Suchergebnisse

Ante las situaciones de cambio y transición experimentadas en Venezuela a distintos niveles y con diferentes alcances, la agroindustria se perfila como un elemento determinante para la transformación y la consolidación del sistema agroalimentario rural. Partiendo de esta premisa, se condujo una investigación con el propósito de evaluar el nivel de emprendimiento agroindustrial rural en el estado Falcón (Venezuela), con énfasis en el perfil del emprendedor rural y en los factores estratégicos determinantes de la actividad emprendedora en este sector, sustentado a su vez en la importancia de la agroindustria rural dentro de la economía del estado Falcón. Tales factores contribuyen al desarrollo económico, a la competitividad, a la innovación y a la creación de empleos locales, así como al emprendimiento expresado en la dinámica socioeconómica y en el cambio de los hábitos de los consumidores. El estudio correspondió a un análisis de tipo descriptivo, realizado a través de un trabajo de campo llevado a cabo entre octubre del 2006 y mayo del 2007, orientado a la recolección y observación directa de los ítems de estudio a partir de los agentes involucrados, mediante la aplicación de un cuestionario. Abarcó un total de 23 agroindustrias rurales activas, registradas en las bases de datos de los organismos oficiales afines al sector. La investigación evidenció el estancamiento existente en el emprendimiento agroindustrial en el estado Falcón, así como su carácter poco dinámico. De allí que la promoción de iniciativas emprendedoras no debe ser un hecho aislado; por el contrario, debe responder a una estrategia articulada, insertada en un plan macro diseñado para dinamizar ese plantel económico. Igualmente se considera la existencia de un amplio margen dentro del sistema agroalimentario del estado Falcón para la incursión de nuevas iniciativas agroempresariales. No obstante, requieren de una visión de negocio, de la conexión con el mercado y de un dinámico sistema institucional facilitador y promotor de estas nuevas iniciativas. ; In a changing and transitional environment faced by Venezuela at different levels and with different scopes, food industry becomes a key factor in transformation and consolidation of the rural agro-food system. Based on this statement, a research was conducted in order to analyze agro-industrial entrepreneurship in Falcon state (Venezuela), emphasizing in the rural enterpriser profile, as well as another strategic factors in achieving economic development in the rural sector, sustained on the importance of the rural agrofood industry in economy of this region, which contribute to the economical development, competitiveness, innovation and the labor market. In the same way, the authors fulfill a descriptive research on the undertaking activity from the point of view of the socio-economical dynamics and the change of the consumer's habits. This paper was conducted through a field research carried out between December 2006 and May 2007, oriented to the data collection and direct observation of the items for the involved agents by the application of a questionnaire. The sample was conformed by a total of 23 active rural agro-food industries registered on the data base of the official organisms. Main finding shows stagnation in the agro-food industry in Falcon state, as well as its nondynamic behavior. Therefore, promotion of undertaking initiatives must not be isolated, but it must answer to articulated strategies, as articulated part in a macro plan, designed in order to achieve a more dynamic food-industry in the region. There is still a wide margin in the agro-food system for undertaking initiatives, nevertheless there is required a business vision, market connection and a dynamic official system which promotes and facilitates the establishment of new ideas. ; Au cours des dernières années, le Venezuela a vécu de changements économiques, sociaux et politiques fondamentaux. Dans ce contexte, l'agro industrie peut constituer un élément déterminant pour la transformation et la consolidation du système agroalimentaire rural. En tenant compte de cette circonstance nous avons réalisé une recherche avec le propos d'évaluer le niveau d'empowerment des entrepreneurs ruraux dans l'état de Falcón. Les aspects que nous avons considéré pour analyser ce niveau d'empowerment sont : le profil des entrepreneurs, les facteurs stratégiques mise en pratique pour les entreprenants et leur influence sur l'agro industrie rurale dans l'économie de l'état de Falcón. Ce genre d'industrie contribue au développement économique, la compétitivité, l'innovation, la création d'emploi à l'échelle locale la dynamique socioéconomique et les habitudes des consommateurs. L'étude a été réalisée par le biais d'une analyse descriptive basée dans la collecte d'information chez les acteurs. Les entrevues ont été effectués entre octobre 2006 et mai 2007. Ces entrevues-ci ont couvert 23 entreprises rurales actives qui ont été sélectionnés à partir de sources officielles. Les résultats de la recherche montrent que l'empowerment n'est pas une caractéristique dominante parmi les stratégies dominantes au sein des agro-industries de l'état de Falcón. L'empowerment, au contraire, est un instrument rarement utilisé par ce genre d'entreprises. La mise en valeur des avantages provenant de l'empowerment doit être encouragé. Également, nous considérons nécessaire la promotion d'une nouvelle vision que devrait inclure la mise en valeur de nouveaux mécanismes de négociation, de connexion au marché et de dynamisation d'un système institutionnel favorable à la promotion et l'établissement de nouvelles initiatives. ; 83-93 ; rossanaguardia_rojas@hotmail.com ; henripina@gmail.com, henripina@unefm.edu.ve

Die Arbeit überträgt Grundgedanken und Hilfsmittel der systemorientierten Managementlehre (Universität St. Gallen, Malik Management Zentrum St. Gallen) auf die Branche der Consulting - Unternehmen im Bauwesen (CUB) in Deutschland, die im Jahr 2006 mit 86 Tsd. Firmen und über 360 Tsd. Mitarbeitern einen Umsatz von über 30 Mrd. € erwirtschaftet hat. Erörtert werden die zum Verständnis der eingesetzten Denkweisen und Konzepte notwendigen Grundlagen der Begriffe und Definitionen von 'System', Kybernetik und Systemtheorie.Es werden vor allem das zirkuläre und vernetzte Denken, Regelkreise und deren hierarchischer Aufbau, die Rückkopplung, die 'Black box', die Bedeutung des Ausbalancierens von Maßnahmen, Modellbildungen für unterschiedliche Fragestellungen der Unternehmenspolitik, die Möglichkeiten der Selbstorganisation und die bedingte Autonomie von Unternehmensteilen erläutert. Als Werkzeuge werden das Viable System Modell (VSM) nach Stafford Beer und Wirkungsgefüge nach Frederik Vester und Gomez/Probst (Universität St. Gallen) eingesetzt. Das VSM liefert eine übergeordnete Orientierung zur Integration grundlegender Anforderungen der Unternehmensführung und gleichzeitig konkrete Anweisungen zur Ausbildung aller Funktionen des Organismus Unternehmen. Wirkungsdiagramme bilden Zusammenhänge des »Systems« CUB oder formulierte Fragestellungen in der gewünschten Detaillierungsebene ab. Bestehende Wirkungen und mögliche Konsequenzen von Aktivitäten und Einflüssen können mit ihrer Hilfe bis zu einem gewissen Grad nachvollzogen bzw. vorausgedacht werden. Das Verfahren »Easy Fuzzy Balancing« wird vom Verfasser ausgearbeitet, um Entscheidungssituationen, z.B. bei strategischen Überlegungen, nachvollziehbar aufzubereiten. Es kombiniert den einfachen Aufbau der Nutzwertanalyse mit der Denkweise von Fuzzy – Logic und setzt diese mit grundlegender Mathematik um. Aus der Diskussion vorhandener Lösungen wie der Balanced Scorecard wird ein »Kennzahlensystem« entwickelt, welches eine ausgewogene, die Vergangeheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft berücksichtigende sowie vollständig alle erforderlichen Bereiche und Prozesse abdeckende Analyse möglich macht. Mit Hilfe von »Easy Fuzzy Balancing« werden die Ergebnisse zu einem »Index Gesamterfolg« verdichtet. Auf Basis dieser Konzepte und Hilfsmittel wird eine »Methode« vorgestellt, die umfassend und auf die Branche zugeschnitten die Aufgaben der Unternehmensplanung, -führung und Weiterentwicklung eines CUB abbildet. Dazu werden branchenspezifische Hilfsmittel, wie beispielsweise ein »Strategieprozess« und ein »Strategisches Koordinatensystem CUB«, welches zur Orientierung im Markt genutzt wird, vorgestellt. Das Hauptaugenmerk wird immer wieder auf die Fähigkeiten und die Anforderungen bei der Erbringung der Dienstleistung eines CUB gerichtet. An der Schnittstelle zum Projekt, im Zusammenwirken mit den besonderen und einmaligen Bedingungen eines Bauvorhabens entsteht Komplexität. Die Fähigkeiten im Umgang mit diesen nur teilweise planbaren Zuständen stellt die wesentliche Führungsaufgabe und den bedeutendsten Erfolgsfaktor eines CUB dar. Die Verantwortung des Projektleiters und seine zur erfolgreichen Projektabwicklung erforderlichen Fähigkeiten werden herausgearbeitet. Der Einsatz der systemorientierten Grundgedanken und Werkzeuge sowie der branchenspezifischen Hilfsmittel werden jeweils an Beispielen aus der Beratungspraxis gezeigt. Als Ergebnis liegt eine »Methode« vor, die Hinweise statt Rezepte liefert und im Unternehmen an die besonderen Anforderungen und Randbedingungen angepasst wird. ; This study applies basic ideas and tools of system-oriented management studies (University of St. Gallen, Malik Management Zentrum St. Gallen) to the trade of consulting-firms in the German building industry (CUB). This branch of business covers about 86 thousand companies with more than 360 thousand employees, and in 2006 generated a turnover of more than 30 billion €. For a better understanding of the concepts and ways of thinking applied in this study necessary fundamentals are being discussed which explain the terms 'system', ''cybernetics and 'systems theory' and their definitions. Above all the concept of circular and interconnected thinking, control loops and their hierarchical design are illustrated as well as feed-back loops, the ;black box', the importance of balancing corporate activities, the forming/creation of models as an answer to various questions concerning company policy, possibilities of self-organisation and the limited autonomy of company units. The Viable System Model (VSM) according to Stafford Beer and effect systems (the model of a complex problem showing the linked loops of its variables) according to Frederik Vester and Gomez/Probst (University of St. Gallen) are used as tools in this approach. The VSM provides the superordinate orientation for integrating basic requirements of corporate management and at the same time gives concrete instructions for designing all the different functions of the corporation as an organism. Effect systems illustrate the connections of the »system« CUB or picture clearly defined questions in the desired level of detail. With their help existing effects and possible consequences of activities and influences can be understood or even anticipated to a certain degree. The method of »Easy Fuzzy Balancing« is created by the author in order to prepare decision-making - for example in strategic considerations – in a transparent way. It combines the simple structure of a utility analysis with the way of thinking of Fuzzy-Logic and operates with very basic mathematics. By discussing existing solutions such as the Balanced Scorecard a specific »Kennzahlensystem« (performance measurement system) is developed, which allows a balanced analysis of all necessary areas and functions of a corporation, an analysis which covers past, present and future aspects. With the help of "Easy Fuzzy Balancing" the results of this analysis can be condensed into an »Index Gesamterfolg« (Index of overall performance). Based on the above mentioned concepts and tools a comprehensive »Methode« (method) is presented, which is especially designed for this branch and which fully maps the tasks of corporate planning, management and development of a CUB. For this purpose tools are presented which are specific for this trade, such as a »Strategieprozess« (strategy process) and a »Strategisches Koordinatensystem CUB« (Stratetic Coordinate System), which is used for orientation in the market. The main focus is consistently directed towards the skills and requirements needed for providing the consultative and designing services of a CUB. Complexity arises at the interface to the project, through interrelation with the special and unique conditions of a construction project. Skills in dealing with these situations, that can only be planned to a certain degree, constitute the fundamental task of management and the most crucial element of success of a CUB. The responsibility of the project manager and his skills needed for a successful handling of a project are furthermore elaborated. The use of system-oriented ideas and implements as well as tools specific to this branch are illustrated through examples taken from consulting practice. As a result a »Methode« (method) is presented which provides hints instead of exact formulas, and which has to be adjusted to the specific requirements and conditions of a particular corporation.

En el Ecuador, aproximadamente 72% de niños, niñas y adolescentes estudian en el sistema público. Dentro de ese porcentaje se constata el deterioro de la educación que reciben y que les resta oportunidades para competir en la sociedad del conocimiento, lo que no solo repercute en sus proyectos de vida individual y familiar, sino también en la sociedad en general al no contar con ciudadanos competitivos, críticos y dotados de las lógicas que les permitan gerencia el conocimiento y arribar a la ciencia y la tecnología. Así lo demuestran los decrecientes resultados del único sistema de medición de logros académicos con que contó el Ecuador desde 1996 hasta 2000, paradójicamente, nuestras autoridades, en lugar de dar alternativas urgentes, trataron de ocultar esa realidad y descontinuaron la aplicación del sistema. En el escenario actual se constata el impulso al Plan Decenal de Educación que, bajo la iniciativa del Ministerio de Educación, se analiza y busca consenso entre diferentes actores en el país. Sin embargo, de continuarse con el vigente sistema centralizado, sin rendición de cuentas y sin participación de los actores educativos, en especial los padres de familia, líderes comunitarios y autoridades locales, será muy poco lo que se logre, puesto que el impedimento mayor es justamente el sistema centralista y obsoleto. En este contexto, Fundación Ecuador aporta con una propuesta de Modelo de Gestión de Gobiernos Locales para una Educación Básica de Calidad, para que se convierta en política de estado destinada a establecer articulaciones y alianzas estratégicas entre el Ministerio de Educación y los gobiernos locales. Propuesta de política de educación básica: "Modelo de gestión de gobiernos locales para una educación básica de calidad" La propuesta que Fundación Ecuador hace al país tiene como propósito "facilitar un proceso de gestión y estructuras organizacionales que permitan al Ministerio de Educación (MEC) y a los gobiernos locales aportar eficientemente en el desarrollo socioeducativo de las comunidades". Se constata que los aportes más significativos de los últimos años, en términos de progreso y desarrollo de las poblaciones de nuestro país, provienen de los gobiernos locales, en contraste con el deterioro cada vez mayor del sistema centralista de gobierno. Un escenario a favor de la presente propuesta es justamente la Constitución de la República, que establece como mandatos:- Incorporación en su gestión de estrategias de descentralización y desconcentración, administrativas, financieras y pedagógicas. Participación de padres de familia, comunidad, maestros y educandos en el desarrollo de los procesos educativos. Además, con la aprobación de la Ley de Descentralización, en 1999, los gobiernos locales pueden solicitar al gobierno central los recursos y la responsabilidad de proveer los servicios públicos, como son la educación y la salud. En nuestro país se ha dado poca importancia a los sectores sociales para potenciar el capital humano y, como lo señala UNICEF, pese al crecimiento experimentado a partir de 2000, el gasto social se ha reducido casi a la mitad entre 1982 y 2005. El Ecuador gasta anualmente por habitante 131 dólares en inversión social, mientras el promedio regional es de 540 dólares por persona/año. Si la Educación es una inversión, entonces se requiere no solamente declarar que lo es, sino de la implantación de un modelo de gestión que permita identificar carencias y atenderlas de manera planificada. Atención, participación y transparencia deberán ser los componentes ineludibles en un proceso sistemático de mejoramiento de la calidad de la educación que se ofrece a los niños y jóvenes del país. En este sentido, consideramos que el Modelo de Gestión Educativa de Gobiernos Locales permitiría iniciar la transformación requerida y controlar la inversión desde parámetros de calidad. Calidad: al insertarse en una estructura organizacional que le permita al gobierno local invertir bajo la lógica de planeación estratégica y racionalidad de proyectos, con estándares de calidad a nivel administrativo y pedagógico. · Participación y control: al constituirse Comités de Gestión Educativa municipales y en cada escuela, de manera que los actores educativos y padres de familia puedan participar de la consecución de los planes estratégicos para mejorar la educación en su comunidad y en el control de la inversión de recursos. Descentralización y manejo de recursos: esta propuesta permitirá al gobierno local prepararse para asumir competencias en educación en el marco de las leyes que lo facultan. Dichas competencias solo pueden ser asumidas por un gobierno local dispuesto a rendir cuentas a su comunidad y al país, desde la rectoría de un MEC que promueva y determine que los municipios que quieran asumir competencias en educación cuenten con: Diagnóstico situacional de la calidad educativa de su territorio. Plan Estratégico del componente educativo, altamente participativo y que involucre la participación de los actores educativos, sociales y productivos de la comunidad para establecer objetivos y metas de interés comunitario en educación. Sistema de Participación: dedicado a canalizar la participación de padres de familia y actores educativos a través de Comités de Gestión Educativa en los municipios y escuelas, con funciones de veeduría, de planificación, gestión y evaluación en la consecución de los planes y proyectos. Diseño de estructuras organizacionales que generen un cambio en la atención al sector educativo, de manera que los gobiernos locales cuenten con un sistema de indicadores de calidad y proyectos que les permitan invertir estratégicamente en educación de calidad. Modelo de gestión de gobiernos locales para una educación básica de calidad. La implantación del Modelo propuesto requiere, a nivel pedagógico y administrativo, de un MEC altamente regulador que defina los estándares de calidad a fin de que los recursos invertidos por los municipios y/o asignados por el propio Ministerio consoliden un sistema nacional de educación de calidad. Así también, se requiere la definición de un Sistema de Capacitación a Maestros que les permita el manejo adecuado de los contenidos curriculares y el desarrollo de habilidades básicas en aspectos centrales del currículo, aspectos pedagógicos y didácticos.1 Fundación Ecuador, a través de la propuesta de intervención de los gobiernos locales en la consecución de una educación básica de calidad en sus respectivas localidades, propone un Modelo de Gestión que –a través de sus componentes– permita superar a corto plazo los problemas y debilidades planteados en los estudios diagnósticos desarrollados en 1996 y 2006, a fin de que se generen:· Equidad: en la medida en que se implante el modelo en los municipios ubicados en las zonas de mayor pobreza y con mayores desventajas para los niños y niñas escolares con niveles de explicación . Tomando en cuenta los antecedentes, en nuestra institución una de las primeras funciones que incumben a la educación consiste en lograr que la humanidad en su dimensión personal y colectiva pueda dirigir su desarrollo, para responder a su misión fundamentalmente humanista, y a las necesidades de desarrollo social. Y nada más expresivo en esta tarea para la Institución que una GESTION ACADÉMICA que influya en el MODELO DE LIDERAZGO ESTUDIANTIL, pertinente a su condición y naturaleza social de los docent@s y niñ@s de la Escuela Angel Polibio Chavéz ,aplicar las mejores estrategias y conseguir un mejor accionar educativo y una convivencia comunitaria de la provincia. ; In Ecuador, approximately 72% of children and teenagers studying in the public system. Within that percentage deterioration of the education they receive is found and subtracted them opportunities to compete in the knowledge society, which not only affects their projects of individual and family life, but also in society in general by not having competitive citizens, critical and logical equipped to enable them to arrive management knowledge and science and technology. This is demonstrated by the diminishing returns of the unique system of measurement of academic achievement with which featured the Ecuador from 1996-2000, paradoxically, our authorities, rather than give urgent alternatives, they tried to hide that reality and discontinued the application of the system. In the current scenario the urge to Ten Year Education Plan, under the initiative of the Ministry of Education, discusses and seeks consensus among different actors in the country notes. However, continued with the existing centralized system without accountability and without the participation of educational stakeholders, especially parents, community leaders and local authorities, will be very little is achieved, as the biggest impediment is just the centralist and outdated system. In this context, Ecuador Foundation contributes to a proposed Management Model Local Governments for Quality Basic Education, so that it becomes a state policy aimed at establishing joint and strategic alliances between the Ministry of Education and local governments. Proposal for basic education policy: "Management model of local governments for basic quality education" The proposal makes the country Ecuador Foundation aims to "facilitate a process of management and organizational structures to enable the Ministry of Education (MEC) and local governments to contribute effectively in the social and educational development of the communities." It is found that the most significant contributions in recent years, in terms of progress and development of the peoples of our country come from local governments, in contrast to the increasing deterioration of the centralist system of government. A scenario in favor of this proposal is precisely the Constitution of the Republic, which establishes mandates: - Incorporation into management strategies of decentralization and deconcentration, administrative, financial and pedagogical. Involvement of parents, community, teachers and students in the development of educational processes. In addition, with the approval of the Decentralization Law, in 1999, local governments can ask the central government resources and the responsibility to provide public services, such as education and health. Our country has given little thought to the social sectors to promote human capital and, as noted by UNICEF, despite the growth experienced since 2000, social spending has been reduced by nearly half between 1982 and 2005. Ecuador spends $ 131 per capita social investment, while the regional average is $ 540 per person / year. If education is an investment, then it is required not only to state that it is, but the implementation of a management model to identify deficiencies and address them in a planned way. Attention, participation and transparency must be the unavoidable components in a systematic process of improving the quality of education that children and youth in the country is offered. In this regard, we believe that the Educational Management Model Local Government would initiate the required processing and control the investment from quality parameters. Quality: to be inserted in an organizational structure that allows the local government to invest in the strategic planning logic and rationality of projects with quality standards at the administrative and pedagogical level. · Participation and control: to become municipal committees and Educational Management at each school, so that the educational actors and parents can participate in the implementation of strategic plans to improve education in his community and in the control of investment resource. Decentralization and resource management: this proposal will allow local government to prepare to assume responsibility for education within the framework of the laws that empower. Those powers can only be assumed by a local government willing to be accountable to their community and the country, from the rectory of a MEC to promote and determined that municipalities who want to take responsibility for education provided with: Situation assessment of educational quality of its territory. Strategic Plan of the educational component, highly participatory and involve the participation of educational, social and productive players in the community to establish goals and objectives of Community interest in education. Participation system: dedicated to channel the participation of parents and education stakeholders through education management committees in municipalities and schools, with oversight functions, planning, management and evaluation in achieving plans and projects. Design organizational structures that generate a change in the attention to the educational sector so that local governments have a system of quality indicators and projects that allow them to strategically invest in quality education. Management model of local governments for basic quality education. The implementation of the proposed model requires, to pedagogical and administrative level, a highly regulatory MEC defining quality standards so that the resources invested by the municipalities and / or assigned by the Ministry itself consolidate a national system of quality education . Also, the definition of a Teacher Training System that allows them the proper handling of the curriculum and the development of basic skills in key aspects of the curriculum, pedagogical issues is required and didácticos.1 Ecuador Foundation, through the proposed intervention of local governments in achieving quality basic education in their respective localities, proposes a management model that -through its components to overcome short-term problems and weaknesses raised in developed diagnostic studies in 1996 and 2006, in order to generate: · Fairness: to the extent that the model is implemented in the municipalities located in the poorest areas and most disadvantaged children to school with levels of explanation. Taking into account the background, in our institution one of the first functions assigned to education is to make mankind in their personal and collective dimension can direct their development, to meet its fundamentally humanistic mission, and social development needs . And nothing more expressive in this task for academic management institution to influence the MODEL STUDENT LEADERSHIP, relevant to their status and social nature of the docent @ s children s School Polybius Angel Chavez, applying the best strategies and get a better education actions and community life of the province.

The necessity of a sustainability transition i.e. large scale transformation to solve grand societal challenges at all levels is not debated. How to go about achieving these necessary transitions is the question. The role and contribution of economic sectors to sustainability is an important aspect to consider for management and policy-making. This thesis is comprised of two different but interconnected streams of research explored in five papers on how economic sectors contribute to sustainability both in terms of their impacts (positive and negative) and in terms of their management of impacts. Paper I sought to contribute to the conceptual understanding of the synergies and trade-offs between a sector and its performance across the 169 targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study examined the tourism sector's contribution to the SDGs with a specific focus on revealing synergies and trade-offs. Synergies, i.e. co-benefits of tourism positively contributing to the fulfilment of one or more SDG targets were found in 32 instances. Tradeoffs, i.e. drawbacks of tourism activities negatively affecting the fulfilment of one or more SDG targets were found in 11 instances. Findings were classified through a ranking system for easily accessible and comprehensive results targeted to policy-makers and managers. Paper II reviewed and applied a previously developed, national-level environmental sustainability indicator set to the Icelandic tourism sector in order to determine whether sectoral environmental impacts can be discerned on the national level. Capturing these impacts is important in terms of the environmental performance of the nation as a whole. Data gaps were found in most thematic categories applied to the tourism sector indicating the need for increased efforts in the collection of pertinent environmental data for Iceland's sustainability performance assessment. The tourism sector's impact was discernible albeit underestimated due to the lack of data Paper III explored the perspectives of high level managers of medium and large tourism companies and relevant organizations in Iceland in relation to the tourism sector's management of environmental issues. The study attempted to determine the factors influencing organizational change in the tourism sector in Iceland in response to environmental issues. The study found that the policy and regulatory framework in the tourism sector had been slow to develop in an iv exceedingly fast-growing sector. Complicated institutional frameworks and increased societal pressure to address key environmental issues created difficulties not easily overcome by the sector alone. Paper IV explored the perspectives of high level management among medium and large companies and relevant organizations in the fisheries sector of Iceland and Norway to determine the factors (drivers and barriers) that enable blue growth, i.e. economic growth through sustainable use of aquatic resources. The study found that strict fisheries management regimes constituted a necessary requirement for sustainable growth stimulating value-added activities. However, both industries were still mired in debates on equitable social outcomes which the concept of blue growth has not adequately addressed. Governance of shared aquatic resources also emerged as an important aspect of blue growth in a rapidly changing world. Paper V explored stakeholders' views on policy tools for achieving sustainability transition in European food systems. The study's aim was to explore and analyse stakeholders' proposed solutions for creating sustainable agri-food systems. The proposed solutions were then categorized by the use of an adapted policy tools' typology into five categories: direct activity regulations, market-based, knowledge-related, governance and strategic policy tools. The findings were, then, used to derive policy recommendations targeted to three stakeholder groups: government, food value chain actors (ranging from primary producers to retailers), and civil society. This thesis contributed to research on sectoral approaches to sustainability with the aim of informing policy and management for achieving sustainability transitions. Future research could provide a more in-depth investigation of the interactions among sustainability policies across different sectors and systems. ; Nauðsyn umbreytinga í átt að sjálfbærni eru óumdeild, en þá er átt við umbreytingar af þeirri stærðargráðu sem leysir úr viðamiklum samfélagslegum áskorunum. Spurningin er aftur á móti, hvernig er gerlegt að ná fram nauðsynlegum breytingum. Við stjórnun og stefnumörkun er mikilvægt að huga að hlutverki og framlagi atvinnugreina til sjálfbærni. Ritgerð þessi samanstendur af tveimur mismunandi, en samtengdum, rannsóknaráherslum. Í fimm fræðigreinum er fjallað um það hvernig atvinnugreinar stuðla að sjálfbærni bæði hvað varðar áhrif þeirra (jákvæð og neikvæð) og stjórnun þeirra á áhrifum. Niðurstöður í grein I stuðla að þekkingu á samlegðaráhrifum og fórnarkostnaði á milli atvinnugreinar og frammistöðu hennar hvað varðar 169 undirmarkmið heimsmarkmiða Sameinuðu þjóðanna um sjálfbæra þróun. Í rannsókninni var kannað framlag ferðaþjónustunnar til heimsmarkmiðana með sérstakri áherslu á að leiða í ljós samlegðaráhrif og fórnarkostnað. Samlegðaráhrif, þ.e.a.s. gagnkvæmur ávinningur af ferðaþjónustu sem stuðlar jákvætt að því að uppfylla eitt eða fleiri undirmarkmið heimsmarkmiðanna fannst í 32 tilvikum. Fórnarkostnaður, þ.e.a.s. neikvæð áhrif tengd ferðaþjónustustarfsemi sem dregur úr því að eitt eða fleiri undirmarkmið heimsmarkmiðanna náist, fannst í 11 tilvikum. Notað var matskerfi til að flokka niðurstöðurnar þannig að þær væru aðgengilegar fyrir stefnumótendur og stjórnendur. Í grein II voru vísar fyrir umhverfíslega sjálfbærni á landsvísu skoðaðir og aðlagaðir fyrir ferðaþjónustuna til að ákvarða hvort greina mætti umhverfisáhrif atvinnugreinarinnar á landsvísu. Mikilvægt er að ná utan um áhrif einstakra atvinnugreina þegar árangur þjóða í tengslum við umhverfislega sjálfbærni er mældur. Í flestum þemaflokkum sem tengjast ferðaþjónustunni skorti gögn, en þessi vöntun á gögnum dregur fram mikilvægi aukinnar gagnaöflunar um umhverfislega stöðu mála þegar meta á umhverfislega sjálfbærni Íslands. Áhrif ferðaþjónustunnar á umhverfislega sjálfbærni Íslands voru greinanleg, en þó vanmetin, vegna skorts á viðeigandi gögnum. Í grein III er greint frá sjónarmiðum stjórnenda meðalstórra og stórra ferðaþjónustufyrirtækja, og tengdra atvinnugreinasamtaka, á Íslandi varðandi stjórnun umhverfismála hjá ferðaþjónstunni. Í rannsókninni var reynt að ákvarða þætti sem hafa áhrif á skipulagslegar breytingar hjá fyrirtækum í ferðaþjónustunni í tengslum við umhverfismál. Rannsóknin leiddi í ljós að stefna og regluverk í ferðaþjónustunni hefur þróast hægt og ekki í takt við hraðan vöxt í atvinnugreinarinni. Flókin stofnanaumgjörð og aukinn aukinn samfélagslegur þrýstingur til að takast á við umhverfismál skapaði erfiðleika sem atvinnugreinin ein og sér getur ekki yfirstigið. Í grein IV var kannað sjónarmið stjórnenda meðalstórra, og stórra fyrirtækja og tengdra atvinnugreinasamtaka, í sjávarútvegi á Íslandi og í Noregi til að ákvarða þætti (drifkrafta og hindranir) sem stuðlað geta að 'bláum vexti', þ.e.a.s. hagvexti sem byggist á sjálfbærri nýtingu sjávarafurða. Rannsóknin leiddi í ljós að ströng fiskveiðistjórnunarumgjörð sé nauðsynleg undirstaða sjálfbærs vaxtar sem örvað getur virðisaukandi starfsemi. Aftur á móti var sjávarútvegurinn á Íslandi og í Noregi að kljást við samfélagslegan ágreining um sanngjarna skiptingu arðs af auðlindinni, sem hugtakið 'blár vöxtur' tekur ekki á með fullnægjandi hætti. Stjórnun sameiginlegra sjávarafurða kom einnig fram sem mikilvægur þáttur í tengslum við 'bláan vöxt' í síbreytilegum heimi. Í grein V voru könnuð sjónarmið hagsmunaaðila til stefnumótunaraðferða sem stuðla að umbreytingu í átt að sjálfbærni í Evrópskum matvælakerfum. Markmið rannsóknarinnar var að kanna og greina áformaðar lausnir hagsmunaaðila til að skapa/þróa sjálfbær matvælakerfi. Lausnirnar sem fram komu voru flokkaðar samkvæmt fimm stefnumótunaraðferðum. Þær eru beinar reglugerðir, markaðstengdar aðferðir, þekkingartengdar aðferðir, stjórntæki og stefnumarkandi aðferðir. Niðurstöðurnar voru síðan nýttar til að útfæra tillögur fyrir þrjá hópa hagsmunaaðila, þ.e. stjórnvöld, hagsmunaaðila innan aðfangakeðja matvæla (frá frumframleiðendum til smásala) og félagasamtaka. Með rannsókn á áherslum og aðgerðum atvinnugreina varðandi sjálfbærni dregur ritgerðin fram þekkingu sem nýtist við mótun stefnu til að ná fram umbreytingum í átt að sjálfbærni. Frekari rannsóknir gætu kafað dýpra í samspil mismunadi þátta stefnunnar og ólíkra atvinnugreina.

Forestry and the wood-based sector provide increasing contributions to the national and rural economy development. Tree plantations serve as a business opportunity to secure the livelihood of thousands of small-scale timber producer households in several tropical countries. Given that forest land and the timber production it supports is limited, sustainable management of forest-based resources including timber is required. By integrating the value chain and livelihood analysis framework, this study investigates the value chains and impacts on rural livelihoods of commercial Acacia hybrid timber in central Vietnam. Besides that, scenario analysis is applied with a view to proposing the development pathways of the timber value chains and to providing improved information for developing the plantation policy in Vietnam at large. The empirical analysis employs a case study research design to examine the transition towards higher value uses of timber resources, thereby exploring the performance of woodchip, non-FSC furniture and FSC-certified furniture value chains in Thua Thien Hue province. Furthermore, two production areas named Nam Dong and Phu Loc districts are selected as embedded cases to examine the rural development potentials of Acacia hybrid timber production and commercialization. A mix-method approach, including both qualitative such as review and analysis of secondary data and key informant interviews, and quantitative data collection methods such as producer household surveys are applied to gather primary and secondary data. Diverse qualitative and quantitative analyses including content analysis, value chain analysis, livelihood analysis, and scenario analysis are also utilized corresponding to the specific research objectives. The macro-level analysis reveals the strategic responses of Asian wood-based firms to the global economy, particularly in terms of geographical scope, governance, cooperation, and overall performance. In addition, a literature review points out the potential impacts of Asian timber VCs on the environment and livelihoods. While timber product commercialization generates benefits to the value chain actors, unsustainable forest management leads to diverse negative environmental effects. The findings demonstrate considerable knowledge gaps and call for broader geographic coverage, as well as more transparent and quantitative assessments. To deepen the understanding on timber VCs, further research efforts should scrutinize the origins, functions, operations, and interactions of firms in these chains, and incorporate environmental and social aspects. The meso- and micro-level analysis exposes the structure of Acacia hybrid timber value chains which are shaped by various socio-economic, political, and environmental conditions. All three analyzed timber value chains are buyer-driven, led by processing and exporting companies in the downstream node of chains. At the upstream node, small-scale timber producers are normally less organized and lack market access. Timber production and commercialization provide profitable business activities to timber producers, traders, and processing and exporting companies. From a chain perspective, the woodchip value chain is financially profitable. However, its contribution to the national economy is the least. In contrast, the FSC-certified furniture value chain contributes fundamentally to economic development. The micro-level analysis indicates the difference regarding the socio-economic features, resource access, and management of producer households between the two analyzed districts. Relevant findings also indicate the importance of Acacia hybrid woodlots in the current livelihood system. However, more wealthy households benefit more from the Acacia hybrid timber income, especially in a well-developed market. Timber production and commercialization contribute to rural poverty reduction. Nevertheless, it is the main driver of the overall income inequality in both districts. Results from the literature review and empirical study support to conceptualize and evaluate the three development scenarios, displaying different levels of forest transition interventions and reactions of key actors in the chains. Under the current situation, a fast transition model with strict plantation control is not advisable for timber value chains' stakeholders, especially those who operate on the ground. A slow transition scenario with a co-management model, instead, serves as a suitable development pathway. To improve the current management system, this study implies five management strategies, including (i) adaptive management; (ii) multi-stakeholder cooperation; (iii) target interventions; (iv) collaborative management and (v) integrated planning. The study can be of interest for further policy interventions focusing on sustainable reforestation and livelihood development in Vietnam. The approach of transition towards high added value products can further be applied in other comparable contextual cases searching for sustainable utilization of timber and forest-based products at large. Theoretically, the thesis highlights that sustainable management of forest-based products will not be obtained unless the related economic, social, and environmental aspects are considered in conjunction. These conditions are driven by several factors, such as national policy frame and market condition. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the interrelations within the economic-socio-ecological system to achieve long-term development targets. ; Die Forstwirtschaft und der holzverarbeitende Sektor leisten einen wachsenden Beitrag zur nationalen und ländlichen Wirtschaftsentwicklung. Baumplantagen dienen Tausenden von kleinen Holzproduzentenhaushalten in vielen tropischen Ländern als Geschäftsmöglichkeit, um ihren Lebensunterhalt zu sichern. Da die Waldflächen und die darauf gestützte Holzproduktion begrenzt sind, ist eine nachhaltige Bewirtschaftung der waldbasierten Ressourcen, einschließlich Holz, erforderlich. Diese Studie untersucht die Wertschöpfungsketten und die Auswirkungen von kommerziellem Akazien-Hybridholz auf den Lebensunterhalt der ländlichen Bevölkerung in Zentralvietnam durch Integration von Wertschöpfungsketten- und Lebensunterhaltsanalysen. Außerdem wird eine Szenarioanalyse durchgeführt, um Entwicklungswege für die Holzwertschöpfungsketten vorzuschlagen und bessere Informationen für die Entwicklung der Plantagenpolitik in Vietnam insgesamt bereitzustellen. Die empirische Analyse verwendet ein Fallstudien-Forschungsdesign, um den Übergang zu höherwertigen Nutzungen von Holzressourcen zu untersuchen und dabei die Leistung von Wertschöpfungsketten für Hackschnitzel, nicht FSC-zertifizierte Möbel und FSC-zertifizierte Möbel in der Provinz Thua Thien Hue zu analysieren. Darüber hinaus werden zwei Produktionsgebiete, die Distrikte Nam Dong und Phu Loc, als Fallbeispiele ausgewählt, um die ländlichen Entwicklungspotenziale der Akazien-Hybridholzproduktion und -vermarktung zu untersuchen. Um Primär- und Sekundärdaten zu sammeln wird ein Methodenmix aus qualitativen Methoden, wie der Sichtung und Analyse von Sekundärdaten und der Befragung von Schlüsselinformanten, sowie quantitativen Datenerhebungsmethoden, wie der Befragung von Produzentenhaushalten, verwendet. Außerdem werden diverse qualitative und quantitative Analysen wie Inhaltsanalyse, Wertschöpfungskettenanalyse, Lebensunterhaltsanalyse und Szenarioanalyse entsprechend den spezifischen Forschungszielen eingesetzt. Die Analyse auf der Makroebene zeigt die strategischen Reaktionen der asiatischen Holzfirmen auf die globale Wirtschaft, insbesondere in Bezug auf geografische Reichweite, Governance, Kooperation und Gesamtleistung. Darüber hinaus zeigt eine Literaturübersicht die potenziellen Auswirkungen asiatischer Holzwertschöpfungsketten auf die Umwelt und die Lebensgrundlagen der lokalen Bevölkerung auf. Während die Kommerzialisierung von Holzprodukten Vorteile für die Akteure der Wertschöpfungskette mit sich bringt, führt eine nicht nachhaltige Waldbewirtschaftung zu diversen negativen Umwelteffekten. Die Ergebnisse zeigen erhebliche Wissenslücken auf und fordern eine breitere geografische Abdeckung sowie transparentere und quantitativere Bewertungen. Um das Verständnis von Holz-Wertschöpfungsketten zu vertiefen, sollten weitere Forschungsarbeiten die Ursprünge, Funktionen, Abläufe und Interaktionen von Unternehmen in diesen Ketten untersuchen und dabei ökologische und soziale Aspekte mit einbeziehen. Die Analyse auf der Meso- und Mikroebene legt die Struktur der Akazien-Hybridholz-Wertschöpfungsketten offen, welche von verschiedenen sozioökonomischen, politischen und ökologischen Bedingungen geprägt sind. Alle drei analysierten Holzwertschöpfungsketten sind käufergesteuert, angeführt von Verarbeitungs- und Exportunternehmen im nachgelagerten Knotenpunkt der Ketten. Am vorgelagerten Knotenpunkt sind die kleinen Holzproduzenten in der Regel weniger organisiert und haben keinen Marktzugang. Die Holzproduktion und -vermarktung bieten profitable Geschäftsaktivitäten für Holzproduzenten, Händler sowie Verarbeitungs- und Exportunternehmen. Aus der Kettenperspektive ist die Wertschöpfungskette Hackschnitzel finanziell profitabel. Ihr Beitrag zur Volkswirtschaft ist jedoch der geringste. Im Gegensatz dazu trägt die FSC-zertifizierte Möbel-Wertschöpfungskette grundlegend zur wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung bei. Die Analyse auf der Mikroebene zeigt die Unterschiede zwischen den beiden analysierten Distrikten in Bezug auf die sozioökonomischen Merkmale, den Ressourcenzugang und das Management der Produzentenhaushalte. Relevante Ergebnisse weisen auch auf die Bedeutung von Akazien-Hybridholzplantagen im derzeitigen Lebensunterhaltssystem hin. Allerdings profitieren wohlhabendere Haushalte mehr von den Einnahmen durch Akazien-Hybridholz, insbesondere bei einem gut entwickelten Markt. Holzproduktion und Kommerzialisierung tragen zur ländlichen Armutsbekämpfung bei, dennoch ist sie der ausschlaggebende Kraft für die allgemeine Einkommensungleichheit in beiden Distrikten. Die Ergebnisse der Literaturrecherche und der empirischen Studie helfen dabei, die drei Entwicklungsszenarien zu konzipieren und zu bewerten, die unterschiedliche Ebenen der Waldumwandlungsmaßnahmen und Reaktionen der Hauptakteure in den Ketten darstellen. In der aktuellen Situation ist ein schnelles Übergangsmodell mit strikter Kontrolle der Plantagen für die Akteure der Holzwertschöpfungsketten nicht ratsam, insbesondere für diejenigen, die vor Ort tätig sind. Ein langsames Übergangsszenario mit einem Co-Management-Modell dient stattdessen als geeigneter Entwicklungspfad. Um das derzeitige Managementsystem zu verbessern, schlägt diese Studie fünf Managementstrategien vor, darunter (i) adaptives Management, (ii) Zusammenarbeit mehrerer Interessengruppen, (iii) gezielte Interventionen, (iv) kooperatives Management und (v) integrierte Planung. Die Studie kann für weitere politische Interventionen von Interesse sein, welche sich auf eine nachhaltige Wiederaufforstung und die Entwicklung der Lebensgrundlagen in Vietnam konzentrieren. Der Ansatz des Übergangs zu Produkten mit hoher Wertschöpfung kann auch in anderen vergleichbaren Fällen angewandt werden, in denen eine nachhaltige Nutzung von Holz- und Forstprodukten im Allgemeinen angestrebt wird. Theoretisch unterstreicht die Arbeit, dass eine nachhaltige Bewirtschaftung von Forstprodukten nur dann erreicht werden kann, wenn die damit verbundenen wirtschaftlichen, sozialen und ökologischen Aspekte in Verbindung betrachtet werden. Diese Bedingungen werden von verschiedenen Faktoren beeinflusst, wie z.B. dem nationalen politischen Rahmen und den Marktbedingungen. Daher ist es entscheidend, die Zusammenhänge innerhalb des ökonomisch-sozio-ökologischen Systems zu verstehen, um langfristige Entwicklungsziele zu erreichen.

The process of institutional transition from one coordination mechanism to another one is an important period in the evolution of any society. Transitions are associated with fundamental political, legal, economic and social changes (Danis et al. 2010) affecting all aspects of life (Peng 2003). The transition from planned to open-market economy that has taken place in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), East Asia, and the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union represents an institutional transition. An environment that goes through transition is characterized by high level of vulnerability and uncertainty which impacts all actors evolving in it, including the organizations (Peng 2003). The dynamic relationship environment-organization is reflected in the concept of legitimacy. Legitimacy is a pertinent concept to study the transition stage since it exists on the borderline between the organization and its environment. In transition environments, the processes of deinstitutionalization of the old structures and the reinstitutionalization of the new ones coexist. This leads to a lack of institutional framework to guide behavior of actors or a situation called institutional vacuum. Since institutions regulate economic exchanges (North 1990), the lack of them leads to elevated costs for all actors due to the proliferation of opportunistic behavior (Meyer 2001). In such environments, demonstrating legitimacy becomes crucial for the survival of structures and actors. Legitimation is sought by new elites (Raychev and Stoichev 2008), the government (Peng 2000a), the new laws, decrees and regulations (Stark 1992), and the private organizations (Peng 2000a). The success of the transition directly depends on the strategies of organizations evolving in such environments (Peng 2000). Small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) play an important role as catalysts of the process of change (McIntyre 2003: 1) since they are expected to spur economic growth and employment (Peng 2000a), and maintain social peace (McIntyre 2003: 1). Despite their central role in transition environments, little is known about the challenges SMEs face and the actions that can be undertaken in order to overcome them (Danis, Chaburu and Lyles 2010). One of the main challenges of SMEs in transition environments is to demonstrate that they are legitimate players implying that they comply with the expectations of relevant stakeholders' groups. The main objective of this study is to shed some light on how SMEs in transition environments gain organizational legitimacy necessary for obtaining stakeholders' support. The interest of the study lies in the fact that if organizational legitimacy is problematic for all organizations due to changing norms, beliefs, and stakeholders' expectations over time (Ashforth and Gibbs 1990), it is even more problematic for small organizations in transition environments since the norms, beliefs and expectations are not clearly defined. In order to address the legitimacy needs of small organizations in transition environments, I propose a signaling theory of legitimacy, which postulates that the legitimacy-claiming entities can rely on valid signals in order to demonstrate (communicate) their adherence to the requirements of the evaluating audiences. In general, the signaling theory of legitimacy should hold for any organization facing a liability - the discount the evaluating audiences place on it in comparison to its potential competitors. Organizations in transition environments face liability of origin (Bartlett and Ghoshal 2000) – a discount that the evaluating audiences (both domestic and foreign) may place on them based on their context of origin. For small organizations , the challenges resulting from liability of origin are even bigger because of their size, they are more prone to import instability from the environment. The higher level of vulnerability of small firms encourages them to engage in opportunistic behavior. Hence, demonstrating their legitimacy is a key issue for SMEs operating in transition environments. Organizational legitimacy becomes especially important when organizations engage in long-term arrangements since this requires an assessment of the organization not only in terms of its products/services but also in terms of its ongoing access to resources and capabilities as well as its reliability as a partner. In order to address the legitimacy needs of small firms evolving in transition environments and trying to obtain long-term partnerships, a new legitimacy typology is proposed. It is comprised of two types – functional and relational legitimacy. Functional legitimacy represents the adherence to the evaluating audiences' requirements regarding relevant resources and capabilities. Relational legitimacy is the conformity with the evaluating audiences' expectations regarding the reliability of an organization as a partner. Hence, this study addresses two research questions: 1. What are the dimensions (and valid signals) of functional and relational legitimacy (for small organizations in transition environment)? 2. Does using signals of specific types of legitimacy (depending on the liability faced) enhance organizational legitimacy? This doctoral research examines the legitimacy challenges of SMEs in transition environments trying to obtain long-term arrangements. In the first part of the study, the two types of legitimacy - functional and relational legitimacy - are constructed. Similar to organizational legitimacy (Deephouse and Carter 2005), functional and relational legitimacy are also multidimensional constructs comprised of different facets. In the second part, I examine whether the signals of functional and relational legitimacy help SMEs in transition environment gain organizational legitimacy. The research model is tested on data collected from the information technology (IT) sector in Bulgaria. Based on the data analysis and results, this research has several theoretical and methodological contributions. The results also have practical implications for the managers of small organizations in transition environments as well as the public policy agents. The theoretical contributions are associated mainly with the signaling theory of legitimacy. It looks at how organizations can overcome certain liabilities by communicating their adherence to the expectations of relevant stakeholders' groups. Organizations can demonstrate their conformity to the evaluating audiences' requirements by using valid signals – organizational characteristics that can be observed, are costly to imitate and are based on shared meaning between the sending and the receiving party. In addition, the study contributes to the literature on transition environments by looking at the particular case of SMEs and their attempt to demonstrate that they are legitimate players when trying to engage in long-term arrangements. The methodological contribution lies in the way the two types of legitimacy (functional and relational) are measured via formative measurement constructs (Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001; Jarvis et al. 2003) under the partial least squares (PLS) technique. Formative constructs are associated with causality that goes from the manifest (directly observable) variable to the latent construct or in other words, the manifest variables cause/build the latent construct (Diamantopoulos 1999). This made possible to match the legitimacy claims of organizations from once side based on the functional and relational signals and the legitimacy granted by relevant stakeholders' groups, on the other side. In addition, the research contributes to the growing number of studies in strategic management that use PLS as a structural equation modeling technique (Birkinshaw et al. 1995; Cool et al. 1989; Fornell et al. 1990; Johansson and Yip 1994; Tsang 2002). The practical implications of this research shed some light on which signals (organizational characteristics) are important for managers of small organizations in transition environments. Signals are costly and since all organizations (and especially small firms) have limited resources, managers have to know which signals to invest in. It is important to note that many managers disregard the relational aspect of their legitimacy claims which (based on the results of the study) are more important in the communication process between the legitimacy-claiming and legitimacy-granting entities. Overall, this study represents a fertile area for future research. Researchers can test the signaling theory of legitimacy in other contexts – i.e., other transition environments (Eastern Europe vs. China), as well as compare the signals used by organizations in transition environments and developed economies. Researchers can also test the signaling theory of legitimacy on organizations facing different liabilities (i.e. liability of market newness) and try to extend the existing legitimacy typologies. In addition, future studies can focus on issues of meaning construction (based on signals) in the communication process between organizations.

Раздел "Международные экономические отношения" ; Внешняя политика КНР направлена на повышение роли Китая в международных вопросах и создание благоприятных условий для развития экономики. Китай неизменно претворяет в жизнь концепцию Дэн Сяопина, придерживается независимой и самостоятельной внешней политики, выступает в защиту территориальной целостности страны и суверенитета. Руководство КНР подчеркивает, что в международной политике Китай направляет усилия на обеспечение мира, не вступает ни в какие союзы и блоки, добивается добрососедских отношений с соседними странами. Между Республикой Беларусь и Китайской Народной Республикой достигнут высокий уровень сотрудничества. КНР является основным политическим и торгово-экономическим партнером Беларуси в Азии. Решающее значение для становления и развития двустороннего политического сотрудничества между Республикой Беларусь и Китайской Народной Республикой сыграло совпадение позиций по широкому кругу международных вопросов и поддержка друг друга в международных организациях. Создана значительная договорно-правовая база двусторонних отношений, охватывающая широкий круг вопросов сотрудничества между Республикой Беларусь и Китайской Народной Республикой. Подписанные договоры, программы и соглашения стали основой для становления, развития и укрепления связей Республики Беларусь и Китайской Народной Республики и обеспечили их стабильное развитие на долгосрочную перспективу. Закрепление в различных документах получило торгово-экономическое, научно-техническое, военное сотрудничество, сотрудничество в сфере образования, культуры. Китай действительно развивается стремительным темпом, что подтверждается различными показателями роста экономики. Характеризуя сложившуюся экономическую ситуацию в Китае, можно выделить следующие моменты: высокий рост инвестиций и экспорта; изменение структуры потребления в сторону строительства жилья, рынка автомобилей, потреблению средств связи; структурные изменения в экономике, связанные с привлечением новейших технологий и улучшение уровня жизни населения. Экономический подъем в Китае из года в год создает реальные предпосылки для успешной работы белорусских субъектов хозяйствования в КНР. Однако сегодня белорусский экспорт практически не заметен на этом перспективном и платежеспособном рынке. Для экспортоориентированной экономики Беларуси подобное состояние дел в торговле с ведущей страной Азии непозволительно. Более того, это происходит на фоне впечатляющих темпов развития Китая. В связи с этим, представляется целесообразным учесть в стратегии сотрудничества с КНР следующие основные моменты: 1) Развитие инфраструктуры торгово-экономических связей: задействования банков и страховых компаний двух стран для совершенствования расчетно-платежных отношений, кредитования поставок сложной машинотехнической продукции и оборудования с длительным циклом изготовления, финансирования инвестиционных проектов; совершенствование структуры транспортных перевозок, внедрение прогрессивных форм таможенного и санитарного контроля; развитие электронной торговли, а также прикладных информационных технологий. 2) Участие Беларуси в программах хозяйственного подъема западных провинций КНР. 3) Развитие прямой торговли с Китаем, без участия посредников, на основе расширения совместной торговой инфраструктуры — выставок, представительств, создания торговых и сервисных сетей. 4) Беларусь и Китай находятся на большом удалении друг от друга, поэтому необходимо развитие электронной торговли. 5) Состояние белорусско-китайской торговли показывает, что необходимо коренное изменение представлений белорусских экспортеров о Китае, как стране производящей высокотехническую продукцию. 6) По-прежнему концентрируя основные усилия на привлечении иностранного капитала, в Китае придают все большее значение инвестированию за рубеж. Правительство разработало специальную стратегию выхода на внешние рынки китайских фирм и предприятий. 7) Для китайских компаний также существуют немалые ниши для укрепления своих позиций на белорусском рынке. В первую очередь, это поставки недорогого и не уступающего западным аналогам оборудования для технической модернизации отечественных производителей, а также бытовой техники и товаров народного потребления в части, дополняющей ассортимент, производимый в Беларуси. В республике разработана стратегическая Программа активизации торгово-экономического сотрудничества с КНР на 2004—2008 гг. В программе отражены мероприятия по увеличению объемов экспорта белорусских предприятий в КНР, развитию товаропроводящей сети, выставочно-ярмарочной деятельности, созданию совместных предприятий (производств) на территории КНР, привлечению китайских инвестиций и финансовой помощи, дальнейшему развитию регионального сотрудничества с провинциями Китая. Реализация Программы позволит выполнить поставленные задачи по увеличению товарооборота между Беларусью и Китаем. = The foreign policy of the People's Republic of China is directed at raising China's role in the international life and creation of favourable conditions for its economic development. China steadily realizes the concept of Deng Xiaoping, adhering to the independent foreign policy policy, advocating territorial integrity and sovereignty. China's leadership emphasizes that in its international politics China supports peace, stays outside all unions and blocs and seeks good neighbourly relations with the bordering countries. The Republic of Belarus and the People's Republic of China can boast a high level of cooperation. China is the main political, trade and economic partner of Belarus in Asia. The decisive role for the formation and evolution of bilateral political cooperation between the Republic of Belarus and the People's Republic of China was played by the agreement in their opinions on a wide range of international issues and mutual support in the international organizations. The countries have established a significant legal treaty base for the bilateral relations involving different aspects of cooperation. The existing treaties, programmes and agreements underlie the formation, development and strengthening of ties between the Republic of Belarus and the People's Republic of China, thus providing their stable development in the long-term. Trade and economic, scientific and engineering, military, educational, cultural cooperation was fixed in various documents. China is indeed developing rapidly and showing various high indeces of economic growth. While characterizing the current economic situation in China, one can point out high investment and export growth, the shift of consumption pattern towards house-building, automobile and communications markets, and structural changes in the economy related to the latest technologies and the growth of standards of living. The economic boom in China from year to year creates real prerequisites for the successful work of Belarusian economic subjects in China. However, Belarusian export is currently almost insignificant on this promising and profitable market. The author states that it is unfitting for Belarus with its export oriented economy to have the existing level of cooperation with this leading Asian state. Moreover, it is happening against the background of impressing economic growth rates in China. In this connection, the author considers it advisable to take into account the following basic aspects when realizing the strategy of cooperation with China: 1) the development of infrastructure of trade and economic relations: involvement of banks and insurance companies of the two countries to improve the relations in the payments sphere, the crediting of deliveries of complex machinery and equipment with a long production cycle, financing of investment projects, the structure of transportation, introduction of new forms of customs and sanitary control, development of e-trade and applied information technologies; 2) participation of Belarus in the programmes of economic upswing of the China western provinces; 3) development of direct trade with China without any mediators on the basis of expansion of joint trade infrastructure: exhibitions, offices, trade and service networks; 4) development of e-trade because of long distance between two states; 5) radical change of awareness of Belarusian exporters about China as a country manufacturing high-tech produce; 6) while focusing its main efforts on attracting foreign capital, China gives ever greater importance to the investment expansion. The government elaborated a special strategy of foreign market entry for the Chinese companies and manufacturers; 7) Chinese companies also enjoy ample opportunities for strengthening their positions on the Belarusian market. Primarily, this is connected with supplying equipment to modernize Belarusian industry, competitive both in prices, which are reasonable, ad quality. Domestic appliances and consumer goods in addition to those produced in Belarus are also sold. The Belarusian strategic Programme of Intensification of Trade and Economic Cooperation with the People's Republic of China in 2004—2008 contains actions to increase the volume of export of Belarusian enterprises to China, to develop commodity distrubution network, exhibitions and fairs, to create of joint ventures on China's territory, to attract Chinese investments and financial aid, and to develop further regional cooperation with Chinese provinces. The Programme implementation will lead to the realization of the tasks on turnover growth between Belarus and China.

Slowly but steadily, Europe is emerging from an energy crisis that threatened to stymie the post-pandemic recovery and plunge its economy into recession once more. After Russia's weaponisation of energy supplies left European governments scrambling to secure alternative fossil fuels for the better part of 2022, the energy outlook today has defied the most pessimistic expectations: supplies are ensured, storages are adequately filled,[1] and energy prices are returning to pre-crisis levels. Consequently, the focus in Brussels has shifted from navigating the crisis to ensuring that the transition to renewables, as enshrined in the European Green Deal, does not jeopardise European energy security once more.
Yet the roadmap for doing so is complex. Drawing on the lessons learnt during the crisis, European energy security arguably rests on two pillars: secure supply chains and efficient energy use. Only the combination of the two can successfully emancipate Europe from energy dependency, and bolster the often-touted resilience of the European economy.Pillar one: Securing autonomous supplies
The International Energy Agency defines energy security as "the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price".[2] It follows that the first milestone on the road to European energy security is the availability of an uninterrupted supply of energy. This requires both an independent generation capability and to satisfy the remaining demand through imports while remaining committed to a political vision that seeks, in the long run, to phase out the latter in favour of the former.
In May 2022, in response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine, the European Commission presented REPowerEU, its plan to wean the Union off its dependence on Russian fossil fuels by frontloading the roll-out of renewable power generation capacity. The plan targets a 42,5 per cent renewable energy share by 2030; the measures proposed to this end include investment worth 300 billion euro and proposals for fast-tracking the permitting processes for renewables.[3] Despite reservations on the EU's capacity to meet the 2030 target,[4] REPowerEU is undeniably a step in the right direction as regards energy security, since it will enable the Union to source a sizeable part of its energy requirements in house by the end of the decade.
Yet in its execution the Union must avoid re-creating conditions analogous to those that allowed Russia to engineer last year's energy crisis.[5] The roll-out and sustainment of green energy generation capacity requires access to a host of minerals and rare earth elements (REEs). Today, European REE demand relies on third-country imports, and, given Europe's absence from the upstream part of most REE value chains,[6] this will remain the case for the foreseeable future. Moreover, China has positioned itself as "the kingpin of clean energy supply chains" thanks to a provident industrial policy of targeted, state-backed investment and, since 2010, increasing export restrictions.[7] Given the centrality that REE imports will have in the green transition, the risk of replacing one strategic dependency (Russian fossil fuels) with another (Chinese REEs) is therefore a real one.
Against this backdrop, it is imperative for the Union to develop a strategy to initially navigate, but ultimately mitigate these dependencies. The Critical Raw Materials Act is a welcome start, in that it sets a maximum import quota of 65 per cent from a single third country for the Union's annual consumption of any strategic raw material. However, the 65 per cent ceiling should not be considered as an end goal; on the contrary, it should be continuously revised downward, leveraging the firepower of the Global Gateway to challenge China's quasi-monopolistic position in the REE value chains. Doing so requires protracted efforts to diversify the European supply chain, and ultimately engagement with China and the United States to create the conditions for open global supply chains. This outcome ought to be a target of the Union's international development policy in the years to come, as it will ensure a viable transition to autonomous energy generation and allow for its sustainment over time.
With this target in sight, policymakers must nonetheless take into account that, in a context where all 27 member states are net importers of energy,[8] the transition to pan-European self-sufficiency in energy generation will be no rapid feat. Consequently, member states will have to backfill through imports of oil and gas, which, along with nuclear generation capacity, are likely to account for a substantial part of European energy consumption for the foreseeable future. If energy security is to be sustained throughout the transition, it is then crucial for member states to maintain the hard-earned diversification in the sourcing of fossil fuel imports. EU-wide coordination on this aspect can lead to many low-hanging fruits – for example, consistently pursuing the joint purchasing of gas via the recently established EU energy platform[9] would allow the Union to leverage its market weight as a major consumer to drive down gas prices. Ultimately, however, real energy security can only be achieved by reducing the EU's energy dependency rate to a level that would allow for the rapid substitution of imports with domestic energy production, should any economic or geopolitical contingencies arise. This "de-risking" approach should underpin the political vision that guides all EU energy policy choices in the upcoming years.Pillar two: Reducing demand by ensuring energy efficiency
If energy security is to be achieved without jeopardising the 2050 climate targets, all these measures to ensure supply should be complemented by policies aiming to reduce demand for energy and raw materials by ensuring their efficient use. Doing so requires a multi-faceted effort across several policy areas, which builds on the lessons learnt in 2022. Fixes to the electricity market to reduce consumption at the margin,[10] by, for example, better linking wholesale and retail prices, should be the tip of the iceberg; in the long run, the Union requires a comprehensive industrial plan[11] that treats energy efficiency as a tenet of sustainable development. Recycling goals for raw materials should be constantly but realistically revised upwards, and investment both within and outside the EU in transition-enabling sectors, such as those identified in the Strategic Technologies for Europe Platform (STEP), should be geared to defined energy efficiency goals. Finally, the Union can do more to address the skill shortage that besets green industries today, by, for instance, better aligning its environmental policies with skill development strategies at the sectoral level. The American Inflation Reduction Act – which compels firms that wish to benefit from tax credits to allocate at least 15 per cent of the new labour hours required for the projects to newly-hired apprentices – offers interesting lessons in this respect.
Strategies to foster energy efficiency at the industrial level should not spare ambition: the crisis has shown industry to be more prone to substitution of energy sources than it would admit itself.[12] Financing these efforts while maintaining a level playing field will prove difficult, as the sustainable finance strategy and the European Investment Bank can only go that far before distortive state aid will need to kick it. Yet if the Union wants to attain energy security and meet the Paris climate commitments enshrined in its own legislation, it will need to double down on demand reduction first of all.An ambitious but realistic approach
Achieving European energy security in the era of decarbonisation will revolve around two pillars: pursuing an autonomous energy generation capacity, backstopped by imports, and fostering the efficient use of resources. To reach these targets, an ambitious but realistic approach to policymaking is required. Ambitious, in that member states should not hesitate to make use of the economic firepower and R&D capacity at their disposal to steer private industry towards well-defined but demanding sustainability targets. Realistic, in that it will have to take into account that the pool of resources that enable the transition is finite, and thus that both China and the United States will have agency in shaping Europe's ability to access the critical raw materials and related processing capacities that underpin the transition. A targeted, priority-based approach to investment should therefore be pursued; particular emphasis must be put on contingency planning, both at the European and member state level. Ultimately, pursuing ambitious energy generation and efficiency goals with a realistic approach is the shortest path to attain European energy security today, and thereby ensure that Europe doesn't repeat tomorrow the mistakes of yesterday.Tommaso Luisari is a young professional currently working as a consultant in Brussels after graduating from Bocconi University in April 2023.
This is a winning article (3rd place) submitted to the 2023 edition of the IAI Prize contest.[1] European Commission DG Energy, EU Reaches 90% Gas Storage Target Ahead of Winter, 18 August 2023, https://energy.ec.europa.eu/node/5508_en.[2] International Energy Agency (IEA) website: Emergency Response and Energy Security, last updated 3 August 2023, https://www.iea.org/about/emergency-response-and-energy-security.[3] See the 2023 Flagship Technical Support Project "Accelerating Permitting for Renewable Energy" in the European Commission DG Reform website: https://reform-support.ec.europa.eu/node/437_en.[4] IEA, "Is the European Union on Track to Meet Its REPowerEU Goals?", in Renewables 2022. Analysis and Forecasts to 2027, Paris, IEA, 2022 (revised version January 2023), p. 117-128, https://www.iea.org/reports/is-the-european-union-on-track-to-meet-its-repowereu-goals. The IEA concludes that "in none of [our forecasts] are [the increase] levels consistent with the [targets in the] REPowerEU plan".[5] Jillian Ambrose, "Russia Is Orchestrating Europe's Gas Crisis, Says Energy Agency Boss", in The Guardian, 12 January 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/p/kadjk. For more details on how Russia engineered Europe's gas crisis, see Dmitri Alperovitch with Sergey Vakulenko, "How Russia Engineered the Perfect Gas Crisis" (podcast), in Geopolitics Decanted, episode 17 (29 July 2022), https://podcast.silverado.org/episodes/analysis-of-the-war-in-ukraine-july-28-2022-IzPM5ON9.[6] Jane Nakano, "The Geopolitics of Critical Minerals Supply Chains", in CSIS Reports, March 2021, p. 15, https://www.csis.org/node/60182.[7] IEA, The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions, Paris, IEA, May 2021 (revised version March 2022), p. 162, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions; Ibid., p. 4-6.[8] Eurostat, "Energy Imports and Dependency", in Shedding Light on Energy in the EU – 2023 Interactive Edition, March 2023, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/interactive-publications/energy-2023#energy-imports-dependency.[9] See the EU Energy Platform webpage for more details: https://energy.ec.europa.eu/node/5060_en.[10] Michael Pollitt et al., Recommendations for a Future-Proof Electricity Market Design, Brussels, Centre on Regulation in Europe, December 2022, https://cerre.eu/?p=10904.[11] Pier Paolo Raimondi, "Walking out of the Woods: EU Industrial Policy between the Energy Crisis and Decarbonisation", in IAI Commentaries, No. 22|64 (December 2022), https://www.iai.it/en/node/16355.[12] Benjamin Moll, Moritz Schularick and Georg Zachmann, "Not Even a Recession: The Great German Gas Debate in Retrospect", in ECONtribute Policy Briefs, No. 48 (May 2023), http://hdl.handle.net/10419/273549.

La época actual se caracteriza, fundamentalmente, por los cambios dinámicos que se producen en los entornos económicos, políticos, sociales y culturales de las organizaciones creando realidades cada vez más complejas. La organización universitaria, como cualquier institución social, difícilmente puede concebirse al margen de los cambios que se producen en la sociedad. La conexión de la universidad con la sociedad, desde siempre, ha tenido algo de problemático. Por una parte las universidades están al servicio de esta sociedad, generando, transmitiendo y difundiendo el saber; pero, por otro lado, sufren -el pathos clásico- el impacto innegable de los cambios, bruscos o no, que genera la sociedad y a los que la universidad ha contribuido en cierta medida. Frente a estos cambios la investigación académica y la consultoría en el campo del management han desarrollado valiosos aportes para la gestión de las organizaciones formulando planteamientos que explican los nuevos fenómenos, elaborando nuevas teorías que sirven de referente para los nuevos comportamientos de la gestión organizacional y produciendo instrumentos que viabilizan la gestión del cambio. El benchmarking, o evaluación comparativa, es un instrumento de gestión contemporánea que se viene aplicando ampliamente y con resultados más que notables en el mundo de la gestión empresarial. Es un proceso sistemático y continuo para evaluar las mejores prácticas de las organizaciones que son reconocidas como excelentes con el propósito de compararse, encontrar las diferencias en cuanto a la realización y a los resultados alcanzados para, finalmente, adoptar la experiencia, adaptarla y actuar en consecuencia. Esta sistematización de "imitar para superar" es una herramienta potente que permite el aprendizaje de las organizaciones y la mejora de su desempeño sustentándose, por así decirlo, en aquello que es de sentido común y que con frecuencia lo aplican las personas, las organizaciones, los países, los bloques regionales: imitar experiencias exitosas de los demás para aplicarlas a su realidad, adaptándolas y así superar una situación existente. La situación actual le exige a la institución universitaria no sólo que responda a las demandas que puedan surgir del entorno, coyunturales y específicas sino, más aun, que conozca las teorías de gestión contemporánea que explican las nuevas realidades y maneje instrumentos de gestión que le permitan reingienizar la organización y desarrollar comportamientos más eficientes y eficaces, planteándose una gestión orientada al mediano y largo plazo. En esta investigación se abordan tres temas centrales: el de la organización y gestión universitaria, el del benchmarking y, por último, el de la propuesta de un sistema de evaluación comparativa de competencias esenciales aplicado a la gestión universitaria. Los dos primeros son el soporte necesario para explicitar el sistema que se propone. En lo referente a la organización y gestión universitaria se analizan tres cuestiones fundamentales: la actuación de las fuerzas y las configuraciones en el diseño de la estructura organizativa de la universidad; la posibilidad de realizar una gestión universitaria desde la perspectiva de la dirección estratégica; y, por último, el valor de la cultura organizacional en la gestión y en la vida de la institución universitaria. En el cuanto al tema del benchmarking se presentan cuatro enfoques relacionados con la gestión universitaria relevantes en el tratamiento de la tesis: la creación de valor a través del staff; la innovación adaptativa o aprendizaje organizacional, la gestión estratégica y, por último, la gestión de calidad total. Teniendo en cuenta las peculiares características de la organización universitaria, las fuerzas que intervienen en ellas y los significativos comportamientos de sus profesionales resulta de una pertinencia significativa el aporte realizado por Fitz-enz sobre la gestión de valor aplicada a los procesos de staff como un medio para añadir valor centrándose, fundamentalmente, en las prestaciones que se dan al interior de la organización y de identificar y agregar valor a la calidad, productividad y servicio de la empresa. Así mismo es relevante el tema del aprendizaje organizacional y la evaluación comparativa planteado por Bogan y English. El núcleo central del trabajo es la propuesta de un sistema de evaluación comparativa de competencias esenciales aplicado a la gestión universitaria. El sistema se estructura en cuatro módulos básicos: planificar, organizar, valorar y actuar, precisándose, dentro de ellos, los objetivos a alcanzar, las actividades a desarrollar y los instrumentos a aplicar. A través de estos módulos se desarrollan dos procesos fundamentales. El primero que busca evaluar el desempeño que se quiere mejorar de la universidad que se va a comparar y, por otro lado, evaluar la práctica excelente de la organización universitaria socia con la que se va a comparar. Este proceso implica la identificación y análisis de los aspectos relevantes de ambos desempeños o prácticas. El segundo proceso tiene como objetivo comparar las prácticas de las dos universidades comprometidas en la evaluación, determinar las diferencias, valorarlas y plantear la eliminación de ellas. La realización de ambos procesos y el diseño de un plan de mejora a seguir para eliminar las diferencias comportan un claro valor agregado que supone la mejora de la competitividad de la universidad que se evalúa y compara. El sistema de evaluación comparativa propuesto se aplica en detalle a dos prácticas relacionadas con el proceso de dirección y planificación estratégica de dos universidades, la Universidad del Pacífico, en Lima-Perú, como organización que requiere implementar mejoras concretas en su gestión y la Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona-España, como organización universitaria que aporta valor. El sistema de evaluación propuesto es un instrumento de aprendizaje institucional que puede aplicarse a la gestión universitaria y que permite la incorporación de mejoras en la gestión de las universidades a partir de las experiencias exitosas de otras instituciones. ; The present times are basically characterized by the dynamic changes produced in the economic, political, social, and cultural environments of organizations, that create increasingly more complex realities. University organizations, as other social institutions, can not be conceived of apart from the changes produced in society. The connection of the university with society has always been somewhat problematic. On the one hand, universities serve society, generating, transmitting and disseminating knowledge; but, on the other hand, they suffer - the classic pathos- the undeniable impact of the changes, rough or not, that society generates, and to which the university, to a certain extent, has contributed. Academic research and consultancies in the management field have developed valuable contributions for the management of organizations, formulating proposals that explain the new phenomena, elaborating new theories that can be used as referents for new behaviors of organizational management and producing instruments that make the management of change viable. Benchmarking, or comparative evaluation, is a current management instrument that is being widely applied with remarkable results in the world of business management. It is a systematic and continuous process that evaluates the best practices in organizations that are considered excellent for the purpose of comparing institutions, finding the differences regarding the realization and the results that have been obtained; finally, adopting the excellence, adapting it, and performing accordingly. The systematization of "imitating to surpass" is a powerful tool that enables organizations to learn and to improve their performance by using some common sense that is frequently applied by persons, organizations, nations, regions: imitating successful experiences to apply them to their reality, adapting them and, thus, overcoming and surpassing an existing situation. The current situation requires university institutions not only to respond to the demands that can appear in the environment, which are time-specific, but, to know the theories of modern management that explain new realities and to handle the management tools that will allow them to reengineer the organization and develop efficient behaviors, considering a management that addresses the medium and long terms. Three main issues are dealt with in this research: university organization and management, benchmarking, and, finally, the proposal of a system for the comparative evaluation of essential competences applied to university management. The first two are necessary to make the proposed system explicit. Regarding the organization and management of universities, three things are analyzed: the performance of forces and configurations in the design of the organizational structure of universities; the possibility of managing universities from the perspective of strategic management; and, finally, the value of organizational culture in the management and life of universities. With respect to benchmarking, four approaches related to university management that are relevant to the treatment of the thesis are presented: creation of value by means of the staff, adaptive innovation or organizational learning, strategic management, and total quality management. Considering the particular characteristics of university organizations, the forces that take part in them and the significant behaviors of their professionals, a relevant contribution is Fitz-enz' view on value management applied to staff processes as a way of adding value, centered, basically, on the provision of services within the organization and of identifying and adding value to the quality, productivity and service of the enterprise. Bogan and English' proposal on organizational learning and comparative evaluation is also useful. The core issue of this thesis is the proposal of a comparative evaluation system of essential competences applied to university management. The system consists of four basic modules: planning, organizing, assessing and acting out; specifying within them the objectives to be reached, the activities to be carried out and the instruments to be applied. Two main processes are developed through these modules. The first one aims to evaluate the performance that needs improvement in the university to be compared, as well as to evaluate the excellent practice of the partner university with which it will be compared. This process implies identifying and analyzing the relevant aspects of both performances or practices. The objective of the second process is to compare the practices of the two universities that are involved in the evaluation, determining the differences, assessing them and proposing their elimination. The realization of both processes and the design of an improvement plan to be followed for eliminating the differences have the added value of improving the competitiveness of the university that is being evaluated and compared. The comparative evaluation system proposed is applied in detail to two practices related to the process of strategic management and planning of two universities: the Universidad del Pacífico, in Lima, Perú, as an organization that needs to improve specific areas of its management and the Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, in Barcelona, Spain, as a university organization that contributes value. The evaluation system proposed is an instrument of institutional learning that can be applied to university management and that allows for the incorporation of improvements in the management of universities by considering other institutions' successful experiences. ; Postprint (published version)

La época actual se caracteriza, fundamentalmente, por los cambios dinámicos que se producen en los entornos económicos, políticos, sociales y culturales de las organizaciones creando realidades cada vez más complejas. La organización universitaria, como cualquier institución social, difícilmente puede concebirse al margen de los cambios que se producen en la sociedad. La conexión de la universidad con la sociedad, desde siempre, ha tenido algo de problemático. Por una parte las universidades están al servicio de esta sociedad, generando, transmitiendo y difundiendo el saber; pero, por otro lado, sufren -el pathos clásico- el impacto innegable de los cambios, bruscos o no, que genera la sociedad y a los que la universidad ha contribuido en cierta medida. Frente a estos cambios la investigación académica y la consultoría en el campo del management han desarrollado valiosos aportes para la gestión de las organizaciones formulando planteamientos que explican los nuevos fenómenos, elaborando nuevas teorías que sirven de referente para los nuevos comportamientos de la gestión organizacional y produciendo instrumentos que viabilizan la gestión del cambio. El benchmarking, o evaluación comparativa, es un instrumento de gestión contemporánea que se viene aplicando ampliamente y con resultados más que notables en el mundo de la gestión empresarial. Es un proceso sistemático y continuo para evaluar las mejores prácticas de las organizaciones que son reconocidas como excelentes con el propósito de compararse, encontrar las diferencias en cuanto a la realización y a los resultados alcanzados para, finalmente, adoptar la experiencia, adaptarla y actuar en consecuencia. Esta sistematización de "imitar para superar" es una herramienta potente que permite el aprendizaje de las organizaciones y la mejora de su desempeño sustentándose, por así decirlo, en aquello que es de sentido común y que con frecuencia lo aplican las personas, las organizaciones, los países, los bloques regionales: imitar experiencias exitosas de los demás para aplicarlas a su realidad, adaptándolas y así superar una situación existente. La situación actual le exige a la institución universitaria no sólo que responda a las demandas que puedan surgir del entorno, coyunturales y específicas sino, más aun, que conozca las teorías de gestión contemporánea que explican las nuevas realidades y maneje instrumentos de gestión que le permitan reingienizar la organización y desarrollar comportamientos más eficientes y eficaces, planteándose una gestión orientada al mediano y largo plazo. En esta investigación se abordan tres temas centrales: el de la organización y gestión universitaria, el del benchmarking y, por último, el de la propuesta de un sistema de evaluación comparativa de competencias esenciales aplicado a la gestión universitaria. Los dos primeros son el soporte necesario para explicitar el sistema que se propone. En lo referente a la organización y gestión universitaria se analizan tres cuestiones fundamentales: la actuación de las fuerzas y las configuraciones en el diseño de la estructura organizativa de la universidad; la posibilidad de realizar una gestión universitaria desde la perspectiva de la dirección estratégica; y, por último, el valor de la cultura organizacional en la gestión y en la vida de la institución universitaria. En el cuanto al tema del benchmarking se presentan cuatro enfoques relacionados con la gestión universitaria relevantes en el tratamiento de la tesis: la creación de valor a través del staff; la innovación adaptativa o aprendizaje organizacional, la gestión estratégica y, por último, la gestión de calidad total. Teniendo en cuenta las peculiares características de la organización universitaria, las fuerzas que intervienen en ellas y los significativos comportamientos de sus profesionales resulta de una pertinencia significativa el aporte realizado por Fitz-enz sobre la gestión de valor aplicada a los procesos de staff como un medio para añadir valor centrándose, fundamentalmente, en las prestaciones que se dan al interior de la organización y de identificar y agregar valor a la calidad, productividad y servicio de la empresa. Así mismo es relevante el tema del aprendizaje organizacional y la evaluación comparativa planteado por Bogan y English. El núcleo central del trabajo es la propuesta de un sistema de evaluación comparativa de competencias esenciales aplicado a la gestión universitaria. El sistema se estructura en cuatro módulos básicos: planificar, organizar, valorar y actuar, precisándose, dentro de ellos, los objetivos a alcanzar, las actividades a desarrollar y los instrumentos a aplicar. A través de estos módulos se desarrollan dos procesos fundamentales. El primero que busca evaluar el desempeño que se quiere mejorar de la universidad que se va a comparar y, por otro lado, evaluar la práctica excelente de la organización universitaria socia con la que se va a comparar. Este proceso implica la identificación y análisis de los aspectos relevantes de ambos desempeños o prácticas. El segundo proceso tiene como objetivo comparar las prácticas de las dos universidades comprometidas en la evaluación, determinar las diferencias, valorarlas y plantear la eliminación de ellas. La realización de ambos procesos y el diseño de un plan de mejora a seguir para eliminar las diferencias comportan un claro valor agregado que supone la mejora de la competitividad de la universidad que se evalúa y compara. El sistema de evaluación comparativa propuesto se aplica en detalle a dos prácticas relacionadas con el proceso de dirección y planificación estratégica de dos universidades, la Universidad del Pacífico, en Lima-Perú, como organización que requiere implementar mejoras concretas en su gestión y la Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona-España, como organización universitaria que aporta valor. El sistema de evaluación propuesto es un instrumento de aprendizaje institucional que puede aplicarse a la gestión universitaria y que permite la incorporación de mejoras en la gestión de las universidades a partir de las experiencias exitosas de otras instituciones. ; The present times are basically characterized by the dynamic changes produced in the economic, political, social, and cultural environments of organizations, that create increasingly more complex realities. University organizations, as other social institutions, can not be conceived of apart from the changes produced in society. The connection of the university with society has always been somewhat problematic. On the one hand, universities serve society, generating, transmitting and disseminating knowledge; but, on the other hand, they suffer - the classic pathos- the undeniable impact of the changes, rough or not, that society generates, and to which the university, to a certain extent, has contributed. Academic research and consultancies in the management field have developed valuable contributions for the management of organizations, formulating proposals that explain the new phenomena, elaborating new theories that can be used as referents for new behaviors of organizational management and producing instruments that make the management of change viable. Benchmarking, or comparative evaluation, is a current management instrument that is being widely applied with remarkable results in the world of business management. It is a systematic and continuous process that evaluates the best practices in organizations that are considered excellent for the purpose of comparing institutions, finding the differences regarding the realization and the results that have been obtained; finally, adopting the excellence, adapting it, and performing accordingly. The systematization of "imitating to surpass" is a powerful tool that enables organizations to learn and to improve their performance by using some common sense that is frequently applied by persons, organizations, nations, regions: imitating successful experiences to apply them to their reality, adapting them and, thus, overcoming and surpassing an existing situation. The current situation requires university institutions not only to respond to the demands that can appear in the environment, which are time-specific, but, to know the theories of modern management that explain new realities and to handle the management tools that will allow them to reengineer the organization and develop efficient behaviors, considering a management that addresses the medium and long terms. Three main issues are dealt with in this research: university organization and management, benchmarking, and, finally, the proposal of a system for the comparative evaluation of essential competences applied to university management. The first two are necessary to make the proposed system explicit. Regarding the organization and management of universities, three things are analyzed: the performance of forces and configurations in the design of the organizational structure of universities; the possibility of managing universities from the perspective of strategic management; and, finally, the value of organizational culture in the management and life of universities. With respect to benchmarking, four approaches related to university management that are relevant to the treatment of the thesis are presented: creation of value by means of the staff, adaptive innovation or organizational learning, strategic management, and total quality management. Considering the particular characteristics of university organizations, the forces that take part in them and the significant behaviors of their professionals, a relevant contribution is Fitz-enz' view on value management applied to staff processes as a way of adding value, centered, basically, on the provision of services within the organization and of identifying and adding value to the quality, productivity and service of the enterprise. Bogan and English' proposal on organizational learning and comparative evaluation is also useful. The core issue of this thesis is the proposal of a comparative evaluation system of essential competences applied to university management. The system consists of four basic modules: planning, organizing, assessing and acting out; specifying within them the objectives to be reached, the activities to be carried out and the instruments to be applied. Two main processes are developed through these modules. The first one aims to evaluate the performance that needs improvement in the university to be compared, as well as to evaluate the excellent practice of the partner university with which it will be compared. This process implies identifying and analyzing the relevant aspects of both performances or practices. The objective of the second process is to compare the practices of the two universities that are involved in the evaluation, determining the differences, assessing them and proposing their elimination. The realization of both processes and the design of an improvement plan to be followed for eliminating the differences have the added value of improving the competitiveness of the university that is being evaluated and compared. The comparative evaluation system proposed is applied in detail to two practices related to the process of strategic management and planning of two universities: the Universidad del Pacífico, in Lima, Perú, as an organization that needs to improve specific areas of its management and the Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, in Barcelona, Spain, as a university organization that contributes value. The evaluation system proposed is an instrument of institutional learning that can be applied to university management and that allows for the incorporation of improvements in the management of universities by considering other institutions' successful experiences. ; Postprint (published version)

Sustainable societal development has become a subject of increased and widespread societal attention especially during the last two decades. The tremendous economic development of former developing nations such as China and India and the general impact of globalization have put even larger pressures on our limited natural resources and fragile environment. Faced with an ever increasing amount of evidence that the activities of our own generation might actually impair the possibilities for future generations to meet their needs, it has become a major political concern that societal development must be sustainable. The issuing of the famous Brundtland report "Our Common Future" (1987) formed a political milestone. This important event has enhanced the public awareness that substantial changes of consumption patterns are called for and has further significantly influenced research agendas worldwide. The realization of a sustainable development of society necessitates that a holistic perspective is taken in operational and strategic societal decision-making. In principle, a joint consideration of the preferences, needs and capabilities of the present and future generations across all nations, industrial and public sectors is required if we are to fully succeed in achieving sustainable societal development. It may be realized that decisions made to enhance sustainability of societal development not only concern reduced emissions of pollutants but also directly and indirectly involve a redistribution of globally available resources and not least a reassessment of the societal affordability of lifestyle and quality of life. So far, the available research literature in this field has mainly reported on results relating to individual aspects of sustainable development; as of yet a general framework that facilitates the joint consideration of the many dimensions of sustainability in supporting decision-making for sustainable societal development is still missing. Whereas the development of a general framework for sustainable decision-making is one of the most relevant tasks in the research agenda, it is unlikely that this task could be accomplished in the foreseeable future. However, at the same time, there is an urgent need for methods that enable societal decision-makers to identify "sustainable" policies in different sectors of society. Here, the "sustainable" policies imply policies that conform to current preventive measures, regulations, principles, ethics and whatever else is regarded as best practice for the realization of the sustainable development of society. Motivated by this and focusing on the civil engineering sector, the present thesis has two aims. The first aim is to reformulate the classical life-cycle cost optimization concept, which has been advocated in civil engineering as the decision principle, in such a way that relevant aspects of sustainability can be incorporated into engineering decision-making. The aspects of sustainability considered in depth in this reformulation are intergenerational equity and allocation of limited resources. Furthermore, for the purpose of facilitating the applications in practical decision situations, a platform is proposed for the modelling and optimization of decision problems based on Bayesian probabilistic networks. Thereby, it is possible with the proposed platform to consider the constraints relating to societal sustainability posed by present society in the decision problems. The second aim is to present a fundamental approach for incorporating the reliability of civil infrastructure in general economic models so that the sustainable policies on design and maintenance of civil infrastructure can be identified from a macroeconomic perspective. In the present thesis, two types of engineering decision analyses are differentiated in order to clarify the extent of the consequence of decisions; marginal engineering decision analysis and non-marginal engineering decision analysis. In marginal engineering decision analysis, it is assumed that the economic growth path is exogenously given and the consequence of decisions does not affect the economic growth; the life-cycle cost optimization concept corresponds to the marginal engineering decision analysis; the first aim of the present thesis can be regarded as the formulation of engineering decision problems from a sustainability perspective in the context of the marginal decision analysis. In contrast, non-marginal decision analysis considers the change of economic growth as a consequence of decisions; the second aim of the present thesis can be regarded as a proposal for a decision framework for the non-marginal engineering decision analysis. The present thesis consists of eight chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the background, aim, scope and outline of the thesis. A literature survey is also provided in the fields of economics and civil engineering, where the formulation and optimization of sustainable decision making in civil engineering is dealt with. The core of the present thesis consists of six chapters (Chapters 2 to 7). Each of the chapters, except Chapter 7, represents a part of my research work published during the PhD study. Chapter 2 considers the general treatment of uncertainties in engineering decision analysis, which is the philosophical basis for decision-making subject to uncertainties. Chapters 3 to 5, respectively, investigate the modelling and optimization of sustainable decision problems, the issue of intergenerational equity and the issue of allocation of limited resources in the context of marginal engineering decision analysis. In Chapter 6 the approach for incorporating the reliability of civil infrastructure in general economic models is proposed based on economic growth theory. This approach corresponds to non-marginal engineering decision analysis. The proposed approach is then applied to a simplistic economic model in Chapter 7 in order to show how the optimal reliability of civil infrastructure can be identified and the sustainable policy on the design and maintenance of civil infrastructure can be examined. Thereby, an objective function is derived in the context of non-marginal decision analysis that is different from the objective function employed in the classical life-cycle cost optimization concept. The reason for this is provided by looking at the differences in the formulation of the decision problems in marginal and non-marginal decision analysis. In this chapter the assumptions of the derivation of the classical life-cycle cost optimization and its limitations are also introduced in order to emphasize the difference between non-marginal decision analysis and marginal decision analysis. Chapter 8 concludes the present work. In the reformulation of the classical life-cycle cost optimization, its practical applicability is emphasized. Hence, the proposed methods in the corresponding chapters (Chapters 3 to 5) can be readily applied to practical decision situations. Practical examples are provided in these chapters. On the other hand, the approach presented in Chapters 6 and 7 serves as a relevant building block for further development of the general framework for sustainable decision-making, whereby scientific insights are provided on how sustainable design and maintenance policies on infrastructure can be investigated in a macroeconomic context. Die Frage nach einer nachhaltigen gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung hat insbesondere in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten zunehmend an Bedeutung gewonnen. Im Fokus stehen dabei die begrenzten natürlichen Ressourcen und die fragile Umwelt, die durch die enorme wirtschaftliche Entwicklung von Schwellenländern wie China und Indien noch stärker unter Druck geraten. Da es immer offensichtlicher wird, dass die Aktivitäten unserer eigenen Generation die Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten der folgenden Generationen beeinträchtigen könnten, wurde die Forderung nach einer nachhaltigen gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung ein wesentliches politisches Ziel. Ein politischer Meilenstein wurde 1987 durch den Brundtland Report "Unsere gemeinsame Zukunft" gesetzt. Dieses entscheidende Ereignis verstärkte das öffentliche Bewusstsein, dass substantielle Änderungen im Konsumverhalten zukünftig notwendig sind. Seit der Veröffentlichung des Brundlandt Reports beeinflusst das Thema der Nachhaltigkeit weltweit viele Agenden von Forschergruppen. Die Umsetzung einer nachhaltigen gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung erfordert eine Einnahme einer holistischen Perspektive sowohl für die operationelle als auch für die strategische Entscheidungsfindung in der Gesellschaft. Prinzipiell ist eine integrale Berücksichtigung der Präferenzen, Bedürfnisse und Fähigkeiten der heutigen und der zukünftigen Generationen über alle Nationen und alle Sektoren hinweg notwendig, wenn eine Steuerung hin zu einer nachhaltigen gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung erfolgreich sein will. Es muss erreicht werden, dass Entscheidungen zur Förderung der nachhaltigen Entwicklung einer Gesellschaft nicht nur unter Berücksichtigung monokausaler Zusammenhängegetroffen werden, z.B. die Verringerung von schädlichen Emissionen, sondern auch unter Berücksichtigung der direkten und indirekten Umverteilung globaler Ressourcen, der Neubewertung von Lebensstilen und nicht zuletzt der Qualität des Lebens in der globalen Welt. Der Grossteil der verfügbaren wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema Nachhaltigkeit fokussiert auf einzelne Aspekte, die für eine nachhaltige Entwicklung notwendig sind. Ein genereller Rahmen, der die gemeinsame Betrachtung des mehrdimensionalen Problems der Nachhaltigkeit erlaubt und gesellschaftliche Entscheidungsträger unterstützen kann, fehlt bisher noch. Die Entwicklung eines solchen Rahmens ist die relevanteste Aufgabe, die die Forscher im Bereich der nachhaltigen Entscheidungsfindung zu bewältigen haben. Es ist nicht abzusehen, dass in naher Zukunft in diesem Bereich eine Lösung gefunden wird. Dennoch ist derzeit der Druck gross, Methoden zur Verfügung zu haben, die es Entscheidungsträgern aus allen Bereichen ermöglicht, die "nachhaltigste" Handlungsalternative zu identifizieren. Der Ausdruck " nachhaltigste" impliziert, dass die Handlungsalternativen konform sind zu den Massnahmen, Regulierungen, Prinzipien, Ethiken und allen anderen Gegebenheiten in einer Gesellschaft, die als "beste Praxis" für die Umsetzung der nachhaltigen Entwicklung in einer Gesellschaft gelten. Diese vielschichtigen Aspekte waren die Motivation für diese Arbeit, die sich auf den Bereich des Bauingenieurwesens bezieht. Zwei wesentliche Ziele werden in dieser Arbeit verfolgt. Das Erste ist, den klassischen Ansatz des Konzeptes zur Optimierung der Lebenszykluskosten, der im Bereich des Bauingenieurwesens als das Entscheidungsprinzip betrachtet wird, so umzuformulieren, dass Aspekte der Nachhaltigkeit im Entscheidungsprozess Berücksichtigung finden können. Die Aspekte der Nachhaltigkeit, die insbesondere Berücksichtigung in der Neuformulierung finden sind das Prinzip der intergenerationellen Gleichheit und der Allozierung von beschränkten Ressourcen. Für die Anwendbarkeit in realen Entscheidungssituationen wird eine Plattform für die Modellierung und Optimierung von Entscheidungsproblemen vorgeschlagen, die auf Bayes'schen Probabilistischen Netzen basiert. Dies ermöglicht es, die Einschränkungen, die durch die Aspekte der Nachhaltigkeit gegeben sind, im Entscheidungsprozess zu berücksichtigen. Das zweite Ziel ist, einen fundamentalen Ansatz vorzustellen, der es ermöglicht, strukturelle Zuverlässigkeit von baulichen Infrastrukturen in allgemeinen ökonomischen Modellen zu berücksichtigen, so dass nachhaltige Entscheidungen in Bezug auf den Entwurf und den Unterhalt solcher Anlagen von einer makroökonomischen Perspektive aus identifiziert werden können. Zwei Typen von Entscheidungsanalysen im Ingenieurwesen wurden in dieser Arbeit unterschieden, um das Ausmass der Konsequenzen aus Entscheidungen klar herauszustellen; es werden sowohl marginale Entscheidungsanalysen als auch nicht-marginale Entscheidungsanalysen beleuchtet. In der marginalen Entscheidungsanalyse im Ingenieurwesen wird angenommen, dass das wirtschaftliche Wachstum exogen gegeben ist und die Konsequenzen, die aus Entscheidungen resultieren, keinen Einfluss auf das wirtschaftliche Wachstum haben. Das Konzept der Optimierung der Lebenszykluskosten von baulichen Infrastrukturen ist ein Beispiel für eine marginale Entscheidungsanalyse. Damit kann das zuvor genannte erste Ziel dieser Arbeit als Formulierung von Entscheidungsproblemen im Hinblick auf Nachhaltigkeit im Kontext der marginalen Entscheidungsanalyse gesehen werden. Im Gegensatz dazu kann das zweite formulierte Ziel als ein Rahmen für Entscheidungen gesehen werden, die einen nicht-marginalen Einfluss auf das Wirtschaftswachstum haben. Die vorliegende Arbeit gliedert sich in acht Kapitel. Kapitel 1 stellt die Ziele der Arbeit vor, grenzt die Arbeit ab und erläutert die Hintergründe zu dieser Arbeit. Im ersten Teil wird ein Überblick über die Literatur in den relevanten Gebieten der Wirtschaftswissenschaften und des Bauingenieurwesens, insbesondere in den Bereichen Formulierung und Optimierung von nachhaltigen Entscheidungsproblemen, gegeben. Der Kern dieser Arbeit besteht aus sechs Kapiteln (Kapitel 2 bis 7). Jedes dieser Kapitel (mit Ausnahme von Kapitel 7) repräsentiert einen Teil meiner Forschungsarbeiten während des Doktorats, die bereits veröffentlicht sind oder zur Veröffentlichung akzeptiert sind. Kapitel 2 behandelt den allgemeinen Umgang mit Unsicherheiten in der Entscheidungsanalyse im Ingenieurwesen und stellt die philosophische Basis für die Entscheidungsfindung im Ingenieurwesen unter Unsicherheit dar. Kapitel 3 bis 5 untersucht die Modellierung und Optimierung von Entscheidungsproblemen unter Berücksichtigung der zuvor genannten Aspekte der Nachhaltigkeit. Kapitel 6 stellt einen Ansatz vor, mit dem die strukturelle Zuverlässigkeit baulicher Infrastrukturen in allgemeinen wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Modellen und Modellen zur Beschreibung des Wirtschaftswachstums berücksichtigt werden kann. Dieser Ansatz korrespondiert zu nicht-marginalen Entscheidungsanalysen. In Kapitel 7 wird dieser Ansatz an einem einfachen wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Modell angewendet, um zu zeigen, wie die optimale Zuverlässigkeit baulicher Infrastrukturen identifiziert werden kann, und eine nachhaltige Strategie in Bezug auf den Entwurf und den Unterhalt verfolgt werden kann. Dazu wird eine Zielfunktion in einem nicht-marginalen Kontext hergeleitet, die grosse Unterschiede zur Zielfunktion aufweist, die im klassischen Ansatz zur Optimierung der Lebenszykluskosten verwendet wird. Der Grund für diese Unterschiede liegt in der Formulierung des Problems im marginalen und im nicht-marginalen Entscheidungsraum. In diesem Kapitel wird auch auf die klassischen Annahmen und Einschränkungen eingegangen, um die Unterschiede in diesen beiden Ansätzen beleuchten zu können. Kapitel 8 schliesst die Arbeit. In der Neuformulierung des klassischen Lebenszyklusansatzes wird die praktische Anwendbarkeit unterstrichen. Daher können die Methoden, die in den Kapiteln 3 bis 5 vorgestellt werden, direkt in praktischen Problemen angewendet werden. Hierzu werden in diesen Kapiteln praktische Beispiele gegeben. Auf der anderen Seite ist der Ansatz, der in Kapitel 6 und 7 vorgestellt wird, ein relevanter Baustein für die weitere Entwicklung eines allgemeinen Rahmenwerks für die nachhaltige Entscheidungsfindung, wobei wissenschaftliche Einblicke gegeben werden, wie nachhaltige Entwurfs- und Unterhaltsstrategien an baulichen Anlagen in einem makroökonomischen Kontext untersucht werden können.

En els últims anys s'ha observat un canvi radical en l'estructura del sector porcí. Les explotacions porcines estan sent cada vegada més especialitzades i la grandària de les seves operacions ha anat en augment. A més, les explotacions porcines modernes estan tendint a integrar i coordinar les seves operacions en Cadenes de subministrament del sector porcí (PSC en anglès). L'objectiu general de la tesi va ser formular un conjunt de models per a donar suport a la gestió del ramat de truges reproductores i la producció de garrins dintre d'un context de cadena de subministrament, donant respostes pràctiques a preguntes rellevants sovint preguntades per qui prenen les decisions. Així les principals decisions estratègiques i tàctiques relacionades amb la gestió del ramat de truges reproductores i la producció de garrins en un context de cadena de subministrament (PSC) van ser considerades. Bàsicament quatre models sota incertesa van ser desenvolupats. El primer va ser la formulació d'un programa lineal d'un model semi-Markovià per al disseny de les instal·lacions de granges. Es va mostrar que la distribució del ramat basada en estats fisiològics i moviments entre instal·lacions fou útil pel càlcul dels espais necessaris per a cada instal·lació. La formulació va considerar les recents regulacions de la Unió Europea relacionades amb el benestar animal i el cost de les instal·lacions. Continuant amb aspectes relacionats amb el benestar animal, es va desenvolupar un marc per a la integració dels senyals clínics dintre d'un model de reemplaçament. Aquest model correspon a un procèss Markovià jeràrquic multinivell, que a més realitza una actualització de dades a través de xarxes Bayesianas. Els resultats van mostrar com la incorporació dels senyals clínics en els models de reemplaçament ha dut a millors polítiques de selecció a través d'una eficient detecció de truges reproductores febles en el ramat. Els dos models següents formulats sota un horitzó temporal finit han mostrat la distribució o estructura del ramat evolutionant cap a l'estat estable. Variacions temporals en paràmetres o pertorbacions transitòries van ser representades a través de models d'horitzó finit on diferents escenaris van capturar la incertesa del sistema. L'ús de Programació lineal va permetre explícitament incorporar restriccions de ramat més fàcilment que en una formulació amb Processos de decisió de Markov. Finalment el model de programació estocàstica de dues etapes amb recurs va mostrar ser una eina factible per a tractar amb la incertesa del sistema a través d'escenaris. Beneficis addicionals van ser la compra de verres, la planificació de la producció i decisions de reemplaçament, tot sota un esquema d'horitzó de temps rodant. Avui dia, amb l'actual estructura del sector, és raonable pensar en models capaços de resoldre amb major precisió els problemes que afecten a dos o més etapes de la cadena, i integrar-los a tots en algun sistema d'informació, amb la finalitat de millorar la gestió global de la cadena. Els models presentats en aquesta tesi són eines adequades per a plantar cara a les principals decisions estratègiques i tàctiques de la gestió del ramat de truges reproductores i la producció de garrins en un context de PSC ; En los últimos años se ha observado un gran cambio en la estructura del sector porcino. Las explotaciones porcinas están siendo cada vez más especializadas mientras que el tamaño de sus operaciones ha ido en aumento. Además, están tendiendo a integrar y coordinar sus operaciones en cadenas de suministro (PSC en inglés). Así, el objetivo general de la tesis fue formular un conjunto de modelos para apoyar la gestión del rebaño de cerdas reproductoras y la producción de lechones dentro de un contexto de cadena de suministro, dando respuestas prácticas a preguntas relevantes a menudo questionadas por quienes toman las decisiones. De ahí que, las principales decisiones estratégicas y tácticas relacionadas con la gestión del rebaño en un contexto de cadena (PSC) fueron consideradas. Básicamente, cuatro modelos bajo incertidumbre fueron desarrollados. El primero formula un programa lineal de un modelo semi-markoviano para el diseño de las instalaciones de granjas. Se mostró que la distribución de la manada basada en estados fisiológicos y movimientos entre instalaciones es útil para el cálculo de los espacios necesarios para cada instalación. La formulación consideró las recientes regulaciones de la Unión Europea relacionadas con el bienestar animal, además del coste de las instalaciones. El segundo modelo desarrolló un marco para la integración de las señales clínicas dentro de un modelo de reemplazamiento. La formulación corresponde a un proceso Markoviano jerárquico multi-nivel, con actualización de datos a través de redes Bayesianas. Los resultados mostraron cómo la incorporación de las señales clínicas ha llevado a mejores políticas de selección a través de una eficiente detección de cerdas débiles en el rebaño. Los siguientes dos modelos son formulados bajo un horizonte de tiempo finito y muestran la distribución o estructura del rebaño moviéndose hacia el estado estable. Las variaciones temporales en parámetros o perturbaciones transitorias fueron incorporadas a través de modelos de horizonte finito donde diferentes escenarios representaron la incertidumbre del sistema. El uso de Programación lineal permitió explícitamente incorporar restricciones de rebaño más fácilmente respecto a la formulación con Procesos de decisión de Markov. Finalmente el modelo de programación estocástica de dos etapas con recurso mostró ser una herramienta factible para tratar con la incertidumbre del sistema a través de escenarios. Beneficios adicionales fueron la programación de cerdas jóvenes, la planeación de la producción y decisiones de reemplazo, todo bajo un esquema de horizonte de tiempo rodante. Hoy en día, con la actual estructura del sector, es razonable pensar en modelos capaces de resolver con mayor precisión los problemas que afectan a dos o más etapas de la cadena, e integrarlos a todos en algún sistema de información, con el fin de mejorar la gestión global de la cadena. Por lo que los modelos presentados en esta tesis son herramientas adecuadas para hacer frente a las principales decisiones estratégicas y tácticas de la gestión del rebaño de cerdas reproductoras y la producción de lechones en un contexto de cadena de suministro. ; A noticeable change in the structure of the Spanish pork sector has been observed in recent years. Pig farms have become more and more specialized and the size of their operations has been increasing. Moreover, modern pig farms have tended to integrate and coordinate their operations into Pork Supply Chain (PSC). Thus, the overall aim of this thesis was to formulate a set of models to support sow herd management and piglet production in a pork supply chain context, giving practical answers to relevant questions often asked by decision makers. Hence, the main strategic and tactical decisions regarding sow herds and piglet production management in a pork supply chain context were considered. Basically, four models under uncertainty were developed. The first one was a linear programming formulation of a semi-Markov model to design pig facilities. It showed that herd distribution based on physiological states and movements between facilities were useful to calculate the room needs for each sow facility. The formulation considers recent EU regulations regarding animal welfare and the impact on economic cost of housing facilities. Ongoing with animal welfare issues, a framework for the integration of clinical signs into a sow replacement model was developed. The sow replacement model used in the framework was a multi-level hierarchical Markov process using Bayesian updating. The results showed how the incorporation of clinical signs in sow replacement models led to better culling policies through more efficient detection of the weakest sows in the herd. The next two models formulated under finite time horizon showed the herd distribution or structure moving to the steady state. Temporary shocks in parameters or transitory perturbations were better represented by finite time horizon models where scenarios collected part of the uncertainty of the system. The use of Linear Programming led to incorporate herd constraints more easily than in a Markov Decision Process. Finally the two-stage stochastic programming model with recourse showed to be a suitable tool to deal with the uncertainty of the system through scenarios. Additional benefits for practical purpose were the scheduling of purchasing of gilts, planning piglet production and replacement policy, all under a rolling time horizon scheme. Nowadays, with the current structure of the sector, it is reasonable to think about models capable of solving more accurately problems involving two or more stages of the chain, and integrating them all together in some information system, in order to improve the management of the PSC. Hence the models presented in this thesis are suitable tools to deal with main strategic and tactical decisions in sow herds producing piglets in a general PSC context.

Communications and information technology for persons with disabilities — The Canadian national strategy as an example -- An intelligent information system for blind people — AI technology and philosophical aspects -- Adapting graphical user interfaces for use by visually handicapped computer users: Current results and continuing research -- Training blind people in the use of graphical user interfaces -- Artificial visual speech synchronized with a speech synthesis system -- Notational representation of sign language: A structural description of hand configuration -- Further advances in real-time voice to text with steno interpreters -- A uniform control interface for various electronic aids -- An integrated system for communication and equipments control using radio link -- Autonomy — A flexible and easy-to-use assistive system to support the independence of handicapped and elderly persons -- Screen Reader/2 — Programmed access to the GUI -- Designing an offscreen model for a GUI -- Screen reader for Windows based on speech output -- The New Wireless LinguControl -- The FeelMouse: Making computer screens feelable -- Unexpected benefits of Voice Type computing -- Robot control methods using the RAID workstation -- The ultrasonic navigating robot, WALKY -- NavChair: An example of a shared-control system for assistive technologies -- Using spatial audio for the enhanced presentation of synthesised speech within screen-readers for blind computer users -- Multimodal concept for a new generation of screen reader -- Auditory extension of user interfaces -- An attempt to define fully-accessible workstation levels of accessibility -- Graz Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) II -- Human-computer interfacing for the severely physically disabled -- Day and assessment training technology centres -- The North America association of rehabilitation programs in computer technology seeks to network with other training programs -- Disability and rehabilitation database in Chinese language -- Toward a single global market for assistive technology -- Using structure within electronic documents to make editors more accessible -- Distinguishing pattern-types in printed documents -- Structuring documents: the key to increasing access to information for the print disabled -- Study Center for Visually Impaired Persons supportive system for blind and partially sighted Students at the University of Karlsruhe/Germany -- Support Centre for Visually impaired Students -- Educational endeavour "Computer Science for the Blind" state of the art and experiences in supporting visually handicapped students -- Modellversuch "Informatik für Blinde" -- Cottage industry at NewLink -- Telework for Handicapped people: an experience -- Ableprofessionals: A recruiting and accommodation service for Atlanta employers -- "NewsReader" — a comfortable digital newspaper and bookreading system -- Digital talking books — a report from a practical, ongoing project -- The electronic kiosk accessing newspapers with electronic media -- Students support services at a scientific university -- Assistive technology in us higher education: The University of Wisconsin-Whitewater experience -- Leadership and Technology Management (LTM) the strategic management of technology in a consumer-driven environment -- Multimedia information system on assistive devices -- REHA — A multimedia system to learn about IT-systems for disabled persons -- Introducing voice control — Widening the perspective -- Mathtalk: The design of an interface for reading algebra using speech -- A method of access to computer aided software engineering (CASE) tools for blind software engineers -- Automatic image processing in developmental testing of visual-motor integration -- Computer neuropsychological training in mentally retarded children -- Computer training in cognitive remediation of the traumatic head injured -- Computer utilisation for speaking re-education -- The effectiveness of the Intonation Meter for teaching intonation to deaf persons -- Application of Artificial Intelligence methods in a word-prediction aid -- Speech therapy, new developments and results in LingWare -- Projective display of document information by parametric sound beam -- Synthesizing non-speech sound to support blind and visually impaired computer users -- Stereo sound board for real time auditory coding of visual information -- DHT — Diary handy terminal — for evaluating fluctuations in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) -- Development of the system to teach the bedsore prevention method for wheelchair users -- Development of the bedsore alarm system using microcomputer for wheelchair users -- A case study of computer analysis of the arthritic user in rehabilitation engineering -- Evaluation of Ergolab -- Dynamic displays: the changing face of augmentative communication -- BLISSVOX — Voice output communication system for teaching, rehabilitation, and communication -- Access to the text component of multimedia conversation services for non-speaking people with severe physical disabilities -- Protocolling the TINATEL-System: A contribution for long term evaluation of an AAC-system for speech impaired persons to access the public telephone network -- The conventional Braille display state of the art and future perspectives -- The concept of a full screen tactile display (FSTD) driven by electrochemical reactions -- Displaying laterally moving tactile information -- A new architecture conception for a two dimensional tactile display -- Tactison: a multimedia learning tool for blind children -- Fortec's efforts to support mainstream education through research and technology development -- Providing assistive technology training to a rural school of education through an in-direct service strategy -- The CORES project -- Real time HCI and limits of human performance -- Computer and Computer Communication Guidance Centre for the Disabled -- Assistive technology in the public schools -- ADAMLAB Educational agency designs Voice Output Communication Aid -- Large print desktop-publishing by PC for the partially sighted -- A new approach in designing low vision aids (LVA) -- Multimedia authoring systems for constructing education packages for Special Needs Education -- Computer-aided Instruction with blind persons on an audio-tactile basis -- Authoring software in special education -- Radio computer communications network for disabled people -- An investigation of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology for disabled people -- Telecommunity telecommunication for persons with mental retardation — A Swedish perspective -- Tactile-audio user interface for blind persons -- Computer-aided access to tactile graphics for the blind -- Braille reader -- Computer camp for the handicapped and their family members -- SMLLSTPS: the software version of the Macquarie Program, a computerized child assessment system -- Development and use of a speech recognition system for physically handicapped users -- Head mounted accelerometers in the control of a video cursor -- Computer assisted training programme for early intervention for children with mental retardation.

Relevance of the research topic. Today education as a form of training organization, systematic knowledge and information transfer to the next generations faces radical changes all around the world. Changes in current education system have lots of facets and their nature is reflected in different forms: learning process` sophistication, institutional forms` and organizational structure`s expansion, diversification of its financial mechanism. Ukraine is not an exception, since amid decentralization of its administrative and territorial system and the whole of society, it is important to provide these important processes with qualified personnel capable of effective implementation of the reform tasks, as well as to create conditions for economic sustainable development [1]. Implementation of strategic tasks for reforming the education system, which will increase its quality and competitiveness, the possibility of integration into the European and world educational space, determine the need to optimize the system of preparation and retraining of pedagogical personnel for vocational education. Formulation of the problem. The system of training of professional education faculty is more complex than the system of training of educators for educational institutions, which is due to a special place of vocational education in society - it belongs to economic, social and cultural spheres. Successful training and advanced training of teachers of professional (vocational-technical) education is a prerequisite for the effective functioning of vocational education in the country, since this is the basis for economic prosperity and social welfare of youth in terms of trouble-free transition from training to work. Therefore, improving the professional training and advanced training of professional education teachers means improving the training system of qualified personnel in the country. Therefore, there is a need to improve the training system of professional education teachers. Analysis of the last researches and publications. Significant contribution to the consideration of human capital development problems were made by Boginya D.P., Vovkanych S.I., Heets V.M., Holubets M.A., Hrishneva O.A., Dolishnii M.I., Zlupka S.M., Kanigina Y.M., Kolot A.M., Kuzmin A.E., Mocherniy S.V., Fedulova L.I., Khmil F.I. [2-5] and others. Selection of unexplored parts of the general problem. The issue of reform process and power decentralization management to ensure national sustainable development is intrinsically linked to the educational reform process, so reforms` effective mechanisms study requires particular attention and in-depth theoretical and practical research. Therefore, there is a need to study the mechanisms of education funding in general and vocational training in particular in the process of decentralization and reform of the country`s administrative and territorial structure. Problem statement, research goals. The above circumstances are due to the expediency of modeling the coherence of the interests of the parties in the process of advanced training of professional education faculty. Method and methodology of research. In the process of conducting research, general scientific (analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, analytical grouping) and special (abstraction, modeling, etc.) methods of studying economic phenomena and processes were used. Presentation of the main material (results of work). The analysis of the dynamics of the number of teachers of vocational education was conducted. It is established that they form a potential market for the provision of qualifications. Three approaches to the content of advanced training are considered. The first approach assumes that the content of professional development is formed by its own organizers. By the second - the content is ordered by those who are planning to improve qualifications. The third - the content is formed by the simultaneous efforts of those who enhances qualifications and those processes. Of the three approaches, the first one is traditional, but it does not take into account the specifics of the professional direction of educational institutions working with those who enhances qualifications. The second one is, on the contrary, takes into account their interests. In our opinion, the greatest efficiency of professional development can be achieved for a third approach, but it provides for the need to ensure the parity of the parties in this cooperation. In addition, taking into account the presence of competition among advanced training providers, an important aspect becomes not only the possibility of reaching an agreement, but also the quality of the service provided. In order to justify the expediency of using the third approach, the game theory used. It is shown that the success of reforms in the system of vocational education can be provided by more active involvement in the process of retraining and improving the qualifications of teachers of higher education institutions. In our opinion, it is expedient to focus on organizing the training of teachers of subjects of the professional-technical cycle, senior masters and masters of production training, since the relevant system of retraining and advanced training of teachers of secondary disciplines is more branched. Conclusions. An analysis of the dynamics of the number of teachers in the system of professional (vocational-technical) education showed the presence of periodicity regarding their number, which practically fully corresponds to the situation regarding the number of those who they teach. The main approaches to improving skills are considered. With the help of the game theory it is proved that the greatest efficiency is possible to achieve if the approach is used when the content of advanced training is formed by the simultaneous efforts of those who enhances qualifications and those processes. It is shown that in such an approach, there is a possibility of taking into account not only formal features on the availability of advanced training, but also the possibility of assessing qualitative parameters of the service provided. This is an additional competitive advantage for providing these services on a competitive advanced training services.

Problem setting. The processes of globalization and international European integration in the modern world set a priority task for Ukraine to implement the provisions of the association agreement between Ukraine and the EU. The formation of a political association and a deep and comprehensive free trade area between Ukraine and the EU depends on the successful reform in the field of Law, judicial proceedings and Justice of Ukraine in the context of European integration. Recent research and publications analysis. The specific operation of the legal system and the justice sector as part of the state administrative complex were studied by N.Zheleznyak, A.Ivanenko, I.Mikultsya, L.Tatsiy, O.Fedkovich and others. Certain aspects of judicial reform were studied by V. Bryntsev, V.Boyko, V.Kryvenko O.Korotun, M.Kozyubra, R.Kuibida, V.Malyarenko O.Merza V.Opryshko, V.Onopenko, D.Prytyka, V.Stefaniuk, A.Stryzhak. The functioning of justice bodies in different European countries was the subject of research by R.Budetsky, M.Gorbacheva, G.Kulikov, I.Mikultsya, O.Fedkovich, Chumak O. O. and others. However, in the scientific literature, the specifics of reform in the field of Law, judicial proceedings and justice as a factor in the formation of political association between Ukraine and the EU remain an unexplored issue. Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Comprehensive analysis and generalization of the reform process in the field of Law, judicial proceedings and justice as an important factor in the formation of political association between Ukraine and the EU. The purpose of the article is to analyze the content and features of implementing reforms in the field of Law, judicial proceedings and justice in Ukraine after the signing of the association agreement with the EU. Paper main body. In order to implement the Association Agreement and the Action Plan "Ukraine-EU in the field of law, freedom and security" in Ukraine, the Strategy for Reform of the Judicial system, judicial proceedings and Related Legal Institutions for 2015 – 2020 and the Concept of Judicial Reform. The reform of the judicial system was designed to cover all state institutions and help increase the level of confidence in the Ukrainian courts among its citizens and European partners.In Ukraine, the laws were adopted: "On Ensuring the Right to a Fair Trial", which provided for the introduction of the institute of qualification assessment of the professional level of judges, verification of judges' integrity, introduction of a judge's career record and improvement of the institute of disciplinary responsibility of judges; "On the Judiciary and the Status of Judges" in order to implement the new provisions of the Constitution of Ukraine on justice and continue the planned stages of judicial reform, which provided for the partial abolition of judicial immunity, the creation of the Supreme Anti-Corruption Court, the Supreme Intellectual Property Court and local district courts; "On Amendments to the Commercial Procedural Code of Ukraine, the Civil Procedure Code of Ukraine, the Code of Administrative Procedure of Ukraine", which provide for the creation of a Unified Judicial Information and Telecommunication System; "On the prosecutor's office". "On Amendments to the Constitution of Ukraine (concerning Justice)" and "On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine concerning the Activities of the General Prosecutor's Office" which abolished prosecutorial supervision over observance and application of laws , the powers of the prosecutor's office were clearly defined, provided for more thorough and high-quality pre-trial investigation, ensured the independence of prosecutor's activity through self-government bodies and strengthened the responsibility of prosecutors; "On enforcement proceedings" and "On bodies and persons who enforce court decisions and decisions of other bodies" in order to establish European standards for the enforcement of court decisions. Legal support bureaus were opened as separate structural units of local centers for free secondary legal aid. The reform of the judicial system was designed to cover all state institutions and help increase the level of confidence in the Ukrainian courts among its citizens and European partners. However, due to the lack of political will and corruption of all branches of government, Ukraine has not been able to overcome the main problems that hinder the implementation of progressive changes in it. Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. Reforms in the field of Law, judicial proceedings and justice are an important factor in the formation of a political association between Ukraine and the EU. The EU, in cooperation with international partners, actively supports the implementation of reforms and optimistically assesses Ukraine's progress. However, in order to achieve full results, it is necessary to implement them more actively in key areas, especially in the field of judicial proceedings and Justice. It is important to move from the adoption of laws and the creation of institutions to the full implementation of these reforms, so that Ukrainian citizens can take advantage of the benefits of the reforms. At the same time, when implementing reforms in the sphere of Law, judicial proceedings and Justice, Ukraine has not been able to overcome the main problems that hinder the implementation of progressive changes in it, which should primarily include the corruption of all branches of government. Therefore, the strategic goals of the reform require countering and preventing corruption in the bodies of Law, judicial proceedings and justice, promoting the development of legal state and civil society and so on. ; Проаналізовано зміст та особливості реформ у сфері юстиції, судочинства та правосуддя в Україні. Розкрито роль реформ у сфері юстиції, судочинства та правосуддя у формуванні політичної асоціації між Україною та ЄС. Висвітлено проблеми та перспективи реалізації реформ у сфері юстиції, судочинства та правосуддя в Україні.