Suchergebnisse

El desarrollo de una legislación cada vez más restrictiva en materias medioambientales, auspiciada a su vez por una creciente concienciación ciudadana, está favoreciendo la implantación de nuevas prácticas más sostenibles en la industria agroalimentaria. Concretamente, es frecuente en el sector vitivinícola que la mayoría de las bodegas lleven a cabo procesos de producción tradicionales, cuya praxis ambiental puede resultar cuestionable. El almacenamiento de residuos al aire libre, el ineficaz aislamiento en los tanques de fermentación, la pérdida de recursos naturales en la zona de cultivo (nutrientes en el suelo), que son transportados a gran distancia para su gestión parcial y la disposición en vertedero, suponen un impacto ambiental grave que podría reducirse mediante la implantación de técnicas alternativas en la valorización y gestión de los residuos del sector agrícola. La Denominación de Origen Protegida Montilla-Moriles, situada en Córdoba (España), es un claro ejemplo de ello, donde las prácticas vitivinícolas tradicionales han ido sucediéndose de generación en generación, con plantación de cepas en vaso, aunque en los últimos años se han ido sustituyendo por plantación en espaldera. El cultivo predominante corresponde a la variedad Pedro Ximenez (95% de la producción total), además de Airén, Baladí, Verdejo, Moscatel, entre otros. La reducción de su impacto medioambiental es prioritaria, lo que a su vez puede repercutir positivamente en la economía de la zona, mediante la aplicación de prácticas alternativas en la gestión y tratamiento de los residuos principales generados durante la vinificación (orujo y lías, fundamentalmente) que permitan recuperar recursos. Ante esta necesidad, se proponen dos técnicas o tratamientos biológicos para la gestión de dichos residuos: co-compostaje y digestión anaerobia. De forma más concreta, los objetivos específicos de la presente Tesis Doctoral es el aprovechamiento de los residuos y subproductos generados en la industria vitivinícola, encuadrados en los siguientes apartados: - Test de biodegradabilidad de orujo de uva, utilizando ensayos respirométricos aerobios como herramienta de predicción y cuantificación de la influencia de las variables físico-químicas del proceso sobre la actividad aerobia de los microorganismos. (Hungría, J., Siles, J.A., Martín, M.A. Aerobic biodegradability test of organic grape marc waste: A promising tool to evaluate polluting winery waste biovalorisation. Under review) - Evaluación de las ventajas e inconvenientes del proceso de co-compostaje de orujo y la fracción orgánica de residuos sólidos urbanos, realizando el seguimiento del índice respirométrico dinámico (consumo de oxígeno en la degradación de la materia orgánica y tiempo en hacerlo) en el proceso, así como de la temperatura, oxígeno consumido y otras variables operacionales que permitan controlar su evolución para obtener un compost de calidad. Así mismo, se ha llevado incluido el estudio de la emisiones odoríferas a lo largo del proceso, incluyendo de forma comparativa los resultados de las emisiones del compostaje de otros residuos. (Hungría, J., Gutiérrez, M.C., Siles, J.A., Martín, M.A. 2017. Advantages and drawbacks of OFMSW and winery waste cocomposting at pilot scale. Journal of Cleaner Production. 164, 1050-1057). - Estudio de viabilidad de la digestión anaerobia de orujo de la variedad Pedro Ximenez en condiciones mesófilas, y su posible implantación en una bodega como técnica alternativa de tratamiento sostenible. (Hungría J., Siles J.A., Gil A., Gutiérrez, M.C., Martín M.A. Revalorization of grape marc waste from liqueur wine: Biomethanization. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology 94, 1499-1508). - Evaluación de la digestión anaerobia de lías procedentes de cultivo ecológico de dos variedades distintas, procedentes de la decantación del mosto y fermentación alcohólica, respectivamente (Evaluation of Anaerobic Digestion of Verdejo Lees from an Ecological Crop. Javier Hungría J., Siles J.A., Gutiérrez M.C., Chica A.F., Martín M.A. Renewable Energy (Under review) y Technical evaluation and potential energy recovery from anaerobic digestion of grape lees: inoculum importance. (Hungría J., Siles J.A., Gutiérrez M.C., Chica A.F., Martín M.A. Bioresource Technology (Under review)). - Evaluación tecnológica de la digestión anaerobia de lías Pedro Ximenez, estudiando la posible influencia del empleo de inóculos de diversa procedencia en la recuperación energética del metano contenido en el biogás. Estudio preliminar de implantación de un digestor anaerobio en la DOP Montilla-Moriles, Córdoba (España), considerando la potencia energética generada por dichos residuos y su repercusión en el medio ambiente en forma de ahorro en emisiones de CO2. (Hungría J., Siles J.A., Gutiérrez M.C., Chica A.F., Martín M.A. Technical evaluation and potential energy recovery from anaerobic digestion of grape lees: inoculum importance. Bioresource Technology (Under review)). - Estudio de viabilidad del tratamiento integral de residuos de orujo de uva y lías derivadas de cultivos orgánicos, mediante la digestión anaeróbica para producir energía en forma de metano, valorizando el digestato estabilizado como una enmienda orgánica. Se ha estudiado el tratamiento secuencial de las lías de PX, las lías de Verdejo y los residuos de orujo de uva en el mismo reactor para completar el ciclo anual y promover la economía circular en la DOP Montilla-Moriles. (Hungría J., Siles J.A., Chica A.F., Martín M.A. Anaerobic co-digestion of winery waste: Comparative assessment of grape marc waste and lees derived from organic crops. Journal of Environmental Management (Under review)). En cuanto al co-compostaje, el elevado contenido en humedad de las lías condiciona que su mezcla con otro residuo dé como resultado una mezcla residual con contenido de humedad adecuado. Por ello, se ha restringido el estudio de compostaje a los orujos. Tras la evaluación de su biodegradabilidad en condiciones aerobias, se ha estudiado la viabilidad tecnológica de su co-compostaje, a escala de planta piloto, con la fracción orgánica de residuos sólidos urbanos (FORSU) a 50:50%, en peso. La FORSU es un residuo generado en todos los municipios y para cuyo correcto compostaje solo requiere una previa clasificación de los residuos sólidos urbanos para seleccionar la fracción más rica en materia orgánica. En muchos municipios ya se dispone de recogida selectiva de residuos urbanos, e incluso suelen someterse a compostaje de forma directa. Adicionalmente, la digestión anaerobia es ampliamente conocida como tecnología de valorización y/o tratamiento de residuos orgánicos biodegradables. Por ello, con el objetivo de evaluar la viabilidad de la aplicación de la digestión anaerobia a distintos residuos del sector vitivinícola (orujo y lías de dos variedades distintas de uva) se han realizado tres estudios (uno por residuo) a escala de laboratorio y en condiciones mesófilas. En el caso de las lías PX se obtuvieron los mayores rendimientos en metano 539 ± 46 NmL CH4/g SV, seguido de las lías Verdejo (332 ± 37 NmL CH4/g SV) y orujo Pedro Ximenez (252 ± 31 NmL CH4/g SV). Dado que la generación de residuos se produce de forma escalonada a lo largo del tiempo, se ha llevado a cabo otro estudio para evaluar la viabilidad del tratamiento secuencial en un mismo reactor de todos los residuos, y de esta forma completar el ciclo anual de producción y promover la economía circular en la D.O.P. Montilla-Moriles. ; The development of an increasingly restrictive legislation on environmental matters, sponsored in turn by a growing public awareness, is favoring the implementation of new more sustainable practices in the agri-food industry. Specifically, it is common in the wine sector that most wineries carry out traditional production processes, whose environmental praxis can be questionable. The storage of waste in the open air, the inefficient isolation in the fermentation tanks, the loss of natural resources in the cultivation area (nutrients in the soil), which are transported at a great distance for partial management and disposal in landfill, they suppose a serious environmental impact that could be reduced by means of the implantation of alternative techniques in the valuation and management of the residues of the agricultural sector. The Montilla-Moriles Protected Designation of Origin, located in Córdoba (Spain), is a clear example of this, where traditional winemaking practices have been happening from generation to generation, with plantation of strains in a glass, although in recent years they have It has been replaced by trellis plantation. The predominant crop corresponds to the Pedro Ximenez variety (95% of total production), in addition to Airén, Baladí, Verdejo, Moscatel, among others. The reduction of its environmental impact is a priority, which in turn can have a positive impact on the economy of the area, through the application of alternative practices in the management and treatment of the main waste generated during winemaking (pomace and lees, mainly) that allow to recover resources. Given this need, two techniques or biological treatments are proposed for the management of such waste: co-composting and anaerobic digestion. More specifically, the specific objectives of this Doctoral Thesis is the use of waste and by-products generated in the wine industry, framed in the following sections: - Biodegradability test of grape marc, using aerobic respirometric tests as a tool for prediction and quantification of the influence of the physical-chemical variables of the process on the aerobic activity of microorganisms. (Hungría, J., Siles, J.A., Martín, M.A. Aerobic biodegradability test of organic grape marc waste: A promising tool to evaluate polluting winery waste biovalorisation. Under review) - Evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of the process of co-composting pomace and the organic fraction of urban solid waste, monitoring the dynamic respirometric index (oxygen consumption in the degradation of organic matter and time in doing so) in the process, as well as the temperature, oxygen consumed and other operational variables that allow controlling its evolution to obtain a quality compost. Likewise, the study of odoriferous emissions throughout the process has been included, including comparatively the results of composting emissions from other wastes. (Hungría, J., Gutiérrez, M.C., Siles, J.A., Martín, M.A. 2017. Advantages and drawbacks of OFMSW and winery waste co-composting at pilot scale. Journal of Cleaner Production. 164, 1050-1057). - Feasibility study of the anaerobic digestion of pomace of the Pedro Ximenez variety under mesophilic conditions, and its possible implantation in a winery as an alternative sustainable treatment technique. (Hungría, J., Siles J.A., Gil A., Gutiérrez, M.C., Martín M.A. Revaluation of grape marc waste from liqueur wine: Biomethanization. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology 94, 1499-1508). - Evaluation of anaerobic digestion of lees from organic farming of two different varieties, from the decantation of must and alcoholic fermentation, respectively (Evaluation of Anaerobic Digestion of Verdejo Lees from an Ecological Crop. Hungría, J., Siles JA, Gutiérrez MC, Chica AF, Martín MA Renewable Energy (Under review) and Technical evaluation and potential energy recovery from anaerobic digestion of grape lees: inoculum importance. (Hungría J., Siles JA, Gutiérrez MC, Chica AF, Martín MA Bioresource Technology (Under review)). - Technological evaluation of the anaerobic digestion of lees Pedro Ximenez, studying the possible influence of the use of inocula of diverse origin in the energy recovery of methane contained in biogas. Preliminary study of implantation of an anaerobic digester in the PDO Montilla-Moriles, Córdoba (Spain), considering the energy generated by said waste and its impact on the environment in the form of savings in CO2 emissions. (Hungría J., Siles J.A., Gutiérrez M.C., Chica A.F., Martín M.A. Technical evaluation and potential energy recovery from anaerobic digestion of grape lees: inoculum importance. Bioresource Technology (Under review)). - Feasibility study of the integral treatment of grape pomace residues and lees derived from organic crops, through anaerobic digestion to produce energy in the form of methane, valuing the stabilized digestate as an organic amendment. The sequential treatment of PX lees, Verdejo lees and grape pomace residues in the same reactor has been studied to complete the annual cycle and promote circular economy in the Montilla- Moriles PDO. (Hungría J., Siles J.A., Chica A.F., Martín M.A. Anaerobic co-digestion of winery waste: Comparative assessment of grape marc waste and lees derived from organic crops. Journal of Environmental Management (Under review)). As for co-composting, the high moisture content of the lees determines that their mixing with another residue results in a residual mixture with adequate moisture content. Therefore, the study of composting has been restricted to pomace. After the evaluation of its biodegradability in aerobic conditions, the technological viability of its co-composting has been studied, at the pilot plant scale, with the organic fraction of urban solid waste (OFUSW) at 50:50%, by weight. OFUSW is a waste generated in all municipalities and for whose correct composting it only requires a previous classification of urban solid waste to select the richest fraction in organic matter. In many municipalities, selective collection of urban waste is already available, and they even tend to be directly composted. Additionally, anaerobic digestion is widely known as biodegradable organic waste recovery and / or treatment technology. Therefore, in order to evaluate the viability of the application of anaerobic digestion to different residues in the wine sector (pomace and lees of two different grape varieties), three studies (one per residue) have been carried out on a laboratory scale and in mesophilic conditions. In the case of the Pedro Ximenez lees, the highest yields in methane 539 ± 46 NmL CH4/g VS were obtained, followed by the Verdejo lees (332 ± 37 NmL CH4/g VS) and grape marc waste of Pedro Ximenez (252 ± 31 NmL CH4/g VS). Since the generation of waste occurs in a phased manner over time, another study has been carried out to assess the feasibility of sequential treatment in the same reactor of all waste, and thus complete the annual production cycle and promote the circular economy in the PDO Montilla-Moriles.

Jurnal Ruang-Space mendedikasikan publikasinya untuk memperoleh pemahaman terhadap ruang dan lingkungan binaan. Jurnal ini ditujukan untuk menjembatani kesenjangan dalam publikasi ilmiah, khususnya yang menempatkan lingkungan binaan sebagai bagian yang tidak terpisahkan dari ilmu-ilmu sosial maupun politik. Dalam konteks ini, Jurnal Ruang mempublikasikan artikel-artikel yang mendorong kemunculan pemikiran-pemikiran kritis, sebagai salah satu karakteristik dari era pasca-modern dan globalisasi. Pemahaman terhadap lingkungan binaan secara menyeluruh dilaksanakan dengan memproposisikan pendekatan lintas disiplin, dan cara berpikir yang tidak semata dibatasi bidang keprofesian tertentu. Adapun fokus pembidangan Jurnal ini adalah pada isu-isu yang muncul sebagai akibat pembangunan keruangan untuk mengakomodasi kebutuhan bermukim umat manusia di era milenium ketiga. Fokus ini mencakup disiplin arsitektur, perencanaan, arsitektur landskap, perancangan kota, termasuk juga pandangan serta interprestasi terhadap lingkungan binaan dari kacamata urban geografi, sosiologi dan ilmu politik. Dalam mendukung visi global ini, kami mengundang partisipasi dari penulis, baik yang berasal dari dalam maupun luar Indonesia.Secara detil, Jurnal Ruang-Space menerima artikel yang membahas isu-isu berkenaan sustainabilitas, wujud kota (urban form), urban landskap (urban landscape), desain kontrol, wujud serta organisasi spasial kemasyarakatan, etnik arsitektur, perumahan untuk masyarakat berpendapatan rendah, kebijakan serta urban politik, and desain perkotaan. Jurnal ini menyambut baik kajian terhadap beragam teori dalam wujud aplikasi maupun temuan, baik yang berupa fakta maupun analisis baru. Dalam konteks ini, pendekatan serta pemikiran berbasis multidisiplin menjadi sebuah keharusan, dan bukan perkecualian. Pendekatan berpikir 'outside the box' akan menjadi karakter penting dalam pencapaian tujuan ini. Melalui publikasi Jurnal Ruang -Space kami berharap bisa membangun visi yang dinamik dan menarik, yang berbeda dengan wujud publikasi yang hanya dilandasi oleh pandangan bahwa perencanaan dan perancangan arsitektur sebagai satu-satunya elemen penentu kualitas fisik maupun sosial dari lingkungan binaan, dimana kita berada.Selain bertujuan menyediakan ruang untuk publikasi terkait topik-topik di atas, Jurnal Ruang-Space juga mempublikasikan artikel berdasarkan tema spesifik, yang secara khusus dan mendalam membahas isu-isu tertentu. Tema ini dibangun dalam batas lingkup topik publikasi, misalnya: pembangunan keruangan desa, ruang pada sistem kemasyarakatan tradisional, pengaruh globalisasi terhadap budaya keruangan lokal, dan mekanisme penggendalian pembangunan keruangan di daerah. Disamping itu, sebagai sebuah produk publikasi dari Program Studi Magister Arsitektur, Universitas Udayana, Bali, kami memiliki misi menjadikan Jurnal ini sebagai media untuk mendiskusikan isu-isu penting yang sedang dihadapi masyarakat di Pulau Dewata. Ini khususnya mencakup permasalahan pembangunan dan budaya secara keseluruhan. Di permukaan, debat berkenaan topik ini bertautan erat dengan industri kepariwisataan, yang dampaknya sudah sangat jelas bisa diidentifikasi, dan telah diinterprestasikan secara beragam. Di satu sisi, industri ini seringkali dipandang memiliki peran destruktif terhadap lingkungan dan budaya lokal, namun pada saat yang sama telah berkontribusi secara besar-besaran terhadap pembangunan ekonomi. Sirkumsatansi ini bukanlah hal langka yang hanya dialami Bali, namun pulau ini memiliki potensi untuk dijadikan sebagai laboratorium, dimana permasalahan yang muncul sebagai akibat pembangunan pariwisata bisa dipelajari secara mendalam. Selain mempublikasikan artikel dengan format dan substansi tersebut di atas, ke depannya, Jurnal Ruang-Space juga mengundang tiga tipe publikasi. Pertama, book review (maksimum 1000 kata). Kedua, viewpoints yang memamaparkan pandangan-pandangan kekinian atau kritik terhadap sebuah teori, metode, topik-topik tertentu, dan lain-lain yang dipandang oleh penulis telah terlalaikan atau dimisinterprestasikan (1000-2000 kata). Ketiga, review terhadap artikel yang tidak hanya mereview buku tertentu, tetapi melingkup juga sejarah, dampak, buku-buku yang memiliki kemiripan, kritik terhadap teori (2000-3000 kata). Melalui kesempatan ini, kami ucapkan selamat bergabung kepada anggota Dewan Editor Jurnal Ruang-Space. Terima kasih yang sedalam-dalamnya kami sampaikan kepada Ibu dan Bapak Anggota Dewan Editor atas kesediaannya untuk berpartisipasi dalam publikasi ini. Kami berharap, melalui dukungan Ibu dan Bapak, Jurnal Ruang-Space akan mencapai misinya untuk berperan sebagai media komunikasi bagi pemikiran-pemikiran baru serta hasil-hasil studi di bidang lingkungan terbangun. Anggota Dewan Editor Jurnal Ruang-Space memiliki latar belakang kepakaran yang beragam dan telah memiliki pengakuan di bidangnya masing-masing. Ini melingkup kepakaran di bidang rancang bangun, pembangunan dan perencanaan, perancangan kota, politikal ekonomi, sosiologi, sejarah dan antrofologi. Edisi perdana Jurnal Ruang-Space diawali dengan artikel yang dikontribuskan oleh Profesor Alexander Cuthbert (UNSW, Australia), salah satu guru besar tamu di Universitas Udayana. Artikel pertama ini mempersonifikasikan beberapa aspek dari permasalahan yang dihadapi dalam perancangan kota, dengan menawarkan sebuah pendekatan teoritis baru. Tulisan ini memandang bahwa estetika dan interprestasi terhadap budaya di bidang arsitektur bisa dilihat melalui kacamata teori-teori sosial. Artikel kedua ditulis Ni Made Dhina Avianthi Irawan, salah seorang staf Kementrian Pekerjaan Umum Bali di bidang Penataan Bangunan dan Lingkungan. Dhina membahas tentang pembangunan citra Kota Blahkiuh berdasarkan pengalaman serta pandangan masyarakat pengamat perkembangan kota. Blahkiuh merupakan salah satu contoh kota golongan IV di Bali. Tulisan ketiga disajikan oleh Ni Made Emmi Nutrisia Dewi, salah satu staf pengajar dari Sekolah Tinggi Desain, Bali. Tulisan Emmi mengkaji tentang pemanfaatan ruang-ruang komunal di Desa Pedungan (Denpasar), wujud perubahan fungsi yang ada dan faktor-faktor penyebab perubahan ini. Artikel keempat ditulis oleh I Made Wirata (arsitek profesional) dan Ngakan Putu Sueca (profesor Jurusan Arsitektur, Universitas Udayana). Tulisan ini membahas tentang konsep rumah adat Suku Sasak di Dusun Segenter, Lombok Utara. Keunikan permukiman ini adalah pada penempatan ruang-ruang yang sangat tergantung dari penempatan pintu dan bale sakanem (bangunan dengan 6 tiang struktur). Artikel kelima ditulis oleh Dinar Sukma Pramesti, seorang arsitek profesional. Tulisan Dinar mendiskusikan tentang tipe rumah panggung di Kampung Loloan, Kabupaten Jembrana, Bali. Dinar menggarisbawahi jika bentuk arsitektur rumah panggung kampung ini telah berkembang, menyesuaikan kondisi sosial-budaya, ekonomi, umur bangunan, ketersediaan lahan, dan preferensi dari penghuni. Artikel keenam disusun oleh I Nengah Riana, Widiastuti, dan Ida Bagus Gde Primayatna, staf akademik dari Jurusan Teknik Sipil, Universitas Pendidikan Nasional, (Bali) dan Jurusan Arsitektur, Universitas Udayana. Paper ini menstudi salah satu permasalahan serius yang semakin dihadapi Kota Denpasar, yaitu perubahan pemanfaatan ruang terbuka hijau. Perubahan ini dilihat dari wujud perubahannya serta faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan terjadinya alih fungsi ini. Artikel ketujuh mengkaji tentang relevansi dari perumahan berlantai banyak dalam pemenuhan kebutuhan perumahan untuk masyarakat berpendapatan rendah di daerah perkotaan di Indonesia, yang ditulis oleh Gusti Ayu Made Suartika, seorang akademik dari Program Studi Magister Perencanaan dan Pembangunan Spasial Desa/Kota, Universitas Udayana. Akhirnya terima kasih yang sebesar-besarnya disampaikan kepada para penulis, wakil editor, anggota dewan editor, staf editor, dan team produksi, yang telah berkontribusi dan bekerja keras sehingga publikasi Jurnal RUANG-SPACE terealisasikan. ??? Ruang-Space is a new journal dedicated to the understanding of space and the built environment. It has been created to fill a major gap in academic publishing in Indonesia, where the physical built environment remains somewhat detached from its counterparts in social science and urban politics. To this extent Ruang-Space focuses on development in general, encouraging lateral thinking as a dominant characteristic of post-modern thought and the politics of globalisation. The intention is to address the built environment as a whole, and to dispense with the barriers and silos that define professional thinking. So the subject matter of the journal will focus on major issues emerging from the development of human settlements in the third millennium. These will of necessity include the disciplines of architecture, planning, landscape architecture and urban design, as well as interpretations of the built environment emerging from urban geography, sociology and political science. In order to support our global vision, we encourage articles and reviews from around the world. In greater detail, we welcome submissions dealing with sustainability, urban form, the urban landscape, design control, community organisation, ethnic architecture, housing for the poor, urban politics and policy, and the design of cities. But in addition to our overall intention to broaden the analysis of settlement form and structure in Indonesia and abroad, we wish to push forward the barriers on significant theory, either in its application or in the discovery of new facts and forms of analysis. In so doing we accept that in the increasingly globalising world of postmodernity, cross disciplinarity is becoming the rule rather than the exception, and that thinking 'outside the box' is now a necessary characteristic of this process. Hence submissions which further these ideas will be encouraged in the peer-refereeing process that we will pursue. Under the umbrella of Ruang-Space, we hope to generate a dynamic and interesting vision of the built environment that stands in contrast to journals whose subject matter is contained within a narrow vision of architecture and planning as constraining determinants of social space. While it is our intention to make space available on a continuing basis to a diversity of submissions, as is now the norm we intend to publish occasional 'themed' issues that cover particular subjects in significant depth, for example in kampung development, space in traditional societies, the impact of globalisation on local cultures and development control. Additionally, since this journal is being produced by the Masters Program in Architecture at Udayana University in Bali, it is also our intention to use it as a forum for the diversity of problems that now inundate Balinese society, specifically those that affect development and culture as a whole. In the forefront of this debate lies the nemesis of tourism. Its impacts are ubiquitous and variously interpreted on the one hand as destructive of environment and culture yet on the other as a making a massive contribution to the local economy. While Bali's problems are not original, the island paradise offers a singular laboratory where the conflicts brought by tourism can be studied in significant depth. It is also our intention to generalise our content, not only in subject matter but also in the form in which it is presented. In future issues we will also welcome three other types of submission. First, book reviews (up to 1000 words). Second, viewpoints which provide a new insight or critique of a theory, method, subject matter etc that the author feels is being ignored or is otherwise misinterpreted (1000-2000 words). Third, review articles which not only review a particular book, but cover its history, influences, similar texts and a theoretical critique of content (approx 2-3000 words). We also take this opportunity to welcome our editorial board members, whom we gratefully thank for their participation. We hope that with your support, this journal will achieve its mission to be a medium for communication for new thoughts and study findings in the area of the built environment. Our editorial board includes experts in a variety of fields dealing with the built environment, individuals who have attained great respect in their diverse disciplines, including architecture, urban planning, urban design, political economy, sociology, sustainability, anthropology and history. This first Volume and first issue is opened by Professor Cuthbert who is a distinguished Visiting Professor at our University (Guru Besar Tamu), whose work has had international acclaim in the area of urban design. His article personifies many of the above qualities by offering a new theoretical framework for urban design from within the realm of social theory that he suggests can replace aesthetic and 'cultural' interpretations of architecture. This is followed by the second article written by Ni Made Dhina Avianthi Irawan, a civil servant of Ministry of Public Works, Department of Building and Environment in Bali. Dhina discusses the development of Blahkiuh image based on observers experiences and perception. Blahkiuh is classified as a city of class IV status in Bali. The third paper is authored by Ni Made Emmi Nutrisia Dewi, an academic of the Design Institute of Bali. Emmi's article studies the use of communal spaces of Pedungan Village (Denpasar), and the changes and factors behind them. The fourth article is written by I Made Wirata, a professional architect, and Ngakan Putu Sueca (Professor in the Department of Architecture, Udayana University). It discusses concepts behind the Sasak houses of Segenter Village, North of Lombok. The uniqueness of these settlements is the layout of spaces that relies heavily on the placement of doors and the bale sakanem (building with six structural columns). The fifth article is authored by Dinar Sukma Pramesti, a professional architect. Dinar studies the stilt houses of Loloan community, Jembrana, Bali. She underlines that the form of stilt houses has changed over time in line with various elements including socio-cultural aspects, economic factors, building age, land availability, and occupants' preferences. The sixth article is written by I Nengah Riana, Widiastuti, and Ida Bagus Gde Primayatna, academic staff from the Department of Civil Engineering, National University (Bali) and the Department of Architecture, Udayana University. It examines the conversion of green open spaces, a major problem in Denpasar. The seventh paper is authored by Gusti Ayu Made Suartika. It examines the relevance of multi storey housing in fulfilling the need for affordable houses by low income urban dwellers in Indonesia. Finally, a big thank you to all our contributors, editorial board, production team and publishing staff who have worked faithfully to bring the journal RUANG- SPACE into being.

Issue 60.6 of the Review for Religious, 2001. ; ° R-eview for Re!igio~s b~lps people re~pon~ and befaithful to.God's, universal ~ail to holiness' ' " by making; available tO them the sl~irituai legades - " tb~t flow-~om the, charisms of Catbolicconsecrated life~ Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bimonthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393 Telephone: 314-977-7363 ° Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: review@slu.edu ° Web site: www.reviewforreligious.org Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393 Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP Mount St. Mary's Seminary; Emmitsburg, Maryland 21727 POSTMASTER Send address chafiges to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©2001 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the pers6nal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. vi,ew for religious LIVING OUR CATHOLIC LEGACIES Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Clare Boehmer ASC Philip C. Fischer SJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Mary Ann Foppe TracT Gramm Judy Sharp James and Joan Felling Adrian Gaudin SC Sr. Raymond Marie Gerard FSP Eugene Hensell OSB Bishop Carlos A. Sevilla SJ Ernest E. Larkin OCarm Miriam D. Ukeritis CSJ NOVEMBER DECEMBER 2001 VOLUME 60 NUMBER 6 contents 566 a wider mission The Interreligious World: A Nun's Experience There Mary C. Boys SNJM probes aspects of religious life in light of the Catholic-Jewish relationship and provides a testimony that emboldens her continued commitment to this lifeform. 581 'Unsuspected Mission A. Paul Dominic SJ identifies the mission of spiritual conversation as the basic apostolic work of Jesus and of all who are his followers. 594 spiritual directions On the Seventh Day God Rested Marie Beha OSC suggests ways of understanding and making more creative use of Sabbaths in our life. 602 Where Your Heart Is Donald Macdonald SMM sees in Jesus' journey to Jerusalem (in Luke) an ardor and constancy that our bonding with him through Sc~ipture's strong and burning words can accomplish also in us. Review for Religious evaluations 614 628 Criteria for Change: Women's Ministering to the Body of Christ Marie Brinkman SCL looks at the lives lived by sisters in the past as the foundation that must validate today's discernment criteria for the needed changes. Missionary or Mercenary Patrick Sean Moffett CFC offers a perspective on changes in membership, changes in collaboration, and changes in corporate commitment in order to stimulate discussion on community apostolates. 640 647 divine initiatives What Only God Can Make Ann Marie Paul SCC imaginatively ponders religious community pictured as a tree, with the trunk representing chastity, the branches poverty, and the leaves obedience. God's Will: Where Desires Commingle Denis Donoghue SJ ruminates on the seeking out of God's will and illustrates some principles of discernment in a personal'example. departments . 564 Prisms 655 Canonical Counsel: Readmission to a Religious Institute 661 Book Reviews 667 Indexes to Volume 60 November-Dece~nber 2001 prisms All of us have to be born and have to die. These "have to's" sound like some activity we must do, when both are rather something that happens to us. "Being born" and "being dying" are the leveling events that bookend all human life. What fills the space in between seems to spell out nothing but all the hills and valleys, rolling vineyards and desert wastelands, that represent the inequalities of human living. Some people are born into wealth, and they will never know want. Others are only fortunate enough at birth to have a mother healthy enough to give them mother's milk, but they will go through life malnour-ished and disease-prone. Some are born highly gifted and fail ever to develop their talents. Others struggle through life with a minimum of human endowments, but successfully act with a perennial zest. Some will spend their life in steel and glass skyscrapers, and others will know only the simplest of grass or plywood huts. Some will travel the world; others will know only their village. Except for "being born" and "being dying," we human beings seem to spend lifetimes of greatly unequal value. There seems to be no level playing field for all people to encounter each other on. God engages the inequalities of human life in the incarnation and birth of his Son. In the familiar hymn quoted in St. Paul's letter to the Philippians, our atti-tude must be "that of Christ: Though he was in the form of God, he did not deem equality with God something to be grasped at. Rather, he emptied himself and took the form of a slave, being born in the likeness of men. He was known to be of human estate, and it was thus that he humbled himself, obediendy accepting even death, death on a cross" (Ph 2: 5-9). Paul reflects that God takes on a true inequality. In becoming human, Christ goes from the fullness of divin- Review for Religious i'ty to the emptiness of humanity. Theologically, humanity is empty because everything that each of us has is gift, as Jesus reminds us in saying that all his words and his works are not his, but come from the Father. So in faith we know an inequality that is real between God and the human. But, then, in God's becoming human in Jesus, we come to know God's definitive action in breaking down all the appearances of inequality that divide us humans. Jesus entered into the leveling experience of all humans by "being born" and by "being dying." Through all the in-between time, he lived his life as an example and .taught by word and para-ble that the leveling process permeated the whole of human living. While friendly with rich and poor alike, with learned and unlearned, Jesus seems to violate our sense of leveling by his iden-tifying with the poor, with servants and slaves, with the marginal-ized. He reaches out to them in his care; he tells stories about them for our instruction. Jesus asks us to be like him--one who serves. In the Last Supper washing of the feet, Jesus stresses that he has given us an example. Jesus transfigures the language and meaning of slavery, ser-vice, and ministry. All these words now describe valued human interaction from a divine perspective. We all are meant to be helpers--in Scripture, sometimes called slaves, sometimes servants, sometimes minis-ters-- to one another in life. Helpers and those being helped are on the same level. One is not superior as a human being in either being the helper or minister or being the one being helped or ministered to. Jesus gave us an unforgettable image by answering "Who is my neighbor?" with the parable of the Good Samaritan. Th~ second half of the one commandment stresses that we love our neighbor as ourselves. Our love goes out to whomever, persons always on a level no different from ourselves. We neither reach down in helping nor reach up; we only reach across. By entering into our human level, God broke through all the specious levels that seem to divide humankind. By our entering into the divine experience of Jesus, we see and act as sons and daughters of a heav-enly Father. Every Christmas, we challenge ourselves anew about the Christian leveling of human life. By our faith we live life on the same level--the level has been forever divinely clarified because of the birth of Jesus. David L. Fleming SJ November-December 2001 a wider mission MARY C. BOYS The Interreligious World: A Nun's Experience There A great value of ecumenical and interreligious exchange is that it sheds light on one's own tradition. Seeing oneself through the eyes of others expands one's reflections, provokes absorbing questions, and clarifies values and modes of thought. While my roots in the religiously variegated Pacific Northwest mean I have long been in Protestant company, and my interest in Judaism dates back to my college years, it was only upon moving to New York City seven years ago that I staked my tent on ecumenical and inte~religious terrain. Teaching at the historically Protestant Union Theological Seminary and working in Christian-Jewish dialogue beyond Union's quadrangle afford new understandings not only of the religiously "other," but of Catholicism as well. And, by providing a flesh viewpoint on religious life, my situation exercises a profound personal effect) SandraSchneiders has observed that women religious seem able to work beyond the boundaries of Christianity while remaining deeply affiliated with it; we Mary C. Boys SNJM is the Skinner and McAlpin Professor of Practical Theology at Union Theological Seminary in New York City and the author of Has God Only One Blessing? Judaism as a Source of Christian Self-Understanding. Her address is Union Theological Seminary; 3041 Broadway; New York, N.Y. 10027. Review for Religious "are at once very deeply involved in institutional Catholicism and often widely and deeply involved in the experiences of spirituality beyond its denominational boundaries.''2 Yet, in exploring the topic of religious life and interreligious dialogue, she turns her gaze more to the East, to dialogue among monastics. By exploring the implications of interaction with Jews and Judaism, I hope to highlight a distinctive interreligious conversation that Schneiders touches on only tangentially, and thereby to add another layer to, and engage in occasional argument with, her outstanding scholarly study. Probing religious life, a topic on which I have never published, in light of the Catholic-Jewish relationship, on which I have published, challenges me to hold together two vital parts of my life. This essay, then, revolving around four "scenes," is deeply per-sonal, but I hope not solipsistic, for I intend it as a stimulus for conversation. I. London, June 2000, a Catholic-Jewish conference on "The Theology of Partnership." This conference involved participants principally from the United Kingdom and the United States, along with a few European and Israeli scholars and a Vatican delegation. Although the large number of participants hindered the flow of discussion, our exchange was for the most part candid and stimulating. In the latter part of the conference, one of the Catholics, a priest, launched into a romanticized mini-sermon about Mary as virgin and mother. Its traditionalist theology and tangential relation to the point under discussion elicited considerable skepticism, if one might judge by the body language of rolled eyes and heads held in hands. Many sought recognition by the chair to respond (including all the Catholic women), but I have less recollection of the rejoinders than I do of the comment by the woman next to me. A Reform rabbi from the United Kingdom, she wrote furiously on her notepad: "Mary. Virgin. Why don't they talk about real women?" Liminal. Marginal. Such terms, used by Schneiders (among others) to describe religious life strike a chord. Insofar as this lifeform has a prophetic character rather than a hierarchical status, religious life is indeed lived on the "thresholds where realities meet, dash, and merge.''3 Nonetheless, such terms are sometimes far too academic to describe moments of feeling just how odd and anomalous we religious are. While on one level I suspect I November-December 2001 Boy~ * The lnterreli¢ous Worm To be with Jews as a member of a religious congregation is to experience our liminality, our oddness, on a regular basis. understand what my table companion was objecting to, the starkness of her opposition of "virgin" and "real women" hit hard. In reflecting later, I realize I never use terminology about virginity to describe celibacy; not only does it connote a naive innocence, but it speaks only to the dimension of abstention from genital sexual intimacy. Without question, this self-chosen abstention---or, better, an abstention that is part of our being called to a distinctive way of life--has its ascetic aspects. Nevertheless, the term virginity seems to suggest that we have repressed our sexuality, thereby ceasing to be "real" women. Whether or not the Jungian-grounded theory of the "virgin archetype" or a similar perspective can overcome the cultural stereotypes of virginity is a real question, but this dimension of Finding the Treasure offers a compelling description of the inner autonomy celibacy can offer. In the halls of Union, being a nun (in the imprecise use of the term) is sometimes seen as a "weird" way of life. Yet consecrated celibacy is not unknown in Protestantism. Students of Hinduism and Buddhism, moreover, know about celibacy in those traditions. It, is, however, completely uncharacteristic of rabbinic Judaism, which places intense emphasis on family life and home-based ritual.4 So to be with Jews as a member of a religious congregation is to experience our liminality, our oddness, on a regular basis. While this experience can be jarring, as it was at that conference June 2000, in general it has increased my sensitivity to the peculiarities of religious life, a sensitivity that can be dulled by remaining in the more homogeneous company of one's religious congregation.5 At the same time, it makes the God question more prominent. Jews typically are more reticent in speaking about God, a healthy corrective to the overfamiliarity with which many Christians ~peak about the Holy One.6 The presence, however, of persons for whom the "God quest" is the principal explanation for their liminal way of life raises questions, at least implicitly, about the divine-human relationship. Perhaps, to balance the incident with which I began this section, I should report that recently, at the conclusion of a Review for Religious weekend spent as a scholar-in-residence at a synagogue, an elderly man came up to thank me. His eyes welling with tears, he said, "You answered God's call many years ago, and now you are able to be among us." II. November 2000, a gathering of Holocaust survivors in the New York metropolitan area. While giving a series of lectures in a Catholic parish on New York's East Side the previous September, I met Lewis Weinstein, a businessman who had just published a novel on the Spanish Inquisition, The Heretic. A few weeks later he phoned to ask if I would share the podium with him at an event sponsored by the New York area Holocaust survivors. They had invited him to speak about his book, and he in turn thought it would be good if I would speak about developments in the Catholic Church's relations with Jews. His historical novel portrays a grim time. The Inquisition bears witness to the ways in which the legacy of anti-Judaism became a justification for greed and intolerance and persecution. His selections mirrored the bleakness. For example, one of the principal characters, Friar Ricardo Perez, copies texts from the New Testament and early church writers such as Chrysostom in order to justify his hatred of Jews. Lew's final excerpt was from John Chrysostom, whose vitriol toward Jews is well known: "These Jews are gathering choruses of effeminates and a great rubbish heap of harlots. Their synagogues are brothels and theaters, dens of robbers and lodgings for wild beasts. Jews know but one thing: to fill their bellies and be drunk. Their condition is no better than that of pigs and goats. Refusing to accept Christ, they have made themselves fit for s!aughter. The synagogue is a dwelling of demons, and the Jews who pray there themselves are demons. If the Jews are acting against God, must they not be serving demons? For they did sacrifice their sons and daughters to demons. Jewish mother~ ate their own children, and the hands of Jewish women boiled their own children. Their synagogues are fortresses of the devil, and the pit of all perdition. The devil is a murderer, and the Jew demons who serve him are murderers, tOO.''7 The air hung heavy in the room. Then the chair introduced me in her heavily accented English. "Mr. Weinstein wanted this Sister Mary to come. I'm not sure why. I did not have such a good experience of nuns in Poland. Anyway, here's Sister Mary Boys." " "Oy ray," I thought on the way to the podium. "How did I get myself into this one--and what now?" November-December 2001 Boys ¯ The Interreligious Worm There was enormous anger in that room, much of it directed at the Catholic Church, which I represented to them. Their anger was not simply the church's failure to live the gospel during the Shoah (Holocaust), but also their experience as children. These were men and women who had been taunted, even beaten, as "Christ-killers," who feared--with good reason--walking by a church, who were terrified to go out in the streets on "Good" Friday. I had with me the 1997 "Declaration of Repentance" by the French bishops. Its words came to life before my eyes: In the judgment of historians, it is a well-proven fact that for centuries, up until Vatican Council II, an anti-Jewish traditibn stamped its mark in differing ways on Christian doctrine and teaching, in theology, apologetics, preaching, and in the liturgy. It was on such ground that the venomous plant of hatred for the Jews was able to flourish. Hence the heavy inheritance we still bear in our century, with all its consequences which are so difficult to wipe out. Hence our still open wounds? To work as a Catholic with Jews is to witness many "open wounds," wounds from the "heavy inheritance" of our own tradition. For this reason, the Catholic-Jewish encounter is sui generis in the interreligious sphere, a point Schneiders overlooks in saying that the interreligious encounter differs "in virtually every way from the ecumenical one. It involves an encounter not between separated siblings, but between virtually total strangers.''9 We Catholics and Jews are indeed separated siblings, and that separation has been bitter, violent, and tragic. We are not strangers; we have been enemies--and to work for reconciliation is an obligation of justice. It is difficult enough for us as Catholic women to deal with church structures that mute our voices. It is even more disillusioning to study the long history of Christian contempt for Jews, the tradition of adversus Judaeos: how rivalry hardened into contempt, and contempt fostered disputation, and disputation developed into demonization, and demonization fertilized this "venomous plant of h~tred for the Jews." Like all of history's stories, the church's relationship with Jews and Judaism is a complicated tale--with significant contextual factors in every age, occasions of amity and respect and of prophets with a different vision. Nonetheless, it is largely a story of moral blindness, imperialism, and violence. While I am not personally complicit, it is Revie~v for Religious a story of which I am deeply ashamed--and one that demands I examine my complicity in other betrayals of the gospel. I am grateful for the privilege, difficult though it is, of facing those whom our history has hurt. Meeting survivors and knowing children of survivors (and, for that matter, knowing any Jews at all, for who among them has not been touched in some way by the Shoah?) means not only reading this history with deepened sensitivity, but also being emboldened to act differendy so that "the spoiled seeds of anti-Semitism should never again take root in the human heart."1° Nevertheless, confronting this history causes anguish and compounds my problems as a feminist with the institutional church. The "open wound" of which the French bishops spoke festers even as I struggle with my Catholic identity in a church that treats women as second-class citizens. I live, too, with the irony that the official church seems more committed to dialogue with Jews than with their own women. The confrontation with history, moreover, triggers another crisis, a dark night of the soul. If "the most acutely painful point of intersection between the postmodern sensibility and religious faith is the God-image,'' 11 then the Shoah is the starkest event in this intersection. It brings one face-to-face with the "abusing God," requiring us to ponder unbearable questions about the One to whom we pray22 As grateful as I am for all I have learned (and continue to learn) about prayer from my sisters, we seem reluctant to address these searing questions in our common prayer. Indeed, I cannot recall any occasion in which the Shoah and its challenges to our understanding of God have been raised to the conscious level in the communal prayer of my own congregation, the Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary. This leads me to wonder whether any congregation, with the exception of the Sisters of Sion, confronts "God issues" that swirl around the Shoah23 The way that many Jews, especially in this post-Holocaust period, address God in a challenging manner has much to teach us. Elie Wiesel says that those who stand within the covenant have the To work as a Catholic with Jews is to witness many "open wounds," wounds from the "heavy inheritance" of our own tradition. Nbvember-December 2001 Boys * The Interreh~ious Worm right to say anything to God--even blasphemy.~4 In the concluding section of his profound meditation on God and abuse (including the Shoah, but also sexual abuse), David Blumenthal composes darifig prayers for use in Jewish liturgical services. He cautions that prayers of this type require preparation: One must have a deep commitment to God, a deep desire to want to be with God, to want to have a relationship with God. It must be important, indeed a matter of spiritual life and death, to be able to address God. One must have, too, deep and abiding faith in the covenant, in our ability to address God no matter what the circumstances and no matter how severe our prayer may be; and in God's desire to hear us and to help us address God. One must also have a sense of proportion about our relationship to God. We are creatures, not Creator. We are innocent, as victims of abuse; but we are sinners, in many other matters. We are accusers, yet we are children. This creates a tension in our images of ourselves, of God, and of the proper relationship between us; yet we must live, think, and pray within this tension.~s Facing the history of our relationship with Jews and learning Jewish ways of addressing God have provided depth and texture to my own prayer. I~I. Friday nights: a guest at the dinner table for Sbabbat. Passover: a guest at the Seder. I feel deeply privileged to join jewish friends for Shabbat or for the Seder. I have learned more than I can say from the lively conversations and observing the ways in which they su'ive to lead lives of integrity in fidelity to Torah. Without idealizing the tradition, I find much cause for "holy envy": its depth of prayer mirrored in the Siddur and in the cycle of festivals, the intellectual vitality (especially the value placed on study), the prizing of family, and home-based religious practices. My relationships leave me no doubt that Judaism fosters a holy way of life and that the ways of Torah are salvific for those committed to walking in its ways. The privilege accorded me in coming to know the power of another religious tradition finds little reflection in the recent Vatican declaration Dominus Iesus (D1).16 My experience provides a different vantage point from which to view other religious traditions. Even as DI recognizes that the dialogue between Christianity and other religions raises new questions that should be "addressed through pursuing new paths of research, advancing proposals, and Review for Religious suggesting ways of acting that call for attentive discernment" (§3), it reiterates traditional formulations of faith in arguing against pluralism. It condemns the mentality of indifferentism "characterized by a religious relativism which leads to the belief that 'one religion is as good as another'" (§22). The declaration refutes those who regard the Catholic Church as merely "one way of salvation alongside those constituted by the other religions" (§21). Rather, "Jesus Christ is the mediator and universal redeemer" (§11). Further, "one can and must say that Jesus Christ has a significance and a value for the human race and its history which are unique and singular, proper to him alone, exclusive, universal, and absolute. Jesus is, in fact, the Word of God made man for the salvation of all" (§15). According to the Congre-gation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF), one may still speak of equality in interreligious dialogue, but only in reference to the "equal personal dignity of the parties in dialogue, not to doctrinal content nor even less to the position of Jesus Christ . Thus, the certainty of the universal salvific will of God does not diminish but rather increases the duty and urgency of the proclamation of salvation and of conversion to the Lord Jesus Christ" (§22). Without entering into detailed theological analysis of Dominus Iesus, I simply want to call attention here to one of its primary deficiencies. The declaration has no sense of the relational, no feel for human interchange. Other religions are an abstraction, a category, an it. DI pays no attention to these religions as they exist in the lives of real people; it shows no sensitivity to the "thick" texture of other traditions. The writers, rather, claim objectivity: "Objectively speaking, they [other religions] are in a gravely deficient situation." Such a judgment ignores theologies of pluralism that allow one to privilege his or her own convictions while taking account of the reasonability of others' beliefs.~7 In judging dialogue from a position of omniscience, the declaration bears no indication of what we might learn from the religious other. Facing the history of our relationship with Jews and learning Jewish ways of addressing God have provided depth and texture to my own prayer. Noventber-December 2001 Boys ¯ The Into'religious Worm On the explicit level, DI says little about the church's relationship with Judaism.~ DI refers to Jews just once (§13): "The first Christians encountered the Jewish people, showing them the fulfillment of salvation that went beyond the Law," thus implicitly porraying Judaism as legalistic. DI then falls silent about Judaism. Nonetheless, its judgment~ seem to encompass Judaism, because DI notes no exceptions. It works only with three categories: Roman Catholicism, other Christian churches (distinguishing between those with apostolic succession and a valid Eucharist and "ecclesiastical communities which have not preserved the valid episcopate and the genuine and integral substance of the eucharistic mystery [and therefore] are not churches in the proper sense" §17), and non-Christian religions. In view of such a sweeping scope, readers may reasonably infer that the CDF includes Judaism within the rubric of non-Christian religions. Jews, therefore, seem also to be subject to the claim that, because "Jesus Christ is the . . . universal mediator" (§11), "one can and must say" that his significance and value for "the human race and its history., are unique and singular, proper to him alone, exclusive, universal, and absolute., for the salvation of all" (§ 15). For Catholics this means being "committed to proclaiming tq all people the truth definitively revealed by the Lord and to announcing the necessity of conversion to Jesus Christ and of adherence to the church through baptism and the other sacraments in order to participate fully in communion with God, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit" (§22). Such a view stands in tension with my own experience.~9 As one privileged to be a frequent guest in Jewish homes, to learn from Jewish scholars, to experience something of the profundity of Jewish liturgy and prayer, and, above all, to have close Jewish friends, I have an abiding respect, even awe, for the depth of Judaism. The way of Torah certainly seems to me salvific for those who walk in it. I cannot.in conscience seek the conversion of a Jew. This is not a matter of indifferentism, but rather a glimpse of the incomprehensible God whose ways transcend our under-standing. IV. Three items: Item: "Jesus' relations with women seem to have been remarkably free, given the reserve that Jewish custom in his day required."2° Item: "At the historical moment when Jesus was born Review for Religious into the world, the stares of Jewish women had never been lower . By the time of Jesus' birth, many decades of rabbinic commentary and custom had surrounded Old Testament literature. And these rabbinic traditions considerably lowered the status of women.'m Item: "Palestinian Hebrew women were among the poorest in the world in Jesus' day. This was probably because they had no inheritance rights and could be divorced for the flimsiest of reasons. Hebrew men could divorce their wives for anything from burning the dinner (Hillel) to adultery (Shammat). Yet Hebrew women were not allowed to divorce their husbands .A. Hebrew woman had minimal to no property rights A. .child was held to be Jewish only if the mother was Jewish. Most Jewish girls were betrothed by their fathers at a young age. Jewish women were held to be unclean while menstruating. If she inadvertently touched a man while having her menses, he was obliged to undergo a week-long purification ritual before worshiping at the Temple . In early Judaism women did proclaim and prophesy, but in Jesus' day they weren't permitted to proclaim Torah at synagogue because of their periodic 'uncleanness.' As a rule, only the rabbis' wives were so educated. Women were not accepted as witnesses in Jewish law, nor could they teach the law. Women had no official religious or leadership roles in first-century Judaism. Jesus' behavior toward women, even viewed through the androcentric lens of the gospel texts, is remarkable.''2z I could multiply such examples; they seem ubiquitous in feminist writing, both scholarly (less now, though more common among feminist authors from the third world and the East) and pastoral. These perspectives are communicated widely among women's communities and beyond them. My encounter with Judaism helps me look at such claims critically, especially those related to the Second Temple period and the early church. I am sympathetic to the desire to understand Jesus as one who liberated his followers--including (perhaps especially) women--from the oppressive structures of religious authorities. (Yes, many of us consider some religious authorities oppressive in our time.) Nonetheless, I have come to agree with Mary Rose D'Angelo that portraying Jesus as the one "who saves women from Judaism" bothoversimplifies and distorts the situation of Jewish women in lst-century Palestine23 It does indeed seem that, in many feminist and liberationist circles, "no plot is complete witho.uLt a-575- November-December 2001 Boys ¯ The Interreligious Worm reference to the 'Jewish patriarchal system,' although very rare are comments on the similarly patriarchal pagan cultures of antiquity.''24 Sadly, I have come to see that many who do theology under the rubric of feminism have drunk all too deeply from the wells of anti-Judaism. Despite the rich literature on the Pharisees, most notably that of Anthony Saldarini,25 in many liberal and feminist circles they function as the symbol of precisely what is wrong with religious authorities. (For example: "[The Pharisees and their colleagues the scribes] tried to keep control over people's access to God through control of the Law. Jesus denounced this pretension and returned to the people the true means of access to God: love and com-passion." 26) In many feminist writings, moreover, the laws of ritual purity, which the Pharisees are portrayed as championing, serve as the source of the clearest contrast between oppressive Judaism and the liberating Jesus. We are instructed about the "dehumanizing situation in which the women of the time were enslaved." We learn how menstruating women were "discriminated against, degraded, and dehumanized,m7 In short, some feminist writers contrast Jewish women of the Second Temple period with New Testament narratives to support their claims that, "at its inception, pristine Christianity and Jesus himself were free of any misogyny or gender bias." Thereby they implicitly buttress the argument of Christian superiority over Judaism.28 Thus I differ with Sandra Schneiders's portrayal of Jesus vis-a-vis his Jewish contemporaries. While I appreciate--and agree wholeheartedly with--her larger argument about the way in which the prophetic character of religious life places communities in tension with ecclesiastical authorities, I disagree with claims such as "Jesus was rejected by official Judaism" and the more subtle assertion that, "like Jesus, who taught both respect for ecclesiastical leaders insofar as they legitimately hold office and resistance to ecclesiastical oppression, religious must stand with and for the disempowered in the church (cf. Mt 23:2-5 [the scathing denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees]).''z9 The Pharisees, despite their depiction in the Gospels, cannot historically be regarded as representatives of "official" Judaism (there was no such official body), and we should not use them as symbols of clericalism, however useful that might be to feminist causes. They were not the equivalent of ecclesiastical leaders. We would do well to listen to Jewish feminists--such as Paula Review for Religious Fredriksen's observations about the purity laws,3° Ross Kraemer's critique of rabbinic prooftexting,3~ and Rabbi Elyse Goldstein's wrestling with the meaning of the purity rules for her own life.32 To recognize that "Jewish hopes of a new and transformed world made the movement begun by Jesus and his companions and early Christian communities forums for participation and leadership for women" necessitates refining our argument, but in no way diminishes it.33 To acknowledge the complexity of patriarchy in antiquity as well as in early Christianity entails facing the arrogance of our own limited perspectives. In sum, my encounter with Jews and Judaism has brought deepened appreciation for the distinctiveness of religious life in the Catholic tradition. It has challenged me to face the long shadow of our history and to grapple with many questions about God in light of the Shoah. It shapes my theological vantage point on Dominus Iesus as well as various feminist writings. Above all, my encounter inspires hope. For all that lies unresolved within our church in regard to relations with Jews, what has happened between Christians and Jews in our time testifies to the power of the Spirit to bring healing and new life--a testimony that emboldens my own commitment to religious life. Notes ~ This is an edited version of a paper presented at the conference on "The Nun in the Postmodern World," sponsored by the Suenens Foundation in Leuven, Belgium, 31 May--4 June 2001. My thanks to Dr. Doris Donnelly, director of the Suenens Foundation and to Mariana Murphy SNJM, to whom I dedicated it on the occasion of her 70th anniversary of religious profession. 2 Sandra M. Schneiders, Finding the Treasure: Locating Catholic Religious Life in a New Ecclesial and Cultural Context, Vol. 1 of Religious Life in a New Millennium (Mahwah: Paulist Press, 2000), p. 348. 3 Schneiders, Finding, p. 330. 4 Celibacy seems to have been characteristic only of the Therapeutae, a lst-centuryJewish ascetic group near Alexandria, Egypt. Scholars debate whether the covenanters at Qumran were celibate and, if so, whether that was a permanent or temporary state. See Lawrence Schiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls (New York: Doubleday, 1994), pp. 127-143, and Joseph Fitzmyer, Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls (New York: Paulist Press, 1992), p. 66. s Schneiders speaks of religious life as "nonnatural" insofar as it involves bypassing the most fundamental natural mediations of the God- November-December 2001 Boys ¯ The Interreligious World human engagement. She distinguishes "nonnatural" from unnatural or antinatural "because nothing is mote fundamental to our humanity than the quest for God." She also notes that this path is fraught with danger, including "ascetical extremism, rigidity, misanthropy, false mysticism, gnosticism and esotericism, elitism" (Finding, pp. 131-132). 6 For an analysis of this reticence, including its problematical character, see Steven M. Cohen and Arnold M. Eisen, The Jew 14/Tthin: Self, Family, and Community in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), esp. chap. 6, "God and the Synagogue," pp. 155-180. 7 Lewis Weinstein, The Heretic (New York: goodnewfiction.com, 2000), p. 158. Later Weinstein has Perez use Chrysostom in a sermon at the cathedral (see pp. 242-244). s Quoted in Secretariat for Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs, Catholics Remember the Holocaust (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1998), p. 32. 9 Finding, p. 336. 10 This is the conclusion of the 1998 Vatican document We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoab; see Catholics Remember the Holocaust. The United States Conference of Catholi~ Bishops (USCCB) has now published a companion volume, Catholic Teaching on the Shoah: Implementing the Holy See's "We Remember" (2001). II Schneiders, Finding, p. 195. 12 I take the phrase "abusing God" from the work of David R. Blumenthal, Facing the Abusing God: A Theology of Protest (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1993). 13 On the Sisters of Sion, see my Has God Only One Blessing?Judaimt as a Source of Christian Self-Understanding (Mahwah: Paulist Press, 2000), pp. 17-22. 14 "The questions man poses to God may be the same God poses to man. Nevertheless, it is man who must live--and formulate--it. In so doing, he challenges God, which is perm. issible, indeed required. He who says no to God is not necessarily a renegade. Everything depends on the way he says it, and why. One can say anything as long as it is for man, not against him, as long as one remains inside the covenant; only if you repudiate and judge your people from the outside will you become a renegade." Elie Wiesel, One Generation AJ~er (New York: Avon, 1972), p. 216. ,s Blumenthal, Facing the Abusing God, pp. 284-285. 16 "'Dominus Iesus': On the Unicity and. Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church," Origins 30, no. 14 (14 September 2000). It is dated 6 August 2000 and was issued on 5 September 2001--ironically, the same week as Jewish scholars released Dabru Emet, an eight-point statement responding to Christian attempts to come to terms with anti- Judaism. (For Dabru Emet, see www.jcrelations.net or www.icjs.org; also Tikva Frymer-Kensky, David Novak, Peter Ochs, David Fox Sandmel, ReviewforReligious and Michael Signer, Christianity in Jewish Terms (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000). ,7 See, e.g., Michael Barnes, Christian Identity and Religious Pluralism: Religions in Conversation (Nashville: Abingdon, 1989), and S. Mark Heim, Salvations: Truth and Difference in Religion (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1995). ~8 See my "Dominus Iesus and Judaism," forthcoming in Richard Sparks, ed., Proceedings of the Fi~h-sixth Annual Convention of the Catholic Theological Society of America. 19 For an account of something of what I have learned from Jews, see my Jewish Christian Dialogue: One Woman's Experience (Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1997). 20 Monique Alexandre, "Early Christian Women," in/t History of Women in the West, Vol. 1, From Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints, ed. Pauline Schmitt Pantel (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1992), pp. 407-444 (citation, p. 420). 21 Cited in Judith Plaskow, "Feminist Anti-Judaism and the Christian God," Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 7, no. 2 (Fall 1991): 104-107; in Helen P. Fry, Christian-Jewish Dialogue: A Reader (Exeter, U.K.: University of Exeter Press, 1996), p. 233. 22 Christine Schenk CSJ, "Celebrating the Inclusive Jesus," Celebration: An Ecumenical Worship Resource (February 2000): 80-84 (citation, 81-82). 23 Mary Rose D'Angelo, "Gender in the Origins of Christianity: Jewish Hopes and Imperial Exigencies," in Joseph Martos and Pierre Hegy, eds., Equal at the Creation: Sexism, Society, and Christian Thought (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), pp. 25-48 (citation, p. 25). 24 Amy-Jill Levine, "Lilies of the Field and Wandering Jews: Biblical Scholarship, Women's Roles, and Social Location," in Ingrid Rosa Kitzberger, ed., Transformative Encounters: Jesus and Women Re-Viewed (Leiden: Brill, 1999): pp. 330-352 (citation, p. 332). 2s See Anthony J. Saldarini, Pharisees, Scribes, and Sadducees in Palestinian Society (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1988); also his "Pharisees," in David Noel Freedman et al., eds., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 5 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), pp. 289-303. 26 Tereza Cavalcanti, "Jesus, the Penitent Woman, and the Pharisee," Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology 2, no. 1 (1994): 28-40 (citation, 40). 27 H. Kinukawa, Women and Jesus in Mark: A Japanese Feminist Perspective (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1994), pp. 12, 27. 28 See Ross S. Kraemer, "Jewish Women and Christian Women: Some Caveats," in Kraemer and Mary Rose D'Angelo, eds., Women and Christian Origins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 35-49 (citation, p. 36). 29 Schneiders, Finding, pp. 334 and 255, respectively. I am also uncomfortable with her section on Jesus as a prophetic model in her otherwise superb 2000 Madeleva Lecture, With Oil in Their Lamps: Faith, Feminism, and the Future (Mahwah: Paulist Press, 2000), pp. 97-108. In my November-December 2001 Boys ¯ Tbe lnterreligious Worm judgment, greater sensitivity to the heterogeneity of lst-century Judaism (arguments about Sabbath observance and the Temple [see pp. 100-101] were part of this heterogeneity), recognition that the Roman prefect controlled appointment of the high priest ("Nevertheless Jesus was executed by the Romans on the charge brought against him by the official of Judaism," p. 100), and contextualizing of phrases such as the "narrowness that had marred religion from long before his birth in the exclusivity of the Jews" would provide a more nuanced context for her claims. 30 Paula Fredriksen, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1999), esp. pp. 197-207. 3, Kraemer, "Jewish Women and Chrisfan Origins, pp. 37-39. 32 Elyse Goldstein, ReVisions: Seeing Torah through a Feminist Lens (Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 1998), esp. pp. 94-114. 33 D'Angelo, "Gender Hopes," p. 25. Mary at the Window Tawdry as any plastic trinket outshopped To some Asian source, and mass-produced In garish glass-like gold and blue To catch the sun, Mary Most Holy is reduced To a window ornament, turning to face out, Turning on filaments again for facing in On household disorder, dissension, kitchenwork, Children at play on the floor, where a thin Shaft of shining blue light circles one Dazzled child looking up: Mary catches a son. Nancy G. Westerfield R~vie~v for Religious A. PAUL DOMINIC Unsuspected Mission MeisSion, which is much more talked about than put into xecution by talkers, is at bottom a very simple human experience of sharing with others our living faith in God. As such it is accessible to all of us anywhere, if only we are interested in it. It can begin whenever we meet others and spontaneously converse with them. It seems that not enough has been said or even thought about these ordinary human encounters, without which no mission can be started or sustained, whereas perhaps too much has been said about progressive modes of mission. Genesis of a New Mission With the founding of the Society of Jesus, St. Ignatius Loyola surely initiated a whole new saga of mission in the world of his time. The saga, however, may not be or even seem new any more. In fact, since Vatican Council II, there has been quite a legitimate revision of his ideas about promoting and defending the faith. But one exercise of that old mission has still not lost its newness; it is relevant today, but without making a splash. That exercise is simply, to quote St. Ignatius's own words, "to be profitable to individuals by spiritual conversation.''~ Accordingly, unlike the monasteries in mountain solitudes from the time of St. Benedict in the 6th century or the hermitages erected in earlier times in the desert far away from the evil world, the Jesuit residences came to be situated near the centers of towns and cities, where people would gather and A. Paul Dominic sJ writes again from Satyodayam; 12-5-33 S. Lallaguda; Secunderabad 500 017; India. November-December 2001 Dominic ¯ Unsuspected Mission Different from preaching, the mission of spiritual conversation is best characterized and distinguished as pure and simple conversation. intermingle. Only then would the Jesuits be able to meet the people naturally enough, have normal dealings with them, and, as occasions arose, converse with them spiritually. That was an unassuming exercise of mission with an enduring validity, for there can be no time when personal mission, that is, reaching out to specific individuals wherever we are and keeping them company, will be out of tune with the times. The movement of new mission, which in God's providence the Society of Jesus came to be and even stand for, was itself a product of person-to-person missions that Ignatius himself exercised. Having sensed the working of God in himself, he could not keep the experience to himself, but felt an urge to share it with others. He would have certainly loved the angel Raphael's words: "It is good to conceal the secret of a king, but to acknowledge and reveal the works of God, and with fitting honor to acknowledge him" (Tb 12:7, NRSV unless otherwise indicated), Sharing with others his treasured experience of God gradually became a mode of life for him. He came to see it as a matter of course for him: to glorify God and at the same time be of help to others within his reach. Whereas his first contacts were the women whom he chanced upon at his usual haunts of the chapel or hospital, his fame)us beneficiaries were Pierre Favre (now a blessed) and Francis Xavier (now a saint) and a few others at the University in Paris, who with him came to form the Society of Jesus. It is no wonder that people who experienced the charm of his spiritual conversation tried to. be like him. It seems that the early Jesuits' fecundity in mission was in no small way owing to their exercise of spiritual conversation. Xavier, who blazed the trail of mission for the nascent Jesuit order and for the church of his day, was known for his extraordinary expertise in spiritual conversation. Not only companions of his like Peter Canisius (now a saint) witnessed to itfl but also the people of Bologna, who could say twenty years after his short stay with them: "He spoke little, but with great persuasivene.ss. He talked of divine things with great Review for Religious ¯ devotion, and his words penetrated into the hearts of his hearers and held them fast.''3 Itis a pity that those who have criticized Xavier's mission outreach with their post-Vatican II historical hindsight have failed woefully the postmodern mission by their ignorance of the practical skill in which Xavier excelled, namely, conversational mission--which, to be sure, will be out of date when humans cease speaking and being sociable. The Makeup of Conversational Mission Though the expression "conversational mission" used just now, and the equivalent expressions used earlier, are self-explanatory enough, there is nothing like getting full information straight from the horse's mouth. What did Ignatius himself say when he spoke to his little band of friends regarding their kind of preaching. We get some idea from his answer to a Dominican authority's peremptory question "Whatever do you preach?" Ignatius answered: "We do not preach but do speak familiarly of spiritual things with people, as one does after dinner, with those who invite us." In this brief and frank response--which, however, his interlocutor considered equivocal--one may discern and recognize three elements of the conversational mission: (1) conversation itself, (2) a veering to spiritual matters, and (3) a pleasant, familiar tone of voice. Notice that this Ignatian anecdote itself demonstrates spiritual conversation. A contrasting example may clarify the matter. Gregory of Nyssa had observed Christians in the marketplace of Constantinople. He reported: Constantinople is full of mechanics and slaves, who are all of them profound theologians, preaching in the shops and the streets. If you want a man to change a piece of silver, he informs you wherein the Son differs from the Father; if you ask the price of a loaf, you are told by way of reply that the Son is inferior to the Father; and, if you inquire whether the bath is ready, the answer is that the Son is made out of nothing,s This is certainly not true spiritual conversation, having only a specious similarity to it. Different from preaching, the mission of spiritual conversation is best characterized and distinguished as pure and simple conversation. It is that first and foremost, with no agenda except being present to others and getting acquainted.6 One talks with a November-December 2001 Dominic * Unsuspected Mission single individual or a small cluster, not a crowd. Such a conversation happens when we adopt towards people a welcoming attitude, perhaps forgoing for the time being our own business or preoccupation. It unfolds when we are truly ourselves, without putting on airs or having an ax to grind. It is engaging by its very nature, as we respond sensitively to the personal and situational stimuli around, now by word, now by silence, and all through by our bearing. Such a conversation does not follow any pattern except that of people letting one another's personalities freely rise to the occasion according to the twists and turns of the talk and the topics. If there is any way of programming it from beginning to end, it is by eager and attentive listening. Such conversing is like the breath of wind whose coming and going is beyond our reckoning, but which refreshes us and gives us pleasure. It is as natural and spirited as that. Engaging in it, we take others' measure and strive to bring out the best in them, thereby improving and testing ourselves (Si 9:14; 27:5). When people open the homes of their hearts in this hospitable way, Abha-God cannot be far away (1 Jn 4:12). If the art of dealing and conversing with people is, obviously enough, a natural human talent or acquirement, it is also, according to the mind of Ignatius, a grace.7 Perhaps such an understanding may be read between the lines of Paul's "Let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned with salt, so that you may know how to answer everyone" (Col 4:6, NIV). Surely any conversation done ¯ in the reverent awareness of the Lord Jesus (Col 3:17; 1 P 3:15) will enable us to be at our best, natural or supernatural. Thinking along this line, perhaps, Kahlil Gibran could counsel: "When you meet your friend on the roadside or in the marketplace, let the spirit in you move your lips and direct your tongue.''8 Those who make sense of this and make spa~e for the Spirit will come to know how the~ are led, even in the face of the unfriendly, to talk without anxious forethought and yet reveal a truth that they themselves are not directly aware of (Mr 10:17-20). Besides such inspired moments, however, there are bound to be routine occasions or chance meetings when they will have to exercise their grace of conversation on a more deliberate, reflective level. At the appropriate time they will speak on spiritual affairs, as Sirach counseled long ago: "Let your conversation be with intelligent people, and let all your discussion be about the law of the Most High. Let the. righteous be your dinner companions, and let your glory be in the fear of the Lord" (Si 9:15-16). And the more Review for Religious they speak from the abundance of their heart, the better (Mt 12:34), following Paul's declaration "we believe, and so we speak" (2 Co 4:13). They will not resort to spiritual generalities, but will offer a specifically personal spiritual word of witness arising from whatever God has produced in the recesses of their heart and the externals of their life, as St. Paul does often (2 Co 1:4). In general, such conversational talk of God will be directed to what the partners in conversation require (Col 4:6). Far from anything bordering on evil, it will be "only what is useful for building up, as there is need, so that [our] words may give grace to those who hear" (Ep 4:29), furthering their interior progress and stimulating their power for good in a society that hungers for more than small mercies: namely, justice, freedom, good faith, neighborliness, equality, and, not least, economic sufficiency, the proof of all the above? This conversational mission is to be carried on, for all its spiritual vision, in pleasant, discreet, and wholesome familiarity, the kind that may be witnessed (as Ignatius remarks) between the glad host and the happy guest who take time after a good meal to share what is in their hearts. Familiarity is the climate in which the conversational seeds of the spirit are best sown and harvested. Familiarity, however, is of different levels. The greater the familiarity, the better the opportunity for spiritual conversation. And so it is worthwhile to work discreedy towards deepening the familiarity. Familiarity or intimacy being the opposite of imposition, no conversational mission can be attempted if people make us aware that they would rather be left alone. Avoiding the least intrusion into their privacy, then, we must gendy gain their favor by our genuine respect for them, our interest in them as individuals with unique endowments, and our concern for any particular needs they may have. It is a matter of sincere accommodation, becoming all things to all people (I Co 9:22), all the while being sensitive to their ideals, their finer spiritual instincts. This is neighborliness towards them, without which no mission for their spiritual welfare can ever be thought of. So, even if they are not well disposed towards us, we deal with them pro-actively and seek to win them over, as God does. It is our familiarity with God that should overflow in our relation with others and make them feel at home with us. If we ever succeeded in this way of living, we would perhaps never meet anyone, however far gone in error, without effecting a change for the better. Blessed Pierre Favre was known precisely for such surprisingly wonderful encounters as November-December 2001 Dominic ¯ Unsus~ected Mission he spoke about God without boring or annoying anyone, and so was lauded by Ignatius himself as one who could draw the water of grace from hardened souls. For those who would learn from him, here is a little precious lesson that he confided in a letter to a friend: In the first place., anyone who desires to be serviceable to heretics of the present age should hold them in great affection, . . . putting out of his heart all thoughts and feelings that tend to their discredit. The next thing he must do is win their goodwill and love by friendly dealings and converse on matters about which there is no difference between us, taking care to avoid all controversial subjects that lead to bickering and mutual recriminations. The things that unite us ought to be the first ground of our approach, not the things that keep us apart?~ Scriptural Suggestiveness Speaking about his spiritual discipleship, Ignatius confided that he was taught by God as a child by his master. In sharing his spiritual knowledge with others, however, he used theological and scriptural ideas and language, as in evident in his Spiritual Exercises. The question arises, then, whether there are scriptural indications behind his idea of conversational mission? Rescued by Jesus for Abba-God, Ignatius bums with desire to follow suit: looking for ways to edify and help his neighbors, he discovers that spiritual conversation significantly serves that purpose. Advocating this practice expressly and officially in the Jesuit Constitutions, he advances this reason: "The Lord has given care of his neighbor to everyone."~2 There seems to be reference to Sirach 17:12 or 17:14b and Luke 10:25-37, and certain other passages have a bearing on his divinely favored understanding of the mission of conversation. One is: "Proclaim the message; be persistent when the time is favorable or unfavorable; convince, rebuke, and encourage, with the utmost patience in teaching" (2 Tm 4:2). Is there much in common between proclaiming and conversing? Proclaiming is the activity which is described by the Greek verb kerussein here in 2 Timothy. Elsewhere in the New Testament, the " leprous man and the demoniac who were healed by Jesus, and the friends who witnessed Jesus' healing of the deaf and dumb man, are later "proclaiming" the blessing they received. Obviously, their proclaiming cannot be anything other than simply and Review for Religious enthusiastically telling people everywhere about their good fortune (Mk 1:45; 5:20; 7:36). This would have been conversation, involving relatively few people here and there--particularly impressive ahd contagious conversation, to be sure, but conversation nonetheless. Does the same sense hold when kerussein is used to denote the proclaiming activity of Jesus?13 Does kerussein have the same connotation of conversation here too? It does, for the following reason. Jesus himself presents his characteristic way of mission in terms of eating and drinking, while contrasting himself with his predecessor (Mt 11:19). In so doing he does not simply distinguish his way as the path of enjoyment or pleasure as opposed to the other's ascetical approach; but rather reveals himself in his mission as one who welcomes and enjoys and also extends fellowship with people, not of a class, but of all classes, brushing aside all prevalent social and religious taboos. So as he honors meal invitations--whether from Pharisees like Simon, tax collectors like Levi, friends like Martha, Mary, and Lazarus, or the hosts of wedding celebrations as at Cana, he in ~rn welcomes and plays host not only to his disciples but also--something that escapes people's attention--to public sinners and to social outcasts like the poor, the crippled, and the blind. If table companionship, being a guest or a kind of host, is characteristic of his ministry, it is not, as the Pharisees judge, by way of being a glutton and a drunkard, but of doing what goes with moderate eating and drinking, that is, having a conversation. C.S. Lewis remark, "The table is from time immemorial the place for talk." 14 This was particularly the case at feasts or parties that Jesus went to, with people reclining at table and engaging in prolonged conversation, valuing it more than food and drink.Is And, if a rabbi like Jesus is the chief guest, he has an excellent opportunity to cast his pearls26 Jesus makes use of such occasions to meet and converse with people at leisure and at length about what they miss and long for in life.17 When Jesus sends his disciples on their mission, he wants them to do no more than what they have seen him doing (Mk 3:14; 6:12). He bids them stay in the houses where they are welcome, in accordance with the sacred duty of hospitality in the East; there, during mealtime and at other times, they are sure to find Is there much in common between proclaiming and conversing? November-December 2001 Dominic ¯ Unsuspected Mission opportunities for spiritual conversation. No matter how variously mission was carried on in the early church, kerussein in the sense explained above was surely part of the picture. It is interesting and revealing that, like his Master, Peter was accused of eating with those outside his Jewish fold. He was doing what he had seen Jesus doing, namely, conversing with those at table, sharing with them the word of God, and bringing them graces of the kingdom of Abba-God. And Paul too, despite the popular impression of him as addressing small and large crowds, no doubt employed the conversational mode of mission, especially towards the end during his two years of semicaptivity at Rome, as Luke's use of the word kerussein at the conclusion of Acts seems to suggest. The Practice of Unobtrusive Missioners The conversational mission, as traced above, is not something apart from life, but is very much part of it. One may find this confirmed in St. Paul's general exhortation: "Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly; teach and admonish one another in all wisdom" (Col 3:16). Though Ignatius specialized in the art of the conversational word and trained his Jesuit companions in it, one should not consider it something only for initiates.~s There can be no doubt that ordinary Christians in all times and climes have, like Ignatius in the first flush of his conversion, taken spontaneously to the conversational mission, and with tangible results. Their names have not come down to us, but they are in the company of the little Hebrew servant girl whose brief remark led Naaman the Syrian to find the true, unseen God (2 K 5:1-19). Describing the (Protestant Christian) mission that flourished in the mid 19th century among the Telugus in Andhra, South India, Rajaiah D. Paul can say: "From the very beginning of the movement., the work of evangelization was carried on by the infant native church itself, commencing with one individual and then extending, by natural and inevitable growth, like that of a living tree . The people followed much their own impulses . The quiet conversation when visiting friends and relations, the zealous defense of the truth when Christianity was assailed by others, the simple enunciation of belief when a reason for the hope that is in them was demanded; these, accompanied by a life consistent with the demands of the new religion, were what Review for Religious produced fruit in fresh accessions to Christianity." ~9 Reflecting on such experience of mission, which is perhaps more common than many suspect, one may discern an interplay of Christian fecundity and mission. The word fecundity, incidentally, may not be in common parlance now; but, as Henri Nouwen said, "it is a word worth reclaiming, for it can put us in touch with our deepest human potential to bring forth life"2° even in the ordinary circumstances of life. He tells a story of a bereaved South American mother. After celebrating Mass in memory of her young son killed in a tragic accident, he tried to condole with her. Caught up, however, with his own sorrow for her, he was not looking at her and not listening to her invitation to come home and have a meal with the family. Sensing this, the woman went closer to him and spoke to him gently, looking into his eyes: "Don't be so depressed, Father. Don't you know that God loves our Antonio, that God gave him to us for a few years and now wants to bring him to heaven? We are grateful that he was with us and we are grateful too that he can now be with God forever. We are grateful to you also. God loves us all and cares for us all.''21 One of the most dramatic and recent exponents of spiritual conversation is the North American woman named Peace Pilgrim. The Wise Choice of Celebrated Missioners Besides these anonymous but locally fecund missioners, there are celebrities in the international scene, like Frank Buchman (1879-1961), who made the most of spiritual conversation. For instance, along with swaying groups and governments by his moral authority as founder of the then quite active movement called Moral Re-Armament, Buchman also converted and gave life to all sorts of religious or secular-minded people by his individual conversations and dealings with them, and he inspired them to do likewise. A story is told of his stay at a hotel in Milan a few months before he died: "There were three barmen at the hotel. Frank Buchman did not buy drink from them. He went into their bar and gave them the bread of life. They and their families all found November-December 2001 Dominic ¯ Unsuspected Mission something new from their friendship with him. One of then said of him, 'Dr. Buchman is different from most of the people I see. We have cleaned things up here since he came. Most of the leaders of Italy come to this bar sooner or later. The Foreign Minister was here the other day. He was so interested in what we told him about Buchman that he almost forgot his drink.'''22 One of the most dramatic and recent exponents of spiritual conversation is the North American woman named Peace Pilgrim (1908-1981). Not a Christian, she described herself as a religions woman with a vision of peace for the world. Keeping to her self-chosen double-barreled name, she committed herself to walking prayerfully as a pilgrim among people, eager to meet them and talk to them about the chances for peace. For this purpose she sported a short tunic with "Peace Pilgrim" in front and "25,000 Miles on Foot for Peace" on the back; she succeeded in drawing people into engaging conversations on the possibilities of peace in the modern world. To her pleasant surprise, she found the general response positive, with either a lively curiosity or a genuine interest in peace efforts. Her humble mission, basically human and Christian, touched people's hearts and even became a media phenomenon. This is how she recalls its beginning: "The birthplace of the pilgrimage was at the Tournament of Roses parade in Pasadena, California. I walked ahead along the line of the march, talking to people and handing out peace messages, and noticing that the holiday spirit did not lessen the genuine interest in peace. When I had gone about halfway, a policeman put his hand on my shoulder and I thought he was going to tell me to get off the line of the march. Instead he said, 'What we need is thousands like you.'''23 Her personal encounters soon became media events spreading her message of peace. What began fruitfully on 1 January 1953 continued with greater and greater effectiveness till her death in 1981 during her seventh talking pilgrimage. The Like Choice in India Ignatius, too, began his mission as an obscure pilgrim on the move. Thinking, as an Indian, of the pilgrim Ignatius and others before and after him in the Christian world, I cannot but admire the sureness of their spiritual instinct, which many Indians have as well. India, too, is an ancient land of pilgrims going on regular Review for Religious pilgrimages, besides, of course, the lifelong pilgrims who keep moving across the length and breadth of the country or stay put in a monastery (math) or in a forest area. It is pleasant to recall that, as Peace Pilgrim was exercising her newfound permanent mission in the American world, two (Catholic) Christians--Joseph Thambi in Andhra Pradesh and Peter Reddy (a convert from Hinduism through Lutheranism) ir~ Tamil Nadu--were living in India a life much like that of the sannyasis, going about and sharing their spiritual pleasure and treasure with others who came their way. Even before them Sadhu Sunder Singh of Punjab, a Sikh-turned-(Anglican) Christian, had blazed a sannyasi kind of mission trail as early as 1908.24 Part of "Vie Voyag~re" However unusual and surprising their vocation may have been, the personalities mentioned above knew how to exercise their mission in ways not only unusual but most ordinary. They used the ordinary human capacity of conversation to excite and evoke spiritual awareness in people. Such spiritual talk, being part of normal sofiial intercourse, can and ought to thrive among Christians anywhere; all they need is a good measure of the Christian spirit of people on pilgrimage (Heb 3:12-4:11; 11:8-16). This was the sure but unforeseen way by which even the risen Jesus, making his return pilgrimage to his Abba-Father, reached out to his lost or fallen disciples and sent them on their new mission. Who has not enjoyed the narratives of his accosting them, drawing them to speak to him from their heart, and then with inspiriting w~rds arousing their drooping spirits for mission? It is up to us, partners in a holy heavenly calling, to keep our eyes on Jesus and, thus encouraged, to encourage one another day after day on our mission journey, a journey at once inward and heavenward (Heb 3:1, 13). Such was characteristically the vie voyagkre or missionary life of Mary, too, whom Marguerite Bourgeoys (1620-1700), the foundress of the Congregation de Notre-Dame de Montreal, contemplated as the model of conversation with others. After composing my own article, I learned this from Mary Anne Foley's recent article.25 Because of the reported affinity of her spirituality with the lgnatian variety, I suspect that the Sisters of Notre-Dame may well have more to say about Marguerite's conversational mission, adding to what I, have said about Ignatius's. November-December 2001 Dominic ¯ Unsuspected Mission Notes t St. Ignatius of Loyola, The Constitutions of the Society of Jesns, trans. George E. Ganss SJ (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1970), p. 283, no. [648]. 2 See Thomas H. Clancy SJ, The Conversational Word of God (Anand, India: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, 1978), pp. 59, 63. 3 So Schurhammer, Francis Xavier, Vol. 1, as in Clancy, The Conversational Word of God, p. 11. ~ See Clancy, Conversational Word, p. 9. 5 William Barclay, The Letters to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon (Bangalore: Theological Publications in India, 1990), p. 127. 6 In an exhortation Jer6nimo Nadal shares what he has learned about this from Ignatius. See Clancy, Conversational Word,~pp. 53-54. 7 St. Ignatius, Constitutions, pp. 277, 332-333, nos. [624d] and [814]. s Kahlil Gibran, The Prophet (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1976), p. 72. 9 See St. Ignatius, Constitutions, pp. 113,283, nos. [115] and [650]. l0 See Clancy, Conversational Word, pp. 53, 65. I I See Clancy, Conversational Word, pp. 20-21. 12 St. Ignatius, Constitutions, p. 113, no. [115]. ~3 See Lucien Legrand, Mission in the Bible (Pune, India: Ishvani Publication, 1992), p. 60. ~4 C.S. Lewis, The Four Loves (Glasgow: Collins Fount Paperbacks, 1977), p. 91. t5 See Albert Nolan, Jesus before Christianity (London: Darton, LongTnan, and Todd, 1977), p. 38. t6 See William Barclay, The Gospel of Luke (Bangalore, India: Theological Publications in India, 1975), p. 94. ~7 The objection that Jesus' table talk does not qualify to be kerussein since it lacks the usual fanfare of publicity of the kerux or royal herald can be met by remarking that Jesus, being the herald of the compassionate God, does not carry himself like the heralds of proud earthly rulers. 's See William Barclay, The Letters to Pbilippians. Colossians, and Thessalonians (Bangalore: Theological Publications in India, 1975), p. 126. ~9 Cecil Hargreaves, Asian Christian Thinking (Delhi: ISPCK, 1979), p. 97. 20 Henri J.M. Nouwen, In the House of the Lord (London: Darton, Longrnan, and Todd, 1986), p. 33. 2~ Nouwen, House, p. 49. 22 Peter Howard, Frank Buchman's Secret (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1962), p. 2. Review for Religious 23 Peace Pilgrim, compiled by some of her friends (Santa Fe, New Mexico: Ocean Tree Books, 1994), p. 27. 24 See P.A. Augustine, "On a Pilgrimage to Rampur," Vidyajyoti Journal, March 2001, pp. 205-213. ~s See Mary Anne Foley CND, "Spirituality for Mission: Marguerite Bourgeoys and the Ignatian Tradition," Review for Religious 60, no. 1 (lanuary-February 2001): 53-57. Straggler Because he was youngest, his gift ranked least among the others, last of the lambing. But somewhere between the start of his journey and its final stretch he'd lost the creature, himself lost as well. Then he followed the star, as told, so stumbled upon the stable by accident, or design, call it what you will. Afraid, empty-handed, embarrassed, yet drawn to the manger, he knelt, close as a whisper. "I lost my gift." The Babe's mother, softly, "No, child, yours is best of all." Leonard Cochran OP November-December 2001 MARIE BEHA On the Seventh Day God Rested spiritual directions Maybe God rested (Gn 2:3), but we cannot. God could afford to rest; after all, creation was finished and "it was very good," but we rarely experience the luxury of seeing our work completed or of feeling satisfied with it. So we find Sabbath observance hard, whether it is the day of rest at the end of our work week or those mini- Sabbaths that occur naturally in our lives. Our tendency to fill all these times makes them anything but restful, even though it seems that resting should be at the heart of Sabbath observance, our own as well as God's. Sabbath Fillers Mmost any "thing" will do to fill up Sabbath time and minimize rest: work left over from the previous week, or getting ahead on the week to come. Fun and games can keep us busy. "Good works," everything from returning phone calls (or catching up with email, as though that were possible) to a frantic round of visiting sick relatives or neighbors, fill in the hours. Even an overload of required worship can make Sabbath more a burden than a rest. Marie Beha OSC writes from the Monastery of St. Clare; 1916 North Pleasantburg Drive; Greenville, South Carolina 29609. Revie'w for Religious So, you ask, what is a person to do? The problem with all of the above is not with the what but with the why and bow of our doing. The need for accomplishment that motivates us is revealed in the satisfied but weary sigh that accompanies our Sunday evening summation: "I really got a lot done this weekend" or the equally tired but dissatisfied confession "My to-do list is as long as ever." Why are we so driven to do? Too often we fill our days, including our Sundays, to fill ourselves. No wonder there are never enough hours in the week. "Resting" risks having to face the reveal-ing silence, the emptiness inside. So we hurry on, stuffing every day, including the Sabbath, with self-satisfying work. Even our worship can be performance oriented. What does "We had such a good liturgy this morning!" really mean? Are our criteria the spirited music, the well-delivered homily, and the smooth flow of the service--or being moved to heartfelt prayer and challenged to genuine interior conversion? Hopefully, the music and the homily prepare the way for "worship in spirit and truth" On 4:24), but they may simply leave us entertained and content. Worship can become crowded as though more equals better. When that is the case, we can hardly expect to "rest secure" (Ps 16:9). Nor can we if haste to have it finished clocks our obser-vance. Shortening periods of silence in order to get through our quota of prayers is anything but worshipful. The pace of our performance, in liturgy or elsewhere, may also keep us "worried and distracted by many things" (Lk 10:41). We are still meeting deadlines, even when being together is itself the goal. Family time has to be scheduled with the precision of airport takeoffs and land-ings, surface activity substituting for person.al relationships. Though we are together, we do not allow ourselves opportunity to really enjoy each other, much less become intimate. Scheduling every moment, hurrying through one activity to begin the next before the first is really completed, all adds up to workday pressure. Though we are weary, it seems we cannot stop or slow down. Our attempts at relaxation only add more stress. Even our sleeping late is restless. So we come to the end of our Sabbath lacking any sense of re-creation. The motivation for such crowding and overscheduling of even leisure time has a lot to do with our self-image, Which stems from our deeply felt need to see ourselves as creative achievers. God has no such need and so can rest, and asks us to begin to do the same. November-December 2001 Beha ¯ On the Seventh Day God Rested Becoming a Sabbath People But you say, "I know all this, know it too well. What I don't understand is howto keep the Sabbath holy" (Dr 5:12). Rather than insisting on utterly severe limitations of activity on the Sabbath, as some Pharisees in the Gospels seem to have done, our recent Catechism (§2185) says nothing about "servile work"; it simply says we should "refrain from . . . work or activities that hinder the worship owed to God, the joy proper to the Lord's Day, the performance of the works of mercy, and the appropriate relax-ation of mind and body." Especially for the many of us who do almost no manual (or "servile") work on weekdays, spading in the garden may be a wonderful thing to do on Sundays. Churchgoing is not supposed to be the only activity that makes the seventh day special, though some neglect even this. For those who do partic-ipate in Sunday worship, however, it may become just one more item packed into a hectic weekend schedule. After it, we may feel permitted to spend the remainder of the day on ourselves--and then squander it on hecticness that neither praises God nor refreshes us. And that is precisely the problem with much of our Sabbath observance. This is God's day. Like God, we are to work most days at cre-ating this world, making a garden of it, if you will. But also, like God, we are to rest from our labor one day and so gain something of the divine perspective. Work is meant to predominate since this is the way our world takes form and shape--and we ourselves are likewise formed by that very shaping. Through work we become what we are meant to be: responsible cocreators of this beautiful world of ours. Made from this earth, we are called to care for it, to be nourished by it, and in the end to return to it. But there is more to our human vocation than this. Though made from the earth, of the earth, we are ultimately from and for God. Sabbath observance rhythmically registers this reality of human existence in our lives. Between this week's labor and the next, we stop and look up. Like God, we rest. Although our Sabbath observance is brief and limited, it is there to prevent our being worn down by the activity needed to work out our salvation. Sabbath prepares us for an eternal rest when our work will be complete and our being-with-God just begun. The original commandment, "Keep holy the Sabbath," is the third commandment, after those forbidding worship of false gods and taking God's name in vain, All three put us in the context of Review for Religious God's original covenant with his chosen people. Observing these commandments is our covenantal response. More than moral law, the Sabbath describes a relationship. Since we are God's people, we need to be holy as God is holy, working and resting as God does. Observing the Sabbath forms us into the divine image, helping us realize our identity as individuals and as a people. Why did God rest on the seventh day? To enjoy the goodness of that wondrous creation. We do the same. Enjoyment, part of our human capacity for contemplation, moves us beyond the every-day criteria of use and usefulness. All too often, when we experience something new, our question "What's this?" is followed at once by "What's it good for?" Sabbath offers us a respite from such a utilitarian viewpoint; it gives us an opportunity to affirm reality as good in itself. We receive it as a divine gift, even before we discover whether if fits into our schema of things. We appreciate its beauty, even if it is not to our taste. We accept its truth without need to compre-hend, much less control, its mystery. Besides deepening our capacity for appreciation, Sabbath leisure forms us into a free people. Originally a way for the Jewish people to celebrate their liberation from Egypt's oppres-sion, it can open us to similar possibilities. We are not meant to be slave laborers, nor to enslave others to relentless productivity. Stepping back from what we do six days a week enables us to see where we are oppressed, where we may be oppressors. In the leisure that this seventh day provides, we are free to ask ourselves what we would like to do if we had the time. What would re-create us? No matter if our answers would require more demanding activity than our everyday work; perhaps that is what we would find renewing. After being tied all week to a desk, we may really enjoy discovering and using our bodies at least one day a week. Professionals may relax in an activity that allows them the leisure to be rank amateurs, while people whose everyday is dull or dreary discover their potential as "professional" chefs or musicians. Seeing each other in more creative ways keeps us open to the surprises that lie untapped in the hearts of us all. Someone who lacks both time and talent for learning to play music well can still More than moral law, the Sabbath describes a relationship. November-December 2001 Beha ¯ On the Seventh Day God Re, ted enjoy the creativity of a less-than-professional performance. Attempting portrait painting may not produce a recognizable like-ness, much less something that can be sold, yet it can fill someone's need for self-expression. Sabbath Free Time The Sabbath also provides us with "free time," allowing us to "waste" some of it. For productive Americans the mere phrase "wasting time" sounds vaguely immoral, even though time is a giJ~. We cannot earn even a single additional day of life, nor are we billed for the ones we have received. Sabbath observance opens us to the possibility of"doing nothing." Even a brief period given over to deliberate inactivity can, if nothing else, show us how enslaved we have become to filling time. When not doing some-thing useful, we feel threatened by nonexistence: what are we good for? Doing nothing translates readily into being nothing; that is why it is painful, at least at first. But, with patient practice and a willingness to go below surface unease, we can discover a deepening quiet underneath all our activity. As with a swiftly moving river, there is a silence inside that is full of life and awaits the exploration of our doing nothing. Enjoying what is, being free to do something nonproductive that in fact re-creates us, can be forms of Sabbath worship for us creatures as we learn who we are and why we were made. Personal relationships require a certain spaciousness, and this is true of our friendship with God. On the Sabbath we and God spend time together. Sometimes we talk or argue, sometimes we are simply together in comfortable or uncomfortable silence, but we are together. That is what matters. That is the heart of any obser-vance of the Sabbath. And those observances are multiple. Seventh-day observance is paradigmatic but not exhaustive. We can expand one day to a week of R and R: rest, recuperation, or retreat. Or, and this is more common, we can compress Sabbath-like observances to take advantage of moments of free time that open up in any day or that we build into it. The former include snippets of time we often vainly fret away: when the elevator takes forever to arrive, when the answering machine advises us to "hold" until the "next available operator" responds, or when the receptionist explains that "the doctor is running l~te today." Also, we can choose to sit quietly Review for Religious on the side of our bed when we first awaken, we can stretch quietly during a long morning at the computer, we can take a breath of morning air as we walk to the car. All of these can be pieces of Sabbath rest. They can break into our everydayness, much as seventh days interrupt the steady pace of work weeks. They can refresh us. Or they can be uneasy gaps we hasten to fill with nervous activity. How else explain doodling on telephone pads, tapping our feet, consulting our watch at fifteen-second intervals, or rushing our moments of transition. Using Sabbath Leisure Well Taking advantage of all the Sabbath times in our lives requires creative discipline. One suggestion: that we follow the traffic direc-tive "Be prepared to stop." Be ready to allow the seventh day--and the small intervals that force themselves into our best-planned days-- to evoke in us a willingness to surrender to something, to Someone, beyond our own self-interest. Willingness to set our own interests aside opens us to the more of mystery. The capacity for such transcendence demands life-long discipline, a way of living that includes. Sabbath observance. Preparation for Sunday's resting in the Lord begins when Saturday makes some change in our everyday routine. Though the day itself may well be packed full, it can hold its own refreshment, the peace and joy of taking care of things we had to put off earlier in the week. The danger is that "things to do" can take on a life of their own and invade our Sabbath time. Setting some time limits and then prioritizing what most needs to be done is one way of extending Sabbath observance to the vigil. Another is to include in this day of preparation something we like to do, something we look forward to doing: perhaps a special supper menu, a phone visit with a friend, a more leisurely bath, some quiet time before going to bed. The endless possibilities need only be tailored to our own preference. Fruitful observance of the Sabbath itself, like the great com-mandments of loving God, neighbor, and self, revolves around worship, reaching out to others, and re-creative leisure. As we Wil,tingness to set our own interests aside opens us to the more of mystery. November-December 2001 Beba * On the Seventh Da~ God Rested know only too well, these will not happen unless we are prepared to make them happen. Time for worship is probably the easiest of these to schedule, but we still need careful planning lest we end up in such a rush that we spend most of the service becoming quiet enough to worship. Of course, if some truly unforeseen great need comes into our life, we worship by responding to that need. But on most weekends we can prepare for worship at least as carefully as we would for any other important appointment. If a scheduled meeting with an employer requires some attention to appearance and promptness and some thought preparation, worship of our God surely merits the same. Once the time for communal worship has been determined, the rest of the day can revolve around it. How begin our Sabbath day in such a way as to open our heart more fully to God? A slower start, a long shower, a more leisurely breakfast, not only make this day special but also quiet our restlessness, enabling us to be more present in worship. Getting outside for some early morning exercise can do the same, while some silent reflection may help others to change pace and be ready for prayer. Getting to church in ample time seems a necessity if weekday patterns are to be converted into Sabbath stillness. Letting the drivenness, competition, and workday worry fall away prepares our heads as well as our hearts to "hear the word of the Lord" (Is 1:10). Even an unsuccessful effort to attain inner peace and quiet is a form of worship. We are trying to give God's time back to God. Coming into God's presence along with others reminds us that all our worship is communal. We join with others, not only those with whom we immediately share sacred space this week, but all the people of God gathered for worship, observing their Sabbaths on Friday, Saturday, Sunday. Sons and daughters of God, we are all children of Abraham as well, our core unity greater than our all too apparent diversity. Gathering in a common worship space lets us take these theological realities and translate them into practical charity. What begins with the community of worship can flow out to a much wider world or can be focused on care of a family member or a needy neighbor next door. Because we do this together, our charity becomes expansive and yet not abstract. We are reminded of needs that we ourselves may never have experienced or been exposed to, and we are challenged not to forget the small service Review for Religious that has no glamour and wins no notice. In both cases we are stretched beyond ourselves, an attitude basic to any true worship. A third element in our Sabbath observance is leisure, some rest, an opportunity to be made new in re-creation. Unless given some thought, all our Sabbath time can disappear in the more evi-dent good works of prayer and care for others. But a leisure that renews us is basic to true love of God and of others. Something we really enjoy needs to be included in our Sabbath observance if we are to be faithful to a Creator God who first saw that everything was good and then rested in that joy. So Sabbath observance includes time to just be, to play in the world, to enjoy the good-ness that God has made. Our rest is worshipful because it is filled with the truth that this is God's world wrapped in God's care. Sabbath beyond the Sabbath Other Sabbaths beyond seventh-day observance are three-day weekends, full weeks of retreat, and full sabbaticals every seventh year. Smaller Sabbaths can occur at intervals on ordinary days. All of these can contribute to forming us into people of the Sabbath, people who are free and not slaves to what we do. We are wor-shipers in what we do for God, for others, and even for ourselves. Our day can begin with a personal offering of our day to God along with our getting out of bed. It can end with a night prayer that is part of our stretching out in bed and getting comfortable for sleep. What is important is a habit of praying that, over time, becomes worshipful living. Willingness to expose ourselves to worldwide concerns is part of our everyday Sabbath observance. Ordinary caring for others on ordinary days opens our hearts, making more room for God in our life as we do on our Sundays. Sabbath observance is not a narrowing of our lives. It is a grand and glorious expansion that is an image of eternity. -50! November-December 2001 DONALD MACDONALD Where Your Heart Is Adrug pusher in prison said that he well understood the evil effects of drugs, but if he left prison tomorrow the temptation to go back to drugs would be irresistible. He knew of no other way where so much money could be made so easily. He had neith'er the skills nor the connections to obtain a similar lifestyle any other way. A young merchant seaman on shore leave in his home port said that, each rime he d6cked and met his friends, he noticed that their lifestyles had progressed to levels.he could never hope to reach, no matter how hard he worked. They too dealt in drugs. For these and others, the attraction of a lifestyle for self and family funded by illicit drugs almost overwhelmed the power of reason, community feeling, or the gospel to offer something better. Famine of God's Word Many people growing up in our postmodern climate assume that there is no such thing as objective truth; that, even if there is, it is beyond our reach. There was a time when people assumed that reason ruled, or at least could provide us with a guide to life for the benefit of all. Two world wars later, the cruelty of various civil wars and the unavoidable evidence of global human suffering have shown that confidence in reason alone is misplaced. Even the rocketing progress of technology, with its potential for Donald Macdonald SMM writes again from Montfort House; Darnley Road; Barrhead, Glasgow; G78 1TA Scotland, U.K. Review for Religious good, has a number of self-destruct buttons, one or other of which someone is sure to press. The many forms of the media offer access to much that is good, but may also expose us to what is bad or sadly deficient. Western Christians, for example, are aware that a good many writers and producers of television seem to hold that any reverent mention of God is nonsense, and that it is open season for attack-ing the Catholic Church. There are many occasions for people, especially young people, to be misled or bewildered. If this assess-ment is accurate, that does not mean that people cannot avoid being hypnotized or depressed by it all. There is a blunt alterna-tive in the invitation to accept the challenge to "repent and to believe in the gospel" (Mk 1:15). It is crucial that those blessed with the gift of faith understand this as a viable alternative or, better, that, with the confidence of the early church, they give themselves to it as "The Way." ¯ Otherwise, time and energy will be wasted in a possibly dispirited response to what are judged to be the ills of society. To react forever and not initiate risks clouding Ourselves in perpetual negativity. The seemingly omnipotent secular battalions set the agenda, and Christians hurry to set some defenses up, almost breathless in a sadly polluted atmosphere. "Repent".has a 19th-century ring to it and, on that assump-tion, may be dismissed by those who thoroughly accept contem-porary culture. It is, in fact, a call to change our minds, to turn from being self-centered, to open ourselves to the will and guidance of God. It is a dynamic challenge, not a static ruefulness, and it offers a new perspective on life. It may so take hold of us that we become "a living sacrifice," giving ourselves completely to God in response to the wonder of God giving himself to us in Christ (see Rm 12:1-2). Whether it be "us" or "them," Christian tradition recognizes the seed of sin in everyone. It is not the whole picture, but it has its effect on human behavior. Cardinal Newman found "the being of God [to be] as certain to me as the certainty of my own existence." Regarding the society of his day, he said, "There I see a sight which fills me with unspeakable distress., the defeat of good, the success of evil, physical pain, mental anguish, the preva-lence and intensity of sin, the pervading idolatries, the corrup-tions, the dreary hopeless irreligion . [All of this] inflicts upon the mind the sense of a profound mystery, which is absolutely November-December 2001 Macdonald ¯ Where Your Heart Is beyond human solution . Either there is no Creator, or this living society., is in a true sense discarded from his presence." 1 Each category he mentions can be documented today--and perhaps the personal distress, too. Newman famously concluded that, "if there be a God, since there is a God, the human race is implicated in some terrible aboriginal calamity. It is out of joint with the purposes of its Creator.''2 The call to "repent and to believe" is the way out of this morass. "Bad religion" will not do it, and numbers of people have been hurt by it. But before so much hurt and "the dreary hopeless irreligion," with its miasmic presence stunting so much growth, the authentic way of Jesus Christ can guide us. This is the path religious walk on the jour-ney to God. The challenge is as insistent today as it was for the 1st or the 19th century; our century, like earlier ones, needs to hear the Good News. Pope John Paul said recently: "Even in countries evan-gelized many centuries ago, the reality of a 'Christian society' which . . . measured itself explicitly on gospel values is now gone. Today we must courageously face a situation which is becoming increasingly diversified and demanding" (§40).3 The church und.erstandably tries to come to terms with chang-ing structures in the contemporary world. Religious are often sad-dled with plant and too few personnel. Time and energy go into dismantling the structures, with pain to people and religious who have grown up seeing them as part of themselves. For many, this appears a sunset with nothing but darkness ahead to bury a once lively hope. But what if it indicates sunrise and the possibility of a graced opportunity to walk in newness of life, alive to God in Christ Jesus? Approach the Word To be open to thatl "we must rekindle in ourselves the impetus of the beginnings and allow ourselves to be filled with the ardor of the apostolic preaching" (§40). The zeal forming the church in the beginning came from the experienced presence of the Spirit of our risen Loi-d. To view the contemporary from within that perspective is to find ourselves with Someone who faced all that life could do to him, including crucifixion in his mother's presence, and who is alive with us today. Faced by contemporary relativism in a consequently fragmented society, Christians and Review for Religious especially religious would have so much more to offer, and so much more for themselves to believe in, if they realized that "holiness, a message that convinces without need for words, is the living reflection of the face of Christ" (§7). Familiarity with the authen-tic Jesus allows us to reflect him almost intuitively, as our faith is rekindled by who we see in the Gospel. It may then be impossible not to want to share what we have seen and heard. A glance at the Lukan Jerusalem journey (Lk 9:51-19:28) may help us glimpse something of the world of the early church, where the odds against Christians con-tin- uing to exist and influence society were immeasurably greater than anything we face. St. Luke's account begins with a thrice-repeated warning to consider where accompa-nying Jesus may lead, since "[Jesus] set his face to go to Jerusalem" and Samaritan villagers refused him hospitality "because his face was set toward Jerusalem" (9:51, 53). This is serious, not a day trip to the beach. The ostensibly encouraging "I will follow you wherever you go" (9:57) was not met with open arms by Jesus, but by a sharp warning to the individual to examine every syllable and consider what he meant. Does he really intend to volunteer for the same insecurity as his Leader, "the Son of Man [with] nowhere to lay his head" (9:58)? To come with Jesus may mean finding himself left like a leaf in a gutter--does he really want that? Another was bluntly told that commitment to Jesus comes before all family obligations: "Let the dead bury their own dead. ¯ . . You go and proclaim the kingdom of God" (9:60). Another would-be follower said he Would come, "but let me first say farewell to those at my home" (9:61). Jesus would leave by the time he came back, he was told; come now or not at all. The call is for mature persons who, once they have put hand to the 'plow, never look back. The humane pastoral concern of the Lukan Gospel is evident here in view of what happened at journey's end. No doubt this pattern was repeated time and again in the early years of the church. St. Luke's experience led him to believe that, while attrac-tion to Jesus is wonderful, it must include a realistic appraisal of what this means. We need to face ourselves as we face Christ; we Fami!iarity with the authentic Jesus allows us to reflect him almost intuitively. November-December 2001 Macdonald ¯ Where Your Heart Is must engage in true discernment. If Jesus himself "set his face," steeling himself to stay at one with his Father's will, would-be fol- ¯ lowers can do no less on the journey, unless they come as specta-tors and not companions. Fidelity to God's will as the guide to life is a daily and life-long challenge: "I must go on my way today and tomorrow and the day following, for it cannot be that a prophet should perish outside Jerusalem" (13:33). Jesus had to face his greatest challenge, one that would cost him his life. He did so after thoughtful reflec-tion, not as a witless victim. In the light of experience, he honestly asks no less of us. Later on the journey, at a time when "large crowds were traveling with him" (14:25), the message is reinforced as Jesus asks them why they are there: "Whoever comes to me and does not hate father arid mother, wife and children, brothers and sisters, yes, and even life itself, cannot be my disciple" (14:25-26). Even while noting that Hebrew has no word for prefer, we get the point. Every natural and rational tie must take second place to the gift of myself to Christ. This is not meant to put people off. It asks us to consider seriously what we undertake if we accompany Jesus. We will always have Jesus, but perhaps at the cost of losing much else and, as it may appear, Jesus as we would want him to be. How much are we prepared to pay for that? We are asked to really consider this as we look to give ourselves to the gospel challenge. Our attraction to Jesus has to be constant and compelling if we are to genuinely repent and believe in him. Realistic Lukan pastoral care has Jesus ask yet again for mature thought about what it means to accompany him through life: "Which of you, intending to build a tower, does not first sit down and estimate the cost, to see whether he has enough to complete it? Otherwise . . . not able to finish, all who see it will begin to ridicule him" (14:28-29). A second parable suggests pondering the consequences of going to war with ten thousand against an oppo-nent who has twenty thousand (14:3 i). This reflects the almost unbearable concern of Jesus and the evangelist, who have journeyed together and know the implica-tions of accepting the invitation to come with them. The verses . immediately before and after these challenging parables tell us why: "whoever does not bear his own cross and come after me cannot be my disciple . . . so, therefore, none of you can be my Review for Religious disciple if you do not give up all your possessions" (14:27, 33). The rest is surely silence, with mature prayer, reflection, and advice to help us see where we go from here.4 The Power of the Word Bearing one's cross is both a superb challenge and practical advice in view of the implications of accompanying Jesus. Even at first reading, we pick up the implied heroism, the need for great courage and strength. Yet, on gospel evidence, Jesus' closest disciples display a humanity that we can recognize in ourselves. There is, then, something attainable here. We should not put the challenge on the shelf as an impossible ideal. There is never a suggestion that it is a mistake to accompany Jesus. There must be something superlatively attractive in the per-son of Jesus that enables his disciples to hear such a challenge and actually take it up. The desire to understand how that enablement works is reason for opening our-selves to God's Word in Scripture. This is what was done at the beginning of monastic and reli-gious life. The desert fathers and mothers wanted to know from experience what it meant to leave all for Jesus, to accept the Sermon on the Mount's challenge to live without cares in the freedom promised by the gospel. Scripture helped them make the attempt and persevere. They and their contemporaries saw how Scripture's power could form them into people who have nothing as the world would understand it, yet were themselves rich in the currency of the gospel and able to make others similarly rich. They were truly influential people. The gospel, finding lodging in individual hearts, made for intimacy with God and love for others. As subsequent centuries learned, time given to Scripture, and to the Spirit of our risen Lord found therein, can make abounding love for others available to us too. Disciplined daily reading--allowing the words to register with us, and gently persuading us that we are hearing them for the first time--can transfigure us too. We need such transfiguring to approach a Lukan conclusion: "So, therefore, whoever of you does not renounce all that he has cannot be my disciple" (14:33). Jesus" closest disciples display a humanity that we can recognize in ourselves. November-December 2001 Macdonald ¯ [~here Your Heart Is Nearer our time, that challenge was taken up by Charles de Foucauld, and his life is yet another proof of the transforming power of the word. He took the challenge of the Jerusalem jour-ney to heart. A religious, photocopying his "self-offering," offered me copies to send to friends. The gothic lettering was beautiful, but as I read it I wondered whether I had the courage to keep a copy beside me, much less send one to others. It reads in part: "Father, I abandon myself into your hands. Do with me what-you will. Whatever you may do, I thank you. I am ready for all. I accept all. Let only your will be done in me and in all your creatures. I wish no more than this, O Lord. to surrender myself into your hands without reserve, and with confidence beyond all question-ing, because you are my Father." Here are the terms of acceptance for accompanying Jesus on the journey through life. To invoke the prayer and patronage of such a man in Christ and, if I dare, to keep his self-dedication where I can see it--these things can help me join others on the Jerusalem journey. They can lead me to the sources that fed him. They are necessary in a world where so much competes for my self. Jesus on the Jerusalem journey points out that the heart may not be left empty. Even when all that is evil is forced from the heart, evil may return with immense power and bring "seven other spirits more evil than itself.and the last state of that person is worse thanthe first" (11:26). The evangelists, ~e fathers, Charles de Foucauld, and others can only encourage us to open our hearts to the power that made them mirrors of the gospel. With this shared enthusiasm for God in Christ continually fed by what we see in them, we in turn become faithful members of the company of Jesus. This is not for everyone, but it may be for us. Among the obstacles to accompanying Jesus as sketched in the Jerusalem journey is the risk of having a divided heart. Pressure to back away, to be close but not too close to Jesus, is always .there in one form or another. While it helps to steep ourselves in the gospel and invite the influence of those who clearly live for God alone in Christ, we must also try to live simply and so nourish detachment from everything but God's will. The less clutter around us, the freer are we to give ourselves to what w~ are asked. Often, tO want something is to get it. We get into a car, pick up a phone, write a check, press a key, or ask for it--and presently we have it. This is not true for vast tracts of the world, but it is true for much of it; and, given the chance, most people on every con- Review for Religious tinent seem to want to live like that. Religious professedly "poor in fact and spirit" share that same humanity. Because of this human tendency to acquire, they need constant vigilance, personal disci-pline, and continually renewed motivation in order to accompany Jesus on his gospel journey. Our circumstances need to reflect the authentic gospel challenge. Otherwise, despite our intent the cri-teria offered by the Lukan Jerusalem journey will seem an impos-sible ideal--the sort of ideal someone had in mind when saying archly that, with the Ten Commandments, "as in any examina-tion, only five need be attempted." Without the insight of faith, our postmodern environmental circumstances are likely to keep sug-gesting a "more reasonable" way of life, and we are likely to accept it unthinkingly. The chapel of a religious community, open on Sunday for Mass to a hundred or so people, presented a stark picture during Lent. The crucifix and statues were covered. A large swathe of purple material across the front of the altar ended in a symbolically overturned chalice. The lecterns from where Scripture was read and the gospel preached were engulfed in purple. The branches of a leafless tree reached up and out from its purpled-wrapped trunk. To the visitor it said that for this community Lent really meant something. Something has happened here. For the people wor-shiping here on Sunday, if the words spoken were at one with the setting, they could scarcely be less than disturbing. If, however, the religious community's life were at one with those words and those symbols, people attending would receive sufficient support and encouragement. The chapel inside the house, however, where the community prayed and worshiped with a few people during the week, was rather differe.nt. There was no suggestion of purple, aridity, or stark challenge in the folksy, chatty chapel. It was, in a word, domestic. There was no provision, no place, for a moment of pri-vacy in which individuals might face themselves before God; the chairs around the orange carpet formed a square with the altar, and people spoke and laughed easily across the space. A visitor asked how the community could issue so sharp a statement to people coming on Sunday from the pressures of their postmodern environment, and yet offer so little challenge in the chapel where they themselves were at home. They may have spent the night in prayer, dined on bread and water, and been selfless in serving the poor, but the climate they chose for themselves for November-December 2001 Macdonald * Where Your Heart Is addressed and told to consider whether we can leave everything, even life itself, to accompany Jesus. worship and prayer did not suggest that. The Sunday chapel may have been a liturgical or catechetical visual-aid for others; but, if they were to accompany their Lord to Jerusalem's summit, much more than a public gesture was necessary. It might be a good idea to have a framed copy of Charles de Foucauld's "dedication" in both chapels, but, for us and others to glimpse the simplicity of what he saw, we need to recognize that environment and appro-priate symbols matter, that we must make special efforts to free ourselves from many assumptions of contemporary society. Unless we do this, an easy acceptance of what we see around us in matters of lifestyle, furnishings, and aspirations will inevitably lead us into a certain secularity. Earlier history and the evidence of the last thirty years surely make that point incontrovertible. There can be no objective and globally acceptable standard here, but, for people who think of accepting the blunt challenge of the Jerusalem journey, surroundings do matter. One by one we are addressed and told to consider whether we can leave every-thing, even life itself, to accompany OFle by oFle we are Jesus. As ever, the situation is made plain in the Lukan approach: "Go on your way. I am sending you out like lambs into the midst of wolves. Carry no. purse, no bag, no sandals, and greet no one on the road. What-ever house you enter, first say, 'Peace to this house'" (10:3-5). Our sole security lies in being with Jesus, but, for such security to be ours, we must leave much else on which people around us reasonably rely. To behave differently we must see other than they do. In our dedication to the gospel, we scarcely have time for normal civilities, and yet we frequently offer the gift of peace and expect our words to have effect. We must accompany our risen Lord closely to function like that. Even if we sometimes see bringing some peace as a short-term mission, the effort may still be a weighty burden, and one that is clearly related to the rest of the Jerusalem journey. If our following of Jesus occurs in "the real world" (where being a lamb among wolves argues no future and scarcely any pre-sent), temptations to go through a gap in the hedge for a respite from the effort of keeping close to Jesus will inevitably occur. Lukan pastoral care admits as much: "Whoever denies me before others will be denied before the angels of God" (12:8-9). On arriv-ing in Jerusalem, the disciples collapsed under the pressure and did deny Jesus. In a postmodern world, we too are frail human beings, and the pressure to distance ourselves from him, not least by a more "reasonable" lifestyle, will always be there. To prevent this, we need to know where our real wealth is. "Where your treasure is, there your heart will be also" (12:34). Jesus' answer to the rich young man's question, "What shall I do to inherit eternal life?" left him sad, "for he had great possessions" (18:18, 22) and his heart was not as close to Jesus as he had sup-posed. "Jesus looking at him said, 'How hard it is for those who have riches to enter the kingdom of God. For it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle" (18:24-25). Money and the power it brings opens most doors here on earth, but Jesus makes it unmistakably plain that it cannot buy anyone's way into his company. But for the grace of God, it would perhaps be an insuperable obstacle. Delight in the Word Inviting and challenging, Jesus looks at us too. He wants our company so much that he has risen from a grave to enable us to enter into his kingdom. There is a personal.relationship here. Intimacy with God and living at one with God's will, these are what living life to the full means. Here is human purpose, and our purpose. "Jesus rejoiced in the Holy Spirit and said, 'I thank you, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, because you have hidden these things from the wise and intelligent and have revealed them to infants . All things have been handed over to me by my .Father" (10:21-22). These words are spoken after the disciples' excited return from venturing out among the people supported only by trust in Jesus' word. Now they know from experience something of the possibilities and power of his message. Many others who seem better placed than they to understand do not know what the disciples know. Jesus is ecstatic. "Thrilled with joy in the Holy Spirit," he looks in wonder at these "infants" who were coming to know him and his Father. On our journey you and I ake in the company of our risen Lord; we. are not isolated strangers at a bus stop waiting for something to turn up. We should be full of wonder at who we are November-December 2001 Macdonald ¯ Where Your Heart Is and what we have in Christ, and never take our identity primarily from people lacking the insight of faith. In Christ, who has "given you authority., over all the power of the enemy, and nothing will hurt you" (10:19), Satanic power can be successfully challenged. "Then, turning to the disciples, Jesus said to them privately, 'Blessed are the eyes that see what you see! . . . many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it'" (10:2,3-24). Like John the Baptist, these people, for all their insight, could only prepare for or point to what the disciples were enjoying from within the company of Jesus. To those outside that company, his parables and teaching might be helpful stories to take or leave; but, for the "infants" around Jesus; these words reached both mind and heart and helped form their consciences as guides to life. There is much more for us to see if we "infants" develop genuine receptivity to and then realization of the gift of God in the risen Christ. Insofar as the wonder of that gift is ours, we will have the "stick-to-itive-ness," courage, and conviction to share .it with others on the jour-ney. We know that We are treasured by our risen Lord, and so we come to treasure him. He is where our heart is! For perhaps significant numbers of religious and would-be religious, it is asking too much to make more that a notional con-nection between words then and work now. The biblical word is respected, but even in generally literate societies words do not always communicate in depth, often because there are just too many of them to hold our attention. Yet, to this day in the his-tory of the church and consecrated life, Scripture has had an intrin-sic power which people have felt and which has energized for God some of the greatest evangelical witnesses. A contemporary vade mecum of consecrated life--P~'ta conse-crata-- points to Scripture as "the first source of all Christian spir-ituality." There is undoubtedly a wider awareness of this in recent .decades, but we may have some way to go before all of us have the view that "the primacy of holiness and prayer is inconceivable without a renewed listening to the word of God, . . . a life-giving encounter., which draws from the biblical text the living word which questions, directs, and shapes our lives" (§39). Only some-one like the Holy Father, speaking from experience of that back-ground and also very aware of the contemporary challenge to the gospel, could be convinced that, while "we do not know what the new millennium has in store for us,., we are certain that it is safe Revie't.v for Religious in the hands of Christ." (§35). The Lukan Jerusalem journey, approached from within that mindset, would produce a like conviction. Pope John Paul saw the pilgrims in Rome for Jubilee 2000 as representative of so many others, each individual reflecting "the story of someone whom Christ had met, and who in dialogue with him was setting out again on a journey of hope" (§8). As an older brother, perhaps, on the journey, he has learned from experience that, "if Christ is presented to young people as he really is, they experience him as an answer that is convincing and they can accept his message, even when it is demanding and bears the mark of the cross" (§9). This is why he does not hesitate to challenge and call on them "to make a radical choice of faith and life., a stupen-dous task; to become 'morning watchmen' (Is 21:11-12) at the dawn of the new millennium" (§9). Consecrated people, glimpsing Christ "as he really is" from the Gospel pages, might feel called to respond to that same challenge as they journey together, eager to share their delight in their risen Lord. "Remaining firmly anchored in Scripture, we open ourselves to the action of the Spirit" (§17), and who can say where that may lead us? Notes t John Henry Newman, Apologia pro Vita Sua (Longmans Green, 1890), p. 241. 2 Newman, Apologia, p. 242. 3 John Paul II, Apostolic Letter, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Rome, 6 January 2001. Numbers here and subsequently refer to paragraphs. 4 Walter J. Ciszek sJ, He Leadeth Me, repays rereading for an appre-ciation of faith today. through/be ~do~n! ~nd Cbri~tmo~ t~ b/~6~ing~ of ~oat'~ ~nt~dng into $ia creation in November-December 2001 church and MARIE BRINKMAN Criteria for Change: Women's Ministering to the Body of Christ ministry To search in the past for signs of a viable future for reli-gious women's communities is to reverse the usual order of things, but that is what I intend. I offer a rationale for searching there. I seek, however, not criteria for esti-mating outcomes of change, but rather the foundation made up of sisters' lives which itself takes the measure of other criteria and thus provides the framework for wise discernment. The dawn of a new millennium suggests radical change, much of it underway, yet brings from some quarters hints of probable demise. We know that, for the authors of the many articles and books on the present situation of religious men and women, the good of God's people is the primary concern. And we well know that, if religious communities are to survive, they will do so in response to that people's need and in fidelity to the gospel, particularly its radical counsels. These are any century's religious foundations and the basis for all reform and renewal. But, in the life of religious communities of women, what in particular urges their Marie Brinkman SCL presented this paper at the History of Women Religious Conference at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in June 2001. She is a professor at Saint Mary College; 4100 South Fourth Street; Leavenworth, Kansas 6604-8. Review for Religious continuance? What characteristics should serve as norms for appropriate change, in the face of diminishing numbers, advancing median ages, and increasing opportunities for minis-tering to God's people in lay and secular life? In her hopeful assessment of a third-millennial future for women religious, Jo Ann Kay McNamara observes that sisters from the "young" African and Asian churches "are already in the process of changing their worlds as their foremothers in the West did for so many centuries." And she foresees "a larger global sisterhood" in which religious women of the West will revise their institutions and women of all cultures will devise new forms of rule, commu-nity, and ministry (pp. 643-644). Ways of envisioning and shaping such inevitabilities are what we must seek. In this regard Joel Giallanza csc asserts that "the quality and integrity of religious life as a sign of unity in the church for the future is direcdy related to the quality and integrity which religious life embodies today" (pp. 468-469). That quality and integrity must inform any criteria for discerning constructive change in community and ministry. When communities, particularly apostolic ones, revisit their charism (as Vatican documents on religious life have urged) and when they engage laypersons as associates (communal or profes-sional) in the realization of that charism, even in these charted waters they run risks described by Francis W. Danella OSFS. While believing that "efforts to recapture the spirit of the foundation have been the singularly most hopeful development in religious life since the council" (p. 266), Danella cites a major risk, that of failure to integrate individual needs and community priorities, personal growth and the common good. We might well add that it is a risk rooted in human nature that has become greater in the last three decades. It takes subtle forms that only habitual and rigorous spiritual discernment at every level of decision making and leadership can recognize. Mary Anne Foley CND, in her careful critique of two widely read works of the past decade, Ann Carey's Sisters in Crisis and Quifionez and Turner's Transformation of ,4merican Catholic Sisters, asks for continuing dialogue between the polarized constituencies studied by these authors (pp. 342-357). She acknowledges serious inadequacies attending the documentation of their views, but is convinced that nonetheless the Spirit speaks to us through one another, within our diverse limitations. Her most significant obser- November-December 2001 Brinkman ¯ Criteria for Chan~e The fundamental question before us, I think, is whether personal relationship to God, in its rhythm of continuing call and free response, has taken directions in the lives of religious women so concrete as to be guidelines for the future. vation, I think, follows a statement that Christian men and women have for centuries linked their lives to God by means of vows. She adds: "They have done this not., primarily as a witness to oth-ers, but because God has somehow reached into their lives, and so, in being true to themselves, they structure their lives around their rela-tionship to God" (my emphasis; pp. 351,356). She credits Edward Vacek sJ for the latter concept. Here we draw close to the source of continuity over two thousand years of religious commu-nity life, regardless of what reforms or renewals have attended it. The same source or cause will guarantee its contin-uance throughout another millennium. Michael Himes would call the source a radical poverty, an ultimate dependency that he says is "the key value in the vows" (p. 21). Joan Chittister would call it the ultimate commitment and radical atten-tiveness to the presence of God in every aspect of a vowed life. It is my contention, hardly'unique, that this centrality of God, this fact of personal relationship to God, realized and grasped as the origin and end of all resolve and purpose, and of all consequent rela-tionship and mission, is the efficacious cause of continuing life in religious com-munity. All change and adaptation, all forms of communal living and ministry that may develop, will be tested and must be evaluated by this criterion. But spiritual reality must take sensible form if it is to become a human measure of worth. As adaptations and innovations multiply, so do reports and projections. More significant are potentially prophetic voices that try to discern the Spirit in radical change and the reactions it pro-vokes. Few--scholars and prophets included--would presume to forecast the future with confidence. Some contemplate the end of our life as we have known it, or its evolution into confederations, syneisactic (Greek syneisdgein, to. bring in together) communities of mixed genders and terms of commitment, new monastic/apos- Review for Religious tolic arrangements, or vowed ministry within a church defined in nonhierarchical terms. The fundamental question before us, I think, is whether per-sonal relationship to God, in its rhythm of continuing call and free response, has taken directions in the lives of religious women so concrete as to be guidelines for the future--directions, in fact, so clear as to suggest qualities essential to the continuance and integrity of these women's communities. The limitation of aca-d

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Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/barack-obama-dice-que-ee-uu-debe-revisar-poltica-hacia-cuba_13172695-4 Obama cede a la presión y anuncia cambios en la reforma sanitaria. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-24966051http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/obama-pelea-para-salvar-ley-de-salud-966084.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/14/actualidad/1384448382_108583.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/republicanos-van-contra-obamacare-84873.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/barack-obama-anuncia-concesin-en-reforma-de-salud_13189335-4 El activista que se volvió alcalde de Nueva York. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/perfil-de-bill-de-blasio_13173965-4 Decenas de legisladores demócratas abandonan a Barack Obama Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638677-decenas-de-legisladores-democratas-abandonan-a-barack-obamaAcercamiento entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24965053Hawaii legaliza el matrimonio gay. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/13/content_17101591.htm Polémica en Toronto por los excesos de su alcalde. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/07/21352338-toronto-mayor-rob-ford-considering-rehab-his-lawyer-says?litehttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638982-polemica-en-toronto-por-los-excesos-de-su-alcalde Cambio climático amenaza a especies en Canada. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/13/21441506-climate-change-threatening-polar-bears-in-canada?liteEscándalo de corrupción salpica a la Marina de Estados Unidos. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/corrupcin-en-la-marina-de-estados-unidos_13182955-4 El Senado de EE.UU. aprueba la protección laboral de los gays. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1636513-el-senado-de-eeuu-aprueba-la-proteccion-laboral-de-los-gays EUROPA Graves disturbios en Polonia en el Día de la Independencia. Para más información: http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/13/world/europe/poland-russia-embassy-attack/index.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637394-graves-disturbios-en-polonia-en-el-dia-de-la-independencia Madrid y Londres intentan poner fin a la crisis por Gibraltar. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635760-madrid-y-londres-intentan-poner-fin-a-la-crisis-por-gibraltarhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24954881La ultraderecha europea sella una alianza. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/13/actualidad/1384343925_371743.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/13/actualidad/1384372721_543279.html Escándalo en Francia por una ola de insultos racistas contra una ministra. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637976-escandalo-en-francia-por-una-ola-de-insultos-racistas-contra-una-ministra Madrid, bajo una montaña de basura por un paro. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24966932http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1636679-madrid-bajo-una-montana-de-basura-por-un-parohttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/15/world/europe/spain-madrid-trash-strike/index.html Suecia se queja de que la UE está dando la espalda a las víctimas de la guerra. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/13/actualidad/1384367435_310249.html La popularidad de Hollande se desploma y complica su mandato. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638370-la-popularidad-de-hollande-se-desploma-y-complica-su-mandato La UE se plantea lanzar una misión militar contra el tráfico de inmigrantes. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/15/actualidad/1384545086_960667.html Estocolmo ignora la ofensiva populista y abre las puertas a los refugiados sirios. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24954702http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/13/actualidad/1384366494_958825.html Accidente de avión en Rusia deja al menos 50 muertos. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/accidente-areo-en-rusia_13199476-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1639121-cayo-un-avion-en-rusia-hay-al-menos-50-muertos Economías italiana y española bajo la lupa de la Unión Europea. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/16/business/international/in-first-economic-review-italy-and-spain-get-warnings.html?ref=world&gwh=1E21AA30DC3309825D80414F38C1D6CChttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24954867 Piden tres meses más de prisión para los activistas de Greenpeace. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2013/11/16/soutien-mondial-pour-les-30-militants-de-greenpeace-detenus-en-russie_3515125_3244.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638547-piden-tres-meses-mas-de-prision-para-los-activistas-de-greenpeace Albania rechaza desmantelar las armas químicas de Siria. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/14/actualidad/1384462285_751906.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24963241http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/15/actualidad/1384543782_976845.html Doce inmigrantes murieron en naufragio en Grecia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/nafragio-en-grecia-deja-12-muertos_13189435-4 Luego del atentado contra un fotógrafo, la web del diario Libération sufrió un ataque. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1639429-francia-un-hombre-ingreso-a-un-diario-y-disparo-contra-un-fotografoEl SPD promete ser el contrapeso de Merkel en la UE. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/15/actualidad/1384541528_684685.html Tensión social en Francia: se multiplican las protestas. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637402-tension-social-en-francia-se-multiplican-las-protestas ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE Devastador Tifón pasa por Filipinas dejando miles de muertos. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/16/21491646-typhoon-haiyan-aid-begins-trickling-into-desperate-philippines-communities?litehttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/13/content_17103311.htmhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24972707http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/15/world/asia/typhoon-haiyan/index.html?hpt=wo_c1http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/busqueda-de-sobrevivientes-en-filipinas-un-infierno-966074.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/onu-justifica-disparidad-en-numero-de-muertos-por-tifon-966059.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/11/11/world/asia/typhoon-haiyan-map.html?ref=world&gwh=69698C955BEC7E67E77D3A5D938E277Ahttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/14/actualidad/1384418137_846403.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/evacuacin-en-vietnam-por-llegada-del-tifn_13174615-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637979-filipinas-se-extienden-los-saqueos-y-el-exodo-en-las-zonas-afectadashttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/14/21453110-typhoon-haiyan-hundreds-of-unidentified-victims-buried-in-mass-graves?lite China anuncia históricas reformas. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2013/11/16/xi-jinping-relance-la-chine-sur-la-voie-des-reformes_3514971_3210.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/16/world/asia/china-to-loosen-its-one-child-policy.html?ref=world&gwh=2B49B07D7864F930C4A1F223F1490E2Chttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/china-autoriza-a-parejas-tener-dos-hijos_13189638-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638484-china-elimina-los-campos-de-trabajo-y-la-politica-del-hijo-unicohttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/gobierno-chino-pone-fin-a-politica-de-hijo-unico-84868.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-24957303http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/15/world/asia/china-one-child-policy/index.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/15/21474076-china-to-relax-one-child-policy-as-part-of-economic-social-reforms?lite Continúa el sangriento conflicto en Siria. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/15/21477555-syria-rebels-linked-to-al-qaeda-apologize-for-beheading-fellow-fighter?litehttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/16/world/meast/syria-opcw-roadmap/index.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/15/21477555-syria-rebels-linked-to-al-qaeda-apologize-for-beheading-fellow-fighter?litehttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24966482http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/14/content_17105303.htmhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17258397http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/17/world/middleeast/syrian-governments-forces-gain-but-a-siege-war-goes-on.html?ref=world&gwh=5227ABD8C910BB150831563C2CB573FB Irán firma un acuerdo para permitir mayores inspecciones nucleares. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/11/negotiations-iranhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/acuerdo-para-permitir-inspecciones-nucleares-en-irn_13176975-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1636926-las-potencias-e-iran-postergan-el-acuerdo-por-el-programa-nuclearhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637404-acuerdo-entre-iran-y-el-oieahttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/14/actualidad/1384453882_678598.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/09/world/meast/iran-nuclear-talks/index.htmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/13/content_17101616.htm Diversos ataques suicidas sacuden Irak. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/14/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/07/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/17/world/asia/explosion-in-kabul.html?ref=world&gwh=A938AA5C45C2B6391D21BCB3AA7F53FFElecciones en Maldivas.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24974019 Producción de opio en Afganistán ha alcanzado récords. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/13/21425925-afghanistan-opium-production-hits-record-despite-billions-spent-to-combat-trade?lite Burma liberará 69 prisioneros políticos.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24955227 Comienzan a desmantelar la central atómica de Fukushima. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1636213-comienzan-a-desmantelar-la-central-atomica-de-fukushimahttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/07/world/asia/japan-fukushima-visit-hancocks/index.html ÁFRICA Nuevos choques entre milicias elevan la cifra de muertos en Trípoli.Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/libye/article/2013/11/16/libye-les-affrontements-se-poursuivent-a-tripoli_3515079_1496980.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/15/actualidad/1384551515_377437.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/15/21484827-dozens-dead-in-clash-with-libyan-militiamen-in-tripoli?lite Morsi asegura que sigue teniendo poder legitimo para gobernar Egipto. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/13/world/meast/egypt-morsy-president/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/11/16/egypte-les-freres-musulmans-appellent-au-dialogue_3515094_3212.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24938948 Egipto levanta estado de emergencia. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/13/content_17101535.htmCiclón en Somalia deja 115 muertos. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/15/world/africa/somalia-cyclone-deaths/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2Marinos estadounidenses secuestrados en costas de Nigeria Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24971765http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/09/21367485-hunt-for-a-ghost-ship-nbc-news-spots-abandoned-us-vessel-in-nigerian-creek?lite 1 en 5 africanos paga sobornos para acceder a seguridad, sistema de salud y educación Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/14/21453375-1-in-5-africans-forced-to-pay-bribes-for-police-health-care-education-report?lite OTRAS NOTICIAS "The Economist" presenta su informe semanal Politics this week. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21589930-politics-week

Abstrak Pelayanan merupakan tugas utama bagi aparatur negara sebagai abdi negara dan abdi masyarakat. Tugas ini secara jelas telah digariskan dalam pembukaan Undang – Undang Dasar 1945 alinea Ke empat, yang meliputi empat aspek pelayana pokok aparatur terhadap masyarakat yang berbunyi : Melindungi segenap bangsa dan seluruh tumpah darah Indonesia memajukan kesejahteraan umum dan mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa. Rendahnya kinerja pelayanan akan membangun citra buruk pada Puskesmas, dimana pasien yang merasa tidak puas akan menceritakan kepada rekan-rekannya. Begitu juga sebaliknya, semakin tinggi kinerja pelayanan yang diberikan akan menjadi nilai plus bagi Puskesmas, dalam hal ini pasien akan merasa puas terhadap pelayanan yang diberikan oleh Puskesmas. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuj mengetahui Bagaimanakah Kualitas Pelayanan Kesehatan di Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling dan apa saja Kendala-kendala apa yang dihadapi dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan kesehatan di Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling. Dengan menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif. Dari hasil penelitian menunjukkan pelayanan yang dilakukan di puskesmas motoking sudah berjalan dengan baik terlihat dari hasil wawancara dan penelitian dilapangan, diharapkan kinerja pegwai terus ditingkatkan demi kesejahteraan masyarakat. Key words : Pelayanan Publik, Puskesmas BAB 1 PENDAHULUAN A. Latar Belakang Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 1992 Tentang Kesehatan menyebutkan bahwa pembangunan kesehatan sebagai salah satu upaya pembangunan nasional guna tercapainya kesadaran, kemauan, dan kemampuan untuk hidup sehat bagi setiap penduduk agar dapat mewujudkan derajat kesehatan yang optimal. Pembangunan kesehatan di Indonesia dinyatakan dalam program Indonesia Sehat 2010. Visi Indonesia Sehat 2010 yaitu gambaran masyarakat Indonesia di masa depan yang ingin dicapai melalui pembangunan kesehatan adalah masyarakat , bangsa, dan negara yang ditandai oleh penduduknya hidup dalam lingkungan dan berperilaku sehat, memiliki kemampuan untuk menjangkau pelayanan kesehatan yang bermutu secara adil dan merata serta memilki derajat kesehatan setinggi-tingginya di seluruh wilayah Indonesia. Secara umum, pelayanan kesehatan yang diselenggarakan oleh Puskesmas meliputi pelayanan kuratif (pengobatan), preventif (upaya pencegahan), promotif (peningkatan kesehatan), dan rehabilitasi (pemulihan kesehatan), namun ada beberapa pelayanan lainnya seperti pembuatan surat keterangan berbadan sehat, pembayaran, surat rujukan serta surat lainnya. Kinerja pelayanan menyangkut hasil pekerjaan, kecepatan kerja, pekerjaan yang dilakukan sesuai dengan harapan pelanngan, dan ketepatan waktu dalam menyelesaikan pekerjaan. Pemerintah telah berusaha memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat akan pelayanan kesehatan dengan mendirikan Rumah Sakit dan Pusat Kesehatan Masyarakat (PUSKESMAS) di seluruh wilayah Indonesia. Puskesmas adalah unit pelaksana teknis dinas kesehatan kabupaten / kota yang bertanggung jawab menyelenggarakan pembangunan kesehatan di suatu wilayah kerja tertentu. Puskesmas berfungsi sebagai : 1. Pusat penggerak pembangunan berwawasan kesehatan . 2. Pusat pemberdayaan keluarga dan masyarakat. Hasil penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Ahmad Sudiro (2001) di beberapa Puskesmas di daerah Jakarta diketahui bahwa pada umumnya pasien mengeluh dengan antrian pada saat pengurusan administrasi yang mampu mencapai 15 sampai 20 menit. Hal ini merupakan salah satu penyebab rendahnya jumlah kunjungan di Puskesmas. Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling adalah salah satu Puskesmas pemerintah di Kabupaten Minahasa Selatan. Dan untuk mecapai derajat kesehatan yang optimal yang memuaskan bagi pasien melalui upaya kesehatan perlu adanya pelayanan yang baik yang diberikan oleh pegawai oleh sebab itu dituntut kinerja yang tinggi dari pegawai. Kinerja pelayanan pada Puskesmas Motoling masih belum sesuai dengan keinginan masyarakat karena masih seringnya terdengar keluhan pasien maupun keluarganya dimana masih seringnya pegawai Puskesmas yang lambat dalam memberikan pelayanan, pasien sering menunggu lama untuk mendapatkan giliran dilayanani oleh pegawai. Oleh karena itu, peneliti tertarik untuk melakukan penelitian dengan memilih judul: "Kualitas Pelayanan Publik di Kecamatan Motoling (suatu Studi Tentang Pelayanan Kesehatan di Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling Kabupaten Minahasa Selatan)" . B. Rumusan Masalah Untuk memberikan arah yang jelas tentang pembahasan atau analisa yang dilakukan dalam proposal penelitian ini, maka penulis mengemukakan beberapa rumusan masalah : Bagaimanakah Kualitas Pelayanan Kesehatan di Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling? Kendala-kendala apa yang dihadapi dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan kesehatan di Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling?Faktor-faktor pendukung terlaksananya pelayanan kesehatan di Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling C. Tujuan Penelitian Adapun yang menjadi tujuan penelitian ini adalah Untuk mengetahui Kualitas Pelayanan Kesehatan di Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling D . Kegunaan Penelitian a) Dapat memberikan bahan masukan kepada pemerintah Kecamatan Motoling khususnya Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling dalam meningkatkan pelayanan kepada masyarakat. b) Dapat bermanfaat bagi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan pada umumnya dan ilmu pemerintahan pada khususnya. BAB II TINJAUAN PUSTAKA A. Konsep Efektifitas Konsep efesiensi dan efektifitas mempunyai pengertian yang berbeda. Efesiensi lebih menitik beratkan dalam pencapaian hasil yang besar dengan pengorbanan yang sekecil mungkin, sedangkan pengertian efektif lebih terarah pada tujuan yang dicapai, tanpa mementingkan pengerbonan yang dikeluarkan. Kata efektif berarti terjadinya suatu efek atau akibat yang dikehendaki dalam suatu perbuatan. Kata efektif berarti berhasil, tepat, manjur, ( S. Wojowisoto, 1980). Jadi efektivitas adalah sesuatu keadaan yang mengandung pengertian mengenai terjadinya suatu efek atau akibat yang dikehendaki. Kalau seseorang melakukan perbuatan dengan maksud tertentu atau mempunyai maksud sebagaimana yang dikehendaki, maka orang tersebut dikatakan efektif ( Ensiklopedia Administrasi, 1989:149). Efektif dalam kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia berarti dapat membawa hasil, berhasil guna. Handoko berpendapat ( 1993:7) efektifitas adalah kemampuan untuk memilih tujuan yang tepat atau peralatan yang untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah ditetapkan. "The Liang Gie (1988 :34)berpendapat "Efektivitas merupakan keadaan yang mengandung pengertian mengenai terjadinya suatu efek atau akibat yang dikehendaki, maka perbuatan itu dikatakan efektif kalau menimbulkan akibat atau mencapai maksud sebagaimana yang dikehendaki." B. Konsep Kualitas Pelayanan Publik Pelayanan pada dasarnya adalah cara melayani, membantu, menyikapi, mengurus, menyelesaikan keperluan kebutuhan seseorang atau sekelompok orang. Dan kegiatan pelayanan pada dasarnya menyangkut pemenuhan suatu hak. Seperti yang dilaksanakan pada instansi pemerintah di pusat, daerah, dan lingkungan Badan Usaha Milik Negara (BUMN), Badan Usaha Milik Daerah dalam bentuk barang dan jasa baik dalam rangka upaya pemenuhan kebutuhan masyarakat maupun dalam rangka pelaksanaan ketentuan perundang – undangan.Seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Agung Kurniawan,2005:6: " Pelayanan publik adalah pemberian pelayanan ( melayani) keperluan orang lain atau masyarakat yang mempunyai kepentingan pada organisasi itu sesuai dengan aturan pokok dan tata cara yang telah ditetapkan" Jadi pelayanan yang diberikan oleh pemerintah haruslah mendahulukan kepentingan masyarakat dengan waktu yang singkat, mudah serta dapat memberikan rasa puas bagi masyarakat yang menikmati layanan itu.Pendapat lain Seperti yang dijelaskan (Kotler dalam Sampara Lukman 2000:4: Pelayanan adalah setiap kegiatan yang menguntungkan dalam suatu kumpulan atau kesatuan, dan menawarkan kepuasan meskipun hasilnya tidak terikat pada suatu produk secara fisik" BAB III METODE PENELITIAN A. Jenis Penelitian Untuk memperoleh jawaban dari permasalahan yang diambil dan sesuai dengan tujuan penelitian ini, maka jenis penelitian yang dianggap tepat adalah penelitian deskriptif dengan menggunakan analisis data kualitatif, karena obyek dari penelitian ini merupakan suatu fenomena atau kenyataan sosial. Hal itu sesuai denan yang dikatakan oleh Sanapiah Faisal (1999:20) bahwa penelitian deskriptif atau penelitian taksonomik atau penelitian eksplorasi dimaksudkan untuk eksplorasi dan klarifikasi mengenai suatu fenomena atau kenyataan sosial, dengan jalan mendiskripsikan sejumlah variabel yang berkenaan dengan masalah dan unit yang diteliti tanpa mempersoalkan jalinan hubungan antar variabel yang ada. Karena itu pada penelitian deskriptif tidak dilakukan pengujian hipotesis untuk membangun dan mengembangkan perbendaharaan teoti. B. Fokus Penelitian Adapun fokus dalam penelitian ini berdasarkan Pendapat dari Agus Dharma tentang 3 cara dalam mengukur kinerja. Menurutnya "kinerja atau prestsi kerja adalah suatu yang dihasilkan atau produk atau jasa yang dihasilkan atau yang diberikan oleh seseorang atau sekelompok orang". Ada tiga cara dalam mengukur kinerja: a) Kuantitas, yaitu jumlah yang harus diselesaikan atau dicapai. Pengukuran kuantitatif melibatkan perhitungan keluaran dari proses atau pelaksanaan kegiatan. b) Kualitas, yaitu mutu yang dihasilkan. Dalam hal ini mencerminkan pengukuran tingkat kepuasan, yakni seberapa baik penyelesaiannya. c) Ketepatan waktu, adalah sesuai tidaknya dengan waktu yang direncanakan. Indikatornya yaitu Ketepatan waktu dalam menyelesaikan pekerjaan. C. Jenis dan Sumber data 1. Data Primer Yaitu data yang diperoleh secara langsung pada saat kita melakukan penelitian, sumber data yang diperoleh secara langsung dari orang-orang atau informan yang secara sengaja dipilih untuk memperoleh data-data atau informasi yang ada relefansinya dengan permasalahan penelitian. Adapun yang menjadi data primer dalam penelitian ialah: Informan Yaitu apabila menurut Moleong (2000:90) "Informan merupakan orang dalam yang digunakan untuk memberikan keterangan dan informasi tentang situasi dan kondisi latar belakang penelitian. Adapun nara sumber atau informan yang akan dipilih untuk menjadi sumber data primer adalah atau Informan : - Kepala Puskesmas 1 orang - Staf Puskesmas 5 orang - 15 orang Masyarakat di kecamatan Motoling yang diambil dari 3 desa berbeda yang ada di Kecamatan Motoling. 2. Data Sekunder D. Teknik Pengumpulan Data Teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah : 1. Wawancara 2. Observasi. 3. Dokumentasi E. Teknik Analisis Data Analisis data menurut Sanapiah Faisal (1999:255-258) terdiri dari tiga alur kegiatan yaitu: a) Reduksi data (Data reduction) yang merupakan proses merangkum, mengikhtisarkan atau menyeleksi data dari catatan lapangan yang kemudian dimasukkan dalam kategori tema yang mana, fokus atau permasalahan yang mana sesuai dengan fokus penelitian. b) Penyajian data (Data display) merupakan proses penyajian data kedalam sejumlah matrik yang sesuai yang berfungsi untuk memetakan data yang telah direduksi, juga untuk memudahkan mengkontruksi didalam rangka menuturkan, menyimpulkan dan mnginterprestasikan data. c) Menarik kesimpulan, yaitu membuat suatu kesimpulan sementara yang dapat dijadikan sebagai suatu pembekalan dalam melaksanakan penelitian untuk memberikan penafsiran dari data yang diperoleh terutama data yang berhubungan dengan fokus penelitian. Penarikan kesimpulan atau vertifikasi dilakukan dengan longgar, tetap terbuka, tetapi semakin lama lebih semakin rinci berdasarkan kumpulan-kumpulan data yang diperoleh dilapangan dan mengakar dengan kokoh. Data yang diperoleh dilapangan, disajikan sedemikian rupa, kemudian dianalisa terhadap data tersebut untuk memperoleh hasil yang sebenarnya. BAB V HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN Pembahasan Kinerja Pelayanan Publik Untuk mengetahui seberapa besar kinerja Pelayanan pada Puskesmas Motoling, maka peneliti menggunakan Teori Agus Darma yang mengemukakan tiga dimensi untuk menilai kinerja dalam suatu organisasi yaitu dari dimensi kuantitas, kualitas, dan ketepatan waktu.berikut ini pemaparan Kinerja Pelayanan di Puskesmas Motoling, berdasarkan hasil penelitian penulis : a. Kuantitas Pelayanan Melalui wawancara dengan kepala UPT Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling dr. Frangky Tumbuan : sesuai data yang ada jumlah pegawai yang ada di Puskesmas Kecamatan Motoling berjumlah 21 orang. kegiatan di Puskesmas Motoling mulai dari memeriksa pasien dan menentukan diagnose, memberikan Therapy dan penyuluhan, merujuk pasien (Eksternal/Internal), memberikan surat keterangan sakit, memberikan surat keterangan sehat, memberikan pelayanan P3K, dan mendokumentasikan kunjungan pasien merupakan tugas pokok dari Puskesmas Motoling yang dilaksanakan setiap hari kepada semua masyarakat yang bertempat tinggal di wilayah kerja Puskesmas Motoling. Pada bagian obat, dari hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa semua kegiatan dibagian obat terlaksanan 100%, adapun kegiatan pelayanan resep, meracik obat dan distribusi obat merupakan tugas pokok dari Sub Bagian Farmasi. Pelayanan resep yaitu memberikan obat kepada pasien sesuai dengan rujukan dokter. Meracik obat yaitu membuat obat sesuai dengan kebutuhan. Sedangkan distribusi obat bertujuan untuk menyalurkan obat ke unit-unit pelayanan Puskesmas Motoling yaitu pustu, perawatan umum, rumah bersalin, puskesmas keliling, kamar suntik, dan poliklinik gigi. Kegiatan penyuluhan obat ditujukan untuk pasien di puskesmas dan pasien di posyandu untuk memberikan penyuluhan kepada pasien tentang obat, kegiatan ini juga dilaksanakan sesuai dengan permintaan. Kegiatan selanjutnya dari sub bagian farmasi adalah Pelayanan Informasi Obat, pelayanan ini bertujuan untuk memberikan informasi kepada pasien dan tenaga kesehatan di Puskesmas Motoling agar mereka dapat mengetahui akan pentingnya pemahaman obat, sehingga dapat meningkatkan kualitas pelayanan kefarmasian. Dari hasil penelitian dan wawancara tersebut lihat bahwa semua kegiatan dan program kerja Puskesmas Motoling terlaksana dengan baik. Dari segi kuantitas, kinerja Puskesmas Motoling sudah baik, meskipun jumlah SDM terbatas namun mereka dapat menyelesaikan tugas mereka. b. Kualitas Pelayanan Dimensi yang ke dua untuk menilai Kinerja Pelayanan di Puskesmas Motoling adalah kualitas. Kualitas menyangkut mutu yang dihasilkan dalam suatu pekerjaan yang telah dikerjakan. Dalam hal ini mencermunkan pengukuran tingkat kepuasan pasien terhadap pelayanan yang diberikan oleh pihak pemberi pelayanan dalam hal ini pegawai perawat dan dokter. Sebagai instansi yang berhadapan langsung dengan masyarakat (pasien) maka pelayanan Puskesmas Motoling harus memuaskan masyarakat. Untuk mengukur kinerja Puskesmas Motoling dari dimensi kualitas maka dapat diukur dari Tangible (bukti fisik) di Puskesmas Motoling, Berikut ini pembahasannya. Tanggapan mengenai Tangible (Bukti Fisik) Puskesmas Motoling Tangible (bukti fisik) merupakan salah satu bentuk pelayanan yang menyangkut penampilan fasilitas fisik, kebersihan, kelengkapan dalam pemberian pelayanan. Untuk mengetahui Kinerja Pelayanan di Puskesmas Motoling dilihat dari dimensi kualitas, dapat diukur dari bukti fisik yang dimiliki yaitu dilihat dari :  Kebersihan  Ketersediaan peralatan medis  Ketersediaan obat  Tanggapan Mengenai Kebersihan Puskesmas Motoling Selama peneliti meneliti di Puskesmas Motoling peneliti melihat setiap hari jika semua pasien sudah pulang, maka perawat segera membersihkan setiap ruangan di Puskemas Motoling. Namun masih ada beberapa sampah pelastik makanan dari beberapa pasien yang peneliti dapati karena masih kurangnya kesadaran pasien untuk membuang sampah pada tempatnya, dimana pasien makan disitulah sampah dibuang.  Ketersediaan Peralatan Medis Berikut peneliti juga mengkaji tentang ketersediaan peralatan medis di puskesmas motoling. Peralatan medis harus dimiliki oleh setiap puskesmas untuk memeriksa pasien. Untuk mengetahui seberapa lengkap peralatan medis yang dimiliki oleh Puskesmas Motoling, maka mewawancarai informan yakni masyarakat yang pernah memeriksakan diri di puskesmas. Dari hasil wawancara dengan ibu. Deisi M yang pernah memeriksakan diri di puskesmas mengatakan peralatan medis Puskesmas Motoling sudah lengkap karena setiap saya datang berobat peralatan medis selalu tersedia jadi, saya tidak perlu menunggu lama di ruang periksa. Hal ini diperkuat oleh pernyataan ibu. Memey beliau mengatakan : Selain peralatan medis yang lengkap, di Puskesmas Motoling juga dilengkapi dengan fasilitas Laboratorium yang walaupun tidak selengkap yang ada di rumah sakit seperti yang ada di manado, namun kami sudah bersyukur karena sudah ada laboratoriumnya. Dari beberapa hasil wawancara diatas menunjukkan bahwa ketersediaan peralatan medis di puskesmas Motoling sudah baik. Peralatan yang memadai dapat mempermudah dan mempercepat pelayanan bagi pasien.  Ketersediaan Obat Berikutnya penulis meneliti mengenai ketersediaan obat yang ada di puskesmas Motoling. Untuk mengetahui seberapa lengkap ketersediaan obat di Puskesmas Motoling, peneliti mewawancarai informan masyarakat yang pernah berobat di puskesmas Motoling. Dari hasil wawancara dengan Bapak Jemmy A, yang pernah menerima pelayanan di puskesmas motoling, beliau mengatakan : ketersediaan obat di Puskesmas Motoling saya rasa cukup baik, obat-obat standart di puskesmas telah tersedia, hal ini karena pada waktu saya mengantar ibu saya berobat, dokter di puskesmas memberikan obat-obat yang lengkap. Selanjutnya penulis juga mewawancarai Ibu. Renny yang juga pernah berobat di puskesmas, beliau mengatakan : Pelayanan yang diberikan di puskesmas Motoling, saya rasa sudah cukup baik, terutama dalam hal ketersediaan obat-obatan, saya rasa walaupun tidak selengkap rumah sakit yang ada di amurang ataupun manado, namun untuk sekelas puskesmas, puskesmas motoling sudah dapat dikatakan baik. Pengalaman saya berobat, ketersediaan obat disana sudah memadai. c. Ketepatan Waktu Pelayanan Adapun dari dimensi kualitas, yaitu waktu antrian di ruang administrasi dari hsil penelitian terlihat cukup cepat, ketika pasien berada di ruang periksa, pasien langsung ditangani oleh dokter, juga ketika pasien berada di ruang resep, pasien langsung dilayani oleh petugas yang bertugas memberikan obat kepada pasien. Jumlah petugas pelayanan kesehatan di puskesmas Motoling memang sedikit, namun mereka dapat menyelesaikan tugas dan pekerjaan mereka tepat waktu. BAB VI PENUTUP A. Kesimpulan Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dibahas pada bab sebelumnya, maka dapat di tarik kesimpulan sebagai berikut : 1. Kuantitas Kinerja pelayanan Puskesmas Motoling dari segi kuantitas sudah bagus dimana program kerja dan kegiatan semuanya dapat terealisasi dengan baik, bahkan ada dua kegiatan yang pencapaiannya melebihi target yang direncanakan yaitu, pemeriksaan ibu hamil dan K4. 2. Kualitas pekerjaan Tangible (bukti Fisik), menurut pasien memuaskan dilihat dari kebersihan, ketersediaan peralatan medis, dan ketersediaan obat. 3. Ketepatan waktu Dari segi ketepatan waktu juga sudah bagus, dilihat dari disiplin pegawai yang datang tepat pada waktunya sehingga mereka dapat menyelesaiakan pekerjaan tepat pada waktunya. Adapun program kerja di Puskesmas Motoling dapat terealisasikan tepat waktu dikarenakan tingginya disiplin pegawai. B. Saran Berdasarkan hasil pembahasan dan kesimpulan maka, peneliti menyarankan kepada Puskesmas Motoling untuk lebih meningkatkan kinerja pelayanan, dengan menambah pegawai kesehatan agar kedepannya bisa lebih cepat lagi dalam memberikan pelayanan kepada pasien. Pemberian bantuan kepada pasien jangan hanya difokuskan pada pasien Lansia, namun harus merata terhadap semua usia, siapa saja yang membutuhkan bantuan, kebersihan harus tetap dijaga, agar pasien tetap nyaman berobat di Puskesmas Motoling. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Babakus, E. dan Boller (1992),'An Empirical Assesment of The SERVQUAL Scale', Journal of Business Research, Vol. 24: 253-268. Handriana, T. (1998), 'Analisis Perbedaan Harapan Kualitas Jasa Pada Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi di Surabaya', Tesis S2 Moelyono.1997. Kamus Besar Indonesia. PT Gramedia. Jakarta. Moenir H.A.S. 1997. Manajemen Pelayanan Umum. Bumi Aksara. Jakarta. Mitrani, Alain. 1995. Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia Berdasarkan Kompoetensi. Jakarta. Grafiti. Osborn, David dan Geabler, Ted. 1993. Reinventing Government : how Entrepreneurial sprit is Transforming the Public sector. New York : Plume Book. Parasuraman, Zeithaml, A.V. dan Berry L.L. (1985), 'A Conceptual model of Service Quality', Journal of Retailing, Vol. 67: 420-450. Parasuraman, Zeithaml, A.V. dan Berry L.L. (1994), 'Reassesment of Expectations as a Comparison Standar in Measuring Service Quality: Implications for Further Research', Journal of Marketing, Vol. 9:111-124Sinambela, Poltak Lijan dkk. 2010.Reformasi Pelayanan Publik. PT Bumi Aksara. Jakarta. Syafie, Kencana Inu. 2001. Pengantar Ilmu Pemerintahan. Bandung: Reflika Aditama. Sianipar J.P. 1999. Perencanaan Peningkatan Kerja. LAN RI. Sampara, Lukman, Sutopo. 2003. Pelayanan Prima Lembaga Administrasi Negara RI. jakarta. Sampara, Lukman, Sugianto. 2001. Pengembangan Pelaksanaan Pelayanan Prima. LAN RI. Jakarta. Soekanto Soejono. 1995. Penilaian Organisasi Pelayanan Publik. Jakarta. Siagian, P.Sondang. (1996). Manajmen Sumber Daya Manusia. Bumi Aksara. Jakarta. Sumber-Sumber Lain : Undang – Undang Nomor 32 tahun 2004 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah. Undang – Undang Nomor 25 tahun 2004 tentang Pelayanan Publik. Keputusan Mendagri No. 100/57 Tahun 2002. Diatur lebih lanjut di dalam PP No. 65 tahun 2005 tentang ketentuan standar pelayanan minimal ( SPM ). Keputusan Menteri Pendayagunaan Aparatur Negara No. 25 tahun 2004 tentang pedoman umum Penyusunan indeks kepuasan Masyarakat Unit Pelayanan Instansi pemerintah.

2016年4月15日是澳大利亚皇家土著羁押死亡调查委员会(RCIADIC)发表最终报告25周年纪念日。该报告标志着土著澳大利亚人与后殖民国家和联邦政府之间关系的里程碑。该委员会由Hawke Labor政府于1987年成立,调查了99例土著人死亡。最重要的是发现死亡原因是警察和监狱未能履行其照管职责,以及大量土著人被逮捕和监禁。 在RCIADIC之后,跨文化会议和文化能力工作坊已成为公务员、治疗师、以及法律和福利员工的普遍活动,试图建立起福利国家机构和土著客户之间的文化知识纽带。利用土著知识理论,本章评估了土著客户和那些以改善土著生活为名义与他们合作的人之间的文化失调是如何影响跨文化互动。在这个过程中提出了以下问题:善意如何成为土著澳大利亚人正在进行的殖民主义言论和实践的一部分,以及如何改变权力平衡,以利于与土著人民相关的村庄? ; The 15 th April 2016 marked the 25-year anniversary since the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC) in Australia handed down its Final Report. The report signified a landmark in the relationships between Indigenous Australians and the post-colonial State and Federal governments. Established by the Hawke Labor Government in 1987, the Commission examined 99 Indigenous deaths. Most significant was the finding that the deaths were due to the combination of police and prisons failing their duty of care, and the high numbers of Indigenous people being arrested and incarcerated. In the wake of the RCIADIC, cross-cultural sessions and cultural competency workshops have become ubiquitous for public servants, therapists, and legal and welfare employees, in attempts to bridge gaps in cultural knowledge between agents of the welfare state and Indigenous clients. Using Indigenous Knowledges theory, this chapter assesses how cultural misalignments between Indigenous clients and those who work with them in the name of therapies designed to improve Indigenous lives, dominate cross-cultural interactions. In so doing the questions are posed: how do good intentions become part of the discourses and practices of on-going colonialism for Indigenous Australians, and what can be done to change the balance of power in favour of therapies of relevance to Indigenous people? Japanese abstract この場所を脱植民地化する。 音楽療法の実践における先住民族の位置づけ スージー・ハッチング 要約 オーストラリアの「Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC)」が最終報告書を発表してから、2016年4月15日で25年が経過した。この報告書は、オーストラリアの先住民と植民地時代以降の州政府および連邦政府との関係において、画期的な出来事だった。この委員会は、1987年にホーク労働党政権によって設立され、99件の先住民の死を調査した。最も重大なのは、警察や刑務所が注意義務を怠ったことと、先住民が大量に逮捕・投獄されたことが重なって死亡したという結果である。 RCIADICを受けて、福祉国家のエージェントと先住民のクライアントとの間にある文化的知識のギャップを埋めるために、異文化交流セッションや文化的コンピテンシーのワークショップが、公務員、セラピスト、法律家や福祉関係者の間で頻繁に行われるようになった。本章では、先住民の知識理論を用いて、先住民のクライアントと、先住民の生活を向上させるために計画されたセラピーの名の下に彼らと働く人々との間の文化的なずれが、異文化間の交流をどのように支配しているかを検討する。善意がどのようにしてオーストラリア先住民の現在進行中の植民地主義の言説と実践の一部となるのか、そして先住民に関連した療法に有利なようにパワーバランスを変えるためには何ができるのか、という問いが投げかけられている。 キーワード:王立委員会、アボリジニの監禁死、オーストラリア先住民、先住民の知識理論、セラピー、異文化交流 ; Il 15 aprile 2016 ha segnato il venticinquesimo anniversario da quando la Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC) in Australia ha consegnato il suo Rapporto Finale. Il rapporto ha segnato una pietra miliare nelle relazioni tra gli indigeni australiani e i governi statali e federali post-coloniali. Istituita dal governo laburista Hawke nel 1987, la Commissione ha esaminato 99 morti indigene. La cosa più significativa è stata la scoperta che tali morti erano dovute alla combinazione di polizia e carceri che non rispettarono il loro dovere di diligenza, nonché l'alto numero di indigeni arrestati e incarcerati. Sulla scia del RCIADIC, sessioni interculturali e workshop sulle competenze culturali sono diventati onnipresenti per dipendenti pubblici, terapisti e dipendenti legali e assistenziali, nel tentativo di colmare le lacune nella conoscenza culturale tra agenti dello stato sociale e clienti indigeni. Utilizzando la Indigenous Knowledges theory, questo capitolo valuta come i disallineamenti culturali fra i clienti indigeni e coloro che lavorano con loro in nome di terapie progettate per migliorare la loro vita, dominino le interazioni interculturali. Così facendo, si pongono le seguenti domande: in che modo le buone intenzioni entrano a far parte dei discorsi e delle pratiche coloniali in corso per gli indigeni australiani, e cosa si può fare per cambiare gli equilibri di potere a favore di terapie rilevanti per gli indigeni? ; El 15 de abril de 2016 marcó el 25 aniversario desde que la Comisión Real sobre Muertes de Aborígenes en Custodia ('Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody' o RCIADIC) en Australia emitió su Informe Final. El informe significó un hito en las relaciones entre los australianos indígenas y los gobiernos estatales y federales poscoloniales. Establecida por el 'Hawke Labor Government' en 1987, la comisión examinó 99 muertes de indígenas. Lo más significativo fue el hallazgo de que las muertes se debieron a la combinación de policías y prisiones que no cumplieron con su deber de cuidado, y al gran número de indígenas arrestados y encarcelados. A raíz de la RCIADIC, las sesiones interculturales y los talleres de competencia cultural se han vuelto omnipresentes para los servidores públicos, terapeutas y empleados legales y de bienestar, en un intento de cerrar las brechas en el conocimiento cultural entre los agentes del estado de bienestar y los clientes indígenas. Utilizando la teoría de los conocimientos indígenas, este capítulo evalúa cómo los desajustes culturales entre los clientes indígenas y aquellos que trabajan con ellos en nombre de terapias diseñadas para mejorar las vidas de los indígenas, dominan las interacciones interculturales. Al hacerlo, se plantean las preguntas: ¿cómo las buenas intenciones se vuelven parte de los discursos y prácticas del colonialismo en curso para los indígenas australianos, y qué se puede hacer para cambiar el equilibrio de poder a favor de terapias de relevancia para los pueblos indígenas?

The Multiparty Trade Agreement between Ecuador and the European Union was the subject of controversy regarding the advisability of its signature until it finally came into effect in January 2017. After three years in place, numerous statistics were reviewed to analyze the exchange evolution of non-oil goods between these trading partners in a period between January 2015 and December 2019. The research was carried out through a comparative analysis of the records of public and private organizations, obtained through their databases, reports and bulletins, and complemented with a theoretical analysis. This study concluded the total commercialized values have increased and the application of the commercial agreement has allowed the European Union to consolidate as the first destination for Ecuador's non-oil exports. Keywords:Multiparty agreement, Ecuador, European Union, integration, import, export. URL:https://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/1157 References: Aguas, L. (2016). La Economía Popular y Solidaria como proyecto político postneoliberal de Ecuador. Caso : Acuerdo Comercial Unión Europea. Revista PUCE, 100, 313–342. Bayoumi, T., & Eichengreen, B. J. (1997). Is Regionalism Simply a Diversion? Evidence from the Evolution of the EC and EFTA. In Regionalism versus Multilateral Trade Arrangements, NBER-EASE (Vol. 6, pp. 141–168). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. CAN. (2019). Comunidad Andina. September 15, 2019. http://www.comunidadandina.org/Seccion.aspx?id=189&tipo=QU&title=somos-comunidad-andina Corbella, V. I. (2017). La integración comercial y productiva de ALADI y su cambio estructural. Economía UNAM, 14(41), 90–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eunam.2017.06.005 De la Reza, G. (2015). Art . XXIV del gatt-omc : la relación entre regionalismo y multilateralismo Art . XXIV of the gatt / wto : the Relationship between Regionalism and Multilateralism. Revista Problemas Del Desarrollo, 181(46), 185–204. European Commission. (2018). Cómo exportar a la Unión Europea. https://doi.org/10.2781/566645 Falcony y Oleas. (2012). El retorno de las carabelas : Acuerdo Comercial Multipartes entre Ecuador y la Unión Europea. Quito. http://openbiblio.flacsoandes.edu.ec/libros/digital/52435.pdf Herrera, L. (2017). Proceso De Integración De América Latina Y El Caribe Process of Integration of Latin America and the Caribbean Palabras Clave: América Latina * Caribe * Integración Regional * Sociología Política* Política De Desarrollo. Rev. Ciencias Sociales Universidad de Costa Rica, 158(IV), 167–183. http://www.cuba.cu/ Hill, C. (2015). Negocios Internacionales (Octava). México: MCGRAW-HILL. Izquierdo, Novillo, & Mocha. (2019). Las bases del cambio de la matriz productiva en Ecuador. Universidad y Sociedad, 9(2), 313–318. http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2218-36202019000400377 Latorre, J. (2017). El desarrollo de las negociaciones en el Acuerdo Comercial Multipartes de la UE con Ecuador Javier. FLACSO. Lucio, J. (2019). Liderazgo geopolítico: el papel de los acuerdos comerciales. Comillas Journal of International Relations, (15), 52–77. https://doi.org/10.14422/cir.i15.y2019.005 Ministerio de Comercio Exterior. (2017). Memorias de las negociaciones del acuerdo multipartes entre Euador y la Unión Europea. Quito. Ministerio de Comercio Exterior e Inversiones. (2018). Ecuador y la UE consideran positiva su relación comercial tras Acuerdo Multipartes. September 16, 2019. https://www.comercioexterior.gob.ec/ecuador-y-la-ue-consideran-positiva-su-relacion-comercial-tras-acuerdo-multipartes/ OMC. (2019). Organización Mundial de Comercio. September 14, 2019. https://www.wto.org/spanish/tratop_s/tariffs_s/tariffs_s.htm OMC. (2020). Los principios del sistema de comercio. https://www.wto.org/spanish/thewto_s/whatis_s/tif_s/fact2_s.htm Pérez, C. (1996). La mdernización industrial en América Latina y la Herencia, 46, 347–363. Proecuador. (2018). Ficha Técnica de la Unión Europea. September 16, 2019, https://www.proecuador.gob.ec/ficha-tecnica-de-union-europea/ Pública, S. N. de C. (2020). Acuerdo comercial multipartes con la UE. https://portal.compraspublicas.gob.ec/sercop/acuerdo-comercial-multipartes-con-la-ue/ Rosales, D., & De La Cruz, L. (2019). Los primeros 18 meses del Acuerdo Multipartes Ecuador – Unión Europea. Podium, 35, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.31095/podium.2019.35.3 Sanahuja, J. (2013). La Unión Europea y el Regionalismo Latinoamericano: Un balance. Investigación & Desarrollo, 21(1). Saura, J. (2013). Implicaciones de derechos humanos en el tratado de libre comercio entre Colombia y la Unión Europea. InDret. https://www.raco.cat/index.php/InDret/article/viewFile/270131/357687 Unión Europea. (2020). Ecuador y la Unión Europea. Retrieved from https://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/ecuador/1146/ecuador-y-la-unión-europea_es Vargas, J. (2007). Las reglas cambiantes de la competitividad global en el nuevo milenio:Las competencias en el nuevo paradigma de la globalización. In Red Internacional de Investigadores en Competitividad Memoria del I Congreso (pp. 0–21). Red Internacional de Investigadores en Competitividad. https://www.riico.net/index.php/riico/article/view/1050/411 Villagómez, M. (2017). Acuerdo comercial multipartes Ecuador - Unión Europea. AFESE, 56, 11–51. Zúñiga; Espinoza; Campos; Tapia; Muñoz. (2016). Una mirada a la globalización: pymes ecuatorianas. Observatorio de La Economía Latinoamericana, Ecuador. http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/ec/2016/pymes.html ; El Acuerdo Comercial Multipartes entre Ecuador y la Unión Europea fue motivo de controversias respecto de la conveniencia o no de su firma, hasta que finalmente entró en ejecución en enero de 2017. Luego de tres años de vigencia, se revisaron las estadísticas para conocer y analizar la evolución del intercambio de mercancías no petroleras entre estos socios comerciales en el período comprendido entre enero del año 2015 y diciembre del año 2019. La investigación se la realizó mediante un análisis comparativo de los registros de organismos públicos y privados, obtenidos de sus bases de datos, de reportes y de boletines, lo cual se complementó con una revisión bibliográfica para darle soporte teórico. Se concluye que los valores totales comercializados se han incrementado y que la aplicación del acuerdo comercial ha permitido consolidar a la Unión Europea como el primer destino de las exportaciones de mercancías no petroleras del Ecuador. Palabras clave:Acuerdo Multipartes, Ecuador, Unión Europea, integración, importaciones, exportaciones. URL:https://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/1157 Referencias: Aguas, L. (2016). La Economía Popular y Solidaria como proyecto político postneoliberal de Ecuador. Caso : Acuerdo Comercial Unión Europea. Revista PUCE, 100, 313–342. Bayoumi, T., & Eichengreen, B. J. (1997). Is Regionalism Simply a Diversion? Evidence from the Evolution of the EC and EFTA. In Regionalism versus Multilateral Trade Arrangements, NBER-EASE (Vol. 6, pp. 141–168). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. CAN. (2019). Comunidad Andina. September 15, 2019. http://www.comunidadandina.org/Seccion.aspx?id=189&tipo=QU&title=somos-comunidad-andina Corbella, V. I. (2017). La integración comercial y productiva de ALADI y su cambio estructural. Economía UNAM, 14(41), 90–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eunam.2017.06.005 De la Reza, G. (2015). Art . XXIV del gatt-omc : la relación entre regionalismo y multilateralismo Art . XXIV of the gatt / wto : the Relationship between Regionalism and Multilateralism. Revista Problemas Del Desarrollo, 181(46), 185–204. European Commission. (2018). Cómo exportar a la Unión Europea. https://doi.org/10.2781/566645 Falcony y Oleas. (2012). El retorno de las carabelas : Acuerdo Comercial Multipartes entre Ecuador y la Unión Europea. Quito. http://openbiblio.flacsoandes.edu.ec/libros/digital/52435.pdf Herrera, L. (2017). Proceso De Integración De América Latina Y El Caribe Process of Integration of Latin America and the Caribbean Palabras Clave: América Latina * Caribe * Integración Regional * Sociología Política* Política De Desarrollo. Rev. Ciencias Sociales Universidad de Costa Rica, 158(IV), 167–183. http://www.cuba.cu/ Hill, C. (2015). Negocios Internacionales (Octava). México: MCGRAW-HILL. Izquierdo, Novillo, & Mocha. (2019). Las bases del cambio de la matriz productiva en Ecuador. Universidad y Sociedad, 9(2), 313–318. http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2218-36202019000400377 Latorre, J. (2017). El desarrollo de las negociaciones en el Acuerdo Comercial Multipartes de la UE con Ecuador Javier. FLACSO. Lucio, J. (2019). Liderazgo geopolítico: el papel de los acuerdos comerciales. Comillas Journal of International Relations, (15), 52–77. https://doi.org/10.14422/cir.i15.y2019.005 Ministerio de Comercio Exterior. (2017). Memorias de las negociaciones del acuerdo multipartes entre Euador y la Unión Europea. Quito. Ministerio de Comercio Exterior e Inversiones. (2018). Ecuador y la UE consideran positiva su relación comercial tras Acuerdo Multipartes. September 16, 2019. https://www.comercioexterior.gob.ec/ecuador-y-la-ue-consideran-positiva-su-relacion-comercial-tras-acuerdo-multipartes/ OMC. (2019). Organización Mundial de Comercio. September 14, 2019. https://www.wto.org/spanish/tratop_s/tariffs_s/tariffs_s.htm OMC. (2020). Los principios del sistema de comercio. https://www.wto.org/spanish/thewto_s/whatis_s/tif_s/fact2_s.htm Pérez, C. (1996). La mdernización industrial en América Latina y la Herencia, 46, 347–363. Proecuador. (2018). Ficha Técnica de la Unión Europea. September 16, 2019, https://www.proecuador.gob.ec/ficha-tecnica-de-union-europea/ Pública, S. N. de C. (2020). Acuerdo comercial multipartes con la UE. https://portal.compraspublicas.gob.ec/sercop/acuerdo-comercial-multipartes-con-la-ue/ Rosales, D., & De La Cruz, L. (2019). Los primeros 18 meses del Acuerdo Multipartes Ecuador – Unión Europea. Podium, 35, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.31095/podium.2019.35.3 Sanahuja, J. (2013). La Unión Europea y el Regionalismo Latinoamericano: Un balance. Investigación & Desarrollo, 21(1). Saura, J. (2013). Implicaciones de derechos humanos en el tratado de libre comercio entre Colombia y la Unión Europea. InDret. https://www.raco.cat/index.php/InDret/article/viewFile/270131/357687 Unión Europea. (2020). Ecuador y la Unión Europea. Retrieved from https://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/ecuador/1146/ecuador-y-la-unión-europea_es Vargas, J. (2007). Las reglas cambiantes de la competitividad global en el nuevo milenio:Las competencias en el nuevo paradigma de la globalización. In Red Internacional de Investigadores en Competitividad Memoria del I Congreso (pp. 0–21). Red Internacional de Investigadores en Competitividad. https://www.riico.net/index.php/riico/article/view/1050/411 Villagómez, M. (2017). Acuerdo comercial multipartes Ecuador - Unión Europea. AFESE, 56, 11–51. Zúñiga; Espinoza; Campos; Tapia; Muñoz. (2016). Una mirada a la globalización: pymes ecuatorianas. Observatorio de La Economía Latinoamericana, Ecuador. http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/ec/2016/pymes.html

The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ; This is an oral history interview with Curtis Marshall. Mr. and Mrs. Marshall discuss his experiences working for the American Pack and Provision Company, and his time as an LDS bishop during the Depression. They also discuss the importance of saving, avoiding debt, and entertainment during the Depression. ; 17p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Curtis Marshall Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Curtis Marshall Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Copyright © 2016 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. The working files, original recording, and archival copies are housed in the University Archives. Project Description The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The forty-five interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management This work is the property of the Weber State University, Stewart Library Oral History Program. It may be used freely by individuals for research, teaching and personal use as long as this statement of availability is included in the text. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Marshall, Curtis, an oral history by Mack S. Taft, circa 1960s, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. 1 Abstract: This is an oral history interview with Curtis Marshall. Mr. and Mrs. Marshall discuss his experiences working for the American Pack and Provision Company, and his time as an LDS bishop during the Depression. They also discuss the importance of saving, avoiding debt, and entertainment during the Depression. The interviewer is Mack Taft. MT: Well, Bishop Marshall, where did you live during the time of the Depression, between 1929-39? CM: Well, I lived out in Pleasant View until 1930. Then in 1930 the wife and I got married, and we moved into West 24th Street in Ogden. I previously had started working, in 1929, for the American Pack and Provision Company. I worked there for about 15 years, and in 1930 we moved into that area. We lived there for about 40 years. All five of our children were born there – two boys and three girls. MT: Where did you work during those years? CM: Well, I worked for the American Pack and Provision, a meat-packing plant there on West 24th Street during all that period of time. During that ten years, which isn't a very long period of time really, I worked several jobs there. I started to work there in what they called the pork pack. That was where the small orders went for packing and preparation for delivery. I worked in there for about three years, and then I took a sales – what they called a sausage wagon and delivered through Honeyville, Deweyville, Fielding, and that area about twice a week, and up Weber Canyon through Morgan, Devil's Slide, Henefer, clear up on into Kamas. And I did that twice a week. But I worked on the sausage wagon which, 2 of course, was delivery work. Most of the grocery stores that had the smaller meat counters, some of the larger ones in Ogden, and I did that for about five years. Then I worked there cutting wholesale meat for delivery mostly through the Ogden area. We used to deliver some quite large pieces of meat, a quarter of beef and so on while I was on the sausage wagon to various grocery stores that cut out quite a little meat. MT: Did you notice any special problems that the grocer had during those years? Was there credit available for him, or how did have to proceed there? CM: Well, about 75 percent of them could just sign the ticket and receive the goods, but the other 25 percent had somehow lost their credit and had to pay cash. I don't really know what made the difference, how some of them had lost their credit, but most of them were able to sign the ticket and receive the goods. MT: Were you fully employed during the Depression? Were you ever out of work? CM: Yes, I was employed all during the Depression. Sometimes we only got four days a week during the Depression, as I recall. We always got four days a week work, sometimes five. But I recall the government having these projects here for the unemployed and so on, but we were fortunate. This might be interesting to note that when I started working for the American Pack and Provision, I had previously sold out on the road, going up through Montana and Idaho, selling for a woolen mill. I only sold the one year, and then I started working for the American Pack and Provision. I started working there for 40 cents an hour. I think after I had been working there for about three months, I got raised to 43 ½ cents an hour. I was on the sausage wagon when I got raised to $28 a week, 3 and I thought that was quite a raise at that time. Quite a bit of difference between those wages and what they receive nowadays. MT: To what do you attribute the fact that you were able to have a job during those years when there was so much unemployment? CM: I would say that there are certain commodities that are a must to people and whether we are able to buy them or not, we usually get them. If the government has to buy them for us. And the meat business probably would fall in that area where everybody needed a certain amount of meat. You can get along without dress goods and some equipment, automobiles, and so on. But it's pretty hard to get along without meat of various types. So I remember talking about that, that we were fortunate to be in the meat industry. Since people had to eat, that made a job while other places that weren't so vital to the living standards of the average individual were out of work. I would attribute that as the main reason that we kept going. We did cut down to probably 75 percent of our usual volume, which showed that people cut down a lot of their meat consumption. That proved that we're still eating meat, though not so much as sometimes, and that kept us reasonably busy. MT: Did you have any special problems keeping the household over those years? Was food more difficult to come by, or clothes? What would be the most difficult problem along that line? CM: Well, I can't say that we had too difficult a time. I guess all my life I've been quite conservative, and I've learned that it's easier to have a few dollars on hand than it is to be a few dollars in the hole. So it's been my policy all my life that even 4 though I've made a little, that I saved a little. As I recall, we bought a small home at $15 a month, and food – some food items were rather hard to get, as I recall. Wasn't that the time it was pretty hard to get sugar and flour – I believe, somewhere close to that time. But it really didn't get us down. We thought many times how fortunate we were to be able to get by, though we went without a lot of items that were needed, and we ate well, and dressed fairly good. Let me put it this way – we weren't bothered near as much as some of the people that were around that we knew of. MT: Did you have your own garden, or things along this line? CM: No, we didn't. We had just – Oh, I tried once or twice to raise a little garden, but we lived on a hill that was a little too sandy to be profitable. Not only that, we were on city water. But there is one thing that we did do. We had a large chicken coop, and I raised chickens for a number of years both for eggs and meat. I had the battery system, and I raised chickens for a couple of years, but I can't say it was very profitable because it didn't last long. I was bothered quite a lot with colds and pneumonia in the chickens, so I gave that up. We had our own cow. I've always felt that that probably contributed much to our food. That's one thing I can think of. We had a lovely Jersey cow that gave a lot of milk, and I got her for a two-fold purpose. One was work for my boys while they were growing up, and the other, of course, for the milk, which is a big item for a family of five children and the two of us. We didn't raise much garden; the soil wasn't favored for that program very well. MT: What were you doing in the church at that time? When were you first made 5 bishop? CM: I was made bishop of the [LDS] 16th Ward there in 1940, and served for four years. Of course I had previously served prior to that. I had been in the presidency of the seventies quorum in our stake, and I served as superintendent of the Mutual, and been in the Sunday school. Actually in 1944 when I was released, I served for about three years as the advisor to the Senior Aaronic program. Then I went into the stake mission, and I served two years as a regular stake missionary. Then I served as the stake mission president of the North Weber Stake. Then we moved up here. MT: Was the church welfare by 1940 pretty well able to take care of the major needs of the people then, or what was the situation? CM: Well, I served as the bishop the once that I mentioned there in the North Weber Stake. Of course the welfare program came in along in that time. We had quite a few members in our ward that we assisted in the welfare program. I recall issuing welfare orders and going to the home and to the Bishop's Storehouse. We had improved it considerably from that time to the second time that I was bishop, but it functioned quite well. I don't recall any commodities that you weren't able to get while I was bishop in 1940-44, both in clothing and food items. MT: What's the most amusing circumstance that took place during those years, either in your family or with your children? CM: Well, I think back on a few things that were quite faith-promoting. One item I always felt came through desire to keep the commandments of the Lord, and 6 attend the meetings that I was supposed to attend as a bishop. I recall while working at the packing house breaking the bone in my right foot just shortly before working hours were over. I had to limp my way home. I didn't take my shoe off, but when it happened I was pulling a flat truck loaded with about a ton of meat to take it into one of the freezers. I let my foot fall back far enough that the truck ran over it and broke the bone in my right foot. As I stated, I made it home, which was about 2 ½, three blocks from the packing plant. This was a Saturday night, and I had always been able to make it to all my meetings. I had, you might call it a hobby, of attending all my meetings. I had never missed a priesthood meeting, or Sunday school, or sacrament meeting, or stake meeting. I never missed any of those meetings. So on Saturday night, I said to my wife, as I took my shoe off, my foot puffed all up. So I said, "The doctors will all be out of town." So I soaked my foot for a long time in hot water, which may not have been the best thing for it as it turned out. Still it could have been. Anyhow, I had great desire to go to my meetings as usual. As usual, of course, my wife and I had our evening prayer that night, and I asked for the blessing of the Lord. I said to my wife, "If I go to my priesthood meeting in the morning, it will be some greater power than anything here on earth." And we went to bed, and my foot was paining very bad and was extremely swollen. It pained me very much until about one in the morning, and then I suddenly went to sleep and didn't wake up until six the next morning. When I did, my wife asked about my foot. When she did, we took the covers off my foot. I was going to say, "To my surprise," but I wasn't surprised because I 7 had great faith I was going to go to the meeting. So I rolled over and sat on the side of the bed, and the swelling was almost entirely gone from my foot, and most of the pain. I was able to put on my shoe and go to my priesthood and all my other meetings that day. It was a great testimony of the blessings that come if we try to do what we're supposed to do as priesthood bearers, we receive the blessings that come through obeying the commandments of the Lord. MT: That is a great testimony, Bishop. Do you think of any characteristics or habits that you do now that you attribute back to having lived through the Great Depression? Are you more conservative now than you were before? Or what would you relate to this? CM: As our children are grown up and all married and we have eighteen grandchildren now, I see every one of them living in considerably more convenient conditions and with many more of the modern conveniences than we were able to purchase at the time of our married life. I'm concerned that we hear so much about taxes and everything being expensive. And the thing that strikes me is how, in spite of that, we enjoy, as I see it, four times the modern conveniences that we could ever enjoy in our young married life. It seems to me that the young people have missed that period of time which was quite vital and left a deep impression upon me and my wife for the need of being a little more conservative as we try to caution our children and sons-in-law and daughters-in-law about going into debt pretty heavily. It seems that the loan business, credit, has become such a part that makes it so easy for young people to buy what they want. They say, "Why not have it here?" That, to me, probably stands out more 8 than anything else that I know of. We now have a son and daughter-in-law that pay about $4,500 for a new car that, in spite of the caution, and we also had another one that bought a Cadillac a couple of years ago, a brand new one. And they're already in debt. It just seems like this debt business is part of living to the young people. I would venture that 80 percent of all the young people have $5,000 to $40,000 worth of debt on their heads. If they should slip or stub their toe, I wonder where they would be. All they can do is just hope that help comes their way and they don't have sickness or too much trouble. MT: I don't think there were any other questions that I have now that you haven't answered. Was there something else that you can think of that's interesting, or a story you might tell? CM: Well, one more thought that I might add is that my mind runs back to the time that I was a young boy in my father's field at the age of four. I think about the conditions that Mother was confronted with, having my brother and my sister born five months after my father was killed, and she had to travel some nine miles on a coal-burning dummy. It was later replaced by an old streetcar that ran out north of Utah Hot Springs. She used to come in and work 10 hours a day scrubbing clothes for $1.25 a day. Then I think possibly if some of the young people today could know and witness some of those situations today, how all these modern conveniences that they have today were unknown, even a lot of electric lights and gas and electric stoves that we have. We had to cut wood and get kindling, and start the fire. I think that if it were possible to revert back 65 years and let them have a few months of living as we did in those days, with the 9 horse and buggy and the old muddy roads and so on, that we'd appreciate more fully, probably, the wonderful conveniences that we have and be more willing to pay some of the taxes that we have to pay to enjoy these great luxuries and things that we enjoy today. MT: Sister Marshall, what do you remember about the Depression? Mrs. Marshall: Well, about the only thing I remember is making over clothes. Lots of times we'd go to the Deseret Industries and get old clothes, even other people's old clothes, and take them home and make them into clothes for our children. And then I think we didn't do like we do now. We'd make a big pot of soup, or a big pot of beans, and we could feed them a lot cheaper than feeding them on beefsteak, that's for sure, like most people think they have to have today. But that's about the only thing I think I can say, working in the church, and keeping active and healthy. MT: Now, Bishop, I think of another question that I should have asked you. What things do you remember back that you think might be good for the young people now? What things in the community, or wards, or so forth, that you feel were better than we have now? CM: I think that is a good question. I see on every hand that people, even in our church, they say, "My, if I could just find a job for our boy or our girl." I do recall that back 50 or 60 years ago, when I was a small boy, one of the chief duties of the deacons and teachers was to help the widows, and cut kindling, and do the chores for the various needy families. Today there is so little of that done, yet the need is almost as great as it was 50 or 60 years ago. Some way or another, we 10 have forgotten that there are a lot of these jobs. I think that, as parents, we could do a whole lot more to encourage our children to go out to the needy, especially the widows and those who are financially up against it, and helping there. I think one of the prime obligations that the parents have, probably, is to see that their children have an obligation and responsibility and that they do it. Too many of them are so used to have the money doled out to them with no particular responsibility on their part. I see that as a problem more than anything else. Lack of a job for these young people, yet many jobs available. They're apparently blind to them and don't see them. For one thing, they don't want to do anything if it's babysitting jobs for the girls. It's almost exorbitant for the young people who need to pay the price of a babysitter. Some of them are asking as high as $1.50 an hour, I guess. So I think possibly parents need to encourage their children to do the jobs that need doing. Certainly there's a lot of joy and satisfaction comes from doing the job whether we get anything financially from it, but just doing it for the sheer joy of being of service to your neighbors and the members of your ward, and things. MT: What about entertainment in the '30s and so forth, in the ward and community, as compared to now? CM: I see a great change in the entertainment. When I was a young fellow, we used to go to dances. All over in nearly every ward, they had regular dances. Some had them even every week. North Ogden, Plain City, Hooper, at least twice a month, it seems to me. They used to have a dance or a nice little home orchestra or sometimes they were in from another ward. We'd have some 11 wonderful times dancing the square dances and the shaubushes [sic], and the different dances there. We used to come to White City here in Ogden. They had a great group of people, old and young, used to go there. I would assume a good many of those times we'd run near five, six, or seven hundred people through there every night. They had them about every week. Nowadays, other than a few of the stakes in our communities, there are hardly any dances. Some of the stakes – which is a wonderful thing – do have them, probably every other week with a nice orchestra, which is commendable. I think the television and all these modern conveniences, seems like it works two ways. It's wonderful to be able to enjoy these wonderful programs that come, and if we use them the right way, they'll be a great help to us. On the other hand, why it's taking the initiative away from the people in the homes and communities to develop their own natural talents and do their own entertaining. They leave it to somebody else to do it. MT: Sister Marshall, what is your recollection of these things that we've been talking about? Mrs. Marshall: I was thinking that there's more money made now by the parents. Usually both parents are working, and I think that's where a lot of our trouble comes with our children right today. They're not made to get out and make their own money. Now when our boys bought a car, they had to make the money to buy the car and put the gas in it. But not many children have to do that today. Their parents buy them the car and give them the money, and then they go and get into trouble. But our boys, they worked hard enough during the day so that they were tired enough at night to go to bed. And I think that's a lot of our trouble 12 with the children because there's nothing for them to do to get tired. Well, just not too long ago, they got the High Priests to go do this lawn work, when there's so many young people that could do the same thing. CM: Yes, we have a lot of that going on here in our ward. The High Priests and elders occasionally, but true, we've had six or eight of our High Priests that have been sick lately. But there are many other jobs you know, bathing the high priests, and driving them to Salt Lake, and other things. These kinds of jobs, true there aren't as many as there used to be. But as I think my wife has mentioned, we should try and get these young people out to do some of these jobs because they can do just as good and sometimes better than some of the older of us. But there they are, and I'm sure I would be safe in saying that there are around 50 to 60 young fellows in our ward here that are Aaronic priesthood age that could do a lot of this work. They've gotten to the point where, if the job don't suit them, and when I say this I'm talking about my own grandchildren because they're just like the rest of them – but if the job don't suit them, they say, "I don't like it." See, both the girls and the boys. And the parents instead of encouraging them and saying, "Well, here, you've got this to buy and that to buy. You'd better go to work." They go along with them and say, "Well, here, okay." And dig down in their pockets and buy it for them without them putting forth any effort. Things come too easy that way.

A main reason for founding the European Union was to remove internal trade obstacles and to establish a Single Market within its borders. Along with the increasing integration of international markets, an ever-increasing diversification of firms in tandem with the development of multinational enterprises is observable. Legislative authorities of the European Union and its member states are faced with the challenge of ensuring that their corporate tax systems keep pace with this economic transformation of companies and markets. Hence, in order to meet the requirements of an integrated European market, in 2001 the European Commission proposed a switch from Separate Accounting to Formula Apportionment as the leading corporate income taxation system in the European Union. Basically, corporate income of multinational enterprises can be taxed according to these two different principles. At present Separate Accounting is applied at the international level, while some countries like the U.S., Canada, Germany and Switzerland use Formula Apportionment at the state or federal level. Under the current system of Separate Accounting each subsidiary of a multinational enterprise is treated as a separate entity subject to national tax law. For this reason multinationals have to value their intra-firm trade using internal transfer prices, which should meet an external standard of comparison, so-called arm's length prices. Because of the very nature of internal trade with firm-specific tangibles and intangibles evaluating adequate transfer prices proved difficult. Consequently, Separate Accounting was identified as one reason for manipulations in favor of profit shifting for tax saving purposes. That is why the European Commission regards the consolidation of profits including cross-border loss offset for calculating a multinational company's tax base as a more suitable approach in the economic union and advocates the Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base (CCCTB). To allocate the consolidated tax base to the taxing countries a splitting mechanism is needed. Hence, the CCCTB proposal includes a system of Formula Apportionment. A formula apportions a share of the overall tax base depending on the multinational enterprise's geographical economic activity in the respective country. The European Commission favors a common three-factor apportionment formula containing assets, labor and sales to represent the production and consumption side. The European Commission's proposal has initiated a continuing politico-economic discussion about the efficiency and distributional consequences of the transition to Formula Apportionment in Europe. This doctoral thesis evaluates particular issues within this debate by presenting three theoretical articles to answer specific research questions. The articles are based on the methodological concept of a Nash tax competition model under perfect symmetry, where countries choose their corporate tax rates non-cooperatively. The non-cooperative behavior of one country may impose fiscal externalities on other countries and thereby renders the tax policy inefficient. This dissertation focuses on the derivation, explanation and interpretation of the resulting inefficiencies under Separate Accounting and Formula Apportionment. For this reason it contributes three papers to the theoretical literature of optimal tax policies in a non-cooperative equilibrium of tax rates. The work aims to compare and discuss the alternative policy options. The first article pertains to the public debate about the right taxation principle to apply in Europe. The article investigates the effect of fiscal equalization on the efficiency properties of corporate income tax rates chosen under the taxation principles of Separate Accounting and Formula Apportionment. Fiscal equalization ensures efficiency if the marginal transfer just reflects the fiscal and pecuniary externalities of tax rates. In contrast to previous studies, tax base equalization (Representative Tax System) does not satisfy this condition, but combining tax revenue and private income equalization does, regardless of which taxation principle is implemented. This finding implies that it does not matter whether MNEs are taxed according to Separate Accounting or Formula Apportionment if there is equalization of national income (i.e. private income plus tax revenues). Under Formula Apportionment, tax base equalization is superior to tax revenue equalization if the wage income externality is sufficiently large. Even though the European Union does not have an explicit equalization system, a part of the Unions's budget is financed by contributions from the member states. The implied income redistribution would indeed not be enough to ensure efficiency of corporate income taxation, since the budget is not an equalization system in the sense of our analysis. But the very existence of income redistribution in Europe might indicate that reforming the member states' contributions to the budget in a suitable way may politically be easier to achieve than replacing an implemented corporate tax system. The second article refers to the sales factor in the proposed three-factor formula under Formula Apportionment. The incorporation of a sales factor in the formula as well as the assignment of sales at the place of origin or destination are hotly debated issues. The CCCTB Working Group suggested in 2007 the inclusion of sales following the destination principle but also mentioned that ".most member states experts that would support the inclusion of sales as a factor would prefer sales measured 'at origin' ". With regard to the most recent proposal by the European Commission in 2011, the European Parliament advocated that the sales weight be lowered to 10%. The Committee of the Internal Market and Consumer Protection even called for the removal of the sales factor. In contrast, from Canada and the United States, the opposite development has been observed, namely the increasing importance of the sales factor. Taking a two-country Nash tax competition model with a sales-only formula and market power, we investigate (i) whether the transition from Separate Accounting to Formula Apportionment mitigates tax competition and improves welfare and (ii) whether tax competition is weakest when sales are measured with the origin principle. The driving force is a negative consumption externality that hampers the positive formula externality present for both the origin and destination principle. The third paper investigates the Commission's recommendation to implement a transition process to Formula Apportionment. During the change Formula Apportionment should be optional for multinational enterprises. Recent empirical literature proves that profit consolidation reduces multinational enterprises' involuntary costs for complying with different tax laws, but increases discretionary compliance costs incurred by tax planning activities. That is why the third article considers a two-country model with multinationals that are heterogeneous with respect to their involuntary compliance costs. Additionally, multinational enterprises using the Formula Apportionment system face higher discretionary compliance costs due to restricted tax base manipulation opportunities. Hence, multinational enterprises would prefer to be taxed under Formula Apportionment if and only if under Separate Accounting the involuntary compliance costs exceed the tax advantage due to better profit shifting possibilities. We show that a non-negative threshold value of involuntary compliance costs exists such that multinationals with costs above this level choose Formula Apportionment. We prove in a symmetric setting that starting from a pure Separate Accounting system with national revenue maximization, a transition from Separate Accounting to an optional Formula Apportionment increases the non-cooperative tax rates and national revenues for both countries ending up with the results of pure Formula Apportionment. This is because with identical tax rates the multinational enterprise cannot benefit from the better profit shifting opportunities under Separate Accounting but saves involuntary compliance costs. In our analysis the optional system of tax base consolidation promises an efficiency enhancement for the member countries. Hence, we deliver an additional argument in support of an international agreement on the CCCTB proposal. ; Einer der Hauptgründe für die Entstehung der Europäischen Union (EU) war das Ziel, interne Handelshemmnisse zu beseitigen, um innerhalb der Unionsgrenzen einen gemeinsamen Markt zu etablieren. Parallel zur zunehmenden Integration der internationalen Märkte ist eine vermehrte Diversifikation von Unternehmen zu beobachten, welche durch die Entstehung multinationaler Konzerne begleitet wird. Für die Gesetzgeber der EU und ihrer Mitgliedsstaaten bedeutet dies, ihre Körperschaftsteuersysteme laufend an diesen Transformationprozess anzupassen. Um dabei den Anforderungen des EU-Binnenmarktes gerecht zu werden, erachtet die Europäische Kommission eine umfassende Reform der Körperschaftsbesteuerung als notwendig. Im Jahr 2001 schlug die Kommission deshalb vor, für multinationale Unternehmen das Unternehmensteuersystem der separaten Gewinnbesteuerung durch eine formelbasierte Gewinnbesteuerung abzulösen. Aktuell wird die separate Gewinnbesteuerung vorwiegend auf der internationalen Ebene verwendet, während einige Länder wie die USA, Kanada, Deutschland und die Schweiz die Formelbesteuerung innerhalb ihrer förderalen Strukturen nutzen. Bei der separaten Gewinnbesteuerung wird jede Konzerntochter als eigenständiges Unternehmen behandelt, das der nationalen Steuergesetzgebung unterliegt. Der Wert des Zwischenhandels innerhalb der Unternehmensgruppe wird mit Hilfe von Transferpreisen ermittelt. Dabei sollen die firmeninternen Transferpreise dem sogenannten arm's-length-Prinzip folgen, so dass sie den Einkauf des Produktes oder der Leistung von einem Drittanbieter widerspiegeln. Es hat sich jedoch in der Praxis gezeigt, dass es sich bei den unternehmensintern gehandelten Gütern und Dienstleistungen oft um firmenspezifische Produkte handelt, für die kein externer Vergleichsmaßstab existiert und die Ermittlung und Kontrolle angemessener Transferpreise erschwert. Dies führt zu einer Manipulationsanfälligkeit bei dem Prinzip der separaten Gewinnbesteuerung, welche als eine Ursache für die internationale Gewinnverlagerung zum Zwecke der Steuervermeidung gesehen wird. Daher betrachtet die Kommission die Gewinnkonsolidierung einschließlich der grenzüberschreitenden Verlustverrechnung zur Bestimmung der Steuerbemessungsgrundlage eines multinationalen Unternehmens als geeigneteren Ansatz für den EU-Binnenmarkt. Sie schlägt dafür die Einführung der Gemeinsamen konsolidierten Körperschaftsteuer-Bemessungsgrundlage (GKKB) vor. Für die Aufteilung der GKKB auf die einzelnen steuerberechtigen Länder enthält der Vorschlag die formelbasierte Gewinnaufteilung. Eine EU-weit gültige Aufteilungsformel ordnet dabei die Steuerbemessungsgrundlage, gemäß der geschäftlichen Aktivität des multinationalen Unternehmens in jedem Land, den Mitgliedsstaaten zu. Die Kommission will mit Hilfe der Formelfaktoren sowohl Produktion als auch Konsum angemessen abbilden und favorisiert die drei gleich gewicheteten Faktoren Vermögenswerte, Arbeit und Umsatz. Der Vorschlag einer GKKB hat eine andauernde polit-ökonomische Debatte über die Effizienzwirkungen und die Verteilungsaspekte eines Übergangs zur formelbasierten Gewinnbesteuerung in Europa ausgelöst. Die vorliegende Doktorarbeit setzt sich mit speziellen Themen dieser Debatte auseinander. Dazu wurden drei Aufsätze entwickelt, die spezifische Forschungsfragen beantworten und sich in die theoretische Literatur der optimalen Steuerpolitik in einem unkooperativen Steuersatzgleichgewicht einordnen lassen. Die Artikel basieren auf dem methodischen Konzept eines Nash-Steuerwettbewerbsmodells bei vollständiger Symmetrie, wobei den Ländern die Souveränität über die Körperschaftsteuersätze obliegt. Da die einzelnen Staaten die Auswirkungen Ihrer Steuerpolitik auf die anderen Mitgliedsstaaten ignorieren, kann ihr Verhalten fiskalische Externalitätten auslösen, welche eine ineffiziente Steuersatzwahl kennzeichnen. Der Fokus der Papiere liegt auf der Ableitung, Erklärung und Interpretation der sich aus dem Steuerwettbewerb ergebenden Ineffizienzen unter der separaten und der formelbasierten Gewinnbesteuerung. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, die verschiedenen Politikalternativen dahingehend zu vergleichen und zu diskutieren. Der erste Artikel bezieht sich auf die Diskussion über das "bessere" Körperschaftsteuersystem für Europa. Das Papier untersucht den Effekt eines Finanzausgleichsystems auf die Effizienzeigenschaften der Körperschaftsteuersätze, die unter dem Prinzip der separaten Gewinnbesteuerung bzw. der Formelbesteuerung gewählt werden. Ein Finanzausgleich sichert dann Effizienz, wenn der marginale Transfer die fiskalischen und pekuniären Externalitäten der Steuersätze widerspiegelt. Im Unterschied zu vorherigen Arbeiten erfüllt in unserem Modell der Steuerbasisausgleich diese Bedingung nicht. Stattdessen führt ein Ausgleich der Nationaleinkommen, das heißt der Kombination aus einem Ausgleich von Steueraufkommen und privatem Einkommen, unabhängig vom verwendeten Steuerprinzip zu Effizienz. Dieses Ergebnis weist darauf hin, dass es irrelevant ist, ob multinationale Unternehmen der separaten oder der formelbasierten Gewinnbesteuerung unterliegen, wenn parallel ein Finanzausgleichssystem der Nationaleinkommen existiert. Bei der Formelbesteuerung könnte der Steuerbasisausgleich zu effizienteren Ergebnissen als der Steueraufkommensausgleich führen, wenn die Lohneinkommensexternalität ausreichend groß ist. Obwohl in der EU kein explizites Finanzausgleichssystem exisitiert, das im Sinne unserer Analyse angelegt ist, wird ein Teil des EU-Budgets durch die Beiträge der einzelnen Mitgliedsstaaten finanziert. Die damit verbundene Einkommensumverteilung reicht zwar nicht zur Sicherstellung effizienter Körperschaftsteuersätze aus, jedoch könnte die Erweiterung eines bereits vorhandenen Systems durch die entsprechende Anpassung der Beiträge zum EU-Budget politisch leichter durchsetzbar sein als die vollständige Reform des Körperschaftsteuersystems. Der zweite Artikel beschäftigt sich mit dem Umsatzfaktor in der Aufteilungsformel. Die Aufnahme eines Umsatzfaktor als solches sowie die Frage, ob Umsätze dem Ursprungsland oder dem Bestimmungsland zugeschlagen werden, werden innerhalb der EU kontrovers diskutiert. Die GKKB-Arbeitsgruppe schlug im Jahr 2007 die Aufnahme der Umsätze nach dem Bestimmungslandprinzip vor, erwähnte aber gleichzeitig, dass eine Mehrzahl der Experten der Mitgliedsstaaten die Einbeziehung der Umsätze nach dem Ursprungslandprinzip bevorzugen würde. Zum Vorschlag der Europäischen Kommission zu diesem Thema aus dem Jahr 2011 wandte das Europäische Parlament ein, dass es die Gewichtung des Umsatzfaktors auf 10% absenken würde. Der Ausschuss für den Binnenmarkt und Verbraucherschutz forderte sogar die vollständige Streichung des Umsatzfaktors in der Formel. Im Gegensatz zu diesen Forderungen stehen die Entwicklungen in Kanada und den USA, wo der Umsatzfaktor immer mehr an Bedeutung gewinnt. Wir zeigen in einem Nash-Steuerwettbewerbsmodell mit zwei Ländern, Marktmacht und einer umsatzbasierten Aufteilungsformel, dass (i) der Übergang von der separaten zur formelbasierten Gewinnbesteuerung den Steuerwettbewerb abschwächt und dieWohlfahrt erhöht und (ii) mit einem Umsatzfaktor nach dem Ursprungslandprinzip der geringste Steuerwettbewerb auftritt. Das zweite Ergebnis ist auf eine negative Konsumexternalität zurückzuführen, welche der sowohl beim Ursprungsland- als auch beim Bestimmungslandprinzip auftretenden positiven Formelexternalität entgegenwirkt. Das dritte Papier untersucht den Kommissionsvorschlag, eine Übergangsphase von der separaten zur formelbasierten Gewinnbesteuerung zu schaffen. Während dieser Phase soll die Formelbesteuerung den Unternehmen optional zur Verfügung stehen. Die empirische Literatur zeigt, dass sich durch die Gewinnkonsolidierung die unfreiwilligen Befolgungskosten, die ein multinationales Unternehmens aufbringen muss, um die nationalen steuergesetzlichen Vorgaben zu erfüllen, verringern. Auf der anderen Seite steigen die diskretionären Kosten für Maßnahmen des Unternehmens, die der Gewinnverlagerung dienen. Der dritte Artikel bildet diese Erkenntnisse in einem Zwei-Länder-Modell ab, in welchem sich die multinationalen Unternehmen in der Höhe ihrer unfreiwilligen Befolgungskosten unterscheiden. Zusätzlich sehen sich Unternehmen, die die Formelbesteuerung nutzen, höheren diskretionären Kosten gegenüber, weil hier die Möglichkeiten zur Manipulation der Steuerbemessungsgrundlage deutlich eingeschränkt sind. Folglich werden nur die Unternehmen für die Formelbesteuerung votieren, bei denen unter der separaten Gewinnbesteuerung die unfreiwilligen Befolgungskosten den Steuervorteil durch die leichtere Gewinnverlagerung übersteigen. Wir leiten einen nicht negativen Schwellenwert der unfreiwilligen Befolgungskosten ab, ab welchem sich Unternehmen mit höheren Kosten für die Formelbesteuerung entscheiden. Unter Annahme von Symmetrie zeigen wir, dass, ausgehend von einem System mit separater Gewinnbesteuerung und nationaler Steueraufkommensmaximierung, eine optionale formelbasierte Gewinnbesteuerung die unkooperativ gewählten Steuersätze und das nationale Steueraufkommen für beide Länder erhöht. Basierend auf den Modellannahmen wird sogar das Niveau der ausschließlichen Formelbesteuerung erreicht, da bei gleichen Steuersätzen der Vorteil der besseren Gewinnverschiebungsmöglichkeiten irrelevant wird und nur die Ersparnis der unfreiwilligen Befolgungskosten als Entscheidungskriterium wirkt. In unserer Analyse führt die Optionalität der GKKB zu einer Effizientverbesserung in den beteiligten Ländern. Somit können wir ein Argument für die Vorteilhaftigkeit des GKKB-Vorschlags innerhalb der EU beitragen. ; DFG, RU 1466/1, Alternative Systeme zur Besteuerung multinationaler Unternehmen in Europa

Part one of an interview with Salvatore "Sal" Pisciotta. Topics include: How Sal became a barber and eventually quit because he didn't like the work. How his parents immigrated to the United States from Italy. His parents lived in Ashburnham, MA and then moved to Fitchburg, where Sal was born. His parents were uneducated and the disadvantages they faced because of that. Stories Sal's parents told about Italy. How his family felt when World War II broke out. Sal's feelings about the events of September 11th and terrorism in general. His father's work as a laborer. The differences in how girls and boys were treated in his family. Education. What his mother was like and what a typical day was like for her. The garden his parents kept. Memories from his childhood. The food his mother used to prepare. His mother's experience working at a mill. What it was like to buy groceries and have ice delivered. Making wine and sausages. What Fitchburg was like when Sal was growing up. The boarders his parents housed. ; 1 LINDA: This is Linda [Rosenwan] on Friday, November 9. It's 9:50 a.m. We're with Sal Pisciotta, 208 Woodland Street in Fitchburg. And hello, Sal. SAL: Hi. Hi, Linda. LINDA: Okay. Here we go. So why don't you tell me -- you were just telling me a little bit -- I hate to ask you again, but tell me what happened after you graduated from Fitchburg High School in 1948. SAL: Oh. I went to barber school in Boston; that was for six months. Six months course, and then brother Joe and I, we opened up a barber shop down the street here, you know, in Fitchburg. And I always disliked being a barber, but I was forced into it. I always wanted to be civil engineer, but I mean, in those days if your father or brother was a barber you had to be a barber or a tailor or a cobbler or what the heck ever they were. LINDA: So he was an older brother. SAL: Oh, yeah. He was 17 years. I never grew up with him. I mean, I never grew up he and I being brothers. I mean, he was 17 years. He was… I was 3 years old when he got married, so we never grew up being close as brothers. And then the Korean War came along, I got drafted, and I went to Korea. I was there for, well, 15 months in the 24th Division. When I came back I wanted to go to school but then I got married, and one thing led into another. I went back into barbering, but then that was it. I couldn't take it anymore. I just had to get the heck out of there. LINDA: Did your brother know that you hated it? SAL: Oh, yeah. He knew it. He didn't want to see me leave, but hey, I quit. I told him I was leaving, then I had problems with my wife and I couldn't find a job. The country was in a recession back in '63, '62. So finally I landed this job in Leominster for the Doyle Estate, which was a wonderful thing, working for this lady. She's been very gracious and great to me and my three children. And that's it. I'm supposed to be retired here. LINDA: Okay, so we're going to stop the interview. Again. SAL: Okay. What we said is all gone, right? LINDA: All gone. We were just starting. See, it's at two minutes again.2 SAL: Okay. LINDA: Because we were just talking about -- so we won't talk about her personally. SAL: No, please, no. Don't say it. Nothing about her personally. LINDA: Okay. So then let me thing back what we should talk about. SAL: [Unintelligible – 00:02:55]? LINDA: Yes, we could start there. So your parents, Antonio… SAL: Antonio and Antoinette. LINDA: Now, did they come from Italy together? SAL: Yes. He came -- Dad was born in 1883. He went into the Italian Army. I think he was in the Italian Army a couple of years. Then he came to America, I think it was in 1906, or '07, whatever it is. And he worked in the Sumner Tunnel in Boston, I'd say. And then I guess he got laid off. He got laid off, and then he was going to go back to Italy. You know, the Italian government was calling these people, these immigrants, these Italian people that came over here. There was no work, and for $5 you could get on ship and go back to Italy. And my father had bought a ticket; he was going back to Italy. He was down on Hanover Street or one of the streets in the North End, and he met another Italian man, and they asked my father where he was going, where he was working. And my father says, I have no job here. I'm going back to Italy. So he said, tomorrow you meet at a certain place here in Boston, and we're going to go to Wellesley. In Wellesley there was a very, very wealthy man that has horses and stables and greenhouses, exactly what these Italians could do. So that's how my father went to work there, and he worked there for a few months. Then he did go back to Italy, and he was going to go marry this woman that he had left that he was in love with.3 Come to find out, she didn't wait for him. She had already gotten married to somebody else. So he struck up a relationship, which I think actually was a fixed marriage, with my mother. And anyway, he met somebody on the street, another -- I think Papa says once he was the mailman or something and says, Tony, get married and go back to America. Italy is about ready to go to war with Tripoli. LINDA: Oh, so wait a minute. So he did go back to Italy? SAL: Yes. Yeah. He went back to Italy to get married, but the woman that he was in love with, that he liked, she already got married. A letter carrier said to him, go back to America; that Italy is ready to go to war with Tripoli and that's when the 1912, I think it was, Dad came back with -- and she was 19 years old and my dad was 27, I guess. In 1912 they came and they landed in Boston. LINDA: So at this time he had been -- it was a married arranged for him, to a 19-year-old Antoinette. SAL: Yes. It was just, in those days, it was all arranged marriages. LINDA: Yeah. So they both came back here? SAL: Yeah. And I think they settled in South Ashburnham, a little jerk town up the street here, in South Ashburnham. And then he raised his family there. LINDA: Now, why do you think he ended up there? SAL: In those days, Linda, if Joe came, or Frank came to America, he would call him brother and his brother, he comes to America and didn't even know how to speak English, so where do you go? You go with your brother, or you go with somebody that you knew that called you. Then when you get here, you call your father-in-law or your sister-in-law, whatever it is, and you all get together. Because in those days, they all came here to Fitchburg. There was quite a population there was here, they call it the patch down on Water Street, and there was a lot of Italian people.4 But had there been work here in Fitchburg, today the Italian population would have been greater than it is in the North End of Boston, because what had happened was the work stopped. There was no more work, they weren't building any more factories, and then they started building the State House in New York, and all the Italians -- not all the Italians, but a lot of Italians, picked up their roots here from Fitchburg and Leominster, and they went to Albany, New York to live. LINDA: So who did you father follow then to Ashburnham? Do you know who was living there? SAL: Oh, yeah. His brother. LINDA: His brother. SAL: Yeah. LINDA: Now, what kind of work was he doing there? SAL: Laborers. That's all they ever do. Laborers. In those days they were building the paper mills, and that's it. A pick and shovel. There was no call up the cement truck and the cement truck come over with some cement. Everything was made by hand. It was laborers. And they were getting maybe $5 or $6 a week, and that was it. A week. Not a day or an hour, a week. LINDA: Now, where were they living, do you know? Were they living in a boarding house? SAL: No. It was a regular house. In fact, my daughter, Cynthia, lives up the street but the house is demolished now. The house isn't there anymore. Then from there they moved from South Ashburnham, they came down here on Orchard Street here in Fitchburg. They lived there for a few years, then they moved to [Edlee] Street and that's where I was born 72 years ago. LINDA: So what made them come to Fitchburg? SAL: Because one of his brothers was here, and there was work. LINDA: So he had a brother in Ashburnham and then Fitchburg?5 SAL: Then they came to Fitchburg because there was work here. They were building the paper mills, there was work. That's what they would do. They would just follow wherever work was, and then these Italians, the woman, would take in their brothers as boarders, so maybe about 65, or 70, a dollar a week they would cook for these guys, they would wash their clothes, iron, for a dollar a week. Cook their meals, make their lunch. That was America. They were the ones that built this country, those immigrants. Not only the Italians, I'm talking about the Swedes, the French and all that. Of course, and then the Italians. And then you get the Englishmen that came to this country and those -- is this being…? LINDA: Go ahead. That's fine. That's what history's about. SAL: So we got all these people that came over from Ireland, those guys ended up with the good jobs because they knew how to speak English. You get the Italians, the French, the Polocks, what do they know? They don't even know English. And that's how all the Kennedys and the rest of those rich families survived. Or got started. LINDA: That's what was so interesting about my interview yesterday. I think I told you, the Italian Citizens Club, with the [unintelligible - 00:10:20], was that they formed so that the Italians, they could teach them English and get them to become citizens and then show them the way to get better jobs. So they had to do that because there was a language barrier. SAL: Yeah. A language barrier. Like my father. My father and mother never went to school a day in their life. LINDA: Did they ever learn English? SAL: Yeah, they learned English. Very, very broken English, but they never went to school. I mean, we spoke in the house; it was all Italian as we grew up. I mean, with my mother and father usually would speak Italian, but amongst us kids it was English. But amongst Mom and Dad it was always Italian. LINDA: So they never became citizens?6 SAL: Oh, they did. Yeah. LINDA: Oh, they did? SAL: Yeah, during the Second World War, and then I can still remember before the Second World War my father became an American citizen. He was the happiest guy in the world. Then my mother, she became a citizen because she had a son that was in the Navy and he was in the war, and automatically she became an American citizen. LINDA: Wait, how did that work? SAL: What's that? LINDA: She automatically became a citizen? SAL: Her son was in the service, and I guess contributed to his country, and she just went to city hall one day and they had the ceremony and she became a citizen. But she never went to school. She never even knew how to sign her name. LINDA: I have my grandmother's passport where she has just an "x" where it says, sign your name. SAL: Dad could sign his name but it was… anyway. LINDA: It's amazing, though, isn't it? That they could come here and… SAL: They're the ones that built this county, right? LINDA: So you said your dad was the happiest man in the world. SAL: Oh, yeah. He was so proud. He became an American citizen, and he never had any desire to go back to Italy. He says, America's my home now. I want to stay in America. I don't want to go to Italy anymore. LINDA: Isn't that amazing? I mean, can you imagine yourself going to another country and…? SAL: And not even speaking a word of English? LINDA: And not becoming a citizen? SAL: And then becoming a citizen. Yeah. LINDA: So where were they from in Italy? SAL: Salemi. LINDA: Is this in Sicily?7 SAL: Yes, it's in Salemi. S-A-L-E-M-I. Salemi. Province of Trepani. T-R-E-P-A-N-I, Sicily. LINDA: Spell the Salemi again? SAL: S-A-L-E-M-I. LINDA: All right. So both your parents were from there? SAL: Yes. LINDA: Okay. So do you ever remember them talking about the old country? SAL: Oh, yeah. My father told me -- he would tell me that when he was courting my mother—because where they came from was all hills and mountains and there was no flashlights in those days and they used to have like a lamp and the lantern and my mother lived in the hills—and at nighttime he would slip, he would fall 200 or 300 feet down the cliff running. She came from the hills, poor thing. Nineteen years old she came to this country. Never went back, never saw her mother or father anymore, but anyway. LINDA: Did she used to have anyone write letters? Well, they probably couldn't read them. SAL: No, they could. My sister could speak Italian, and they would call [unintelligible - 00:14:11], but then naturally when the Second World War broke out, they were, you know, we were against the war on Italy, against Italy, so there was no communication then. LINDA: How did your parents feel about that when the United States was at war with Italy? Do you remember anything? SAL: That was terrible because they figured they were Americans, and they thought it was stupid that he got -- Mussolini in those days, got involved with Hitler. They thought it was a disgrace. The Italians, you know, if you look at history, they were the ones that turned against Hitler and the Italian army gave up. Every time they would see the American army coming they would always wave their hands and give up. They didn't want to fight. LINDA: So did your father have any brothers or sisters that stayed in Italy?8 SAL: Oh, yeah. Yeah. There were two of them, I think, that stayed in Italy. Sisters, no he didn't have. He had brothers. One of them was here in American, and two of them, I think, stayed in Italy. But he never saw the ones in Italy anymore. LINDA: He didn't try to get them over here? SAL: No. LINDA: No? What about your mother's family? SAL: She tried to get her brother over here. I can still remember going to city hall, and she tried to get her brother, whose name was Salvatore also, and the girl at the city hall says there was a quota in those days of foreigners coming into this country, and we asked how long it would take before her brother came to America, and they told me seven years. In those days. Today, what the hell happened to this quota? Right? So I guess he got disgusted or discouraged and he moved to Venezuela. And he did come here. He was here to visit my mother. He was here for about four or five weeks and then went back to Venezuela. But what happened to the quota in this country where you had to wait to come in here? Now the doors are open and every [screwball] can come in and out as they please. Right, Linda? LINDA: Do you think we'll go back to a quota system? SAL: No. LINDA: No? SAL: Of course not. Hey, you've got Bush, who just says what? Mexicans, a couple of months ago he says there's three million of them and we're going to go make them all American citizens. LINDA: How did people of your generation -- I mean, do you talk to your friends about what happened on September 11th? SAL: No, it's a tragedy it happened. And like everybody else we haven't seen nothing here. What the hell? Everybody that's -- not everybody, but that's the consensus… anybody doesn't have to be a brain surgeon to 9 figure that out. That war's going to be worse. [Unintelligible - 00:17:32] watching the bridges, they're watching the water supplies, airports. It's too bad. LINDA: I just always wonder how veterans of the war feel, because at least you knew who the enemy was, and you knew the country to attack. SAL: Right. And we would attack the enemy. These people, September 11, they attack these poor civilians, which was terrible. I mean, if they want to attack an army base or a Navy base or a ship, okay, that's war, like Pearl Harbor was war. But these people… again, it's their faith in Allah and the Mohammed and the wacky people that they are. But they're never going to erase terrorism. You're not going to wipe it out in this world. Never. [Unintelligible – 00:18:37] Mohammed and [unintelligible - 00:18:38] what the hell. You know it. There's another hundred guys right behind him that are worse than him. Am I right, Linda? LINDA: I'm afraid you might be. I know. That's a bad situation. SAL: Yes is it. It's terrible. LINDA: You think back to how your parents were. Their concern was putting a roof over their children's heads and putting food on the table, and now… SAL: Now we -- right. That's terrible. Like you say, you've got to worry about your grandchildren and your children, and that's… we've seen the better days of America. Let's put it that way, Linda. LINDA: I think of how heartbroken my grandparents would be to see something like this. SAL: Oh, God. They wouldn't believe it. When you see two big buildings like that just crumbling down, it's unbelievable. LINDA: Well, so getting back to… SAL: Do you want a cup of coffee? LINDA: No, do you? SAL: No. LINDA: I'm all set. SAL: You're all set?10 LINDA: Thanks. Every time I talk about it I get a little… SAL: Well, naturally, of course. It's a terrible thing that's happening in this country, and in the whole world. Even Italians, in Italy they're having their problems, too. [Unintelligible - 00:20:10] a few more, they had explosives in their car, they don't know where they were going. Anyway. LINDA: Back in your father's day, or even when you were younger, people just loved America. They even liked to be here. Now there's such an anti-American sentiment. Just, you know, in a relatively few short years things have really changed. SAL: Well, you know, America is the greatest country in the world, there's no question about it, okay. But the trouble with this country, I mean, is we try to force democracy down the throats of a lot of these small countries. Hey, let them live the way they want to live. If they want to live in communism, let them live in communism. Why do we have to spread democracy all the time? Am I right? It's a good forum, it's like a lecture. They want the communist rule, I mean, there's no more communism out there, I guess, and there's more crime. But anyway. LINDA: So your father must have been somewhat old when you were born, not old but what, like 40 years old? SAL: Oh yeah, he was. I think he was 42 or 43. LINDA: So he was still working as a laborer. SAL: Yeah. No, he worked in Simon's, it was a steel -- it was near Fitchburg, it was where they fabricated saws and paper knives and stuff like that, [unintelligible - 00:21:53] Steel. He worked there for 32 years, then he retired when he was 65. LINDA: So what did he do for them? SAL: Labor. Just hard work, just a hard laborer. LINDA: But it must have seemed like kind of a cushy job after working outside with a shovel. SAL: Oh yeah, I'm sure it must have been. But I mean, the way he was talking I guess they had this kind of a stones of a brace of [unintelligible -11 00:22:23] and they'd grind them down. I'm sure it must have been hard work for the poor guy. Then he used to walk back and forth to work to save a nickel or a cop there in those days. LINDA: How far is that? SAL: It used to be on North Street, right on Main Street. Right here at [unintelligible - 00:22:40] College, North Street. LINDA: Okay. He would walk from here? SAL: He would walk, yeah just to save a nickel on the bus. LINDA: He probably didn't have a very -- he didn't have [unintelligible - 00:22:55] back then, right? SAL: Oh God, no. Just a hardworking man, that's all he was. Poor guy, I feel so sorry. What a life he lived. But anyway. LINDA: Why do you say that? Because he worked so hard? SAL: Oh, he worked so hard and didn't have all the conveniences that we have today. We didn't have a telephone in the house. I think we had to go to the fire station to use the telephone. There was no telephones back when I was growing up. I think I was about five years old before I ever sat in an automobile. LINDA: So tell me about making a phone call. You'd walk down to the fire station? SAL: Yeah, there was a fire station. So you'd make a telephone call to somebody. We didn't have a phone. LINDA: Did they charge you? SAL: I don't remember, that I don't remember. But the first one we got was a four-party telephone. The phone used to ring three or four, that's not ours, that's not ours. LINDA: I vaguely remember my grandmother having that, yeah. SAL: We had a four-party telephone. LINDA: So tell me what your mother was like. SAL: Very strict. She was a strict woman, yeah. She brought up five daughters, and not one of them ever crossed the line. Real proud girls.12 LINDA: Were girls and boys treated differently? SAL: Oh yeah. To an Italian woman the sons were always the favorite. Yeah, I was the favorite. Especially the oldest one, he was always the favorite one. LINDA: Now, was that Joe? SAL: Joe, yeah. LINDA: So he decided to be a barber. That was a good decision that you would have to follow? SAL: Well. LINDA: A good decision for him. SAL: Good for him I guess. And in those days we didn't have the opportunity to go to high school anyway. At 16 years old everybody had to quit and go to work. LINDA: Did you quit high school? SAL: No, I graduated in '48. Out of seven, my sister Millie and I were the only ones that graduated. LINDA: You were the youngest? SAL: I was the youngest, yeah. LINDA: And she must have been a young… SAL: Millie right now I think is 78, I think, 79. LINDA: So did your parents think that education was important? SAL: Yes, they did, but food on the table was more important, yeah. LINDA: So were the children expected to go out and get jobs and contribute? SAL: Yeah, we all had to pay board in those days. Yeah, whatever the pay was that you brought into the house, a certain percentage had to go to the household, to my mother. She was a strict woman, very strict. But she was a good lady. Poor thing, she spent eight years of her life, eight years was in a nursing home after Alzheimer's I guess, after the sclerosis. Poor thing, didn't know who the hell she was, she didn't know who we were either. LINDA: Did she die after your father?13 SAL: Yeah. LINDA: So what was her day like every day? SAL: Well, when she was younger [unintelligible - 00:26:50] with her kids. She even worked in one of the yarn mills here in Fitchburg; she even had a job. I mean, she was a hardworking woman. And I used to remember her doing the canning; she'd can tomatoes and beans and dad had a little garden a couple miles away from here, a little piece of land. And he used to make his own grape, his own wine, rather. And it was great. All the Italians around here were living the -- I mean a lot of [unintelligible - 00:27:22] and the trucks used to go by this time of the year loaded with grape from California, and we would go down south, he would buy the grape, and we'd go down in the cellar and we would make two or three barrels of wine. All the Italians used to make barrels of wine. It was interesting, it was very interesting. But it's all gone now. I've got fond memories of that. LINDA: So it seems like maybe it didn't seem like work. But it was the way of life. SAL: No, it wasn't. The way of life, right. LINDA: So was it typical for a family to buy a little piece of land to garden? SAL: Oh yeah. They all had to have their grape arbor, had their grape arbor and land. They all had to have their piece of land. They had to grow their squash and their tomatoes. Well, most of them anyway. LINDA: So who would take care of the garden? SAL: My dad and I would. Come home from school, my father, he would come home, and there was no cars in those days, we used to have a big wagon. We'd pull the wagon, the garden was maybe a quarter of a mile away, half a mile away from here, and we would go up there. After school there was no going to play football with the kids or going swimming; it was work, work, work. That's how it was. And I would help my father. He would plant this and plant that. The poor guy didn't know how to read how to 14 plant this and what you should do, and I used to read and explain everything to him. LINDA: So who owned the land? I mean, did one person own the land and they kind of subdivided it? SAL: No, he bought the piece of land from the seller, the man who owned a lot of pieces of land. Of course, they're all houses now, but in those days it was all woods and stones, and he would, one of my uncles with a horse, they cleared all the land, chopped down all the trees, piled up all the stones. They cleared the land themselves. There was no bulldozers in those days; everything was done by hand. LINDA: Where was that? Do you know the street? SAL: Yeah, it was off between Herd and Exeter Street. LINDA: Now, did he continue doing that all the way? SAL: Until he passed away, yeah. LINDA: And what happened to it? SAL: The land? His dream was always having a house on this land, but my mother, in those days, again, five daughters, she figured if he built a house there was no men or boys that was still bringing in the pay. In other words a girl gets married, she's out of the house, there's no more money coming in. So my father went to one of the lumberyards in those days, I think it was $4,000. It would have cleared the land, built them a six-room house, and turned over the keys for $4,000. And my mother says no. She says we've got five daughters, there will be no money coming in. So that broke my father's heart. He never seen a house on that piece of land that he had. So he passed away, and the funeral parlor up the street here -- next to the funeral parlor there was a house, and it belonged to, I guess, his aunt or something, and he bought the land from him, my brother Joe, and they moved the house to the land over there, and somebody else is on our place now. The land is gone. LINDA: So why is it that your generation didn't keep the garden still?15 SAL: Number one it was a lot of work. And then my sisters all got married, and they would have a little garden behind their house. But I mean, as far as that big piece of land that my father had, nobody was interested in it anymore. Then I went into the service, the land just got lost. My brother Joe sold it to this undertaker over here and he moved the house. The house is on the land now. LINDA: So do you think your father had that garden to feed his family mostly? SAL: Oh yeah. Oh yeah, definitely that's what it was for. And they used to have a little -- everybody had a shack, my father had a shack, [oceandino] they'd call it, a shack on there. And he had a little stove in there. I can still see my mother with the tomatoes cooking her tomatoes on the wood burning stove. And there was a little bed in the corner where my father would get tired during the day working, he'd lay on the bed and take a nap. That's one thing about him, every afternoon he used to take a nap. Even if it was for 20 minutes, Dad would always take a nap. LINDA: It's the Italian way, right? They still do that now. SAL: Yeah, he used to take his nap. And Mom used to do all the canning. We used to go up there, we were kids, we used to go up there and had a big table underneath the grapevine and there was a well. We used to pump water out of the well. It was fun. I mean, you don't see that anymore. LINDA: They used to have a shack right on the land? SAL: Oh yeah, there was a shack. LINDA: And what was it called? SAL: Well, in Italian oceandino. But yeah, there was a wood burning stove in there, a nice wood burning stove. And there was a bed. And Msom had a table in there and chairs, and when it would rain we would eat inside. If not we would go outside to eat under the -- it had a grape arbor with a well, the well, and then there was a grape arbor all around. LINDA: Was this on weekends mostly? SAL: Weekends, or even after school. Get out of school at 2:00 and we used to walk up there, and Mom was there doing the canning. There was no cars 16 in those days. We used to have a big wagon, put everything in the wagon, and come down through the streets with the wagon. LINDA: So can you still smell that sauce cooking? SAL: Sure can. Boy, she could make it wonderful. And pizza, she used to make that pizza, not that stuff you buy in the stores today, that little thin stuff. She used to make the regular Sicilian pizza with about a good inch thick, yeah. LINDA: What other kinds of things did she make? SAL: She wasn't a fancy cook. Like I said, she left Italy when she was 18, 19 years old. But no, not to knock my mother, but she used to make a tremendous sauce. She used to do a lot of cooking with ricotta, you know that cottage cheese, ricotta. And a lot of fried stuff in those days, like fried peppers and fried squash. But real fancy dishes, no, poor thing, she didn't know anything about that. LINDA: Did she make her own cheese? SAL: No, no. LINDA: Did she use a lot of fish? Did she… SAL: Not too much. Mom didn't go for fish so much. And the fact that she didn't… she really didn't cook with garlic. LINDA: No? SAL: You know why? The poor thing, she was in the mill down at [unintelligible - 00:35:25] yard, and all the Italian women, the bosses and those ladies, they used to call them hey, you garlic eaters, you garlic eaters. My mother got offended because they would call her a garlic eater, and she never would cook with garlic. That's something, huh? LINDA: So do you think she was afraid that she'd smell like it? SAL: Yeah, she'd smell the aroma. LINDA: So when did she work at the mill? SAL: Oh geez, it was when I was born. After I was born, actually. It could have been in the early '30s, had to be. LINDA: So who was taking care of you?17 SAL: My sisters. LINDA: What else can you tell me about her experiences at the mill? SAL: Well, other than they were known as garlic-eating Italians, women were known as garlic-eaters; that's about all I can remember. I know there were long hours. She used to leave here about half past five in the morning and start to work at six. She used to work from six to twelve I think it was, or six to one. Then come home, wash clothes. And really, there was no fancy washing machine like they have today. I still remember her with an old scrub board. LINDA: Did she ever get the washing machine with the rollers? SAL: Yeah, yeah. Old Maytag, I remember that with the rollers in the back and you feed the -- she got that… and had a wood-burning stove. And that thing used to shine, God you could see your reflection on that black [unintelligible - 00:37:20]. And that thing used to shine, and gosh it was clean. She was immaculate, my mom. She used to have a big couch, not a couch but a piece of furniture over there. The telephone would ring and she would be there. While she was on the phone she would have the rag and she was wiping it, and my father would say [unintelligible - 00:37:47] when you're dead in your box you're still going to have that rag, you're still going to be wiping and wiping. She was crazy clean. Oh God, clean. God, was she clean! LINDA: Did she expect all her kids to be clean? SAL: Yeah. LINDA: Were all the [unintelligible - 00:38:11] immaculate too? SAL: No, it's not. LINDA: Looks like it. SAL: No, never, far from it. Messy. Messy, messy, I've got to get that damn counter cleaned. LINDA: So what was life like for your sisters when they got home from school?18 SAL: They helped Mama do the cooking, wash the clothes, do the shopping. But like I said one of my sisters was the only one that had the opportunity to graduate high school. But the rest of them at 16, they all had to quit and they had to go to work. And they all did their share when they came home as far as working and housework. There was no fancy supermarkets like they are today. LINDA: So tell me, what was it like to buy groceries? SAL: There used to be a little First National store down here, First National store, okay. And then the bottom of the hill there used to be another [Gigopies] market. And you just used to buy groceries for the day, whatever you needed. The bread, they used to make their own bread. I can remember coming home and my mother having that big wooden shovel making the bread and making the dough rise. There used to be a big pan and she used to put that on there, that dough would rise up, and then the dough that was left over, she used to make pizza with it. Yeah, they used to make their own bread. LINDA: So would they make the bread for the week? In one day? SAL: Oh, yeah. Yeah. LINDA: So whose job was it to knead all the bread? SAL: She would do all that. LINDA: She would? SAL: And my sisters, too, would help her. But mostly she would do it with her flour. She used to buy flour by 50-pound sacks. LINDA: Now, did someone used to come around on a truck and sell the flour? SAL: Yeah. Then there used to be trucks that used to come around, and they used to -- I can still remember, they used to come around, they used to sell -- maybe even was -- oh, geez. There used to be -- next street over there used to be a guy that used to go around with a horse and the meat in the back, he had a covered thing and he used to sell meat. Imagine that? Unrefrigerated. With a horse. A horse-drawn cart and go around, and then maybe about once a week or twice a week there used to be trucks that 19 used to come in from Boston, and they had all kinds of Italian cheese and Italian food in these trucks, and the mother or the people would go down and go around the truck, and they'd have all these goodies that they would be selling. Cookies, Italian cookies, cheeses, olive oil. LINDA: So did they go up and down all the streets? SAL: Yeah, they would go down the street, but they would go mostly to where Italian families were. They knew where the Italian families were. There used to be a lot of Italian families here in Fitchburg at one time. Even in this area here. A lot of them. But now they've all passed away now and they're married and they're gone. LINDA: Did they used to ring a bell? How did you know they were coming? SAL: Sometimes, if they had selling dishes they used to [hit] the dishes together and you'd know they were coming, or they would lay out in the street and yell out [foreign language – 00:41:56], which meant, "chickens, chickens, chickens." They would sell chickens, too. And in those days, too, they used to sell the chickens. They weren't like going to the [unintelligible - 00:42:05] market or buy them all packaged. You had to buy them, and I remember my father on the shed, he used to take the chicken by the neck and pull it, and the poor bird would bop-bop-bop, and he'd have the hot water going, stick it in hot water right away. You had to pull all feathers off before the water got cold. That's the way they used to do it. LINDA: Did you ever learn how to do that? SAL: No, but I didn't want to learn how to do that. Put the place together while he went, and then I clean all the innards. Thank God for [unintelligible – 00:42:45]. LINDA: Did your family eat meat much? SAL: No. No. What we ate was mostly chicken, but she would cook a lot of Italian dishes. Peasant dishes. Like lentils. LINDA: Thank you. Thanks for understanding. So we were talking about cooking. What do you think about what we were talking about?20 SAL: She would make the peasant dishes. Ricotta with cheese, [unintelligible – 00:43:26] escargot, ricotta with [unintelligible - 00:43:29]. LINDA: What's that with the [unintelligible - 00:43:32]? SAL: The lentils. LINDA: Oh, lentils. SAL: Come on, Linda. Don't you understand? LINDA: I guess not. Now who made the decision to buy groceries? Who decided how much money to spend? SAL: Oh, no. Mama would do that. Mom would do that, yeah. On Friday night in Fitchburg there used to be -- on Main Street there used to be an old A&P store years ago. And Millie, who is the only one that knew how to drive then, we had a 1938 Dodge that Papa had bought then. Of course, he couldn't drive. Naturally he didn't drive, and she was the driver and she was the chauffer. And Friday nights I could still remember them, Mama and Millie, would go down to A&P and do the grocery shopping. Let's see. What else can I tell you? LINDA: Well, what about the -- I like the stories about the trucks coming in from the North End. What about ice? Do you remember ice being delivered? SAL: Yeah. Ice. There used to be an ice truck that used to come around, and then what you would do, the ice truck would stop, and we used to have iceboxes in those days, naturally. And there used to be a card that you put at the window and it was either 25, 50, 10 cents, or a nickel. In other words, if you wanted the 25-cent piece you would put that standing up, 25. Do you follow me? If you wanted a 10-cent piece then you turn the card over. And the iceman would chop a piece, put it on his back, and bring it up and put it in the icebox. And he put that -- most of it, the iceboxes were in the sheds. They used to have sheds. Do you know what a shed is? Outside of the house there used to be up on the porch, there used to be like another little, a little but no heat in there, and we put the [unintelligible - 00:45:33] stuff like that and 21 put the icebox -- we used to call it the icebox, was in there, and then there was a pail underneath for the water to drip. And sometimes if you forget to empty the pail, you would hear downstairs, they were knocking on the ceiling that the water was running down through the house. You had to empty this pail. Yeah. LINDA: So they keep it out there even in the summer? SAL: Yeah. Oh, yeah. That was the refrigeration was this icebox. LINDA: It probably wasn't very big? The icebox? SAL: Where we were living, I guess… is that too strong or what? LINDA: No, it's good. SAL: Okay. Because I make coffee too strong. LINDA: No, I like it. SAL: In the park, this man used to cut the ice. They used to cut the ice on Wayland Park, and then they used to bring it over and store it in the barn, and they used to put sawdust on it in the wintertime. That used to preserve it. In the summertime they would take the sawdust off the ice and ice was still there. It wouldn't melt. Did you know that? LINDA: No. I've heard it before. But where did they used to store it? SAL: They had a big, big shed, a big barn, and they used to store the ice in big, big cakes of ice. LINDA: Now, did the ragman come around? SAL: Yeah, the junk man would come around. The ragman. Yeah. Or the horse-drawn wagon. And if you had any rags they would sell it, pick it by weight and they used a scale, used to weigh it, and they used to give you maybe 10 or 15 cents for a bag of rags or whatever kind of junk you had. LINDA: What would they do with those rags? SAL: I have no idea. I don't know. And you would have the trucks that would come around at this time of year, all full of grape, and they would go to different places, the Italians, and the men would… I actually remember my father used to either 40-, 42-pound box of grape; maybe he'll sell it for 22 about a dollar, dollar 15 cents. Now, today, it would cost about 20, 21 dollars for the same sized box of grape. LINDA: So was that a family affair making wine? Or was it the boys? SAL: Mostly the boys. Dad and I would -- of course my brother had been… then I took over. We used to grind the grape by hand. And always my father, watch the fingers, watch the fingers, as you're grinding the grapes, all those spokes. You had the fingers stuck in there; your fingers would have been caught. But it was all done by hand. Now they have machines, a bunch of machines, dump a box in there, push the button, it's all done. LINDA: Did you keep that tradition? SAL: Yeah, I was making it up about three or four years ago, and then I had bad luck on a whole barrel of wine. I had to throw it down the sink. It went bad on me, and so I said, from now on if you want wine, go up to Kathy's Package Store. But I did. I was making my own wine, but anyway. I still make my own sausages. LINDA: Oh, you do? SAL: Yeah. LINDA: Is that a seasonal? SAL: Mostly, it's pork, but you eat in the wintertime. I don't like to eat pork in the summertime. But sausages, it's more seasonal. Like Thanksgiving and Christmas. LINDA: Have you made it yet? SAL: No but I just bought a new machine. I don't know, one of those KitchenAid machines, I just bought one of those a couple of weeks ago. LINDA: So explain to me how you make it. SAL: What, sausage? Well, you buy either the pork butt or the shoulder. Okay. You debone it, and then you take all the meat out and cut it into small pieces, and you put it through the grinder. Once you put it through the grinder, then you lay it out on the table, then you put your seasoning on it. Your fennel, salt, pepper, whatever you want for seasoning, okay? Then you put it through the grinder again, okay? Then you mix this all up, and 23 you can put wine in it if you want, then you got your casings. You know what casings are? All right. Then there's an attachment, you put the casing on there, you put the meat and you grind it up and go through the casings, and you make the sausage. LINDA: So do you freeze a lot? SAL: No. By the time you give some to this daughter, that to this guy, then some to my nephew, 20, 25 pounds disappears fast. LINDA: Now, did your mother used to make that? SAL: Oh, yeah. LINDA: So how are things different now? I'm sure she didn't have a grinder. SAL: They had a hand grinder, and I can always remember every time Mom and Dad got together to make sausage, boy, there was a war. You could hear them. LINDA: Why? About the seasoning? SAL: Oh, you're doing this wrong. You're going too fast. Watch your fingers. You don't do it this way, you do it that way. It was hell. Yeah. LINDA: So what about filling the casings though? That may have been a little harder back then? SAL: Well, it's… you've got to coincide with the one that's holding the casing and the one that's grinding it by hand. Now it's all done by electricity. It's powered. But that's the only tricky thing. As the machine is feeding the meat in the casing, you've got to make sure that you don't put too much all at once in the casing or it'll crack or break. LINDA: So probably every family has their own recipe. Sort of like meatballs. SAL: Well, I don't think anybody makes it. Very few people make their own sausages now. I know my sister Marilyn still makes it. I make it. That's about it. LINDA: What other things do you make that your mother used to make? SAL: Oh, green olives. Yeah. She used to -- this time of year, with green olives used to smash those and cure them. And pizza, naturally. Everybody 24 makes pizza. But some of her peasant dishes, once in a great while, but I was never too fond of them anyway. LINDA: No. So what about Christmas Eve, do you know? SAL: Christmas Eve, not like the ones years ago. Christmas Eve years ago was my uncle and my mother and father and all the Italians used to all get together, and they used to cook on the stove some kind of a fancy dish of fried dough, dumplings like. No more. We don't get that closeness of families anymore. LINDA: Why not? SAL: I don't know why. I think number one, there're cars. Everybody goes here, everybody goes there. I would say cars. Anyway, we used to get together years ago on holidays and Christmas. We still get together, but it's not the way it was on Christmas Eve. It's different. I'm sure it must be the same with your family, right? LINDA: Yeah. When my grandmother was growing up and even after she got married, all of her sisters lived close by. But then when they started having children, everyone moved on. SAL: That's right. That's the way it goes. From generation to generation is always different, which is good, in a way. But it's good to keep up traditions though, I think. LINDA: So have any of your daughters learned how to make the sausage? SAL: No. They wait for Daddy to call them up and say, okay, come and get your sausage. LINDA: Now, did your parents have chickens? SAL: Oh, God no. LINDA: No? Why do you say it like that? SAL: Because we lived in the neighborhood, and no, we didn't. But when we had that piece of land up there, my father used to raise pigs. I remember we had pigs, a couple of pigs, and he used to slaughter those. I remember that when I was a kid.25 LINDA: Now, what was that like? Was there a particular name of that day when people would slaughter their pigs? Would they call it anything? SAL: No. It was just at the end of the season, like at this time, winter was coming and people -- I can still remember that shed that he had with the water boiling and the poor pigs, shooting and killing the poor pigs. Thank God I don't have to go through all that anymore. LINDA: Did they use every piece of the pig? SAL: Oh, yeah. Even the squeal. Only the squeal is the only thing that you don't use on the pigs. LINDA: Oh yeah, I know. So was there a smokehouse in the area? Did anyone have one? SAL: No. Not that I remember. LINDA: What about buying groceries? Was that on credit? SAL: No, that was cash. Everything was cash. My folks, everything was cash. There was no plastic in those days. Even if there was, if they didn't have the money, the Italians, they didn't buy it. Everything was cash. LINDA: So what is this area of Fitchburg called? SAL: This section here? This is called Cleghorn. LINDA: This is? So this is really the French? SAL: It was the French district at one time, but now it's Puerto Rican and everything else. Fitchburg was in different sections. Like you had Cleghorn was the French. The patch was at 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Street. Okay. That was the Italians. Then you had Greektown. Naturally, that was the Greeks. They all stuck together. Then West Fitchburg was the English, then you have Southside, that was the Irish. LINDA: So when the Italians started moving in here, were your parents part of that group that started moving into Cleghorn? SAL: I don't know. When they left South Ashburnham, I don't know when it was, but then they moved on to Orchard Street. They lived here -- I guess a few of my sisters were born out here on Orchard Street. But I know I was the only one of the family that was born over here on Edward Street. 26 And then it was in '48, yeah, 1948 I guess it was that one of my sisters went back home. Of course, in those days the girls had boyfriends, and they wanted their boyfriends to pick them up at a nice house. So, one of my sisters saw this place over here that was for sale. And anyway, Dad would come over, and they finally looked at it and they bought it. The price that they paid for it, I just had the roof, and the roof cost me the same price. And they bought the whole house. LINDA: What was that about? Three thousand or something? SAL: They paid $11,000 for the house, and I just spent $11,000 for a new roof. LINDA: So they paid $11,000 for this, but your mother didn't want to pay $4,000 for the other house? SAL: Yeah. Because she had the money but she wasn't going to spend it. And she wouldn't spend $4,000 to have a brand new house up there. But a few years later she spent $11,000 and bought this house. LINDA: Oh, so this was bought after. SAL: Oh, yeah. After. LINDA: I see. So about the different sections in Fitchburg, was there any competition or rivalries or differences? SAL: No. No. Maybe this will be interesting. My father was here down on the bottom of the hill one day, and in those days, like the mafia, there was the Black Hand. And it was a society that was shaking down these immigrants, and they approached my father, and this guy from the Black Hand wanted $5 from my father, and my father told him, I got two kids at home, I haven't got no $5. The $5 I've got is a week's pay. I've got to feed my family. And he says, you have that money here tomorrow at a certain time, otherwise there's going to be harm that's going to come to you and your family. So in those days, my mother had boarders, and one of them was this fellow from Albany, New York. He was boardering in my father's and my mother's house, and so Papa came home and he told him. And he was 27 [unintelligible – 00:59:56]. So he told him what had happened, so this man said to my father, he says, yeah, you let me know where this guy is and what time you're supposed to meet him. And he says, I'll go to meet him. Anyway, he approached this guy and he never bothered my father anymore. LINDA: So who were these people? SAL: Black Hand. It's like a society that's like the mafia or something like that, but they were gangsters shaking down these fellow Italians. So this guy must've taken a knife and shoved it up to his throat and said you won't bother this man anymore. LINDA: Do you think it was a group living in Fitchburg? SAL: I think so. LINDA: You think so? SAL: Yeah. LINDA: Your parents would take in boarders? SAL: Yeah, she took in boarders for a while. Like men that she knew, like my father's -- like a cousin or something like that, they came to this county and they had no place to go, and where do you go? You go see your paisano, you go see your relative or brother until they get located or until they get situated, and they used to take care of these men. Cook for them, make their lunch. Mostly all the Italians would take in boarders. LINDA: So were there many paisanos living around? SAL: Oh, yeah. There was quite a few. Like I said, the work came to an end, and then a lot of them left. They went to Albany, New York. But yeah, my mother had one of her brothers living the next block over, and Dad had another brother that was a few blocks up the street [unintelligible - 01:01:50], and they grouped together. They stayed together. LINDA: Because even though there were a lot of Italians living here, some in different regions, they speak a different dialect. SAL: Oh, yeah. I was in Italy here about three years ago, I think there's about 150, 200 dialects in Italy. When I was growing up there used to be like 28 Beech Street over here that's a bunch of Italians not from Northern Italy, but once they start talking, I don't understand them. I really don't. /AT/pa/my/cy/es

Minority and community are concepts that have dominated the analysis of Christians in the Arab world, leading to a perception of Middle-Eastern societies as confessional or sectarian mosaics. This paradigm posits that religious and political identities and dynamics are closely intertwined in countries where the dominant culture is Islam, and that religious and ethnic groups live side by side, maintaining limited interactions while their immutable identities offer a strong potential for conflict. This work questions the paradigm of the mosaic by focusing on identity formation and interaction across religious boundaries over a period that extends from the later decades of Ottoman rule in Transjordan (1870) to present Jordan (1997). It asks whether confessionnal identities are by nature conflictual and if the 'minority' concept is the only relevant one to evaluate the degree of social, political and economic participation of non-Moslems in countries where Islam is the dominant culture. The approach is inductive and historical but mobilises concepts from the disciplines of social and political anthropology and political sociology. The dissertation comprises of 10 chapters set chronologically and covering the period 1870 to 1997. Taking a historical approach, it focuses on the modalities of exchanges, transactions, cooperation and communication (looking at kinship, mariage patterns, the role of women, economic cooperation, and various aspects of local and national politics) between Christians and Moslems and between several Christian denominations in Jordan (Orthodox and Roman Catholic, or Latin, in particular), more particularly in the town of Madaba however set within a broader national and international context. These broader contexts (that encompass the politics of states and of transnational Church actors over time) allow to bridge between the local and other levels to document how institutions regulate identity formation and cross-communal interactions. Over a century, Madaba provides the background, widely open to the rest of the country and the world, of a social, religious and political history of Arab Christian families. The work combines historical and anthropological approches and sources (in particular so far unexploited parish and Vatican archives, together with other archival sources). It questions the nature and the maintenance of the social and political link between Christians and Moslems in Madaba and in Jordan, and the changes that have affected identity boundaries between groups: both as Christians and Moslems, but equally as members of different Christian denominations, particularly in the context of missionary activities. The thesis defended here is that it is time to 'break the mosaic' so as to cast light from the inside on the societies and polities within which Christians in the Arab world are inserted. The title of the dissertation refers both to this paradigm and to the Byzantine mosaics that have made Madaba famous as an archaeological site. In place of the static image of the mosaic, the dissertation offers successive episodes of a moving picture where political powers, Churches (missionary or not), those local families that transfer their assets to Amman, the Jordanian capital, and the national arena, negotiate the organisation of local social interactions. One important contribution of the dissertation is to document how the tribe, over more than a century, remains a central social form to express identities, regulate economic and political interactions, and manage conflict both between Christians and between Christians and Moslems. Communal identities, however central they have become since the inception of the modern state, do not appear to threaten the cohesion of the society and the polity, either at the local or national levels. The maintenance of tribal identities is dealt with throughout the dissertation as a dynamic process in which both successive states, regimes, social actors at the national and local levels play a part, in particular in the historical context of the arrival of the Palestinians in Jordan and in the town of Madaba. At another level, the dissertation deals extensively with the institutional relations between the Greek Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches and the Jordanian state, bringing a new insight into a previously under-studied domain. Finally, this work offers an argument about the relationships between state and society in contemporary Jordan by interrogating the changing nature of the social pact between the Hashemite regime and local constituencies, more specifically with non-Moslems but also with Transjordanians as opposed to Palestinians. This work is therefore not a mere monograph about Christians in the town of Madaba: looking at a 'marginal' and local phenomenon, it enlightens broader social, political and historical dynamics. ; En partant d'un phénomène observé 'à la marge' afin de mieux illustrer ce qui se passe au centre, ce travail aborde des questions fondamentales pour la compréhension des sociétés du Moyen-Orient en déconstruisant notamment la catégorie de 'minorité', en s'interrogeant sur la nature du lien social entre chrétiens et musulmans dans l'agglomération de Madaba et au-delà dans la Jordanie contemporaine et en analysant la construction des identités collectives sur plus d'un siècle (1870-1997). Sont proposés d'autres paradigmes que ceux des traditions orientaliste et développementaliste pour l'analyse des minorités en pays musulmans. Ces traditions postulent la primauté du facteur religieux dans la formation et l'expression des identités sociales et envisagent les sociétés arabes comme des 'mosaïques' formées de groupes ethnoconfessionnels homogènes, relativement hermétiques les uns aux autres et inscrits dans une hiérarchie de statuts. On s'est plutôt inspiré ici de l'approche sur les frontières et les interactions entre groupes ethniques proposée par F. Barth en lui adjoignant une certaine profondeur historique et en intégrant une analyse des rapports entre le pouvoir politique et les groupes sociaux. Il s'agit de poser les affiliation religieuses et confessionnelles comme des constructions sociales et historiques dont on peut étudier le développement, les méandres et les interactions avec d'autres types d'affiliation. S'inspirant de tous les travaux récents portant sur la construction des identités collectives, qu'il s'agisse de nations ou d'ethnies, l'approche choisie défend une conception plurielle et mouvante des identités décrites en termes de processus dynamiques et interactionnels en s'interrogeant sur les temporalités et les facteurs de continuité/changement et en montrant des continuité beaucoup plus longues que celles qui posent la période coloniale comme période charnière de fixation des identités collectives. En plus d'une méthodologie d'observation anthropologique du terrain et des acteurs, quatre types principaux de sources ont été exploités : la littérature des voyageurs occidentaux, les archives paroissiales et missionnaires (en particulier celles de la Propaganda Fide à Rome), les témoignages oraux, la littérature d'histoire locale produite à Madaba. On a adopté un plan chronologique découpé en trois périodes principales. A l'intérieur de chaque partie, l'analyse thématique a été privilégiée en suivant, dans l'agglomération de Madaba depuis sa fondation en 1880, les alliances matrimoniales, politiques et économiques entre chrétiens et musulmans et entre groupes de différents rites chrétiens (essentiellement orthodoxes et latins) afin de déterminer où passent les frontières de l'identité et comment elles changent. Une variété d'acteurs institutionnels et individuels, dont certains apparaissent à un moment historique donné, influent sur la forme de ces frontières : les administrations des États qui se succèdent et leur personnel, les hiérarchies ecclésiastiques, les prêtres, les Grandes Puissances occidentales et leurs représentants locaux, les intellectuels de formation moderne, les partis politiques, les notables traditionnels et modernes, les organisations de la société civile, les émigrés et les immigrés, les tribus et leurs membres. Centré sur l'agglomération de Kérak, dont sont issus les chrétiens qui fondent Madaba en 1880, le prologue fait apparaître que, dans la Syrie du Sud (Transjordanie) du milieu du XIXe siècle, les institutions ecclésiastiques (grecques orthodoxes) et impériales (ottomanes) n'ont que très peu d'influence sur ce territoire situé à l'extrême périphérie de l'empire. Minoritaires sur le plan démographique et dispersés sur le territoire, les chrétiens ne sont pas marginalisés du fait de leur appartenance religieuse car l'ordre tribal des relations sociales assure différents niveaux d'intégration sociale et de coopération politique et économique entre lignages chrétiens et musulmans en fonction d'autres critères que ceux de l'appartenance religieuse. Les chrétiens sont fragmentés en plusieurs clans et tribus sans que l'on puisse repérer de cohésion confessionnelle. Sur le plan de la pratique religieuse, c'est une forme de syncrétisme qui prévaut. L'impossibilité des échanges matrimoniaux entre chrétiens et musulmans n'est pas nécessairement perçue comme témoignant d'un frontière religieuse infranchissable mais s'inscrit dans le contexte plus vaste des règles qui régissent les alliances matrimoniales entre tribus. L'appartenance religieuse est avant tout un marqueur d'identité tribale. La première partie analyse comment l'ordre communautaire religieux apparaît dans les dernières décennies du XIXe siècle, sous l'action conjuguée des organisations missionnaires (protestantes et catholiques) et de l'administration alors que les Ottomans entreprennent de rétablir leur autorité sur la Syrie du Sud. Autour de la fondation du village de Madaba par des lignages chrétiens immigrés de Kérak sous l'impulsion des missionnaires latins, on montre comment de nouveaux acteurs religieux et civils entreprennent d'imposer un ordre communautaire des relations sociales à travers l'éducation missionnaire, le marquage d'espaces chrétiens, le contrôle des alliances matrimoniales, de nouvelles pratiques cultuelles, l'accès aux instances de représentation administratives et juridiques ottomanes. Les modalités d'insertion des tribus chrétiennes qui fondent Madaba dans leur environnement permettent de mettre en lumière les résistances à l'ordre communautaire par l'établissement de partenariats économiques et d'alliances politiques avec les tribus musulmanes du lieu selon des logiques lignagères persistantes où les acteurs instrumentalisent à leur profit les nouvelles ressources communautaires fournies par les Églises ou les consulats européens. Au cours du XXe siècle, la Transjordanie, d'abord sous mandat britannique, accède à l'indépendance. Malgré ce changement politique, le régime monarchique se perpétue sans que les modalités d'insertion sociale des chrétiens ne soient bouleversées au niveau du pays dans son ensemble ou au sein de l'agglomération de Madaba. La deuxième partie se penche alors sur la manière dont l'État hachémite et les Églises majoritaires (grecque orthodoxe et romaine catholique) négocient les frontières des espaces communautaires à travers la législation sur les communautés confessionnelles et leurs prérogatives religieuses, éducatives et caritatives. Le traitement différencié accordé par l'État aux différentes Église en présence ainsi que des relations diverses entre les hiérarchies ecclésiastiques et les laïcs des communautés sont deux dimensions qui contribuent à empêcher la cohésion des chrétiens pris comme un ensemble. Le statut politique des chrétiens est ensuite étudié non en isolation mais en parallèle avec celui d'autres groupes sociaux, Circassiens, bédouins, réfugiés palestiniens, familles musulmanes transjordaniennes du nord et du sud, etc. afin de poser question quant à la réalité d'un statut minoritaire et à l'existence d'une majorité politique dans le royaume hachémite. Il ressort que le régime octroie aux communautés chrétiennes et aux familles chrétiennes de notables (anciens ou modernes) un espace privilégié d'expression et de représentation qui leur permet d'occuper une place centrale, et non marginale, dans la société. Dans le même temps, il est difficile d'identifier une norme identitaire autre qu'hachémite et il apparaît qu'une des modalités d'exercice du pouvoir monarchique repose sur la cooptation d'individus et de familles appartenant à tous les groupes de la société. Dans un second temps, recentrer l'analyse sur l'agglomération de Madaba permet d'observer comment les acteurs locaux relaient les efforts de l'État qui visent à maintenir une fragmentation sociale selon des clivages communautaires et lignagers afin de résister à la formation d'identités politiques transversales qui mettraient en danger sa stabilité. La modernité politique et économique n'en engendre pas moins un système de relations multiples entre chrétiens et musulmans que l'on peut repérer à travers les alliances politiques lors d'épisodes électoraux, dans les mouvements associatifs, dans les partenariats économiques, dans les partis politiques ou lors d'épisodes de conflit aigus tels celui de Septembre noir. En parallèle, les logiques tribales continuent à ordonner conflit et coopération entre groupes de religions différentes qui se définissent d'abord selon leur affiliation lignagère. C'est le cas, en particulier, dans les domaines de l'économie agricole et pastorale traditionnelle, dans les épisodes de règlement de conflits de sang ou d'honneur où prévaut encore le droit coutumier, parfois à l'encontre des prescription du droit musulman. La fragmentation des chrétiens en groupes lignagers est ainsi préservée sans que ne s'effectue une communautarisation incluant une dimension politique. De même, les valeurs qui permettent aux chrétiens de participer pleinement à l'échange social, telles l'honneur individuel ou collectif, le prestige familial, la limitation de l'autonomie des femmes, ne sont pas menacées par l'imposition de normes islamiques. A partir des années 1970, la polarisation de la population du royaume hachémite entre Jordaniens 'de souche' et Jordaniens 'd'origine palestinienne' amène un processus de différenciation identitaire dans lequel l'organisation tribale en vient à symboliser l'identité jordanienne. Dans le même temps, les islamistes deviennent la principale force d'opposition que le régime tente d'endiguer en réaffirmant son propre caractère musulman et en islamisant de nouveaux espaces de la vie publique. Ces changements de paradigmes de la société politique jordanienne touchent Madaba, ville mixte où cohabitent Jordaniens des tribus et Palestiniens réfugiés, chrétiens et musulmans. De plus, les équilibres démographiques et politiques de la ville penchent de plus en plus en faveur des musulmans. Les chrétiens, autrefois majoritaires, entreprennent alors de défendre leur position de prééminence dans la ville. Les stratégies qu'ils mettent en place pour combattre une double logique de minorisation (en tant que chrétiens et Jordaniens 'de souche') font l'objet de la dernière partie de ce travail. On montre tout d'abord comment les chrétiens résistent sur le terrain à un recul de la neutralité religieuse de l'espace public et à leur mise en minorité démographique et politique (conseil municipal) dans l'agglomération et comment ils se redéploient dans l'espace urbain, créent des réseaux de soutien financier avec les immigrés, amorcent un rapprochement entre Églises, compensent dans le champ politique national la perte de leur hégémonie locale. Dans un second temps, on se penche sur la littérature d'histoire locale que produisent les chrétiens de Madaba afin d'analyser comment ces derniers, en reformulant leur histoire ancienne et récente, se construisent à la fois des identités confessionnelles, ethniques et lignagères et comment elles sont rendues compatibles afin de lutter contre une marginalisation symbolique. Le dernier chapitre se penche sur les élections législatives de 1997 afin d'illustrer la manière dont les chrétiens utilisent leurs imaginaires identitaires comme vecteurs de mobilisation politique à l'occasion des élections législatives, nouvelle arène de compétition depuis la libéralisation de la vie politique intervenue en 1989. Malgré l'existence d'un siège chrétien réservé pour la circonscription de Madaba, ce n'est pas la mobilisation communautaire qui apparaît comme efficace mais bien plutôt le discours des solidarités tribales, éventuellement (mais non nécessairement) en conjonction avec l'appartenance partisane ou confessionnelle. On peut alors avancer que les chrétiens participent pleinement aux dynamiques de la société dans son ensemble. Tout au long de la période étudiée, la parenté joue un rôle central comme vecteur essentiel de l'identification des groupes, que ceux ci soient dans un espace rural ou urbain. Les chrétiens de Madaba mobilisent les mêmes ressources symboliques que les autres groupes avec lesquels ils sont en contact. Comme l'ensemble de la société, les chrétiens participent à une multitude d'échanges et d'interactions et se positionnent en fonction de ces interactions. Au-delà de l'étude de cas qui s'ancre dans une ville moyenne de la Jordanie centrale, ce travail s'interroge en conclusion sur le système politique jordanien et sur les modes de légitimation de sa monarchie. Les analyses en termes de construction nationale sont critiquées, le terme de 'minorité' est mis en question tout comme le présupposé classique d'une imbrication nécessairement étroite du religieux et du politique dans les pays dits, ou qui se disent, musulmans.

The U.S.-Israel relationship has been largely marked by Washington's consistent commitment to Israel's security, beginning with the formal recognition of the Jewish state in 1948 by President Harry S. Truman.While the United States did not become Israel's dominant arms supplier until after the 1967 war, it has been clear to all in the region since at least the Kennedy era that Washington was in Israel's corner — despite strong Arab opposition, Israel's wars on and with its neighbors, and its ongoing and often brutal struggle to deny the national aspirations of the Palestinian people in the name of ensuring its own security.No matter the circumstances, from Tel Aviv's secret nuclear weapons program in the early 1960s to the building of illegal settlements on the Golan Heights, in the West Bank and East Jerusalem, Washington has responded with more weapons, and more money for Israel — well over $300 billion in all, the most U.S. aid provided to a single foreign country by far. It has ensured Israel a Qualitative Military Edge, requiring Washington to maintain Tel Aviv's ability "to defeat any credible conventional military threat from any individual state or possible coalition of states or from non-state actors."Despite this largesse, Israeli leaders have often defied U.S. presidents and policy, raising questions about the balance in the relationship, or, as President Bill Clinton once indelicately put it after meeting with Israel's longest-serving and current prime minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, "Who's the f……. Superpower here?" More recently, Netanyahu's government has repeatedly rejected President Biden's appeals to agree to ceasefire terms in Gaza. Netanyahu himself has boasted of his ability to resist or manipulate Washington in ways that further his aims, once asserting, "I know what America is. America is a thing you can move very easily, move it in the right direction. They won't get in our way."After a full year of war, Israel has used a steady flow of American weapons to wreak revenge for the Oct. 7 massacre by Hamas in which 1,138 Israelis were killed and about 200 more taken hostage. To date, more than 41,000 Gazans, mostly civilians, have been killed, while at least 90 percent of Gaza's 2.2 million population has been displaced, and the vast majority of its buildings and infrastructure destroyed. With Israel now invading southern Lebanon and Washington's nightmare scenario of a regional war breaking out with Iran looming, it would seem U.S.-Israeli relations have reached a critical juncture.We asked this group of scholars, journalists, and former diplomats if, for the first time in many decades, a real shift might be occurring. In other words, Has the last year of war permanently changed the U.S.-Israel relationship? If so, how? If not, why?***Geoff Aronson, Andrew Bacevich, Daniel Bessner, Dan DePetris, Robert Hunter, Shireen Hunter, Daniel Levy, Rajan Menon, Paul Pillar, Annelle Sheline, Steve Simon, Barbara Slavin, Hadar Susskind, Stephen Walt, Sarah Leah Whitson, James Zogby***Geoff Aronson, Middle East Institute: The relationship between the U.S. and Israel remains grounded in seminal U.S.-Israeli understandings reached in the aftermath of the June 1967 war, according to which the U.S. pledged to maintain Israel's conventional military superiority over any combination of regional enemies. In return, Israel committed to maintain ambiguity about its nuclear weapons arsenal — undeclared and undeployed.During this last year in particular, the Biden administration has remained true to this commitment to maintain Israel's Qualitative Military Edge (QME) — a commitment enshrined in U.S. law — notwithstanding unprecedented concerns about Israel's (mis)use of U.S.-supplied weapons. The U.S. insists that its support for Israel remains "ironclad." "Make no mistake," insists the president, "the United States is fully, fully supportive of Israel." However, the unprecedented deployment of U.S. forces to defend against Iranian missile attacks against Israel undermines Israel's long-held contention at the heart of U.S.-Israel strategic cooperation — that the conventional arsenal supplied by the U.S. to Israel, or QME, enables it to "defend itself by itself." The consequences of this critical Israeli dependence upon Washington's direct military engagement remain to be seen. Andy Bacevich, co-founder of the Quincy Institute, Boston University: No real change will occur in the U.S.-Israeli relationship as long as President Biden remains in the White House. What has changed over the past year are popular American attitudes toward Israel. Israel's "right to defend itself" cannot offer an adequate moral justification for the brutal punishment inflicted on the Palestinian people. Many Americans had grown accustomed to seeing the Arab-Israeli conflict as a contest between an innocent party and a guilty one. Events in Gaza and Lebanon have demolished that formulation once and for all.Daniel Bessner, University of Washington: It's far too early to tell whether Israel's assault on Gaza has changed the U.S.-Israel relationship. On one hand, there's been unprecedented youth criticism of Israel and the "uncommitted" campaign indicates that in several important swing states unquestioning U.S. support for Israel might become a significant liability. On the other hand, the United States is a gerontocracy whose most important leaders were politicized in an era when Israel was viewed as, in effect, a post-Holocaust gift to international Jewry, and to criticize it was to in some real sense align with anti-semites. That is to say, nothing will really change until the current generation of leaders gives way to younger politicians who came of age in a different moment, something that isn't exactly in the offing.Dan DePetris, Defense Priorities: It's quite clear that the last year of war hasn't changed much of anything in the U.S.-Israel relationship. U.S. officials may be more vocal about their disagreements with Israeli policies and more willing to confront their Israeli counterparts rhetorically. But the actual policy doesn't match the rhetoric. The U.S. is still effectively enabling Israel to escalate even as it calls for regional de-escalation. It continues to sell large munitions and offensive weapons to Israel unconditionally while at the same time begging Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to sign a ceasefire deal in Gaza and make peace in Lebanon. It remains virtually nonchalant, even as Israel, the junior partner in the relationship, pursues highly risky strategies that could eventually blowback on U.S. forces in the Middle East. The U.S. isn't incapable of reforming the relationship — it's unwilling. Robert Hunter, former U.S. Ambassador to NATO: America will continue rock-solid support for Israel's security: It's deep in U.S. culture. Further, Israel's perspective on the Middle East continues dominating the narrative in U.S. society, politics, most think-tanks, and main- stream media. Thus without serious blow-back in Washington, Israel managed to kill the 2015 nuclear deal with Iran, while thwarting U.S. efforts to reduce tensions with Tehran; and President Biden is able to give Israel near-total support, in practice though not words, for its military actions in Gaza and Lebanon.But the human toll of today's multi-faceted conflict has raised questions about the terms of U.S. support for Israel's actions. There is erosion of initial sympathy for Israel's response to Hamas' horrendous slaughter last October 7. Some incalculable portion of younger Americans is less committed to virtual carte blanche for Israel's leaders. Yet however U.S. domestic politics develop, they — more than U.S. interests — will shape America's regional policies.Shireen Hunter, former diplomat, Georgetown University: Following Hamas' attack on Israel on October 7, 2023, the war in Gaza has caused serious tensions in Israel's relations with the United States. Israel's indiscriminate bombing of Palestinians, the large number of dead (41,000-plus), massive destruction, and Washington's inability to end the war have been the main causes of these tensions.With Israeli attacks in recent days, minor clashes between Israel and Hezbollah expanded to major conflict and the killing of the Hezbollah leader, Hassan Nasrallah, thus increasing the risk of Iran's direct military involvement. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that the fundamentals of U.S.-Israel relations will change, at least not soon. This is because no state, notably any key Arab state, has risked antagonizing the U.S. by helping the Palestinians. In short, in terms of its relations with Arab and other states, the United States has not paid any political or other price for its unstinting support of Israel.Daniel Levy, U.S./Middle East Project: The U.S. support for Israel this past year (irrespective of its illegal actions in Gaza and elsewhere) represents more continuity than change. That manifests itself in the indispensable and constant conveyor belt of weapons supplies, the political-diplomatic cover and the alignment with, and repetition of, Israeli narratives — no matter how implausible, incredulous or extreme those are. But as the world around the U.S./Israel bubble reconfigures, the spillover looks different. The Trump innovation — unquestioningly embraced by Biden — of attempting to advance an Israel/allied Arab state regional hegemony, premised on the marginalization of Palestinian rights and embrace of Israel's apartheid and displacement project, lies in tatters. It cannot be sustained even by willing regimes as Israel insists on alienating and enraging ever-broader swathes of Arab opinion. Nevertheless, expect the D.C. blob to double down on pushing this pitiful paradigm. More intriguing perhaps is the realization of the deepening and staggering level of Israeli dependence on the U.S. — precisely at a time when the relationship is contributing more than ever to the geopolitical weakening of America. As the Biden administration frantically runs cover for Israeli criminal actions, the cost to the U.S. in political, reputational, legal and other arenas increases exponentially.Rajan Menon, City College of New York, Columbia University: Has the U.S.-Israeli relationship changed "permanently" following the atrocities Hamas perpetrated last October? No. True, the Biden administration provided unalloyed support — diplomatic, economic, and military — to Israel's massive overreaction. But it's long been an axiom in American politics that Israel must be backed unreservedly — not only during crises and wars, but even when its government continues, as it has with particular vigor during the past few years, to expand settlements in the West Bank and allow "outposts" to proliferate there, to evict Palestinians from their land and allow settlers to attack them with impunity and even steal their livestock. To all this the current administration has turned a blind eye, but so did its predecessors. Nothing has changed and nothing will, no matter who is president. Even in our currently poisonous politics, bipartisan agreement prevails in the corridors of power on one point of policy: Israel must be supported unequivocally — always.Paul Pillar, former CIA, Georgetown University: The principal sources of the extraordinary U.S.-Israel relationship are embedded in domestic American politics and culture, and that is where to look for any signs the relationship may be changing. The influence of those sources — including a formidable lobby — remain strong. That influence has counteracted decades of Israeli conduct that has run counter to U.S. strategic interests, and it will counteract much of the outrage over Israeli conduct during the past year.The domestic politics of relations with Israel are evolving, however. In an increasing partisan split, automatic Republican Party support for Israel has accompanied Israel's own lurch to the extreme right. Increasingly vocal opposition to Israel within the Democratic Party could lead a President Harris to adjust U.S. policy once she is no longer the understudy to a self-proclaimed Zionist. A second Trump presidency would, like the first, give the Israeli government almost anything it wants.Annelle Sheline, Quincy Institute: The most senior members of President Biden's foreign policy team appear to be as tenaciously committed to maintaining full U.S. support to the Israeli government as they were on October 7. This is the case, despite Israel repeatedly humiliating Biden and the U.S. by disregarding every red line the president tried to establish. Biden's response was to send more weapons and support. It seems that there is nothing Israel could do that would cause this administration to impose consequences or restrict the vast flow of American resources into Israel's war machine, even as it threatens to drag the United States into war and potentially to destroy the Democrats' chance of retaining control of the White House.Yet the broader relationship has changed significantly. U.S. support for Israel is no longer a bipartisan issue. The Israel lobby had to spend millions of dollars on two House primary races to defeat Black members who criticized Israel's actions in Gaza, and were unable to primary Reps. Summer Lee (D-Pa.) and Rashida Tlaib (D-Mich). This caused many Americans to question the role of the Israel lobby in our politics, and whether such influence is in America's interest. The next generation of American voters has demonstrated they will not support the U.S. sending billions of our tax dollars to a country that murders and starves entire populations. Steve Simon, Quincy Institute, Dartmouth College: The past year might accelerate a trend already underway, namely the narrowing of Israel's base of support here. Israel will retain strong Republican support while support among Democrats will contract. But it will not disappear, especially when Israel is under attack. Bipartisan support for U.S.-Israel relations has been jettisoned by the Likud and Republican parties. For Likud's purposes, the Republican Party is the horse to ride. And Republicans can weaponize support for Israel for political gain and outbid Democrats whenever an issue arises regarding U.S. financial and military assistance. This is risky for Israel, but the Right appears relaxed and eager to boost Trump's prospects despite his affinity for antisemites. Perhaps the Israeli right is willing to trade off the security of American Jews to get its way on the West Bank. Netanyahu thinks that liberal American Jews will soon disappear so he might assess the opportunity cost as acceptable.Barbara Slavin, Stimson Center, George Washington University: I wish I could say that the past year has altered the U.S.-Israel relationship but I'm afraid that the U.S. is now even more embroiled in defending Israel against its many enemies. Without U.S. arms shipments and intelligence, Israel would not have been able to pursue its retaliatory war against Hamas, Hezbollah, the Houthis and Iran with such impunity, killing tens of thousands of civilians and turning Gaza into a moonscape of rubble. There have been moments when Washington was able to pause regional escalation — as after the Iran-Israel exchanges in April. But that ability appears to have waned as we sit at the brink of a wider conflagration drawing in U.S. forces along with Israelis, Palestinians, Lebanese, Iraqis, Yemenis and Iranians, with no prospect of a cease-fire or return of Israeli hostages in sight.Hadar Susskind, Americans for Peace Now: The "special relationship" between the United States and Israel is not gone, but let's just say, it's not running for reelection either. The way Congress discusses and debates Israel and Palestine has changed more in the past year than in the 25 previous years. For the first time multiple members of Congress have, from the House and Senate floors, called for conditional cutting, or all together ending aid to Israel. When Netanyahu spoke to Congress, fully half of the Democratic caucus refused to be used as a prop in his campaign and skipped the speech. And while President Biden has largely maintained his historical views on Israel, the next generations of leaders did not, as Biden so often mentions, know Golda Meir. They do know Benjamin Netanyahu, and they don't like him. If Israel wants to maintain a special relationship with the U.S., it needs to do so on the merits, and that remains to be seen.Stephen Walt, Harvard University: At first glance, the "special relationship" between the United States and Israel seems stronger than ever. The Biden administration has given Israel a blank check, while Israel has ignored Washington's ineffectual calls for restraint. Netanyahu got repeated ovations as he told a pack of lies to Congress, and universities have bowed to pressure from politicians and wealthy donors by cracking down on pro-Palestinian protests.Yet October 7 and after still constitute a watershed in U.S.-Israeli relations. Israel's brutal attempts to destroy not just Hamas but thousands of innocent Palestinians have cost it the sympathy it received a year ago, and its violent campaigns on the West Bank, in Lebanon, and elsewhere have exposed its true character. The Israel lobby has been forced into the open, defending a genocide that has done lasting damage to America's own image and interests. It won't end overnight, but "special relationship" will never be the same.Sarah Leah Whitson, Democracy in the Arab World Now: Israel's year of atrocities in Gaza has permanently transformed the American public's perceptions, not only of Israel as an abusive, apartheid state that the International Court of Justice said could be committing genocide in Gaza, but of Palestinians as a victimized, subjugated population, such that a majority of Americans now oppose military aid to Israel. However, the U.S. government's own backing for the Israeli government remains unconditional, despite the tremendous costs to America's global standing. Our government has provided Israel with unprecedented military and political support for the war in Gaza, which has now dangerously expanded to military support for Israel's fighting in Lebanon, Yemen, Iraq, Syria, and Iran. This has brought into stark relief the gross misalignment of U.S. policies towards Israel with public sentiments, and the outsized, malign role of pro-Israel organizations, including their influence on government officials to promote dangerous policies.James Zogby, Arab American Institute: Israel's year-long assault on Gaza hasn't yet "permanently changed the U.S.-Israel relationship." It has, however, altered the political landscape shifting opinions, with key demographics — younger and non-white voters — moving in a pro-Palestinian direction. As a result, pro-Israel groups and their congressional supporters have attempted to silence debate and arrest the growth of pro-Palestinian sentiment. State laws have been enacted penalizing individuals or groups that endorse sanctions on Israel and they've expanded the definition of antisemitism to include legitimate criticism of Israel. There's been pressure from Republicans and donors to impose severe speech restrictions on university campuses and "dark money" groups are spending over $100 million to target the campaigns of members of Congress sympathetic towards Palestinians. Given the reactions to Israel's deplorable conduct and the repressive new "McCarthyite" measures against pro-Palestinian sentiment, the already deeply polarized debate over the U.S.-Israel relationship is likely to become more intense in the future.

Issue 1.4 of the Review for Religious, 1942. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious JULY 15o 1942 Direction by the Confess0r" ~ " " ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ The Editors Self-Knowledge . Patrick Perfection and the Relicjious . Augustine Klaas Mqral Beauty in Our Duties to God "~" Gera~d Kelly The General Chapter of Affairs ~ Adam C. Ellis The Precious Blood . Malachl J. Donnelly The Rural Life Apostolate . John, L. Thomas St. Boniface and Giff-Excl~anges . ~., Gerald Ellard Book Reviews Questions Answered Decisions of the Holy See VOLUME I NUMBER 4 FOR RI:::LIGIOUS VOLUME I JULY -15, 1942 NUMBER 4 CONTENTS SPIRITUAL DIRECTION BY THE ORDINARY CONFESSOR The Editors . ,218 BOOKS RECEIVED . 222 SELF-KNOWLEDGE--Patrick M. Regan, S.J .:. . . 223' FRANCISCAN ,STUDIES . 232 PERFECTION AND THE REIAGIOUS--Augustine K]aas, S.J. 233 MORAL BEAUTY IN OUR DUTIES TOWARDS GOD Gerald Kelly, S.J . 244 PAMPHLET REVIEWS . '. . " . 252 THE GENERAL CHAPTER OF AFFAIRS IN A RELIGIOUS CON° GREGATION--Adam C. Ellis, S.J" . . 253 THE PLACE OF THE PRECIOUS BLOOD IN THE SPIRITUAL LIFE Malachi J. Donnelly, S.J . 259 THE CATHOLIC RURAL LIFE APOSTOLATE---John L. Thomas, S.J2.63 GIFT-EXCHANGES IN THE CORRESPONDENCE OF ST. BONIFACE Gerald Ellard, S.J . 271 BOOK REVIEWS : MARCH INTO TOMORROW. By the Reverend John J. Considine, M.M. 281 WATCI21 AND PRAY. By the Reverend J. E. Moffat, S.J .281 IN THE SHADOV~ OF OUR LADY OF THE CENACLE. By Helen M. Lynch, R.C . " 282 I PRAY THE MASS. By the Reverend HugoH. Hoever, S.O. Cist. 283 MODICUM. By the Reverend Athanasius Bierbaum, O.F.M. ". 284 HOMILETIC HINTS. By the Reverend Albert H. Dolan, O. Carm. '. 284 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 24. Indulgence on Day of Investiture or Profession . 285 25. Obligation to Perform Penance for Violating Rule .285 26. Community. Prayers when Chaplain Opens Tabernacle . 286 27. Vows when in Danger of Death . 286 DECISIONS OF THE HOLY SEE OF INTEREST TO RELIGIOUS287 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, July, 1942. Vol. I, No. 4. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November, at The College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kausas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald.Kelly, 8.3. Copyright, i942, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Spiri!:ual Direction by !:he Ordinary Con~:essor THE EDITORS 448 ' UR confessor never say, s a word to us. He just gives absolution, and lets us go. He seems to have no time for us." Thus goes a complaint which, though not exactly common,, is frequent enough to indi-cate a problem that calls for a solution. The problemm a very important one in the religious lifemmay be clearly stated in two brief questions: Does the Church wish ordi-nary ~onfessors to give spiritual guidance? If so, why is this office at times neglected? There seems to be no valid reason for. hesitancy con-cerning the answer to the first question. The Church does wish that, in general, the ordinary confessors should give spiritual direction. The law that these confessors be care-fully selected indicates that they should be able and willing to give direction; the law limiting their number indicates the desirability of uniformity of direction. This does not mean that the ordinary confessor must give spiritual direction to each of his penitents every week. But surely it means that at times during the course of a Yea'r all religious will have the opportunity of benefiting by his counsel. Otherwise large numbers of religious will find their opportunities for direction limited almost exclusively to the time of their annual retreat. Such once-a-year direc-tion was never the ideal; and in these days of large retreats it is even less desirable than formerly. The second question is not so readily answered. We know that some rellgi0us, disappointed over. the fact that the confessional has not proved to be the source of guidance 218 "DIRECTION BY THE CONFESSOR they had expected, are in~lined to. answer: "The confessor isn't able to give direction. He's not sufficiently interested in.us to give ~us his time~". Reasons such .as these may be valid for some cases--though certainly it is not for us to pass judgment on any individual case. It is possible for a priest to be incapable of fulfilling an office to which he has been ai0pointed, and it is possible that capable priests will neglect their duty. Such. failures will never be wholly elim-inated so long as God chooses to carry on His work by means of human instruments. If inability or negle.ct of duty were the only possible explanations for deficiency in regard to spiritual direction, there would be no good reason for the present editorial. But we. are convinced that in many cases there is an entirely different explanation. We think that a situation may fre-quently arise in which the confessor is both able and will-ing to give direction and the community is eager ~o receive it, yet no direction results. Consider, for instance, a case like the following: Father A is a zealous and capable priest. Any of his intimate friends would consider him well-equipped for the office of ordinary confessor of religious. He knows how to direct souls in the practice of virtue, how to encourage the downhearted, how to help those in occasions of sin, and so forth. He has a great esteem for .religious; he knows that the Church wishes them to receive direction and that of all people they are perhaps the most deserving and apprecia-, tire of any spiritual help a priest might give them. He has resolved that, if ever he is made an ordinary confessor, he will do all he can to live up to the Church's ideal. To this end, he has at times made a particular study of the prob-lems that might be peculiar to religious: for example, dif-ficulties with obedience and common life, temptations 219 THE EDITORS against vocation, discou.ragement over lack of'progress in general and over "failure in prayer" in particular. The time comes when Father A is appointed an ordi-nary confessor." Full of zeal, he takes his place in the con-fessional for the first time. One after another the penitents come, and, almost before he realizes it, .Father /~ hears a voice say, "I'm the last one, Father." As he leaves the con-fessional, he notes that he has heard about twenty confes-sions in twenty-five minutes. The speed of this first experience is not lost on Father A. He is chagrine.d at the thought that he seems to have fallen into the one fault that he was always Warned to avoid: he had given little more than absolution--scarcely a word. of counsel or encouragement. He consoles himself, however, with the reflection that this wasonly the first time and that in future .there will be more opportunity to help. Yet week follows week; and there never seems to be any "opportunity to help." Alarmed by his repeated failures to give direction, Father A pauses for self-examination. All his fine ideals seem to have been merd theory. No one asks for direction; no one seems to need encouragement or special :guidance. Perhaps he should take the initiative and give some hdvice, even though none is requested? He has read about this often, yet he finds that now When he faces a practical situ-ation h~ is puzzled. What should he say? In the average confession there are a fewsmall things that might be termed ordinary human failings, even of the saints. None of these things seems to be an apt starting point for any kind of per-sonal advice; yet Father A wishes his counsel to have some kind of personal bearing. He does not wish to impose his own ideals on other souls. He would feel very "artificial" in giving general advice that he feels sure the penitent knows already. 220 DIRECTION BY THE CONFESSOR The self-examination proves of no help. Father A de-cides to wait a little longer. But in the meantime the delay is having its effect on the community. Almost without their realizing it, the members begin to .think of their confessor as "an absolving machine.'~ Those Who have real problems take them to an occasionalconfessor or simply save them for the annual retreat. We have outlined one way in which it can happen that, though a community wants direction and the confessor wants to give it, nothing comes, of it. The community and the confessor are like two friends who have had a quarrel and then go for months without speaking, though each one would be delighted to renew the friendship. ¯ There may be many other ex~planati0ns for lack of direction by the ordinary confessor; yet we believe that cases like that of Father A are not uncommon. In other words, we think that often the only reason why direction is not given is that the community and the confessor fail to ';get together." The confessor does not know how to make the approach: the community does not make it for him. Such a situation is deplorable; there should be many ways of avoiding it. Surely this is a problem, a problem of sufficient importance for sincere and wholesome discus-sion. We think that our REVIEW offers an apt medium for such discussion; hence, now that we have at least par-tially outlined the problem, we turn to our readers and ask for suggestions. We are willing to allow some space in subsequent issues of the REVIEW for communications on this subject, and we hope that our readers are sufficien.tly interested in the matter to discuss it among themselves and to send us any suggestion they deem helpful. This is not a contest. It is a cooperative movement for progress in the use of an important means to peace of soul and self-sanctification. Concerning the communications THE EDITORS sent to us, we wish to make the folloWing observations: :1) Letters will be welcomed from anyone: priests, in-dividual religious, or religious communities. 2.) We seek positive suggestions, not mere negative criticism. By positive suggestions we mean anything that may throw light on the problem outlined and make for a better understanding between confessors and religious. 3) The subject of the confessional is always a delicate one; hence we wish it clearly understood that we are con-fining this discussion only to the gendra! point of spiritual direction, methods of giving it, of profiting by it, and so. forth. 4) Communications, will be printed without names and without reference to places. 5) The communications should be as brief as the sub-ject- ma~ter will permit. We may find it necessary to edit them a bit, even to digest them. But the substance will al-ways be given. 6) Address communications directly to The Editors of REVFEW FOR RELIGIOUS, St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. BOOKS RECEIVED (To be reviewed later.) OUR MODELS IN RELIGION. Marist Brothers. Poughkeepsie, N. Y. THE DIALOG MASS. By Gerald Ellard, S.J. Longmans, Green ~ Company. New York. THE SOLUTION IS EASY. By Mark Schm~d, O.S.B. Frederick Pustet. New York. 222 Selt:-Knowledge Patrick M. Regan, S.J. ALL Religious realize the importance of self-knowl-. edge in the spiritual life. Though one can make some progress toward perfection .without adeep fund of self-knowledge, still it is safe to say that a comprehensive knowledge of one's personal talents or lack of them can be a powerful foice for advancing the soul in sanctity. We are filled with admiration of Christ in all His words and works, but we must remember that one of the secrets of His influ-ence over the hearts of men is His absolute, unerring cer-tainty about Himself, His mission, the prophecies concern-ing Him. This looms large in the narrative of His life, help-ing to explain at every step the reason for His perfect man-ner of acting. A boy of twelve, His explanation of the tragic sorrow He had brought Mary and Joseph, the simple declaration that it was His Father's business, cannot but convey the strong impression that He was so infallibly sure of Himself that neither sorrow, tragedy, nor any calamity could be allowed to interfere. In His dying hour, "all is consummated" is the public avowal for all men of all time that He knew to perfection every step of the way, that nothing unforeseen had ever happen.ed in His life. But Christ is not only to be admired, He is also to be imitated as far as possible; hence with His grace our kn0wledge of self will contribute its share to our success in the work of life. ' On the other hand the .New Testament is careful to re-cord not a few of the tragedies that followed on the lack of self-knowledge. Even after all Christ's training, .Peker had so little Understanding of himself and his weakness that not even a divine revelation of his impending fall gave him 223 PATRICK M. REGAN pause. Had he just a glimmer of self-knowledge, the warn-ing ofChrist would have struck home. How well Judas might have profited in acquiring an insight of his own char-acter, had he but heeded the loving instructions and friend-ly warnings of the most perfect of all spiritual directors. Numerous other examples might be cited to show how our Divine Lord esteemed self-knowledge and the importance He attached to it. And justly so, since it is a fundamental necessity of the spiritual life, without which perfection be-comes so difficult as to be practically unattainable. It is se!f one must pilot alone to the shores of eternity, and to do it securely and with a degree of success, one must make cer-tain he knows that self quite thoroughly. Even from a purely natural sta.ndpoint and on its own merits, this science of our own personality is most desir-able. One can hardly pick up a modern magazine or book without finding references to its need and desirability; hence the numerous plans for developing personality, and charts for rating it. Again,.to cite but one example: in a large city a very capable psychologist of reputation and experi-ence has a large clientele of business men who seek her aid in getting an insight into their characters. One of them, echoing the opinions of the rest, declared: "I know my business, Father, she has the stuff; it is not a racket, for-tune- telling, or anything of the sort; the vision she gave me of myself was i~asily worth the twenty-five dollars she charged, for it was worth thousands to me in my business." Advantages t:or the Religious. It is a great advantage to know yourself,, even in a par-tial, elementary way. Though to a religious it may not be worth much money, still it can save, much valuable time, pre.vent tragic mistakes, relieve one of.much worry and anxiety. How many ~eligious pursue a will-o'-the-wisp 224 SELF- KNOWLEDGE for many a year, which they fancied a necessary virtue or accomplishment. How precious.little, after all, is needed' to sanctify yourself, provided you are certain of what tab ents you possess and make efficient use of them. In this connection the recollection of St. Joseph of Cupertino im-, mediately flashes to mind. His biographers tell us his utter lack of human,knowledge kept him out of one religious order and caused his dismissal from another; yet he built his sanctity on this very defect. One talent--he realized his .great deficiency; b.ut with that one talent he reached the heights. It is not how many talents one has received, but how skillfully and efficiently he uses them that sanctifies. Religious are always eager and zealous to acquire self-knbwledge, t14ough not always so eager and zealous for the work entailed. An instruction or exhortation on the sub-ject so deeply interests them that they will almost certainly seek a special conference with the director for further per-sonal instruction. Regtettably, however, far too man~ labor under the delusion that the director can furnish a perfect insight into self for the asking, that out of the abundance of his genius.and experience he will unfold their whole souls before them to impart comprehensive enlight~ enment on their own mysterious selves. Would the task were so easy! Such an attitude betrays a misunderstanding of spiritual direction, shows a leaning toward excessive passivity and lack of initiative in the spiritual life; every-one should expect to shoulder himself a good. portion of the burden of his own spiritual direction. Yet this very ¯ defect brings out another advantage of self-knowledge. One who has made progress along that line will be able to cooperate intelligently with helpful advice imparted, ia fact will be more capable of enlightened reception of direc-tion offered. Countless persons would quickly reach heights of perfection, if mere passive, receptivity of spiritual guid-. 225. PA'~VRICK M. REGAN ante were sufficient; they are expert at doing just what they are told, provided they do not have to think for themselves in the process or take the initiative. If Providence would furnish tl~em direction requiring nothing more than .that they follow it blindly, they would soon be perfect. But God ordinarily demands that we do some of the leading,, some of the guiding ourselves. The more perfectly one knows his soul, the more perfect will be his performance ~in guiding it and being guided on the. path of sanctity. How necess.ary is self-knowledge for a religious appears from another angle .to which atter~tion is called by Rev-erend Mother Stewart, R.S.C.~I.: "In general, books for spiritual training direct their treatment against strongly-marked and outspoken faults, and take for granted that severe treatment and explicit methods will deal with them. But a whole class of subtle faults that grow up in the shade are not taken into account. Now, in books for spiritual training, it is quite possible to break down a nature of less resistance, by guiding it along lines destined for one of stronger make, and leaving it without knowledge of prin-ciples for its own guidance. It may remain ignorant of its own faults and defects, because they have not come within the scheme that was drawn up for others." (Tbe.Societ~ of tt2e Sacred Heart, p. 82.) Since we cannot demand Pen-tecostal miracles from the Holy Spirit constantly, we must conform to the ordinary way of Divine Providence, and temper and adapt the general doctrine according to our own needs and 'capabilities. This requires a knowledge of our own individual selves. Still another advantage is that when one knows himself, not perfectly it may be: but sufficiently for forming a work-ing hypothesis at least, he will not dissipate his energies, pursuing what may be impossible for him, or quite un- 226 SELF-KNoWLEDGE necessary in his particular vocation. He will also have a strong in~entive to strive .hard to, advance, his goodquali-ties encouraging him tO make sacrifice, his defects urging him forward to strengthen the weakness of character. What is more, he will get at the root 6f the trouble, instead of spending much time and effort on surface symptoms only; it will be pride, envy, sloth, or some other fundamental tendency that he will effectually check, and with each con-quest many surface manifestations such as uncharitable-ness, impatience, intellectual dishonesty, and the like will vanish. Finally, this understanding of self will help very much to understand others, to grasp their problems, sympathize in their troubles, and thus promote the spirit of charity in the soul. One cannot understand the heart of another who does not first understand hisown. There are few religious who do not, at some time or other, have to make some con-tribution to. helping other souls by means of direction. The long, trying novitiate of learning to dirett ond's own soul is the very best preparation for aiding others to advance in God's service. It is the best antidote to a shallow, super.- ficial view of lif~ and of those who share life with us, since it widens and deepens our outlook on everyone and every-thing we meet along the way. Nature ot: SelF-Knowledge. Precisely what is this self-knowledge of which we hear so much? Fundamental as it is, a starting point in our spir-itual life, we should aim at clear ideas of what it is and wl~at it involves. It is the understanding of a particular person, my.self, whom I know through my virtues and defects, my natural and sup~rnatura! talents, my likes and dislikes, m~r own personal life history. We may expand these ideas further. It is' tl~e understanding 6f my own per- 227 PATRICK M. REG~q sonality, especially in the light of the fact that there is ab-so! utely no possibility of there ever being another person-ality exactly like mine anywhere in the whole of cidation. Since my personality is such a unique thing, so different from every other, so isolated from all others, I am the only one, except Almighty God, who can hope ever to acquire a very intimate knowledge of myself. From another point of view, self-knowledge may be said'to be an understand-ing of my life, but not just that; it is seeing my life with a particular pattern or design running through it, my own personality. Hence it is much more than knowing what is found {n spiritual books about the principles and practice .of. asceticism. These stop short at the threshold; I alone can enter in to apply the knowledge to self, observing the effect on all that lies hidden within. Moreover it is much more than knowing faults, defects, sins, virtues, successes; it is the understanding of the person who has these defects and achieves these successes, and the intimate personal explana-tion of them. Many are prejudiced against self-knowledge, even fear to undertake the task of acquiring it; they. misunderstand it. It is not to be confused with morbid introspection-- that avid, uncontrolled interest in self which excludes all else and can be so harmful. No; the. acquiring of self-knowl-edge postulates not only looking inward, but also consid-erable looking outward to God, to our neighbor, and to our models, the saints. Nor does ~he study of self neces-sarily mean constant, cold analysisof selfl for the Very reason that it can also be accomplished by noting the vir-tues of others that impress us and reveal how much we fall short of perfect design in our own lives. Self-analysi~ can be a considerable aid to self-knowledge but it does not lead to it infallibly. Some are expert at analyzing themselves, 228 SEL~-KNOWLEDGE but their self-knowledge is mediocre; while others have a deep knowledge of self, with very little power of self-analysis. Difficutt~/ Perhaps for the majority of people the greatest prejudice against self:knowledge is founded on the difficulty of ac-quiring it. Studying self is something like studying a great painting or other work of art: no matter how expert your. judgment, as long as you are dose to it, you see only the details, hence are incapable of appreciating the whole. His-. tory furnishes the same phenomenon: we are too close to present e~cents to fo~m a true estimate of them in their his-torical perspective. That is e~actly the problem in the pres-ent case: to get far enough way from self to admire the beauty or observe the blemishes in that work of art, A valuable suggestion comes from our Lord Himself in His admonition: "First cast out the beam from .thy own eye, and then thou wilt see clearly, to cast out the speck from thy brother's eye." It is also possible to withdrawfrom self.in several waysto observe self through the eyes of oth-ers; these we leave to a more specific treatmen~ of methods of learning self. Christ's admonition calls attention to a basic difficult~ in the labor of gaining knowledge of self: very likely for years we have been nourishing a flattering opinion of self without even suspecting how dark the picture.°is, so that it is far from easy to face the unpleasant reality. Self-love jealously guards its own achievements, by demanding repression of what is painful, and by enlisting self-deception to hide the reality from us. What chance, then; has self-kriowledge, the truth that disregards praise or blame, the essence of humility that unmasks self for what it really is? Finally, proficiency in this science requires such perse- 22'9 PATRICK M. REGAN vering effort that the tedious task is.ultimately either aban-doned altogether, or only half-heartedly performed. The effort is wearing, too, in that we must observe not only sins and defects which are mentioned in confession, but also other things--talents, likes, dislikes--which not only are not matter for confession but have been ignored so long that they have become part of us; perhaps even, we have never adverted to them. When we are on our guard, how well behaved we are, how humble, how meek, how retiring our evil tendencies, pride for instance, But when. the will is off guard, the mind not intent on self and motives (which is about ninety per cent of the time), how unconscious we are whether it is pride, sloth, or perhaps even a virtue pro-pelling the stream of our thoughts. In a word, it all seems so difficult and complicated, we want to .give up before we ever get started. Simplification. But the difficulty and complexity must not be overrated. After all, weknew eno.ugh of our own intellectual, moral, and physical endowments when we entered religion to make a decision without qualification or condition; affecting the whole of our natural life. Moreover, to acquire a knowl-edge of self sufficient for all practical purposes is far from an impossible assignment. We should expect that; surely God would make such a valuable asset in the spiritual life quite accessible to all.earnest seekers after perfection. As a matter of fact, the whole pro.cess can be considerably sim-plified. For instance there is a remarkable unity in the spiritual life, on which fact we may base our plan for sim-plification. Withthe virtues, for instance, the acquiring of one in its perfection will involve the acquisition of nu-merous others. Thus St. Paul, writing on charity (I Corin-thians 1.3 ), speaks of it as being patient, kind, not envious, 230 . SELF-KNOWLEDGE not .pretentious, humble, not ambitious, not .self-seeking, not provoked, thinking no evil, not rejoicing over wicked-ness, rejoicing with the truth, bearing with all things, be-lieving all things, hoping all things, enduring all thingi. Surely Paul must mean that genuine charity brings in its train all these other virtues. And anyone who has taken St. James to heart on the control of the tongue; will have more than a theoretical knowledge that "if anyone does not offend in word, he is a perfect man" (James 3:3). It is well also to keep in mind with regard to our faults that their number is not infinite, nor even legion; in fact, all are aware-that they can be reduced to the seven capital sins, as they are called. Some of us may be prejudiced or even frightened by such terms as "capital sin," or "ruling passion." In this case, let us dispense with such terms and choose something like "predominant tendency." Surely none will find it beyond him to admit that one result Of original sin has been that we have strong tendencies toward evil, no matter how far we have advanced in perfection. However, we are not so .badly off that all seven of these tendencies strive together and constantly, like an insuper-able force, to drag us to the lowest depths Of every sin and degradation. Many spiritual writers maintain thereis one evil ten-dency that predominates, .one at the root of most of our defects and imperfections; that, if we work diligently at controlling this one, we need scarcely expend any time or energy on the rest. Thus the:Directory of the .Spiritual Ex~rcises of.St.Ignatius (d -13). bid.~ ~he retreat-roadster: '-'. give l~im.[the retreatant] also the particular, ex-amination; explaining tb hima.t, the Same time that in every man there is Usu.a!iysome .one fault 0ilsin @hich is th~ chief one, and is the cause and root ofmany others. And although 231 PA'~RICK M. REGAN in some persons there may be several chief sins, yet it is best to choose some one, and bend all our efforts to rooting it out." Thus the task of planning our spiritual campaign is greatly simplified: it hinges on determining what ten-dency to. evil dominates us in the various-acts of daily life. This should not be too hard to determine. Surely it is at least the "beam th'at is in your own eye." Yet to some it may still appear too hard a task to be.described as simple. More specific methods of determining the predominant ten-dency would be a great help, and these will be furnished in a future article. Meanwhile, taking a.lead from St. Thomas, who traces a!1 seven capital sins back to pride, no one will be far wrong who decides that pride is his predominant ten-dency. Studying and observing .self with God's grace and 'understanding, wisdom and other gifts of the Holy Spirit, he is due for a revelation how much pride really does domi-nate his whole character. He will be astonished at the amount of self-deception that has crept into his life, moti-vating his actions. If he alternates this observation of the depths of pride in his makeup with several weeks of the practice of humility, he. will perceive himself actually mak-ing unexpected prggressi as he draws toward the goal of honesty with self. Once he is honest with himself, he is ready to undertake in earnest the acquirement of a deep knowledge of self. Franciscan Studies Franciscan Studies is a quarterly review of the sacred and secu-lar sciences that serves as the official organ of the Franciscan Educa-tional COnference. Publication of the Studies began in 1920, but it was only recently that they were converted into a quarterly review. The review, is characterized by thorough scholarship. The annual subscriptign price is 5 dollars. Further information may be obtained from The Secretary, Franciscan Studies, S~t. B0naventur¢ College, St. .Bonaventure P.O., N.Y. 232 Pert:ect:ion and !:he. Religious Augustine Klaas; S.3. THE ultimate goal of.life is our maximum union with / God in the Beatific Vision. Since sanctifying grace is the measure of this divine union in heaven, it must be our ceaseless endeavor on earth to augment it as much as possible in our souls, by the worthy, reception of the sacra-ments and by meritorious activity. Hence, our spiritual perfection may be said to consist in a firmly rooted disposi-tion t~o do the-maximum supernatural good of which we are capable, both the good that is of precept and, what is more difficult, the good that is of counsel.This maximum good, however, we are to accomplish, not in a wholly indi-vidualistic way, but normally as corporate members of Christ's Mystical Body, the Catholic Church. At first sight, the effort to do the maximum good would seem to be impracticable. A successful modern play exhibits the havoc wrought in one family by a teen-age youngster who sets to work with determination to do as ¯ much good as possible on every occasion. The results of this youthful resolve are indeed neive-wracking for the other members of the family and highly humorous for the audience, since teen-age youth is not noted particularly for prudence and good judgment. The effective performance of the. greatest possible good requireS the balanced exercise of the virtues, above all, the supernatural ones, both theo-logical and moral. The theological virtues--faith, hope and charity--and the moral virtues clustering about the 1This is the second of a series of three articles on Perfection. The firs~article, which dealt with Perfection in General, appeared' in the March issue. The present article treats of the Essence of Perfection. Though a part of a series, the article is complete in itself.--ED. 233 AUGUSTIN~ KLAAS cardinal ones of prudence, temperance, justice and forti-tude, all perfected and. directed by the gifts of the Holy Spirit,omake up our spiritual perfection. Do we not judge of a person's perfection mainly by his exercise of the vir.- tues? The Church estimates the heroic perfection of one she wishes to raise to the honors of the altar by thoroughly investigating his practice of the virtues, according to the procedure drawn up by Pope Benedict XIV. The saintly Contardo Ferrini, to mention only one example~ notes down with customary perspicacity his "continuous approximation to infinite perfection," by means of "growth in virtue: vigor of faith, joy of hope, fervor of charity, profound humility, angelic purity." Spiritual perfection and a permanent disposition to exercise the vir-tues to the utmost are one and the same thing, for it is by the strenuous practice ~of these varied virtues that we do all the good of which we are capable, and thus achieve the greatest possible increase of sanctifying grace, the measure of our eternal bliss in heaven. Among all the virtues that grace the soul, is there one more important than the rest, one that embodies the very marrow of perfection, one which, if practised faithfully. will bring in its train all the others? What virtue contains the essence of perfection? III. Ped, ection, Its EssencemFalse Notions Before we select the virtue containing the true essence of perfection, we must consider some errors. We shall not. dwell upon the opinions of those pseudo:scientists and philosophers who consider all virtue, but especially that found in the saints of the Catholic Church, as just so much hypocrisy, abnor.mality, or perversion. Their ignorance, prejudice, and lack of scientific method are appalling. Nor shall we delay to discuss the errors of those who contemn 234 PERFECTION AND "THE RELIGIOUS ~the characteristically. Christian virtues .because theii mis~ taken ideologies have led them .to place what they call perfection in the wrong virtues or .in pseudo-virtues. Such are, for example, in our own. day, the Communists and the Nazis. " The virtues lauded by these ideologists are those~of pagan materialism. Some err i.n overemphasizing the pas-sive virtues, and then we have Quietism; while others stress unduly the active ones, and ther; we have what. Leo XIII called Americanism. Both these extremes have. met with positive disapproval, by the Church, because fundamentally they disturb the delicate balance between divine grace and human nature. We shall not delay on these. " What we are chiefly interested in are the ordinary mis-taken notions of the essence of perfection found among Catholics and even sometimes among .religious, at least in practice: They. are generally a matter'of, misplaced empha-sis, In the case.of religious, these errors are occasionally the result of faulty information imparted, to them in their earlier years, or ~more often, I am inclined to believe, they are due to a wrong interpretation, of ideas and practices found in the biographies of the saints. Although there has been great improvement in recent years,~ still many of these lives of the saints leave much to be desired from the point of view of accuracy and perspecti.ve., To secure interest and dramatic effect, things wholly accidental are played up undu!y, to the obscuring of essentials; certain particular means, espe.cially of a heroic kind, are over-stressed to the minimizing and.~even obliterating of the saint's all-important purpose. Thus, the striking and extraordinary tend to throw the spiritual .life of the saint completely out of f0c_us and hence it is .no. wonder-that ~the essence of per-fection is often, misconstrued by the uncritical reader. ~ Wha~e~cer the cause may be, i.tis a fact that some think that perfec.tion consists in long pr.ayers, particularly, ificon- 235 AUGUSTINE KLAAS templation, with accompanying ecstasies, revelations, and other charismatic gifts. Or again, some consider perfection as essentially a matter of penances and mortifications, with emphasis on the heroic ones and still more emphasis on what they like to call "the folly of the cross." It is true that heroic penances and extraordinary gifts of contem-plation are intimately connected with spiritual perfection and that they abound in the lives of the saints, but they do not essentially constitute perfection. They~ are effective means to perfection, but, after all, only means. The stead-fast use of them may indicate a high degree of perfection already achieved, but definitely they are not the essence of perfection. Others are inclined to place the essence of perfection in spiritual or even sensible consolations and. consider the presence of these as indicative of spiritual perfection attained. The greater the consolation, the greater the per-fection, so they think, forgetting that one can be perfect without great consolation. At least, perfection is entirely independent of the fluctuations of spiritual and sensible consolation. Then, there are those who, like the Pharisees of old. place perfection in the meticulous outward observance of the letter of the law--a certain kind of extreme formalism. Our Lord has expressed in no uncertain terms His estimate .of this type of pseudo-perfection (Matthew 23:23-28). Neither is the observance of the three evangelical vows of poverty, chastity and obedience the essence of perfection. These vows are a most important means to perfection, and centuries of religious life bear witness to their efficacy; but they are not the only means, for there are numerous saints in heaven who never took these vows. And I dare'say that there are peopl~ in the world who, without the. vows, are living lives of greater perfection than many religious do 236 j~,. PERFECTION AND THE RELIGIOUS with them. Nor does. spiritual perfection consist in works of zeal, the intense exercise of the spiritual and corporal works of mercy, This restless apostolic activity may :be motivated by great interior perfection, but it does not con-stitute perfection essentially. Nor is perfection a kind of liturgical estheticism. These liturgical "thrills'.' are not necessary, though the right, intelligent use of the liturgy is a means to spiritual perfection sanctioned and often praised by the Church. Finally, we come to the good people who seem to equate perfection with the gaining of the maximum number of indulgences, or with the joining of as many religious societies and sodalities as POssible, or with making a record number of novenas, or with the greatest and most varied accumulation of medals, prayer-books, rosaries and holy¯ pictures. They forget ~hat there were thousands of saints in the Catholic Church before most of these things came intouse. St. Francis de Sales, in a famous passage often quoted, pillories the common inclination to judge of perfection according to one's own Pa[ticular character and tempera-. ment. He shows clearly that overstressing the wrong virtue as the essence of perfection frequently has Unfortunate reac-tions in the practice of the other virtues. The passage appears in the first chapter of his Introductior~ to the Devout Life. I cite it, asking thereader to remember that for St. Francis the words "devout" and "devotion" are the equivalent of "perfect" and "perfection." "Aurelius was wont to paint all the faces in his pic-tures to the air and resemblance of the women whom he loved, and so each one paints devotion according to his own passion and fancy. He that is given to fas.ting holds him-self for .very devout, if he do but fast, though his heart be full of rancour: and though he dare not moisten his tongue in wine or even in water for fear of transgressing s'obriety, AUGUSTI'NE KLAAS yet he scruples not to plunge it in the blood of his neighbor, by detraction and calumny. Another will account himself devout for reciting a great multitude of prayers every day, although afterwards he gives his tongue full liberty to utter peevish, arrogant, and injurious words among his famil-iars and neighbors. Another will readily draw an alms out of his purse to give it to the poor, but he cannot draw any gentleness out of his heart to forgive his enemies. Another will forgive his enemies, but will not make satisfaction to his ~reditors, unless forced by the law to do so. And yet all these persons are, in the common est.imation, held to be devout, though .they are by no means so. The servants of Saul sought for David in his house; but Michol having laid a statue in his bed, and having covered it with David's apparel, made them believe that it was David himself sick and sleeping (I Kings 19:11-16): even so do many per-sons cover themselves with certain external actions belong-ing to holy devotion, and the world believes them to be truly devout and spiritual; whereas in reality they are but statues and phantoms of devotion." The various opinions cited above err by overstressing things good in themselves and highly commendable when used prudently and wisely. These practices have their place in the quest for perfection, but their place is that of means to an end. True perfection consists essentially in none of them. IV. Perfection, Its True Essence The true essence of Christian perfection is charity-- the supernatural love of God for Himself and of all else for His sake. But this charity, containing the very marrow of perfectign, is not a low degree of charity, but maximum charity. A great sinner newly converted to a better life has the .charity that necessarily accompanies the state of sancti- 238 PERFECTION AND THE RELIGIOUS lying grace, but no one would say that he is very perfect. This minimum degree of charity is not sufficient, nor indeed is that charity enough which coexists with a habit of delib-erate venial sin and unmortified passions, it is maximum charity which constitutes the essence 0f.spiritual. perfection. St. Paul eloquently stresses the primacy of charity in the spiritual life. He calls it the. "bond of perfection" (Colossians 3:14) and the "fulfillment of the law" (Romans 13~10). Without it, he declares other virtues, even though heroic, to be as nought: "And I point out to ¯ you a yet more excellent~way~ If. I should speak with the tongues of men and of angel~, but do not have charity, I have become as sounding brass or a tinkling cymb~E And if I have prophecy and know all mysteries and "all knowledge; arid if I have all faith so as to move mountains, yet do not .have charity, I am nothing. And if I, distrilsute all my goods to f~ed the poor, and if I deliver~my body to be burlied, yet do not have charity, it profits me nothing . So there abide faith;hope and charity, .these three,; but the greatest of these is charity" (I Corinthians 13). St. ,lohn, too, sings a paean in praise of charity in his Epistles: "God is love, and he who abides inlove abides in God, and God in him" (I ,lohn 4:16). But it is from the lips of Our Lord Himself that we have in clear and unmistakeable language the doctrine of maximum charity as'the essence of perfection. I cite the text from the Gospel of St. Matthew (22:34-40) : "But the Pharisees,-hearing thfit he had silenced the Sadducees,' gathered together. And one of them,-a doctor of the Law, putting .him to the test,, asked him, 'Master, which is .the great commandment in the Law?; desus said to him: 239 AUGUSTINE KLAA$ "Thou shalt love the Lord thg God "with thg whole heart, and with thg whole soul, and with thg whole mind. This is the~greatest and the first commandment. And the second is like it, . Thou shalt love tl~g neighbor as tbg. self. On these two commandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets.' " The Fathers of the Church. have many passages con-firming and elucidating the same doctrine of charity. Let us hear St. Augustine, who says in his treatise On Nature and Grace: "Incipient charity is incipient justice; advanced charity is advanced justice; great charity is great justice; perfect charity is perfect justice.'" St. Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theotogica (II-II, Q 184, Art 3) notes that "primarily and essentially the perfection of Christian life consists in charity, principally as to the love of God, secondarily as to the love of our neighbor." And in his treatise on the Perfection of Spir-itual Life (Chapter I) he states that "the spiritual life con-sists principally in charity . . . He is simply perfect in the spiritual life who is perfect in charity." Suarez likewise teaches this (The Religious State, Chapter I, Section 3) : "The perfection of a thing consists in its union with its last end. Our last end is God, Who is manifested to us by faith. Our perfection therefore consists in union with God: and it is charity which unites us with God. The essence of sanctity and perfection,, and the perfection of Christian life, consists therefore in .charity and the perfec-tion of charity." Of the more modern theologians we may cite Tanquery (The Spiritual Life, p. 158): "But what degree of charity is required for perfection? . Charity so 240 PERFECTION AND TIIE RELIGIOUS well established in the soul as to make us strive earnestly and constantly to avoid even the smallest sin and to do God's holy will in all things out of love for Him." ¯ - It is now clear that. the essence of spiritual perfection is charity, the maximum charity of which we are capable according to our particular capacities of n~iture and of grace. What does this maximum charity include? It includes, .of course, the infused virtue of charity, but this alone is not sufficient: A newly-baptized child has the. infused virtue of charity, but it cannot be said to have attained to the perfection we are considering. Neither does a.high degree of infused charity suffice. A religious, for example,: may l~ad a very fervent life for many years and then unfor-tunately fall .into a state of tepidity and laxity in which he may commit many imperfections and venial, sins. If he does ¯ .not sin mortally, he will be possessed :of a great amount of sanctifying .grace and concomitantly a high degree "of infused charity, but no one would say that such a religious is leading a life of.perfection. Charity as an infused virtue is required but is not sufficient to constitute the. essence, of perfection. ¯ In addition to the highest degree of infused charity of which we are capable, there .is required also the maximum activity/of charity. There must be in the s0ul a permanent disposition to perform as many acts of supernatural charity as we can and, in fact, do govern all our actions by the vir-tue of charity. Charity must rule our actions as intensively and as extensively as possible. Does this mean that acts of the other virtues, such as faith, hope, humility, penance and the rest, are to be excluded? By no means. A priest in a Certain widely-read modern novel is likely to convey a wrong impression when he says: "If we have the funda-mentals, love of God and love of our neighbor, ,surely we're 241 AUGUSTINE. KLA/t$ all right." As though the possession of the true faith, for .example, were of minor.importance! No--faith, hope and the other virtues cannot be left out; they must be prac-tised, but they should be practised as much as possible from the motive of charity. As Suarez so cogently remarks: "The perfection of Christian life includes not only the per-fection of charity, but the perfection of the other virtues; charity being their end and crown, .or complement of per-fection . Other virtues contribute towards perfection as they are the instruments of charity; and to charity, as it is essential perfection; they add an accidental perfection." That is why St. Paul says (I Corinthians. 13:4-7): "Charity is patient, is kind; charity does not envy, is not pretentious, is not puffed up, is not ambitious, is not self-seeking, is not provoked; thinks no evil, doesnot rejoice over wickedness, but rejoices ~vith the truth; bears with all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things." In a word, the other virtues may be said to belong to the integrit~t of perfection. Charity at a maxi-mum is its essence and charity must rule all the other vir-tues like a queen. If charity abounds in our souls as an infused virtue, if charity .governs our actions as intensively'and as exten-sively as possible, then indeed we shall be perfect. Then we shall be doing the maximum good. Observe a child who. loves its mother with all its heart. Doesit not strive ear-nestly to avoid whatever will displease her, and does it not do positively all it can to please her, out of love for her? So shall we avoid the slightest sin and imperfection and do all the supernatural good we can, if we love God with our whole heart and soul and mind. Love is the keystone of perfection. He is perfect who isperfect in charity. St. Francis de Sales neatly sums UP our doctrine on the 242 PERFECTION AND THE RELIGIOUS relation of charity to perfection, which he .calls dev0.t!o.n; "True and living devotion presupposes the love. of God; nay rather it is no other" thing .than: a true love of God; yet not any kind of love; for, in so far as divine love beautifies our souls, and makes us pleasing to his divine ¯ Majesty, it is called grace; in so far. as it gi~ces us strength to do good it is'called charity; but when it.reaches such a degree of perfection that it makes us not only do good, but do so carefully, frequently, and readily, then it is called devotion . And since devotion consists in a certain excelling degree of charity, .it not only. makes us ready, active and diligent in ~observing the commandments of God; but it also prompts us .to do readily and heartily as many good works as we can, even though they be not in any sort commanded, but only counseled or inspired .,. In fine, charity and devotion differ no more, the one from the other, than the flame from the fire;, inasmuch as charity, being a spiritual fire, when it breaks out into flame, is called devotion: so that devotion adds-nothing to the fire of charity, sav~ the flame which makes charity ready, active, and diligent, not only in observing the commandments of God, but in practising the heavenly counsels and inspira-tions" (It~troductior~ to the Deoout Life, .Chapter I). So far we have considered perfection in general and in its all important essential element, charity: In a con-cluding article we shall apply these thoughts to the reli-gious state. How is the religious to do the maximum good and practise the maximum charity? 243 Moral Beaub/ in our Duties toward God Gerald Kelly, S.3. IN HIS TREATISE on the Blessed Eucharist, St. Albertus Magnus offers this humble apology for the limitations of his work: "Even though we do the best we can, yet in treating of God and the mysteries of God we but babble like babes." In this respect, anyone who tries to work out a scheme for the positive and insp.irational treatment of the Commandments that enunciate our duties toward G0dwill very likely feel a certain kinship to the great Dominican scholar. These Commandments touch on sublime truths, "on-God and the mysteries of God," and it is difficult to speak or write of these truths in words that offer more than a glimmer ofsatisfaction. Because of the difficulty of treating the, subject ade-quately, I prefer to consider the present article merely a series of "notes" on our duties to God. The ideas are not fully developed; but they do, I hope, offer some material for that prayerful study of the Decalogue which, according to The Roman Catechism, is so desirable. Perhaps too, the general plan given here will be of service to teachers who desire material for presenting the positive background of .the various Commandments before explaining the prec.epts. and prohibitions contained therein. Reason and Faith Our duties toward God are epitomized in the first three . Commandments of the Decalogue. These Command-ments, in turn, are summed up and perfected in the first of the two Great Commandments. In terms of the virtues, these Commandments refer principally to acts of Faith, 244 MORAL BEAUTY IN DUTIES TO GOD Hope, Charity, and Religion. The following notes will show, in a somewhat sketchy fashibn, how the practice of thes~ virtues.is associated with the Commandments, .and will indicate, at least imperfectly, their power for contrib-utifig to the moral beauty of the universe. Our duties toward God flow from definite relation-ships that exist between.ourselves and God. The first step in the appreciation and observance of such duties must be a knowledge of these relationships. This knowledge is obtained through reason, and especially through Faith. Even .reason alone can tell us much about God and our-selves; from the visible things of this world, as St. Paul declared, it can penetrate to the invisible things of God. Reason can discover the existence of God and can paint a very sublime portrait of His perfections. Nevertheless, much more important than mere reason, is the knowledge that is ours through F~aith, In the first place, though reason can (perhaps I should say could). attain to a vast fund of knowledge about God, yet it is a simple matter of fact that the difficulties are so great that unaided reason falls into many and grievous errors in its search for God. The knowledge of Faith is free from these errors. Furthermore, even the most highly developed human reason, working under the most favorable natural circumstances, is held within decided limits in its quest for the truths about God. It cannot penetrate the veil of mystery; it cannot even suspect the reality of the inner life of God or know of the divine scheme which actually pre-vails in the universe and which is expressed in the mysteries of the Supernatural Life, of the 'Incarnation, and of the -Redemption. These truths are known only through revelation, and they become our own personal knowledge only when we accept God's revelation by making an ac't of Faith. 245 GERALD KELLY 'Faith, then, is the first step in the appreciation and .intelligent observance of our duties toward God. By Faith we know what God really is and what we are. It is scarcely necessary to enumerate here the sublime truths of Faith. They are contained substantially in the Apostles' Creed; they are unfolded in word and gesture and song in the liturgical ceremonies by which the Church teaches her chil-dren. But it should be mentioned here that any growth in Faith, any progress in the knowledge of God and' His perfections which comes through reading or study or prayer is not only a fine practice of the Commandments but isalso a most excellent preparation, for .living in the spirit of the Commandments. And as for .teaching, we teach the Commandments best when we ourselves know God inti-mately and when we impart this knowledge to our pupils before telling them that they must do this, they must not do that, and so forth. Through Faith we are made aware of a vast number of relationships that exist between ourselves and God. He is our Creator, our Helper, our sovereign Lord, our Redeemer, our Best Friend, our Father, our Goal; and so on. Yet, if we carefully examine these relationships, we shall find that, roughly speaking, they can be grouped under two heads: some emphasize our union with and similaritg to :'God, others emphasize the distinction and distance between ourselves and God. Suppose we consider first the relationships of distance~ and distinction. These present a grand picture of God as the Being of supreme excellence and absolute dominion and ourselves as creatures who d.epend utterly upon Him. This is a true picture; it is decidedly appropriate that we ~recognize it and lead our lives according to it. Down to the very core of our being we are creatures; and any act of 246 MORAL BEAUTY IN DUTIES TO GOD Ours which expresses this relationship to God is in perfect harmony With our natures.¯ : ¯ ¯ .Creqturely .Acts Among these creat.urehj acts, the simplest and most ¯ fundamental is that of adoration. The essential charac-teristic of adoration is perfect homage, the homage due to God alone. It is the acknowledgement of God's supreme excellence and-our absolute dependence on Him. It may be expressed internally by a simple act of the will, or it may be externalized by various gestures, such as the genuflec: tion; or it may seek outlet in the other forms of worship known as the prayer of praise, the prayer of petition, the taking of vows and oaths. Basically, these various acts are but modifications of the one fundamental act of worship. The prayer Of praise is adoration with emphasis on the acknoxvledgement of God's excellence; the prayer of peti-tion is adoration with insistence on our dependence. A vow ~is adoration expressed by partial or total consecration of oneself to God;an oath is adoration in that it pays tribute to one aspect of divine excellence, God's infinite truthful-ness. The worship of God must be not only personal and individual, but social as well, for we depend on God not merely as individuals but also as a community. And social worship demands a fixed time for its exercise and. definite forms for its manifestation. Hence the propriety of days set aside as God's days, days on which acts of reli-gion and rest from 'merely. secular occupations play the principal part. Hence too the need of that chief of all social actsof worship, sacrifice, a commonact of adoration by.which the.whole community, through its legitimate .ministers, makes an offering to God as an agknowledgement ¯ of His :supreme,dominion over the community"and of 247 GERALD KELLY the complete dependence, of the community .on, God. Social worship, from the very fact that it is external and common, must be regulated; and what norm is more appropriate than that which Almighty God Himself has established in giving us the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and in founding the Church with power to regulate this act of worship and to establish minor forms? Adoration in all its forms is reserved to God alone. But it is natural enough that in the sphere of religion we should find a condition similar to that which exists in practically all secular governments and which, if history, tells us rightly, is well-nigh as old as government itself. Earthly rulers have their ministers, and it is an accepted custom among men to pay honor to these ministers according to their dignity. In much the same way, God has communi-cated His excellence to creatures in varying degrees-~-a fact Which forms the basis for the special acts of veneration that we pay to Mary and the saints. This seems so reasonably in accord with human practice in other matters that one is apt to wonder why people at times strongly object to it. We honor Mary and the .saints because they reflect the divine excellence in a special way; we direct petitions to them because we know that God, Whose special friends they are, wishes to honor them by granting His favors through their intercession. God, the saints of God--and now a brief word about reverence for the things of God. As we pay Him supreme worship, it is surely the appropriate thing to show a special reverence to all the things connected with that worship: for the house of God,~. for the Sacred vessels, for the persons consecrated to Him, for the Word of God, and of course for the~Holy Name of God. All these things represent God, and in honoring them we honor Him. :The acts of virtue thus far enumerated are more fully 248 MORAL BEAUTY IN DUTIES TO! GOD explained in any theological treatise on thevirtue of reli-gionI. These acts, like the virtue of justiceamong human b~ings, all emphasize the distinction between ourselves and God. As such, they are distinctively creatttrety acts. Love and Hope Yet, though we are distinct from God, we are not wholly different from Him; though an infinite distance separates us from Him, yet in a true sense we are one with Him. Even reason tells us of ~ similarity to God that is ours in the possession of intellect and free will, and of a special yearning for God which is a property of our Spiritual and immortal souls. But Faith, in giving us.a knowledge of the supernatural order, tells us of a similarity to God and of an ultimate assimilation to God which reason could not so much as suspect. We are children of God, share~s in His own Divine nature, members of the Divine Family, with the destiny of sharing His own happiness in the Vision Beatific. The distance of creatureship is bridged by the inti.m.acy of friendship; and, though submissive worship is never to be neglected, yet in the present order it yields the primacy to filial love in our dealings with God. Since God has chosen to deal with us on' terms of loving friendship, it is most appropriate that we live according to this relationship. To do so is to live a life of Charity. This expresses itself in various ways: it rejoices in the perfections of God; it labors for the fulfillment of God's designs; it accepts God's gift of Himself and gives self in return to God. It flees from sin, strives for closer union with God and for perfect conformity to the will of God. Especially does it contemplate God-made-man and strive, as all true love 1For a splendid treatment of the virtues, confer The Fullness of Life by Walter Far-rell, O.P. Confer also The Catechism of the Council of Trent (The Roman Cate-chism). 249 GERALD KELLY does, for perfect imitation of Him and for~,the growth of His kingdom in the hearts of men . : Though our union with God has already begun, it is still imperfect and breakable. ~ To preserve it and increase it unto the perfection of heaven is difficult; without the help of God, it is impossible. But God in His fatherly goodness has promised not only this help but a reward as well for our cooperation. Since we know His goodness and His power and His unwavering fidelity to His promises, it is fitting that we trust Him, that always in perfect confidence we stretch out our hands to Him as a child reaches but for ¯ his parents. Such is the worship of Hope. Devotioia All the acts thus far enumerated are in perfect accord with the Commandments that contain our duties to God. To perform such acts, to cultivate such virtues, is to live in the spirit of these Commandments. This is not a dry, mechanical process; these acts do not issue from a sterile soul. They presuppose inthe soul a certain disposition that theologians call deootion. Perhaps it is well for us, particularly if we be educators, to realize that many people have.a false idea of religious devotion. They look upon it as something sentimental, something highly emotional, something they might want to experience only when their friends-are not present. That is a silly notion. In all Other affairs deootiorl has a lofty signification. Men speak with respect and awe of the soldier who is deooted to his country, of a husband devoted to his wife, of parents devoted to their children, of a doctor devoted to his duty, and so forth. In all these uses, devotiorl means something solid---a spirit of self-sacrifice and of true heroism. Yet, in the religious sphere the word has a "fluffy" 250 MOR~L BEAUTY IN DUflES TO GOD ~onn0tati0n;the mere accidentals are ffequently mist'aken for. the isubstance. ~ )kS a matter of~ plain .fact, religious ~devotioriis ~he highest of all forms Of :devoti0n. It is a. ready will to wor-ship God, toserve and love Him as. He deseives. It is the most appropriate and the h0blest form of hero-worship. Itis God-worshipmthe perfect willingnes~ to acknowledge God for what He is and ourselves for what we are. It is the first fruit of a lively Faith; and the very Soul of all the other acts of virtue, enumerated here. A life lived, according to the pattern sketched in this article is a beautiful life. The .greater the number of men who lead such lives, the more does moral beauty shine resplendent in the universe. To labor for this in ourselves. a.nd others is our apostolate. The Church and Moral Beauty 0n¢ concluding word: Nothing so strikingly illustrates the true beauty of worship as the living Church herself. It sometimes impresses and consoles our people when we show them that through membership in the Church they help to conserve this beauty in the world and are thus contributors to a spiritual achievement of almost unbelievable gran-deur. Thoughout the world they have built magnificent churches where the one true Sacrifice, as well as other forms :of worship, is offered. This worship is onduct~ed wi.th exquisite pageantry and with the finest of this world's goods. Daily and hourly in the. name of the Church, there ascends to God the most reverent of all prayers, the Divine Office. Our Catholic people have a wealth of reli-gious festivals in honor of God and His Mysteries; they venerate Mary, the Mother of God, and the angels and saints, His special friends; they cherish the written word of .God and reverence the living teaching authority that He 251 GERALD KELLY established. They have doctrines and a Moral Code of -tranScendent b~auty. They have a priesthood dedicated 'wholly to ,priestly work. Thousands of their men and women are consecrated to Goal by vow. In toil and sacri-rice, they have built countless schools to safeguard the reli-gious education of youth; and there is no work of mercy e~cluded from the~stupendous program of ~harity that~the Church is ever conducting. All those things blend together to form the sweet incense of worship that is constantly being offered to God through the Holy. Catholic Church. It is a living, expres-sion of the first table of the Decalogue and of the Great Commandment of Love. PAMPHLET REVIEWS Martyrdom of Slovenia, by dohn LaFarge, S.d., is a p.amphlet .re-print of three articles from America. It gives a graphic picture of Catholic Slovenia, peaceful and progressive before the German inva-sion but now subjected to terrorizing persecution. Proceeds go to the general relief of Slovenia. The pamphlet may be ordered from American '.Slovene Parish Relief, 62 St. Mark's Place, New York City, N. Y. Price: 5 cents each. Meditorials, by Paschal Boland, O.S.B., is a small booklet of brief, well,expressed thoughts for 'prayerful .reflection. It may be obtained from The Grail, St. Meinrad, Indiana, 10 cents a copy. ,252 The h,p!:er o[ At:t: irs in a Religious Congregation Adam C. Ellis, S.3. ~i A_ FTER kh~ cl~apter of elections, is finished, it is c~s. ]-~ tomary to hold a chapter of affairs (business l~apte.r) under the presidency of the newly .elected superior general. In this chapter the more important matters con-cerning the welfare of the institute as a whole are consid-ered. Agenda ~t: the Chapter.of Affairs ~ We may conveniently divide the subject-matter of this, business chapter into three classes:. 1 ) affairs which require the permission or approval of the Holy-See; 2) other important matters pertaining to the general welfare of the institute as a whole; 3) propositions ,~ubmitted to the general chapter by individual houses and subjects. I. Affairs which require, the permission of the Holy See: Such are, for example: the division of a congregation into provinces; the revision of the boundaries of provinces already established, as well as the establishment of new provinces (canon 494) ; the establishment of houses in mis-sion territories subject to the Sacred Congregation of the Propagation of the Faith (canon 497, § 1) ; the erectibn of new novitiates, or the transfe~ of .an existing novitiate to another house (canon 544); the assumption of a debt, or the sale or mortgage or property, when the amount exceeds 6,000 gold dollars (canon 534). 2.-Other important affairs: Under this head would come. questions of finance, of discipline, and of good works. A word about each. Questions of Enance. Under the old law the Holy See ~253 ADAM C. ELLIS 0r,.the ~Bishop determined the amount of the dowry, the amg.unt:eadh :houie was to.contribute to the support of the general curia an~d of lnembers'in trai.riing, and so forth. The present policy of the Sacred Congregation of Religious is to allow~the general chapter of a congregation approved by the Holy See tO determine these amounts, thus avoiding the n~cessity, ofrecuiring to. the HolySee for dislSenshtions required b~r .the changing financial status of an~ institute. He'nce the gener.al chapter will determine the following points: the amount of the dowry to be required of postu-lants; the amount of money each house is to contribute to the motherhouse for the support of the superior general and his officials, and for the support of novices, religious who ~ire studying, and so forth; the amount of money the supe-rior general may spend with the consent of his council, as well as the amount he may sper~d without such consent: similarly the amount which provincial superiors may spend with and without the consent of their respective councils: the amount for which local superiors must obtain permis-sion of the superior general for extraordinary expenses as ¯ well as to contract a debt. Matters of discipline will deal with the observance of the constitutions and customs, the development of the ¯ spirit of poverty, obedience, and the like, as well as the suppression of abuses which may ~have crept in. ~ ¯ Good works embrace the particular end for which the congregation was established: teaching, the care .of the sick, and the like. Hence the general chapter may discuss the work-that is being done, new works to be undertaken within the limits of the purpose of the institute, changes, which may be~desirable,~new methods to be adopted. 3. Propositions of individuals: Every ,member of the institute, as well as the individual houses~with their mem-bers, has a right to, submit propdsitions for the" considera- 254 CHAPTER OF AFFAIR8 tion of the general chapter. Individual communities and their members will submit their propositions through the delegates who represent them. These propositions should contain suggestions for the betterment of the congregation as a whole, and should not be devoted to the private affairs of. individuals. All propositions submitted should be caref~ly collated, and submitted to the general chapter in the manner described below. Pretiminarg Work o~: Committees ~ In order to save time and to dispatchthe business of the chapter of affairs in a competent manner, it is desirable that one or more committees be appointed either by th~ chapter itself or by the superior general and his council. In a small congregation one committee will suffice; a larger ~ongrega-tion, especially one divided into provinces, will find it helpful to appoint several committees: for- instance, one .for finance, a second for discipline, a third for propositions, another for good works. These committees will hold pre-liminary meetings in which they will discuss the matters submitl~ed to them, word them in a brief but clear state-ment, giving reasons for and against their acceptance. The committee on.propositions will consider all the propositions sent in and collate them, p.utting a~ide for the time being. those of minor, importance or of a personal nature. A list of even these latter propositions should be read to the chal~- ter at some time or another before its close. The chapter will then decide whether or not it wishes to consider any of them. Some of the propositions will have been included in the matter of other committees and may be omitted. Discussion ot: Proposals The superior general will read aloud the proposals formulated by the committees, together with the reasons 255 ADAM C. ELLIS - ¯ for andagainst them, one question, at a time. Discussion is now in order. Every meinber of the chapter has the right to speak on the proposition if he wishes to do so. Usually the capitulars are asked in order of seniority to express their opinion: They should address their remarks to the president of the chapter. After all who so desire have expressed their minds in turn, the president may call for final remarks before the proposition is put to a vote. Each speaker should first obtain permission from the pre-siding officerl then state his opinion calmly, objectively, and briefly. The president will then sum up the arguments, pro and con, arid put the proposition to the chapter. Manner of Voting in Chapter of Affairs All ques.tions are decided bya majority vote, that is, by one more than half the number of capitulars present. AI.1 matters of greater importance should be decided by secret ballot. Though any individual capitular is not obliged to vote, he should at least turn in a blank ballot. In minor matters, or when it is evident from the dis-cussion that there is little or no opposition to a proposal, the vote may be taken by holding up hands or rising to express an affirmative vote. Any member of the chapter, however, may demand a secret ballot on any proposition. When this occurs, the president will put the matter to a vote, and if the majority of the chapter vote for a secret ballot, it must be taken, otherwise a standing vote will be sufficient. I~ case of a tie vote on any proposition, the president of the chapter may decide the matter if he wishes to do so: It may be well to remark here that it is not necessary for the general chapter .to pass on all the proposition.s sub-" mitted to it. Instead, it may vote to allow the superior general and his council to decide the matter ,in question. 256 CHA~TER OF AFFAIRS This will be the case especially when~ further information.,is:. needed upon a certain subject, or when future: circhmstances may alter the state of the question proposed. :. Changes in the. Constitutions The general chapter has no power to change the con- ", stitutions or to inteFpret them.~ Hence, if it seems desirable. for the general welfare of the institute that such a change should be made, or if some point in the constitutions is not clear, the chapter'of a pontifical institute may vote to ask the Holy See to change the constitutions which it has .approved, or to interpret such constitutions. In the case of a diocesan congregation, such a pet)ition should be addressed to the Bishop of the diocese. But if the congregation has houses in more than one diocese, the Bishop of the diocese in which the motherhouse is situated will have to obtain the consent of all the other ,Bishops in whose territory the con-gregation has houses before he can make any change in the constitutions (canon 495, § 2). Ordinances oF the General Chapter While thi~ general chapter of a religious congregation has no Idgislative power, and cannot, therefore, make laws in the strict sense of the term, it has dominative power over all the members of the institute (canon 501, § 1), and may issue ordinances which are binding upon all, provided such ordinances are not contrary to any laws of the Church or fo the constitutions. Such ordinances should be few in num-ber and really necessary for the spiritual well-being of the institute. They. remain in force until the following general chapter, and are binding upon all the members of the insti-tute as soon as they are promulgated by the superior gen-eral. No legislation imposes a time limit .upon the general 257 ADAM C. ELLIS : dhapter of, affairs., But underI normal, conditions, ,especially ¯ for.a congregation whose constitutions have been approved by the Ho. ly See, this chapter should be completed in.three or four days. Rarely would all the subjects mentioned in this article be discussed in the same chapter: in fact, it may even h'appen that theosubjects proposed for discussion are so few that the chapter can finish its business in one or two .sessions, A majority vote of the chapter members is suf-ficient for adjournment. When the chapter of affairs has concluded its business, a short special session should be held for the signing of the minutes. Every member of the chapter should be present in order to ~ffixehis signature thereto, and these minutes should be carefully preserved in the general archives. The members of the chapter should remember that they are bound by secrecy regarding the matters discussed in.chapter until the promulgatibn of the results of the chapter are made by the superior general. Even after such promulga-tion they should observe secrecy as to details regarding names and matters discussed or voted upon in chapter. Confirmation of Acts of Chapter of Affairs In the case of a pontifical congregation, the acts of the chapter of affairs need not be submitted to the Holy See unless the constitutions require suclq confirmation. In the case of a diocesan congregation, the local Ordinary may reserve to himself the right to confirm tl~e acts of the chap-ter of affairs. If he has not done so, there is no obligation .to submit the acts of the chapter to him for approval. In .both cases, however, as was stated above, individual propo-sitions implying a change in the constitutions or an inter-pretation of them must be submitted to the Holy See or to the Bishop, as the case may be. 258 The Place ot: :he Precious Blood in I:he Spiritual Lit:e Malachi J. Donnelly, S.J. IT IS A COMMONPLACE that the frequently occurring cloys the~ inquiring mind. The infrequent rainbow will stir the s6ul to its depths, the ever-recurring sunrise leave it cold and unaroused. But, who will say that the bow in the skies outshines the brilliance of the early dawn! Even so in the spiritual life, it is often enough the unusual rather than the solid doctrine that attracts our moth-like, unstable souls. The sure cure for this human weakness is frequent meditation on the fundamentals of our Faith. The many facets of the Catholic jewel must be examined up-close. Our goal must be not knowledge, but realization. As the author of the Spiritual Exercises puts it: "it is not an abun-dance of knowledge that fill~ and satisfies the soul, but to feel and taste things internally." The purpose of this essay is to set forth a few doctrinal observations concerning the Precious Blood, in the hope that frequent meditation on them may enkindle within our hearts a great devotion tb that red stream of divine love which wrought our salvation. It is a dogma of our Faith (hat the Son of God assumed as His very own a complete human nature. This is a fun-damental principle in considering the Precious Blood. Scientists tell us that the blood-stream is devoid of life. Hence, did we not have the defined truth that the Word possessed a complete and integral human body, we might wonder concerning the union that exists between the Pre-cious Blood and the Son of God become Man. But our 25.9~ ~ALACHI J. DONNELLY Faith teaches that the Word assumed not only flesh and soul, but also the human blood-~treaml ~' Scripture speaks of the flesh and blood of our Lord in the same terms: "Therefore because children have blood and flesh in common, so he .in like manner has shared in these; that through death he might destroy him who had the empire of death, that is, the devil; and might deliver them, who throughout their life were kept in servitude by the fear of death" (Hebrews 2: 14-15). Again we read: " . . . . the Church of God, which he has purchased with his own blood" (Acts 20:28). St. Peter writes: "You know that you were redeemed from the vain manner of life handed down from your fathers, not with perishable things, with silver or gold, but with the precious blood of Christ as of a lamb without blemish and without spot" .(I Peter 1:18-19). Scripture, then, is too explicit to allow any doubt about the intimate union between the Precious Blood and the Person of the Word. Wk have it,therefore, on the word of God that our sal, vation was accomplished by the Blood of the Lamb. To this Blood is ascribed an infinite value, for the notion of redemption and satisfaction as effec~ed by 3esus Christ is inseparably linked with infinite value. Now, if to the Blood in itseff is attributed the infinite price of our redemp-tion, this is possible only if the Blood is hypostatically, or .personally, united to the Person of the Son of God. From the words of several General Councils defining that our Lord had a corriplete and integral human body, from the testimony of Scripture which attributes our kal-vation to the Precious Blood (the Scriptural testimony was repeated by Clement VI in his Jubilee Bull of 1349), we may conclude that to the Precious Blood may be accorded the same worship that is Offered to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. For both were personally united to the Son of God. 260 THE PRECIOUS BLOOD IN THE~ SPIRITUAL LIFE Let us turn to the Mass. When the priest at the altar says those memorable words, "for this is the chalice of my blood" and so forth, what ieally happens? To answei this we must go back to the. Last Supper, for what ,Jesus did at the Supper the.priest does at the Mass. When, on that most solemn evening, 'jesus took the ctip of wine into His holy and venerable hands and said: "All of you drink of this: for this is mybloodof the new covenant, which is being shed for many unto, the forgiveness.of sins" (Luke 26:2), what really.took place? Now, 'jesus, as the Son of God, can tell naught but the truth. When, itherefore,. He said, "this is-my. blood," a gieat and Wonderful change took place, th~ one and only event of its kind in the history of the world up to that time. What He held in His hands; after these words, was no longer: wine. No, it was a cup that con-tainedHis, most Precious Blood. Beneath the'appearances of wine was contained, as the Council of Trent teaches,~ Christ's own.Blood--and with the Blood, His Body,. Soul, and Divinity. At the Supper the Blood was shed mystically or sym-bolically by the separate consecration of the wine and biead. By this the bloody death of the morrow was symbolized. At the Mass the same holds true, for the Mass reenacts what Christ did at the Supper. The Mass and the Supper are, after the rite of Melchisedech, an unbloody sacrifice: the-sacrifice of the Cross is according to the rite of Aaron, a bloody sacrifice. After the Supper, 'jesus continued to offer Himself to His eternal Father. The bloody sweat in the Garden, the scourging, the crowning with thorns--all were outlets for that great sacrificial .stream of love in the red current ~of which the sins of the world were swept away" as driftwood in a swollen river.' 7Fhen on Calvary, in asublime finale of divine love, the Sacred Heart was emptied~of that most 261~ MAI~ACHI! 3. DONNELLY precious burden, the cleansing Blood of the immaculate ¯ Lamb of God.In this bloody consummation: of the Savior's .sacrifice our.redemption was achieved. It but required the extrinsic a~ceptance on the part of God, that the sacrifice be fordver complete . By the Resurrection the Precious Blood was again united to the Sacred Body and in the Ascension ,lesus was taken-into Heaven, where, as '.'the ¯ Lamb that was slain," He forever pleads our cause. In the Mass, as the Council of Trent teaches, we have the same sacrificial Victim as was immolated on Golgotha: and the same One now offers by the ministry of priests, Who then offered Himself on the Cross, the sole difference being in the. manner of offering. No longer is the Precious Blood drained from the Sacred Heart, but forever will that red current flow through the living Body of 3esus. In the Mass, as at theSupper, there is the mystical, or symbolical, shedding of the Blood in the separate consecration of wine. The species of wine, in its sacramental signification, more directly signifies the Precious Blood; although, of course, we must ho!d that the whole Christ is (equally) present under the sacramental veil of either species. In our spiritual life, then, it is dear what an important role devotion to the Precious Blood should play. The spir-itual life is possible only through Grace. Grace, however, is had only through tapping tl~e great reservoir of the merits of Christ. And the merits of Christ have been won by the ¯ shedding of His Precious Blood on the altar of the Cross. ¯ From His pierced Sacred Heart poured forth the scarlet laver that satisfied for our sins, reddemed all men, merited grace by which we are justified. Indeed, we have been redeemed at a great price. Would. that we could all "feel and taste internally" those words of St. Peter: "You know that you Were redeemed . notwith perishable things, with silver or gold, but with the precious blood of Christ." 262 The Catholic Rural Life Apostolate John L., Thomas, S.J. THERE are at least two reasons why religiousshouldbe ¯ well-informed regarding the Catholic Rural Life Apos-tolate. First, it is an apostolate, one of the very impor-tant forms of Catholic Action being conducted in this country today. Secondly, many religious, particularly those teaching in the rural schools, are actually engaged in the work of the apostolate and are in a position to accomplish great good in its behalf. For these reasons, a brief exposition of the Rural Life Apostolate seems appropriate here. Since the best expres-sion of the apostolate in our country is found in the work of the Catholic Rural Life Conference, I feel there is no better way to present the position of the Church in the rural crisis than by explaining the organization and aims of the Conference. The Catholic Rural Life Conference Tile Conference started in 1923 as a voluntary asso- Ciation to cooperate with the Rural Life Bureau of~the National Catholic Welfare Council. Six Bishops and sixty delegates, from eighteen dioceses met at St. Louis to discuss plans for the future. Since then thi~ conference has ignr othwen" ctoou bnetr yo.ne of the outstanding Catholic organizations What are the problems it attempts to solve? They can be put under three heads. First--pastoral and missionary. Eighty per,cent of our Catholic population live in the large cities. This means that the remai.ning twenty per cent are spread throughout the rural sections. Or for. every 263 ,JOHN L. -THOMAS 800,000 Catholics in the cities there are only 200,000 in the country. Hence, facilities for a Catholic education are frequently lacking. Perhaps we can realize the problem better this way. There are about 18,150 parishes in the United States. Only 8,000 of these have parochial schools. This.means 10,000 groups without schools. Furthermore, of the 2,952 counties in the United Sta.tes, 1,022 have no resident priest; 500 more bare none in their rural sections. The Conference is striving to remedy the disastrous effects of these conditions--that is, it is making the Church more effective by building up parochial schools, when this can-. not b~ done it promotes vacation schools .where e~ch year ¯ over one quarter of a million children are given, a religious training. Study clubs and correspondenc,e courses are used to instruct those who can be reached in no other way. It should be noted here that the Conference is the only agency under the huspices of the Church thathas specifically inter-ested itself in the rural Catholic.school. Advantages to Church The second task of the' Conference is to demonstrate the advantages rural welfare brings to the Church. Since the Catholic population in the United States is eighty per cent urban and Since the larger cities fail to reproduce themselves by thirty per~cent, ~it is clear that the continued existence and prosperity of the rural parishes are necessary for the physical existence of the Church in this country. Whether we like it or not our large cities are the grave-yards of the race. Even at the present birth rate, for every 10 adults in the city there will be only 7 in the next genera-tion, 5 in the third, and 3 ~ in the fourth, a decline of two-thirds in a century. For the country the rate runs: 10, .13, 17,, 22, giving an increase of one hundred percent in a cen- 264 THE RURAl. L~FE APOSTOLATE tur~y. And the Catholic Church is s.trong in the cities! Her strength is her weakness. Of course, there are individuals .with ostrich_-like instincts who refuse to look at these facts. Others contend these figures are not true for Catholics. Hard, cold facts, however, prove there is little or no distinction between the drop in the urban Catholic birth rate and that of others. As a prominent weekly somewhat cynically remarked: "Despite the Catholic drive for big families and no birth control, United States' Catholics are not fully reproducing themselves except in the country parishes--and more than eighty per cent of the Catholics of the United States live in cities." Leclercq, in his excellent Work, Marriage and the Family, clearly points out the seriousness of this prob-lem for the West in general: "The second half of the 20th century Will witness the population battle. On its out-come, more than on any other factor, will depend the future of civilization." Bishop O'Hara, treating this same subject, says: "The misfortune of the Catholic Church in America is that it is not strong in the country, that it is not at the natural source of population. The result" is that it is not the bene-ficiary of that natural process but has to fight its way against the decadent influences of the city in building up a people to the Lord. The most shortsighted should see how its influence would be multiplied if, instead of having .roots in merely a few hundred strong country parishes, it could possess several thousand such sources of population-." Monsignor John "Ryan has said in this regard: "To the extent that the Catholics migrate to the city more rapidly than non-Catholics they render inevitable a decline in the Catholic population and its influence upon American life." Besides being the source of population the rural parish is the milieu where the Catholic religious ideal of the family JOHN L. THOMAS finds perhaps its strongest support. This is the contention of the many Bishops and religious leadei~ in. the field today. As Father LaFarge has stated, the strength Of ~he rural, life mbvement is its stubborn insistence on the one fundamental point at issue in ,the world today: "How can best condi-tions be provided fo:r the religious salvation of the indi~ vidual family?" Bishop Vincent Ryan expresses the same general idea: "Essential for the preserVation of our civilization are the sound principles of rural living advocated by the Confer-ence." And Bishop Muench: "True civilization is rooted in' family culture. Without it civilization cannot endure; without it civilization will decay and .die. Alive to th~s great truth the Conference bends all its activities towaid the preservation arid promotion of family culture." Monsignor Ligutti, writing on the work of the Con2 ference echoes the same sentiment: "The Conference con-tends that for the full development of the human person-ality .and the greater good of the family, rural living with its WholesOmeness, integrity, ~ and responsibility is the most desirable mode of life. The Conference contends that the welfare bf the Church and the maintenance of a democracy depend on a balancebetween people in cities and people on theland--a 50-50 ratio rather than the 80-20 ratio of today." ¯ ~Bishop O'Hara has well summed up this point: "The Conference aims to build up in ti~e United States 10,000 strong country parishes and to anchor on the land a larger percentage of the strong, vigorous and intelligent boys and girls, who were born there." He goes on to say that the Church'sinterest in.agriculture arises from the altogether unique relationship ~which exists universally between the agri~cultural occupation and the central institution of Christianity, nay, of all civilization, namely, the family. 266 THE RURAL LIFE APOSTOLATE Now since the learning and experience of these Cath-o! ic leaders enables them to speak with authority, it must be evident to all that a primary source and ideal of Cath-olic parish life is the rural parish. And the aim of the Conference to convince leaders among the clergy and lay-men of this truth and to build up a rural youth convinced of the dignity of their calling, is a noble apostolate indeed. Catholic Agrarianism The third task of the Conference is Catholic agrarian-ism-- that is, to work not'merely to prove the value and dignity of rural life, but actually to conserve and promote rural life. Here the question is not what rural life can do for the Church but what the Cl~urch can do for rural life. As Father LaFarge.has pointed out: "There is a real threat of revolt among rural groups today.Communism can penetrate and demoralize rural America." Pius XI has indicated this danger on a general scale: "The greatest care must be exercised in behalf of the humble classes, especially the farmers and laborers. The Church is concerned at the great dangers by which their souls are increasingly men-ace&" The cause of the danger in this country--its primary source--is farm tenancy. Vanishing ownership is the menace stalking through rural America today. In the last 55 years tenancy has increased from twenty-five to forty-two percent.of all farmers. It is still on the increase. In other words nearly half of the farmers do not own the land that they work. We have only to reflect how simple it' would be for these tenants to become tenants of the govern-ment rather than of some insurance company or. bank, to .realize how easily the change could be made to the Soviet plan viewed with so much favor by many leaders today. That these conditions are contrary to the social 267 JOHN L. THOM,~S teaching of the Church is.clear from what~ Leo XIII has written: "Our first and most fundamental principle, wl~en we undertake to alleviate the conditions of the masses, must be the inviolability of private property. The law should favor ownership and its policy should be to induce as many people as possible to become owners." Pius XI, after speaking of "the immense army of hired rural laborers, whose condition is depressed in the extreme, and who have no hope of ever obtaining a share in the land,", says: "Unless serious attempts be made, with all energy and without delay, to put them [principles leading to wage: earner ownership] into practice, let nobody persuade him- . self that the peace and tranquillity of human society Can be effectively defended against the forces of revolution!" He has given the reason .for the seriousness of the agrarian problem eisewhere, saying: "Land is a nation's primary wealth andagriculture its most natural, vital, and impor-tant industry." Consequently, trouble in this field means a disruption of the very foundations of society. His Holiness, Plus XII, says of land and the family: "Of all the good~ that can be the object of private ownership none is more conf6rmable to nature . . . than the land, on the holding of which the family lives and from the products of which it draws all or patt of its subsistence . As a rule only that stability ¯ which is rooted in one's own.holding makes of the family the most vital and perfect and fecund ~ell of society . If today the concept of vital spaces is at the center of social and political aims, should not one, before all else, think of the vital space of the family and free it from the fetters of conditions which do not permit even to formulate the idea of a homestead of one's own?" , Therefore, Catholid agrarianism in the United States has a twofold job: To promote the ideal Catholic rural 268 THE RURAL LIFE APOSTOLATE community, and to propagandize for those essential norms of social morality which govern rural welfare wherever found, and which can be subscribed to by all persons whose minds have not been corrupted by atheism and materialism. These two aims interlock. Since the Catholic rural com-munity cannot function in a vacuum it must unite with other upright rural forces which are working for the com-mon end of social justice. It does this by organizing cooperatives,credit unions, study clubs, and by promoting a spirit of brotherhood and neighborliness. It maintains friendly relations with other rural life associations and endorses and sponsors all projects looking to the true uplift of the rural population. This leads to frequent contact with non-Catholics and opens up .an immense field for true conversions. Several Bishops have stated that they consider no field more fruitful in con: versions than this apostolate. Conclusion These, therefore, are the main rural life problems the Church must face: 1) pastoral and missionary; 2) edu-cating to values of the rural parish as the source of Catholic population and ideal family culture: 3) Catholic agra-rianism working for ownership of the family-sized farm. The efforts being made to meet these problems are clear from the four working aims of the Conference: 1) to care for the underprivileged Catholics living on the land; 2) to keep on the land Catholics who are now there; 3) to settle more Catholics on the land; 4) to convert the non-Catholics nowon the land. This is the rural life apostolate. These are its prob-lems and its aims. Itis an apostolate to save the Christian family, to .work for conditions which render the existence of the Christian family possible, and to reeducate people to 269 JOHN L. THOMAS ~the true values in life, that is, a reaffirmation of the impor- .tance and primacy of the human person threatened on all sides. .~ It is an aposto!ate that demands work. and study. Pius xi, pleading for more social action in generaLhas written: ,"No easy task is here imposed on the clergy, wherefore, all candidates for the sacred priesthood must be ,adequately prepared to meet it by intense study of social matters.'[' What is said here of candidates to the priest-hood must be applied to all teachers in Our Catholic schools for they tbo must be prepared to instruct Christian youth 'in the true principles ofCatholic action as outlined by the Church. Since the rural life movement is one form of this Catholid social action strongly urged by-the hier-archy today, it too must be studied and promoted by all Catholics. ~ It must be obvious to everyone that much can be accomplished for this apostolate iri our schools. Not, necessarily, by the introduction of new courses, and new textbooks, however. Rather, a sympathetic and intelli-gent understanding .of the importance and seriousness of the problem will enable the capable teacher to reorientate existing courses. At any rate, efficient teachers,~and we have many of them--will find some way to achieve the aims desired. Pius. XI, in regard to the whole social question of which this apostolate necessarily forms a part, has written these stern words: "No stone, then, must be left.unturned to avert these grave misfortunes from society. Towards this one aim must tend all our efforts and endeavors, sup-porte. d by assiduotis and fervent prayers to God."'"And he adds a thought that must be uppermost in the mind of each 6f us: "For with the assistance of Divine Grace, the destiny, 9f~ the human family lies in our ~hands." 270 Git:!:-I::xchanges in t:he Correspondence of $t:. Boniface GERALD ELLARD, S.J. NO OTHER literary likeness, they say, ~can compare with a collected correspondence for providing a realistic .portrait of their writer; equally true, i.t.~). would seem, that not even thebest of letters can dispense with gift-giving in some fashion as a natural expression of ~,. friendship. "Love consists in mutual exchange on either side," as tl~e whole world knows. How this tendency of nature is to be supernaturalized is a page of the science of the saints that all engaged in the pursuit of perfection must carefully study. Happy those in whom this "supernatu-ralization process" is effected as completely and as grace-fully as in the case of St. Francis Borgia, of whom it is recorded to his credit that he "retained through life the most tender and active affection for his children. A packet of their letters to him from 1566 to 1569 has been found, full of minute detail . Presents go to and fro. The General sends his son a map, and a watch . His daughters, in the charming and unchanging manner of nuns, send him jam.s and sweets and syrup of orange-flowers and corpobals and beg 'one little Hail Mary' . . . This article proposes to select from the extant corre-spondence of the great Saint Boniface, Apostle of Germany, passages in which his genius for human friendship is illus-trated by the exchange of gifts. For antiquarians, of course, these letters have a many-sided and engrossing interest; but for putting Boniface before us in his best human light, for making him a living and loving friend among friends high and low, this little store of gifts cancels out the differences 1C. C. Martindale, Captains o[ Christ (London: Washbourne, 1917), 44, 45. 271 GERALD ELLARD of twelve hundred years; we see him twin of any twentieth century noble friend. Bishop Daniel of Winchester, who had once been Boniface's "beloved master," in his old age addressed him as "my hundred-fold dearest friend"; in fact, ohe might say that the entire Boniface correspondence glows with the ardor of the love he'evoked. Still, the great-est monument of his lovableness is, I think, the fact that in " a correspondence extending ovei thirty-five years, roughly half of the personal letters:speak of the receipt or despatch Of some "gift, small indeed in itself, but token of a great affection," as the Bishop of LeiceSter once phrased it. Let us see Boniface in the midst of'his gifts; no picture of him is better! Desire/:or Books . There are gifts and gifts, but those Boniface received most gratefully were books. The r.e~luests he made most frequently were for more and more books, the latest books, the best books, in "all the branches that bore upon his sacred ministry. His letters show how he came by them. In one of the very first letters of the corrd'spondence, an English nun by the name of Bugga writes to Boniface, or Winfled, to congratulate him that the death of King Rathbod (719) opened the door of the Gospel in Frisia. She continues: "Know also'that the Sufferings o/: the Mart~trs which you asked me to send you I have not been able to get, but as-soon as I can I shall send it. And you, my best beloved, comfort my insignificance by sending me, as you promised in your dear letter, ~ some collection of the Sacred Writings. "I am sending ygu by" this same messenger fifty solidi and an altar-cloth, the best I can possibly do. Little as it is, it is sent~with great affection:''-°~ ~Epist VII: the letters are quoted, unless otherwise stated, as translated in The Let-ters of Saint Boniface° XXXI, Records of Chrilization, (New York: Columbia University, 1940). In the remainder of this article, these letters will be referred to by Roman nu~merals placed .after each quotation: ~ . , 272 ST. BONIFACE AND GIFT-EXCHANGES Another .life-.long friend of Boniface was the English Abbess Eadburga; to whom he wrote, about the time he became archbishop: "May He who rewards all righteous acts cause my dearest sister to rejoice in the choir of angels. above because she has consoled with spiritual light by the gift of Sacred Books an exile in Germany" (XXII). 2ustly famous in the annals of his mission is the request of Boni-face that this same Eadburga prepare for him a copy of the Epistt~s ot: St. Peter in letters of gold: "I pray to Almighty God, the rewarder of all good works, that He may repay you in the .Heavenly mansions and eternal tabernacles and in the choir of the blessed angels for all the kindnesses you have shown me, the solace of books and the comfort of the vestmentss with which you have relieved my distress. "And I beg you further to add to whatyou have done already by making a copy written in gold of the Epistles of my master, St. Peter the Apostle, to impress honor and rev= erence for the Sacred Scriptures visibly upon the ca.rnally-minded to whom I preach. I desire to ha~e ever present be-fore me the words of him who is my guide upon this road. I am sending by the priest Eoban the materials for your writing" (XXVI). ¯ Saint Peter's Epistles. in gold lettering on the finest parchment were doubtless very imposing, but Boniface felt very keenly the lack of a ~handy code of canon law to appiy the lessons of Holy Writ according to the mind of the Church. Not a few of his requests touch upon his uncer: tainty concerning marriage within the forbidden degrees of kinship. TtJis i~ reflected,, for instancd, in an urgent request of Archbishop Nothelm of Canterbury for a papal docu-ment he had already sought fruitlessly, at Rome: a"Vestimenta'" in the original, usually rendered as we have given it, but ~ometimes translated as "garments." Here I depart from the Columbia University rendering. 273 GERALD ELLARD "I beg that you will procure for me a copy of the letter containing, it is said, the questions Of Augustine, the first prelate and preacher of ~he English, .and the replies of the sainted Pope Gregory [the First]. In this writing, it is stated, among other things, that marriages between Chris-tians related in the .third. degree are lawful. Now will you cause an inquiry to be made with the most scrupulous care whether or not that document has been proved to be by the aforementioned father, Saint Gregory. For the registrars say that it is not to be found in the archives of the Roman church among the other documents of the aforesaid Pope" (XXIV). Reverence for Bede Among the writings attributed to Boniface are fifteen sermons, but their genuinity is.questioned because-they "contain no quotations, from Holy Scripture . and the books for .which he asked, such as the Spiritual commen-taries of St.Bede, would seem to-point to a different man-ner of preachi"ng. "* The critics are sceptical if these ser.- mons¯coutd be by Boniface in view of such passages as this, written to a~former pupil of his, now an abbot (we know not where), Dudd by name: ¯ "Try to support me by pouring out your prayers to God and help me with the Sacred Writings and the inspired treatises of the Holy Fathers.- Since a spiritual tract is well known to be a teacher for those, who read the Holy Scrip-tures, I beg you. to procure for me, as an aid in sacred learn-ing, apart bf a treat{seupon the Apostle Paul, which I lack. I have-tracts upon two. Epistles, one upon Romans, the other upon First Corint.hia,ns, Further, whatever you may findih your church library which you think would be useful to me and Which I may not be aware of or may not .4Day-Bet~en, .$a_int Boniface (MilwaUkee: Bruce, 193~), 166. . : 274 ST. BONIFACE AND GIFT-EXCHANGES. have in written form, pray let me know about it, as a loving son might do for an ignorant father, and send me also any notes of your own" (XXV). Then there was his epistolary campaign, so to speaL to get something of the writings of Bede, of whom the more he heaid the more eager he became to read. First he mentioned the matter somewhat casually in a long and very weighty letter to Egbert, Archbishop of York, near which city Bede had recently died. The letter opens with a grace-ful acknowledgment: "When I received your gifts and books I lifted my hands and gave thanks to Almighty God who ha.s given me such afriend in my long wanderings " and then passes,to its serious business. At the end. comes the reference to the "lector Bede": "I beg you also to have copied and sent to me some of the treatises of the lector Bede whom, as we learn, divine grace has endowed with spiritual intelligence and permitted to shine forth in your country, so that we too may profit by the light of that torch which the. Lord has granted unto you. "Meanwhile, as a token of fraternal love, I am sending you a copy of some letters of Saiht Grdgory which I have obtained from the archives of the Roman church, and which, as far as I know, have not yet reached Britain. "If you so order, I will send more, for I have received many of them. I am sending also a cloak and a towel for drying after washing the feet of the servants of God" [as the ceremonies of Maundy Thursday prescribe] (LIX). Archbishop Egbert sent on "gifts and books," but fresh canonical problems having cropped up meanwhile, Boni-face appeals for fresh guidance "to his friend in the embrace of 1Qving arms, his brother in the bonds of spiritual broth-erhood"-- and then reverts once more to "Bede, the in-spired priest": "Now we exhort you with eager desire to comfort our ¯ ° 275 GERALD ELLARD sorrow, as you have done before, by sending us some spark from that light of the Church which the Holy Spirit has kindled in your land: namely, that you will be so kind as to send-us some portion of the treatises which Bede, that inspired priest and student of the Sacred Scriptures, has put forth in his writings. Most especially, if possible, his.Lec-tior~ ar~l t:or the Year, which would form a convenient and useful, manual for us in our preaching, and the Prooerbs Solomon. We hear that he has written commentaries on this book" (LXXV). This letter from Boniface, a life-long abstainer, closes with the note: "We are sending you, by the bearer of this letter, two small casks of ~ine, asking you, in token of our mutual.affecti0n, to use it for a merry day with the breth-ren." The.next request was addressed directly to the Abbot of Bede's beloved Wearmouth: /" "Meanwhile we beg of you to.be so kind as to copy and send us some of the treatises of that. keenest investigator of the Scriptures, the monk Bede, who, we.have learned, shone forth among you of late as a lantern of the Church, by his Scriptural scholarship . . . "As a token of our deep affection we are sending you a coverlet, as they call them. here, made of goats' hair, and beg you to accept it,-trifle though it is, as a reminder of me" (.LX). When advancing age had dimmed the apostolic Arch-bishop's sight, he was stillbeset with countless ecclesiasti- . cal problems--and an insatiable desire of sacred learning. In a long letter of inquiries to the patriarchal Bishop Daniel of Winchester, Boniface's pen touched the old man's heart with this passage: "There is one solace in m~i mission I should like, if I may be so bold, tO ask of yOur fatherly kindness, namely, 276 ST. BONIFACE AND GIFT-EXCHANGES that you send me the book of the Prophets which Abbot Winbert of reverend memory, my former teacher, left when he passed from this life to the Lord, and in which the six Prophets are contained in one volume in dear letters writ-ten in full. If God shall incline your heart to do this, you could not give me a greater comfort in my old age nor bring yourself greater assurance of reward. I cannot procure in this country such a book of the Prophets as I need, and with my fading sight I cannot read well writing which is small and filled with abbreviations. I am asking for this book be-cause it is copied clearly, withall letters distinctly writteri out. "Meanwhile I send you by the priest Forthe~)e a letter and a little gift as a token of my sincere affection, a bath towel,° not of pure silk, but mixed with rough goats' hair, to dry your feet" (LI). Correspondence with Rome Boniface was on truly filial terms with several Popes, especially with Gregory III and Zachary. When the last-named was raised to the supreme pontificate in 742, Boni-face's felicitations were supported by: "some trifling gifts, not as being worthy of your Paternity, but as a token of our affection and devoted obedience, a warm rug and a little silver and .gold" (XL). In the face of Boniface's silence in the matter we might add that he also sent some couplets. proof that the schoolmaster of old had not lost his delight in versification. Did Boniface ask for books at Rome? Quite frequently, it would seem, but not always with immediate success. Pope Zachary sent him, ,on request, a carefully-marked copy of the Canon of the Mass, so that Boniface's "Holi-ness would know where the. signs of the Cross should be made during the recitation of the holy Canon" (LXXI). 277 GERALD ELLARD Such a request was not,hard to fulfill, as every altar had its Missal, but when Boniface asked Zachary's Cardinal-Dea-con Gemmulus for a copy of the Registrum (Correspond-ence) of Pope Gregory I, a vast collection of documents, that official pleaded ill-health for delay in complying with the request, sending .some exquisite incense meanwhile: "We are sending by youraforesaid priest some cozum-bet of a marvelous fragrant odor, which you may offer as incense to God at Matins or Vespers or at the celebration of the Mass" (XLIII). By and by came many letters of St. Gregory I to Boniface, as we have seen above. Before continuing our theme, we might recall in pass-ing that the earliest lives of St. Boniface reflect about as much concern, at the time of his martyrdom, for the recov-ery of his numerous books, as for the honor of hi~ sacred body. Whatever may have happened in the Hitlerian up.- heavals, several of Boniface's own books have been pre-se) ved at Fulda through all the intervening centuries! His influence has gone out through those books to the endless glory of Christian culture. To return now. to our gifts of fragrant spices: The same Cardinal-De,icon mentioned above, in giving Boni-face an account of the Roman Synod of 745, in which some of his most vexatious problems were handled, speaks with joy of having been visited by English nuns "with introduc-tions to us from you," and then adds that note without which these letters would be incomplete: "We have received also the gift you sent us--a.silver cup and a piece of cloth, a gift doubly precious to us as coming from so honored a father. Though we cannot repay you in kind, still we send in exchange" of loving remembrance four ounces of cinna- " mon, four ounces of costmary, two pounds of pepper, and one pound.of cozumber'" (L). Sweet ~as these spices ,were, the letters accompanying 278 ST. ~36~qIFAeE AND GIFT-EXCHANGE8 them were of the plainest garden variety, so to speak, in comparison with those sent Boniface by a later archdeaconl the Greek Theophylact, whose flowery epistles are the de-spair of translators. One wades through a good deal of high-water rhetoric before landing on this bit of welcome simplicity: "A little gift of blessing as a souvenir of our friendship: cinnamon, spice, pepper, and incense in a sealed packet" (LXVIII). But the "ambrosial goodness" makes for sticky going in the letter that concludes with this Hel-lenic honey: "With these preliminaries we greet your most holy, nectar-sweet divine fatherliness and pray that with God's favor you may receive your eternal reward and may win the desired verdict as your welfare may require. We are sending you a little gift of. spices, cinnamon, and storax, as largesse from the Blessed Apostle Peter and. beg you gra-ciously to accept it" (LXIX). If the "duration" of today lasts very long, perhaps we shall revive thi~ custom, among our very dearest friends, of sending a little packet, well-sealed, of spices and pepper. A letter from some of Boniface's priests to his friend, Abbess Cuniburg, says most respectfully: "Some little gifts accompany this letter: frankincense, pepper and cinnamonma very small present, but given out of heartfelt affection" (XXXIX). To a Cardinal-Bishop of Italy Boniface once sent "a bath towel, a face towel, and a little frankincense." Again: having a ,request as urgent as it was delicate to make of a priest named Herefridmnamely, that he personally read to his royal master, King Ethelbald of Mercia, a scathing re-buke of his vices--he ends his appeal with this gift-offer-ing: "We are sending you, as a token of sincere affection and of our blessing, a napkin with a little incense" (LVI!I). And we may. well bring thislitany of gifts to 279' GERALD ELLARD a close by recording that on another occasion Boniface him-self dispatched to this same King Ethelbald: "as a token.of true affection and devoted friendship., a hawk andtwo falcons, two shields and two lances;~ and we beg you to accept these trifling gifts for the sake of our affection towards you" (LV). "Your generous gifts, and affectionate letter," "this little gift, unworthy of you,'" "these little tokens of affec-tion," "that I may have you always with me," this was the language of those holy human friendships in Christ cher-ished by St. Boniface, Apostle of Germany, with such pon-tiffs as St. Gregory II, St. Gregory III, and St. Zachary; with such prelates as St. Egbert of York, St. Nothelm of Canterbury, .and St. Cuthbert of the sameSee; with such missionary-bishops as St. Lul, St. Eoban, St. Witta, St. Burchard; such abbots as St. Wigbert, St. Sturm, and St. Wunibald;. such nuns as St. Eadburga, St. Thecla, St. Wal-burga, and the dearest of them all, his kinswoman, St. Lioba, whom Boniface wished to have buried even in his own grave at Fulda. Saint Boniface, befriend us, and forget not the-land of your labors! 280 MARCH INTO TOMORROW. By the Reverend John J. Consldlne, M.M. Pp. 87. The Field Af-~r Press,. New YorE, 194.2. $2.00. With the daily press and current books, so filled with the marches and exploits of death-dealing armies, it is pleasure unbounded to read the history of a corps of gallant soldiers whose campaign is designed to bring lasting peace and life eternal to as many peoples as it can conquer. "March into Tomorrow" is the Maryknoll odyssey from the meeting of Fathers James Walsh and Thomas Price in Montreal in 1910, to the present day when over four hundred men and women, in the midst of total war, are being all things to all men of the Far East, sacrificing all and counting as gain only the benighted souls they can save for Christ. It is a personal introduction to the Maryknoll battalion of Christ's far-flung army of heroes, their hardships, their methods, their small victories. Enriched as it is with interesting pic-tures and enlivening episodes from the lives of the missionaries, it is a book to be read and kept as a priceless document of Catholicism,s progress today, and as a record of a completely American endeavor in the spreading of Christian culture and civilization.--W. M. GENG-LER, S.J. WATC~H AND PRAY. By the Reverend J. E. Moffat, S.J. The Bruce Pub-lishing Company, Milwaukee, 1942. $1.2S. " " This little work was conceived and planned as a help to religlou~ in making their monthly recollections. The general theme running through the whole of it is death, its significance for religious, and the preparation that they should make foi'it. Corresponding to the months of the year, there are twelve chapters. Each of these could be used for spiritual reading at the time of the monthly recollection, and at the end of each there is a brief outline of the reflections arranged in the form of points for meditation. In keeping with the gravity of the general theme, death, a very serious and earnest tone characterizes the thought and feeling of the work. One Who ~makes use of these readings or meditations will be readingor meditating, to quote a phrase that recurs in them, "in the light of the candle of death." Most of the subjects are suitable for any month, but there is a 281 BOOK REVIEWS certain amount of adaptation in them to the time of the year. Thus, for January, the chapter is entitled "Thoughts for the NewYear"; for December, "Sursum Corda," reflections on the eternal reward that religious may look forward to; for November, "Have Pity on Me, at Least You, My Friends," on purgatory, or on being delayed in one's journey toward life everlasting. Naturally enough, death sug-gests the divine judgment that follows, and this is handled in the chapter for October, "What Did You Treat of in the Way?" Perhaps the most concrete and the most highly encouraging of the subjects treated is that for September, "I Will Spend My Heaven Doing Good upon Earth." Vividly to visualize the death-scene of St. Therese of Lisieux and to realize the significance of that celebrated program for life after death should be a great consolation for any fervent religious and a most potent incentive toward becoming more fervent and.holy and supernaturally effective. Religious who make their monthly recollections in accordance with "Watch and Pray," and take its clear and practical lessons to heart, may feel sure of a peaceful and fruitful life, a happy death, and a very rich eternity. ¯ G. A. ELLARD, S.J. IN THE SHADOW OF OUR LADY OF THE CENACLE. By Helen M. Lynch, Religious of the Cenacle. Pp. x;i; -I- 249. The Paulis÷ Press, New YorK, 1941. $2.00. The seal upon the cover of this well-written book contains some adapted words of Scripture which epitomize the work of the Reli-gious of the Cenacle throughout the world, but more particularly in America during their first fifty years just completed: "They continued with one mind steadfastly in prayer with Mary" (Acts 1:14). Under the saintly guidance of Father John Peter Terme, the Vener-able Mother Th~r~se Couderc, a truly humble woman, valiantly founded the new society amid many difficulties and contradictions. The first Cenacle, St. Regis House, opened its doors at La Louvesc, France, in 1826. The work soon became international. In 1892, Mother Christine de Grimaldi, with three companions, arrived in New York, .there to establish the first Cenacle in America, another St. Regis House, with many a hardship and privation. Thence the society spread, until today there are no less than seven busy Cenacles in the East and Middle-West. The Religious of the Cenacle can be 282 BOOK REVIEWS justly.proud of this concrete result of fifty years of determination, steadfastness, and prayer in the shadow of Our Lady of the Cenacle. What is the work of the Cenacle religiofis? In the words of the author, they "devote themselves to spiritual works of.mercy, through Retreats for Women and the teaching of Christian Doctrine to adults and children." Their women's retreats have made them pioneers and 'leaders in the retreat movement and in Catholic Action in Ameri-ca. Pius XI, himself the director of the Milan Cenacle for thirty-two years, once addressed these words to Mother General Marie Majoux in a public audience: "You will have realized that in preparation of that encyclical (Mens Nostra-~on retreats) We had the Cenacle in mind. It was there ~ indeed that We learned by experience the great good which" is effected by the Spiritual Exercises." The harvest of good reaped by the Cenacle Retreats is indeed great. Thousands of women have been led by them to lives of greater perfection. The Cenacles have been the nurseries of hundreds of vocations, some to almost every religious congregation. Hence, all religious will join in congratulating the Cenacle for what is narrated in this modest but splendid anniversary book. Eileen Duggan, the New Zealand poet, writes of Mother Th~r~se Couderc: "She whom they called the silent Mother, the woman in the corner, has withthe faggots of her humility, made a fire that will last and whose burning brands will start strange wood in countries she was not destined to see." The strange wood of America has caught definitely that fire and its flame will spread still more mightily as the,years march on to the century.-~A. KLAAS, S.J. I PRAY THE MASS. A Sunday Missal arranged by ÷he Reverend Hugo H. Hoes, er, S.O.Cist., Ph.D. Pp. 447. Catholic Book Publishing Com-pany, New York, 1942. $.35 to $3.50. This new missal contains the Masses for all the Sundays and principal feastdays of the year, as well as the Nuptial Mass and the Mass for tl~e Dead. The Introduction contains a brief explanation of the meaning of the Mass and a description of the vestments and sacred vessels. It also includes a liturgical calendar good for ten years.: In the supplement are morn.ing and evening prayers, and good sug-gestions and prayers for Confession, Communion, the Way of the Cross, First Friday, and Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. The headingl in the book are printed in red; the translations of 283 BOOK REVIEWS the New Testament are taken from the Revised English E~dition. Before each Mass is a brief, well-chosen "Thought for Today"; after the Mass, a "Thought for th~ Week." This missal offers everything that could be desired in a small book of this kind. As indicated above, the prices .range from $.35 to $3.50. The volume sent us for review is bound in black imitation leather and is priced at $1.10. It would be appropriate for anyone who is not inclined to extravagance. MODICUM. By the Reverend Athanasius Bierbaum, O.F.M. American Edition by the Reverend Bruno Hagspiel, S.V.D. Pp. ix + 204. St. Anthony Guild Press, Paterson, New Jersey, 1941. $1.00. This small book contains twelve monthly recollections for priests. The author has made a fine choice of subjects fundamental to priestly life, and has developed each subject in a complete, orderly, and interesting fashion. His choice of Scripture texts and other quo-tations is apt, and his applications are thoroughly practical. With Modicum, we might mention another small book for priests by Fathers Bierbaum and Hagspid, Seekinq Onlg God. This latter work, published in 1938, is an excellent little treatise on the interior life for priests. Modicum is clothbound: Seeking' Onl~t God is paperbound. Both books should be helpful to priests seeking aid for self-sanctification. They may be obtained from the publisher or from The Mission Procurator, Techny, Illinois. HOMILETIC HINTS. By the Reverend Albert H. Dohn, O. Carm. Pp. 71. Carmelite Press, Encjlewood, N. J. 50 cents. Priests and seminarians interested in a scientific study of preach-ing will find this booklet helpful. As the author states ifi the Intro-duction, the book contains all that his experience tells him it is "'nec-essar~ for the student to know abou

Judith P. Mitchell, ca. 1984; Judith P. Mitchell, May 17, 2013 ; The Weber State University Oral History Project began conducting interviews with key Weber State University faculty, administrators, staff and students, in Fall 2007. The program focuses primarily on obtaining a historical record of the school along with important developments since the school gained university status in 1990. The interviews explore the process of achieving university status, as well as major issues including accreditation, diversity, faculty governance, changes in leadership, curricular developments, etc. ; This is an oral history interview with Judith P. Mitchell conducted on May 17, 2013 by Ruby Licona. Judith discusses her career at Weber State from 1983 to 2011 in the Teacher Education program. ; 35p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 video disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Judith P. Mitchell Interviewed by Ruby Licona 17 May 2013 i Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Judith P. Mitchell Interviewed by Ruby Licona 17 May 2013 Copyright © 2014 by Weber State University, Stewart Library ii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees, who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in University Archives, which also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The Weber State University Oral History Project began conducting interviews with key Weber State University faculty, administrators, staff and students, in Fall 2007. The program focuses primarily on obtaining a historical record of the school along with important developments since the school gained university status in 1990. The interviews explore the process of achieving university status, as well as major issues including accreditation, diversity, faculty governance, changes in leadership, curricular developments, etc. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Mitchell, Judith P., an oral history by Ruby Licona, 17 May 2013, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. iii Judith P. Mitchell ca. 1984 Judith P. Mitchell May 17, 2013 Abstract: This is an oral history interview with Judith P. Mitchell conducted on May 17, 2013 by Ruby Licona. Judith discusses her career at Weber State from 1983 to 2011 in the Teacher Education program. RL: I'm Ruby Licona and I am on the faculty here in the Stewart Library. Today is May 17, 2013 and we are speaking with Judith P. Mitchell, who retired from the Teacher Education program in 2011. She originally came to Weber State in 1983. We are looking forward to speaking with her and getting a good perspective on her years here at Weber. Our meeting this morning is in the Waterstradt Seminar in the Special Collections Library. Good morning, Judy, how are you? JM: Good morning. I am fine, thank you. RL: I am so glad you agreed to do this. We are trying to capture as many perspectives on Weber State and its history as possible and your name came up as someone that we should spend some time talking to. Why don't we begin with you telling us a little bit about your background, where you grew up and what might have drawn you to teaching? JM: I grew up at least part of the time in Ogden. My parents were from Ogden. When I was a child, my father went to medical school. We lived in Portland, Oregon for about seven years and in Philadelphia for a year while he completed his education. He was an ophthalmologist here in Ogden. We came back to Ogden when I was nine years old. I started the fifth grade at Polk School, went through the Ogden School District system and graduated from Ogden High School. Page 1 of 35 Afterward, I went to Stanford University and spent four years there. My major was music. It was a wonderful background and I've never regretted it for a minute because it probably did more to enhance my life and my children's lives than any other education I could have had at the time. I had lots of literature, music, art history and history classes. It was a nice foundation for whatever I decided to do next. After college, I came back to Ogden and went to work for Amalgamated Sugar. Those were the days when old Mr. Benning was still in charge of Amalgamated Sugar. He was an interesting man who still had the secretarial girls ironing the carbon paper so that it could be reused. He also had these little things that went on the end of the pencil so that they could use the pencil down to the last stub. I think he bought Amalgamated Sugar at a penny a share, so he came through all of those really hard years and he knew how to squeeze a nickel. After that, I was recruited by Bill Eccles to work for First Security Corporation as his executive secretary. First Security then moved to Salt Lake, so I moved to Salt Lake as well. At that time, I became reacquainted with the man I later married. He was a year or two older than I and I had known his sister. I have three children. Of course, they are all adults now and I have five grandchildren. When I was having my first baby, I quit working and I stayed home. When my two oldest children got into school, I was so interested in the process of how children learn to read that I thought, "Here I am with a Stanford Baccalaureate Degree and I could just whip down to Polk School and teach reading." I discovered that I had to have a state Page 2 of 35 license, so I came to Weber State. They accepted all my liberal education credits and I had to take the teacher education courses. I think I had to take ten hours of science which I had carefully avoided in college previously. They awarded me a Baccalaureate Degree in Science and then I went on to teach in the public schools in Weber School District. I taught at Marlon Hills Elementary and Valley View Elementary and ended up out in Hooper. I loved Weber School District. They gave me opportunities to learn and do different things. I'm not sure that the educational standards of the parents were necessarily the most important thing, but they were good parents and they were very supportive of the school and of teachers. The children were lovely children and were wonderful to teach. I had never spent any time in a farm community before and at that time Hooper was a farm community. Many raised sugar beets as a cash crop. In the fall, there would be mountains of sugar beets waiting to be picked up. I earned a Master's Degree from Utah State University in education and my thesis was on reading. Then, I decided to do a doctorate and did that at the University of Utah. I knew I liked the public schools. I liked teaching and I liked the kids, but I am restless by nature and I thought what I really wanted to do was teach in higher education because I thought I could make a difference. RL: Was it a Ph.D. or an Ed.D. that you earned at the University of Utah? JM: It was a Ph.D. I like going to school. I think most of us that are in the education field like going to school. We like to teach, but we also like to be taught. So, when Page 3 of 35 the opportunity came up for me to come to Weber on a trade for a year, I was delighted. My district had recommended that since I had the doctorate. RL: So you came here on a trade? How did that work? JM: Karen Neilson was a professor in the Teacher Education program and her field was secondary education and literacy. Of course, I was an elementary person, but that made little mind. It was my first experience with taking somebody else's course and somebody else's notes and trying to figure out what it was that I was supposed to teach. She would have things in her notes like, "Come tomorrow and it will be a big surprise about this or that." I would think, "What is the big surprise that I'm going to come up with?" She extended her contract with the DODS schools, so I had an opportunity to come to Weber. This was at the time of the WILKITS. The WILKITS were packets of materials and students moved through them at their own pace. Many of us from traditional education settings had difficulty with this notion because there were no set classes and we met with students individually. For some students it worked wonderfully and for others it didn't work well at all. RL: Was that something that was just here at Weber, or was that a trend? JM: It was a new trend across the country in some ways and people came from all over to see the programs at Weber. RL: Was it solely in education? JM: Yes, it was only in education. A group of professors in Teacher Education had come to Weber at about the same time and they decided they could develop this program. They received a big federal grant so that they could be freed up for an Page 4 of 35 entire year to develop all the program materials. The thing they didn't really have time to do was to develop the assessment materials that went with it. I went through this program when I came to Weber to get a license to teach. For me, it was good. I'm quite self-motivated and I balance my time well, but for many students it was a nightmare. There were no deadlines so you just moved through it at your own pace. RL: That has a similarity to some of our online courses now, doesn't it? JM: Absolutely. RL: You have students that are very motivated and jump right in. I've had students try to turn in all of the assignments in the first week of an eight week block. I tell them, "No, we need to go through some things first." JM: Yes, it is the same idea. As I said, there were no set classes, so you'd just make an appointment with your professor when you were ready to be checked out of that particular module. I think they transported those modules all over the world. There was a big program in the Middle East and Blaine Parkinson and Harley Adamson made many trips. The college received a big national award for the program. It was cutting edge at the time. RL: We did have people from Weber who were involved with opening up a university in the Middle East. JM: That's right. I think Blaine was one of them and he was dean of the College of Education at one time. As some of us came to campus, we looked at teaching and learning differently and felt the need to have more set classes where we saw more than one student at a time. It was very time consuming for the faculty to Page 5 of 35 meet one-on-one with students. By the end of the fifth or sixth year after I came, I didn't see any more modules. RL: Were they just kind of eased out? JM: They were. People had different feelings about them. Like anything else, if you've had a hand in developing something you're a real advocate. RL: You have more ownership of it. JM: Absolutely. RL: Who were some of your colleagues when you came here? JM: Some of them have been here a long time. Luan Ferrin, Jimmie Merrill, Keith Burnett, and Burdett Johnson all came to Weber at about the same time. RL: You mention a lot of men. Were there not as many women in education at that time or just not in higher education? JM: When I went to work for Weber district, there wasn't a single woman administrator in Weber School District. That's a big school district. I think there were a few more women in Ogden School District. As a child, I had a woman principal and it wasn't uncommon at all. Later, it seemed like you didn't see many women in administration. We saw a lot of women teachers and still do, but not too many administrators. RL: There were some women in upper level positions during World War II as a result of the men being gone, but then I think it reversed. JM: Yes. I'm sure it did. It was pretty much a group of men. There were two or three women and they had been here a long time. They had been here at the time for this development. Page 6 of 35 RL: Did the men help to mentor you or was it more adversarial? JM: It wasn't adversarial. I'll have to say that Don Sharpes was the one who really sat me down and said, "Now, this is how you do your vitae and how you keep your records and your file. Oh by the way, the ladies room is down there." RL: That's essential orientation. JM: I didn't find that any one colleague did as much mentoring as they might have. Cordell Perkes hired me. He was a chair at the time. He was a very good colleague and was helpful. Dick Jones was the dean, at the time, in the College of Education. He was also very helpful as far as I was concerned. When Dick was named Dean of the College of Education, there were two other faculty members that aspired to be dean, but they were not selected. I think Bob Smith was the Vice President of Academic Affairs, the position now call Provost. He made the choice and I think Dean Jones had a hard time because there were a lot of good 'ol boys who felt they were cheated and that they should have the position. They didn't like the way Dick ran the finances. I'm not sure it would have mattered what he did or how he did it, they wouldn't have liked it. For me, as a new faculty member, he was a good dean. He gave me a lot of opportunities to do different kinds of things and I appreciated that. Cordell Perkes had come in not too long before I and he was very supportive of changes and was looking for new ways to do things and understood that there's a freedom in being an academic. I think that one of the difficulties with the WILKIT system was the fact that there wasn't any academic Page 7 of 35 freedom in terms of how we did things in a classroom. That kind of flew in the face of what most of us believed. RL: You came in 1983. When I arrived in 1990, we had three Master's programs. That would have been just seven years after you got here. I understand that you were one of the ones that established the master's program in education. JM: Well, not really. When I came, the Master's in Education was a combined program with Utah State University. There were three people from USU and three from Weber that sat on a steering committee. Within a year or so, I did do that, which was wonderful and it taught me a lot about the program. Weber faculty members were doing most of the teaching and that gave us some grounds for saying that it should be Weber's program since we were doing the work with the students and teaching the classes. Don Sharpes was hired to head up that combination of faculty from the two universities and to run the program. I did have that nice opportunity to get in from the beginning on the whole thing. When the program was finally declared independent, I did direct the master's program for about 13 or 14 years. RL: Maybe that's where I got the impression that you had helped to establish it. You were in on the ground floor though. JM: Yes. At the beginning, I had that opportunity along with the chair and somebody else. I was Chair of Elementary Education during some of that time when we were still a part of Utah State's program. Page 8 of 35 RL: What other kinds of things were happening on the campus that you might have been involved with early on? There were some changes happening in the 1970's and 1980's with the establishment of the Faculty Senate. JM: That must have been earlier because when I came, there were stories about Joe Bishop wiring the Faculty Senate room where we held meetings. The reason it all came out was because somebody went to a little party after the Faculty Senate meeting and there was a lot of information that was out. When I came they were still reeling from President Bishop and the kinds of things that went on while he was president. I think he was a man who was very suspicious about what faculty might do. RL: From what I understand, he was trying to pull in the reins at a time when the Faculty Senate was starting to gain more academic freedom and more faculty involvement and control. JM: No question. When I got involved in Faculty Senate, it was one of the best things that happened to me academically. For one thing, I worked with awfully interesting people. Secondly, the Faculty Senate had gained a great deal of power working with Rod Brady. RL: I believe he left in about 1987 or 1988. JM: Then Stephen Nadauld came. We became a university at that point. RL: That's right. That happened toward the end of 1990. JM: There were a lot of changes at the university. We were suddenly looking at ourselves differently. I think there had been an attitude that it was just an extension of Harrison High. Part of that grew out of how faculty looked at Page 9 of 35 themselves and how they looked at the school, not so much the townspeople perhaps. RL: Recently, I've heard a couple of things on television that have grated on my nerves. There was a young man on one of the news programs that grew up in Ogden. He was presenting an award of some kind and asked the young woman where she was going to be going to college and she said, "Weber State." He said, "Oh, Harrison High School." If I had been there I think I would've throttled him. Not too long after that I heard someone on KUER, University of Utah's radio station, referring to us as Weber State College. I thought, "We've been Weber State University for 22 years now. Attitudes have to change sometime and people like you need to be taken to the wood shed." JM: In many ways faculty were their own worst enemies because they were the ones who perpetuated it. It was a shame. Suddenly, university status did a great deal for Weber in terms of attitudes. At the time, Weber State College was the biggest four year college in the United States granting baccalaureate degrees. RL: They had a large enrollment. JM: Exactly. RL: There were a lot of things that were attractive then that still are now. The trend to try and keep classes smaller and community involvement and different things that have been developed here on campus are still attractive. When we were going through the process to become a university there was a lot of squawking from University of Utah and Utah State University about something being written in that would prevent Weber State from becoming a doctoral granting university Page 10 of 35 and that there were not to be massive numbers of graduate degrees. We haven't grown greatly, but we do have nine graduate degrees now. Certainly, the accent has been on programs that add to the workforce and meet the need of not just the immediate community, but of the state with the emphasis on providing an educated workforce. I guess that's kind of an extension of starting out your program as a Utah State program. JM: I think that's true. The other thing that's interesting is that if you look at the graduation statistics at Weber, half of them are still two year degrees. They are not baccalaureate degrees at all. RL: Some students do go on to get their baccalaureate. JM: A state the size of Utah could hardly afford two research universities. One of the things I think the Board of Regents has done especially well is that they have taken a look at programs and tried to avoid duplication. There is one medical school in Utah and no dental school. There's one law school. I think those kinds of things make sense because a state the size of Utah really can't afford to run two medical schools or two law schools. RL: Brigham Young University does have a law school. It's privately funded, but even so, it is a situation where we've got a couple million people in Utah. JM: It's growing, heaven knows. It's a tiered system. California has the same kind of tiered system. You have your research universities and you have your state universities and it seems that's where the growth is happening, perhaps more than we need it right now. Utah Valley University is just huge and Southern Utah is a master's granting university again. Page 11 of 35 RL: Of course, Dixie has gone from a two-year program to a master's granting university. JM: Price is a satellite for Utah State which is different, but the fact that Dixie is getting university status in many ways is rather surprising. A lot of the people in St. George are snowbirds, but apparently they seem to think they have a population to support a university. RL: It is the same administrator down there that helped Weber State become a university. JM: Yes, Stephen Nadauld is there. It's interesting, I think, that Utah has done a pretty good job in figuring most of this out. I have great respect for the University of Utah and Utah State University and they have significant programs that are highly rated and they should be. I am proud of Weber. When I look at what's happened in the last couple years, I think about what happened with the music department. RL: There's a new advertisement showing our resident piano prodigy that says, "Chose Weber State Over Julliard." When you see that it picks you up. JM: It makes you proud. Fan Ya's success has resulted in more students coming for the music program because of how well this young woman has done. RL: She's got the support of the administration. JM: No question about it. It has been helpful. On top of that, I've never seen a girl or a boy work harder than she does. She's earned every inch of it. RL: We also have a top-notch nursing program. Getting back to the College of Education, are there students that you had in those early years that you have Page 12 of 35 learned about their accomplishments and whom you feel got the basis for them here? JM: Absolutely. That first year I taught at Weber, I taught secondary students. Depending on their major, many were a challenge in a literacy course. In a lot of other courses they were as well and the students would say, "Well, in our majors we never write." It was a challenge for me. One of my very finest students was Jeff Stephens, who is now superintendent of Weber School District. He got his master's here and he went off and got his doctorate. There are many that I see who are school principals, wonderfully successful classroom teachers, and reading coaches. I've been teaching the level two reading coaching class for about five or six years now and most of them have Master's degrees when they come back to get this extra certification. They are the cream of the crop. They're bright, hard-working and they make a huge difference in school. RL: They come back to Weber State, and I don't think that's necessarily just for the location. JM: I don't either, although that plays a role. RL: I think they are looking for a quality program. JM: I think so. Weber has made a huge effort to maintain the class sizes. I think the faculty reaches out to students in good ways. There are not classes that are taught by students who do not speak English which is a huge advantage. One of my boys did a doctorate at the University of Utah and in the last year he said, "It's a do-it-yourself thing. This fellow doesn't speak any English at all and it really is a do-it-yourself educational program." That doesn't happen at Weber. Faculty Page 13 of 35 teach the classes, which I think matters. I think our graduates that are out in the field tend to think, "I did well as an undergraduate at Weber. I'll go back and do some graduate work there." One of the things I am most proud of was that in our Master of Education program, we maintained high standards. Students did a thesis or a project which was very scholarly. Everybody at that stage knows how to take classes and how to pass classes. The thing that really separates the men from the boys is doing some research and writing about it. I'm proud of that. I think that our master's program in education can stand up to anybody's. RL: The emphasis at Weber has changed somewhat in the last 20 years and there's more of an emphasis for the faculty to have more scholarship and research involvement. That still hasn't changed their role with the students. JM: You're absolutely right. RL: Certainly, Weber has won some kudos for bringing the National Undergraduate Research program here to Weber. Also, the Undergraduate Literature Conference we have every year is still used as a cookie cutter model for other places. In Teacher Education, you had the ISTE international group of people here from Australia, New Zealand, Europe, and Africa. That has to be a feather in you cap. JM: I think so. Along that whole line is that the College of Education has managed their endowment well and it has given faculty opportunities to attend conferences in a variety of places both in this country and abroad. They've had opportunities to make contacts with scholars and teachers and that's been valuable. Page 14 of 35 RL: Has Teacher Education done anything in terms of cooperative programs? Are there sister universities or programs that you've maintained? JM: I think the one thing I can think about is when I first came to Weber, one of the faculty members originally came from Arizona and she had done a lot of work with Native Americans on the reservations. She was a really brilliant lady and her field was reading. When she came to Weber, she wrote some grants and we ended up taking our teacher education program to Blanding. I was the new kid on the block, so I taught quite a bit in Blanding and Bluff, which was an eye-opener for me. Most of them were Navajo students seeking education degrees in order to teach. At that time in Blanding, there was an elementary school and I would say maybe 80 percent of the youngsters were Native American children. There wasn't a single aid, teacher, or administrator that was Native American. In Bluff, I think 98 percent of the children were Native American kids and there not a single teacher or aid that was Native American. We took that program down for a number of years and we trained a number of teachers, which I think changed the whole educational environment down there. Some of them didn't end up in teaching, but ended up in federal agencies where their educational background was valued. RL: They advanced beyond what had been available previously. JM: It was interesting because the way the Pell Grants worked then was that they got the money no matter if they completed a class or not. Quarter after quarter, you'd have some of the same people in the class because they never finished a class, but they got their Pell Grant so that they could go to school. It also supported Page 15 of 35 them for food, rent, and all of their living expenses. The Navajo culture is very matriarchal and many of the men didn't work or there wasn't work for them. There were high rates of alcoholism. The women would come to class and the men would stand along the back wall like, "Don't you teach my wife anything, it'll change the world." Many of the women were very ambitious and looked at their children and thought, "It's going to be up to me or these kids are going to end up like their not very good dad." We had quite a bit of success with that. Many times, these teachers would come up in the summer to take classes on the campus. They'd bring their kids and live in the dorms. It was a big sacrifice for them. It was wonderful for us. Certainly, it was an opportunity for me, who came from a background where I knew very little about Native American populations. When I went to college, it was very un-diverse. We were mostly white, middle-class kind of people. RL: We've been lucky at Weber that several of our presidents have put an emphasis on diversity and unity. I know when I got here, I started looking around at our student body and someone had mentioned that Weber and Ogden School Districts were something like 25 percent Hispanic, Latino, etc. When I looked around on campus, there were fewer than one percent of our students that fit into that category. Certainly, it's not up to 20 or 25 percent, but we are more between 5 and 10 percent now. JM: Exactly. Families that perhaps never anticipated college for their kids are looking at education differently. Page 16 of 35 RL: We are certainly seeing a lot more brown faces, Asian students, Pacific Islanders, etc. I think that changes the flavor of the University in the right direction. In regard to that, you started here when we had President Brady and when he left Stephen Naduald came and then Paul Thompson and F. Ann Milner. That was a big feather in Weber's cap too, having a female president. JM: She was a very successful female president. It was at a time when Eastern Utah had hired a woman who ran through the money like water through the creek. When she left, that little college was in horrible condition because the money had been spent. I never went to a conference anywhere in the United States that she wasn't there. I would think, "This isn't your field. Why would you be interested in this?" Ann came with an excellent background and she'd been well-trained by Paul. She was a very successful woman not only on our campus, but across the state and with the legislature. RL: She was well-respected. JM: Absolutely. It is a feather in Weber's cap. No question. RL: As far as the different administrators and the type of ship they sailed in terms of their styles, did that affect your career in any way? JM: I think it did. When I was active in the Faculty Senate and I was faculty chair for three years and co-chair for three years. RL: You were the second woman to do that? JM: Yes. I think Rosemary Conover was the first one. I had a good six year run, which was nice. Paul Thompson was the president and he very much believed in shared governance. He gave us lots of opportunities to be heard and he was Page 17 of 35 good to work with in that he felt that there were a number of things about which the faculty needed to have an equal voice, to have a say and to be able to ask the hard questions. For most of us at that time working in faculty governance, we had great opportunities. RL: I think he was more willing to accept some of the suggestions coming out of the Senate. I remember at one point I was chairing the Academic Standards Committee and I was given a list of 13 or 14 things that needed to be accomplished. That was about the time of the Gulf War and we were having to come up with policies regarding students who were pulled out of class and sent to the Middle East and what were we going to do with them when they came back as far as tuition or letting them finish classes. There were a lot of major things that were being determined then that our committee was involved with. We ended up coming up with the tiered admission thing so that we could still meet the mission of the University, but take on the new issues that we were facing. I think that was a time when people did have a voice. As far as your involvement in heading up the Faculty Senate, were there major things occurring that you needed to deal with? What were they and what were some of the outcomes? JM: When I started in affairs of Faculty Senate, Tom Burton was the chair. He appointed me to the Curriculum Committee and that was both curriculum and general education at the time. RL: So you came in as a new faculty member first? JM: Yes. Then I became chair of the Curriculum Committee. At the time, curriculum and general education were combined into one committee. Of course, we didn't Page 18 of 35 have the technology, so everything would be delivered to my office and there would be a stack of papers to read through. Those were very different times. I look back at the number of trees we must have killed. Tom was a good mentor and a good trainer. Curriculum and General Education was a great place to start and became something that I continued to work in while I was at Weber, until the last few years. One of the things that happened during the time I was in Faculty Senate was the big conversion to semesters from quarters. I still maintain that most of my students, even some of my graduate students, have a ten week attention span, not a 15 or 16 week attention span. The state said it would cheaper and of course it wasn't cheaper, it cost tons of money to make the conversion. It was far more complex than any of us thought. We made a lot of presentations about the change and why not. At the time, I was on the State Committee for General Education and that was a wonderful time because it was the first faculty committee that was under the Board of Regents. Each of the colleges and universities was represented. I was on that for about 15 years and we did a lot of things. The legislature decided the institution needed to have some common numbers, particularly for general education courses. We did a lot of that without wrecking people's individual programs. Most students in Utah at some time or another attend another university somewhere in the state. With some common numbers in those undergraduate courses in general education, the transfer was easy. For me, personally, working with the faculty leaders from across the state was a wonderful experience. They were the brightest of the bright. It gave me access to Page 19 of 35 friendships and acquaintances that I never would have had and it allowed me to know who to talk to at each university when something came up. Another group I really liked working with was the group of Faculty Senate presidents. In fact, that's where I met our present president. He was the President of the Faculty Senate of the University of Utah when I was active at Weber. He was a good chemistry professor and very bright, so now for him to be our president is an interesting kind of thing. Anyway, they were wonderful, interesting, smart people that had lots of ideas. We had a lot of respect. We were appointed by the Board of Regents and then appointed within our universities. Bob Smith put me on, so that was a long time ago. I learned a lot about higher education and I also learned a lot about the curriculum and systems within our state and how well most of them work. The change from quarters to semesters was also a big deal. RL: That was in the mid-1990's, wasn't it? JM: Yes. I think it was about 1995. That was a really big switch. In some ways, it made us come into a commonality with other universities within our state. I have to laugh because all the arguments about why semesters are so much better than quarters are a crock. There are wonderful universities across the United States that are still on quarters like the University of Oregon, Stanford, Columbia, etc. RL: Judy, you've talked a little bit about your involvement with the Faculty Senate as chair and the General Education/Curriculum Committee after you stepped down as chair. At about that time, we had a big push with the diversity requirements in Page 20 of 35 the classes and the Curriculum and General Education became separate committees and they are very involved. JM: Yes, and I went back on General Education just a few years ago. RL: You mentioned that, so what I wanted to ask you how that worked out for you and did you stay involved with that until you left? JM: Yes, until about last year, I continued to serve on senate committees. I served on a number of senate committees, which was wonderful. I think they seemed to value my background and what I'd already done and it worked well for me because I really enjoyed working with my colleagues. During the time I was senate chair, I was also head of Teaching and Learning because our person left. I was wearing two hats and I had three offices instead of two. It was a busy time. My department was good about the release time and at that time the Faculty Senate had some money, so we did get release time, which was a huge help, I couldn't have done most of what I did if I hadn't had some release time. RL: This was during the time of Paul Thompson's presidency? JM: Yes it was. RL: Then he left and Ann Milner stepped up to the plate and hit a few home runs. JM: Right. While Paul was president and Eisler was the provost, I worked a lot with Eisler and when it came time to name a new president, it was between him and Ann, do you remember that? RL: Yes. I had been off campus then for a little while. Page 21 of 35 JM: He was the provost and was an academic and Ann was someone who came through Continuing Education and Paul had mentored her wonderfully. Of course, she is a bright woman and she did a good job. RL: She had been involved with Development. JM: She had all of those kinds of things on that side of the university. RL: Those are important too. JM: Well, raising money is always important in universities. For Ann, I was surprised when she stepped down when she did simply because the capital campaign was her baby. I was just really surprised that she didn't see it to the end. RL: She did mention when she first started that she would take it and put in ten good years and that's what she did. Were you involved with any of the things that she helped to develop? JM: I've been on the University Capital Campaign Committee, so if raising money is part of it, yes. I am head of the committee for the College of Education even though I've retired. RL: Speaking of the College of Education, you would have been through a few deans there. JM: That's one way to put it, yes. When I came Dick Jones was the dean. As I said, he came in without a level playing field in many ways because there were two faculty members that thought they should have been the dean. That made it really hard. He did some things really well and some things less well, but it's true of all of us. There was finally a vote of no confidence and I think that Bob Smith decided it was probably time for him to go before there was a formal vote of no Page 22 of 35 confidence. It wasn't over anything dishonest or anything like that. There were just enough differences so he left. Then they hired Green, and he was the first African American dean on campus. Again, like any dean, he had his interests and did some things really well and some things not so. Jack Rasmussen was the next. He had been here as a faculty member so most of us had worked with him. He was a good teacher and he seemed to be a good administrator, so when he applied for the position we were interested. He was the dean in North Dakota at a university. We were happy to have him back. The known is always kind of nice and we knew what to expect. I think he's been an effective dean. I think he's had the respect of the faculty, he's good to work with, and he's a dependable person. RL: How long has he been here now? JM: I'm not sure. I think he's been here for maybe seven years. He's the senior dean on campus. RL: You were talking about his being supportive. Was there a difference in the level of support you got from each of those deans? JM: I had wonderful support from all of them, I can't complain at all. There was always money for me to present at conferences. Ray Reutzel, who was a professor at Utah State and I applied for the editorship of, The Reading Teacher, which is the premier journal of the International Reading Association and received the appointment. That was a five year thing and they came out and visited with the President, Provost and Dean to make sure that I would have the support I would need to do the job. They did the same at Utah State for Ray. I Page 23 of 35 had release time for it and I had financial support from International Reading. My dean could have said no. It was when Green was the dean. I guess Eisler must have been the provost and Paul was the president and they met with all of them to say, "Can she do this? Will you give her support and release time?" There was no question. It was a prestigious journal to begin with and it was nice that westerners were nominated and chosen to do this. I learned a great deal from that experience. Reading has been the thing that I've been most interested in, so that was a wonderful thing. RL: It's a basis for many things in education, isn't it? JM: I think it's the basis for learning when it comes down to it. I think for the youngsters who struggle it isn't just learning how to read, it's how to use literacy. In your position you know all about that. The other thing I've had a lot of support on for 28 years is running a reading and writing conference every summer. The State has given me some money and Weber has given me some money and support. This is the first summer that we haven't done it. We've brought to campus outstanding people in the field of reading and writing to do the conference. That has been a wonderful thing for our students and for our teachers in the field. Things like that I will miss terribly. I do miss them. RL: Were there other national programs that you were involved with that you got particularly good support for? JM: Yes there surely were. Of course, going to conferences is part of it and presenting at conferences takes support. I was on quite a few national Page 24 of 35 committees for reading and literacy and children's books. Those people tend to be a community that knows one another. For me, it was a broadening kind of thing. It gave me people I could call on to hire for my reading conference. Probably the thing that gave both Ray and me the most exposure was that editorship. Ray went on and served on the Board of Directors of International Reading. He has an endowed chair at Utah State. He's a good scholar and good teacher and all those kinds of things. RL: You've mentioned that you're retired, but you're still here on campus. JM: Yes, but I am coming to the end. I had a substantial grant from the State to run the level two reading endorsement classes. There are three of them. There's a research class, an internship and a professional development class. The audience for those classes consists of people that have a level one endorsement in reading and are aspiring to be reading coaches in the schools. The level one classes can be taught within the school districts. For a long time we taught some of them and I have to laugh because I still see my syllabi floating around being used in the schools by somebody else. Level two has to be taught through the universities. Weber held on to those, but the problem is that the size of the audience for the classes is not very predictable and often not very big. Weber State University serves Box Elder, Davis, Weber and a few from Ogden school districts. RL: Of course, we now have an information literacy requirement for graduation here and to have the local school district do away with all of the media specialists… Page 25 of 35 JM: It doesn't make a bit of sense. Particularly in a district where there are more needy children than any district along the Front. They need those people. They are wonderfully well-trained. They are superb teachers. RL: The Regents said, "We need this computer and information literacy." One of the things that we were finding was that they were coming to us from the high schools unprepared. One of my colleagues wrote in a letter to the newspaper about seeing students come in and they've already written the paper and then they do the research because they need three references to put with the paper. Something is not right. JM: Something is not right. RL: Interesting times in the Ogden School Districts. JM: They have been interesting times for a long time. I know they are dealing with a lot of things that are difficult. I had a friend who was an administrator and we were talking about second language. He said, "It isn't the second language that's the problem, it's the poverty that's the problem." There are a lot of needy children and they need excellent teachers. Those media people are excellent teachers. They're cutting out all the part-time reading coaches as well. There are 240 and if they have them for 30 hours they don't have to pay any benefits. The whole thing is disgusting as far as I'm concerned. RL: In terms of your time at Weber, it sounds like you've accomplished a lot in the 30 years that you've been here on campus. Are there things that you were involved with that didn't succeed? Page 26 of 35 JM: Well, who's going to say yes to that? I'm kidding. There are certainly things that were successful at different levels. Some of the things I look back and I wonder why I ever opened my mouth. RL: It's perfectly alright for you to talk about that because it was something that you were concerned about. Were there things that you wish you had done and weren't able to for financial reasons or maybe Weber couldn't get involved because it wasn't the right time and place? As far as the big picture, were there other things that you would have liked to have seen? JM: When I came to Weber, I still had three youngsters at home. I was pretty place bound. After that, I went through a divorce and my two boys were then grown and out of the house and my daughter was in college. I started late with my academic career. I stayed home until my youngest was seven and didn't go back to work. Then, I had to get a license to teach school. I was place bound for a number of years. I think had I done things earlier, I might have left Weber and had some other kinds of experiences. At the time, with my personal life, when it was time to do those sorts of things, it was late to do them. I loved Weber and quite frankly, I think, "Where would I have had the opportunities that Weber has given me?" I had never thought I planned my life particularly well if you want to know the truth. I've kind of fallen into things without as much planning as I might have done. When I finally decided to go back to school and to teach, the hook that really was there for me was that I was fascinated with how children learn to read. What is it that happens in our brains? In watching children who struggle, what is Page 27 of 35 the difference in how they look at the world or how they process everything from children who don't seem to struggle? Luckily, my children did not struggle, and I did not struggle. Having worked with youngsters in school who do struggle, I thought it would be tough if I worked with these kids in school and then had to go home and work with my own, but my children did wonderfully academically. I really liked Weber and with a university this size, you can make some differences. When I was in college and got this music degree I could have taught piano maybe, but I didn't know how to do anything. I didn't know how to type when I graduated from college. I went to Wright-MacMahon Secretarial School in Beverly Hills for a year and learned how to do all kinds of secretarial things. RL: Was this after you finished you bachelor's at Stanford? JM: Yes. That's how I happened to come home and work for Amalgamated Sugar and then for Security Corporation. I had wonderful jobs. RL: When you mentioned being an executive secretary, I was wondering if that position had required a Bachelor's degree. JM: Well, let me tell you some of the things I did for First Security. I worked for Willard Eccles and I wrote all the Board and Executive Board minutes for the corporation, although, I never went to a meeting. He did all the public relations and advertising for the corporation and I learned a lot. I probably would have gone on working for First Security, but I married and when my first baby was born, I didn't work again for another ten or fifteen years. When I came back to school, perhaps if I had been more thoughtful about what I really wanted to do, I might have done something other than education. I Page 28 of 35 don't know. My father was a physician. The summer between high school and college, I worked in the newborn nursery at the old Dee Hospital and just loved it. I wanted to go to nursing school. My father wouldn't hear of it. Those were the days. He said, "No, you're not going to go to nursing school. You have the wrong thumbs for the bed pans." So, I didn't do that. In college, I had developed a lot of other interests as well. I look back and think probably what I would have done in a different era would be to have gone to medical school. I was bright enough to and I think I would have really liked it. RL: The mentality then was that women in medicine were nurses. JM: They were odd ducks if they went to medical school. My father just couldn't see that for sour apples. He was a physician and he couldn't see this thing at all. Later on, we had a lot of talks about this whole thing and his outlook changed. I had one female friend in law school and a couple in business school. Most of them were in more traditional majors for women. I have a niece who graduated in law and my daughter is in architecture, both nontraditional women's fields. My generation was different. RL: Well, we have touched on a lot of different things. What about your time at Weber? Are there things that you might have done differently other than having gone somewhere else? I've seen a lot of people here on campus who leave and come back because this is a great place to be. JM: And I am not sure that I would have left. I liked the administrative experiences I had. I was department chair, and I directed the graduate program for 13 or 14 years. I had a lot of freedom on that because we developed a thesis system. Page 29 of 35 When I got here they were doing some little paper that was paper bound and we said, "No, this does not look like professional scholarly work." We did a lot with curriculum and all that was very satisfactory to me. The other thing I guess I could mention are civic kinds of things that have mattered to me. I was president of the Junior League before I ever came to Weber. I've been on the symphony board for a long time. I'm a Commissioner for Landmarks for Ogden City and I'm on the Heritage Board. Those things are interesting to me. I've been involved with the music department simply so I could return to my roots. I've had fun knowing the people in the music department and the students. I'm really quite busy. I think the thing that scared me most about retiring was, "What if I don't have anything to do?" Of course, I've been teaching classes, but I won't at the end of this semester because there's no money to do it, which makes me sad because I just loved my students. The reading coaches were the brightest of the bright. They were just wonderful. My connection with the school districts, particularly with the Weber and the Davis districts has been very satisfying and keeps your hand in to see what's happening out there. I will miss that. I still serve on the Board of the State Reading Association and I get to see all of these great people I've either had in school or known. They have moved ahead and have done wonderful things in their lives and I am proud of that. RL: That's wonderful. Sometimes you can go to a banquet and pick up lots of things and you walk away and you're still hungering for something and then there are other times when things fall into place and you can say that you were satisfied. Page 30 of 35 JM: I think that is absolutely true and I still see a number of my colleagues from Weber. One thing that was terrific about the Faculty Senate work was that I had the opportunity to meet people in all departments. When I arrived, I was shocked that there was so little communication between the College of Education, particularly Teacher Education, and across campus. It just didn't happen. Accreditation meant that it had to happen and working in the Senate allowed me opportunities to meet people across the campus that I never would have known. RL: I think with things like the Community Involvement Program and the Teaching and Learning Forum and all of the programs now for helping people develop online classes and so forth, people are interacting a lot more than previously. JM: Yes. I think they are too. Ruby, were you here when we did Writing Across the Curriculum? RL: I was. JM: That was a wonderful time for exactly what you're talking about. RL: It brought people together from different parts of the campus and took you someplace and you sat down and you could exchange ideas for how to teach or how to develop particular processes and so forth. It was a good program. I think Teaching and Learning came from that because Lee McKenzie was the one who developed that. JM: She was a lovely lady. That was a tragic kind of thing. RL: It was. When you said that you did Teaching and Learning Forum for a year, I wondered whether that might have been about the time that Lee had to leave. Page 31 of 35 JM: I can't remember what the circumstances were, but suddenly we didn't have a director and Teaching and Learning fell on the Faculty Senate. We were doing whatever we were doing to find someone to head it up as I remember. It was an eye opener to me. I'd served on it at one time or another before that, so it wasn't completely new or anything. RL: It was a great program, and I think Lee did a great job establishing it. JM: She did. I remember that one of the faculty members who was perhaps the most changed and it was most surprising was a fellow that was in accountancy. He used it widely in his accountancy classes. You would think it would have been history or English, but I'll never forget that. He was such a proponent of the whole thing. I thought that was a really good program. I liked all of the things that mixed us up with other disciplines. I thought it really mattered. RL: I think there's more of that kind of thing happening now and it can only strengthen the college. JM: Absolutely. I think that this community outreach is a tremendous thing. I am really curious to see how this is going to go downtown because I guess those spaces are about completed on Washington. Is it going to be Continuing Education classes or Adult Education? I have no idea what's going to go in there, do you? RL: I don't. JM: It's wonderful space. I thought, "Good." Remember when we were in the basement of the mall? Page 32 of 35 RL: Yes. I don't know if you were involved or remember in the very early nineties, before we had the whole Community Involvement Program, we had some of our athletes working at the Lewis School helping children with teaching. JM: I do remember that. There was faculty sending their students out to look at things. In Education, we'd send them out because they've got to be in the schools. Other disciplines were doing a lot of things as well. RL: I like it here. JM: I don't blame you. I like it here too. I think it's a good setting for students. There are more and more kinds of things to engage the students. I liked the programs where they put classes together in a cohort for new freshman. Those kinds of things have been successful. They've helped kids not to get lost and provided a way for them to become connected with other students, particularly if they're students that just commute. I'm happy to see the new dorms because I think it's more attractive to live on campus than ever before. I think that's good. We have a lot of administrators and faculty that have done good things to promote what's happening on our campus. It's a beautiful campus and when I was walking over here today I thought, "What a pretty time of year with the stream and the pond and the beautiful trees and bushes." It's a beautiful campus. RL: My brother was trying to explain to someone that I lived in an area where every place you look is a postcard. JM: What a compliment. RL: Then he said, "No, come to think of it, she lives in a postcard." Page 33 of 35 It sounds as though your years here have been good and I'm glad to hear it. Certainly, if you think of things later that you would have liked to have told us about, please get in touch. I want to thank you for taking the time to do this. JM: You're welcome. It's been my pleasure. RL: It's been a good program for us and it's good when we get someone like you who's been involved across the board and can help to build that picture of what Weber State has been over the years. JM: Don't you feel it has come a great, far distance in terms of sophistication? RL: Absolutely. JM: I think that it's become more scholarly. RL: It's certainly not Harrison High any longer, is it? JM: It surely is not. One of the things that I think has made a difference is that the standards for tenure have changed. That was another thing we did in those years in making Weber a more scholarly university—higher demands. RL: We've been able to maintain some of the earlier things, regardless. JM: For teaching there is no question about it. The standards for hiring people have become more comparative with other universities. When University of Utah or Utah State complains about Weber I have to laugh because I think of the numbers of faculty that were trained in those two institutions and if there's something wrong with this then it's their fault, not ours. RL: We keep showing up on more and more national lists and I think partly it's because of people like you. Page 34 of 35 JM: Well, thank you, that is a compliment. As I say, like you, I have not regretted my years at Weber. I've been proud of them. RL: Thank you for being with us today. JM: You're welcome. Page 35 of 35

[eng] The accelerated impact of human activities is causing increasing damages to the Earth's life support systems. Consequently, the policy-making and scientific communities have advocated the urgent need for a change towards the sustainable use of natural resources and ecosystems. This thesis deals with the institutional conditions necessary for that change in coupled social-ecological systems, through an in-depth case study: the Doñana region, an estuarine social-ecological system affected by intricate water resources and wetland conservation problems located in the Guadalquivir Estuary (south-west Spain). In particular, I focus on the need for transitions from command-andcontrol schemes towards more flexible, participatory and adaptive approaches to policy and decision making: specifically, adaptive governance and adaptive management. For this purpose, I address three interrelated questions of broad research interest, using a theoretical framework that combines elements from resilience and institutional path dependence theories. The first question has implications for the implementation of participatory processes in the course of transitional designs towards adaptive governance and management, while the other two have implications at a theoreticanalytical level. The first research question focuses on assessing the usefulness of an action-research program aimed at introducing adaptive management tenets at the research-management interface of the Doñana region (Chapter 4). The program, which paralleled an adaptive restoration in the context of the hydro-ecological restoration project Doñana 2005, combined a formalised process of networking, interviews, focus groups and System Dynamics techniques that proved useful to engage and build trust among a wide range of actors who finally participated in two adaptive management workshops. The participation of stakeholders and agencies entrenched in long-standing conflicts and power struggles up to that date was considered a major success of the program. During the workshops, the participants collaboratively developed a set of policy recommendations, offering potential avenues to improve the research-management interface, water resources management and wetland conservation practices in the Doñana region and Guadalquivir Estuary. The action-research program was supported by preparatory research aimed at analysing the practices of, and learning from, best-in-class practitioners on adaptive management from British Columbia (Canada), where this approach was first conceived and implemented on a large scale (Chapter 3). Such preparatory research, which was based on a document review, interviews and a final workshop at the University of British Columbia (Vancouver), revealed that adaptive management has cycled, during the last four decades, through alternate phases of theoretical development, practical implementation and feedback, to which many scholars and practitioners have contributed. In particular, the workshop allowed current opportunities and constraints for the testing and implementation of adaptive management in Canada to be elicited, based on the direct, on-the-ground experience of practitioners and analysts. The results of that research provided the grounds and support for the strategic development of the action-research program in the Doñana region. The preliminary identification, during the action-research program, of major rigidities within Doñana's institutional framework and management agencies triggered the second part of the thesis, which addressed, through institutional analysis, the two additional research questions mentioned above. The second research question of the thesis focuses on enhancing the understanding of the roots of institutional rigidity in maladaptive social-ecological systems. Institutional rigidity that hinders change and smothers innovation represents a major constraint for adaptive governance and adaptive management. Therefore, to facilitate potential transitions towards more sustainable social-ecological systems characterised by adaptive approaches to decision-making, it is of utmost importance to understand and explain the origins of such institutional rigidity. In Chapter 5, by constructing a historical pattern, I identify the existence of a rigid institutional regime for water resources management and wetland conservation in the Doñana region, and explain, through a first theoretical iteration, the mechanisms underlying the genesis, amplification and persistence of such institutional rigidity. My explanation has two distinguishable parts: on one side, the deep-historical genesis of the regime at a critical juncture in the 19th century; and on the other side, the formation and continuity of the regime up to the last decades of the 20th century, despite its dysfunctionality for coping with crises and its inability to harmonise wetland conservation, water management and economic development. The historical pattern confirms that the Doñana's regime has followed a path-dependent dynamic, largely characterised by the historical recurrence on the application of command-andcontrol schemes. In a seeming paradox, these schemes, instead of driving the regime towards an efficient outcome, led to the formation of a rigid institutional regime that drove the Doñana region into a sub-optimal systemic rigidity trap. This rigid outcome may be theoretically qualified as contingent, for it defies the traditional expectations of neoclassical economics that lie at the logical core of the concept of institutional path dependence. The third research question of the thesis focuses on the explanatory potential of entrepreneurship and discourses, in their relationship with political-economic interests and power, as factors contributing to shape outcomes in local social-ecological systems. In particular, I discussed the explanatory potential of those factors, when the core logic of path dependence (composed by the mainstream principles of neoclassical economics) fails to predict observed outcomes in historical, evolutionary perspective, and qualifies such outcomes as contingent. In Chapter 6, I undertake a second theoretical iteration that re-examines the historical explanatory pattern developed in Chapter 5, in order to show how the Doñana's rigid outcome can be understood as more predictable. In particular, I argue that three mechanisms constituted necessary and sufficient conditions for the transformational process that led to the Doñana's rigid outcome: (1) a contextual political-discursive mechanism that mobilised power top-down and signalled increasing returns to actors downstream of the institutional regime; (2) the operation of increasing returns and self-reinforcing mechanisms bottom-up; (3) an endogenous entrepreneurial component that acted as a mechanism for action in an environment of extreme uncertainty. In the general discussion of the thesis (Chapter 7), I make the case for systematising the role of discourses and entrepreneurship factors, in their relationship with politicaleconomic interests and power, into the analysis. I argue that such systematisation contributes significantly to diminishing the degree of contingency associated to the Doñana's rigid outcome. More generally, my discussion deals with contingency as a property of the path dependence concept that can be modulated in explanations of institutional dynamics. This type of advancements could inform future policy and institutional designs for successful transitions towards adaptive governance and management in social-ecological systems, hence improving the prospects for the sustainable use of natural resources and ecosystems. Enriching the knowledge gathered during the action-research program with the in-depth analysis of institutional constraints rooted in historical factors, allowed a number of potential avenues to be identified that may aid the transition towards adaptive governance and management in the Doñana region (Chapter 9). It also allowed an informed speculation to be made about the potential role of action-research programs such as the one described in this thesis, to comply with (and complement) the requisites for public participation and social learning of European Union legislation: notably, the Water Framework Directive (Chapter 7, Section 7.4). ; [spa] El impacto acelerado de las actividades humanas está causando el aumento de los daños a los sistemas de soporte vital de la Tierra. En consecuencia, gestores y científicos gestores han defendido la necesidad urgente de un cambio hacia el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales y los ecosistemas. Esta tesis trata sobre las condiciones institucionales necesarias para dicho cambio en sistemas socio-ecológicos, a través de un estudio de caso en profundidad: la región de Doñana, un sistema socio-ecológico afectado por problemas complejos en términos de recursos hídricos y conservación de humedales, situado en el Estuario del Guadalquivir (suroeste de España). En particular, en esta tesis me centro en la necesidad de transiciones desde estrategias de mando y control hacia enfoques más flexibles, participativos y adaptativos para la elaboración de políticas y la toma de decisiones: específicamente, gobernanza adaptativa y gestión adaptativa. Para ello, abordo tres preguntas de interés de investigación, amplias e interrelacionadas, utilizando un marco teórico que combina elementos de las teorías de dependencia de la trayectoria institucional y la resiliencia. La primera pregunta tiene implicaciones para la implementación de procesos de participación en el curso del diseño de transiciones hacia la gobernanza y la gestión adaptativas, mientras que las otras dos tienen implicaciones a nivel teórico-analítico. La primera pregunta de investigación se centra en la evaluación de la utilidad de un programa de investigación-acción cuyo objetivo fue introducir principios de gestión adaptativa en la interfaz investigación-gestión de la región de Doñana (Capítulo 4). El programa, que se desarrolló paralelamente a una restauración adaptativa en el contexto del proyecto de restauración hidro-ecológica Doñana 2005, combina un proceso formalizado de networking, entrevistas, grupos focales y técnicas de Dinámica de Sistemas, que demostró ser útil para fomentar la confianza entre un amplio rango de actores que finalmente participaron en dos talleres de gestión adaptativa. La participación de partes interesadas y organismos que se habían visto anteriormente envueltos en situaciones conflictivas y disputas de poder fue considerada un gran éxito del programa. Durante los talleres, los participantes desarrollaron en colaboración una serie de recomendaciones de política, ofreciendo posibles vías para mejorar la interfaz investigación-gestión, la gestión de los recursos hídricos y la conservación de humedales en la región de Doñana y el Estuario del Guadalquivir. El programa de investigación-acción fue apoyado por una investigación preparatoria dirigida a analizar y aprender de las prácticas de profesionales líderes en gestión adaptativa de la Columbia Británica (Canadá), donde este enfoque fue concebido e implementado por primera vez a gran escala (Capítulo 3). Dicha investigación preparatoria se basó en una revisión documental, entrevistas y un taller final en la Universidad de la Columbia Británica (Vancouver), y reveló que la gestión adaptativa ha completado varias fases alternas de desarrollo teórico, aplicación práctica y retroalimentación durante las últimas cuatro décadas, a las que muchos académicos y profesionales han contribuido. En particular, el taller permitió extraer lecciones sobre oportunidades y limitaciones actuales para la implementación y evaluación de la gestión adaptativa en Canadá, basadas en la experiencia directa de profesionales y analistas sobre el terreno. Los resultados de esa investigación sirvieron de base y apoyo para el desarrollo estratégico del programa de investigación-acción en la región de Doñana. La identificación preliminar de importantes rigideces en el marco institucional y las agencias de gestión de Doñana durante el programa de investigación-acción, motivó la segunda parte de la tesis, la cual abordó las dos preguntas de investigación adicionales mencionadas anteriormente, mediante análisis institucional. La segunda pregunta de investigación de la tesis se centra en mejorar la comprensión de las raíces de la rigidez institucional en sistemas socio-ecológicos maladaptativos. La rigidez institucional representa un obstáculo importante para la gobernanza y gestión adaptativas, ya que impide el cambio y dificulta la innovación. Por lo tanto, para facilitar potenciales transiciones hacia sistemas socio-ecológicos más sostenibles caracterizados por enfoques adaptativos para la toma de decisiones, es de suma importancia entender y explicar los orígenes de la rigidez institucional. En el Capítulo 5, a través de la construcción de un patrón histórico, identifico la existencia de un régimen institucional rígido para la gestión de los recursos hídricos y la conservación de los humedales en la región de Doñana, y explico, a través de una primera iteración teórica, los mecanismos subyacentes a la génesis, amplificación y persistencia de tal rigidez institucional. Mi explicación tiene dos partes diferenciadas: por un lado, la génesis histórica profunda del régimen en una coyuntura crítica en el siglo XIX; y por otro, la formación del régimen y su continuidad hasta las últimas décadas del siglo XX, a pesar de su disfuncionalidad para hacer frente a las crisis y su incapacidad para armonizar la conservación de humedales, la gestión del agua y el desarrollo económico. El patrón histórico confirma que el régimen institucional de Doñana ha seguido una dinámica dependiente de la trayectoria, ampliamente caracterizada por la aplicación recurrente de estrategias de mando y control a lo largo de la historia. En una aparente paradoja, estas estrategias, en lugar de conducir al régimen hacia un resultado eficiente, llevaron a la formación de un régimen institucional rígido que condujo la región de Doñana a una trampa subóptima de rigidez sistémica. Este resultado rígido puede ser calificado por la teoría como contingente, ya que desafía las expectativas tradicionales de la economía neoclásica que yacen en el núcleo lógico del concepto de dependencia de la trayectoria institucional. La tercera pregunta de investigación de la tesis se centra en el potencial explicativo del emprendimiento y los discursos en su relación con los intereses político-económicos y el poder, como factores que contribuyen a la formación de sistemas socio-ecológicos a nivel local. En particular, centro mi discusión en el potencial explicativo de estos factores, cuando la lógica base de la dependencia de la trayectoria (compuesta por los principios dominantes de la economía neoclásica) fracasa en predecir los resultados observados desde una perspectiva evolutiva histórica, calificando estos resultados como contingentes. En el Capítulo 6, emprendo una segunda iteración teórica que reexamina el patrón explicativo histórico desarrollado en el Capítulo 5, con el fin de mostrar como el régimen institucional rígido Doñana puede entenderse como más predecible. En particular, sostengo que tres mecanismos constituyeron condiciones necesarias y suficientes para el proceso de transformación que llevó a la rigidez en Doñana: (1) un mecanismo político-discursivo contextual que movilizó el poder desde arriba hacia abajo e indicó rendimientos crecientes a los actores de los niveles operacionales del régimen institucional; (2) el funcionamiento de los rendimientos crecientes y mecanismos de auto-refuerzo de abajo hacia arriba; (3) un componente endógeno de emprendimiento que actuó como mecanismo de acción en un entorno de incertidumbre extrema. En la discusión general de la tesis (Capítulo 7), presento argumentos para la sistematización, en el análisis, de los discursos y el emprendimiento en relación con factores político-económicos y de poder. Sostengo que tal sistematización contribuye significativamente a disminuir el grado de contingencia asociado a la rigidez en Doñana. Más en general, mi discusión trata sobre la contingencia como una propiedad del concepto de dependencia de la trayectoria que se puede modular en explicaciones sobre dinámica institucional. Este tipo de avances podría informar futuras políticas y diseños institucionales para una transición exitosa hacia la gobernanza y la gestión adaptativas de los sistemas socio-ecológicos, y, por lo tanto, para incrementar la posibilidad de gestionar los recursos naturales y los ecosistemas de forma más sostenible. El enriquecimiento del conocimiento adquirido durante el programa de investigaciónacción con el análisis en profundidad de las limitaciones institucionales arraigadas en factores históricos, permitieron la identificación de una serie de posibles vías que pueden ayudar a la transición hacia la gobernanza y la gestión adaptativas en la región de Doñana (Capítulo 9). Asimismo, este enriquecimiento permitió una especulación informada sobre el papel potencial de programas de investigación-acción como el que se describe en esta tesis, para cumplir con (y complementar) los requisitos para la participación pública y el aprendizaje social de la legislación de la Unión Europea – en particular, la Directiva Marco del Agua (Capítulo 7, Sección 7.4).