größeren Tiefen erschlossen und dabei Bohrlöcher von bis zu fünf Kilometer Tiefe gebohrt. Auch die damit betriebenen Anlagen sind wesentlich größer und leistungsfähiger." (UBA, 2023)Grundsätzlich funktioniert tiefe Geothermie genauso wie oberflächennahe Geothermie. Es gibt aber einige technische Unterschiede, die das Potenzial dieser Variante verändern und Einfluss haben auf ihre Anwendungsmöglichkeiten. Tiefe Geothermie ist vollständig unabhängig von den Jahreszeiten und sehr leistungsstark. Ganze Stadtviertel können damit über Fernwärme versorgt werden. Bei entsprechender Tiefe und damit Temperatur kann mit tiefer Geothermie sogar Strom erzeugt werden. (vgl. UBA, 2023) Bei der tiefen Geothermie werden grundsätzlich drei Typen unterschieden.Bei tiefen Erdwärmesonden ist das Prinzip dasselbe wie bei oberflächennahen Sonden. Der Unterschied besteht neben der Tiefe des Bohrlochs aufgrund der hohen Temperaturen darin, dass keine Wärmepumpe benötigt wird. Die Wärme kann direkt durch das Heizungssystem verwendet werden. (vgl. Bundesverband Geothermie e.V., 2023) Der entscheidende Vorteil dieses Typs liegt darin, dass er nahezu überall genutzt werden kann, da es sich um einen geschlossenen Wasserkreislauf handelt, für den kein Austausch mit dem Grundwasser notwendig ist. Das System kann einfach mit Wasser befüllt werden, welches dann in die Tiefe geleitet wird und so die Wärme nach oben transportiert.Genau das ist bei der hydrothermalen Geothermie anders. Sie ist auf natürliche Grundwasserreservoirs angewiesen. Ohne Gesteinsschichten, die ausreichend Grundwasser führen, ist diese Variante also nicht nutzbar, da das Thermalwasser über eine Bohrung nach oben und über eine zweite Bohrung wieder nach unten geleitet werden muss. (Abbildung hier: https://www.geothermie.de/fileadmin/_processed_/e/7/csm_Geotherm_Energiebereitstellung_de_thumb_03_62a402241e.png)Sind keine natürlichen Thermalwasservorkommen vorhanden, gibt es noch die Möglichkeit, dieses künstlich in das Gestein zu pressen. Die sogenannte petrothermale Geothermie ist die Variante mit den größten Potenzial in Deutschland, da hier durch Stimulationsmaßnahen im Erdreich die Gegebenheiten, die es braucht, um tiefe Geothermie zu nutzen, künstlich hergestellt werden. Das Gestein wird durch Geoengineering so präpariert, dass man unter hohem Druck Wasser in die Gesteinsschicht presst, welches sich dann in der Tiefe aufwärmt. (vgl. Bundeverband Geothermie e.V., 2023) Dieses warme Wasser kann dann wie gewohnt zur Wärmegewinnung genutzt werden.Neben diesen gängigen Formen der Geothermie gibt es noch einige Sonderformen wie das Speichern saisonal anfallender Wärme z.B. beim Kühlen von Gebäuden oder die Nutzung von Erdwärme aus Tunneln und Bergbauanlagen. (vgl. Bundesverband Geothermie e.V., 2023)Potenzial der Geothermie in Deutschland"Die Erdwärme steht uns ganzjährig und verlässlich zur Verfügung, sie ist wetterunabhängig, krisensicher und nahezu unerschöpflich. Darum ist es richtig, die Nutzung der Erdwärme in Deutschland weiter voranzubringen. Wir haben daher einen Konzeptvorschlag mit acht konkreten Maßnahmen entwickelt, den wir in einem ersten Schritt zur Konsultation stellen wollen, um darauf aufbauend konkrete Geothermieprojekte an den Start zu bringen. Die Nutzung der Erdwärme muss nach unserer Einschätzung konsequent zusammen gedacht werden mit dem Ausbau und der Dekarbonisierung der Wärmenetze. Denn beides ist gerade für Kommunen und bei der Entwicklung einer klimaneutralen Wärmeversorgung wichtig." (Robert Habeck)Dieses Zitat des Bundesministers für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz spricht Bände darüber, welche Bedeutung der Geothermie in Zukunft beigemessen werden wird. Das Potenzial der Geothermie hängt mit ihrer Funktionsweise zusammen, die ihre Anwendungsmöglichkeiten bedingt. Bis 2030 sollen fünfzig Prozent der Wärmeleistung in Deutschland klimaneutral erzeugt werden. Dazu soll unter anderem ein geothermisches Potenzial von 10 TWh erschlossen werden. (vgl. BMWK, 2023)Besonderes Potenzial wird der Geothermie, geographisch gesehen, in solchen Regionen beigemessen, in denen die Wärmeerzeugung auch ohne Wärmepumpen möglich ist. Diese Regionen sind vor allem die norddeutsche Tiefebene, der Oberrheingraben und das Alpenvorland (siehe Link unten für Kartenübersicht). Hier haben sich mehrere Projekte bereits etabliert, einige davon auch bereits mit großer Heizleistung (vgl. BMWK, 2022). Karte: https://www.stadtwerke-speyer.de/de/Ueber-uns/Engagement/Geothermie/Geothermie/Geothermie-temperaturkarte-3500-unter-nn-20220316__scaled__317_451.png Bayern ist bei der Nutzung der tiefen Geothermie Vorreiter in Deutschland und hat bereits konkrete Pläne für die zukünftige Nutzung in seinem Energiekonzept erarbeitet. So soll mittelfristig 1% des bayrischen Gesamtverbrauchs durch diese Technologie gedeckt werden und etwa 0,6% des Stromverbrauchs. Bei der oberflächennahen Geothermie gehen die Zahlen der zu verbauenden Anlagen in die zehntausende. (vgl. Bayrisches Energiekonzept, 2011)Hier zeigt sich aber bereits eine Begrenzung der Nutzung von Geothermie. Während oberflächennahe Geothermie nahezu überall genutzt und vor allem für das Heizen und Kühlen von kleinen bis mittleren Gebäudeeinheiten eingesetzt werden kann, ist die tiefe Geothermie auf einige Regionen in Deutschland beschränkt. Jedenfalls nach dem aktuellen Wissensstand.Das Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz will in den nächsten zwei Jahren eine großangelegte Datenkampagne fahren, um eine einheitliche Lagebeschreibung für die Nutzung der Geothermie in ganz Deutschland zu erstellen. In einer entsprechenden Explorationskampagne im Jahr 2023 an etwa hundert Standorten, an denen günstige Bedingungen zu erwarten sind, soll das Potenzial näher erforscht werden. (vgl. BMWK, 2022)Des Weiteren ist bisher die Nutzung von Geothermie für die Stromproduktion noch nahezu unerforscht. Forschungsprojekte wie z.B. der EnBW in Bruchsal oder im elsässischen Soultz-sous-Forêts sollen diese Wissenslücke schließen, befinden sich aber erst im Aufbau. Welches Potenzial sich hier für die deutsche Energiewende ergeben wird, lässt sich zu diesem Zeitpunkt noch nicht sagen. Die Stromproduktion mit Geothermie an einem Standort der Stadtwerke München ist zugunsten der Wärmegewinnung zum Heizen eingestellt worden. (vgl. Bundesverband Geothermie e.V., 2023)Die Frage bleibt also, welches Potenzial Geothermie denn nun tatsächlich hat. Klar ist, dass Geothermie nicht den gesamten Wärmebedarf in Deutschland decken kann. Während oberflächennahe Geothermie überall eingesetzt werden kann, um Gebäude zu beheizen, so gibt es in der Industrie Anwendungen mit über 200 Grad Celsius, die nicht durch Geothermie in Kombination mit einer großen Wärmepumpe bereitgestellt werden können. Trotzdem können in Deutschland 70 GW Leistung installiert werden und damit bis zu 300 TWh pro Jahr an Wärmeleistung. Dies entspricht in etwa der Hälfte des zukünftigen Wärmebedarfs aller Gebäude in Deutschland. (vgl. DW, 2023)Damit entfaltet die Geothermie eine Leistung, die zumindest für einen sehr großen Bereich der Energie- und Wärmewende ein großes Potenzial aufweist. Wenn man in Betracht zieht, wie stiefmütterlich dieses an und für sich gewaltige Energiepotenzial bisher genutzt wurde, kann hier von einer kleinen Wärmerevolution gesprochen werden, die unsere Art zu heizen und zu kühlen grundlegend verändern wird. Geothermie ist gerade auf dem besten Weg, in einigen Jahren ein fester Bestandteil unseres Alltags zu werden. Die große Unbekannte an dieser Stelle bleibt die Frage, ob Stromproduktion mit Geothermie in Deutschland in großem Umfang überhaupt möglich ist oder ob es nicht doch eher zugunsten der Wärmegewinnung ungenutzt bleiben sollte.Beispiel MünchenIn München erstreckt sich ein über 900 Kilometer langes Fernwärmenetz (vgl. SWM, 2023), das die meisten Münchner Haushalte mit Wärme zum Heizen versorgt. Um dieses riesige Netz klimaneutral zu bekommen, wird einiges an Anstrengung nötig sein. Doch die Stadt München sitzt auf ihrer eigenen nachhaltigen Wärmequelle.Wie bereits oben erwähnt, eignet sich das Alpenvorland, zu dem München gehört, besonders gut für alle Arten von Geothermie. Im Grunde ist ganz Bayern für diese Methode der Wärmegewinnung gut geeignet. Theoretisch könnten bis zu 40% des bayrischen Wärmebedarfs durch Geothermie gedeckt werden. 25% sind von der bayrischen Staatsregierung als Zielmarke ausgegeben worden. (vgl. SZ, 2022) In München sollen mehrere Standorte zusammenwirken, um zwischen 70% und 80% des Wärmebedarfs zu decken. (vgl. Münchner Merkur, 2022) Sechs Anlagen sind derzeit in Betrieb: Die Geothermieanlage Freiham ist seit 2016 in Betrieb und liefert Fernwärme an den Münchner Westen. In Dürrnhaar steht seit 2012 eine Anlage, die zur Stromproduktion verwendet wird. In Kirschstockach wurde ursprünglich Strom produziert. Dies wurde aber zugunsten von Fernwärme aufgegeben. Sie produziert seit 2013. In Sauerlach wird ebenfalls Strom und Fernwärme produziert. Sie ist eine der leistungsstärksten Anlagen in München. Die Anlage in Riem zur Wärmeerzeugung ist seit 2004 in Betrieb und hat damit die Vorreiterrolle inne. Sie ist für die Messestadt und die Neue Messe München zuständig. In München-Sendling steht Deutschlands leistungsstärkste Geothermieanlage. Sie wird in Zukunft Fernwärme für 80.000 Menschen liefern können. (vgl. SWM, 2023)Ziel der Stadt München ist es, bis 2040 durch Fernwärme ihren Wärmebedarf klimaneutral zu decken. (vgl. SWM, 2023) Damit ist München zu einer Art Modellstadt für die deutsche Energiewende und für Interessenten aus der ganzen Welt geworden, die in der Geothermie einen entscheidenden Beitrag zum Klimaschutz und zur Energiesicherheit sehen.In München und in ganz Südbayern hat sich jedenfalls ein Boom hinsichtlich der Geothermie entwickelt. Die Süddeutsche Zeitung spricht von einer Goldgräberstimmung. (vgl. SZ, 2022) Ein durchaus passender Ausdruck angesichts des bergbaulichen Charakters, den diese Technologie nun mal an sich hat. In jedem Falle sind Politik und Unternehmen auf die Region aufmerksam geworden und wollen dort zum Teil große Summen investieren. Allein die Stadt München will bis zu einer Milliarde Euro in den Ausbau der Geothermie investieren, um ihre Ziele bezüglich der Nutzung der Geothermie zu erreichen. (vgl. Münchner Merkur, 2022) Der Bund wird ebenfalls drei Milliarden Euro in den Ausbau dieser Technologie stecken und einige private Unternehmen haben große Investitionen angekündigt. (vgl. SZ, 2022)Es gibt aber auch einige Dinge, die man durchaus als Nachteile dieser Technologie ansehen könnte und die in München zu Herausforderungen führen. Wie bereits erwähnt, ist es notwendig, bergbauartige Maßnahmen zu ergreifen, um Geothermie nutzen zu können. Dies setzt einen hohen Aufwand voraus und hat hohe Einstandskosten zur Folge (vgl. SZ, 2022). Des Weiteren ist die Nutzung von Geothermie zur Wärme- und Stromproduktion gleichzeitig momentan nur bei Neubaugebieten profitabel. (vgl. Münchner Merkur, 2022)Es stehen also noch einige ungeklärte Fragen in München im Raum. Dennoch kann man sagen, dass dieses großangelegte Projekt den Charakter einer Blaupause für andere Ballungsgebiete haben wird, in denen Geothermie ebenfalls in diesem Umfang möglich wäre. Städte wie Hamburg, Bremen oder Mannheim liegen ebenfalls in Gebieten mit großem Potenzial für Geothermie, in einigen davon sind auch schon Projekte hierzu angelaufen. (vgl. Bundesverband Geothermie e.V., 2023)FazitEiner der wichtigsten Bestandteile der Energiewende ist die Dezentralisierung der Energieversorgung. Dies betrifft nicht nur Standorte, sondern auch die Formen der Energiegewinnung. Wenn man sich also von der Geothermie das Potenzial gewünscht hätte, dass diese Technologie die endgültige Lösung der Energiefrage ist, wird man enttäuscht werden. Der Bundesverband Geothermie e.V. selbst spricht von einem zwar großem, aber auch begrenzten Potenzial. Wir werden also in diese Technologie investieren, wahrscheinlich sogar sehr viel. Aber wir werden auch andere Formen der Energiegewinnung benötigen, um die Energiewende zu schaffen.Es hat durchaus etwas Befreiendes zu wissen, dass man hier auf etwas gestoßen ist, das Grenzen hat. In einer Zeit, in der die Dimensionen von Konsum und Produktion Ausmaße angenommen haben, die nach menschlichem Ermessen kaum noch erfassbar sind und eigentlich auch kaum noch zu kontrollieren, ist die Geothermie ein Stück weit eine Antithese zu dieser Grenzenlosigkeit. Das Umweltbundesamt sagt, dass die technologischen Herausforderungen der Geothermie beherrschbar und lokal begrenzt sind. Nicht jedes Land und nicht jede Region kann Geothermie in derselben Weise nutzen. Inwieweit Geothermie in der Zukunft eine Rolle spielen wird, bleibt auch in Deutschland damit noch offen und bedarf weiterer Forschung. QuellenBayerische Staatsregierung (2011). Bayerisches Energiekonzept "Energie innovativ" BMBF / Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (2023). Geothermie. https://www.bmbf.de/bmbf/de/forschung/energiewende-und-nachhaltiges-wirtschaften/energiewende/energiewende_node.html Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz (2023). Eckpunkte für eine Erdwärmekampagne Geothermie für die Wärmewende. https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Downloads/Energie/eckpunkte-geothermie.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1 Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz (2022). Geothermie für die Wärmewende – Bundeswirtschaftsministerium startet Konsultationsprozess. https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2022/11/20221111-geothermie-fuer-die-waermewende.html Bundesverband Geothermie e.V. (2023). https://www.geothermie.de/aktuelles/nachrichten.html Deutsche Welle (2023): Geothermie auf dem Vormarsch? https://p.dw.com/p/4KFIlEnBW (2023). Geothermie. https://www.enbw.com/erneuerbare-energien/geothermie/ Münchner Merkur (2022) Die Energie der Zukunft: Wird München bei Geothermie zur Blaupause für Deutschland? https://www.merkur.de/wirtschaft/geothermie-energie-zukunft-muenchen-deutschland-kraftwerk-anlage-projekt-sendling-zr-91526752.html Süddeutsche Zeitung (2022). Goldgräberstimmung im Münchner Süden. https://www.sueddeutsche.de/muenchen/landkreismuenchen/muenchen-stadtwerke-geothermie-erdwaerme-laufzorn-1.5722522 SWM / Stadtwerke München (2023). Geothermie: Den Schatz aus der Tiefe sinnvoll nutzen https://www.swm.de/magazin/energie/geothermie Stadtwerke Speyer (2023). Geothermie. https://www.stadtwerke-speyer.de/geothermie?ConsentReferrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F Umweltbundesamt (2023). Geothermie. https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/klima-energie/erneuerbare-energien/geothermie#oberflachennahe-geothermie

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tavargere microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 516 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soil, four per cent by rock out crops and three per cent by water bodies, settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 14 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 75 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 5 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 65 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 57 kg/ha) in 37 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in an entire area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm)in 4 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 23 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 19(4) 15 (3) Pomegranate - 85(17) Maize - 37 (7) Guava - 66(13) Bajra 15(3) 135(26) Jackfruit - 66(13) Redgram - 34(3) Jamun - 85(17) Bengal gram 19(4) 77(15) Musambi 19(4) 66(13) Groundnut 15(3) 315 (61) Lime 19(4) 66(13) Sunflower 19 (4) 15 (3) Cashew - 171(33) Cotton 19(4) 15(3) Custard apple 34(7) 444(86) Chilli - 15(3) Amla 15(3) 463 (90) Tomato - 15(3) Tamarind - 20(4) Drumstick - 260(50) Marigold - 34(7) Mulberry - 416(81) Chrysanthemum - 34 (7) Mango - - Jasmine - 15(3) Sapota - 66(13) Crossandra - 34(7)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 114 (60%) men and 76 (40%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.09, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 6.28.  The data indicated that, 33 (17.37%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (40%) were in 16-35 years of age, 65 (34.21%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (8.42%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Tavaregere had 34.21 per cent illiterates, 24.74 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.32 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.32 per cent of them had high school education, 7.37 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.11 per cent of them did ITI, and 6.32 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 65 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 12.50 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 46.84 per cent of the household members, 17.37 per cent were agricultural laborers, 9.47 per cent were general labour, 1.05 per cent were in private, 20.53 per cent were students, 2.11 per cent were housewives and 2.11 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 15 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 67.50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 15 per cent of them possess pucca house and 2.50 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 92.50 per cent of the households possess TV, 60 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 17.50 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 50 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.50 per cent of them possess auto and 90 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.7989, mixer grinder was Rs.1980, bicycle was Rs. 2142, motor cycle was Rs.34800, auto phone was Rs.35000 and mobile phone was Rs.2295.  About 22.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.50 per cent of them possess plough, 7.50 per cent of them possess tractor, 30 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.50 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 87.50 per cent of them possess weeder, 5 per cent of them possess harvester, 2.50 per cent of them possess thresher and 2.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20333, plough was Rs.894, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer 2 was Rs.2331, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3200, the average value of harvester was Rs.60000, the average value of thresher was Rs.45000, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.87.  The results indicate that, 30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, and 17.50 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.86, average own labour (women) available was 1.46, average hired labour (men) available was 12.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.40.  The results indicate that, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Tavaregere micro watershed possess 23.76 ha (46.71%) of dry land and 27.10 ha (53.29%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.24 ha (93.72%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (6.28%). Small farmers possess 6.16 ha (57.35%) of dry land and 4.58 ha (42.65%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.25 ha (27.54%) of dry land and 8.54 ha (72.46%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.11 ha (34.50%) of dry land and 13.49 ha (65.50%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 307,172.06 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 545,937.87. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,553.08 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.60 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275,886.99 for dry land and Rs. 850,971.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123,192.01 for dry land and Rs. 561,895.74 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 140,660.59 for dry land and Rs. 392,651.47 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 18 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning and 1 de-functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45 per cent of the farmers, and open well was the source of irrigation for 2.50 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 49.62 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.44 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 4.58 ha, 8.54 ha and 13.36 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (11.62 ha), brinjal (1.78 ha), groundnut (5.15 ha), ladies finger (1.21 ha), maize (21.74 ha), navane (1.70 ha), paddy (2.83 ha), pearlmillet (1.62 ha), sunflower (2.18 ha) and tomato (0.89 ha). 3  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, watermelon and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy and watermelon. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, paddy, sorghum, tomato, watermelon and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, horsegram, paddy, redgram sorghum and maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Tavaregere micro watershed was found to be 93.29 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 96.97 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 84.93 per cent.  The results indicate that, 72.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 42.50 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 81.25 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 6.25 per cent availed loan from cooperative bank, 75 per cent availed loan from grameena bank, and 37.50 per cent availed loan from money lenders.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs. 90,375, Rs. 258,500, Rs. 525,000 and Rs. 260,000 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 50 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions, 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for animal husbandry and 16.67 per cent borrowed for the purpose of borewell/irrigation related equipments.  The results indicated that 84.62 per cent of the households did not repay their loan and 15.38 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  The results indicate that, around 42.31 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 53.85 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 3.85 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, around 9.09 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 18.18 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 27.27 per cent opined that the rate of interest was high in non institutional source of credits. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 52582.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 179075. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 126492.37, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.41.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 49699.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 105455.28. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 55755.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.12.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27360.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35390.45. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8030.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23644.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36489.05. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 1006.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.54.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 49015.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57055.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 8039.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 40080.30. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -3030.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.92.  The total cost of cultivation for ladies finger was Rs. 41939.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95363.45. The net income from ladies finger cultivation was Rs. 53423.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 13772.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28106.90. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 14334.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.04.  The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 53235.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 186686.05. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 133450.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.51.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 22.50 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 97,600 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 64,581.82, for small farmers it was Rs. 98,320, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 69,571.43, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 108,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,532.54. For landless households it was Rs. 19,360, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,727.27, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,604.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,387.76, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 8,534.69.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 126 coconuts and 22 mangoes in their fields. They have also grown 1 coconut tree in their backyard. 5  The results indicate that, households have planted 147 neem trees, 5 tamarind trees, 2 banyan trees and 2 peepul tree in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 2125, for irrigation facility Rs. 1175, for improved crop production Rs. 1075 and for improved livestock management Rs. 575.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 22.5 per cent of the households for land development, 20 per cent for irrigation facility, 22.5 per cent for improved crop production and 15 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, brinjal, groundnut, ladies finger, maize, navane, paddy, sunflower and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 55 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 15 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 2.50 per cent of the farmers have sold through agents/traders and 27.50 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 22.50 per cent have used truck and 40 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 18.18 per cent of marginal farmers, 71.43 per cent of semi medium farmers and 14.29 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 72.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.50 per cent used fire wood and 2.50 per cent of the households used dung cake.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 92.50 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 7.50 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 27.27 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 28.57 per cent of the semi medium and 14.29 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.50 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.50 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 17.50 per cent, fruits were adequate for 30 per cent, 6 milk was adequate for 87.50 per cent, eggs were adequate for 85 per cent and meat was adequate for 82.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 25 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 90 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 70 per cent, milk was inadequate for 10 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 10 per cent and meat was inadequate for 12.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 12.50 per cent, vegetables were market surplus for 2.50 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 70 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (72.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (52.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (45%), high rate of interest on credit (50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (57.50%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (72.50%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.50%), less rainfall (12.50%), inadequate extension services (72.50%), and source of agri-technology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (7.50%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project