Suchergebnisse

The Polytechnic Institute of Bragança (IPB) has been organising its Erasmus Week since 2004. It is held yearly in May, normally during the second week of May. The Erasmus week's main purposes are three-fold. First, the IPB aims at enforcing closer, more dynamic and more efficient institutional relations amongst the European Higher Education Institutions. Lectures are then organised and introduced in both undergraduate and master classes in accordance with the area of interest. Meetings with directors of the 5 IPB schools and Erasmus coordinators are also scheduled. The second and third goals, which naturally derive from the first, are to facilitate familiarity with the IPB campus, its schools and with the cities of Bragança and Mirandela, where the IPB schools are settled, and with the surrounding area, namely the Montesinho Natural Park and the Alto Douro Wine Region (UNESCO World Heritage). This information can be found on the IPB International Relations Office website. Overall, all these three goals lie behind what is considered an umbrella goal which is to promote the IPB in its numerous valences and strengthen the mobility ties with the different European Higher Institutions which have established cooperation agreements with the IPB. This has revealed fruitful and far-reaching as more than 20 partner countries visit us every year. If one takes into account the two last editions' numbers, Poland is the country with a higher percentage of participants (37.1% and 29%), followed by Spain (11.4% and 15.9%), France, Romania and Czech Republic1. Regarding the lectures delivered during this week, teachers show a high level of satisfaction and find it rather rewarding according to the evaluation results obtained every year. One of the most visible results of these lectures is the publication of Teaching Crossroads. It started being published aiming ultimately at the dissemination of the research work that was presented at the IPB. We then extended it to all activities related to Teachers Erasmus+ mobility and international projects. The idea was not only to disseminate studies from other European researchers but also to give to the IPB teaching staff the opportunity to publish their research work and what they presented during their mobility. So far, the adhesion to this project has been rather steady and compliant with the publication's main goal. In hindsight, this project, which started in 2011, continues to persevere in its academic path, making thus available to students and teachers the most valuable research studies and relevant data in regard to a myriad of study areas which underlie the spirit of Higher Education, multifaceted, multilayered and plural. In Higher Education we hope never to be at a crossroads, but we dare to constantly thrive when faced with obstacles and embrace the challenges of knowledge. All areas of study are important and meaningful and must be continually promoted. This has been the leading motto of Teaching Crossroads since its very beginning. This would have never been possible without the valuable help of regular contributors to whom we are very grateful, from the authors, the reviewers, the designer to the IPB Image Services. A thanking note must also go to the IPB which has embraced this project by agreeing to publish it. As a result of the close cooperation work with the researchers who submitted their proposals to blind review, we selected five texts from diverse areas but nonetheless complementary. As such, this year, areas of study vary from comparative literature, education, social education and sociology, finance to business and entrepreneurship. A brief summary of each is presented next. María Antonia Mezquita Fernández, whose research has been focusing on the modern subject of ecocriticism bearing in mind the new approach to the close relationship between environmental issues and literature, a concern that always permeated literature, discusses the ecocritical identity in the light of literary figures and their poetical messages regarding nature. By highlighting and comparing two British poets, William Wordsworth and Dylan Thomas, and a Spanish poet, Claudio Rodríguez, the author introduces an ecocritical stance to the analysis of the poems under discussion. Sharing the common ground of nature, the poems are worth reading due to the powerful messages they convey, not only bearing in mind the period when they were written but because the topics explored resonate with the environmental defenders' main principles. What the author brings to the fore of discussion is a thought-provocative, challenging and relevant essay which found in literature its main driving force to call the attention to the importance of the defence of nature in a time where environmental issues, such as global warming and the melting of glaciers, are at the centre of the world's political agenda, despite the constant scepticism that still persists to endure. Beata Sufa & Anna Szkolak-Stępień delve into the idea of creativity fostered within the teaching context, by both teachers and students. In their article entitled "Creative Teacher-Creative Pupil – a Study Report", the authors argue that, having in mind all the technological advances and (advanced) use of learning technology, the new conditions of school and learning context require new challenges to the way the teaching-learning process is dealt with. The teacher's creative attitude will thus become paramount for children's development of creativity which will help them to improve communication skills. Kazimiera Król studies the phenomenon of begging in Poland, analyzing the spatial and social framework of such reality which results from many factors and underlies consequences to the places chosen for begging and to the beggars themselves. The author puts forth an empirical study bearing in mind the age, gender, civil status and nationality of mendicants, presenting thus in-depth data which allow her to reach interesting and relevant conclusions regarding the whole phenomenon of begging in nowadays Poland. Eliza Komierzyńska-Orlińska sheds some light on a common unknown part of the financial system to the majority of people, which is the security of the banking system. When one deposits or withdraws money one is never aware of (or simply does not care about) how our money is held safe or how the banks protect their assets. The article "Security of the Banking System in Poland. Fundamental Assumptions" deals precisely with security issues within the Polish banking system highlighting the crucial role of the central bank in the whole process of surveillance and regulation. Legal issues are therefore discussed. By using simple and straightforward language, the author is able to reach a non-specialist audience who will become more informed about this issue in a rather clear way. Erik Kubička focuses on organizational culture explaining how well-succeeded, renowned, top companies in the technology sector foster effectiveness in the work environment. In this regard, the author describes several technological companies, such as Google, Apple and IBM, just to name a few. Innovation, informal leadership, less red tape and closer contact with the workers are features that are common to all these companies which represent the key to their success. ; info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Introduction. For over two decades, Russian education has been in a state of permanent reform. Due to the long and unproductive nature of the modernisation process, researchers are paying special attention to systemic factors, noting that system optimisation processes are structured primarily around organisational and technological models derived from industry. The prevalence of the technological component over the axiological results in the consolidation of a pragmatic, narrowly functional, technocratic vector of education development. To overcome this situation and to break this deadlock, a profound reconsideration of the values underlying mechanisms of reform is required, taking into account multifaceted personal, social, national and universal relations, as well as unity of content, forms and means of education.The aims of the research were identified as follows: to analyse the current trends of modernisation in comprehensive schools and higher educational establishments; to justify humanistic mechanisms for improving the modernisation in the context of language education, which performs personally developing and socialising functions under ideological pluralism and opposition of value systems.Methodology and research methods. The research was conducted taking a person-activity-based approach, referring to cultural-historical concepts, ideas of philosophical hermeneutics and traditional principles of pedagogical methodology. The theoretical framework was based on the publications and philosophical foundations of Russian and foreign scholars, who define the key role of humanistic principles and value orientations in education. The following standard research methods were used: comparison, induction, deduction, abstraction, synthesis, specification, structural and logical modelling, content analysis of documents and scientific publications on the stated problem, observation, questioning, peer review and experiment. In addition, non-standard methods and research techniques such as metaphorical modelling, biographical method and interpretational techniques were used.Results and scientific novelty. Modernisation processes in Russian education were considered: regulatory base, purposes, priorities, problems and prospects. The following thesis was proposed: at the new stage of socio-historical transformation, it is necessary to overcome the negative effects of long-term practice in the reform of the national educational system through developing established traditions as well as updating the humanistic potential of education and ensuring its axiological enrichment. The authors consider pedagogical hermeneutics as a potentially productive means and methodological tool. Pedagogical hermeneutics implies a heuristic and poly-variable apperception of reality through education in order to understand and interpret different genres of cultural texts, providing simultaneous support both to the general public and to the individual, on the basis of rational and emotionally intelligent experience accumulated in science, religion, art, language and national traditions – i.e. culture as a whole. It was shown that language education based on principles of pedagogical hermeneutics is capable of establishing humanistic mechanisms of personactivity-based social norms and cultural models. The authors presented a number of modelling options for the realisation of the proposed hermeneutical approach: various experimentally-validated techniques, educational approaches and procedures designed by teacher-researchers were briefly described, focusing on the achievement of qualitative conformance of educational results to the humanistic appeals and urgent needs of society.Practical significance. The use of hermeneutical techniques as educational tools and procedures allows us to decode semiotic information of curricula subjects; in addition, when using meta-language, it is possible to expand the content by adding personal value-sense and dialogical subjectivity, as well as to transform it into a personal sign-symbol or behavioural template. The acquisition of language experience in the process of humanistic-centred education increases the immunity of a student to various manifestations of character defectivity, strengthening identity and resistance to manipulation of consciousness in political and ideological processes and mass media. Moreover, language experience resists the deformation of the communicative sphere and verbal-cognitive processes, encouraging personal self-realisation. ; Введение. Российское образование уже два десятилетия находится в состоянии перманентного реформирования. В комплексе причин затяжной и малопродуктивной модернизации авторы особое внимание уделяют системообразующим факторам, утверждая, что в настоящее время процессы оптимизации системы ориентированы преимущественно на организационно-технологические модели, скопированные из сферы производства. Преобладание технологической составляющей над ценностно-смысловой оборачивается упрочением прагматичного, узкофункционального, технократического вектора развития образования. Чтобы переломить ситуацию и изменить этот тупиковый для социума вектор, требуется глубинное аксиологическое переосмысление механизмов реформирования, которое должно проводиться с учетом всесторонних связей личности и общества, национального и общечеловеческого опыта, единства содержания, форм и средств обучения и воспитания.Цели изложенного в публикации исследования – обсуждение современных тенденций модернизации общеобразовательной и высшей школы; обоснование гуманитарных механизмов совершенствования образовательных процессов в контексте языкового образования, которое в условиях идейного плюрализма и противостояния ценностных систем выполняет личностноразвивающие и социализирующие функции.Методология и методы. Работа проводилась с опорой на взаимодополняющие друг друга деятельностно-личностный подход, положения культурноисторической концепции, идеи философской герменевтики и традиционные принципы методологии педагогики. Теоретической базой исследования являлись научные труды отечественных и зарубежных ученых, в том числе философские изыскания, в которых показана ключевая роль в образовании гуманитарных начал и ценностных ориентаций. Использовались классические исследовательские методы – сравнение, индукция, дедукция, абстрагирование, обобщение, конкретизация, структурно-логическое моделирование, а также контент-анализ документов и научных публикаций, наблюдение, анкетирование, экспертная оценка и опытная работа. Из инструментального арсенала неклассических методов и приемов исследования применялись метафорическое моделирование, биографический метод, интерпретационные техники.Результаты и научная новизна. Рассмотрены модернизационные процессы в российском образовании: нормативная база, цели, приоритеты, проблемы и перспективы. Выдвинут тезис о том, что на новом витке социально-исторических трансформаций необходимо преодоление отрицательных эффектов многолетней практики реформирования национальной образовательной системы посредством развития сложившихся в ней традиций, актуализации гуманитарного потенциала обучения и воспитания, его ценностно-смыслового обогащения. В качестве возможного продуктивного средства и методологического инструментария предлагается педагогическая герменевтика, подразумевающая эвристическое и поливариативное познание действительности через обучение пониманию и интерпретации разножанровых культурных текстов с одновременной опорой на общественный и индивидуальный, рациональный и эмоционально-чувственный опыт, накопленный в науке, религии, искусстве, языке, народных традициях – культуре в целом. Доказывается, что языковое образование, базирующееся на принципах педагогической герменевтики, способно запустить гуманитарные механизмы личностно-деятельностного освоения социальных норм и культурных образцов. Представлены некоторые варианты авторских моделей реализации герменевтического подхода: кратко описаны сконструированные педагогами-исследователями разнообразные, прошедшие опытно-экспериментальную апробацию методики, технологии и процедуры обучения и воспитания, ориентированные на достижение соответствия качества образовательных результатов гуманитарным запросам и насущным потребностям социума.Практическая значимость. Использование герменевтических технологий как процессуально-инструментальной основы образования позволяет декодировать знаково-семиотическую информацию учебных предметов, наполнять ее, используя метаязык, личностным ценностным смыслом и диалогической субъектностью и трансформировать в личностный знаково-символический или поведенческий текст. Приобретение языкового опыта в процессе гуманитарно ориентированного образования повышает иммунитет обучающегося к разнообразным проявлениям обезличенности, нивелирования индивидуальности и манипулирования сознанием – в частности, в политических и идеологических процессах, массовых формах коммуникации, в том числе сетевых, препятствует деформации коммуникативной сферы и речемыслительных процессов и позволяет достичь личностной самореализации.

The Bible is one of the most expensive, most amazing monuments in the treasury of universal values. This Book of Books, which has absorbed the wisdom of hundreds of generations, gives us the answer that such is good, and that evil brings man to an unattainable pedestal of wisdom, self-sacrifice, faithfulness in love and love for parents, their children, the Fatherland. It gives us today a vivid example of the fact that human beings can be vices, the nights and the dark sides of human nature. It is enough to remember the legends from the Old Testament about Cain and Abel, Joseph and his brothers, about Samson and Dalil, about Hama, the prodigal son, about the Garden and Gomorrah.It is difficult to name another book that has had the same strong influence on the formation of all subsequent world art of literature, such as the Bible, in particular the Fourth Gospel. The main reason for this lies in the fact that the Evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John the Theologian) preached the universal ideals of goodness and justice, the infinite value of the human person, the equality of all peoples before God, the primacy of the spiritual principle over material. In addition, the Evangelists were talented writers.For the Ukrainian literature, the Bible is of the utmost importance: the history of the Old Manuscript manuscript begins with the Ostromir Gospel, and from the Apostle (1574) and the Ostroh Bible (1581) — the Ukrainian book printing. At different stages of development, Ukrainian literature interpreted the Bible as an essential element of national culture and self-consciousness. Hryhoriy Savych Skovoroda, P. Gulak-Artemovsky, Markian Shashkevich, Ivan Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, Bogdan Lepky addressed the hymns of the Holy Scripture.Taras Shevchenko expanded the thematic range of plots and motives by introducing in his poetry the images of the prophets and a series of evangelical conflicts. However, eternal themes in the work of Kobzar acquire a national patriotic sound. According to Professor Mikhail Drahomanov, none of the literary sources can compare with the Bible for influencing the system of thoughts of Shevchenko. The Bible was a favorite childhood book of the poet, some of its parts, in particular the Psalter, he knew by heart. It was the Bible that became the life-giving source of its holy sacrificial love for its native people, the comprehensive brotherly love, the boundless sorrow for the suffering of Ukraine and the unwavering faith in its liberation from the shackles of tyranny.Biblical motifs in the work of Bohdan Lepky are closely intertwined with the national-patriotic themes that most strongly sounded during the period of World War II. The voice of the citizen poet calling on the Ukrainian people to fight for liberation from the oppression of the imperialist, for the revival of Ukrainian statehood, the unity of Ukraine, sounded in full force during this period.The theme of Christmas and Easter inspired the poet to create the eponymous cycles: «At Christmas Night» (1915), «Under Christmas» (1923), «From Christmas Moods» (1930), «On the Day of Resurrection» (1940), «Easter Bells» (1941). In a series of poems written during the First World War, the painful sums of peaceful years sound when religious holidays spiritually united people, filled their hearts with sincere comfort. The poetry of religious themes on the eve of the Second World War has a certain significance, acquire a patriotic sound, a civic passion — a premonition of the new, even more terrible tragedy that mankind undergoes, it is a powerful call to unite all people of goodwill for peace and happiness on Earth.But Bogdan Lepky was not only a brave and indestructible citizen in poetry. He could also be a gentle, elegant lyricist, elegant writer of the autumn. By the depth of philosophical generalizations, the poetry of B. Lepky can be compared with the «Book of Ecclesiastes» from the «Old Testament.»Speaking about Biblical motives in the work of Bogdan Lepky, one can not but recall his historical novel Mazepa. From the pages of this work, the tragic history of Ukraine of the end of the seventeenth and early thirteenth centuries, the spiritual and political split, fratricidal war, terrible embodiment of the Biblical legend about Cain and Abel, tells us. However, in spite of all the tragedy of the depicted events, the novel also expresses the faith of the writer in the light of the coming of his Fatherland, his deep religious outlook is felt, since the pictures of the suffering of Ukraine, Baturin involuntarily associate with the biblical legend of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, his patience and the wonderful resurrection From the dead. Particular attention in the novel Mazepa needs the image of the Nativity of Christ, because the mystery of Christmas night is presented in it not only unsurpassed beauty landscapes, folk beliefs, magical actions, charms. The writer very original reproduces this poetic image. The Magnonian Christmas Nativity Scene with its allegorical actors is in the forerunner of the fact that the entire Hetman's House, Ukraine, will soon become a bloody vertep. In the form of Christmas, the fate of Ukraine, Lepky, also depicts a grandiose canvas — the battle of Poltava: «In the smoke and cemetery, in the bladder and in the blood, in the cries and weeping in the Poltava fields, the lying part of the villains lay. What does she bring? Freedom and happiness or sorrow and captivity? « Beside this, it should be emphasized that in the novel Mazepa, biblical symbols are very closely and surprisingly organically interwoven with Ukrainian national symbols.In his work, the author uses a huge number of Christian prayers in the Old Slavonic, Old Russian, Ukrainian, which sound in the language of Hetman Mazepa, Orlyk, Chuikevich, Mrochka, Chechel, Kenigsen and other heroes. However, in addition to the original religious texts — prayers for Ukraine, the writer applies in his work both his own, author's, in the spirit of Ukrainian folk songs and dumas. Steppe-mother is an image of the mother of Ukraine that, like a living creature, breathes, rejoices, sad, complains, prays and suffers along with their unrelenting children, who go beyond bounds by their leader, like the ancient Jews by the prophet Moses.One of the most important commandments of the Lord — «Do not kill» — became the name of the third year of the novel «Mazepa». This same thought will pass through all the work of the canvas and is fundamental to it, since the whole work is an angry protest against the fear of war, against the spiritual and physical extermination of one people to others.In the context of world art Biblical images of works of Ukrainian writers reveal a complex and contradictory, they glorify the beautiful and majestic life of man in all its manifestations, not only the simplest but also deep intimate, capable. So we face the phenomena of social life, the condemnation of brute force, deception, treason. At the same time, general human ideals and high national-patriotic principles are glorified. ; Статья посвящена роли Библии в творчестве украинских писателей. Проанализировано философское наполнение поэтических произведений Тараса Шевченко, а также поэзии и романа Богдана Лепкого «Мазепа» в контексте европейской культуры. Акцентированы национально-патриотические и общечеловеческие начала творчества украинских писателей-классиков. ; Стаття присвячена ролі Біблії у творчості українських письменників. Проаналізовано філософське наповнення поетичних творів Тараса Шевченка, а та- кож поезій і роману Богдана Лепкого «Мазепа» в контексті європейської куль- тури. Акцентовано національно-патріотичні й загальнолюдські начала творчості українських письменників-класиків.

Problem statement Today the new ways of scientific development, personel training, can provide a worthy place of state in the world state space are opened in the reform of the social and economic system of Ukraine. In modern sytem of higher school the development of basic scientific research, in particular that concern the construction industry. Involvement in scientific territories of talented youth, education in its methodological and empirical culture, increasing demands for labor research results, ensuring high efficiency and competitiveness of scientific production, defined as the main task of every university in Ukraine. These changes lead to the need for a qualitatively new approaches to research activities of higher education institutions, namely reproduction, development and enhancement of scientific schools as centers of effective training media and creators of science and technology in the modern world.Research and study of fundamental research schools, including the construction industry is a complex and diversified tasks, its solution was not got a big attention for a long, although construction industry has always been popular and necessary in any political or economic changes. Publications has been appearing since 1990s where authors while studing the achievements of Ukrainian scientists, scientists builders, could guided by primarily professional, not ideological reasons. Resently the relevant studies in Ukraine have got a certain evolution in terms of focus, complexity and depth of analysis.The purpose of the reseacrh is to identify and to characterize academic schools of construction education, particularly in the case of scientific schools of PSACEA. It is methodologically difficult and significant in terms of primary material task that requires deep and systematic study. To solve it in the same article is impossible, so we confine at this stage of forming the conceptual approaches to the systematization and scientific schools, as well as the definition of methodological problems associated with solution of given task.Analysis of the problem research shows, that the scientific achievements of many researchers accumulated a considerable material for the study of the phenomenon of scientific school, but finallythe approaches are not agreed to it in various fields. The studying of the theoretical aspects of the phenomenon of scientific school was initiated in 70-ies of XX century. Exploration of many scientists, including P. Anokhin A. Baev, K. Lange, M. Rodney M. Semenov [1; 2; 6; 12; 13] devoted to the general principles of the functioning of schools as a form of scientific research teams and the agenda of the issue of collective forms of creativity research scientists was offered. ; Постановка проблемы. Сегодня в процессе реформирования социально-экономической системы Украины открываются новые пути развития науки, подготовки кадров, способных обеспечить достойное место государства в мировом пространстве. В современной системе высшей школы первоочередного значения приобретает развитие фундаментальных научных исследований, в частности, тех, которые касаются строительной отрасли. Привлечение к научным поприщам талантливой молодежи, воспитания у нее методологической и эмпирической культуры, повышения требований к результатам исследовательского труда, обеспечения высокой эффективности и конкурентоспособности научной продукции определяется как основное задание каждого вишу Украины. Такие изменения предопределяют потребность в качественно новом подходе к организации научно-исследовательской деятельности высших учебных заведений, а именно: в воссоздании, развитии и приумножении научных школ как ячеек эффективной подготовки носителей и творцов научно-технического прогресса в современных условиях.Исследование и изучение сложное и диверсифицированное задание, решению которого в течение длительного времени не уделялось надлежащего внимания, хотя, казалось бы, строительная отрасль всегда была популярной и нужной при любых изменениях, политических или экономических. Лишь с начала 1990-х годов начали появляться публикации, авторы которых для изучения достижений украинских ученых и ученых-строителей, в частности, могли руководствоваться прежде всего профессиональными, а не идеологическими мотивами. За последнее время соответствующие исследования в Украине прошли определенную эволюцию в плане их направленности, комплексности и глубины анализа.Цель исследования – выделить и охарактеризовать академические научные школы строительного образования, в частности, на примере научных школ Приднепровской государственной академии строительства и архитектуры. Это сложное методологически и значительное по объему первичного материала задания, которое нуждается глубинной и системной проработки. Выполнить его в пределах одной статьи невозможно, потому на этом этапе ограничимся лишь очерчиванием концептуальных а также определением методологических проблем, связанных с решением указанного вопроса.Анализ состояния изучения проблемы свидетельствует, что в научных работах многих исследователей накоплен значительный материал для изучения феномена научной школы, однако окончательно не согласованные подходы к нему в разных областях науки. В 70-х годах ХХ ст. было основано изучение теоретических аспектов феномена научной школы. Работы многих ученых, в частности, П. Анохина, А. Баева, К. Ланге, М. Родного, М. Семенова [1; 2; 6; 12; 13] посвящены общим принципам функционирования научных школ как разновидности исследовательских коллективов, выдвинули на повестку дня проблему исследования коллективных форм творчества ученых. ; Постановка проблеми. Сьогодні у процесі реформування соціально-економічної системи України відкриваються нові шляхи розвитку науки, підготовки кадрів, здатних забезпечити гідне місце держави у світовому просторі. У сучасній системі вищої школи першочергового значення набуває розвиток фундаментальних наукових досліджень, зокрема, тих, котрі стосуються будівельної галузі. Залучення до наукових теренів талановитої молоді, виховання в неї методологічної та емпіричної культури, підвищення вимог до результатів дослідницької праці, забезпечення високої ефективності і конкурентоспроможності наукової продукції визначається як основне завдання кожного вишу України. Такі зміни зумовлюють потребу в якісно новому підході до організації науково-дослідницької діяльності вищих навчальних закладів, а саме: у відтворенні, розвитку і примноженні наукових шкіл як осередків ефективної підготовки носіїв і творців науково-технічного прогресу в сучасних умовах.Дослідження та вивчення фундаментальних наукових шкіл, зокрема будівельної галузі − складне та диверсифіковане завдання, вирішенню якого протягом тривалого часу не приділялося належної уваги, хоча, здавалося б, будівельна галузь завжди була популярною і потрібною за будь-яких змін, політичних чи економічних. Лише з початку 1990-х років почали з'являтися публікації, автори яких для вивчення здобутків українських учених і учених-будівельників, зокрема, могли керуватися передусім фаховими, а не ідеологічними мотивами. За останній час відповідні дослідження в Україні пройшли певну еволюцію в плані їх спрямованості, комплексності та глибини аналізу.Мета дослідження – виділити та охарактеризувати академічні наукові школи будівельної освіти, зокрема, на прикладі наукових шкіл Придніпровської державної академії будівництва та архітектури. Це складне методологічно та значне за обсягом первинного матеріалу завдання, що потребує глибинного та системного опрацювання. Виконати його в межах однієї статті неможливо, тому на цьому етапі обмежимося лише окресленням концептуальних підходів до виділення та систематизації наукових шкіл, а також визначенням методологічних проблем, пов'язаних із вирішенням вказаного питання.Аналіз стану вивчення проблеми свідчить, що в наукових доробках багатьох дослідників накопичений значний матеріал для студіювання феномену наукової школи, проте остаточно не узгоджені підходи до нього в різних галузях науки. У 70-х роках ХХ ст. було започатковано вивчення теоретичних аспектів феномену наукової школи. Розвідки багатьох учених, зокрема, П. Анохіна, А. Баєва, К. Ланге, М. Родного, М. Семенова [1; 2; 6; 12; 13] присвячені загальним принципам функціонування наукових шкіл як різновиду дослідницьких колективів, висунули на порядок денний проблему дослідження колективних форм творчості вчених.

General description of research questions, objectives and theoretical framework Higher education is characterized by the increasing presence of international faculty and students. At the same time, universities are focusing more on educating interculturally competent citizens and preparing graduates for careers in a globalized world. While international students and the effects of student diversity have received considerable attention from researchers, with the teaching and learning challenges being among the main areas in focus, the experiences, contributions and needs of international teaching faculty are under-explored. The need to further research their impact and experiences, including the extent to which they contribute to the transformation of the educational environment, appears timely in the context in which they are (and we wish them to continue to be) part of our higher education system. The presentation will draw on contemporary articulations of cosmopolitan discourse with its close ties to the theory of hospitality, on which the argument for a better understanding of the experiences of international teaching faculty is founded. Today's political and socio-cultural discourse of cosmopolitanism requires that we understand the world as inherently interconnected, multidimensional and hybrid, and that we question our traditional understanding of belonging. It is paralleled by the relatively recent discussion of the role of cosmopolitanism in the field of higher education research, which underlines the importance of creating and supporting inclusive teaching and learning communities, emphasizing critical thinking, contextualization, and dialogue. Cosmopolitanism points toward the need to engage more deeply with how we conceptualize and practice teaching and learning in the global context. Furthermore, cosmopolitanism underscores the importance of focusing on whether international faculty are included in the professional communities, on the opportunities for reciprocal learning among international and home faculty, and on international faculty's impact on student learning. The presenters' intention will be to draw from cross-contextual, cross-cultural, and cross-disciplinary experiences in order to: a) Address the gap in our knowledge about the international faculty experiences in US and European higher education; and B) Understand whether, and to what extent, these communities are or can be characterized as hospitable or inclusive communities of practice from the perspectives of international faculty. These are some of the specific questions tied to the two major goals that the presenters will address, focusing on faculty, institutional and societal perspectives: ●How do international faculty members experience and perceive the educational environment at their respective institutions? What challenges and opportunities do they identify in relation to workingteaching in international contexts? ● (How) are the experiences and potential of the international faculty to contribute to the internationalization agenda of higher education taken into account in their respective institutions? ●What are some of the social, disciplinary, departmental, and institutional policies, programs and support systems that (could) genuinely value the diversity that the international faculty bring to campuses? ●With the growing emphasis in the US universities of becoming 'global' and 'diverse,' what role do the international faculty have in creating, adopting and promoting institutional and cultural narratives? ●How does academia, arguably the most progressive segment of our society, advance or react to today's cosmopolitan ethics and rearticulate our traditional understanding of the rules and practice of hospitality? Is it (or can it be) a space that could be viewed as a model for our society's transformative appreciation of inclusiveness and diversity? And, what role can we, those who inquire into the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, play in this process? Methods/methodology The presenters will report on the results of interviews conducted with eight international faculty with teaching responsibilities employed at the presenters' home institutions: Elon University in North Carolina (US) and Aarhus University in Denmark. Elon University is a small liberal arts institution with particular emphasis on education, specifically engaged learning and the development of students that are global citizens engaged with the world and capable of working in international environments. Although it strives to achieve more diversity, Elon's student body is predominantly white, middle to upper class, and American. The four teaching Faculty members who participated in interviews come from the department of World Languages and Cultures and identify as international (foreign-born). Aarhus University is a major northern European research and teaching-intensive university with a strategic goal of fully internationalizing its research and teaching, including developing students intercultural competence for the benefit of all. Currently, about 25 percent of its faculty members are foreign-born nationals, and the student body consists of about 10 percent international students. The four international teaching faculty members who participated in interviews come from the Faculty of Arts and were chosen due to their relatively recent transition into the university teaching environment in Denmark (under six years of employment). The interviews conducted as part of the study were predominantly oral, semi-structured, and audio recorded, lasting between one and one-and-a-half hours; although some chose to answer the interview questions in writing. Faculty members gave free and informed consent to participate in the interviews and were assured anonymity, in the US following the IRB (Institutional Review Board) requirements of the institution. The researchers used an inductive approach to analyze the qualitative data in order to summarize the findings, find major trends in and links between the interviews, and to establish clear connections between our research questions and focus and interview results. In addition, the interviews have been analyzed from the perspectives of hospitality theory and critical cosmopolitan theory within the framework of higher education. Expected outcomes/results The presentation is part of an international research project that we are pursuing on the topic. Main goals of the research project are to: a) address the gap in our knowledge about the international faculty experiences in US and European higher education; and b) understand whether, and to what extent, these communities are or can be characterized as hospitable or inclusive communities of practice from the perspectives of international faculty. By increasing and improving our knowledge of international academics' experiences, values and beliefs and their impact on local and international teaching communities, we aim to point towards ways in which institutions will be better able to address the needs of international faculty and improve the international communities of teaching practice. Increased knowledge about international faculty experiences can also contribute to improved academic and intercultural learning among both national/local and international academics and ultimately students. The results will arguably also be relevant with respect to the professional integration of local faculty as they are equally as diverse a cohort and may experience similar issues. This knowledge will, in turn, help inform universities' policies and practices as they move towards transforming student learning outcomes through deeper engagement with difference. One of the major goals of the study will be to identify the factors or patterns that contribute to the functions or existence of transformative spaces in higher education examine if and propose that higher education institutions function as transformative spaces where our society's views about inclusivity, diversity and interdependence are rearticulated and where a different form of hospitality is practiced.

Las ciudades han pasado por muchos procesos de reformulación y adaptación para suplir las necesidades de sus ciudadanos, uno de los casos más destacados es el fenómeno de la ‹‹ciudad auto-producida››, presente en todo el mundo históricamente, si bien adquiere connotaciones y características diferentes como consecuencia del desbordamiento de la ciudad industrial por los movimientos migratorios campo-ciudad. Como representación de la ‹‹ciudad autoproducida›› en España, encontramos los barrios de autoconstrucción, que en el caso de Sevilla son responsables de gran parte de la conformación urbanística, social y política, y uno de los principales modelos habitacionales para las clases más necesitadas hasta la década de los 70 del siglo XX, un hecho que revela la insuficiencia del mercado, de las políticas públicas de vivienda, y de una planificación urbanística sistémica incapaz de atender a la demanda e integración de los sectores populares. Así, los que quedan excluidos del mercado y para los que el estado no ofrece alternativas, resuelven sus necesidades viviendo y construyendo. En este sentido, los barrios de autoconstrucción configuran en sus orígenes los desbordes de la ciudad consolidada, y se afincan como pueblos en el territorio sevillano por el traslado de una cultura rural a la periferia urbana. Insuficientes y con carencias de todo tipo, su historia y consolidación se fragua desde la implicación y organización vecinal para demandar ante la administración pública la construcción de barrio, las infraestructuras, las dotaciones, servicios urbanos, y su inclusión de pleno derecho en la ciudad, demostrando que la ‹‹ciudad formal›› no ha conseguido afrontar los déficits de la ‹‹ciudad informal›› surgida en sus márgenes. A pesar de ello, actualmente se distinguen únicamente por la ubicación geográfica, el grado de actuación e implicación de la administración pública, y la dinámica interna social de cada barrio. Algunos trabajos de investigación tratan los barrios de autoconstrucción como forma de crecimiento y expansión de la ciudad de Sevilla, otros se dedican a un análisis especifico de un barrio en cuestión, nosotros pretendemos un estudio más detallado y cualitativo, abierto a posibles interpretaciones, de todos los 22 barrios existentes, para revelar ‹‹La Otra Sevilla Desconocida›› más allá de una forma de producción espontánea como alternativa habitacional, desde la implicación y el papel activo de la sociedad en las tomas de decisiones en los procesos de producción y gestión social del hábitat humano. En esta tesis fue posible confirmar la capacidad de la ‹‹ciudad auto-producida›› y autoconstruida de generar barrio, transformándolo en ciudad viva, compleja y dinámica, socialmente integrada y gestionada, capaz de relacionarse con la ciudad existente, y evolucionar con el pasar del tiempo de una forma muy natural, demostrando con frecuencia mayor flexibilidad, capacidad de transformación, y sentimiento de arraigo de los vecinos, que la que han tenido las barriadas de viviendas sociales construidas en la periferia, que en muchos casos son barrios estáticos, estancados y sin identidad. Además, en ‹‹La Otra Sevilla Desconocida›› fue posible identificar los patrones y los contrastes, así como las peculiaridades de cada barrio de autoconstrucción, permitiéndonos clasificarlos en 3 categorías que expresan su actual realidad, contexto y relación con el territorio sevillano, ‹‹barrios de Sevilla›› totalmente integrados en el tejido urbano y social, ‹‹barrios-pueblos›› con cierta autonomía dentro de la propia ciudad, y otros que forman parte de la ‹‹Sevilla olvidada›› a pesar de la fortaleza de su comunidad y dinámica interna social. ; Cities have gone through many reformulation and adaption processes in order to fulfill their citizens' necessities, one of the most remarkable cases is the so called phenomenon of the "self-produced city", historically present all around the world, although it depicts different connotations and characteristics as a direct consequence of the industrial city population overflow due to the different rural-urban migrations. As a representation of a "self-produced" city in Spain, we can find the "self-constructed" districts, which in case of Seville, are responsible for a large part of the urban conformation, social and political, and one of the main housing models for the lower class people until the 1970's decade, a fact that shows how insufficient the market is, housing public policies failure, and a systemic urban planning, unable to meet the demand and certain population sectors integration. This way, those who have been excluded from the market and for which the Government does not provide any alternatives, solve their necessities by living and constructing. In this sense, self-constructed districts configure from their origin the consolidated city overflow, and become villages of their own in the proximity of the Seville territory due to a relocation of a rural culture to the urban outskirts. Being insufficient and with a lack of everything, its history and consolidation is based on the implication and organization of the neighborhood community to demand before the public administration the district construction, creation of infrastructure, staff, urban services, and its inclusion in its own right into the city, proving that the so-called "formal city" has not been able to face the deficiencies of the "informal city" that emerged in its outskirts. In spite of that, they are currently distinguished only due to their geographical situation, the implication and performance level of the public administration, as well as the internal dynamics of society in each district. Some research studies consider these selfconstructed districts as a growing and expansion outcome of Sevilla itself, others focus on a specific analysis about a certain district; it is our intent to carry out a more detailed study based on quality, opened to possible interpretations, about all twenty-two existing districts, in order to reveal "The Another Unknown Seville" beyond some kind of spontaneous production as a housing alternative and the active role of the society in the decision making of production and social management of the human habitat. This thesis has been able to confirm the "selfproduced city" and self-constructed capacity to generate a district, by transforming it into a live city, complex and dynamic, socially integrated and properly managed, able to relate to the existing city, and evolve over the time in a natural manner, frequently proving a larger flexibility, capacity to transform, and a feeling of deep-rooted neighbours, compared to social housing districts built in the periphery of the city, which, in many cases are static districts, stuck in the past and with no identity. Also, "The Another Unkown Seville" depicts an identification of patterns and contrasts, as well as each "self-constructed" district peculiarities and allows us to classify them in three categories that state their reality, context and relationship with the Sevillian territory, "barrios de Sevilla", fully integrated in the urban and social fabric, "barrios-pueblos" with a certain autonomy within the city itself, and others that are part of the "Sevilla olvidada" (Forgotten Seville) in spite of its community's strengths and internal social dynamic.

From an early understanding of organisational theorist (Bartlett & Ghosal, 1989; 1990), the function of global teams in transnational organisations has been conceptualised as the transformation of different embedded cultural practices for the development of a global strategy, products and services. Simultaneously, in the field, from the beginning of the 1990ies to the edge of the new millennium neo-liberal political developments enforced a free flow of capital on a global level (cf. Turner, 2006). In line with the development of respective connectivity via the internet the form of globally distributed team work was spread (Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000). In a study by Biggs (2000), published just after the millennial change, it was shown that 60% of tasks in multinational companies are accomplished by virtual teams. More recent data (Society for Human Resource Management, 2012) showed that the prevalence of such teams stayed more or less constant in the last 10 years. According to the survey 66% of companies are working with distributed global teams. Globally distributed teams were already described by Bartlett and Ghosal (1989) in their functions of articulation and translation of differing market practices for the integration of requirements and needs on a global level. From a European perspective the importance to further develop innovation capabilities in order to compete in the global market is stressed today (Imp3rove, 2012). In a globalised economy not only the big multinational companies are involved in globally distributed research and development activities (R&D). On the level SMEs, for example, in Switzerland the involvement in global development processes is increasing (Gassmann, 2009). From my own experiences in working with Swiss SMEs, the macro-economic processes in regard to the strong Swiss Franc may accelerate such processes. Thus, the form of globally distributed teams, and their functional task in global development processes, can be viewed as highly relevant, in a globalised economy. The crucial question for companies at the moment is, if teams can be enabled for innovative project work, which enables the integration of diverging perspectives in a globally distributed setting? Or, if such teams have to be collocated for more innovative, interdependent task work? Requirements for integrating embedded knowledge from different regionally defined clusters into global innovations at least, seems to indicate for the relevance of interdependent globally distributed team work (cf. Li, Eden, Hitt, Ireland, & Garrett, 2012). Bilateral practices of partnering, for example in the Swiss pharmaceutical sector, lead to the integration of selected subsidiaries in the R&D process of the company (Festel et al., 2010). Thus, the form of dispersion for project teams becomes more critical for effective global R&D practices (Boyer O'Leary & Cummings, 2007). So called partially distributed teams integrating balanced subgroups between two sites, hence, become an important subject of inquiry with practical relevance. The context of partially distributed team work represents by virtue a context involving multiple perspectives influenced by the involvement of actors stemming from different cultural contexts (Dekker, Rutte, & Van den Berg, 2008). It thereby provides the synergetic potential for integrating different perspectives in the resolution of complex problems on a global level (Janssens & Brett, 2006). Simultaneously, cultural diversity engenders challenges for collaboration. Challenges, like different understandings and interpretations regarding tasks, the structuring of communication (Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000) and unexpected events occurring in the collaboration between the actors (Dekker et al., 2008; Oertel & Antoni, 2014) were identified in respective empirical studies. Opportunities and challenges of partially distributed global teams can be compared with the problematic of face-to-face (f2f) teams with a moderate amount of diversity. Studies have shown (see Thatcher & Patel, 2011 for a meta-analysis) that when the distribution of diversity characteristics is aligned to potentially form culture specific subgroups, so-called diversity faultlines (Lau & Murnighan, 1998), negative subgroup dynamics are reinforced. To achieve the above mentioned synergetic potentials it seems important to effectively cope with such negative dynamics and allow for a balanced participation in partially distributed teams (Janssens & Brett, 2006). In the research on faultline teams, especially the structuring of task-related interdependences across respective subgroups has been identified as an important impediment for the mentioned subgroup dynamics. Task interdependences, which cross functional roles across respective group faultlines (Bettencourt, Molix, Talley, & Eubanks, 2007; Marcus-Newhall, Miller, Holtz, & Brewer, 1993), are able to unlock the inherent potentials of globally distributed teams on more complex tasks that require the integration of different perspectives. From a work group diversity perspective (van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007), partially distributed global teams represent a research object for studying the interaction between social categorisation processes involved in the above mentioned subgroup dynamics, and processes of task-related information processing required for innovative team outputs. The exploration of effects of task structures on the interaction between categorisation processes and task-related information processing (van Knippenberg et al., 2004), will be in the main explorative research focus of this thesis. The research thesis represents a heuristic explorative inquiry (Kleining & Witt, 2001) of respective dynamics and structural as well as process-related enablers. The thesis starts with the theoretical part, in which the historical development of the understanding of teams as open, complex and temporally dynamic systems (Arrow et al., 2005, 2000), will be outlined. A sound definition of partially distributed global teams, including the respective contextual characteristics will be delineated. In a sensitizing framework (Blumer, 1954) which guided the explorative research process, the central boundary condition of task interdependence (Wageman, 2001) and respective episodic theories for explaining global task-related dynamics in teams (Marks et al., 2001), the dynamics of social categorisation (Gaertner, Dovidio, Anastasio, Bachman, & Rust, 1993; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000), as well as the interaction between social categorisation processes and task-related information processing will be integrated (van Knippenberg et al., 2004). According to the framework, empirical studies on effects of task interdependence on interactions between task-related information processing and social categorisation processes will be addressed (van Knippenberg et al., 2004). The empirical part of the contribution will be split in two parts. In the first heuristic exploratory study eleven partially distributed global teams are followed up during the time of relevant innovation projects. The approach allowed the study of task interdependence, productive interactions with social categorisation processes and there effects on team innovation. In the second empirical step, the developed hypotheses, were tested in an experimental simulation (Arrow et al., 2005, 2000) in undergraduate courses. As a conclusion of the two exploratory studies, an episodic team process model will be outlined. The model specifies interdependence dynamics, which allows for team innovation. Furthermore, on a process level, the episodic categorisation-elaboration model (van Knippenberg et al., 2004) proposes three critical team performance episodes. Dynamics in the interplay between task-related information processing and social categorisation processes allow for the development of hypothesis for further research projects. Finally the implications for theory and the practical relevance of the heuristic model will be discussed.

[spa] Desde comienzos del siglo XIX, como eje fundamental para la construcción de la nación, el Estado chileno impulsó una serie de políticas educativas intelectualizadas y ejecutadas desde la elite dirigente con el fin de autoafirmar el Estado en el plano político y construir un ideal de nación unificada bajo aspectos como el territorio, la población, los recursos naturales, la historia y las costumbres. Entre las entidades estatales que dieron sustento físico a este ideario, se encontraban los museos nacionales. La primera institución museal de Chile, el Museo Nacional, comprende el objeto de estudio de esta investigación, siendo su objetivo principal el entender cómo se proyectó y desarrolló esta institución como parte de una política de Estado, y su relación con la construcción de una cultura científica y la representación de una identidad nacional. Se estudia este proceso en un periodo temporal que se extiende entre 1813 y 1929. En una introducción de carácter teórico se reflexiona sobre el porqué de la creación de un museo nacional en el contexto de construcción de los Estados-nación latinoamericanos, particularmente el chileno, y sobre cómo el Museo Nacional de Chile se inserta dentro del proceso de construcción de la nación y la conformación de identidad, así como los museos nacionales orientados al estudio de las ciencias naturales, particularmente en Chile y Latinoamérica, intervienen en la construcción de una cultura científica. El primer capítulo propone una periodificación general del Museo Nacional, sintetizándose para cada momento los objetivos y políticas de administración de la institución, los espacios físicos utilizados y el personal que formó su plantilla. Además se analiza el grado de relación de la institución con el Estado, la intervención gubernamental en la organización del museo y su integración como parte de un proyecto educativo impulsado como soporte para la enseñanza de las ciencias naturales. El segundo capítulo aborda las actividades de exploración del territorio y el conocimiento del medio natural de la República fomentadas desde el Museo Nacional, como respuesta a los intereses territoriales estatales y para alcanzar objetivos de coleccionismo y científicos. Se analiza el papel que jugó el Museo a medida que eran anexadas nuevas áreas, tanto en el conocimiento de la flora y la fauna como en la búsqueda de materias primas de importancia para el desarrollo industrial y comercial de Chile, y cómo la institución definió las características del territorio chileno y la zonificación de los espacios naturales, permitiendo configurar una imagen de prosperidad y desarrollo de cara al exterior. En el tercer capítulo se abordan las políticas de formación de colecciones de ciencias naturales y los cambios y diferencias de énfasis observados en los materiales y su proveniencia. Las colecciones se analizaron considerando los paradigmas científicos del siglo XIX y comienzos del XX, y como ello orientó la organización interna de la institución, sus secciones y la exhibición. A su vez se analiza el papel del Museo Nacional en la definición de una identidad nacional basada en características naturales, y la definición de especies autóctonas en la demarcación del territorio chileno en contraposición a los países vecinos. Además, se aborda la relación del Museo Nacional con la construcción de una cultura científica que colaboró en que el país se posicionase en el panorama científico internacional. El capítulo cuatro se centra en las políticas de formación de colecciones de carácter histórico, etnográfico y arqueológico, describiendo sus características y formas de exhibición. Se analiza su uso en la construcción de una identidad nacional a partir de la exaltación de símbolos patrios, de marcar la diferencia entre lo nacional y lo extranjero, y de cómo se entendía el mundo indígena dentro del Estado-nación. Además, se analiza el papel de este tipo de colecciones en relación al desarrollo de la historia y las ciencias antropológicas y arqueológicas en Chile. El quinto capítulo busca entender cómo el Museo Nacional se relaciona con su entorno -público general, instituciones educativas y museales, colonias de extranjeros- y cómo este conforma una red de soporte para la institución al momento de formar colecciones y desde el punto de vista político-administrativo. Además, se reflexiona sobre la apertura del museo a nivel internacional y su relación con otras instituciones equivalentes y diversas personalidades del mundo de las ciencias. Finalmente se entregan conclusiones finales que retoman todas las ideas vertidas en los capítulos anteriores y se vuelven a revisar objetivos e hipótesis entregando un panorama general del desarrollo del Museo Nacional en el período estudiado. ; [eng] Since the beginning of 19th century, as a fundamental axis for the construction of the nation, the State of Chile promoted a series of educational policies, intellectualized and executed by the ruling elite, in order to assert the State on a political level and build the ideal of a unified nation, under aspects as history and customs. The national museums were among the entities that gave physical support to this ideology. The first museum institution in Chile, The National Museum, conforms the aim of study of this research. Its main objective is to understand how this institution was projected and developed as part of a State policy, and its relation with the construction of a scientific culture and the representation of a national identity. This process is studied in a temporal period that extends between 1813 and 1929. Through its chapters the study defines the different moments of development of The National Museum, its objectives and administrative and museographic characteristics, describing continuities and changes. At the same time, its study how the relation of the National Museum with the State is outlined, to what extent the governmental apparatus intervened in the development of the institution and the objectives that were established in time. The research also recognise who intervened in the definition and execution of the museographic-educational project developed by the National Museum, both at managerial and executive level. It describes the objects included in the collections, highlighting differences and permanence over time, how they were arranged in the exhibitions, and the internal variations of the script or theme that was wanted to be stand out in relation to the representation of the nation and the construction of a collective identity. Likewise, the study recognizes the collections provenance, with an accent on the formation of support networks, distinguishing scientific figures and institutions involved both nationally and internationally. Finally, conclusions are delivered taking up all the ideas expressed in the previous chapters and it turns to revisit objectives and hypotheses, giving a general and compelling overview of the development of the National Museum in the studied period.

International audience ; Self-medication: how the local context influences the practitioner's perceptions and practices The French public authorities encourage the population to resort to self-medication to control health expenditure. Since risk may occur from this practice, general practitioners and pharmacists have been appointed to be the "guarantors" of a safe use for self-medication. Self-care behaviours, implying the consumption of medication without consultation, put the practitioner in an antagonistic situation between the patients' will to be self-reliant in care use on the one hand, and the frame imposed by the public authorities on the other. This demands of the professionals that they adopt for themselves a position on such self-care practices in which they are excluded by the patient. This study aims at understanding the influence of the geographical environment on the professionals' position and behaviour in relation to self-medication examined through the method of contextual speech. Semi-structured interviews have been conducted with 30 practitioners and 19 pharmacists from the Nantes and Saint-Nazaire areas based on questions defined by sociologists, doctors and geographers. The results of this study suggest that spatial data are salient to analyzing health professionals' behaviour in relation to this concern of patient's self-medication. The interviews aimed at determining the professionals' perceptions with respect tothe self-medication of their patients in terms of whether they have encouraged or on the contrary, attempted to prevent these behaviours through arguments in favour of the public policies promoting self-medication. The questions deal with the professionals' career, the socio-economic characteristics of the patients and the motivations for their choice of place of work so as to link practices and behaviours with places.The simultaneousstudy of two different urban areas enables the analysis to distinguish the effects of context from geographical invariants. The main case study was Saint Nazaire with the case of Nantes used as a mirror to enable the identification of similarities or differences. Both case studies rely on a spatial analysis of data issued of the same program: the ANR Auto-med. The choice of Saint Nazaire as the main case study is based on two observations. First, the patients' rate of self-medication declared in a survey conducted within the ANR Auto-med program appears to be lower in Saint Nazaire than that of the regional area. Secondly, an investigation of a panel of medical consultations on the frequency of self-medication mentioned by the doctor or the patient again indicates that the area of Saint Nazaire is below the average (tab.1). Local socio-economic conditions, culture and history influence the practices of the health professionals. The socio-economic status of the patients influences the attitude to them of the doctors, for example, in terms of their medical costs. The professionals located in the most deprived districts underline the inequalities in health generated by the de-listing of drugs known as "of comfort" from those whose costs will be reimbursed to the patient. In this context, the pharmacists seem to offer advice according to their customers' supposed purchasing power. The health professionals located in a district concentrating a large number of poor workers express a certain concern with respect to the inequality of access to care. In this case, self-medication is an essential part of health-care behaviour because even if people provide a prescription, they are not necessarily reimbursed for certain kinds of drugs. The medical and social history of the Saint-Nazaire area has shaped the relations between patients and doctors such that a distinct community of professional practice has appeared in this area. This community is defined by a global approach towards the patient's health, a broader concern with self-medication, and a significant emphasis given to listening and discussion during the consultations. Thus, the advice on drugs is simply part of the global relations between the patient and the GP or the pharmacist whereas in the mirror area of Nantes, this advice is delivered more as a recommendation of good practice from the "expert" to the non-expert. Interviews with pharmacists in Nantes suggest that self-medication offers a therapeutic alternative in response to a lack of listening that is prevalent among the doctors of the area. The doctors are influenced in their practices by perceived local beliefs about health. If the doctors are also native to their place of work and have always been embedded in such sets of beliefs, they are more tolerant than their fellow-doctors towards these beliefs and indeed will sometimes accept being guided by their patients when writing the prescription (although sometimes they may just add a placebo to seem to concur with the patient). The patients' resort to self-medication is neither perceived nor accompanied in a homogeneous way from one city to another or from one district to another. In the area of Saint Nazaire, medical and social interventions have been anchored for a long time in a political and social tradition of solidarity, networking and proximity with a population weakened by the roughness and the liability of working conditions. Consequently, this situation strengthens even further the relationship between doctor and patient having thus a strong influence on self-medication. These results suggest the importance of taking into account the territorial context in the analysis of the health professionals' behaviours opening new opportunities for studying self-medication. Tab 1. Self-medication mentioned during consultations in various areas of the region Pays de la Loire (France) Area% of answers mentioned by the patientp% of questions by the Professionalp% of appearance in the prescriptionpSaint-Nazaire-Estuaire53,4066,5<0,00170,6<0,001Nantes47,10,254,80,2260,00,1Nord 4443,80,344,60,1947,20,29Nantes Agglomération39,70,245,70,1349,90,46Les Mauges41,90,543,00,2154,80,25Littoral36,00,155,70,0736,3<0,001La Roche sur Yon42,50,439,70,0346,00,22Sud Vendée38,20,340,90,1145,50,26 ; Les pouvoirs publics français, dans un souci de maîtrise des dépenses de santé, encouragent le recours à l'automédication de la population. Les comportements d'auto-soin, qui consistent à consommer de sa propre initiative un médicament sans consulter un médecin, placent ce dernier au coeur d'un antagonisme, la volonté d'autonomie des usagers confronté à celle d'encadrement des pouvoirs publics et l'obligent à se positionner face à des pratiques dont par essence il est exclu par le patient. Cette étude cherche à comprendre, par la méthode de contextualisation des discours, l'influence du milieu géographique dans les positionnements et comportements des praticiens vis à vis de l'automédication. Elle.a été réalisée à partir d'entretiens semi-directifs, selon des grilles élaborées conjointement avec des sociologues, des médecins et des géographes, auprès de 30 médecins généralistes et 19 pharmaciens des agglomérations nazairienne et nantaise. Les résultats de ce travail suggèrent l'importance de la prise en compte des données territoriales entourant soignant et soigné dans l'analyse des comportements des professionnels de santé et dans de nouvelles perspectives d'approche du recours à l'automédication.

International audience ; Self-medication: how the local context influences the practitioner's perceptions and practices The French public authorities encourage the population to resort to self-medication to control health expenditure. Since risk may occur from this practice, general practitioners and pharmacists have been appointed to be the "guarantors" of a safe use for self-medication. Self-care behaviours, implying the consumption of medication without consultation, put the practitioner in an antagonistic situation between the patients' will to be self-reliant in care use on the one hand, and the frame imposed by the public authorities on the other. This demands of the professionals that they adopt for themselves a position on such self-care practices in which they are excluded by the patient. This study aims at understanding the influence of the geographical environment on the professionals' position and behaviour in relation to self-medication examined through the method of contextual speech. Semi-structured interviews have been conducted with 30 practitioners and 19 pharmacists from the Nantes and Saint-Nazaire areas based on questions defined by sociologists, doctors and geographers. The results of this study suggest that spatial data are salient to analyzing health professionals' behaviour in relation to this concern of patient's self-medication. The interviews aimed at determining the professionals' perceptions with respect tothe self-medication of their patients in terms of whether they have encouraged or on the contrary, attempted to prevent these behaviours through arguments in favour of the public policies promoting self-medication. The questions deal with the professionals' career, the socio-economic characteristics of the patients and the motivations for their choice of place of work so as to link practices and behaviours with places.The simultaneousstudy of two different urban areas enables the analysis to distinguish the effects of context from geographical invariants. The main case study was Saint Nazaire with the case of Nantes used as a mirror to enable the identification of similarities or differences. Both case studies rely on a spatial analysis of data issued of the same program: the ANR Auto-med. The choice of Saint Nazaire as the main case study is based on two observations. First, the patients' rate of self-medication declared in a survey conducted within the ANR Auto-med program appears to be lower in Saint Nazaire than that of the regional area. Secondly, an investigation of a panel of medical consultations on the frequency of self-medication mentioned by the doctor or the patient again indicates that the area of Saint Nazaire is below the average (tab.1). Local socio-economic conditions, culture and history influence the practices of the health professionals. The socio-economic status of the patients influences the attitude to them of the doctors, for example, in terms of their medical costs. The professionals located in the most deprived districts underline the inequalities in health generated by the de-listing of drugs known as "of comfort" from those whose costs will be reimbursed to the patient. In this context, the pharmacists seem to offer advice according to their customers' supposed purchasing power. The health professionals located in a district concentrating a large number of poor workers express a certain concern with respect to the inequality of access to care. In this case, self-medication is an essential part of health-care behaviour because even if people provide a prescription, they are not necessarily reimbursed for certain kinds of drugs. The medical and social history of the Saint-Nazaire area has shaped the relations between patients and doctors such that a distinct community of professional practice has appeared in this area. This community is defined by a global approach towards the patient's health, a broader concern with self-medication, and a significant emphasis given to listening and discussion during the consultations. Thus, the advice on drugs is simply part of the global relations between the patient and the GP or the pharmacist whereas in the mirror area of Nantes, this advice is delivered more as a recommendation of good practice from the "expert" to the non-expert. Interviews with pharmacists in Nantes suggest that self-medication offers a therapeutic alternative in response to a lack of listening that is prevalent among the doctors of the area. The doctors are influenced in their practices by perceived local beliefs about health. If the doctors are also native to their place of work and have always been embedded in such sets of beliefs, they are more tolerant than their fellow-doctors towards these beliefs and indeed will sometimes accept being guided by their patients when writing the prescription (although sometimes they may just add a placebo to seem to concur with the patient). The patients' resort to self-medication is neither perceived nor accompanied in a homogeneous way from one city to another or from one district to another. In the area of Saint Nazaire, medical and social interventions have been anchored for a long time in a political and social tradition of solidarity, networking and proximity with a population weakened by the roughness and the liability of working conditions. Consequently, this situation strengthens even further the relationship between doctor and patient having thus a strong influence on self-medication. These results suggest the importance of taking into account the territorial context in the analysis of the health professionals' behaviours opening new opportunities for studying self-medication. Tab 1. Self-medication mentioned during consultations in various areas of the region Pays de la Loire (France) Area% of answers mentioned by the patientp% of questions by the Professionalp% of appearance in the prescriptionpSaint-Nazaire-Estuaire53,4066,5<0,00170,6<0,001Nantes47,10,254,80,2260,00,1Nord 4443,80,344,60,1947,20,29Nantes Agglomération39,70,245,70,1349,90,46Les Mauges41,90,543,00,2154,80,25Littoral36,00,155,70,0736,3<0,001La Roche sur Yon42,50,439,70,0346,00,22Sud Vendée38,20,340,90,1145,50,26 ; Les pouvoirs publics français, dans un souci de maîtrise des dépenses de santé, encouragent le recours à l'automédication de la population. Les comportements d'auto-soin, qui consistent à consommer de sa propre initiative un médicament sans consulter un médecin, placent ce dernier au coeur d'un antagonisme, la volonté d'autonomie des usagers confronté à celle d'encadrement des pouvoirs publics et l'obligent à se positionner face à des pratiques dont par essence il est exclu par le patient. Cette étude cherche à comprendre, par la méthode de contextualisation des discours, l'influence du milieu géographique dans les positionnements et comportements des praticiens vis à vis de l'automédication. Elle.a été réalisée à partir d'entretiens semi-directifs, selon des grilles élaborées conjointement avec des sociologues, des médecins et des géographes, auprès de 30 médecins généralistes et 19 pharmaciens des agglomérations nazairienne et nantaise. Les résultats de ce travail suggèrent l'importance de la prise en compte des données territoriales entourant soignant et soigné dans l'analyse des comportements des professionnels de santé et dans de nouvelles perspectives d'approche du recours à l'automédication.

Fernando Cadalso y Manzano (1859-1939) fue uno de los penitenciaristas españoles más importantes de la primera mitad del siglo XX. Tuvo una larga y prolífica carrera en el Ramo de Prisiones: dirigió varios presidios (entre otros, la Cárcel Modelo de Madrid); fue Inspector General de Prisiones durante veinticinco años (tercer cargo en importancia, debajo del Ministro de Gracia y Justicia y el Director General del ramo); representante de España en cuatro congresos penitenciarios internacionales; estableció el sistema progresivo en las prisiones, que perduró hasta la sanción de la Ley Orgánica General Penitenciaria en 1979; realizó viajes de estudio a varias naciones europeas y a los Estados Unidos, país del que importó el modelo de reformatorio para adultos que estableció en Ocaña (provincia de Toledo); colaboró en la elaboración del proyecto de ley de libertad condicional; fue director de la Escuela de Criminología y un largo etcétera. Poco antes de jubilarse, durante el Directorio Militar de Primo de Rivera, estuvo a cargo del Ministerio de Gracia y Justicia. A lo largo de su vida, Cadalso procuró concientizar a la sociedad y a los poderes públicos sobre la importancia de la reforma penitenciaria, el bienestar de la población reclusa (a partir del trabajo, la educación y la religión) y la mejora de los funcionarios del Cuerpo de Prisiones (estabilidad en el empleo, incremento salarial, acceso por oposición, ascenso por antigüedad). Esta labor la impulsó desde cuatro ámbitos: 1) El administrativo, a partir de su desempeño en el Ramo de Prisiones; 2) El intelectual, escribiendo en revistas científicas y diarios, creando su propia Revista de las Prisiones y publicando numerosas obras; 3) El social, a través del dictado de conferencias en centros obreros y culturales y la creación y participación en diversas entidades -Asociación de Estudios Penitenciarios y Rehabilitación del Delincuente; Instituto de Reformas Sociales; Comisión de Asistencia de Alienados, etc. Finalmente, 4) El ámbito político, a partir de los nexos establecidos con las elites gobernantes -en especial, con Eduardo Dato Iradier y Julián García San Miguel, Marqués de Teverga-. No obstante la enorme labor realizada durante medio siglo para la reforma del sistema penitenciario español, la figura de Cadalso no ha sido estudiada en profundidad por la historiografía jurídica y social. Por ello, este trabajo, de carácter biográfico, pretende -a partir de documentación de archivo nunca antes consultada y fuentes editas escasamente utilizadas- reconstruir su derrotero en la administración penitenciaria española atendiendo a: 1) Las transformaciones y contradicciones en su práctica y pensamiento; 2) La recepción de ideas del positivismo criminológico italiano; 3) Los viajes de estudio y la participación en reuniones científicas internacionales; 4) Sus propuestas en cuestiones como el problema del anarquismo, reformas policiales, identificación de los delincuentes; etc.; 5) Su adhesión, casi en solitario, al modelo de reformatorios norteamericano; 6) La creación de instituciones: reformatorio para adultos en Ocaña, Alicante y Segovia, el sistema progresivo, la libertad condicional; y finalmente 7) Su aporte genuino y su legado para el ordenamiento penitenciario español. Esperamos que este trabajo permita reconstruir la cultura jurídico-penitenciaria del período que abarca de la Restauración a la Segunda República (período fundamental, poco abordado desde la historiografía jurídica y social) y de-construya algunos relatos firmemente establecidos. En especial el que vincula la puesta en práctica de reformas penitenciarias con la instalación de gobiernos progresistas (Primera y Segunda República) y, por el contrario, el deterioro de la población reclusa con la llegada al poder de administraciones conservadoras (Reinado de Alfonso XIII y Directorio Militar de Primo de Rivera). ; Fernando Cadalso and Manzano (1859-1939) was one of the most important Spanish criminal lawyers of the first half of the 20th century. He had a long and prolific career in the prisons field: director of several prisons (The Model Prison of Madrid, amongst others); General Surveyor of Prisons during twenty five years (the third most important position, under the Minister of Grace and Justice and the General Director); representative of Spain in four international prison congresses; he established the progressive system in prisons, which lasted until the sanction of the Prison General Organic Law in 1979; he carried out field trips in several European nations and in the United States of America, from which he imported the model of the reformatory for adults established in Ocaña (province of Toledo); he collaborated in the bill of probation; he was the Head of the Criminology School; and his resume still goes on. Shortly before retirement, during Primo de Rivera's Military Directory, he was in charge of the Ministry of Grace and Justice. Throughout his life, Cadalso attempted to raise awareness both in society and public authorities on the importance of the prison reform, the welfare of prison populations (by means of work, education and religion), and the enhancement of corps of prisons officers (labor stability, wages increase, entry by competitive examination, seniority promotion). He promoted this task in four fields: 1) Administrative: through his performance in the prisons field; 2) Intellectual: writing in scientific magazines and newspapers, creating his own Prisons Magazine and publishing several papers; 3) Social: he dictated conferences in union and cultural centers and created and participated in several organizations – Association for Prison Studies and Rehabilitation of Offenders, Social Reform Institution, Assistance Commission to Alienates, etc. Finally, 4) Political: through the links established with the ruling elite –specially with Eduardo Dato Iradier and Julián García San Miguel, Marqués de Teverga-. Notwithstanding the huge work carried out during half a century to reform the Spanish prison system, Cadalso's figure has not been studied in depth by the law and social historiography. Therefore, this biographical work attempts to reconstruct his track in the Spanish prison administration, by means of file documentation never searched before and edited sources barely used, taking into account: 1) The transformations and contradictions in his practice and thinking; 2) The ideas taken from the Italian criminal positivism; 3) His field trips and his attendance to international scientific meetings; 4) His proposals in matters such as the anarchism problem, police reforms, identification of offenders, etc.; 5) His commitment almost solitarily to the U.S. prison model; 6) Creation of institutions: the reformatory for adults in Ocaña, Alicante and Segovia, the progressive system, probation; and finally 7) His genuine contribution and his legacy to the Spanish prison system. We hope this work may allow reconstructing the prison law culture during the period covering from the Restoration to the Second Republic (paramount period, barely approached by the law and social historiography) and de-constructing some tales firmly grounded, particularly that relating the practice of prison reforms with the installation of progressive governments (First and Second Republic) and, on the contrary, deterioration of the prison population with the arrival of conservative administrations to the power during the reign of Alfonso XIII and Primo de Rivera's Military Directory).

Drawing on a sociological multi-level, dynamic systems approach – actor-system-dynamics (ASD) -- which has been developed and applied in institutional, organizational, and societal analyses, we formulate a general model for the comparative analysis of social groups and organizations. This social systems approach has not been previously applied in the group area. We claim that the approach can be systematically and fruitfully applied to small as well as large groups and organizations as a methodology to understand and analyze their structure, functioning and dynamics. A group is considered a system with three universal subsystems on which any human social organization, including small groups, depends and which motivate, shape and regulate group activities and productions. The subsystems are bases or group requisites – necessary for group "functioning" and performance in more or less orderly or coherent ways; on this basis a group may be able to realize its purposes or goals(as well as possibly some members' personal goals) and maintain and reproduce the group. The group bases consist of: first, a rule regime (collective culture)defining group identity and purpose, shaping and regulating roles and role relationships, normative patterns and behavioral outputs; second, an agential base of group members who are socialized or partially socialized carriers of and adherents to the group's identity and rule regime; of relevance here are involvement/participation factors motivating member to adhere to, accept, and implement key components of the rule regime; third, there is a resource base, 2 technologies and materials, self-produced and/or obtained from the environment, which are essential to group functioning and key group performances. Section I briefly presents the framework and outlines the group systems model, characterized by its three universal bases or subsystems and its finite universal production functions and their outputs as well as the particular context(s) in which groups function. For illustrative purposes, the section identifies three major ideal-type modalities of group formation: informal self-organization by agents, group construction by external agents, and group formation through more or less formal multi-agent negotiation. The general systems model presented in Section II characterizes a social group not only by its three universal bases but by its finite universal production functions (elaborated in Section IV) and its outputs as well as by its shared places (situations for interaction) and times for gathering and interacting. Group productions impact on the group itself (reflexivity) and on its environment. These outputs, among other things, maintain/adapt/develop the group bases (or possibly unintentionally undermine/destroy them) Thus, groups can be understood as action and interaction systems producing goods, services, incidents and events, experiences, developments, etc. for themselves and possibly for the larger environment on which they depend for resources, recruits, goods and services, and legitimation. The model provides a single perspective for the systematic description and comparative analysis of a wide diversity of groups (Sections III and IV). A major distinctive feature in our systems approach is the conceptualization of rules and rule regimes (Sections II, III, IV, and V). Finite universal rule categories (ten distinct categories) are specified; they characterize every functioning social group or organization. A rule regime, while an abstraction is carried, applied, adapted, and transformed by concrete human agents, who interact, exchange, exercise power, and struggle within the group, in large part based on the rule regime which they maintain and adapt as well as transform. The paper emphasizes not only the systemic character of all functioning groups – universally their three bases and their output functions together with feedback dynamics -- but also the differentiating character of any given group's distinct rule configuration (Section IV). For illustrative purposes Section IV presents a selection of rule configurations characterizing several ideal types of groups, a military unit, a terrorist group, a recreational or social group, a research group, a corporate entity Section V considers the dynamics of groups in terms of modification and transformation of group bases and their production functions. The group system model enables us to systematically identify and explicate the internal and external factors that drive group change and transformation, exposing the complex interdependencies and dynamic potentialities of group systems. Section VI sums up the work and points out its scope and limitations. The group systems model offers a number of promising contributions: (1) a universal systems model identifies the key subsystems and their interrelationships as well as their role in group production functions/outputs and performances; (2) the work conceptualizes and applies rules and rule complexes and their derivatives in roles, role relationships, norms, group procedures and production functions; (3) it identifies the universal categories of rules making up a rule regime, a major subsystem for any functioning group; (4) the model conceptualizes particular "group rule configurations" – rule regimes with specified rules in the universal rule categories—for any given group; groups are identifiable and differentiable by their rule configurations (as well as by their resource and agency bases); (5) it conceptualizes the notion of the degree of coherence (alternatively, degree of incoherence) of rule configurations characteristic of any given group and offers an explanation of why group attention is focused on the coherence of rules in certain group areas; (6) the systems model suggests an interpretation of Erving Goffman's "frontstage backstage" distinction in terms of alternative, differentiated rule regimes which are to a greater or lesser extent incoherent with respect to one another; moreover, the participants who are privy to the differentiation navigate using a shared rule complex to translate coherently and consistently 3 from one regime to the other, using appropriate discourses; (7) incoherence, contradiction, conflict and struggle relating to rule regimes are considered part and parcel of group functioning and development; (8)group stability and change are explicated in terms of internal mechanisms (e.g., governance, innovation, and conflict) as well as external mechanisms (resource availability, legal and other institutional developments, population conditions), pointing up the complex systemic interdependencies and dynamic potentialities of group systems; (9) given the multi-level dynamic systems framework (i.e., ASD) that has been applied in a range of special areas (economic, political, technological, environmental, bio-medical, among others) its applicataion in the field of groups is a promising step toward achieving greater synthesis in sociology and social science. This 2nd edition of the paper has been substantially rewritten and extended: the current text is twice the number of pages of the original – and there has been much restructuring of the manuscript as a whole. Tables and figures have been added. Substantively, we developed the following features of the work in the 2nd edition: (1) more attention has been given to tension, conflict, and conflict resolution in groups; (2) we also stressed group requisites for sustainability and group production functions; (3) a section on group formation with illustrations has been added; (4) we have expanded our attention to group rule configurations which differentiate groups from one another but also enable systematic comparisons; (5) we have much expanded consideration of the dynamics of group change and transformation.

This thesis is the result of research aimed at increasing the knowledge of residential architecture century, under the rule of General Porfirio Diaz, and known as the Porfiriato. The objectives are: typological porfirista housing analysis in Guadalajara; the recovery of historical building systems information, the description of the materials used, the study of the influence, theoretical and practical, foreign at the time, and the analysis of the relationships of proportions used in structural elements, with special attention to the facades. The information has been recorded, and in order to process it, a series of records cards have been designed specifically for this study. These record cards have been elaborated for each house, and were divided into five categories: Relationships of useful built surfaces and its walls; Constructed surfaces and lighting; Percentage of openings in load-bearing walls ; Calculation of load-bearing wall thicknesses ; Facades Special features, and Columns and pillars characteristics.To achieve the objectives, the thesis is divided into four phases: The purpose of the first phase is to contextualize the research. It focuses on a historical approach of the time period. To achive this, chapter 2 comtemplates social, economic and political aspects, especially those related to the theory and teaching of architectura and engineering in Mexico during this period. It makes a particular emphasis on the urban transformation of the early twentieth century in the city of Guadalajara and the role played by the "Sociedad de Ingenieros" y the "Escuela libre de ingenieros" in the learning of the profession. The second phase, corresponding to chapters 3 and 4, consists of a description of housing in the Porfiriato period. First, it refers to typological aspects: distributive and functional characteristics, the particular elements, architectural orders employed, and the typical ornamentation. Secondly, it details the materials and construction-structural systems. This bibliographic data found is conjoined with the one obtained in the field . It specifies foundations, walls roofs, ceilings, columns, pillars, arches, lintels, coatings, finishes and facilities. The third phase consists of the analysis of the data from the previous chapters. It is the core element of the research and it's results are reflected in Chapter 5. Considering the order used, it first analyzes typological data and subsequently the record cards from which the structural relationships, proportions or correspondence with theoretical forms will be extracted from. The fourth, and final phase, is Chapte 6 "Conclusions". This summarizes the results obtained at different stages. The thesis is closed by the references and annexes. In this section there are seven types of annexes. Annex 1 consists of the inventory records of the Secretary of Culture of the State of Jalisco, which were used for the housing selection. It is complemented with some of my own record cards that include planimetric and photographic data. The following annexes 2,3,4,5 and 6 are the record cards created to perform the analysis in Chapter 5. Finally, Annex 7 includes extracts from interviews with people associated with the topic. ; La presente tesis es resultado de una investigación encaminada a incrementar el conocimiento de la arquitectura habitacional de la ciudad de Guadalajara en el periodo que comprende las primeras dos décadas del siglo XX, bajo el gobierno del General Porfirio Díaz, periodo conocido como el Porfiriato. Los objetivos son el análisis tipológico de la vivienda porfirista en Guadalajara; la recuperación de la información de los sistemas constructivos históricos; la descripción de los materiales empleados; el estudio de la influencia, teórico-práctica, extranjera en la época; y el análisis de las relaciones de proporciones empleadas en los elementos estructurales, con especial atención en las fachadas portantes. La labor de campo incluye: la toma de datos necesarios vinculados a los aspectos compositivos y ornamentales; la clasificación de los órdenes arquitectónicos, tipos de puertas y ventanas; el estudio pormenorizado de las características de los jardines y de aquellos elementos singulares importantes; y la determinación, en los casos posibles, de los usos originales de los espacios. Se ha registrado la información, y con la intención de procesarla, se han llevado a cabo una serie de fichas diseñadas expresamente para este estudio. Dichas fichas, elaboradas para cada casa, se dividieron en cinco rubros: Relaciones de las superficies construidas y sus muros; Superficies construidas y de iluminación; Porcentajes de vanos en muros de carga; Cálculo de espesores de muros de carga; Particularidades de las fachadas portantes; y Características de columnas y pilares. Para lograr los objetivos planteados la tesis se estructura en cuatro fases: La primera tiene como propósito contextualizar la investigación. Se centra en un acercamiento histórico de la época conocida como el Porfiriato. Para ello el capítulo 2 contempla aspectos sociales, económicos, políticos y, especialmente, aquellos relacionados con la teoría y enseñanza de la arquitectura y la ingeniería durante este periodo en México. Se hace un particular hincapié en las transformaciones urbanísticas de inicios del siglo XX en la ciudad de Guadalajara y el papel que jugaron la Sociedad de Ingenieros y la Escuela Libre de Ingenieros en el aprendizaje de la profesión. La segunda, correspondiente a los capítulos 3 y 4, consiste en una descripción de las viviendas estudiadas. En primer lugar, se hace referencia a los aspectos tipológicos: características distributivas y funcionales, los elementos particulares, los órdenes arquitectónicos empleados y la ornamentación típica. En segundo lugar, se detallan los materiales y los sistemas constructivo-estructurales. Para ello se conjuntan los datos bibliográficos hallados con los obtenidos en el trabajo de campo. Se especifican cimentaciones, muros, cubiertas, techos, columnas, pilares, arcos, dinteles, recubrimientos, acabados e instalaciones. La tercera fase consiste en el análisis de los datos de los capítulos anteriores. Es el elemento medular de la investigación y sus resultados se plasman en el capítulo 5. Considerando el orden empleado, se analiza en primer lugar los datos tipológicos donde, además de lo comentado, se incluyen estudios de superficies de espacios y de iluminación. Posteriormente se consideran los elementos estructurales: muros de carga, fachadas portantes y columnas. De ellas se extraerán relaciones estructurales, proporciones o correspondencias con formularios teóricos. La cuarta, y última fase, es el capítulo 6 de Conclusiones. Aquí se resumen los resultados obtenidos en las diferentes etapas. Cierran la tesis la bibliografía consultada y los anexos. En este apartado hay siete tipos de anexos. El anexo 1 son las fichas de inventario de la Secretaria de Cultura del Estado de Jalisco que sirvieron para la elección de las casas. Se complementa con unas fichas propias que incluyen datos planimétricos y fotográficos. Los siguientes anexos, 2, 3, 4, 5 y 6 son las fichas efectuadas para poder realizar los análisis del capítulo 5. Por último, el anexo 7 comprende los extractos de las entrevistas realizadas a personas vinculadas con el tema. ; Postprint (published version)

This thesis is the result of research aimed at increasing the knowledge of residential architecture century, under the rule of General Porfirio Diaz, and known as the Porfiriato. The objectives are: typological porfirista housing analysis in Guadalajara; the recovery of historical building systems information, the description of the materials used, the study of the influence, theoretical and practical, foreign at the time, and the analysis of the relationships of proportions used in structural elements, with special attention to the facades. The information has been recorded, and in order to process it, a series of records cards have been designed specifically for this study. These record cards have been elaborated for each house, and were divided into five categories: Relationships of useful built surfaces and its walls; Constructed surfaces and lighting; Percentage of openings in load-bearing walls ; Calculation of load-bearing wall thicknesses ; Facades Special features, and Columns and pillars characteristics.To achieve the objectives, the thesis is divided into four phases: The purpose of the first phase is to contextualize the research. It focuses on a historical approach of the time period. To achive this, chapter 2 comtemplates social, economic and political aspects, especially those related to the theory and teaching of architectura and engineering in Mexico during this period. It makes a particular emphasis on the urban transformation of the early twentieth century in the city of Guadalajara and the role played by the "Sociedad de Ingenieros" y the "Escuela libre de ingenieros" in the learning of the profession. The second phase, corresponding to chapters 3 and 4, consists of a description of housing in the Porfiriato period. First, it refers to typological aspects: distributive and functional characteristics, the particular elements, architectural orders employed, and the typical ornamentation. Secondly, it details the materials and construction-structural systems. This bibliographic data found is conjoined with the one obtained in the field . It specifies foundations, walls roofs, ceilings, columns, pillars, arches, lintels, coatings, finishes and facilities. The third phase consists of the analysis of the data from the previous chapters. It is the core element of the research and it's results are reflected in Chapter 5. Considering the order used, it first analyzes typological data and subsequently the record cards from which the structural relationships, proportions or correspondence with theoretical forms will be extracted from. The fourth, and final phase, is Chapte 6 "Conclusions". This summarizes the results obtained at different stages. The thesis is closed by the references and annexes. In this section there are seven types of annexes. Annex 1 consists of the inventory records of the Secretary of Culture of the State of Jalisco, which were used for the housing selection. It is complemented with some of my own record cards that include planimetric and photographic data. The following annexes 2,3,4,5 and 6 are the record cards created to perform the analysis in Chapter 5. Finally, Annex 7 includes extracts from interviews with people associated with the topic. ; La presente tesis es resultado de una investigación encaminada a incrementar el conocimiento de la arquitectura habitacional de la ciudad de Guadalajara en el periodo que comprende las primeras dos décadas del siglo XX, bajo el gobierno del General Porfirio Díaz, periodo conocido como el Porfiriato. Los objetivos son el análisis tipológico de la vivienda porfirista en Guadalajara; la recuperación de la información de los sistemas constructivos históricos; la descripción de los materiales empleados; el estudio de la influencia, teórico-práctica, extranjera en la época; y el análisis de las relaciones de proporciones empleadas en los elementos estructurales, con especial atención en las fachadas portantes. La labor de campo incluye: la toma de datos necesarios vinculados a los aspectos compositivos y ornamentales; la clasificación de los órdenes arquitectónicos, tipos de puertas y ventanas; el estudio pormenorizado de las características de los jardines y de aquellos elementos singulares importantes; y la determinación, en los casos posibles, de los usos originales de los espacios. Se ha registrado la información, y con la intención de procesarla, se han llevado a cabo una serie de fichas diseñadas expresamente para este estudio. Dichas fichas, elaboradas para cada casa, se dividieron en cinco rubros: Relaciones de las superficies construidas y sus muros; Superficies construidas y de iluminación; Porcentajes de vanos en muros de carga; Cálculo de espesores de muros de carga; Particularidades de las fachadas portantes; y Características de columnas y pilares. Para lograr los objetivos planteados la tesis se estructura en cuatro fases: La primera tiene como propósito contextualizar la investigación. Se centra en un acercamiento histórico de la época conocida como el Porfiriato. Para ello el capítulo 2 contempla aspectos sociales, económicos, políticos y, especialmente, aquellos relacionados con la teoría y enseñanza de la arquitectura y la ingeniería durante este periodo en México. Se hace un particular hincapié en las transformaciones urbanísticas de inicios del siglo XX en la ciudad de Guadalajara y el papel que jugaron la Sociedad de Ingenieros y la Escuela Libre de Ingenieros en el aprendizaje de la profesión. La segunda, correspondiente a los capítulos 3 y 4, consiste en una descripción de las viviendas estudiadas. En primer lugar, se hace referencia a los aspectos tipológicos: características distributivas y funcionales, los elementos particulares, los órdenes arquitectónicos empleados y la ornamentación típica. En segundo lugar, se detallan los materiales y los sistemas constructivo-estructurales. Para ello se conjuntan los datos bibliográficos hallados con los obtenidos en el trabajo de campo. Se especifican cimentaciones, muros, cubiertas, techos, columnas, pilares, arcos, dinteles, recubrimientos, acabados e instalaciones. La tercera fase consiste en el análisis de los datos de los capítulos anteriores. Es el elemento medular de la investigación y sus resultados se plasman en el capítulo 5. Considerando el orden empleado, se analiza en primer lugar los datos tipológicos donde, además de lo comentado, se incluyen estudios de superficies de espacios y de iluminación. Posteriormente se consideran los elementos estructurales: muros de carga, fachadas portantes y columnas. De ellas se extraerán relaciones estructurales, proporciones o correspondencias con formularios teóricos. La cuarta, y última fase, es el capítulo 6 de Conclusiones. Aquí se resumen los resultados obtenidos en las diferentes etapas. Cierran la tesis la bibliografía consultada y los anexos. En este apartado hay siete tipos de anexos. El anexo 1 son las fichas de inventario de la Secretaria de Cultura del Estado de Jalisco que sirvieron para la elección de las casas. Se complementa con unas fichas propias que incluyen datos planimétricos y fotográficos. Los siguientes anexos, 2, 3, 4, 5 y 6 son las fichas efectuadas para poder realizar los análisis del capítulo 5. Por último, el anexo 7 comprende los extractos de las entrevistas realizadas a personas vinculadas con el tema. ; Postprint (published version)

This report presents the findings of research into the main outcomes of government and donor-backed efforts to promote small and medium-sized energy businesses (energy SMEs) in sub-Saharan Africa. The research follows an outcome analysis methodology. The focus is on four countries: Ghana, Senegal, Tanzania and Zambia and primarily on UNEP's AREED programme (2002-2012). This research focuses on the 'contributing factors' – a deliberately broader term that incorporates the internal 'success factors' – for energy SMEs, about which much has already been written. Indeed, the research findings presented in this report reaffirm most of what has been concluded in previous studies, including Kolominskas (2003); Mehlwana (2003); Denton (2006) and Napier-Moore (2006). These studies identified the lack of access to affordable finance as the being the predominant, persistent, barrier to establishing and scaling up a commercially viable energy SME sector, emphasising the lack of strong policy support from governments, poor business skills capacity and the high cost of many RETs as related cause-and-effect barriers. While these issues continue to characterise, to a greater or lesser extent, the energy SMEs sectors in the countries studied for this research, it is more relevant to revisit the main assumption behind AREED and other donor-backed programmes designed to promote energy SMEs. The assumption is that the solution to the aforementioned barriers would be overcome by a 'demonstration effect' whereby successful energy SMEs, supported by donor-backed programmes, influence the commercial financial sector to invest in energy SMEs, thus triggering a virtuous circle of growth and profitability. Experiences drawn from a decade of AREED support across four of the project countries reveal both the presence (Ghana, Senegal) and absence, or weak presence, of this demonstration effect (Tanzania, Zambia). This is a central question, and one which was not the focus of previous research, presumably because the answer was not fully apparent prior to 2006 when the last substantial work was conducted. Where there is an absence, or weak presence, of a demonstration effect a number of explanatory factors can be identified. These include, inter alia, the lack of an entrepreneurial culture; an SME 'dependency syndrome' perpetuated by grant-based support from governments and donor agencies; persistent shortcomings in business skills capacity; lack of clearly defined markets; demand-side barriers to purchase relatively high capital-intense energy products. Where numerous energy SMEs are in operation and thus where a valid demonstration effect can be identified, there is a perceived paradox that serves to undermine commercial interest in investing in energy SMEs. The paradox is that the donor-supported businesses that were issued with concessional and/or flexible loans serve to demonstrate that these businesses depend upon such concessional terms, i.e., that they could not survive in 'the real world'. While this assumption is widely regarded as self-evident by private investors, there are in fact other, more concrete, factors that act to undermine the demonstration effect. These include, inter alia, relatively high transaction costs of investing in SMEs; the inherently complicated nature of energy sector SMEs with longer supply chains and slower pay-back periods for capital-intensive technologies such as solar PV; rigid rules regarding the need to secure collateral. These factors can be understood as structural issues that conspire to increase the financial risk of investing in energy SMEs and thus are not the product of ignorance on the behalf of the banking sector. In the countries studied for this research, these factors are compounded by the high opportunity costs for banks where higher rates of return can be secured from investing in high-turnover businesses, for example those trading in high-volume, perishable goods. There is also a more general challenge faced by a range of SME entrepreneurs where such individuals and businesses are considered by banks to have an inherently higher risk profile, a factor which, to some extent, appears to be the product of 'anti-SME' discrimination, where investors favour larger corporate players operating under licence, often backed by strong branding, reputation and/or political connections. There is evidence that government in the countries studied is now more receptive to the concept of energy SMEs. For example, most governments have eased the burden of red tape that traditionally surrounded business registration in many African countries and some governments, such as Senegal, have set up government departments whose sole purpose is to support SMEs. However there is a predominant view among stakeholders, across the countries studied, that governments are ineffective in designing and implementing tangible support for energy SMEs, despite politicians often providing strong rhetorical support. As such the establishment and success of energy SMEs more often depends on support provided by donor agencies or NGOs that can provide technical assistance and/or subsidised loans. This point highlights an important status quo, and an issue that was itself one of the key rationales behind supporting energy SMEs in the first place, i.e., to by-pass government in efforts to supply sustainable energy technologies to low income consumers by supporting SMEs. However, early experience with the practical challenge of supporting energy SMEs led observers, including Denton (2006) and Napier-Moore (2006), to consider the role and importance of an 'enabling framework' necessary for energy SMEs to function and thrive. While this issue would appear to present itself as a chicken-and-egg dilemma, the research findings presented here from Senegal, and to a lesser extent with Ghana's LPG market, do suggest that conducive economic and regulatory conditions are a prerequisite for scaling up the commercial success of energy SMEs. At the same time, one of the well-understood success factors for specific energy SMEs is the head start given to relatively mature technologies that are reliable, easy to understand and suitable for local distribution, thus presenting a 'low-hanging fruit' opportunity for SMEs. LPG and fuel efficient cook stoves are the obvious technologies that have proven to be most commercially viable, and indeed the failure to conduct in-depth market testing for energy products and services has been a major cause of commercial failure for otherwise well organised and motivated SMEs. A major geographical outcome is that energy SMEs continue to mostly operate in, and supply, urban and peri-urban markets. As such, programmes (including AREED) that were originally intended to address the rural market, where traditional fuel use accounts for major social and environmental impacts, have largely failed. This is due to low levels of entrepreneurial capacity, higher transaction costs for supplying a dispersed rural market, and demand-side barriers for capital-intensive RETs. However this market focus is not unique to the energy sector and entrepreneurial talents and opportunities tend to dominate in urban areas, across all sectors.