This article reviews trends in poverty, economic policies, and growth in a sample of African countries during the 1990s, drawing on the better household data now available. Experiences have varied. Some countries have seen sharp drops in income poverty, whereas others have witnessed marked increases. In some countries overall economic growth has been pro-poor and in others not. But the aggregate numbers hide systematic distributional effects. Taking both macro and micro perspectives of growth and poverty in Africa, the article draws four key conclusions. First, economic policy reforms (improving macroeconomic balances and liberalizing markets) appear conducive to reducing poverty. Second, market connectedness is crucial to enable participation in the gains from economic growth. Some regions and households by virtue of their remoteness were left behind when growth picked up. Third, education and access to land emerge as key private endowments to help households benefit from new economic opportunities. Finally, rainfall variations and ill health have profound effects on poverty outcomes, underscoring the significance of social risk management in poverty reduction strategies in Africa.
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America's Global War on Terror has seen its share of stalemates, disasters, and outright defeats. During 20-plus years of armed interventions, the United States has watched its efforts implode in spectacular fashion, from Iraq in 2014 to Afghanistan in 2021. The greatest failure of its "Forever Wars," however, may not be in the Middle East, but in Africa."Our war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, and defeated," President George W. Bush told the American people in the immediate wake of the 9/11 attacks, noting specifically that such militants had designs on "vast regions" of Africa.To shore up that front, the U.S. began a decades-long effort to provide copious amounts of security assistance, train many thousands of African military officers, set up dozens of outposts, dispatch its own commandos on all manner of missions, create proxy forces, launch drone strikes, and even engage in direct ground combat with militants in Africa. Most Americans, including members of Congress, are unaware of the extent of these operations. As a result, few realize how dramatically America's shadow war there has failed.The raw numbers alone speak to the depths of the disaster. As the United States was beginning its Forever Wars in 2002 and 2003, the State Department counted a total of just nine terrorist attacks in Africa. This year, militant Islamist groups on that continent have, according to the Pentagon, already conducted 6,756 attacks. In other words, since the United States ramped up its counterterrorism operations in Africa, terrorism has spiked 75,000%.Let that sink in for a moment.75,000%.A Conflict that Will Live in InfamyThe U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq opened to military successes in 2001 and 2003 that quickly devolved into sputtering occupations. In both countries, Washington's plans hinged on its ability to create national armies that could assist and eventually take over the fight against enemy forces. Both U.S.-created militaries would, in the end, crumble. In Afghanistan, a two-decade-long war ended in 2021 with the rout of an American-built, -funded, -trained, and -armed military as the Taliban recaptured the country. In Iraq, the Islamic State nearly triumphed over a U.S.-created Iraqi army in 2014, forcing Washington to reenter the conflict. U.S. troops remain embattled in Iraq and neighboring Syria to this very day.In Africa, the U.S. launched a parallel campaign in the early 2000s, supporting and training African troops from Mali in the west to Somalia in the east and creating proxy forces that would fight alongside American commandos. To carry out its missions, the U.S. military set up a network of outposts across the northern tier of the continent, including significant drone bases – from Camp Lemonnier and its satellite outpost Chabelley Airfield in the sun-bleached nation of Djibouti to Air Base 201 in Agadez, Niger — and tiny facilities with small contingents of American special operations troops in nations ranging from Libya and Niger to the Central African Republic and South Sudan.For almost a decade, Washington's war in Africa stayed largely under wraps. Then came a decision that sent Libya and the vast Sahel region into a tailspin from which they have never recovered."We came, we saw, he died," Secretary of State Hillary Clinton joked after a U.S.-led NATO air campaign helped overthrow Colonel Muammar el-Qaddafi, the longtime Libyan dictator, in 2011. President Barack Obama hailed the intervention as a success, but Libya slipped into near-failed-state status. Obama would later admit that "failing to plan for the day after" Qaddafi's defeat was the "worst mistake" of his presidency.As the Libyan leader fell, Tuareg fighters in his service looted his regime's weapons caches, returned to their native Mali, and began to take over the northern part of that nation. Anger in Mali's armed forces over the government's ineffective response resulted in a 2012 military coup. It was led by Amadou Sanogo, an officer who learned English in Texas and underwent infantry-officer basic training in Georgia, military-intelligence instruction in Arizona, and was mentored by U.S. Marines in Virginia.Having overthrown Mali's democratic government, Sanogo and his junta proved hapless in battling terrorists. With the country in turmoil, those Tuareg fighters declared an independent state, only to be muscled aside by heavily armed Islamists who instituted a harsh brand of Shariah law, causing a humanitarian crisis. A joint Franco-American-African mission prevented Mali's complete collapse but pushed the militants into areas near the borders of both Burkina Faso and Niger.Since then, those nations of the West African Sahel have been plagued by terrorist groups that have evolved, splintered, and reconstituted themselves. Under the black banners of jihadist militancy, men on motorcycles — two to a bike, wearing sunglasses and turbans, and armed with Kalashnikovs — regularly roar into villages to impose zakat (an Islamic tax); steal animals; and terrorize, assault, and kill civilians. Such relentless attacks have destabilized Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger and are now affecting their southern neighbors along the Gulf of Guinea. Violence in Togo and Benin has, for example, jumped 633% and 718% over the last year, according to the Pentagon.U.S.-trained militaries in the region have been unable to stop the onslaught and civilians have suffered horrifically. During 2002 and 2003, terrorists caused just 23 casualties in Africa. This year, according to the Pentagon, terrorist attacks in the Sahel region alone have resulted in 9,818 deaths — a 42,500% increase.At the same time, during their counterterrorism campaigns, America's military partners in the region have committed gross atrocities of their own, including extrajudicial killings. In 2020, for example, a top political leader in Burkina Faso admitted that his country's security forces were carrying out targeted executions. "We're doing this, but we're not shouting it from the rooftops," he told me, noting that such murders were good for military morale.American-mentored military personnel in that region have had only one type of demonstrable "success": overthrowing governments the United States trained them to protect. At least 15 officers who benefited from such assistance have been involved in 12 coups in West Africa and the greater Sahel during the war on terror. The list includes officers from Burkina Faso (2014, 2015, and twice in 2022); Chad (2021); Gambia (2014); Guinea (2021); Mali (2012, 2020, and 2021); Mauritania (2008); and Niger (2023). At least five leaders of a July coup in Niger, for example, received American assistance, according to a U.S. official. They, in turn, appointed five U.S.-trained members of the Nigerien security forces to serve as that country's governors.Military coups of that sort have even super-charged atrocities while undermining American aims, yet the United States continues to provide such regimes with counterterrorism support. Take Colonel Assimi Goïta, who worked with U.S. Special Operations forces, participated in U.S. training exercises, and attended the Joint Special Operations University in Florida before overthrowing Mali's government in 2020. Goïta then took the job of vice president in a transitional government officially charged with returning the country to civilian rule, only to seize power again in 2021.That same year, his junta reportedly authorized the deployment of the Russia-linked Wagner mercenary forces to fight Islamist militants after close to two decades of failed Western-backed counterterrorism efforts. Since then, Wagner — a paramilitary group founded by the late Yevgeny Prigozhin, a former hot-dog vendor turned warlord — has been implicated in hundreds of human rights abuses alongside the longtime U.S.-backed Malian military, including a 2022 massacre that killed 500 civilians.Despite all of this, American military aid for Mali has never ended. While Goïta's 2020 and 2021 coups triggered prohibitions on some forms of U.S. security assistance, American tax dollars have continued to fund his forces. According to the State Department, the U.S. provided more than $16 million in security aid to Mali in 2020 and almost $5 million in 2021. As of July, the department's Bureau of Counterterrorism was waiting on congressional approval to transfer an additional $2 million to Mali. (The State Department did not reply to TomDispatch's request for an update on the status of that funding.)The Two-Decade StalemateOn the opposite side of the continent, in Somalia, stagnation and stalemate have been the watchwords for U.S. military efforts."Terrorists associated with Al Qaeda and indigenous terrorist groups have been and continue to be a presence in this region," a senior Pentagon official claimed in 2002. "These terrorists will, of course, threaten U.S. personnel and facilities." But when pressed about an actual spreading threat, the official admitted that even the most extreme Islamists "really have not engaged in acts of terrorism outside Somalia." Despite that, U.S. Special Operations forces were dispatched there in 2002, followed by military aid, advisers, trainers, and private contractors.More than 20 years later, U.S. troops are still conducting counterterrorism operations in Somalia, primarily against the Islamist militant group al-Shabaab. To this end, Washington has provided billions of dollars in counterterrorism assistance, according to a recent report by the Costs of War Project. Americans have also conducted more than 280 air strikes and commando raids there, while the CIA and special operators built up local proxy forces to conduct low-profile military operations.Since President Joe Biden took office in January 2021, the U.S. has launched 31 declared airstrikes in Somalia, six times the number carried out during President Obama's first term, though far fewer than the record high set by President Trump, whose administration launched 208 attacks from 2017 to 2021.America's long-running, undeclared war in Somalia has become a key driver of violence in that country, according to the Costs of War Project. "The U.S. is not simply contributing to conflict in Somalia, but has, rather, become integral to the inevitable continuation of conflict in Somalia," reported Ẹniọlá Ànúolúwapọ Ṣóyẹmí, a lecturer in political philosophy and public policy at the Blavatnik School of Government at Oxford University. "U.S. counterterrorism policies are," she wrote, "ensuring that the conflict continues in perpetuity."The Epicenter of International Terrorism"Supporting the development of professional and capable militaries contributes to increasing security and stability in Africa," said General William Ward, the first chief of U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM) — the umbrella organization overseeing U.S. military efforts on the continent — in 2010, before he was demoted for profligate travel and spending. His predictions of "increasing security and stability" have, of course, never come to pass.While the 75,000% increase in terror attacks and 42,500% increase in fatalities over the last two decades are nothing less than astounding, the most recent increases are no less devastating. "A 50-percent spike in fatalities tied to militant Islamist groups in the Sahel and Somalia over the past year has eclipsed the previous high in 2015," according to a July report by the Africa Center for Strategic Studies, a Defense Department research institution. "Africa has experienced a nearly four-fold increase in reported violent events linked to militant Islamist groups over the past decade… Almost half of that growth happened in the last 3 years."Twenty-two years ago, George W. Bush announced the beginning of a Global War on Terror. "The Taliban must act, and act immediately," he insisted. "They will hand over the terrorists, or they will share in their fate." Today, of course, the Taliban reigns supreme in Afghanistan, al-Qaeda was never "stopped and defeated," and other terror groups have spread across Africa (and elsewhere). The only way "to defeat terrorism," Bush asserted, was to "eliminate it and destroy it where it grows." Yet it has grown, and spread, and a plethora of new militant groups have emerged.Bush warned that terrorists had designs on "vast regions" of Africa but was "confident of the victories to come," assuring Americans that "we will not tire, we will not falter, and we will not fail." In country after country on that continent, the U.S. has, indeed, faltered and its failures have been paid for by ordinary Africans killed, wounded, and displaced by the terror groups that Bush pledged to "defeat." Earlier this year, General Michael Langley, the current AFRICOM commander, offered what may be the ultimate verdict on America's Forever Wars on that continent. "Africa," he declared, "is now the epicenter of international terrorism."This article has been republished with permission from TomDispatch.
Lebanon faces serious challenges from a volatile security environment and spillovers from the ongoing Syrian conflict which pose serious risks to an already fragile internal political situation. Security incidents have become increasingly more common and the volatile security environment is weakening consumer and investor sentiments and adversely affecting tourism, a central contributor to economic growth and employment in Lebanon. The influx of Syrian refugees to Lebanon persists, with officially registered refugees reaching close to 1 million (i.e., 21.6 percent of Lebanon's pre-conflict population), which poses significant fiscal, health and educational challenges.
This report reviews the status of Maghreb countries' economic integration with the world, with the Arab world, and within the Maghreb itself. It focuses on trade in goods and services, labor and capital flows, financial integration and cross-border infrastructure integration. It discusses the potential benefits of and key constraints to greater integration. The focus on trade liberalization with the European Union (EU) provides an opportunity for individual Maghreb countries to lock in policies that would eventually help them harmonize policies within their own region. The same argument can be made regarding accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). The Maghreb countries would reap significant additional benefits if, in parallel to reforms undertaken to improve trade liberalization with Europe, they improved conditions for streamlined trade among themselves. There is significant potential for trade in services in the financial sector, transportation and logistics, and communications and information, among other sectors. According to some studies, comprehensive services reforms that involve increased competition and regulatory streamlining would yield benefits that are at least twice the magnitude of those achieved through tariff removal alone.
This dissertation critically interprets the international dimension of the Ukrainian crisis in 2013, crisis that intensified in the 2014 and resulted in an armed conflict between Ukraine and Russia in eastern part of Ukraine and occupation of Crimea. It argues this crisis to be simultaneously the result and the intensification of the collision of antagonist and foreign policies towards the contested borders of Ukraine between NATO and Russia. Notwithstanding Ukrainian domestic dimension related to recent and incomplete transition of the country after Soviet Union collapse and its independence, Ukrainian crisis has an inseparable international dimension to it. Analyzed from an international perspective, the events that started in Kiev in November of 2013 can be linked to the competition between the NATO and Russia for security in their shared neighborhood. After Soviet Union collapse in 1991, Russia fell into complex crisis in political, social, economic and national identity domains. In the foreign policy sphere, an internal debate started on what role Russia should perform, at regional or on global level in the post-Cold War background. In this context, Ukraine is inseparable ally and shield for Russia from West pressure near Russia borders, from EU enlargement and NATO expansion, which is considered as treat for Russian security. Russia combined a whole range of arguments to protect its borders, sphere of influence and its citizens in Ukraine. Vladimir Putin in 2014 presented those arguments in his address to the State Duma. This research intends to provide a contribution to the literature on Crimean crisis, Russian foreign policy and political discourse. ; A presente dissertação interpreta criticamente a dimensão internacional da crise ucraniana começada em 2013, crise que se intensificou em 2014, e que resultou em conflito armado entre a Ucrânia e a Rússia na parte leste da Ucrânia e a ocupação da Crimeia. A dissertação argumenta também que esta crise é simultaneamente o resultado e a intensificação da colisão entre duas políticas externas antagónicas em relação às contestadas fronteiras da Ucrânia, entre a NATO e a Rússia. Quanto à esfera doméstica e interna da política ucraniana relacionada com a transição recente e incompleta do país após o colapso da União Soviética em 1991 e da sua independência no mesmo ano, lidando ainda hoje o país com problemas como nepotismo, oligarquismo, abuso de poder, corrupção e violação dos direitos humanos, a crise ucraniana tem uma dimensão internacional inseparável. Na perspetiva internacional, os eventos que ocorreram em Kiev em novembro de 2013 podem ser vinculados à competição entre o expansionismo e alargamento do Ocidente para junto das fronteiras Russas. O colapso da União Soviética mergulhou a Rússia na profunda crise nos domínios da identidade nacional, nas esferas da política interna e externa, económica e social. A Rússia enfrentou uma das maiores depressões económicas da sua história. A nivel geopolítico a Rússia enfrentou uma grande mudança na sua história recente, após perder asua influência sobre a esferea de influência tradicional da Europa Leste e nos países Bálticos, bem como o fracasso das políticas económicas de Mikhail Gorbachev. As mudanças geopolíticas transformaram o antigo espaço de influência da então União Soviética em um espaço completamente integrado nas organizações supranacionais ocidentais, nomeadamente a NATO e a União Europeia, organizações que continuam as suas políticas expansionsistas na região vital para a segurança Russa. Apesar disso, a Rússia, exercia os atributos de uma potência mundial, com um assento permanente no Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas, e o segundo maior arsenal nuclear, mas o seu status económico enfraquecido abriu uma contradição entre a aspiração e capacidade do país. Na esfera da política externa, iniciou-se um debate interno sobre que posição e papel a Rússia deveria desempenhar, a nível regional e global no cenário da pós-Guerra Fria. Neste contexto, a Ucrânia é inseparável aliada e escudo, ainda que alguns autores considerem a Ucrânia como um estado buffer ou uma espécie de "ponte" para a Rússia das pressões ocidentais próximas das suas fronteiras, que impede assim o alargamento e expansão da União Europeia e da NATO para o leste europeu, questões essas que são consideradas essenciais na segurança Russa. A discussão acerca da identidade nacional russa remonta ao século XIX, um período de grandes mudanças na Rússia, também conhecido como período renascentista Russo, no qual o país eslavo testemunhou grandes mudanças sobretudo na literatura e na filosofia, com grande influência dos autores como Leo Tolstoy e Fyodor Dostoevsky. A elite e a nobreza russa começaram a separar duas escolas distintas, eslavófilia e ocidentalismo. Por um lado, o ocidentalismo incentivava o desenvolvimento do país de acordo com os princípios e valores europeus e ocidentais. Por outro lado, os eslavófilos argumentavam que a Rússia tinha uma missão histórica e cultural e só poderiam desenvolver-se de acordo com as suas tradições inerentes, sem influência do ocidente. A discussão ainda permanece nos dias de hoje, sobre se a Rússia é única nas suas tradições e deve continuar no seu próprio caminho com distanciamento para com o ocidente ou se o país devia seguir o resto do mundo com uma maior aproximação ao ocidente. Vladimir Putin pretende um posicionamento reconhecível e prestigiado da Rússia no sistema internacional, caracterizado por uma identidade russa única, com base na sua história, legado, língua, cultura, tamanho e obrigação de proteger as suas fronteiras e a sua população. Essa identidade revelase em interesses específicos e no reconhecimento de particular valor à independência e soberania do país como uma grande potência. Essa tentativa de afirmação da Rússia como uma grande potência começou logo após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, época na qual a Rússia, cercada pelo medo e pela incerteza que o mundo atravessava, foi obrigada a reagir, porque havia um sentimento e expectativa de que a guerra realmente não tinha terminado e que a qualquer momento poderia começar outra Guerra. Joseph Stalin impressionado com o poder destrutivo das primeiras bombas atômicas dos Estados Unidos da América, nos bombardeamentos atômicos das cidades de Hiroshima e Nagasaki no Japão, evento que ditou fim a Seguda Grande Guerra, ordenou o seu rápido desenvolvimento no território soviético, com ansiedade de que os EUA pudessem realmente utilizar as bombas contra o espaço da União Soviética. A identidade russa não é suficientemente forte para triunfar e ser reconhecida, está em processo de constante mutação, no qual os interesses internos misturam-se com externos. A Rússia tal como a Ucrânia são países de democracias recentes. Após a dissolução da antiga União Soviética, a Ucrânia procurou um novo caminho e uma maior aproximação com o ocidente, a União Europeia e NATO, o expansionismo e alargamento ao leste europeu dos mesmos eram vistos para o país Ucraniano como uma oportunidade de se "afastar" da Rússia, que assombrava e exercia um poder e uma influência enormes sobre o país desde a formação da antiga União Soviética até aos dias de hoje. O que a Ucrânia mais desejava, era o que a Rússia mais temia, ambições antagónicas dos dois países. Em 2013, o expansionismo e alargamento da União Europeia, sobretudo depois de 2004 contava com vários países a leste europeu, inclusive alguns ex-membros da União Soviética , a Ucrânia ambicionava assinar o Acordo de Associação, que colocaria o país a um passo de se tornar um membro da mesma. Víktor Yanukóvytch, ex-presidente Ucraniano entre 2010-2014, ponderou assinar o acordo, apesar da vontade do povo e do país que ambicionavam um futuro com novos parceiros europeus. No entanto, Víktor Yanukóvytch não chegou a assinar nenhum acordo com União Europeia. De referir que um outro acordo estava nas mãos do Víktor Yanukóvytch, o da União Económica Eurasiática (UEE), Rússia expectava que Ucrânia resistisse e trocasse a União Europeia e a NATO por antigos membros e os seus aliados, nomeadamente voltar a ser um parceiro da Rússia. Após varias tentativas de resistência do Víktor Yanukóvytch para assinar o Acordo de Associação, Kiev começou a testemunhar vários protestos que se intensificavam a cada dia. Um dos protestos e movimentos mais marcantes ficou conhecido como Euromaidan, que simbolizava a "sede" dos Ucranianos para o país se tornar membro da União Europeia. A Ucrânia transformou-se num "tabuleiro" geopolítico e estratégico. A Rússia vê-se obrigada a agir, através das causas externas como a controvérsia geopolítica entre Ocidente e Rússia, a contínua expansão da União Europeia e a NATO nos Bálticos, são dos fatores fulcrais que levaram a Rússia a procurar pontos estratégicos para conter esta aproximação nas suas fronteiras. A intervenção na Crimeia é uma disputa assente na preocupação de Moscovo com os cidadãos da etnia russa na Crimeia (estes constituem mais de metade da população da Crimeia 58,5%), constituíndo um dos argumentos principais do discurso do Vladimir Putin ao tentar legalizar a intervenção na Ucrânia. Assim, o conceito de Mundo Russo, constitui uma figura de imaginação geopolítica, servindo de ferramenta que o Moscovo, sob representação de Vladimir Putin há mais de vinte anos, utiliza para tomar as medidas necessárias para proteger os seus cidadãos fora do país, uma vez que milhões de russos encontravam-se fora do alcance de Moscovo. A literatura considera que a promoção do conceito de Mundo Russo constitui um elemento da ideia de sonho da restauração da Rússia ou da sua influência nas fronteiras da exUnião Soviética. O conceito serve também para a Rússia como um instrumento para projetar o seu soft power. No caso da Ucrânia, a promoção do Mundo Russo tornou-se associada à intervenção militar russa na parte leste da Ucrânia nas cidades de Donetsk e Lugansk, que fazem fronteira com a Rússia, passando assim de soft power a hard power. Assim a Rússia continua em busca de implementar a sua influência no espaço póssoviético, usando a diaspora como justificação, onde as relações linguísticas e culturais entre os seus cidadãos no exterior desempenham papel central e, quando necessário, a intervenção pode estar associada ao uso da força (Geórgia 2008, Ucrânia 2014). É imperativo referir que, na influência da política soviética de domínio da língua russa, ainda está presente na Ucrânia. Após a independência em 1991, a língua ucraniana teve a oportunidade de se tornar a língua oficial e de pleno direito. No entanto, territorialmente, a lingua ucraniana é asimétrica, o que se reflete nas zonas onde a língua russa predomina e consequente bipolaridade da língua ucraniana. Estas circunstâncias estavam entre os principais fatores da erupção de um conflito armado no leste da Ucrânia e da anexação da Península da Criméia pela Federação Russa em 2014. Numa perspetiva histórica, a Crimeia foi conquistada pelo Império Russo durante o reinado de Catarina, a Grande, em 1783, e permaneceu como parte da Rússia até ao ano de 1954, sob o commando e ordem de então líder da União Soviética Nikita Khrushchev foi transferida para a Ucrânia. As razões que levaram para tal acordo de transferência da Crimeia sob commando da Rússia para a Ucrânia ainda não são claras e justificadas, continuam a causar polêmica e discussão aberta entre os historiadores. No entanto, contrariamente aos mitos russos difundidos nos últimos anos, esse ato, em primeiro lugar, não foi um "presente" solidário de Nikita Khrushchev. A transferência da Crimeia em 1954 para a República Soviética da Ucrânia não teve relevância geopolítica enquanto a URSS existisse. O Mar Negro é uma região e componente essencial da nova política russa e a sua tentativa de combater a crescente influência que a NATO tem vindo a exercer nas últimas duas décadas. Os principais objetivos da Rússia não são apenas reforçar a sua fronteira a sul, mas também intimidar os seus vizinhos mais desprotegidos e "bloquear" o acesso e aproximação da NATO a países como Ucrânia e Moldávia e toda a região do Cáucaso. Para a Rússia, a longo prazo, parece que a intenção será, em primeiro lugar, garantir que o Mar Negro seja controlado predominantemente pela Rússia. A Rússia reuniu os argumentos para proteger suas fronteiras, esfera de influência e os seus cidadãos na Ucrânia. Os argumentos foram apresentados no discurso do presidente da Federação Russa, Vladimir Putin, a 18 de Março de 2014. Discutir os conceitos de anexação, reunificação, autodeterminação dos povos e príncipio da integridade territorial torna-se imprescindível para compreender a perspetiva russa. O argumento de Moscovo refere que a Crimeia foi reunificada com a Rússia, e pode ser visível nos discursos politicos e meios de comunicação, pois a reunificação é vista como algo aceitável e uma ação legal, uma perspectiva diferente da ucraniana. Por sua vez, os argumentos dos pró-ucranianos referem-se às ações da Rússia na Crimeia como anexação, uma ação de violação de soberania e integridade territorial ucraniana; os prórussos, por sua vez, consideram que o território foi reunificado. Essa divisão e uso de palavras e conceitos é importante porque faz com que se perceba qual é a posição adotada quando se discutem as ações da Rússia na Crimeia em 2014. A decisão do governo da Crimeia, apoiada maioritariamente pelos resultados do referendo de 2014, de solicitar a reunificação com a Federação Russa foi considerada lícita no discurso de Putin. Com a desordem política em Kiev, tanto as forças militares como os cidadãos pró-Russos na Crimeia decidiram agir e organizaram um referendo em 16 de março de 2014, contanto com grande suporte por parte da Rússia, que se encaregava de conduzir e monitorizar o referendo. O conteúdo dos boletins era muito controverso, pois oferecia aos eleitores apenas duas opções que tanto a opção 1 como a opção 2 beneficiavam uma maior aproximação da Crimeia a Rússia. Apesar do resultado avassalador de (96.77%) segundo fontes oficiais, dos eleitores terem optado por opção 1 que permitia a Crimeia reunificar com Rússia, o referendo ocorrido na Crimeia é considerado illegal. Por sua vez, os resultados do mesmo são considerados legais por parte da Rússia. Através da aplicação da metodogloia de análise crítica do discurso, que melhor se enquadra para a presente investigação, torna-se possível e crucial fragmentar e desconstruir o discurso de legitimização de Vladimir Putin e apresentar os resultados sob uma ótica critica e reflexiva do mesmo. A Rússia reuniu os argumentos para proteger suas fronteiras, esfera de influência e os seus cidadãos na Ucrânia. Os argumentos foram apresentados no discurso do presidente da Federação Russa, Vladimir Putin, a 18 de Março de 2014. Discutir os conceitos de anexação, reunificação, autodeterminação dos povos e príncipio da integridade territorial torna-se imprescindível para compreender a perspetiva russa. O argumento de Moscovo refere que a Crimeia foi reunificada com a Rússia, e pode ser visível nos discursos politicos e meios de comunicação, pois a reunificação é vista como algo aceitável e uma ação legal, uma perspectiva diferente da ucraniana. Por sua vez, os argumentos dos pró-ucranianos referem-se às ações da Rússia na Crimeia como anexação, uma ação de violação de soberania e integridade territorial ucraniana; os prórussos, por sua vez, consideram que o território foi reunificado. Essa divisão e uso de palavras e conceitos é importante porque faz com que se perceba qual é a posição adotada quando se discutem as ações da Rússia na Crimeia em 2014. O lugar da Rússia na ordem internacional mudou significativamente, não apenas devido às ações de 2014 na Ucrânia, mas também ao discurso de criar um novo posicionamento para o país no sistema internacional. Abordar uma Europa pós-Crimeia como realidade social radicalmente diferente devido à intervenção da Rússia na Crimeia é, muito provavelmente, um exagero. Porém, ajuda perceber a estratégia russa no espaço póssoviético que, perante a impossibilidade de controlar Kiev, opta pela divisão formal (com recurso ao soft e hard power) da Ucrânia em esferas de influência. Este estudo pretende assim contribuir com a literatura sobre a crise da Crimeia de 2014, a política externa da Rússia e o discurso político.
The Malawi Urbanization Review aims to provide fresh perspectives on urbanization in Malawi, by analyzing the current and potential contribution of urbanization to long-term national development and the current institutional and financial capacity of local governments to manage the process. Analyses presented in this report are particularly timely as Malawi is planning for the coming half decade through the Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS) III (2016-2020). Malawi is urbanizing at a moderate rate and has a good chance of proactively managing the urbanization process. Opportunities may arise from a positive structural change that Malawi's economy is undergoing, whereby the driver of growth and job creation moves from agriculture to non-agricultural sectors. Faster urbanization, with strong linkages with rural areas, can contribute further to deepening such structural change. To unlock the potential of urbanization as a catalyst for long-term economic development, it is necessary to strengthen the capacity of urban local governments to generate revenues and meet the key infrastructure and service needs in urban areas, which remain challenging even at the current rate of urbanization.
El G-20 es un bloque de países constituido en 1999 por las ocho naciones más industrializadas y los once países con las principales economías emergentes de diversas partes del globo y la Unión Europea como unidad. Este bloque se reunió en Washington para realizar un foro de cooperación y consultas entre los países sobre temas relacionados en encontrar una solución a la crisis financiera mundial. Los asistentes a la cumbre rechazaron el proteccionismo y coincidieron en renunciar a establecer en los próximos 12 meses "nuevas barreras a la inversión y al comercio de bienes y servicios". Varios medios informan al respecto: "El País" de Madrid: "El G-20 acuerda una acción pública masiva: La cumbre fija que los Gobiernos usen estímulos fiscales a la economía - Se crean grupos de trabajo para la reforma financiera - Impulso a la liberalización comercial": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/G-20/acuerda/accion/publica/masiva/elppgl/20081116elpepieco_2/Tes"Bush: "Ha sido un éxito, pero queda mucho por hacer": Los líderes del G-20 se muestran satisfechos con los resultados de la cumbre de Washington": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/Bush/Ha/sido/exito/queda/mucho/hacer/elppgl/20081116elpepueco_1/Tes""Es el momento de que el G-20 sustituya al G-7"": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/momento/G-20/sustituya/G-7/elppgl/20081116elpepieco_12/Tes "Le Monde":"Le G20 se donne 4 mois pour renouer avec la croissance": http://www.lemonde.fr/la-crise-financiere/article/2008/11/16/le-g20-se-donne-4-mois-pour-renouer-avec-la-croissance_1119294_1101386.html#ens_id=1118383"Les pays du G20 s'accordent sur des grands principes et un plan d'action": http://www.lemonde.fr/la-crise-financiere/article/2008/11/15/les-pays-du-g20-s-accordent-sur-des-grands-principes-et-un-plan-d-action_1119261_1101386.html#ens_id=1118383"Le G20 tout près d'adopter un "plan d'action" contre la crise": http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2008/11/15/le-g20-tout-pres-d-adopter-un-plan-d-action-contre-la-crise_1119225_3234.html#ens_id=1118383 "New York Times":"World Leaders Vow Joint Push to Aid Economy":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/16/business/worldbusiness/16summit.html?ref=world"As Leaders Wrestle With Economy, Developing Nations Get Ringside Seats": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/16/washington/16leaders.html?_r=1&ref=world&oref=slogin "New York Times" presenta sitio con links a artículos relacionados a la cumbre: http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/g/group_of_20/index.html "CNN": "CNN" presenta sitio con links a artículos relacionados a la cumbre: http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/business/2008/11/15/quest.intv.hennessey.g20.cnn "Time":"Europe's Hopes for G-20 Summit Risk Being Dashed":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1858863,00.html "MSNBC":"Reshaping of world financial system outlined: China, Brazil, India would take a greater role, G-20 leaders say": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27742573/ "Los Ángeles Times":"G-20 economic summit brings pledges of teamwork": http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-summit16-2008nov16,0,3993269.story"Text of Bush's remarks on economic summit": http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-bushtext16-2008nov16,0,4618769.story"Summit of G20 nations is unlikely to produce quick solutions": http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-summit14-2008nov14,0,2420401.story "Times":"Brown claims G20 success as world leaders agree tax and interest rate cuts": http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/economics/article5163072.ece"G20 declaration: text in full.Summit on financial markets and the world economy": http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/economics/article5162735.ece "La Nación":"Bush, en una cena que tuvo el sabor de la despedida: Fue la última que compartió como presidente con otros mandatarios":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070719"El G-20 impulsó más regulaciones: Acordó mejorar los controles sobre los mercados internacionales y coordinar los esfuerzos para evitar una nueva debacle mundial": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070714 "The Economist": "The global economic summit: After the fall. World leaders are meeting in Washington, DC, to fix finance. They have their work cut out": http://www.economist.com/finance/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12610564&source=features_box_main "After the fall: On November 15th world leaders are due to sit around a table in Washington, DC, to fix finance. They have their work cut out": http://www.economist.com/finance/displayStory.cfm?source=hptextfeature&story_id=12597176"BBC":"Summit shows times have changed": http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7731889.stm"G20 summit: In quotes : Global leaders at the G20 financial summit in Washington have pledged to work together to restore world economic growth, and to carry out reforms of the economic system.": http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7731735.stm "China Daily": "G20 summit adopts action plan to implement principles of reform: Washington summit targets at crisis": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-11/16/content_7208365.htm "El Mercurio" de Chile: "Líderes mundiales acuerdan mayores medidas fiscales y reformar el sistema financiero": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/16/internacional/_portada/noticias/9F784923-2CE0-437E-B629-3DA069CC6711.htm?id={9F784923-2CE0-437E-B629-3DA069CC6711} AMERICA LATINA"El País" de Madrid informa: " Nicaragua rechaza la mediación internacional": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Nicaragua/rechaza/mediacion/internacional/elpepuint/20081116elpepiint_4/Tes"The Economist" analiza: "Nicaragua: How to steal an election. Daniel Ortega sets an ugly precedent": http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12607338"La Nación" publica: "Nicaragua: la oposición desafía al oficialismo con una nueva marcha. Se manifestarán en reclamo por los resultados de las últimas elecciones": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071330"CNN" plantea: "Chinese president visits Cuba to strengthen ties": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/11/18/hu.cuba.ap/index.htmlA horas de elecciones en Venezuela: "La Nación" informa: "Opositores venezolanos afirman que son vigilados: El gobierno graba conversaciones y viola la vida privada, sostienen": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070612"El Universal" de México publica: "Los nervios de Hugo Chávez: El presidente venezolano anda de malas. Las encuestas vaticinan que su partido sufrirá golpes en las elecciones del 23 de noviembre": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/59638.html"El Mercurio" de Chile plantea: "Hugo Chávez amenaza con cerrar medios de prensa: Mandatario prepara medidas para las municipales del 23 de noviembre.": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/2BBAC319-5E8F-4C75-942E-8A7FC8670098.htm?id={2BBAC319-5E8F-4C75-942E-8A7FC8670098}"Le Monde" anuncia: "Dans l'Etat vénézuélien de Barinas, fief des Chavez, les élections locales sont une affaire de famille": http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2008/11/18/dans-l-etat-venezuelien-de-barinas-fief-des-chavez-les-elections-locales-sont-une-affaire-de-famille_1119994_3222.html#ens_id=1120093"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Se toman la justicia en sus manos y linchan a supuestos ladrones. Once presuntos delincuentes fueron golpeados y quemados por una turba. Dos de ellos murieron.": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/18/internacional/internacional/noticias/C0644F52-B588-4564-B90C-41CBEDD128B1.htm?id={C0644F52-B588-4564-B90C-41CBEDD128B1}"MSNBC" anuncia: "Alleged Pinochet victim turns up alive in Chile: Discovery fuels outrage in nation mourning 1,196 other political prisoners": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27789538/"El Mercurio" de Chile plantea: "Diputados rebeldes fracturan el kirchnerismo : "Hoy no hay libertad de opinión en el peronismo", sostuvo anoche Felipe Solá, el parlamentario que anunció la división.": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/18/internacional/_portada/noticias/8A1B80A2-22D2-4A10-A9D6-31A9D9C23EA8.htm?id={8A1B80A2-22D2-4A10-A9D6-31A9D9C23EA8} ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADA"El Universal" de México publica: "Insulta Al-Qaeda a Barack Obama: En un mensaje difundido en internet, el segundo dirigente más importante de la organización terrorista, Ayman al-Zawahri afirmó que Obama es 'justo lo contrario de los honorables negros estadounidenses', como el activista Malcolm X, asesinado en 1965": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/556491.html"El País" de Madrid informa: " Obama se despide de Chicago: El presidente electo de EE UU agradece el apoyo prestado por la gente de Illinois en su adiós al Senado": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/despide/Chicago/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_11/Tes"CNN" publica: "Bill Clinton could pose Cabinet problem":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/17/clinton.cabinet/index.html"BBC" anuncia: "Obama promete gobierno bipartidista : El presidente electo de Estados Unidos, Barack Obama, prometió a su ex rival republicano, John McCain, trabajar juntos en una "nueva era de reformas" para restablecer la confianza de los ciudadanos en el gobierno.": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7734000/7734679.stm"The Economist" analiza:"Launching Hillary at the world: The surprising idea that Hillary Clinton could become Barack Obama's secretary of state": http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12627393&source=features_box_main"Change.gov: The transition to a new administration is already well under way": http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12607222"La Nación" plantea: "Obama y McCain unen fuerzas: Ayer se reunieron para coordinar acciones que permitan resolver los problemas de EE.UU.":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071204 "El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Obama recibe a McCain en un gesto que muestra su interés por el trabajo bipartidista": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/18/internacional/_portada/noticias/B0C58433-C5F2-4D5C-AB4C-B4832D06443C.htm?id={B0C58433-C5F2-4D5C-AB4C-B4832D06443C}En su columna para "La Nación" Andrés Oppenheimer analiza: "El nuevo equipo para la región": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071205"El País" de Madrid informa: "El fuego destruye 600 casas móviles en su avance hacia Los Ángeles: El alcalde de la ciudad no descarta cortar el suministro eléctrico por motivos de seguridad": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/fuego/destruye/600/casas/moviles/avance/Angeles/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_1/Tes"La Nación" publica: "Hay 10.000 evacuados: Se extiende el incendio que afecta Los Angeles": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070638 EUROPA"El Tiempo" de Colombia anuncia: "Cumbre bilateral extraordinaria sobre lucha antiterrorista celebrarán Zapatero y Sarkozy":http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/home/cumbre-bilateral-extraordinaria-sobre-lucha-antiterrorista-celebraran-zapatero-y-sarkozy_4670349-1"El País" de Madrid informa: "El congreso socialista francés fracasa y finaliza sin líder: El alcalde de París, Bertrand Delanöe, se ha retirado de la contienda para presidir la formación": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/congreso/socialista/frances/fracasa/finaliza/lider/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_10/Tes"BBC" analiza: "Atrapan al "jefe" militar de ETAEl presunto jefe militar de la organización separatista vasca Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) fue arrestado en la madrugada del lunes en el sur de Francia, informó la ministra del Interior francesa.": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7732000/7732693.stm"La Nación" publica: "Giro en España: Garzón renunció a investigar la represión franquista: El magistrado español lo hizo para evitar que se lo declare incompetente por el máximo tribunal":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071313"El País" de Madrid plantea: "Reino Unido estudia enviar otros 2.000 soldados a Afganistán: Altos cargos militares expresan dudas sobre el aumento del despliegue": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Reino/Unido/estudia/enviar/otros/2000/soldados/Afganistan/elpepuint/20081115elpepiint_8/Tes"Le Monde" anuncia: "La CIJ instruira la plainte pour génocide de la Croatie contre la Serbie":http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2008/11/18/la-cij-instruira-la-plainte-pour-genocide-de-la-croatie-contre-la-serbie_1120200_3214.html#ens_id=1120203"CNN" informa: "Croatia, Serbia genocide case to proceed": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/11/18/croatia.serbia.icj/index.htmlAsia – Pacífico /Medio OrieNTE"New York Times" informa: "Maritime Hijackings Decrease in Asia": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19asiaships.html?ref=world"CNN" publica: "Markets mixed following falls across Asia": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/11/18/world.markets.down/index.html"China Daily" anuncia: "Powerful Indonesia quake kills 4": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-11/18/content_7214022.htm"China Daily" plantea: "Japan's economy unlikely to achieve growth in 2009: official": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-11/18/content_7215971.htm"La Nación" analiza: "Japón, otro gigante económico afectado por la recesión: La segunda economía del mundo se sumó a Estados Unidos y Europa; el FMI reclama fondos": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071225"Miami Herald" publica: "Schoolgirls' bus bombed in Iraq; 2nd blast hits rescuers: Two deadly explosions during Baghdad's rush hour -- the first wrecking a bus carrying girls -- marked a surge in violence in Iraq.":http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/story/765709.html"MSNBC" informa: "Beijing to Tibet: Any independence bid will fail: Comments come as Tibetan leaders meet to re-evaluate their strategy": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27789054/"Miami Herald" publica: "Bush's Mideast peace efforts ending, with few gains: The attempt to broker an accord between Israel and the Palestinians now falls to the incoming Obama administration.": http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/story/764370.html"New York Times" anuncia: "Iran's Parliament Confirms Interior Minister": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/middleeast/19iran.html?ref=world"CNN" plantea: "NATO forces fire on militants in Pakistan": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/11/18/pakistan.nato/index.html"MSNBC" publica: "Gaza militants killed in retaliatory airstrike": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27754100/"El País" de Madrid anuncia: "El Consejo de Ministros iraquí aprueba el pacto de seguridad con EE UU: El acuerdo estipula la retirada de las tropas estadounidenses del país árabe para finales de 2011": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Consejo/Ministros/iraqui/aprueba/pacto/seguridad/EE/UU/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_8/Tes"New York Times" informa: "Iraqi Leader Defends Security Agreement":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/middleeast/19iraq.html?_r=1&ref=world&oref=slogin AFRICA"El País" de Madrid informa: "El líder rebelde Nkunda acepta abrir un proceso de paz en Congo: Tras la reunión con el enviado especial de la ONU, los disidentes están de acuerdo en cesar las hostilidades y negociar con el Gobierno": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/lider/rebelde/Nkunda/acepta/abrir/proceso/paz/Congo/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_9/Tes"New York Times" plantea: "CongoViolenceReachesEndangeredMountain Gorillas": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/18/world/africa/18congo.html?ref=world"CNN" anuncia: "Congo: Rebel leader orders troops out of town": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/11/18/congo.ceasefire.rebels/index.html"Miami Herald" publica: "UN expects to police new Congo buffer zones": http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/AP/story/776032.html"BBC" informa: "Congo: Líder rebelde apoya proceso de paz. El enviado de la ONU a la República Democrática del Congo, el ex presidente de Nigeria, Olusegun Obasanjo, dijo que el líder de las fuerzas rebeldes, Laurent Nkunda, reafirmó su disposición a mantener el cese el fuego siempre y cuando lo respeten también las tropas del gobierno.":http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7731000/7731974.stm"El País" de Madrid anuncia: "Al menos 59 muertos en accidente de tráfico al sur de Burkina Faso: Un autobús que transportaba a 75 personas y un camión se incendiaron tras colisionar en las inmediaciones de Boromo": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/59/muertos/accidente/trafico/sur/Burkina/Faso/elpepuint/20081115elpepuint_9/Tes "The Economist" analiza: "Rwanda and Europe: Judicial politics of a genocide. The arrest of a senior Rwandan official causes a storm": http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12609912 ECONOMÍA"New York Times" informa: "Emerging Countries Called Key to Global Recovery": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/business/worldbusiness/19yuan.html?ref=business "BBC" analiza: "¿Crisis alimentaria en ciernes?: El precio de los alimentos se ha encarecido 45% en los últimos nueve meses y en diciembre pasado se registró el alza de precios mensual más alta en casi 20 años, de acuerdo a las estadísticas de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación, la FAO": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/business/newsid_7340000/7340988.stm"The Economist" publica su informe semanal: "Business this week": http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12609735 OTRAS NOTICIAS"La Nación" informa: "Un barrio de Berlín alienta un inédito baby boom en Alemania: Allí viven familias jóvenes que tienen un promedio de 2,1 hijos contra 1,5 en Europa": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070597"CNN" publica: "Pirates grab more ships, captured tanker docked": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/11/18/kenya.tanker.pirates/index.html"BBC" plantea: "Piratas con 2 millones de barriles de crudo": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7735000/7735001.stm
Breast cancer (BC) risk for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers varies by genetic and familial factors. About 50 common variants have been shown to modify BC risk for mutation carriers. All but three, were identified in general population studies. Other mutation carrier-specific susceptibility variants may exist but studies of mutation carriers have so far been underpowered. We conduct a novel case-only genome-wide association study comparing genotype frequencies between 60,212 general population BC cases and 13,007 cases with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. We identify robust novel associations for 2 variants with BC for BRCA1 and 3 for BRCA2 mutation carriers, P < 10-8, at 5 loci, which are not associated with risk in the general population. They include rs60882887 at 11p11.2 where MADD, SP11 and EIF1, genes previously implicated in BC biology, are predicted as potential targets. These findings will contribute towards customising BC polygenic risk scores for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. ; BCAC acknowledgements. We thank all the individuals who took part in these studies and all the researchers, clinicians, technicians and administrative staff who have enabled this work to be carried out. ABCFS thank Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Gillian Dite. ABCS thanks the Blood bank Sanquin, The Netherlands. ABCTB Investigators: Christine Clarke, Deborah Marsh, Rodney Scott, Robert Baxter, Desmond Yip, Jane Carpenter, Alison Davis, Nirmala Pathmanathan, Peter Simpson, J. Dinny Graham, Mythily Sachchithananthan. Samples are made available to researchers on a non-exclusive basis. BBCS thanks Eileen Williams, Elaine Ryder-Mills, Kara Sargus. BCEES thanks Allyson Thomson, Christobel Saunders, Terry Slevin, BreastScreen Western Australia, Elizabeth Wylie, Rachel Lloyd. The BCINIS study would not have been possible without the contributions of Dr. K. Landsman, Dr. N. Gronich, Dr. A. Flugelman, Dr. W. Saliba, Dr. E. Liani, Dr. I. Cohen, Dr. S. Kalet, Dr. V. Friedman, Dr. O. Barnet of the NICCC in Haifa, and all the contributing family medicine, surgery, pathology and oncology teams in all medical institutes in Northern Israel. The BREOGAN study would not have been possible without the contributions of the following: Manuela Gago-Dominguez, Jose Esteban Castelao, Angel Carracedo, Victor Munoz Garzon, Alejandro Novo Dominguez, Maria Elena Martinez, Sara Miranda Ponte, Carmen Redondo Marey, Maite Pena Fernandez, Manuel Enguix Castelo, Maria Torres, Manuel Calaza (BREOGAN), Jose Antunez, Maximo Fraga and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of the University Hospital Complex of Santiago-CHUS, Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago, IDIS, Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Santiago-SERGAS; Joaquin Gonzalez-Carrero and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of University Hospital Complex of Vigo, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur, SERGAS, Vigo, Spain. BSUCH thanks Peter Bugert, Medical Faculty Mannheim. CBCS thanks study participants, co-investigators, collaborators and staff of the Canadian Breast Cancer Study, and project coordinators Agnes Lai and Celine Morissette. CCGP thanks Styliani Apostolaki, Anna Margiolaki, Georgios Nintos, Maria Perraki, Georgia Saloustrou, Georgia Sevastaki, Konstantinos Pompodakis. CGPS thanks staff and participants of the Copenhagen General Population Study. For the excellent technical assistance: Dorthe Uldall Andersen, Maria Birna Arnadottir, Anne Bank, Dorthe Kjeldgard Hansen. The Danish Cancer Biobank is acknowledged for providing infrastructure for the collection of blood samples for the cases. CNIO-BCS thanks Guillermo Pita, Charo Alonso, Nuria alvarez, Pilar Zamora, Primitiva Menendez, the Human Genotyping-CEGEN Unit (CNIO). The CTS Steering Committee includes Leslie Bernstein, Susan Neuhausen, James Lacey, Sophia Wang, Huiyan Ma, and Jessica Clague DeHart at the Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Dennis Deapen, Rich Pinder, and Eunjung Lee at the University of Southern California, Pam Horn-Ross, Peggy Reynolds, Christina Clarke Dur and David Nelson at the Cancer Prevention Institute of California, Hoda Anton-Culver, Argyrios Ziogas, and Hannah Park at the University of California Irvine, and Fred Schumacher at Case Western University. DIETCOMPLYF thanks the patients, nurses and clinical staff involved in the study. The DietCompLyf study was funded by the charity Against Breast Cancer (Registered Charity Number 1121258) and the NCRN. We thank the participants and the investigators of EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition). ESTHER thanks Hartwig Ziegler, Sonja Wolf, Volker Hermann, Christa Stegmaier, Katja Butterbach. GC-HBOC thanks Stefanie Engert, Heide Hellebrand, Sandra Krober and LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nuchter, Ronny Baber). The GENICA Network: Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch-Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, and University of Tubingen, Germany [HB, Wing-Yee Lo], German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Partner Site Tubingen [[HB], gefordert durch die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) im Rahmen der Exzellenzstrategie des Bundes und der Lander - EXC 2180 - 390900677 [HB], Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany [YDK, Christian Baisch], Institute of Pathology, University of Bonn, Germany [Hans-Peter Fischer], Molecular Genetics of Breast Cancer, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany [Ute Hamann], Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, Germany [Thomas Bruning, Beate Pesch, Sylvia Rabstein, Anne Lotz]; and Institute of Occupational Medicine and Maritime Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany [Volker Harth]. HABCS thanks Michael Bremer. HEBCS thanks Kirsimari Aaltonen, Irja Erkkila. HUBCS thanks Shamil Gantsev. KARMA and SASBAC thank the Swedish Medical Research Counsel. KBCP thanks Eija Myohanen, Helena Kemilainen. kConFab/AOCS wish to thank Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow-Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab. LMBC thanks Gilian Peuteman, Thomas Van Brussel, EvyVanderheyden and Kathleen Corthouts. MARIE thanks Petra Seibold, Dieter Flesch-Janys, Judith Heinz, Nadia Obi, Alina Vrieling, Sabine Behrens, Ursula Eilber, Muhabbet Celik, Til Olchers and Stefan Nickels. MBCSG (Milan Breast Cancer Study Group): Mariarosaria Calvello, Davide Bondavalli, Aliana Guerrieri Gonzaga, Monica Marabelli, Irene Feroce, and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory. The MCCS was made possible by the contribution of many people, including the original investigators, the teams that recruited the participants and continue working on follow-up, and the many thousands of Melbourne residents who continue to participate in the study. We thank the coordinators, the research staff and especially the MMHS participants for their continued collaboration on research studies in breast cancer. MSKCC thanks Marina Corines, Lauren Jacobs. MTLGEBCS would like to thank Martine Tranchant (CHU de Quebec - Universite Laval Research Center), Marie-France Valois, Annie Turgeon and Lea Heguy (McGill University Health Center, Royal Victoria Hospital; McGill University) for DNA extraction, sample management and skilful technical assistance. J.S. is Chair holder of the Canada Research Chair in Oncogenetics. NBHS and SBCGS thank study participants and research staff for their contributions and commitment to the studies. For NHS and NHS2 the study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards of the Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and those of participating registries as required. We would like to thank the participants and staff of the NHS and NHS2 for their valuable contributions as well as the following state cancer registries for their help: A.L., A.Z., A.R., C.A., C.O., C.T., D.E., F.L., G.A., I.D., I.L., I.N., I.A., K.Y., L.A., M.E., M.D., M.A., M.I., N.E., N.H., N.J., N.Y., N.C., N.D., O.H., O.K., O.R., P.A., R.I., S.C., T.N., T.X., V.A., W.A., and W.Y. The authors assume full responsibility for analyses and interpretation of these data. OFBCR thanks Teresa Selander, Nayana Weerasooriya. ORIGO thanks E. Krol-Warmerdam, and J. Blom for patient accrual, administering questionnaires, and managing clinical information. PBCS thanks Louise Brinton, Mark Sherman, Neonila Szeszenia-Dabrowska, Beata Peplonska, Witold Zatonski, Pei Chao, Michael Stagner. The ethical approval for the POSH study is MREC /00/6/69, UKCRN ID: 1137. We thank staff in the Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre (ECMC) supported Faculty of Medicine Tissue Bank and the Faculty of Medicine DNA Banking resource. RBCS thanks Jannet Blom, Saskia Pelders, Annette Heemskerk and the Erasmus MC Family Cancer Clinic. We thank the SEARCH and EPIC teams. SKKDKFZS thanks all study participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers and technicians for their contributions and commitment to this study. SZBCS thanks Ewa Putresza. UCIBCS thanks Irene Masunaka. UKBGS thanks Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research for support and funding of the Breakthrough Generations Study, and the study participants, study staff, and the doctors, nurses and other health care providers and health information sources who have contributed to the study. We acknowledge NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/ICR NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. We acknowledge funding to the Manchester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (IS-BRC-1215-20007). The authors thank the WHI investigators and staff for their dedication and the study participants for making the program possible. CIMBA acknowledgments. All the families and clinicians who contribute to the studies; Catherine M. Phelan for her contribution to CIMBA until she passed away on 22 September 2017; Sue Healey, in particular taking on the task of mutation classification with the late Olga Sinilnikova; Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Gillian Dite, Helen Tsimiklis; members and participants in the New York site of the Breast Cancer Family Registry; members and participants in the Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry; Vilius Rudaitis and Laimonas Grikeviius; Drs Janis Eglitis, Anna Krilova and Aivars Stengrevics; Yuan Chun Ding and Linda Steele for their work in participant enrollment and biospecimen and data management; Bent Ejlertsen and Anne-Marie Gerdes for the recruitment and genetic counseling of participants; Alicia Barroso, Rosario Alonso and Guillermo Pita; all the individuals and the researchers who took part in CONSIT TEAM (Consorzio Italiano Tumori Ereditari Alla Mammella), in particular: Bernard Peissel, Dario Zimbalatti, Daniela Zaffaroni, Alessandra Viel, Giuseppe Giannini Liliana Varesco, Viviana Gismondi, Maria Grazia Tibiletti, Daniela Furlan, Antonella Savarese, Aline Martayan, Stefania Tommasi, Brunella Pilato and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory, Milan, Italy. Ms. JoEllen Weaver and Dr. Betsy Bove; FPGMX: members of the Cancer Genetics group (IDIS): Marta Santamarina, Miguel Aguado and Olivia Rios; IFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nuchter, Ronny Baber); We thank all participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers, and technicians for their contributions and commitment to the DKFZ study and the collaborating groups in Lahore, Pakistan (Noor Muhammad, Sidra Gull, Seerat Bajwa, Faiz Ali Khan, Humaira Naeemi, Saima Faisal, Asif Loya, Mohammed Aasim Yusuf) and Bogota, Colombia (Ignacio Briceno, Fabian Gil). Genetic Modifiers of Cancer Risk in BRCA1/2 Mutation Carriers (GEMO) study is a study from the National Cancer Genetics Network UNICANCER Genetic Group, France. We wish to pay a tribute to Olga M. Sinilnikova, who with Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet initiated and coordinated GEMO until she sadly passed away on the 30th June 2014. The team in Lyon (Olga Sinilnikova, Melanie Leone, Laure Barjhoux, Carole Verny-Pierre, Sylvie Mazoyer, Francesca Damiola, Valerie Sornin) managed the GEMO samples until the biological resource centre was transferred to Paris in December 2015 (Noura Mebirouk, Fabienne Lesueur, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet). We want to thank all the GEMO collaborating groups for their contribution to this study: Coordinating Centre, Service de Genetique, Institut Curie, Paris, France: Muriel Belotti, Ophelie Bertrand, Anne-Marie Birot, Bruno Buecher, Sandrine Caputo, Anais Dupre, Emmanuelle Fourme, Marion Gauthier-Villars, Lisa Golmard, Claude Houdayer, Marine Le Mentec, Virginie Moncoutier, Antoine de Pauw, Claire Saule, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet, and Inserm U900, Institut Curie, Paris, France: Fabienne Lesueur, Noura Mebirouk. Contributing Centres: Unite Mixte de Genetique Constitutionnelle des Cancers Frequents, Hospices Civils de Lyon - Centre Leon Berard, Lyon, France: Nadia Boutry-Kryza, Alain Calender, Sophie Giraud, Melanie Leone. Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France: Brigitte Bressac-de-Paillerets, Olivier Caron, Marine Guillaud-Bataille. Centre Jean Perrin, Clermont-Ferrand, France: Yves-Jean Bignon, Nancy Uhrhammer. Centre Leon Berard, Lyon, France: Valerie Bonadona, Christine Lasset. Centre Francois Baclesse, Caen, France: Pascaline Berthet, Laurent Castera, Dominique Vaur. Institut Paoli Calmettes, Marseille, France: Violaine Bourdon, Catherine Nogues, Tetsuro Noguchi, Cornel Popovici, Audrey Remenieras, Hagay Sobol. CHU Arnaud-de-Villeneuve, Montpellier, France: Isabelle Coupier, Pascal Pujol. Centre Oscar Lambret, Lille, France: Claude Adenis, Aurelie Dumont, Francoise Revillion. Centre Paul Strauss, Strasbourg, France: Daniele Muller. Institut Bergonie, Bordeaux, France: Emmanuelle Barouk-Simonet, Francoise Bonnet, Virginie Bubien, Michel Longy, Nicolas Sevenet, Institut Claudius Regaud, Toulouse, France: Laurence Gladieff, Rosine Guimbaud, Viviane Feillel, Christine Toulas. CHU Grenoble, France: Helene Dreyfus, Christine Dominique Leroux, Magalie Peysselon, Rebischung. CHU Dijon, France: Amandine Baurand, Geoffrey Bertolone, Fanny Coron, Laurence Faivre, Caroline Jacquot, Sarab Lizard. CHU St-Etienne, France: Caroline Kientz, Marine Lebrun, Fabienne Prieur. Hotel Dieu Centre Hospitalier, Chambery, France: Sandra Fert Ferrer. Centre Antoine Lacassagne, Nice, France: Veronique Mari. CHU Limoges, France: Laurence Venat-Bouvet. CHU Nantes, France: Stephane Bezieau, Capucine Delnatte. CHU Bretonneau, Tours and Centre Hospitalier de Bourges France: Isabelle Mortemousque. Groupe Hospitalier Pitie-Salpetriere, Paris, France: Chrystelle Colas, Florence Coulet, Florent Soubrier, Mathilde Warcoin. CHU Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France: Myriam Bronner, Johanna Sokolowska. CHU Besancon, France: Marie-Agnes Collonge-Rame, Alexandre Damette. CHU Poitiers, Centre Hospitalier d'Angouleme and Centre Hospitalier de Niort, France: Paul Gesta. Centre Hospitalier de La Rochelle: Hakima Lallaoui. CHU Nimes Caremeau, France: Jean Chiesa. CHI Poissy, France: Denise Molina-Gomes. CHU Angers, France: Olivier Ingster; Ilse Coene en Brecht Crombez; Ilse Coene and Brecht Crombez; Alicia Tosar and Paula Diaque; Drs.Sofia Khan, Taru A. Muranen, Carl Blomqvist, Irja Erkkila and Virpi Palola; The Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Research Group Netherlands (HEBON) consists of the following Collaborating Centers: Coordinating center: Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, NL: M.A. Rookus, F.B.L. Hogervorst, F.E. van Leeuwen, S. Verhoef, M.K. Schmidt, N.S. Russell, D.J. Jenner; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, NL: J.M. Collee, A.M.W. van den Ouweland, M.J. Hooning, C. Seynaeve, C.H.M. van Deurzen, I.M. Obdeijn; Leiden University Medical Center, NL: C.J. van Asperen, J.T. Wijnen, R.A.E.M. Tollenaar, P. Devilee, T.C.T.E.F. van Cronenburg; Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, NL: C.M. Kets, A.R. Mensenkamp; University Medical Center Utrecht, NL: M.G.E.M. Ausems, R.B. van der Luijt, C.C. van der Pol; Amsterdam Medical Center, NL: C.M. Aalfs, T.A.M. van Os; VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, NL: J.J.P. Gille, Q. Waisfisz, H.E.J. Meijers-Heijboer; University Hospital Maastricht, NL: E.B. Gomez-Garcia, M.J. Blok; University Medical Center Groningen, NL: J.C. Oosterwijk, A.H. van der Hout, M.J. Mourits, G.H. de Bock; The Netherlands Foundation for the detection of hereditary tumours, Leiden, NL: H.F. Vasen; The Netherlands Comprehensive Cancer Organization (IKNL): S. Siesling, J.Verloop; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; Dr Martine Dumont for sample management and skillful assistance; Ana Peixoto, Catarina Santos and Pedro Pinto; members of the Center of Molecular Diagnosis, Oncogenetics Department and Molecular Oncology Research Center of Barretos Cancer Hospital; Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow-Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab; the investigators of the Australia New Zealand NRG Oncology group; members and participants in the Ontario Cancer Genetics Network; Leigha Senter, Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, Julia Cooper, Amber Aielts, and Michelle O'Conor; HVH: acknowledgments to the Cellex Foundation for providing research facilities and equipment. Dr Juliette Coignard was supported by a fellowship of INCa Institut National du Cancer N degrees 2015-181, la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer IP/SC-15229 and Olga Sinilnikova's fellowship (2016). BCAC Funding. BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A16563, C1287/A10118], the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant numbers 634935 and 633784 for BRIDGES and B-CAST respectively), and by the European Communitys Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme funding source had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing of the report. Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the NIH Grant U19 CA148065, and Cancer UK Grant C1287/A16563 and the PERSPECTIVE project supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant GPH-129344) and, the Ministere de l'Economie, Science et Innovation du Quebec through Genome Quebec and the PSRSIIRI-701 grant, and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia) and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363]. The Australian Breast Cancer Tissue Bank (ABCTB) was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Cancer Institute NSW and the National Breast Cancer Foundation. The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). The BCEES was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia and the Cancer Council Western Australia and acknowledges funding from the National Breast Cancer Foundation (JS). For the BCFR-NY, BCFR-PA, BCFR-UT this work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. The BREast Oncology GAlician Network (BREOGAN) is funded by Accion Estrategica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI12/02125/Cofinanciado FEDER; Accion Estrategica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136); Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur. Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Vigo-SERGAS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grant 10CSA012E, Conselleria de Industria Programa Sectorial de Investigacion Aplicada, PEME I + D e I + D Suma del Plan Gallego de Investigacion, Desarrollo e Innovacion Tecnologica de la Conselleria de Industria de la Xunta de Galicia, Spain; Grant EC11-192. Fomento de la Investigacion Clinica Independiente, Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, Spain; and Grant FEDER-Innterconecta. Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Xunta de Galicia, Spain. The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). CBCS is funded by the Canadian Cancer Society (grant # 313404) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. CCGP is supported by funding from the University of Crete. The CECILE study was supported by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Agence Nationale de Securite Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council, and Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. The CNIO-BCS was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, the Red Tematica de Investigacion Cooperativa en Cancer and grants from the Asociacion Espanola Contra el Cancer and the Fondo de Investigacion Sanitario (PI11/00923 and PI12/00070). The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is currently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398, UM1 CA164917, and U01 CA199277). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. The University of Westminster curates the DietCompLyf database funded by Against Breast Cancer Registered Charity No. 1121258 and the NCRN. The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Generale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucia, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Wurttemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). The GC-HBOC (German Consortium of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer) is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, coordinator: Rita K. Schmutzler, Cologne). This work was also funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0 and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The GESBC was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e. V. [70492] and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The HABCS study was supported by the Claudia von Schilling Foundation for Breast Cancer Research, by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society, and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki UniversityHospital Research Fund, the Finnish Cancer Society, and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HUBCS was supported by a grant from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (RUS08/017), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations for support the Bioresource collections and RFBR grants 14-04-97088, 17-29-06014 and 17-44-020498. Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (ALF) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Marit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. kConFab is supported by a grant from the National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. Financial support for the AOCS was provided by the United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command [DAMD17-01-1-0729], Cancer Council Victoria, Queensland Cancer Fund, Cancer Council New South Wales, Cancer Council South Australia, The Cancer Foundation of Western Australia, Cancer Council Tasmania and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC; 400413, 400281, 199600). G.C.T. and P.W. are supported by the NHMRC. RB was a Cancer Institute NSW Clinical Research Fellow. LMBC is supported by the 'Stichting tegen Kanker'. The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419, 110826, 110828], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC; IG2014 no.15547) to P. Radice. The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer [CA116201], and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study (MCCS) cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further augmented by Australian National Health and Medical Research Council grants 209057, 396414 and 1074383 and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. The MEC was support by NIH grants CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839 and CA164973. The MISS study is supported by funding from ERC-2011-294576 Advanced grant, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Local hospital funds, Berta Kamprad Foundation, Gunnar Nilsson. The MMHS study was supported by NIH grants CA97396, CA128931, CA116201, CA140286 and CA177150. MSKCC is supported by grants from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative. The work of MTLGEBCS was supported by the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program - grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade - grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. The NBHS was supported by NIH grant R01CA100374. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The Northern California Breast Cancer Family Registry (NC-BCFR) and Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) were supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The Carolina Breast Cancer Study was funded by Komen Foundation, the National Cancer Institute (P50 CA058223, U54 CA156733, U01 CA179715), and the North Carolina University Cancer Research Fund. The NHS was supported by NIH grants P01 CA87969, UM1 CA186107, and U19 CA148065. The NHS2 was supported by NIH grants UM1 CA176726 and U19 CA148065. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997-1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. Genotyping for PLCO was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health, NCI, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics. The PLCO is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The POSH study is funded by Cancer Research UK (grants C1275/A11699, C1275/C22524, C1275/A19187, C1275/A15956 and Breast Cancer Campaign 2010PR62, 2013PR044. The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318. SEARCH is funded by Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124, C490/A16561] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. The Sister Study (SISTER) is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033). The Two Sister Study (2SISTER) was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES102245), and, also by a grant from Susan G. Komen for the Cure, grant FAS0703856. SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The SMC is funded by the Swedish Cancer Foundation and the Swedish Research Council (VR 2017-00644) grant for the Swedish Infrastructure for Medical Population-based Life-course Environmental Research (SIMPLER). The SZBCS and IHCC were supported by Grant PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004 and the program of the Minister of Science and Higher Education under the name Regional Initiative of Excellence in 2019-2022 project number 002/RID/2018/19 amount of financing 12 000 000 PLN. The TNBCC was supported by: a Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The UCIBCS component of this research was supported by the NIH [CA58860, CA92044] and the Lon V Smith Foundation [LVS39420]. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. CIMBA Funding. CIMBA: The CIMBA data management and data analysis were supported by Cancer Research - UK grants C12292/A20861, C12292/A11174. GCT and ABS are NHMRC Research Fellows. iCOGS: the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement no 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A 10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/A12014, C5047/A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978) and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065 and 1U19 CA148112 - the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defence (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer (CRN-87521), and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade (PSR-SIIRI-701), Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund. The PERSPECTIVE project was supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation through Genome Quebec, and The Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. BCFR: UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. BIDMC: Breast Cancer Research Foundation. CNIO: Spanish Ministry of Health PI16/00440 supported by FEDER funds, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) SAF2014-57680-R and the Spanish Research Network on Rare diseases (CIBERER). COH-CCGCRN: Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health under grant number R25CA112486, and RC4CA153828 (PI: J. Weitzel) from the National Cancer Institute and the Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. CONSIT TEAM: Funds from Italian citizens who allocated the 5x1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects '5x1000') to S. Manoukian. Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC; IG2015 no.16732) to P. Peterlongo. DEMOKRITOS: European Union (European Social Fund - ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program Education and Lifelong Learning of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) - Research Funding Program of the General Secretariat for Research & Technology: SYN11_10_19 NBCA. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund. DKFZ: German Cancer Research Center. EMBRACE: Cancer Research UK Grants C1287/A10118 and C1287/A11990. D. Gareth Evans and Fiona Lalloo are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre, Manchester. The Investigators at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. Ros Eeles and Elizabeth Bancroft are supported by Cancer Research UK Grant C5047/A8385. Ros Eeles is also supported by NIHR support to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. FCCC: A.K.G. was in part funded by the NCI (R01 CA214545), The University of Kansas Cancer Center Support Grant (P30 CA168524), The Kansas Institute for Precision Medicine (P20 GM130423), and the Kansas Bioscience Authority Eminent Scholar Program. A.K.G. is the Chancellors Distinguished Chair in Biomedical Sciences Professorship. A.Vega is supported by the Spanish Health Research Foundation, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), partially supported by FEDER funds through Research Activity Intensification Program (contract grant numbers: INT15/00070, INT16/00154, INT17/00133), and through Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Enferemdades Raras CIBERER (ACCI 2016: ER17P1AC7112/2018); Autonomous Government of Galicia (Consolidation and structuring program: IN607B), and by the Fundacion Mutua Madrilena (call 2018). GC-HBOC: German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, Rita K. Schmutzler) and the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). GEMO: Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer; the Association Le cancer du sein, parlons-en! Award, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program and the French National Institute of Cancer (INCa grants 2013-1-BCB-01-ICH-1 and SHS-E-SP 18-015). GEORGETOWN: the Non-Therapeutic Subject Registry Shared Resource at Georgetown University (NIH/NCI grant P30-CA051008), the Fisher Center for Hereditary Cancer and Clinical Genomics Research, and Swing Fore the Cure. G-FAST: Bruce Poppe is a senior clinical investigator of FWO. Mattias Van Heetvelde obtained funding from IWT. HCSC: Spanish Ministry of Health PI15/00059, PI16/01292, and CB-161200301 CIBERONC from ISCIII (Spain), partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER funds. HEBCS: Helsinki University Hospital Research Fund, the Finnish Cancer Society and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. HEBON: the Dutch Cancer Society grants NKI1998-1854, NKI2004-3088, NKI2007-3756, the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research grant NWO 91109024, the Pink Ribbon grants 110005 and 2014-187.WO76, the BBMRI grant NWO 184.021.007/CP46 and the Transcan grant JTC 2012 Cancer 12-054. HEBON thanks the registration teams of Dutch Cancer Registry (IKNL; S. Siesling, J. Verloop) and the Dutch Pathology database (PALGA; L. Overbeek) for part of the data collection. ICO: The authors would like to particularly acknowledge the support of the Asociacion Espanola Contra el Cancer (AECC), the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (organismo adscrito al Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad) and Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER), una manera de hacer Europa (PI10/01422, PI13/00285, PIE13/00022, PI15/00854, PI16/00563 and CIBERONC) and the Institut Catala de la Salut and Autonomous Government of Catalonia (2009SGR290, 2014SGR338 and PERIS Project MedPerCan). INHERIT: Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program - grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade - grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. IOVHBOCS: Ministero della Salute and 5x1000 Istituto Oncologico Veneto grant. kConFab: The National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. MAYO: NIH grants CA116167, CA192393 and CA176785, an NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201),and a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation. MCGILL: Jewish General Hospital Weekend to End Breast Cancer, Quebec Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade. Marc Tischkowitz is supported by the funded by the European Union Seventh Framework Program (2007Y2013)/European Research Council (Grant No. 310018). MSKCC: the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, the Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative, the Andrew Sabin Research Fund and a Cancer Center Support Grant/Core Grant (P30 CA008748). NCI: the Intramural Research Program of the US National Cancer Institute, NIH, and by support services contracts NO2-CP-11019-50, N02-CP-21013-63 and N02-CP-65504 with Westat, Inc, Rockville, MD. NNPIO: the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grants 17-00-00171, 18-515-45012 and 19-515-25001). NRG Oncology: U10 CA180868, NRG SDMC grant U10 CA180822, NRG Administrative Office and the NRG Tissue Bank (CA 27469), the NRG Statistical and Data Center (CA 37517) and the Intramural Research Program, NCI. OSUCCG: Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center. PBCS: Italian Association of Cancer Research (AIRC) [IG 2013 N.14477] and Tuscany Institute for Tumours (ITT) grant 2014-2015-2016. SMC: the Israeli Cancer Association. SWE-BRCA: the Swedish Cancer Society. UCHICAGO: NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA125183), R01 CA142996, 1U01CA161032 and by the Ralph and Marion Falk Medical Research Trust, the Entertainment Industry Fund National Women's Cancer Research Alliance and the Breast Cancer research Foundation. UCSF: UCSF Cancer Risk Program and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center. UPENN: Breast Cancer Research Foundation; Susan G. Komen Foundation for the cure, Basser Research Center for BRCA. UPITT/MWH: Hackers for Hope Pittsburgh. VFCTG: Victorian Cancer Agency, Cancer Australia, National Breast Cancer Foundation. WCP: Dr Karlan is funded by the American Cancer Society Early Detection Professorship (SIOP-06-258-01-COUN) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), Grant UL1TR000124. HVH: Supported by the Carlos III National Health Institute funded by FEDER funds - a way to build Europe - PI16/11363. MT Parsons is supported by a grant from Newcastle University. Kelly-Anne Phillips is an Australian National Breast Cancer Foundation Fellow. ; Sí
SUMMARYA great changement was occurring after fell down the Berlin Wall in East Europe, in 1989.The countries had begun to new period with high debts and inflation by these changements.East European countries have a common feature by carry out the transition period politics by rapidly in this process. So, it was necessity on stabilization politics but not easy.At result, privatization and restructure got an importance.I – THEORICAL AND CONSEPTIONAL FRAME OF MARKET ECONOMYFree market economy has the same philosophy and idea with liberalism. Economical liberalism is defended the free competition, reducing the customs taxes, import freedom and resisted to interference of state on the economy.Classical economy's base is economical freedom and market economy. Market economy is relying on free competition and private enterprise. Price mechanism and world prices are important. Interference of state must be in minimum levels. Public sector must be reduced. Basic factors such as wage, capital and foreign currency must reflect the real market prices, must get an importance to external trade.1-DEVELOPMENT OF MARKET ECONOMY1.1. CLASSIC REVIEWFree trade, specialization only on one field, annihilate the obstacles such as customs and quotas, interferences of state on the market are most important according to Adam Smith, which lived in 18th century.A specialization between nations must be obtained according to Ricardo. So, it must be an exchange on the entire world. 1.2. NEO-CLASSIC REVIEWAlfred Marshall, Leon Walras and Carl Menger is an echol. The state must be more active to improve the poor part of community and must create the opportunities on the market, get the taxes from revenues and wealth, finance the education, health, park and city planning, defence the personal freedom, private property and open markets, manufacture the public commodities.1.3. ORDO-LIBERALISM REVIEWIt is different from classic liberalism. Economical regularity is social which emerges in an evident process, not natural. Social and juridical standards emerge the economical system.Price, monetarily stability, sciences, stability and durability on economical politics are important to emerging of market economy.Basic aim is bring to existence an economical constitution.2- BASIC ELEMENTS OF MARKET ECONOMYBasic factors are enterprising, competition, economical ideas and attitudes.Enterprising is a person which makes unity the manufacturing factors, makes direct the investments, begins to motion by utilize the signals from internal and external markets, gets the share on productivity and determines the firm profit. Basic aim is profit.Competition is social event, protects the personal, which works with high productivity against to personal, which works with low productivity, uses the sources most effectively. Buyer and seller number must be too much in this system. Competition is opposed to monopolization but necessity laws and politics have to support it. ECONOMICAL IDEAS AND ATTITUDESIt includes price, wage, interest, hire and foreign currency. Price system occurs freely according to rate of request and demand conditions. At this straight, firms and consumers must carry out their decisions freely.3- MARKET MECHANISM FLOW AND ROLE OF SOURCE DISTRIBUTIONConsumers and producers have activities on the market economy. The prices are determined according to the lowest cost and to the highest profit.Ideal special future is high productivity, low profit and high production. Competition reduces the profit to the lowest level.Main mechanism on free market is price. If the relative scarcity is enough, request and demand is more or less equal.Producers and consumers may have a decision according to the price indicator and request and demand. This case makes lead the manufacturing, increases the alternatives, also economical activities make an harmony against to conditions.The evident features of market economy are free decision, liberty on preferences, a great price mechanism and competition. So, economical stability is obtainable.Interferences may apply on the market economy for public health, regulations on economical activities, protect the consumers. These motions are generally precautions to control of drugs and drink manufacturing and consumption, annihilation of harmful on public health, growth the power on economic morals, make grow the quality, regulation on manufacturing and marketing. The state may meddle with economy to development rapidly. For example, the state may encourage the saving, increase the rates of interest, decrease the taxes to get on the saving, provide the precautions on investment.The buyers and sellers cannot determine the price on one's own on free competition market. Otherwise monopoly, trust and cartels may occur, stability may out of order between commodity and services.Market economy may deviate from the rules on two main categories.Manufacturer, buyer and seller may make deviate from the rules. Especially trade unionization is effective on this deviation.The state may interfere in economy by taxes, if social and individual advantages different, it may deviate from competition market.The state is exist in every kind of economy and serves to people with harmony and politics and social philosophies of our age. Also it provides security, education and health services but it doesn't determine the prices. It is one of the biggest manufacturers at the same time.II – HISTORICAL WIEW TO BULGARIAN ECONOMY IN THE TRANSITION PERIOD OF FREE MARKET ECONOMY1. BASIC SOCIAL AND ECONOMICAL INDICATORS1.1. GENERALThe form of government is republic, capital is Sofia, Population is 8.297.000(1997), increasing of population is %0. 7, distinctive characteristics in common with Turkishs, Pomaks, Russians, Gipsies, Tatars, Jewishes are in 16 percent.Estimated agricultural area is 1/3 and woodland is 1/3 of all the land. Charcoal, petroleum, natural gas, ferrum and sources except metal are too much. Bulgaria can't use the money too much on surroundings cause of economical lacks.Too many people are migrated to Turkey reason of economical lacks after communism regime. Population is decreased year by year, but unemployment.2. BULGARIA BEFORE 1989Ottoman empire had governorship on the Bulgaria more 500 years till 1908. Then, Bulgarian Kingdom is founded in 1908. Stamboliyski is in powered from Farmer Party in 1920. A new fascism supporter government is founded but communists and farmers were outside of government.Bulgaria is allied with Germany in 1941. Although a new government was found in 1944, the republican regime with referendum is founded in 1946. The new constution is validated in 1947. Cercenkov is in powered in 1950, relations with U.S.A. were out of order and membership of United Nations was validity in 1955.The new constitution is validated in 1971. T.Jivkow is in powered continually, became arrested cause of irregularity in 1990 and then, again a new constitution is validated. Communist Party is made to take out of only one party. In that year, state's name is changed to Republic of Bulgaria and removed the communist symbols from flag. Privatizational laws are validated with Jelev in 1992. The Government of Videnov is contraried the privatization in 1994.Peter Stoyanov is Nato's supporter and he was president in 1996. United Democratic Forces is in powered with 52 percent of vote after selections in 1997.2.1. COMECON AND COLLAPSING OF SYSTEMComecon is a union that emerged by East European Countries. Bulgarian economy has begun to transition period with some negative ness like other East European countries causes of political incompetence and dissociating end of 1980s.Bulgaria which had more than 60 percent of export to associate but it had couldn't find the new markets cause of inadequate ship of quality standards and had an old technology. Foreign currency reserves are high level. It has too many debts, political incompetent ship in the land. Financial system is not conformity to market economy and also could not claim 2 million dollars of money owing from Iraq because of golf war. So, Bulgaria couldn't save from crisis because of above reasons.2.2 GENERAL ECONOMICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SECTORSBulgarian manufacturing industry basically is founded on textile, wooden engrave, leather products and food prep rationing sectors.Bulgaria had realisation the attacks on the heavy industry that supported by S.S.C.B. after 2nd world war.Production of electro-mechanic and electronic goods in manufacturing sector is reached to an important share since 1970s.The biggest natural wealth of Bulgaria is productive earths. There are not important minerals in Bulgaria.In the following period of 2nd world war, metallurgy and chemical production had an importance. Industry sector had old technology. Its competition is losted the power with disunited of the Comecon.Productivity rates on industry are grown with economical reforms that started in 1979. Economical growing is dynamically continued in spite of reducing the productivity on agriculture sector, building sector and investments in Bulgaria. Especially, price volatility on agriculture sector is a reason of suspicion about real value of growth in 1988 according to 1987.Productions on agriculture and industry of Bulgaria are reduced according to statistics. Main problem on agriculture sector is delivery prices of goods.A stagnation indicator on Bulgarian economy is weakness of building and construction sector. Manufacturing products such as cement and weawing is in necessity. Manufacturing level is inadequate on that area and also unqualificationed organisations have been affected.2.3 - FOREIGN TRADEThere are no definite results on foreign trade reason of inadequate of numerical data's.However, export is increased up to the rate of 4 percent in 1988 and import is reduced to the rate of 1.8 percent. Bulgaria finance deficit is 600 million dollars result of trade with west countries in 1998. Tourism revenues are positive. Trade connections with Turkey are weak according to another East European countries.2.4 – PERESTROICA POLITICSThe new age on economy with state council's decision is started in January 9,1989. Activities to get the indepences of firms are velocitied. At the same time, this decision is more benefit to foreign investors too.3. 1989 – 1997 TRANSITION PERIOD3.1 – ECONOMICAL REFORM ACTIVITIESAlteration is started in east block countries after 1989 and together with this alteration. Comecon is losted the activity. So, idle capacities are commenced and Bulgaria is losted the production markets.The reforms are making started by new government in February 1991. External trade regime is liberalisation in one direction; this is one of the import nest factors of the reforms. With a decision is accepted in 1989, basic of economical reforms are occurred. Firms had equal rights to execution of economical activities. The laws related to foreign investment are validated in 1992.Commercial banks have gone to consolidation. Prices had freed except 11 basic consumption. Economical activities, government status on economy, foreign trade and foreign exchange regime, price regulations, privatization, tax systems are reorganized about foreign investors.3.2. SECTORAL CONSTITUTIONIndustrial sector had the over 50 percent of share on economy until 1990s. 11 private sector's share with service and trade sector approached to 60 percent between 1992 and 1997.SECTORSProductivity with old technologies on industrial sector is at low level. Engineering sector is developed. Products of textile sector are manufactured at high quality.CHEMICALSChemical products that have an important mark on export of Bulgaria. They were 1,096 milliard dollars with 22,3 percent in 1997 and 983 million dollars with 19.4 percent of total export in 1998.AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND TOBACCORate of plan tablelands are 34 percent in Bulgaria. Totally 304 firms are active on food, drink and tobacco sector.METALLURGY AND MINERSHIPIron product is 6.2 percent and other than iron is 6.8 percent on all of industry in 1998. In 1997, metallurgy sector is grown up to 117.2 percent with 529 million dollars in total amount of export in Bulgaria.MACHINEShare of machine sector is 13.8 percent in all of industry. Principal are; Machine parts, tractor, bus, ship, building and auto spare parts.CONSTRUCTIONPrivate firms in the sector have share with 13 percent in 1991. That share is grown to 62 percent in 1995 but then; it is reduced reason of financial inadequate ships.TOURISMTourism revenues are approximately 280 million dollars in 1995.4.5 million of transits and totally 8 million tourists are visited the Bulgaria in 1996.3.3. TRADE AFTER ECONOMICAL REFORMSExport of Bulgaria is totally 4.9 milliard dollars in 1997. The import nest export products are fuel oil, other fuels, cooper and its products and nuclear reactors. Import is 4.5 milliard dollars in 1997 and included the product such as mineral fuels, nuclear reactor heaters and spare parts, electric machines, mineral substances, cotton, synthetic fibres, cereals, auto and tractors.3.4. EXTERNAL DEBTSRate of the external debts to export revenues were 249.9 Percent in 1993 but then, back to 188.2 percent in 1994.Official external debts were 10.363 dollars in the end of 1997.3.5. FOREIGN INVESTORS EXTERNAL CAPITALMost investments with 636.2 million dollars by foreigners are made in 1997. This amount is 526 million dollars in 1998. Principal foreign investors are European countries and U.S.A. A new foreigner investment law is prepared in Oct 1997. Main sectors to investment are industry, trade, finance and tourism.3.6. COMMERCIAL BANKINGState banks are privatization by associate. Regulations relate to control of banking are valitidied by government. In the middle of 1997, a new law on banking are validated after economical crisis in 1996, Central Bank Law are rebuilt. High levels of capital and capital qualifications are obligationed.3.7. PRIVATIZATIONPrivatization is started with foundation transformation and privatization belongs to state and municipalities in April 1992. Privatization Agency is built-up. Privatization is realization with totally 836 million dollars between Jan 1,1993 and Dec 30,1998. Its part of 421.4 million dollars is in 1997 and part of 116 million dollars is realization in 1998.Foundations like ports, telecommunication and, etc.are out of privatization by laws. 95 percent of state firms transformed to form of private limited or nationalization. Share of these firms are belong to state.III. BULGARIA IN EUROPAN UNION AND CONNECTIONS WITH TURKEY1. BULGARIAN ECONOMY AND CONNECTIONS WITH TURKEYTest and certification operations, metal products except iron, chemical products, cereals, operational petroleum. Products are important substances from Bulgaria to Turkey.Although weaving products, food, chemical products, leather and stout leather products, glass, ceramics, brick products are ones of important from Turkey to Bulgaria.1.1. CONTENTS OF FREE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN TURKEY AND BULGARIAAll taxes and restrictictions on industrial products by signed on European Agreement between European Union and Bulgaria in Mar 8,1993 and validated in Dec 31,1993 will be removed till 2002.Turkey and Bulgaria made easy to particularization into agricultural products market by reduced the taxes for between their selves.End of signed acts, 131 products of 446 that stated to Turkey and 1141 goods of existing on European Union Agreement are liberalization by remove from list of sensitive products.Foreign companies had a partnership rights with corporations and individuals and also foreign individuals had a right on economical activities by law of keeping foreign investors, which is validated in 1992. Same economical rights are recognized between foreigners and Bulgarians and also getting unlimited share from exist companies and companies that will be found.2. CONNECTIONS WITH EUROPEAN UNION AND FINANCIAL PORTREIT OF BULGARIA2.1. CONNECTION WITH EUROPEAN UNION OF BULGARIAIn the autumn 1989, Berlin wall is demolished and this motion make united the European that had divided to east and west after 2nd world war. Comecon's mean is continuing the economical dependent ship to Soviet Union. But, most east and west European countries reject it. After these European Union augmented economical and political supports to that countries reason of carry out and conclude the reform, which is started in middle and east European countries.Firstly, a group includes the Turkey is formed by 24 of OECD countries. G24s are transferred to entrust with coordination of support to the European Union Commission.That commission is functionizationed the Phare program that helps on financial and technical areas to Poland and Hungary. Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania in Sept.1990, Albanian, Estonia, Leetonia and Livonia in Jan.1992 and Slovenia in Aug.1992 are included by Phare program.Military regulations on security of West European losted the importance but they are already securely areas.Main political aims that related to Middle and East European countries of European Unions are explained below;a- Encouragement of liberal democratic system with respectful of law's superiority.b- to be sense on surroundingsc- to prevent the ethnical collidesd- to prevent the migration to foreign countries at the west.e- Phare program and encouragement of free market economy from planned economy.2.2. WHAT IS THE PHARE PROGRAM?Phare program's aim is build the encourage mental conditions to the market economy and to take pains about investments on economies of Middle and East Europe countries. This program includes unfinancable fields by traditional external supports. That supports on the program is formed by credits and encouragements and used for pilot projects related to reorganization of associations.Bulgaria is taken a support of 10.6 millions ECU by include of Phare program.European Union don't use only Phare program as a tool on politics related to Middle and East Europe countries, except itIncludes the programs within own constitution such as ERASMUS and COMETT.2.3. FIRST PERIOD (before 1989)In this period; trading is developed between Middle and East European countries that named as COMECON COUNTRIES but couldn't show the same developments against to West Europe in European Union.Soviet Union takes the priority on exporting with countries. Bulgaria is the develop pest country on trade with Soviet Union.2.4 TRANSITION PERIOD (1989-1992)The great changements occurred on trade in Soviet Union and Middle and East Europe countries from starting the reforms in 1989 to 1992.From 1989,trade and partnership agreements signed with Hungary and Poland then, with Czechoslovakia in 1990,also Bulgaria and Romania in 1991. At the same time, rejection is started on amount of restrictions. Exporting is increased between Middle and East European countries, Soviet Union and European Union other than below too;Devaluation in the countries other than Hungary,- Workings to join into the West European markets reason of re-emerging the losted ones in East European- Import is on peak-level from those countries to Germany after unitized the East and West Europe.2.5. EUROPEAN AGREEMENTSEuropean agreements are acted end of 1991.Bulgaria-Europe agreement's date of signature: Mar8, 1993Date of being inforce: Dec 31,1995Temporarily agreement: Dec 31,1992European agreement has been in force in Bulgaria, end of 1995. European agreements are partnership agreements that signed by based on 238th paragraph of Roma agreement and Maastricht agreement. According to that state, increasing of export is an prestipulation to growth the economy with stability.3. SUCCEED OF STABILITY PROGRAM IN BULGARIABulgaria signed on an agreement with IMF to pass over the economical hardships and started the reforms in 1991.Economy is grown at the rates of 2.1 percent in 1995.In 1997,economy has the new crisis related to Yugoslavia crisis and so, Bulgaria signed on a new agreement with IMF.Leva is fixed with 20 DM and 1000 Bulgarian Leva to 1 DM and constructral reforms is started to gain the speed.Economy in Bulgaria grown to positive from 1994 but to the 10.9 percent in 1996.- Inflation rates (%) in Republic of Bulgaria; 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 199882,2 72,8 96,2 62 123,1 1082,3 22,3After the stand-by agreement with IMF, inflation approached to 22.3 percent in 1998.Annual average of inflation is expected as 7.3 percent in 1999 and 9.0 percent in 2000.Bulgaria is the poorest country according to other east European countries candidate to membership of EU. Bulgarian Leva is determined by rejected the 3 zeros from Detsch Mark. So, new Leva is make related on euro at the rates of 1.95583:euro 1 (Lvl:DMI ).CONCLUSION:Bulgaria is declared the moratorium reason of hardness's to find an external debt, to refund the capital and interests of external debt.While external debt is 10.6-milliard dollars end of 1990,it has been 12.2 milliard dollars, end of 1993. So, started to paces towards to market economy in Feb 1991. Annual inflation is reduced from 338.5 percent in 1991 to 79.4 percent in 1992.The debts of managements of state are ruined the budget and also a reason to broken balance on economy too.The crisis on foreign currency is occurred in Mar 1994. Reforms have been out of control at the result of that crisis.Leva is devaluated as 100 percent and inflation is reduced to 90 percent on annual average. At this parallel, financial and revenue politics, money and its value are controlled. The debts to foreign countries are decreased to 9.8 milliard dollars with precautions in 1994 and end of 1996.Financial balance are obtained again in the first months of 1995, reduced the inflation and also rate of interests to 72 percent.Rate of exchange (Leva/$) was 503 percent between Jan 1 and Feb 12,1997. Especially, that increasing was 20-percent/each day in Feb 1997.Rate of interest was 300 percent in Sep.1996. 14 Banks are bankrupted in that period. Bulgaria had been 1st of the world from inflation increasing speed of view.Inflation, devaluation, unemployment and also wages are on the lowest level in transition period in Bulgaria. Incoming per person is decreased 50 percent between 1989 and 1995.Annual criminal events are increased 3 times more after 1990. Money committee had formed by advice of IMF in Jul 1997. 1Deutsche Mark is indexed on 1 Leva.Qualified personnel with educationed on technical areas is a great potential force of Bulgarian economy.Bulgaria will be completed the transition period when it became to membership of European Union.
DON RIGOBERTO'S SEXUAL FANTASY IN MARIO VARGAS LLOSA IN PRAISE OF THE STEPMOTHER Dinda Anisa Larasati English Department, Language and Arts Faculty, State University of Surabaya dinda_kdy@yahoo.com Drs. Much. Khoiri M.Si. English Department, Language and Arts Faculty, State University of Surabaya much_choiri@yahoo.com Abstract Sexuality is seen as sinful thing which influences Christian to behave and act based on the society role. Some people tend to repress their sexual fantasy because sexual fantasy is a genre that can lend itself very easily to the sexual elements of life, the depraved, the debauched, or the downright saucy and controversial. The aim of this study is to describe how Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy depicted in Mario Vargas Llosa In Praise of the Stepmotherand and to reveal how Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy can impact on his wife. The data are in the form of quotation, fragments, and dialogues or monologues that indicated the thoughts and action concerning form of sexual fantasy.The data is applying the theory of fantasy by Jacques Lacan and supported with Baron. This study also uses the concept of anxiety and psychological trauma. Initially, Don Rigoberto obsessed with three things: Physical Hygiene, sex with his wife, and erotic paintings. He devotes a day a week for the care of a different member or organ.His love life with Lucrecia in a world more imaginary than real, of what he wishes she were than what she really is. He always lost in his dream which is imagined erotically things from some media and those can support his sexual fantasy. Don Rigoberto forced his wife (to have) sex with another man which can be deeply shocking for her. Those facts are proof that Don Rigoberto get his satisfaction from his obsession. Keywords: sexuality, fantasy, desire, anxiety, psychological trauma Abstrak Seksualitas dipandang sebagai hal yang berdosa yang mempengaruhi Kristen untuk bersikapdanbertindak berdasarkan peran masyarakat. Beberapa orang cenderung untuk menekan fantasi seksual mereka karena fantasi seksual adalah genre yang dapat menjatuhkan diri seseorang ke dalam unsur-unsurseksualkehidupan, buruk, yang tidak bermoral, dan kontroversial. Tujuan dari skripsi ini adalah untuk menggambarkan bagaimana fantasi seksual Don Rigoberto yang digambarkan di Mario Vargas Llosa In Praise of the Stepmother dan mengungkapkan bagaimana fantasi seksual Don Rigoberto yang berdampak pada istrinya. Di dalam data tersebut terdapat kutipan, fragmen, dan dialog atau monolog yang menunjukkan pemikiran dan tindakan mengenai bentukfantasi. Untuk data seksual menerapkan teori fantasi dari Jacques Lacan dan didukung dengan Baron. Analisis ini juga menggunakan konsep anxiety dan psychological trauma. Pada awalnya, Don Rigoberto terobsesi dengan tiga hal: Fisik higienis, seks dengan istrinya, dan lukisan erotis. Dia menjadikan satu hari dalam seminggu untuk melakukan perawatan pada anggota atau organ badan yang berbeda. Kehidupan cintanya dengan Lucrecia di dunia lebih kepada imajinasi daripada kenyataan, apa yang dia ingin adalah berada dari apa yang sebenarnya dia. Dia selalu terjebak dalam mimpinya, yaitu dengan membayangkan hal-hal erotis dari beberapa media dan mereka dapat mendukung fantasi seksualnya. Don Rigoberto memaksa istrinya untuk berhubungan seks dengan laki-laki lain dan hal itu sangat mengejutkan istrinya.Faktanya adalah bukti bahwa Don Rigoberto mendapatkan kepuasan melalui obsesinya. Kata kunci: sexuality, fantasy, desire, anxiety, psychological trauma Introduction Human cannot be separated with needs. There are three basic drives such as eating, sleeping, and sex. As a normal human being, sexuality is given from the beginning ourselves. Nietzche asserts that "we are not only rational out being, but we are also full of desire, with the drives and hidden longing, which formed, our ideas and views about the world" (O'Donnel, 2008: 41).In reality, sexuality describes a huge range of activities. This is half of dialectic, anything can be sex because sex has whatever meaning human experience moment by moment, and sex hasan infinite range of meanings because the scope of activities that can properly be called sexual is so vast. Lisa Downing says that sexuality is something that we ourselves create-it is our own creation, and much more than the discovery of secret side of our desire. Sex is not fatally, it is possible to creative life (Downing 2008:104). Sex can make people different. It means that sex is created because of love, relationship, and perhaps necesity or situation. Sex is not taboo anymore in this modern era, but sex can help viability in science. In psychoanalyticterms, sexuality plays an enormously influential rolein psychological development.From a veryearly age, how people experience their bodies in relation to the physical world as well as to the internal stimuli and feelings their bodies generate profoundly effects how they view the world and themselves.In particular,conscious and unconscious fantasies are about human's bodies and sexuality influence the development of stable patterns of sexual identity, and with that,sexual behaviors.(http://psychoanalysis101.org/psycho-sexual-development/). Sexual fantasies play a central role in mental life, despite – or rather: because of – the fact that they in particular meet the fate of repression, which is why Freud calls them "the weak spot in our psychical organization" (Freud, 1911: 223). This repression creates the psychic disposition towards neurosis in man, the conflict between unconscious desires and conscious control. That sexuality is actually the weak spot in man's psychical organization is proven by the fact that many (predominantly male) users of the Internet cannot resist the temptation to seek sexual pleasure via the computer screen. Sex is still the biggest business on the net, offering such a massive electronic hallucination of gratifying objects. In Praise of the Stepmother with Mario Vargas Llosa as the author, Mario Vargas Llosa, which reached worldwide recognition with his novels Pantoja and the Special Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter, The War of the Worlds.In Praise of the Stepmother, made a foray into a genre that is emerging in many of his works, the erotic. Sex in the novels may offend, amuse, or worse. As this study has come toexpect of VargasLlosa as the author of this novel, he uses a precisely structured form to present the distinct components of his story. Structure can be invaded or skewed which is an interesting way to make point innocence and morality are strong themes which are compound in unusual ways. In Praise of the Stepmother with Mario Vargas Llosa as the author, Mario Vargas Llosa, which reached worldwide recognition with his novels Pantoja and the Special Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter, The War of the Worlds.In Praise of the Stepmother, made a foray into a genre that is emerging in many of his works, the erotic. Sex in the novels may offend, amuse, or worse. As this study has come toexpect of VargasLlosa as the author of this novel, he uses a precisely structured form to present the distinct components of his story. Structure can be invaded or skewed which is an interesting way to make point innocence and morality are strong themes which are compound in unusual ways. Mario Vargas Llosa was born in Arequipa, the second city of Peru, in March 1936.In 1958 he travelled to Paristhanks to a prize won in a short story competition,and on his return to Lima he completed his higher education and received a grant to transfer to theUniversity of Madrid. A few months after arriving in the capital of Spain,he left his studies for the doctorate and settled in Paris, where he was to stay for seven years.In 1963 he published his first great novel, "La ciudad y los perros", with which he won several literary prizes, among them the "BibliotecaBreve" and "La Crítica".It has currently been translated into more than twenty languages. His second major work wastobe"La Casa Verde",published in 1966, the same year he moved to London, wherehewould teach at the university and contribute frequently to newspapers and magazines.Afterwritingone of his fundamental novels, "Conversación en la catedral", VargasLlosatravelled to Barcelona in 1970, where he was to stay for almost five years until in 1974 he put an end to his European exile and returned to Peru with the intention, for the first time, of settling down there. In 1973, his novel Pantaleóny lasvisitadoras, which was adapted for the cinema two years later, had come out.In 1975 he began a seriesof projects related with the cinema and in March of that year he was elected as numerary member of the Peruvian Academy of the Spanish Language. Two months later, he was appointed as president of Pen Club International, a post which he would hold until 1979. Mario Vargas Llosa began his political activity in 1987, due to the nationalization of thefinancial system in Peru. As candidate for the presidency of his country in 1989 with the centre-right coalition Frente Democrático, he was finally defeated in the ballot by Alberto Fujimori. Apart from the works mentioned above, the following works may be highlighted among the output of Mario Vargas Llosa: the novels "La tía Julia y el escribidor" (1977), "La Guerra del fin del mundo" (1981), "Historia de Mayta" (1984), "Quiénmató a Palomino Molero?" (1986), "El hablador" (1987) and "Elogio de la madrastra" (1988); in his facet as a playwright he has written "La señorita de Tacna" (1981), "Kathie y el hipopótamo" (1984) and "La Chunga" (1986) and as an essayist he has published important works such as "GarcíaMárquez: historia de un deicidio" (1971) and "La orgíaperpetua:Flauberty Madame Bovary" (1975)."In Praise Of The Stepmother" (1988). Mario VargasLlosa was a conservative candidate (Fredemo, the Democratic Front) for the Peruvian presidency in 1990.The development of his political convictions, from a sympathizer of Cuban revolution to the liberal right, has astonished his critics and has made it impossible to approach his work from a single point of view. Sabine Koellmann has noted that the publication of Vargas Llosa's La Fiesta del Chivo (2000, The Feast of the Goat) confirmed, "thatpolitics is one of the most persistent 'demons' which, according to his theory, provoke his creativity." (Vargas Llosa's Fiction & the Demons of Politics, 2002) Vargas Llosa was defeated by Alberto Fujimori, an agricultural engineer of Japanese descent, also a political novice, but who had a more straightforward agenda to present to the voters. Anunexpected twist in the plot of this political play occurred in 2000, when President Fujimori escaped to his ancestral homeland Japan after a corruption scandal. From 1991 to 1992 Mario Vargas Llosa worked as a visiting professorat Florida International University, Miami and Wissdens chafts kolleg, Berlin. In addition to the Nobel Prize, the author has received many other honors. Among other distinctions, he has received the "Ramón Godoy Lallana" Journalism Prize, the LiteraryPrize of the Italo-American Institute, the "Pablo Iglesias "LiteraturePrize, the "Hemingway"Prize, the Gold Medal of the Americas and the Max Schmidheiny Foundation Liberty Prize. Already a classic due to the scope and quality of his work, he is one of the Spanish-American writers who has most consistently and determinedly brought theresources of the 20th century literary avant-garde inour language. In Praise of the Stepmother is one literary work by Mario Vargas Llosa. In this novel, there are found many expressions by the characters Don Rigoberto is an art connoisseur and erotic explorer night by night as well as man obsessively devoted to the care of his own body. Lucrecia as a second wife of Don Rigoberto, she is a beautiful and passionate woman, and then his son Alfonso, known as Fonchito.The first character introduced to us in the novel In Praise of the Stepmother, Vargas Llosa takes on an expedition through the mind of Don Rigoberto, day by day an insurance executive, by night a pornographer and sexual enthusiast. Don Rigoberto is a member of Lima's well-heeled bourgeois society. He is the kind of man one sees at board meetings and cocktail parties. But by night Don Rigoberto sheds his conventional skin to pursue his true passions: erotic art and sexual fantasy. Rigoberto's love for Lucrecia is an addiction of her body parts, a revere or an objectification of her physical persona. This way of looking at love and people and considers women as their property, rather than primarily enjoying her body is part of her. He loves her as a compilation of body parts. In the novel In Praise of the Stepmother signals the historical endpoint to the popularity of the 1960s liberationist sexuality, especially female sexuality as a carrier of a symbolic charge of social freedom. This novel is a thought-provoking fantasia on innocence, sex, and art. It opens with a portrayal of a liberated sexual woman, Lucrecia, who is adored by her husband, Rigoberto. Don Rigoberto's and Lucrecia's erotic exploits which are modeled after paintings that are actually printed in the book. Through this story, Mario Vargas Llosa explores the ideas of the erotic imagination. Rigoberto creates erotic fantasies, the erotic and sexual lives of Rigoberto and Lucrecia, much of which is driven by Rigoberto's fantasies formulated from paintings. In this Story, Fonchito seems to corrupt innocence, live a harmonious sexual fantasy with her stepmother. Nothing inhibits them or stops them. Dona Lucrecia and stepson Fonchito are revealed in every detail. There is erotic novel. Sexual Fantasy of Rigoberto, a harmonious sexual fantasy of Alfonso to his stepmother, and sexual attraction Lucrecia to Alfonso. Sexual Fantasy is chosen where this study is taken because of the interesting case and the impact which make the wife had anxiety and psychological trauma. From the reading, the study can be interested in focus on the sexual fantasy experienced by the main character. In the novel In Praise of the Stepmother, this study would like to learn more, how Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy. What are the activities of Don Rigoberto's Sexual Fantasy, what are the factors,the causes and the theory, which is matching discuss those cases istheory of Fantasy of Jacques Lacan, supported theory fantasy of Baron. Many kinds of Sexuality, there are Sexualization, Sexual health and Reproduction. Sexual identity, sensuality and intimacy. Sensuality involves human's level of awareness, acceptance and enjoyment of men's own or others bodies. In the circle of sexuality, fantasy is part of sensuality. Sensuality is match with Don Rigoberto's Sexual Fantasy. In the novelIn Praise of the Stepmother, Many statements which can prove that Don Rigoberto have an extreme sexual fantasy. One night, he said that Lucrecia is his fantasy not his wife. He imagined that Lucrecia is Venus, a person who is his fantasies. For the tittle of my thesis is "Don Rigoberto's Sexual Fantasy.DonRigoberto has an extreme sexual fantasy, he obsesses of three things: Personal Hygiene, sex with Lucrecia, and erotic paintings. His sexual fantasy actually impact on his wife, according to me that's so interesting.Because of those, thus this study directed to more examine about Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy. In analyzing Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy and Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy impact on his wife, it is used some related concept and two theories. In this thesis, the problem statement is divided into two. The first problem statement deals with Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy reflected in this novel. While the second problem deals with How does Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy impact on his wife in Mario Vargas Llosa"In Praise of the Stepmother. Those problems can be analysed by using the theory fantasy of Jacques Lacan, supported with Baron and also using concept of anxiety and psychological trauma. The first statement is how Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy reflected in In Praise of the Stepmother. This statement will use theory fantasy of Jacques Lacan and suppoeted with theory fantasy of Baron. Through fantasy, the subject attempts to sustain the illusion of unity with the other and ignore his or her own division. Fantasy originates in "auto-eroticism" and the hallucinatory satisfaction of the drive. Fantasies are the way in which subjects, structure or organize their desire: it is the support of desire. Then the second statement isHow does Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy impact on his wife in Mario Vargas Llosa"In Praise of the Stepmother. This statement will also apply the theoryof fantasy of Jacques Lacan and also apply the concept of anxiety and psychological trauma. Actually, there are two impacts of Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy. Methods Research methodolgy that used in this analysis here must be qualified as an applying in literary appreciation. The thesis is regarded as a descriptive-qualitative study and uses a library research.The data obtained to answer research question study. This study uses novel of Mario Vargas Llosaentitled In Praise of the Stepmother that published in 1988 as the data source of this study. The datas are in the form of direct and indirect speech of the characters, dialogues, epilogues and quotations which indicate and represent aspect of infidelity and love and will which is experienced by the main character. This thesis is using the library method in collecting the data. It does not use the statistic method. That is why it is not served in numbering or tables. Library research used an approach in analyzing this study. The kind of library research which is used here is intensive or closely reading to search quotations or phrases. It also used to analyze the literary elements both intrinsic and extrinsic. The references are taken from library and contributing ideas about this study from internet that support the idea of analyzing. Some steps of how the data is analyzed will be described as follows: Classification based on the statement of the problems. This classification is used to avoid the broad discussion. There are two classifications in this study. They are sexual fantasy and the main factor that lead to his sexual fantasy. Describing Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasywhich is stated from the quotations or statements by using theory of fantasy to be applied to the data.Describing Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy impact on his wife which is stated from the quotations or statements by using theory of fantasy and the concept of anxiety and psychological trauma will to be applied to the data. RESULT 3.1 Reflection of Don Rigoberto's Sexual Fantasy Based on theory of fantasy of Baron, fantasy can be a kind of activity that permits the subject to escape, however briefly from the stresses and boredom of the subject's life. Schaefer and Millman support this theory by stating that fantasies provide "a strong feeling of satisfaction in comparison to the bedroom of everyday activities" as an escape of the continued failure of difficulties in their everyday life". (Baron, 1995: 31-32) Fantasy is used as an escape from responsibility or a harsh home or work situation. Then the person needs to begin to pray for favor on the job or at home, asking God to open hearts to each other's needs and binding out demonic forces. We have had great reports from this kind of prayer. Then as the stress is lifted and the relationships are made stronger, the desire to escape lifts as well. The fantasies are no longer a problem. 3.1.1.1 Fantasy escape Don Rigoberto from stresses and boredom of his life Don Rigoberto is the dull though the prosperous manager of a Lima insurance company. His life represented in the eyes of others, that routine existence as the general manager of an insurance company, he has many activities. Well-earned that he stress or bored with some of his activities as an insurance executive. He had found in his solitary hygienic practiced and all in the love of his wife appeared to him to be sufficient compensation for his normalcy. He creates erotic fantasies, and Lucrecia lives out the character she has been chosen to be. "Just a pinch of wisdom to use as a momentary antidote to the frustrations and annoyances that seasoned existence. He thought: Fantasy gnaws life away, Thank God" (Llosa, 1988: 104) From the statement above, Rigoberto seems like indeed the power of wisdom can be used as a momentary antidote to the frustrations and annoyances that seasoned existence, but it just can be a momentary antidote now the make frustrations and annoyances gnaws away. As a manager of a Lima insurance company, it is definitely that he has 1many activities so he needs something which can release him from the frustrations and annoyances. The word "Fantasy gnaws life away, Thank God", it shows that Don Rigoberto thinks that fantasy helped him out of the frustrations and annoyances thing which is part of being an insurance executive. He was thankful, fantasy make he enjoyed or even suspected as happiness. There is proof that Fantasy can escape from the stresses and boredom of life "[.] as though happy to rid itself of the policies and the detritus of the day's bussiness.Ever since, in the most secret decision of his life-- so secret that probably not even Lucrecia would ever be privy to it in its entirity-he had resolved to be perfect for a brief fragment of each day. (Llosa, 1988: 54) Rigoberto is obsessed with Personal Hygiene, he assumes that is the part of his sexual fantasy to get pleasure. According to him, the nightly ritual can as a though happy to a rid himself from detritus bussiness day. He had resolved to be perfect for a brief fragment of each day through nightly ritual. 3.2 Don Rigoberto's Sexual Fantasy impact on his wife In the novel In Praise of the Stepmother, Don Rigoberto focuses so completely on hisrich fantasy life - a fantasy life,multiplyed by his reproductions of smutty nudes by the likes of Titian and Jordaens (left), that he doesn't notice the risks that cause Dona Lucrecia anxiety. In this novel, there is no communication between Don Rigoberto and Dona Lucrecia about sexual fantasy, Don Rigoberto's intend for his wife disrupts into his fantasies—at times he is too impaired by sorrow and desire to go on. "The queen sometimes awakens at night, overcome with terror in my arms, for in her sleep the shadow of the Ethiopian has once again burst into flame on top of her." (Llosa, 1988: 20) This quotation above describes that Lucrecia feels anxiety, she always pictured events that foregoing Don Rigoberto forced Dona Lucrecia sex with Atlas, Don Rigoberto assumes that Atlas is the best endowed of his Ethiopian slaves. It can be explained through this statement : "One night-I was drunk-I summoned Atlas, the best endowed of my Ethiopian slaves, to my apartments, merely to confirm that this was so. I had Lucrecia bow down before him and ordered him to mount her.Intimated by my presence, or because it was too great a test of his strength, he was unable to do so. Again and again I saw him approach her resolutely, push, pant, and withdraw in defeat" (Llosa, 1988: 15) Fantasy is 'that thing is what can satisfy me' – objectivation of desire.This line of thought on perverse fantasy, that fixates desire onto a certain object and thus screens off from its infinity, make the interpretations understandable From the quotation above Don Rigoberto was fantasized and forced his wife into having sex with Atlas. There looks Rigoberto so rude to treat his wife, he made his wife as an object because he wanted to prove whether Atlas, the best endowed of my Ethiopian slaves can equals him and he merely to confirm that this was so. The Fantasy that is shown by Don Rigoberto occurs when he decided his wife sex with Atlas. Don Rigoberto feels satisfied and relieved after that incident. Because of that incident, he discovered that no one can equal him. Butitis notperceivedby Lucrecia, she feels not enjoy. "In order to fulfill my part of the offer, we were obliged to act with the greatest discretion. That episode with Atlas, the slave, had been deeply shocking to my wife. (Llosa, 1988: 19) In the statement above, He has also realized that the episode with Atlas makes Dona Lucrecia shock. In contrast, Don Rigoberto does not appreciate his wife. He just concerned with his fantasy and never regards Dona Lucrecia's pleasure. There is no communication between Don Rigoberto and Dona Lucrecia about sexual fantasy, Rigoberto just concerned with his fantasy and Dona Lucrecia only silent to face it. She did not attempt to revolt or reject command from her husband She never stated that she does not enjoy it. She feels anxiety until it can be said that she have psychological trauma. Lucrecia always awakens at night just because it was too painful for her. For Lucrecia it would be a deeply shocking. In the chapter twelve, Labyrinth of Love.Lucrecia expresses her feelings that she felt as fortunate victim, she just an inspiration. Until there show that she fantasized with herself "I know this because I have been the fortunate victim; the inpiration, the actress as well [.]. Myself, erupting and overflowing beneath your attentive libertine gaze of a male who has officiated with competence and is now contemplating and philoshopizing (Llosa,1988: 118) It shows that Dona Lucrecia feels that she just an actress who serve her husband for being another person, not being herself while they having sex. She was erupted and overflows, she wants to vent all her anxiety. Until she actually made masturbation to gained the power of magic, mystery and bodily enjoyment. "That woman is what I am, slave and master, you offering. Slit open like a turtledove by love's knife: I: cracked apart and pulsing. I:slow masturbation. I: flow of musk. I: labyrinth and sensation. I: magic ovary, semen, blood, and morning dew.That is my face for you, at the hour of the senses. I am that when, for you, I shed my everyday skin and my feast-day one. That may perhaps be my soul. Yours." (Llosa, 1988: 119) In the statement above, it is clear that Lucrecia uncomfortable with the sexual fantasy of his husband. She even feels the pleasure through masturbation. Because throughon masturbation, she could be herself, not as an actress or inspiration of her husband. Conclusions This last chapter is drawn to sun up the results of the analysis, which is presented in the form of summary. In this chapter, the conclusion will be divided into two, in line with the statement of problem. The first conclusion in terms of Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy. For the second conclusion is Don Rigoberto's sexual fantasy impact on his wife. From the analysis that has been in the previous chapter, it can be conclude in the first conclusion that Don Rigoberto obsessed with three things, they are personal hygiene, sex with his wife and erotic paintings. Based on Don Rigoberto's it is found out that there are many habits and factors which are espouse his sexual fantasy. Besides, his character is his sexual fantasy done for his pleasure and cause of his desire. As aLima manager insurance, Rigoberto definitely has many activities, multiple frustrations and annoyances. So, the fantasy can help to escape him from that. In this study also reveal that Fantasy can make Rigoberto to be wise. He had rediscovered that wisdom all by himself, on his own and at his own risk. He did many habits like imagining erotically things about the media then sets the intent of those media into his mind.He reduces his wife as an object. He determines himselfbecome someone who is in the media, he proud of person in the paintings which can inflame his subject's imaginings then he changes himself as that person. In the novel In Praise of the Stepmother learn of the erotic and sexual lives of Rigoberto and Lucrecia, and which is driven by Rigoberto's fantasies formulated from paintings and other media. He showers her with affection, but the reader is left wondering if he truly knows her, or if he has created an illusion of her. Don Rigoberto's Sexual Fantasy happened because of any media, and he enjoyed his sexual fantasy by any media, like painting, poet and tried to take it into his mind, then reveal to his wife. His love life with Lucrecia in a world more imaginary than real, of what he wishes she were than what she really is. Don Rigoberto assumes that his wife is like another person who is in his mind, not the realism of his wife's self. He always lost in his dream which is imagined erotically things from some media and those can support his sexual fantasy. Don Rigoberto is compulsive about his personal cleanliness and his bodily functions. He appreciates them as impressive and necessary. He devotes a day a week for the care of a different member or organ: Monday, hands; Tuesday, feet; Wednesday, ears; Thursday, nose; Friday, hair; Saturday, eyes; Sunday, skin. Don Rigoberto is a sensualist of the highest order and, nightly, he and his wife have erotic heights. He did nightly ritual,all of those are the parts of his sexual fantasy. The pictures and roses of the painting are as an inspiration for him while having sex with his wife. Sexual fantasy can have a profound impact on a person's emotions. Sexual fantasy is articulated with anxiety and it is closest proximity to the psychological traumatic real, Lucrecia always be object of Rigoberto's sexual fantasy, she forced sex with Atlas, the best endowed of Ethiopian slaves. It shows that Don Rigoberto never worried about Lucrecia's anxiety. He actually lets Lucrecia having sex with another man, just for create pleasure Dona Lucrecia as his wife feel that she just an actress who serve her husband for being another person, not being herself while they having sex. She actually made masturbation to gained the power of magic, mystery and bodily enjoyment. She also did sexual attraction to her stepson, Fonchito. Because while having sex with her stepson, she feels splendid orgasm she is to be herself, she felt the pleasure and comfort thats he never got while having sex with Rigoberto, with Foncho, she feels that he is innocence and not seems like Rigoberto who makes she is an object imagination of anyone and object for him to get sexual satisfaction and pleasure. Don Rigoberto can do sexual fantasy to his wife because of his desire, he obsessed of personal hygiene,erotic paintings, then he makes his wife become the object of his fantasy and he wants to get pleasure which can alter his mood to be happy. The act of Don Rigoberto that forced his wife with another man can be classified as sexual violence which is the cause of psychological trauma. So, with the sexual fantasy of Don Rigoberto can impact Lucrecia has psychological trauma. Refferences Allen, Richard. 1995. Projecting Illusion. Film Spectatorship and the Impression of Reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 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Fiction and fantasy: No-nonsense therapy for six sexual malfunctions. Psychology Today, pp. 77-86. Kartono, Kartini and Dadi Gulo. 1987. Kamus Psikologi. Bandung: Pionir Jaya. Lacan, Jacques. 1994. The Seminar, Book III .1955-1956. The Psychoses, ed. by Jacques Alain Miller,trans. by Russell Grigg. New York: Norton. Lacan,Jacques. 1978. Four Fundamental Concepts Of Psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Lacan, Jacques. 2005. Routledge Critical Thinkers Book. New York: Routledge. Laplanche, J.1986. Fantasy and the Origins of Sexuality, London: Routledge. Le Séminaire XIII: L'objet de la psychanalyse. 1965-1966. Unpublished transcript. Le Séminaire XIV: La logique du fantasme 1966-1967. Unpublished transcript. Meadows, Robert J. 2004. Understanding Violence and Victimization Third Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Miller, Jacques-Alain. 1999. Les six paradigms de la jouissance. La CauseFreudienne, 42: 7-29. Nobus, Dany. 2002. 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Puerto Rico and Newfoundland are located at two extremes of the Atlantic Ocean, the former in the Caribbean Sea and the latter in the North Sea of the American continent. Both formations—former colonies from Spain and Great Britain—have been linked through the production and consumption of salted fish (that is, cod and other members of the Gadidae family) from the 16th to the 20th century. Spain transferred to the Caribbean colonies its "addiction" to cod, a cheap source of protein for peasants and laborers in the Peninsula, and a foodstuff that became the source of protein for slaves, peasants, and rural workers in the Caribbean.The British also used that alimentary strategy in their Caribbean colonies, which became importers of salted fish from New England, Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, a territory that dominated the production and processing (culling and salting) of cod. The plantation system required a cheap protein source for the slave labor force that the American codfish market provided. By the end of the 19th century, the supply of New England cod waned (due to a number of reasons), and that opened up an opportunity for Newfoundland to become the most important supplier of fish, a commodity mediated at first through the British authorities, and later by the merchants of the Dominion. The expansion of the productive frontier—from the 19th to the 20th century—required the investment of capital in larger boats and an increase in effort through the use of nets and long liners in waters distant from the inshore areas.This paper presents an anthropological and historical analysis of the relationship between Puerto Rico and the producers of salted fish in the North Sea, namely, New England and Newfoundland, through the use of a number of historical and ethnographical studies and, most importantly, through the analysis of primary sources from the General Archive of Puerto Rico, the National Records and Archives Administration in the United States, and the Provincial Archive of Labrador and Newfoundland. This research started, originally, with an interest in understanding the relationship between both markets in their complex export-import relationship, and with a special focus on the 20th century due to the availability of the primary sources. However, this effort led me to the search for other historical and ethnographic sources that documented the social, economic, and political processes that shaped the production of salted fish and the circulation of that commodity in the Atlantic Ocean, with emphasis on the Caribbean.In that context, the work of Jason Moore proved to be pertinent as a theoretical model to analyze the role of producers and consumers of cheap foodstuffs on a global scale. The World-Ecology model, and the concepts of production frontiers, commodity frontiers, and ecological surplus are extremely useful in understanding how Newfoundland expanded the productive frontier, both horizontally and vertically, by moving the effort from the inshore areas to the offshore banks, which required fishing in deeper waters. In order to provide a cheap commodity to the laborers of the plantation system of the Caribbean, the Newfoundland merchants exploited the unpaid labor of the women and children of the outports (coastal communities) in the processing phase (culling and salting), while forcing the men to look for cash in other subsidiary activities. Low wages and poor working conditions in the curing of fish discouraged laborers to do high-quality work, and therefore, the curing was not always of the required standard for the markets. However, the low-quality fish, the Labrador cure, found its way to the Puerto Rican market. The United States, in the defense of its vested interests in sugarcane cultivation and sugar production, imposed low prices for the importation of salted fish from Newfoundland, and therefore regulated the price per pound at the local markets.The work of Jason Moore matches the theoretical model developed by Daniel Pauly, a scientist devoted to the study of the global fisheries, and particularly those of the North Sea. For Pauly, the fate of the world fisheries has been in the hands of a threefold expansion (dubbed as the "toxic triad") led by the development in fisheries technologies over the past four hundred years, and accelerated in the 19th and 20th centuries. Those are the geographical expansion, the bathymetric expansion and the taxonomic expansion. That is, global fisheries expanded their productive activities to new geographical frontiers hitherto explored or utilized, including depths. It also expanded the number of species caught, a process that impacted the food chain. Industrialization, and the use of trawler nets in the 20th century, depleted the North Sea fish stocks and destroyed benthic habitats, which contributed to the collapse of 1992. An "undercurrent" flowing in this paper consists of the argument that there is a strong correspondence between the theoretical thinking of Jason Moore and that of the most progressive fishery scientists, exemplified by Pauly.Over the last thirty years, I have been involved in research and applied work related to fisheries management and the conservation of habitats and fish populations and stocks. In understanding the relationship between Puerto Rico and Newfoundland, I became interested in the history of fisheries management and conservation, and the economic and political forces that contributed to the collapse of the stocks and populations of cod (Gadus morhua) and other Gadidae that forced the 1992 closure and the demise of one of the most important fisheries in our hemisphere. Data and interpretations from a number of studies suggest that, for a long period of time, the 1992 closure reflected the cumulative effect of centuries of the intensification of production, due to the demand for cod from different parts of the world. This paper suggests that Puerto Rico played a critical role in that process, due to the importance of imports from Newfoundland. Throughout the 20th century, Puerto Rico was one of the most important buyers of salted fish, importing as much as all the Caribbean islands at different points in time. That is a line of research that I will continue to pursue, and this paper is a first step in that direction.Newfoundland tried to maintain the salt fish market of the Caribbean until the 1960s, when Puerto Rico was in the midst of an industrialization and modernization process that reshaped the taste and consumption patterns of the population. By then, cod ceased to be a gastronomic addiction, despite the efforts of two merchant classes, one in St. John's and the other in San Juan.The article is divided into eight sections that broadly cover the following topics: the history of salted fish consumption and production in the North Sea, Spain, and New England; the British and Newfoundland market in Puerto Rico; cod consumption in Puerto Rico during the 19th century; the relations of production (ecological surplus) that made possible cheap cod; 20th century transformations in Puerto Rico, and a final reflection on the role of Puerto Rico and Newfoundland in the World-Ecology. ; Este artículo explora, por medio del examen y análisis de estudios antropológicos, históricos y de las fuentes documentales de varios archivos, la relación entre Puerto Rico y Terranova, como consumidores y productores de pescado salado, respectivamente. El bacalao fue un alimento barato usado para sostener a la fuerza de trabajo esclavizada y libre en la larga duración caribeña y trasatlántica. El desarrollo del capitalismo, según Jason Moore, ha dependido de la expansión de las fronteras productivas (zonas de explotación de mano de obra y recursos) y de la extracción y consumo de insumos baratos. Para ello, ha dependido de la extracción de un excedente ecológico basado, en este caso, en la apropiación del trabajo no remunerado de mujeres y niños. El bacalao se produjo en unas condiciones de explotación y trabajo no remunerado de hombres, mujeres y niños en Terranova, para alimentar a familias pobres en Puerto Rico. El objetivo principal de este trabajo consiste aplicar esos planteamientos teóricos de Moore, en el análisis de esas dos formaciones sociales, que han sido colonias de poderes imperiales; ambas vinculadas en una Ecología-Mundo basada en la producción y el consumo del bacalao; un proceso mediado por las clases mercantiles de ambos territorios. Las islas caribeñas estuvieron vinculadas a ese comercio trasatlántico (que incluía esclavos, melaza, rones y maderas) a través de intercambios con Terranova y Nueva Inglaterra, desde el siglo XVI. Los siglos XIX y XX, con el auge de la producción azucarera en Puerto Rico, fueron determinantes en establecer ese patrón de consumo y Terranova fue uno de los principales productores y suplidores de ese producto a Puerto Rico y el Caribe, manteniendo una estrategia de expansión de la frontera productiva, saliendo de la pesca costera para pescar en los grandes bancos, mediante un proceso sistemático de acumulación e inversión de capital, articulado por innovaciones en las artes de pesca y las embarcaciones. Este artículo sugiere que la suma de las importaciones por los países del Caribe contribuyó al eventual colapso de los abastos pesqueros de Terranova. Este trabajo es un primer paso en el análisis de la profunda relación entre el capital y la naturaleza y un paso en la exploración de como esas relaciones trasatlánticas fueron configurando el trabajo y la naturaleza en dos extremos del océano. Cuando se escriba la historia de las poblaciones de peces y los abastos pesqueros de Terranova, habrá que contar con la participación de Puerto Rico, y su rol en el proceso de intensificación de la producción, es decir, de la expansión de la frontera vertical y de la horizontal de la producción.
La investigación aborda desde un enfoque de derechos humanos y de género, el proceso de liderazgo seguido por las mujeres en la organización social. Analiza su precaria incorporación a la Población Económicamente Activa (PEA) y su posterior integración al movimiento sindical más representativo del país como es la Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú (CGTP). El trabajo analiza 16 años de vida orgánica de la CGTP, visibilizando la flexibilización laboral de los años 90, que provoca despidos masivos de trabajadores y trabajadoras, donde las mujeres se incorporan como nuevas actoras en el campo del trabajo. Pero que no resuelve la desigualdad laboral entre las mujeres y los hombres sino que la acrecienta convirtiendo a las mujeres en mano de obra barata, confinándola a condiciones laborales precarias, en un contexto donde la demanda fundamental como es la estabilidad laboral es puesta en peligro. La investigación observa como la reforma laboral del gobierno de Alberto Fujimori marca el retroceso de un Estado que abdica de su papel regulador y fiscalizador y que más bien despoja a los trabajadores de sus derechos laborales fundamentales. Señalando como un hito trágico el asesinato de Pedro Huilca Tecse por el grupo Colina el 18 de diciembre de 1992, a nueve meses de haber sido elegido secretario general de la CGTP. Situación y hechos que considera influyen en el debilitamiento de la confederación, reflejada en la disminución de sus afiliados, que en la década previa a los años noventa era de 21.9 % y que entre 1995 y 2006 disminuye a 8 % y 5 %. La tesis toma en cuenta que en el 2003 bajo la dirección de Juan José Gorriti, siendo responsable Susan Portocarrero de la secretaría de la mujer y defensa del niño trabajador, se registran hechos importantes con relación a la participación cualitativa y cuantitativa de las mujeres. Proceso que es fortalecido por la reestructuración orgánica de la central, donde las secretarías se transforman en departamentos sindicales y en el que también se implementa la afiliación sindical directa. En este contexto, la secretaría de la mujer y defensa del niño trabajador, elabora su Manual de Organización y Funciones y la I Plataforma Laboral de Género y los presenta al XII Congreso Nacional de la CGTP en noviembre de 2006. Donde siete mujeres son incorporadas al consejo directivo nacional. Y que elige después de 78 años de vida orgánica a Carmela Sifuentes Inostroza como la primera presidenta mujer de su historia y a Gloria Pérez Saavedra como secretaria de la mujer. Durante el análisis se resalta que con una CGTP reconstituida y con un nuevo discurso centrado en la recuperación de la democracia y los derechos perdidos, el trabajo de la mujer adquiere mayor presencia a través del acciones del reestructurado departamento de la mujer, que consigue incorporar a más mujeres en sus comisiones de trabajo, elabora los sustentos teóricos y políticos de la estrategia de transversalización del enfoque de género, que logra más mujeres con un discurso argumentado, que disponen de herramientas como la escuela sindical para mujeres y también mixtas para hombres y mujeres con este enfoque, donde se visibiliza la importancia de una afiliación sindical con esta visión. Logrando que sus derechos y los de otras mujeres de los sectores más precarios del ámbito laboral, se incluyan como temas específicos en los pliegos y convenios colectivos a través de la Agenda Laboral de las Mujeres Trabajadoras, lo que dinamiza la participación de más mujeres en todas las instancias de la CGTP, particularmente en sus asambleas nacionales. La investigación valora como factores decisivos que contribuyen a la inclusión de la Agenda de Género dentro de la CGTP, las acciones realizadas por las mujeres del consejo nacional, por las del departamento de la mujer y por sus comisiones de trabajo, así como por el apoyo recibido de parte del secretariado ejecutivo. Todo lo cual permite que en noviembre de 2011 presenten al XIII Congreso Nacional Ordinario la moción de Cuota de Género sustentada por la responsable del departamento. La misma que pese a requerir la reforma de los estatutos, se aprueba en la Comisión No.4: Situación Orgánica y Fortalecimiento de la CGTP, ratificada por la plenaria y que está pendiente de ser revalidada por un congreso estatutario. La investigación concluye en que estos 16 años de la CGTP marcan la promoción, negociación y aprobación de acciones afirmativas inspiradas en el modelo sindical europeo13, adaptadas al modelo peruano y a los intereses colectivos de las mujeres trabajadoras. Y que a partir de 2011 comienza una nueva historia para el movimiento sindical de la CGTP sobre este tema. ; --- The Women's Leadership in organizations such as the Trade Union's, is analyzed from the perspective of human rights and gender in the present investigation. Since its intervention in the workplace: the precarious action and its subsequent integration into the most representative trade union movement in the country, such as the General Confederation of Workers of Peru - CGTP. We traveled through 16 years of the organic life of the CGTP, making visible the labor reform of the 90's that marks the start of labor flexibility, causing massive layoffs of workers and secondly incorporating more strongly to new actors to the world Labour: Women. This addition does not respond to public policy to equip participation and working conditions of women and men in this area and therefore bridge the gaps that support discrimination; This situation reflects the demand for cheap labor in poor working conditions, backed by labor unrest, thus losing the main feature of unionized workers or workers / as: "Job Stability." The labor reform of A. Fujimori government marks the beginning of the retreat of the state not only in its role as regulator, but also to oversight of compliance with labor standards as part of the same government specifically the December 18, 1992, nine months into the General Secretariat, Peter Huilca was killed by the Colina group, both heavy blows to the unions originate the weakening of the most visible of the Country confederation, this is reflected in the declining share of national affiliation in the decade before the nineties was approximately 21.9% and between 1995 and 2006% the percentage fluctuated between 8% and 5%. In 2003, under the direction of Juan José Gorriti, important findings were made in relation to the qualitative and quantitative participation of women, the responsibility of the Ministry of Women and Child Worker fell on Susan Portocarrero. In that same year, the organizational restructuring process starts, from Secretaries to Departments and Trade also implementing direct affiliation. The Ministry of Women and Child Workers, adopted its Manual of Organization and Functions and the First Labour Platform Gender, which was taken to the XII Congress of the CGTP in November 2006, where 7 women join the National Executive Council, and after 78 years of organic life, the first female president is elected in its history; it also chooses Gloria Perez Saavedra as the new Secretary for women, and it is from this year that the CGTP reconstituted and a new discourse centered on the struggle for restoration of democracy and rights lost, becomes more incident now called the women's Department of the CGTP, calling women on the commission structure work. Begin the theoretical and political underpinnings for developing strategy mainstreaming gender in CGTP, which translates into: women with a speech argued; tools such as union school for women and mixed for men and women develop the gender issue; visible the importance of union membership with gender; building proposals for collective bargaining rights for women in the specifications and detailed collective agreements on a work schedule of working women; promoting the participation of more women in the functional activities organized by the CGTP as National Assemblies; promoting the union agenda includes those most precarious sectors of the workplace, which are mostly made up of women. The development of planned and promoted by the women of the CN of the CGTP and the department including its working committees, had the political backing of the national leadership represented by the executive secretariat actions, so that in November 2011, arriving at XIII National Ordinary Congress proposing as its core proposal "gender quota" involving the reform of its statutes, this proposal was presented as a motion supported by the head of department and approved by the Commission number four: "Organic status and Strengthening CGTP "and later in the plenary, being willing to be ratified in the Statutory Congress. They were 16 years leading the most representative trade union confederation in the country, focusing on promotion, negotiation and approval of affirmative action that inspired the European union model applied to the Peruvian model. In these periods the collective interests of many working women is one of the main reasons for the trade union movement there were more important. From the year 2011 begins a new story written for the motion of the CGTP union on this issue. ; Tesis
La investigación aborda desde un enfoque de derechos humanos y de género, el proceso de liderazgo seguido por las mujeres en la organización social. Analiza su precaria incorporación a la Población Económicamente Activa (PEA) y su posterior integración al movimiento sindical más representativo del país como es la Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú (CGTP). El trabajo analiza 16 años de vida orgánica de la CGTP, visibilizando la flexibilización laboral de los años 90, que provoca despidos masivos de trabajadores y trabajadoras, donde las mujeres se incorporan como nuevas actoras en el campo del trabajo. Pero que no resuelve la desigualdad laboral entre las mujeres y los hombres sino que la acrecienta convirtiendo a las mujeres en mano de obra barata, confinándola a condiciones laborales precarias, en un contexto donde la demanda fundamental como es la estabilidad laboral es puesta en peligro. La investigación observa como la reforma laboral del gobierno de Alberto Fujimori marca el retroceso de un Estado que abdica de su papel regulador y fiscalizador y que más bien despoja a los trabajadores de sus derechos laborales fundamentales. Señalando como un hito trágico el asesinato de Pedro Huilca Tecse por el grupo Colina el 18 de diciembre de 1992, a nueve meses de haber sido elegido secretario general de la CGTP. Situación y hechos que considera influyen en el debilitamiento de la confederación, reflejada en la disminución de sus afiliados, que en la década previa a los años noventa era de 21.9 % y que entre 1995 y 2006 disminuye a 8 % y 5 %. La tesis toma en cuenta que en el 2003 bajo la dirección de Juan José Gorriti, siendo responsable Susan Portocarrero de la secretaría de la mujer y defensa del niño trabajador, se registran hechos importantes con relación a la participación cualitativa y cuantitativa de las mujeres. Proceso que es fortalecido por la reestructuración orgánica de la central, donde las secretarías se transforman en departamentos sindicales y en el que también se implementa la afiliación sindical directa. En este contexto, la secretaría de la mujer y defensa del niño trabajador, elabora su Manual de Organización y Funciones y la I Plataforma Laboral de Género y los presenta al XII Congreso Nacional de la CGTP en noviembre de 2006. Donde siete mujeres son incorporadas al consejo directivo nacional. Y que elige después de 78 años de vida orgánica a Carmela Sifuentes Inostroza como la primera presidenta mujer de su historia y a Gloria Pérez Saavedra como secretaria de la mujer. Durante el análisis se resalta que con una CGTP reconstituida y con un nuevo discurso centrado en la recuperación de la democracia y los derechos perdidos, el trabajo de la mujer adquiere mayor presencia a través del acciones del reestructurado departamento de la mujer, que consigue incorporar a más mujeres en sus comisiones de trabajo, elabora los sustentos teóricos y políticos de la estrategia de transversalización del enfoque de género, que logra más mujeres con un discurso argumentado, que disponen de herramientas como la escuela sindical para mujeres y también mixtas para hombres y mujeres con este enfoque, donde se visibiliza la importancia de una afiliación sindical con esta visión. Logrando que sus derechos y los de otras mujeres de los sectores más precarios del ámbito laboral, se incluyan como temas específicos en los pliegos y convenios colectivos a través de la Agenda Laboral de las Mujeres Trabajadoras, lo que dinamiza la participación de más mujeres en todas las instancias de la CGTP, particularmente en sus asambleas nacionales. La investigación valora como factores decisivos que contribuyen a la inclusión de la Agenda de Género dentro de la CGTP, las acciones realizadas por las mujeres del consejo nacional, por las del departamento de la mujer y por sus comisiones de trabajo, así como por el apoyo recibido de parte del secretariado ejecutivo. Todo lo cual permite que en noviembre de 2011 presenten al XIII Congreso Nacional Ordinario la moción de Cuota de Género sustentada por la responsable del departamento. La misma que pese a requerir la reforma de los estatutos, se aprueba en la Comisión No.4: Situación Orgánica y Fortalecimiento de la CGTP, ratificada por la plenaria y que está pendiente de ser revalidada por un congreso estatutario. La investigación concluye en que estos 16 años de la CGTP marcan la promoción, negociación y aprobación de acciones afirmativas inspiradas en el modelo sindical europeo13, adaptadas al modelo peruano y a los intereses colectivos de las mujeres trabajadoras. Y que a partir de 2011 comienza una nueva historia para el movimiento sindical de la CGTP sobre este tema. ; --- The Women's Leadership in organizations such as the Trade Union's, is analyzed from the perspective of human rights and gender in the present investigation. Since its intervention in the workplace: the precarious action and its subsequent integration into the most representative trade union movement in the country, such as the General Confederation of Workers of Peru - CGTP. We traveled through 16 years of the organic life of the CGTP, making visible the labor reform of the 90's that marks the start of labor flexibility, causing massive layoffs of workers and secondly incorporating more strongly to new actors to the world Labour: Women. This addition does not respond to public policy to equip participation and working conditions of women and men in this area and therefore bridge the gaps that support discrimination; This situation reflects the demand for cheap labor in poor working conditions, backed by labor unrest, thus losing the main feature of unionized workers or workers / as: "Job Stability." The labor reform of A. Fujimori government marks the beginning of the retreat of the state not only in its role as regulator, but also to oversight of compliance with labor standards as part of the same government specifically the December 18, 1992, nine months into the General Secretariat, Peter Huilca was killed by the Colina group, both heavy blows to the unions originate the weakening of the most visible of the Country confederation, this is reflected in the declining share of national affiliation in the decade before the nineties was approximately 21.9% and between 1995 and 2006% the percentage fluctuated between 8% and 5%. In 2003, under the direction of Juan José Gorriti, important findings were made in relation to the qualitative and quantitative participation of women, the responsibility of the Ministry of Women and Child Worker fell on Susan Portocarrero. In that same year, the organizational restructuring process starts, from Secretaries to Departments and Trade also implementing direct affiliation. The Ministry of Women and Child Workers, adopted its Manual of Organization and Functions and the First Labour Platform Gender, which was taken to the XII Congress of the CGTP in November 2006, where 7 women join the National Executive Council, and after 78 years of organic life, the first female president is elected in its history; it also chooses Gloria Perez Saavedra as the new Secretary for women, and it is from this year that the CGTP reconstituted and a new discourse centered on the struggle for restoration of democracy and rights lost, becomes more incident now called the women's Department of the CGTP, calling women on the commission structure work. Begin the theoretical and political underpinnings for developing strategy mainstreaming gender in CGTP, which translates into: women with a speech argued; tools such as union school for women and mixed for men and women develop the gender issue; visible the importance of union membership with gender; building proposals for collective bargaining rights for women in the specifications and detailed collective agreements on a work schedule of working women; promoting the participation of more women in the functional activities organized by the CGTP as National Assemblies; promoting the union agenda includes those most precarious sectors of the workplace, which are mostly made up of women. The development of planned and promoted by the women of the CN of the CGTP and the department including its working committees, had the political backing of the national leadership represented by the executive secretariat actions, so that in November 2011, arriving at XIII National Ordinary Congress proposing as its core proposal "gender quota" involving the reform of its statutes, this proposal was presented as a motion supported by the head of department and approved by the Commission number four: "Organic status and Strengthening CGTP "and later in the plenary, being willing to be ratified in the Statutory Congress. They were 16 years leading the most representative trade union confederation in the country, focusing on promotion, negotiation and approval of affirmative action that inspired the European union model applied to the Peruvian model. In these periods the collective interests of many working women is one of the main reasons for the trade union movement there were more important. From the year 2011 begins a new story written for the motion of the CGTP union on this issue. ; Tesis