Suchergebnisse

La relación entre el emprendimiento, la globalización y la libertad económica ha vuelto a situarse en el centro del debate acerca de la contribución de la globalización sobre el desarrollo económico de las economías modernas. Tras experimentar décadas de una excepcionalmente fuerte globalización, el mundo está asistiendo a un resurgimiento del proteccionismo. Esta tendencia no solo está afectando a los acuerdos de libre comercio sino también a la integración económica que se había alcanzado en algunas áreas como la de la Unión Europea. En este contexto, las empresas menos competitivas y los desempleados con menor empleabilidad, son grupos que tratan de ejercer su poder de influencia sobre las instituciones y votar a opciones políticas que incorporen las preocupaciones de estos grupos (por ejemplo acciones proteccionistas o de endurecimiento de la política migratoria. La consecuencias de este proceso son una de las cuestiones calientes de la agenda de actuación política en el momento actual tras la Gran Recesión, dado que algunas industrias y grupos de población culpan a la globalización de ser la causa última de sus problemas y presionan para provocar una vuelta al proteccionismo y a la contención de los flujos migratorios, Para ellos, la expansión de la eficiencia y productividad que parecía prometerse como asociada a ia globalización parece no estar garantizada si las diferencias entre las instituciones de as diferentes naciones alteran la productividad y competitividad relativa. Así, podríamos argumentar que el ecosistema empresarial, esto es, el conjunto de instituciones para el desarrollo de los negocios es el principal determinante no solo de la contribución del entrepreneurship al crecimiento económico sino también a la creación de empleo e innovación. Por tanto la libertad económica en sus diferentes dimensiones (tales como el imperio de la ley, la eficiencia regulatoria, y en especial la libertad de empresa, las instituciones del Mercado de trabajo y el grado de integración de la economía (grado de apertura comercial) y el peso de 1 sector público, pueden ser considerados factores clave para determinar si una sociedad es "empresarial" o no. La única forma de resolver este tipo de controversias es proporcionar sólidas proposiciones y hallazgos empíricos para evaluar los efectos de la globalización sobre el crecimiento económico, la innovación, la creación del empleo y el entrepreneurship. En este contexto, el estudio de la relación entre la integración económica y el entrepreneurship es especialmente interesante, dado que el entrepreneurship es un determinante principal del desarrollo económico. En principio, la relación entre la globalización, la libertad económica y el entrepreneurship es ambigua, dado que podríamos encontrar explicaciones tanto para esperar relaciones bidireccionales y de diferente signo. Por un lado, y con respecto a la relación entre el entrepreneurship y la integración económica, podríamos suponer que la integración abre nuevas oportunidades de beneficio, propicia el aumento de las escalas gracias a la extensión de la demanda potencial que emerge gracias a la entrada en nuevos mercados. Desde esta perspectiva, más apertura es un factor positive no solo para promocionar el entrepreneurship sino también para aumentar la probabilidad de supervivencia y éxito. Por otra parte la globalización, aumenta la intensidad de la La relación entre el emprendimiento, la globalización y la libertad económica ha vuelto a situarse en el centro del debate acerca de la contribución de la globalización sobre el desarrollo económico de las economías modernas. Tras experimentar décadas de una excepcionalmente fuerte globalización, el mundo está asistiendo a un resurgimiento del proteccionismo. Esta tendencia no solo está afectando a los acuerdos de libre comercio sino también a la integración económica que se había alcanzado en algunas áreas como la de la Unión Europea. En este contexto, las empresas menos competitivas y los desempleados con menor empleabilidad, son grupos que tratan de ejercer su poder de influencia sobre las instituciones y votar a opciones políticas que incorporen las preocupaciones de estos grupos (por ejemplo acciones proteccionistas o de endurecimiento de la política migratoria. La consecuencias de este proceso son una de las cuestiones calientes de la agenda de actuación política en el momento actual tras la Gran Recesión, dado que algunas industrias y grupos de población culpan a la globalización de ser la causa última de sus problemas y presionan para provocar una vuelta al proteccionismo y a la contención de los flujos migratorios, Para ellos, la expansión de la eficiencia y productividad que parecía prometerse como asociada a ia globalización parece no estar garantizada si las diferencias entre las instituciones de as diferentes naciones alteran la productividad y competitividad relativa. Así, podríamos argumentar que el ecosistema empresarial, esto es, el conjunto de instituciones para el desarrollo de los negocios es el principal determinante no solo de la contribución del entrepreneurship al crecimiento económico sino también a la creación de empleo e innovación. Por tanto la libertad económica en sus diferentes dimensiones (tales como el imperio de la ley, la eficiencia regulatoria, y en especial la libertad de empresa, las instituciones del Mercado de trabajo y el grado de integración de la economía (grado de apertura comercial) y el peso de 1 sector público, pueden ser considerados factores clave para determinar si una sociedad es "empresarial" o no. La única forma de resolver este tipo de controversias es proporcionar sólidas proposiciones y hallazgos empíricos para evaluar los efectos de la globalización sobre el crecimiento económico, la innovación, la creación del empleo y el entrepreneurship. En este contexto, el estudio de la relación entre la integración económica y el entrepreneurship es especialmente interesante, dado que el entrepreneurship es un determinante principal del desarrollo económico. En principio, la relación entre la globalización, la libertad económica y el entrepreneurship es ambigua, dado que podríamos encontrar explicaciones tanto para esperar relaciones bidireccionales y de diferente signo. Por un lado, y con respecto a la relación entre el entrepreneurship y la integración económica, podríamos suponer que la integración abre nuevas oportunidades de beneficio, propicia el aumento de las escalas gracias a la extensión de la demanda potencial que emerge gracias a la entrada en nuevos mercados. Desde esta perspectiva, más apertura es un factor positive no solo para promocionar el entrepreneurship sino también para aumentar la probabilidad de supervivencia y éxito. Por otra parte la globalización, aumenta la intensidad de la competencia pero también las oportunidadesde empleo asalariado en el sector exportador hacienda que aumenten las transiciones desde el autoempleo al empleo asalariado., al menos entre ios empresarios marginales. Así a medida que la competencia global se intensifica, las empresas y empresarios más ineficientes cerrarán. Por otra parte a medida que aumenta la exposición a la competencia internacional, un menor número de ocupados eran autoempleados, tal y como el modelo de Diez and Ozdagli sugiere. Además, deberíamos considerar cómo todo este proceso afecta a la productividad del autoempleo es decir, a la distribución relativa del entrepreneurship entre autoempleo formal e informal. Sin embargo, la cuestión clave pasa por conocer si el efecto de una mayor exposición al comercio internacional, genera una reasignación óptima del trabajo entre el empleo y el autoempleo y entre las empresas menos productivas y las más productivas que contribuya al crecimiento económico la innovación y el empleo. Por tanto, el reto es proporcional evidencia empírica que arroje nueva luz acerca a este debate y a las actitudes hacia la globalización. Para lograr este objetivo, es importante no solo conocer los efectos de una mayor apertura sobre la intensidad exportadora del autoempleo sino también conocer si este proceso es mutuamente beneficioso tanto para los países más y menos desarrollaodos. Para abordar estas cuestiones esta tesis aborda una segunda cuestión de investigación. Una indagación sobre las razón del porqué los efectos de la globalización sobre el sector empresarial se abordan solo de manera cuantitativa y no también de forma cualitativa. En concreto, trataremos de proporcionar nueva evidencia empírica sobre la base de la aportación teórica de Acs and Sanders (2007). Para ellos la globalización no solo no destruye autoempleo sino que promoeve el modelo de producción entrepreneurial, con una trabnsición desde grandes corporaciones a pequeñas configuraciones empresariales (Acs and Audretsch, 1993; van Stel, 2006) lo que se traduce en una reducción del tamaño medio gracias a las nuevas oportunidades en el sector servicio que ha aparecido gracias al desarrollo de las Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación (ICT), dos factores que probablemente se encuentren detrás de la sorprendente evolución de las tasas de autoempleo en los países más desarrollados. Audretsch and Sanders (2007) refuerzan esta idea al sugerir que la globalización y el desarrollo del sector ICT han supuesto una nueva división internacional del trabajo en la que las economías más avanzadas son ahora entrepreneurial driven, con más trabajadores de altos skills especializados en los procesos de innovación mientras que los países menos desarrollados y emergentes y con trabajadores menos cualificados se especializan en las etapas de la producción que han sido offshored. En definitiva, esta tesis tratará de analizar el triángulo entre entrepreneurship, globalización y libertad económica para ofrecer una mejor comprensión del cómo y el porqué de la contribución del sector empresarial nacional al crecimiento, la innovación y el empleo con diferente intensidad y características. ; The interplay between entrepreneurship and globalization and economic freedom backs into at the heart of the debate about self-employment contributions to the economic development of modem economies. After experienced a process of exceptionally strong globalization, the world is witnessing to an upsurge of protectionism. This new trend is threating not only free trade agreements but also the levels of economic integration achieved in some economic areas like the European Union. In this framework the less competitive firms and unemployed with low employability, are groups that will treat to lobby and to vote political options that incorporate the concerns of these groups (i.e. protectionist actions like less trade openness and restrictive migration policies. The consequences of this process are a hot policy issue at the time of writing after the great recession, since some industries and large sectors of the population considers globalisation as the ultimate cause of their problems, and advocate by any return to protection for national business and domestic employees against foreign firms and migrant workers. For them, the expected promotion of efficiency and productivity associated to globalisation is not guaranteed if the differences between institutions across countries alter the relative productivity and competitiveness. Thus, one could argue that the entrepreneurship ecosystem i.e. the institutional framework for business is the main determinant of the capacity of contribution of entrepreneurship to economic growth, job creation and innovation. Therefore, the economic freedom in its different dimensions, such as the rule of law, the regulatory efficiency and in especial business freedom and labor market institutions, the degree of integration into the global economy -i.e. the openness to trade- and the weight of the public sector on the overall economy might be considered as key factors, for determining whether a society is an entrepreneurial one or not The only way to resolve this type of controversies is providing solid economic propositions and empirical findings in order to evaluate the globalisation impact on economic growth, innovation, job creation and entrepreneurship. In this context, the study of the relationship between economic integration and entrepreneurship is particularly interesting, since entrepreneurship is a determinant of economic growth and job creation. In principle, the relationship between globalization, economic freedom and entrepreneurship is ambiguous, since one can argue that we can find plausible explanations for expecting both a positive and a negative relationship. Starting with the relation between entrepreneurship and economic integration, we all agree in that economic integration opens new business opportunities and encourages the self-employed firm size, since sales to foreign markets expands the potential demand. From this perspective, more trade openness is a positive factor not only for fostering entrepreneurship but also for enhancing the probability of survival and success. On the other hand, globalization increases the intensity of competition the opportunities of jobs and wages in the export sector leading a raise in the number self-employed workers due to the confluence of two phenomena: i) as global competition continuous to intensify some of them, the less competitive ones, could not withstand this competition, thus triggering the shutdown; ii) the greater the exposure to foreign competition, the smaller the fraction of self-employed people as the Diez and Ozdagli's (2011) model suggest. In addition we should also consider whether more openness influences on the relative distribution of entrepreneurship between productive and unproductive activities, i.e. between the so-called formal and informal self-employment. However, the key question is to know whether the effect of a higher exposure to international trade, leads, in any case, an optimal reallocation of labour between paid-employment and self-employment and between less productive firms to more productive exporters, and even across countries with positive effects on economic growth, innovation and job creation. Thus, the challenge is to provide empirical findings in order to shed light to the debate and attitudes towards globalization. To this end it is important to know the effects of more trade openness on the export intensity of self- employment is mutually beneficial, not only for higher-income countries but also for lower-income countries. In order to address these questions this dissertation also includes a second research question. In particular it presents an inquiry about the reasons of why the effects of globalization on national self-employed sectors should be analyzed not only in quantitative terms but also in qualitative ones. In particular we will treat to provide empirical findings for supporting the theoretical view of the effects of globalization on national entrepreneurial systems, provided by Acd and Sanders (2007). For them, globalization does not destroy self-employment but encourage the entrepreneurial model of production (Acs and Sanders, 2007. The shift away from large corporations and towards smaller entrepreneurial activity (Acs and Audretsch, 1993; van Stel, 2006) with the associated reduction in the average self-employed firm size, as well as the new business opportunities in the service sector for entrepreneurship thanks to the improvements in the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are the two potential factors behind this surprising performance of the self-employment rate. Audretsch and Sanders (2007) reinforce this idea suggesting that globalization and the development of the ICT sector are leading a new international division of work, the advanced economies endowed with high skilled workers are specialized in early stages of the product life cycle introducing innovations in products or process, while the less developed economies endowed with low skilled workers are specialized in the off-shored production stage. In sum, this dissertation will treat to analyse the triangle entrepreneurship, globalization economic freedom, for providing a better understanding how and why the contribution of a national self-employed sector on economic growth, innovation and job creation can show different intensities.

Tese de Doutoramento em Urbanismo com a especialização em Urbanismo apresentada na Faculdade de Arquitetura da Universidade de Lisboa para obtenção do grau de Doutor. ; Premissa Em Arquitectura, o desenvolvimento, a confirmação ou a negação de alguns paradigmas culturais e teóricos deve ser antecedido pelo mesmo processo em relação ao mais básico e prioritário dos objetos em questão, ou seja, o veículo das mesmas conjeturas, o produto de estes três anos de formação de terceiro ciclo: a tese de doutoramento. Esta é precisamente uma pesquisa, uma investigação de carácter experimental, original e inédita, confrontada meticulosamente com capacidades e técnicas capazes de controlar o seu processo. Não constitui uma prática de deificação de verdade dogmática, não tem validade universal, não revela a soma absoluta do saber. Pelo contrário, quer gostemos quer não, a investigação, como atividade, é de natureza duplamente parcial: epistemológica e temporal. Por sua vez, derivado de visões anteriores e baseado em inúmeros estudos, é um segmento do saber com uma certa legitimidade, transmissível entre pensadores e operadores da comunidade científica. Ao mesmo tempo, não tem validade cronológica ilimitada e não constitui uma meta invejada, mas sim um ponto de partida para futuras pesquisas académicas, próprias e de outrem, para um avanço disciplinar contínuo. É também importante precisar que o objeto de estudo não é produto de um capricho, e a investigação que dele resulta não constitui um exercício ocioso. Persiste, no entanto, a convicção de que é necessário que sejamos comedidos, mantendo-nos o mais possível dentro do nosso campo disciplinar específico, agora cada vez mais adulterado por desvios e fascinações sócio-antropológicas, com as condições da contemporaneidade na esfera de um realismo saudável. Objeto da pesquisa O objeto desta pesquisa é, portanto, aquela paisagem moderna dos segmentos costeiros do sul da Europa feita de geografia e de objets trouves, formas e materiais comuns, arquiteturas ainda "não acreditadas", resultantes de práticas não muito claras – traços de cidades informais litorais, produtos de auto-construção, ilegalidades, e ambiguidade normativa – que têm normalmente origem, necessidade, sentido e uso autónomos, relativamente a eventuais leituras formais e convencionais, mas que podem interessar bastante a quem se ocupa do território contemporâneo antrópico. Quer se queira quer não, estes manufatos, pela presença cénica por vezes tão imponente e violenta, outras vezes insignificante e camuflada, representam uma quota consistente da paisagem contemporânea e das ocasiões profissionais de nós arquitetos, cada vez mais forçados a manipular, com o olhar e com as nossas obras, a transformar e a corrigir este tipo de situações complexas, em vez de enriquecer os nossos territórios com nova edificação. Só os edifícios abusivos em Itália chegam aos 17%, enquanto que a percentagem aumenta entre os 30% e os 40% se considerarmos as construções que persistem ao longo da costa; a vizinha Grécia evidencia práticas semelhantes; se considerarmos também os edifícios autorizados do ponto de vista normativo, mas nunca 'dirigidos' a quem os observa, é óbvio que falamos pelo menos de metade daquilo que há anos temos constantemente debaixo dos olhos. Um fenómeno de quantidades e dimensões tais que é legítimo, por um lado, reconhecer que o atual sistema positivista normativo é, resumidamente, bastante ineficaz, e, por outro, falar de situações inadiáveis, e não de dissertação teorética gratuita. Talvez tenhamos realmente passado um ponto sem retorno. É possível conjeturar a demolição de quilómetros e quilómetros de construção ao longo da costa? Como reutilizar e armazenar os milhares de restos de metros cúbicos de materiais de construção civil não recicláveis? É economicamente sustentável? É dialeticamente correto? É culturalmente sincrónico? Cada empreendimento demiúrgico, adequado a reimplantar uma hipotética idade de ouro ou o sublimado "ponto zero" do estado natural das coisas, arrisca a parecer mais arrogante e insensato – mesmo que não seja considerado assim pelo senso comum – que uma humilde e realista tentativa de reconhecer certas formas que adornam o território honestamente rejeitado na consciência da autonomia disciplinar e dos limites – dentro dos quais a nossa investigação pode definir-se, de um certo modo, como científica – das nossas competências de estudiosos de arquitetura, que não se confundem com as nossas aspirações vagas de cidadãos e utentes sociais. Trata-se, na verdade, de abandonar por um momento os impulsos políticos e sociológicos e a prática da "reportagem da degradação" – muito em voga hoje – para se limitar, e não se trata de limites, pelo contrário, a investigar, na qualidade de arquiteto, a forma, e compreender até que ponto, objetos e linguagem, não considerados áulicos e sem acreditação, possam constituir, pelo contrário, materiais de construção de interesse. Exatamente como outros, não só no campo arquitetónico, têm repetidamente tentado, ao longo da história, uma cultura nova de partilha. O significado de acreditação A tese de doutoramento entende, portanto, propor uma leitura da paisagem contemporânea, olhando a dinâmica da acreditação como o principal instrumento de reavaliação de alguns objetos e segmentos costeiros da nossa área geográfico-cultural, a fim de enfrentar mais adequadamente a complexidade da gestão de território. A pesquisa explora, portanto, algumas técnicas compositivas para a acreditação, ou seja, contextualiza o objeto, ou o conjunto de objetos, em novos e variados possíveis sistemas de relações funcionais da construção da paisagem, do espaço coletivo, da forma e da contemporaneidade. A acreditação de um objeto está ligada a características intrínsecas e extrínsecas ao mesmo. Esta reside seguramente em atributos formais – forma, dimensões, escala, relação com a paisagem, materiais utilizados – mas sobretudo, amaldiçoando um estéril e perigoso elenco numérico das qualidades a registar, evitando a redução da arquitetura a sistemas meramente quantitativos, em características extrínsecas ao próprio objeto. Em primeiro lugar, a capacidade de criação – aliás, compositiva - que descreve o objeto a ser acreditado, a partir da operação de lançar um olhar sobre este, que é já projeto, transformando-o e tornando evidente com a produção de uma forma (seja ela uma fotografia, uma colagem, um desenho, um poema, uma composição musical) esta transformação. Uma transformação que consiste sobretudo na ativação de novas relações entre o objeto e outros elementos e layers do território, sejam estes materiais ou imateriais. Método e resultados esperados A acumulação de fragmentos da contemporaneidade sobre a forma de um ábaco de elementos de um vocabulário possível, a abstração das formas que adornam a nossa geografia, o confronto sistemático entre "objetos encontrados", esquecimento de hoje, e casos do passado pelos quais existe uma clara e universal atribuição de qualidade, o desnivelamento de um diálogo organizado entre elementos de pontuação, geneticamente heterogéneos, de diversas frentes costeiras, pode constituir um exercício saudável de observação para poder superar o paradigma do pitoresco e da lente da retórica, principais limites da pesquisa de onde é sempre difícil libertar-se. Desta forma, os investigadores, estudiosos, e administradores que colocarem as lentes dadas por esta pesquisa, e através das quais observarem a paisagem, poderão dialogar, debater e criar avanços disciplinares significativos no sentido de compreender as formas do território, concentrando-se nos mecanismos de reconhecimento e acreditação dos elementos que contribuem para a definição da paisagem contemporânea. A utilidade da dissertação é modernizar e atualizar o paradigma em vez de forçar a realidade a uma evolução improvável de "regresso ao futuro", para constituir uma base disciplinar, seja para elaborar cenários possíveis, seja para estruturar sistemas de avaliação de propostas de criação, seja para uma articulação normativa territorial de nova geração para áreas distintas. ; ABSTRACT: Premises Before proceeding with the widening, confirming or retracting of a few cultural and theoretical archetypes in the field of architecture, it may come useful to do the same with the most basic and overriding of the subject matters under examination: that is the vehicle of the conjectures themselves, the result of a third level three year education program: the PhD thesis. Indeed, it is a research, an investigation carrying an experimental flair; original and unreleased, tackled thoroughly by means of skills and techniques able to control its process. It does not intend to be the deification of dogmatic truths, it is not valid all-round nor reveals the absolute summa of knowledge. On the contrary, whether liked or not, the research activity has a two natured incompleteness: of epistemological and temporal nature. In turn, it derives from previous points of view and is based on upstream studies. It is a section of knowledge having a certain validity domain, transmissible and interchangeable among thinkers and operators belonging to the scientific community. Moreover, and at the same time, it has no limits in its chronological validity and it is not the seeking for a target: rather, a starting point inspiring confidence for future academic researches – both of the writer and reader's – for an incessant disciplinary progress. It is also useful to point out that the subject matter of this study is not the result of a whim; the investigation that it prompted, not an idle exercise. Instead, it was the persisting need urging one to measure oneself – trying one's best to remain as much as possible within his specific educational field (now, more than ever, diluted by the many social-anthropological bewitching) – with a healthy realism at the core of the being contemporary. Object of research Therefore, the object of this research is the contemporary landscape of the coastal segments in Southern Europe, made of geography and objets trouvés, ordinary shapes and materials, unacknowledged architectures, often a result of not very straightforward practices – sections of informal coastal towns, products of self building, unauthorized development and regulation ambiguity – which normally are autonomous in their origin, needs, sense and use in respect to a conventional formal reading, but rising great interest in those who are involved in the field of contemporary anthropized environments. Whether we like it or not, these products (human crafts showing, at times, a brutal and imposing stage presence and at times an insignificant or minor and muffled one) represent a considerable part of contemporary landscapes and of professional chances for us architects, being ever more forced to manipulate, transform and correct, both with our gaze and action, the complexity of these set outs, rather than enriching our territories with new volumes. Abusive buildings in Italy cover over 17% of the gross, while the percentage increases reaching 30-40% if considering buildings along coastal areas. Nearby Greece shows similar routine. If, on the other then, one wishes to broaden the dissertation also to those buildings authorized under the regulation point of view, yet upsetting those who observe them, it is obvious that they cover at least half of what we have constantly observed for years. A phenomenon in terms of quantity according to which it is licit on one hand to recognize that the present positivistic regulatory framework is, basically, most useless, and on the other to speak of a compulsory situation, and not of an uncalled for theoretical disquisition. Perhaps we have truly reached the point of no return. Is it at all possible to hypothesize the demolition of whole stretches of buildings along the coastal areas? How to manage the clearing out and hoarding of further billions of square meters of non-recyclable rubble? Is it financially sustainable? Is it dialectically correct? Culturally synchronic? Any demiurgical activity undertaken in order to re-establish an hypothetical golden age or exalted "zero point" of the natural state of things could appear more presumptuous and senseless – although never considered as such by a very popular common sense – than a humble and realistic attempt to give value to certain shapes studding the territory, describing it honestly being aware of the freedom settled by the discipline and boundaries – within which our research may be defined almost nearer a scientific one – of our expertise as academics in architecture, which must not be confused with our aspirations as dwellers or social users. Indeed, it is all about leaving aside for a moment political or sociological drives and the now very popular "environmental degradation reports", to limit oneself – and that is no limit – to investigate as architects, as we are, the shape, understand to which extent objects and languages that are not accredited nor considered noble can instead represent building material tickling a certain interest. Exactly like others, who have experienced, over and over again and not only in the architectural field, the new culture of sharing. The Sense of acknowledging Therefore, the aim of this PhD thesis is to suggest a reading of contemporary landscape, using the dynamics of the acknowledging as a fundamental means to reassess some objects and coastal segments of our cultural and geographical area, with the final objective of tackling more appropriately the complexity of the managing this territory requires. This research investigates some compositional techniques for the accrediting (that is, the putting at stake) of the object itself - or of the objects if a plurality – in new and many possible ways functional to the setting of the landscape, of the collective space, of the shapes of contemporaneity. The inclination of an object to be accredited is connected to its intrinsic and express characteristics. For sure it may be found in its formal qualities – shape, dimension, scale, relation with the landscape, employed materials – but, above all, preventing a sterile and dangerous numerical list of its qualities (an appalling tendency afflicting our time is to reduce architecture to systems measuring mere quantities, in characteristics extrinsic to the object itself. First of all the ability to design – rather, of composition – of who is describing the object to be accredited; starting from the first gaze, which is already designing, transforming it and making that transformation evident by giving it a shape (whether with a photograph, a collage, a drawing, a poem or musical composition). A transformation mainly consisting in activating new relationships between the object and other elements and layers of the territory, both material and intangible. Method and expected results Exercising gathering fragments of contemporaneity, in the form of an abacus of elements composing a possible vocabulary, the abstraction of the forms that stud our geographies, the systematic comparing of disregarded "found objects" of the present and cases of the past for which there exists an established and universal awarding of quality; the unveiling of an orderly dialogue between punctuation elements - genetically heterogeneous – of the different coastal fronts, may represent a healthy training to observation in order to overcome the paradigm of picturesque and the lens of rhetoric; main limits to research, from the domination of which it is always hard to set free of. In this way researcher, academics and managers who will be seeing the landscape through the glasses of this research may converse, discuss and produce significant guideline improvements towards the understanding of the territory, focusing on the mechanisms of acknowledgement and accreditation of the elements concurring to the definition of the contemporary landscape. To update and modernize the paradigm instead of forcing reality in an unconvincing evolution recalling a "return to the future" could represent the disciplinary grounds for developing possible landscapes, for structuring evaluation models for creative proposals, and for the issuing of a new generation of territory laws and regulation dedicated to distinctive areas. ; N/A

Thesis is devoted to scientific and theoretical explanation of the City Council functioning as an institution of local democracy in Ukraine. It is defined that in political foreign science, investigation of democracy institutions on the local level has its own tradition. In Ukrainian political science, there are two ways of the City Council investigation as an institution of local democracy. The first group of Ukrainian scientists carries out scientific researches devoted to the problems of the City Council institutional development. Another group of scientists discloses outlined problems due to the regional research. Researchers' attention is paid on subjects of political process in regions. But the problem of lack amount of applied research, particularly devoted to the analysis of political practice in the interaction between the City Council and community, still exists. On the basis of analysis, generalization and systematization of scientific resources, the state of scientific research on the problem of local democracy institutions in Ukrainian literature, is highlighted. Basic methodology approaches of modern political science to the understanding of the City Council as an institution of local democracy are defined.It is proved that the research of methodological principles of the City Council as an institution of local democracy study requires a combination of several aspects. It is important to take into consideration that the City Council operates on the lowest territorial authorities' level. Its main characteristics are autonomous authority formation from another administrative units and combination of representative direct forms of democracy and citizen participation in political process. The City Council is not only a form of state decentralization, but also a mechanism of social and political regime. As a result of interaction evolution between the City Council and community, institutions of local democracy which legalize their activity on certain territories and have a certain level of trust in society are established. The principles of subsidiary as a factor of system transformation of local selfgovernment in Ukraine. It is important to use the principal of subsidiary during the interaction between the City Council and community. It is found out that the mechanism of solving important problems on the level of their occurrence is necessary for democratization of Ukrainian political process. Special attention is paid on political and legal regulation of community participation in the process of local democracy through the prism of public authority functioning. It is proved that Ukraine has a powerful legislative framework for local democracy institutions functioning. It is found out that there are enough legislative basis for local democracy institutions functioning, but the problem of lack amount of mechanisms to regulate community participation in the processes of local democracy exists. Regulatory and legal framework in Ukraine defines basic powers of the City Council and its executive bodies in the sphere of its regulation. It doesn't usually establish the procedure of these powers realization. That is why, procedural norms should be prescribed in the City Council's legal documents (statutes, regulations) and their compliance will provide political and legal basis for interaction between the City Council and community.It is proved that the essence of reformation in the legal field depends on the City Councils empowerment concerning solving their vital problems, increasing their economic independence, optimizing the distribution of powers between local authorities and the City Councils and as a result ensuring required quantity and quality of social and administrative services for Ukrainian citizens.It is stressed on the fact that democracy and society take their beginning from community and the City Council is an important element of local democracy and society. At the same time, community is a solid foundation of society development. The City Council should meet community interests and needs. It is necessary in the case of spheres and competences division between state authority and the City Council on the principles of subsidiarity and political responsibility. It is found out that community performs protection, management, coordination and regulation functions on certain territories. Community can be defined as a certain community which is united within one territory in order to solve common political, economic, social and religious problems. It is explained that political management in the community should be realized concerning local population interests, development and territory conversation on the basis of efficient use of community resources. It is mentioned that the City Council needs certain bodies of community self-organization to diagnose community problems, attract additional resources for solving social problems and advocate community interests before state government. The attention is focused on the functions of community self-organization bodies: satisfying social interests and needs, informing authorities of their problems and needs, realization of public control over the City Council activities, assistance in solving common community problems.It is stressed that community self-organization bodies are a part of civil society and a system of local self-government that mobilize residents to solve their home, street, square and region problems. Bodies of community selforganization can be financed from the local budget and use their resources on their purposes within law determined by the City Council and accepted solution of community general meetings' members. The peculiarities of public control in the City Councils are shown. It is mentioned that public control is becoming an important factor in the process of decision making on the local level. Public control has its own characteristics. Control itself is realized by community (organized, unorganized) and in the process of its realization, community controls authority's implementation of its social obligations. It is observed a tendency of communication activation between the City Council and community through the system of electronic petitions. The problem of trust between subjects of local democracy realization (state and community) is very topical when we talk not only about using funds, but openness and responsibility for decision implementation as well. The efficiency of public control should take into account two levels of evaluation. The first level concerns public opinion. The second one – processing of local decisions among experts. To solve the most topical problems of local community life, we should understand how these main forms of local democracy as local initiatives, general meetings, local referendums, public hearings and activities of community self-organization bodies were used. It is mentioned that an important part of the City Council democracy understanding in Ukraine is the index of publicity. Measuring this index, we can understand how open political decision making on the local level is and what involvement of local policy subjects in this process is.It is mentioned that the index of publicity contains an integrated system of indicators which give a possibility on the regularly basis to evaluate and compare the quality of bodies and local officials' governance in the context of their activity. Defining the index of the City Council publicity, it is important to take into account such criteria as: the existence of community statute and the City Council regulations; the existence and analysis of local initiatives; public hearings and public expertise; mayors and the City Council deputies reports; general meetings of citizens; electronic petitions; public consultations. These criteria give a possibility to define the level of the City Council publicity in Ukraine. In order to increase the level of community social involvement, the state has to become an active participant in common projects devoting to partnership development among public organizations, bodies of local self-governing and community in the sphere of services provision. To implement community initiatives, it is necessary to monitor the compliance with the community rights law on realization of direct democracy mechanisms.It is stressed on the fact that internal and external factors influence on the realization of community initiatives on the City Council level. The first group of factors contains objective conditions, such as: peculiarities of political regime transformation; social and economic state development; specifics of state policy implementation and powers division between the center and regions; state of legal and regulatory functioning framework of such organizations. Among internal factors, subjective conditions can be distinguished: level of local institutional development of local democracy institutions; presence of real leaders in this organizations; existence of necessary resources (political, economic, social, demographic etc.) for policy implementation. ; В диссертации осуществлено научно-теоретическое обоснование функционирования городского совета, как института локальной демократии в Украине. На основе анализа, обобщения и систематизации научных источников отражено состояние научной разработки проблемы институтов локальной демократии в отечественной литературе, раскрыты основные методологические подходы современной политической науки к пониманию городского совета как института локальной демократии. Проанализирован принцип субсидиарности как фактор трансформации системы местного самоуправления в Украине. Особое внимание уделено политико-правовому регулированию участия общественности в процессах локальной демократии через призму функционирования публичной власти.Раскрыты особенности общественного контроля в городских советах. Доказано, что общественный контроль имеет свои особенности: во-первых, сам контроль осуществляется общественностью (организованной или неорганизованной). Во-вторых, в процессе осуществления контроля именно общественность контролирует выполнение обязательств власти перед территориальной громадой.Определены проблемы правового обеспечения взаимодействия городского совета и общества. Исследовано развитие институциональной структуры органов самоорганизации населения. Акцентировано внимание на том, что реализация общественных инициатив требует создания необходимых условий для участия общественности, прежде всего, в развитии собственного города и решении местных проблем.Охарактеризованы критерии демократизации и индекс публичности городских советов в Украине. Определено, что, только привлекая институты локальной демократии и интегрировав их в механизмы принятия и реализации политических решений, можно достичь успехов и перейти к европейским стандартам в реализации локальной политики. ; У дисертації здійснено науково-теоретичне обґрунтування функціонування міської ради як інституту локальної демократії в Україні. Встановлено, що в зарубіжній політичній науці дослідження інститутів демократії на місцевому рівні має сталу традицію. У вітчизняній політичній науці спостерігається два напрями дослідження міської ради як інституту локальної демократії. Перша група українських дослідників здійснює наукові пошуки щодо проблем інституційного розвитку міської ради. Інша група науковців розкриває окреслену проблематику через регіональні дослідження. Особливу увагу дослідників зосереджено на суб'єктах політичного процесу в регіонах, натомість бракує робіт прикладного характеру, зокрема присвячених аналізу політичної практики взаємодії міських рад із громадою.На основі аналізу, узагальнення й систематизації наукових джерел висвітлено стан наукової розробки проблеми інститутів локальної демократії у вітчизняній літературі, розкрито основні методологічні підходи сучасної політичної науки до розуміння міської ради як інституту локальної демократії. Обґрунтовано, що дослідження методологічних засад вивчення міської ради як інституту локальної демократії потребує поєднання декількох аспектів. Варто враховувати, що міська рада функціонує на найнижчому територіальному рівні влади, характерними ознаками якої є автономність формування влади від інших адміністративних одиниць, поєднання представницької та безпосередньої форм демократії та участь громадян у політичному процесі. Розглянуто, роль міської ради у процесах децентралiзацiї держави, тобто передачі повноважень на місцевий рівень. Унаслідок еволюції взаємодії міської ради й територіальної громади створюються інститути локальної демократії, які легалізують свою діяльність на окремих територіях і мають певний рівень довіри в суспільстві. Проаналізовано принцип субсидіарності як фактору трансформації системи місцевого самоврядування в Україні. Важливо, щоб під час взаємодії міської ради й територіальної громади використовувався принцип субсидіарності. З'ясовано, що перенесення механізму розв'язання важливих проблем на рівень їхнього виникнення необхідне для демократизації українського політичного процесу. Особливу увагу приділено політико-правовому регулюванню участі громади у процесах локальної демократії через призму функціонування публічної влади. Обґрунтовано, що в Україні створена потужна законодавча база для функціонування інститутів локальної демократії. З'ясовано, що в Україні існує достатньо законодавчих засад для функціонування інститутів локальної демократії, однак бракує механізмів регулювання участі громади у процесах місцевої демократії. Нормативно-правова база в Україні визначає базові повноваження міської ради та її виконавчих органів у сфері свого регулювання, але зазвичай не встановлює процедури реалізації цих повноважень. Саме тому в правових документах міської ради (статутах, регламентах) мають бути прописані процедурні норми, дотримання яких буде надавати політико-правові підстави для взаємодії міської ради і громади.Доведено, що сутність реформування в правовій сфері має полягати в розширенні прав міських рад щодо вирішення питань своєї життєдіяльності, збільшенні їхньої економічної самостійності, оптимізації розподілу повноважень між місцевими органами державної влади й міськими радами і, як результат, забезпеченні громадян України необхідною кількістю і якістю соціальних та адміністративних послуг.Наголошено, що демократія й громадянське суспільство починаються з територіальної громади, а міська рада – важливий елемент як локальної демократії, так і громадянського суспільства. При цьому міцним фундаментом становлення і функціонування громадянського суспільства є громада. Міська рада має виражати волю та задовольняти інтереси населення певної територіальної громади. Це можливо за умови розподілу сфер і компетенцій між державною владою та міською радою на принципах субсидіарності й політичної відповідальності. З'ясовано, що громада виконує функції захисту, управління, координації й регулювання на певній території. Громаду можна визначити як певну спiльноту, що об'єднується на основi териториторіального показника чи для розв'язання спiльних проблем полiтичного, економічного, соціального, релiгійного та іншого характеру. Обґрунтовано, що політичне управління в громаді має здійснюватися в інтересах місцевого населення, розвитку та збереження території на основі ефективного використання ресурсів громади.Зауважено, що для міської ради органи самоорганізації населення потрібні для того, щоб діагностувати те, що найбільше хвилює населення, залучати додаткові ресурси для розв'язання соціальних проблем, захищати інтереси громади перед державною владою та політичною кон'юнктурою. Акцентовано увагу на функціях, які здійснюють органи самоорганізації населення, а саме: задоволення суспільного інтересу та потреб жителів; донесення до влади своїх проблем і потреб та спроба їх вирішення; здійснення громадського контролю за діяльністю міської ради; допомога в розв'язанні спільних проблем за місцем проживання. Наголошено, що органи самоорганізації населення – це одночасно складова частина громадянського суспільства й системи місцевого самоврядування, що мобілізує мешканців на розв'язання проблем свого будинку, вулиці, кварталу, району на виконання делегованих міською радою повноважень. Органи самоорганізації населення можуть отримувати фінансування з місцевого бюджету та використовувати свої ресурси на цілі й в межах, визначених законом, місцевою радою та рішенням загальних зборів членів територіальної громади за місцем проживання. Розкрито особливості громадського контролю в міських радах. Зауважено, що громадський контроль стає важливим складником у процесі прийняття управлінських рішень на місцевому рівні. Громадський контроль має свої особливості, зокрема сам контроль здійснюється громадськістю (організованою чи неорганізованою), і що у процесі здійснення контролю саме громадськість контролює виконання владою її соціальних обов'язків перед громадою. В Україні спостерігається тенденція активізації зв'язку між міською радою та громадянами через систему електронних петицій.Обґрунтовано, що проблема довіри між суб'єктами реалізації місцевої політики (владою та громадою) є дуже актуальним, особливо коли йдеться, з одного боку, про використання коштів, а з іншого – про відкритість та відповідальність за впровадження рішень. Ефективність громадського контролю, має враховувати два рівні оцінок. Перший рівень – це врахування громадської думки. Другий рівень – опрацювання місцевих рішень в експертному середовищі. Для розв'язання актуальних проблем життя місцевої громади варто зрозуміти, як використовувалися такі основні форми локальної демократії, як місцеві ініціативи, загальні збори, місцеві референдуми, громадські слухання та діяльність органів самоорганізації населення. Зауважено, що важливою складовою частиною розуміння демократичності міських рад в Україні є індекс публічності. Через вимірювання індексу публічності міських рад можна зрозуміти, наскільки прозоро приймаються політичні рішення в локальних територіальних громадах і якою є участь у цьому процесі суб'єктів місцевої політики.Зазначено, що індекс публічності містить цілісну систему індикаторів, які дають змогу на регулярній основі оцінювати й порівнювати якість управління у міських радах та аналізувати роботу посадових осіб місцевого самоврядування в розрізі їхньої діяльності. При визначенні індексу публічності міських рад важливо враховувати такі критерії, як: наявність статуту територіальної громади й регламентів міських рад; існування та аналіз місцевих ініціатив; проведення громадських слухань та громадської експертизи; звітування міських голів та депутатів міських рад; загальні збори громадян за місцем проживання; електронні петиції; консультації з громадськістю. Ці критерії дають змогу визначити рівень публічності міських рад в Україні. Зазначено, що для підвищення рівня соціальної мобілізації місцевих громад держава має стати активним учасником у спільних проектах із розвитку партнерства між громадськими організаціями, органами місцевого самоврядування і громадою у сфері надання послуг. Для реалізації громадських ініціатив потрібно здійснювати моніторинг додержання законодавства з питань забезпечення прав громади на реалізацію механізмів прямої демократії та притягнення до відповідальності посадових осіб за його порушення.Наголошено, що на реалізацію громадських ініціатив на рівні міської ради впливають зовнішні та внутрішні чинники. До перших належать об'єктивні умови, а саме: особливості трансформації політичного режиму, соціально-економічний розвиток держави; специфіка реалізації державної політики і розподіл повноважень між центром та регіонами; стан нормативно-правової бази функціонування таких об'єднань. Серед внутрішніх чинників, можна виділити суб'єктивні умови, а саме: рівень інституційного розвитку інститутів локальної демократії; присутність у цих об'єднаннях реальних лідерів; наявність необхідних ресурсів (політичних, економічних, соціальних, демографічних тощо) для реалізації своєї політики.

Al cierre de la presente edición de INNOVAR, la ciudadanía en Latinoamérica y Colombia se encuentra consternada frente a los hechos de corrupción público-privada que han sido conocidos por la opinión pública en casos como los de Reficar ("Reficar: ¿el escándalo económico del siglo?", 2016) y Odebrecht ("¿Qué es el caso Odebrecht?: claves para entender el millonario escándalo de corrupción", 2017), entre otros. La consternación no se debe tanto a la novedad de los hechos, sino a la dimensión de los ilícitos y a la posición de los implicados (que incluye a múltiples miembros de las élites políticas, económicas y empresariales de varios países de la región). El malestar social crece ante la incapacidad de prevención y la ineficacia en la reacción de los aparatos de justicia. El siglo XXI ha sido especialmente profuso en eventos que visibilizan prácticas corruptas, tanto en el contexto empresarial como estatal: Enron, Worldcom, Adelphia, Tyco, Parmalat, J. P. Morgan, hipotecas subprime, los papeles de Panamá, entre muchas otras (Ashforth, Gioia, Robinson y Treviño, 2008). La dimensión de la corrupción supera las fronteras geográficas, las formas de gobierno de los Estados, las tradiciones culturales y los niveles de desarrollo socioeconómico de los países.El origen de la corrupción, sus manifestaciones y dimensiones, así como los mecanismos para enfrentarla, constituyen un campo de estudio que reclama enfoques inter y multidisciplinarios. Existen aproximaciones desde diversas perspectivas: la economía, la sociología, el derecho, la teoría organizacional, entre otros, y se identifican diversos enfoques y cuerpos de teoría que buscan explicar y comprender tal problemática (Pinto, Leana y Pil, 2008). Desde el punto de vista de la gestión y la teoría de las organizaciones, reconociendo la variedad de paradigmas sobre el asunto, un texto que ya se considera clásico fue el artículo de Diane Vaughan (1999) "The Dark Side of Organizations: Mistake, Misconduct, and Disaster" publicado en Annual Review of Sociology. La importancia del tema, fruto de la profundización de las crisis por corrupción del presente siglo, llevó a que una publicación académica tan reconocida como Academy of Management Review dedicara un número especial al abordaje de este fenómeno en el 2008.Allí, Lange (2008) ha definido la corrupción organizacional como: "[…] pursuit of individual interests by one or more organizational actors through the intentional misdirection of organizational resources or perversion of organizational routines" (p. 710). Esta definición enfatiza los comportamientos y malas prácticas de los gestores como fuente de la corrupción en las organizaciones. Pone el acento, por tanto, en la corrupción como una desviación de los individuos, de los agentes que solo persiguen su interés particular. Sin negar la responsabilidad de los individuos en la corrupción los fallos éticos-, es necesario también desarrollar un enfoque sobre la estructura y el sistema como generadores de corrupción en las organizaciones. El abordaje que desde la ciencia política y la filosofía se ha realizado a partir de la "banalidad del mal" (Arendt, 2003) puede aportar a este propósito en las ciencias de gestión y en la teoría organizacional. La tesis central de este planteamiento es que lo criminal y lo aberrante se pueden convertir en lo legal o en lo axiológicamente valorado como correcto en ciertas condiciones históricas, lo que hace que se establezcan estructuras que promueven lo incorrecto e institucionalizan una forma de lo corrupto. Esto impide que el juicio individual opere como freno ético del mal (Arendt estudió cómo los militares alemanes que participaron en el genocidio judío creían actuar correctamente y simplemente cumplir con las órdenes emitidas por el Tercer Reich).Los últimos años han visto la entrada a la gestión organizacional de perspectivas soportadas en la competencia sin límite, la visión de corto plazo, la gestión por medio del estrés, la generación de inestabilidad psicológica como motivante del desempeño, la amenaza del desempleo y el abrumador consumo y sus efectos sobre el medioambiente; y todo esto tiene lugar bajo el objetivo estandarizado del crecimiento incesante de los rendimientos financieros (con el eufemismo de la "creación de valor"). Estos elementos se han convertido en imperativos institucionalizados y naturalizados que hacen parte de las estructuras de las organizaciones contemporáneas. Gerentes y subalternos señalan: "¡así es la organización, ese es el mercado, todos se comportan igual!". Este contexto normaliza la "astucia" como valor que debe ser premiado, la "viveza" como capacidad a exaltar, la innovación como cualquier cambio formal por el que pagan los consumidores y, en su conjunto, promueven la negación de las consideraciones éticas por el interés general, lo que evita la valoración del impacto de las acciones administrativas sobre las personas, el entorno social y el medioambiente -es decir, negando la otredad-.Así pues, desde esta tribuna que es INNOVAR, convocamos a los investigadores en Colombia e Iberoamérica a realizar aportes teóricos e investigaciones empíricas que enriquezcan nuestra comprensión del flagelo de la corrupción, para plantear propuestas para su identificación, prevención y tratamiento; de esta manera, se pueden superar los enfoques que responsabilizan solamente a los individuos, sin abordar adecuadamente las dimensiones sistémicas o estructurales de la corrupción organizacional.La edición 64 de INNOVAR se estructura en cuatro de nuestras tradicionales secciones. La primera sección está dedicada a Marketing, y en esta publicamos tres trabajos, resultados de investigación.Desde la sede Medellín de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, el investigador James Sánchez-Alzate y la profesora Luz Alexandra Montoya aportan a este número el artículo titulado "La confianza como elemento fundamental en las compras a través de canales de comercio electrónico: caso de los consumidores en Antioquia (Colombia)". La investigación tuvo como objetivo identificar y recoger los factores que afectan la confianza de quienes compran por medios electrónicos en un mercado local, concretamente en Antioquia. Metodológicamente el trabajo se desarrolló por medio de una encuesta a 500 participantes, cuyo instrumento siguió una estructura de diseño según la escala de Likert, con la que posteriormente se realizaron análisis estadísticos descriptivos. Se concluye que la reputación del vendedor, el riesgo percibido, la privacidad en el manejo de los datos y la seguridad de las transacciones son los factores más influyentes en la confianza de los consumidores en el estudio realizado.Los profesores António Carrizo, Pedro Freitas y Victor Ferreira, de la Universidad de Aveiro, Portugal, son los autores del trabajo "The Effects of Brand Experiences on Quality, Satisfaction and Loyalty: An Empirical Study in the Telecommunications Multiple-play Service Market". El artículo se planteó como objetivo aportar al conocimiento sobre el papel que juega la experiencia de marca, relacionando factores como la satisfacción, la confianza y la calidad en el servicio, en la lealtad hacia esta. El objeto de estudio estuvo compuesto por usuarios del sector telecomunicaciones en Portugal. Metodológicamente se desarrollaron ecuaciones estructurales, para identificar relaciones causales en los constructos para cada factor. Los resultados muestran que la experiencia de marca está significativamente relacionada con la lealtad, la confianza y la calidad. Se concluye que las experiencias de marca pueden ser una oportunidad clara de diferenciación en el sector servicios.Con el artículo "La influencia del consumo simbólico en la intensidad de uso de las redes sociales digitales y el valor percibido de las experiencias", el profesor Gonzalo Luna Cortés, de la Universidad Autónoma del Caribe, Colombia, participa en esta sección de Marketing. El trabajo tiene como objetivo analizar la relación existente entre la congruencia de la experiencia y la identidad, con el valor percibido de la experiencia. También busca aportar evidencia empírica sobre las experiencias de consumo simbólico por medio de las redes sociales. Se realizaron 380 encuestas a estudiantes universitarios españoles, con las que se concluye que la percepción del consumidor, relativa al refuerzo de su propia identidad, aumenta su satisfacción y la intención de recompra. Esto se evidencia de forma muy clara en el consumo por medio de las redes sociales.La segunda sección de este número de la revista está dedicada a las Empresas de Menor Tamaño y presenta dos artículos de investigación.De la Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano, Colombia, el profesor Leonardo Santana nos presenta su artículo "Determinantes de la supervivencia de microempresas en Bogotá: un análisis con modelos de duración". La investigación tuvo como objetivo establecer la tasa de supervivencia de las microempresas en Bogotá, identificando las principales variables financieras que determinan el nivel de supervivencia. Con información financiera y de apertura y cierre de 25.523 microempresas, provista por la Cámara de Comercio de Bogotá, se aplican modelos de duración para realizar la medición perseguida. Se identifican como determinantes de la duración de la empresa el número de empleados, la rentabilidad operativa y la capacidad de generación de ingresos para atender el servicio de la deuda.Los profesores Natanael Ramírez, Alejandro Mungaray, José Gabriel Aguilar y Yadira Zulith, vinculados a la Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, México, son los autores del trabajo "Microemprendimientos como instrumento de combate a la pobreza: una evaluación social para el caso mexicano". El artículo tiene como objetivo evaluar la rentabilidad social y económica de un grupo de microempresas (marginadas) de Tijuana (México). Al mismo tiempo, busca evaluar la pertinencia del fomento al desarrollo de la microempresa como política de lucha contra la pobreza y de desarrollo social del país. El trabajo estudia 394 microempresas ubicadas en zonas marginales de Tijuana, que recibieron servicios de capacitación, asistencia técnica y acercamiento a las fuentes de financiamiento. Los resultados del trabajo muestran que la vulnerabilidad de estas empresas es menor una vez son apoyadas, por lo que resulta pertinente el fomento gubernamental con financiación y capacitación, ya que ayuda a paliar la pobreza, promoviendo el desarrollo económico.En nuestra sección de Turismo, se publican dos trabajos resultados de investigación.El artículo titulado "Determinantes estratégicos en la formación de la lealtad del joven residente: el caso de las Islas Canarias" es el resultado de investigación de los profesores José Alberto Martínez, Noemí Padrón y Eduardo Parra, vinculados a la Universidad de la Laguna, España. El trabajo buscó identificar las variables que determinan la formación de la lealtad de los jóvenes que residen en destinos turísticos domésticos (concretamente en las Islas Canarias). A partir de una muestra de 678 jóvenes residentes en Tenerife y Gran Canaria, se desarrolló un cuestionario, y con los datos se construyó un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales. Los resultados muestran que la orientación al mercado, constituye la base para generar procesos que consiguen la lealtad del consumidor, así como que la satisfacción es la única variable que determina la lealtad.Las profesoras Marysela Morillo Moreno y Cororina del Carmen Cardozo Moreno, de la Universidad de los Andes, Venezuela, son las autoras del artículo "Sistema de costos basado en actividades en hoteles cuatro estrellas del estado Mérida, Venezuela". En el contexto de competitividad que presenta el sector hotelero, este trabajo buscó formular un modelo de costos ABC para hoteles cuatro estrellas del estado Mérida (Venezuela), enfatizando en sus aportes a la creación de valor, el control y la reducción de costos. A partir de un enfoque de investigación cualitativo, de campo, de carácter exploratorio, descriptivo y documental, se caracterizó el contexto hotelero (por medio de entrevistas y observación directa), se identificaron sus necesidades y se planteó el modelo, llegando a la identificación de actividades y criterios de asignación del costo. Se concluye que los costos ABC son una herramienta de gestión que orienta las decisiones estratégicas y el control de costos, con diversos beneficios.La sección Aportes a la Investigación y la Docencia de este número recoge tres artículos académicos.Desde la Universidad de Talca, Chile, los profesores Sebastián Donoso-Díaz y Nibaldo Benavides Moreno suscriben el artículo que lleva por título "Descentralización de la gestión de la educación pública e institucionalidad local en Chile: el caso de los directores comunales de educación". Este trabajo busca analizar la institucionalidad y la gestión de la educación pública local en Chile, mostrando los cambios promovidos por los marcos normativos que buscan modernizar la administración pública. Particularmente, el documento se enfoca en el rol institucional y funciones de los jefes de departamentos de educación municipal. Con un enfoque metodológico cualitativo y a través de entrevistas semiestructuradas, se identifican "nudos críticos" en las funciones de los jefes de departamento que deben resolverse. Por ello, el trabajo formula propuestas de reorganización de la educación en el plano local.Se publica en este número el artículo titulado "Una reflexión ex post facto sobre la conducción de estudios multicaso para la construcción de teoría en ciencias de gestión", de autoría de la profesora Ruth Esperanza Román Castillo, de la Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Colombia, y el profesor Ali Smida, de la Universitéde Paris 13 Sorbonne Paris Cité, Francia. Este trabajo recibió reconocimiento como una de las mejores ponencias presentadas en el Primer Congreso Internacional de Gestión de las Organizaciones (CIGO), desarrollado en la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, del 17 al 20 de noviembre del 2015. El objetivo de este trabajo es mostrar cómo, desde los referentes metodológicos de los estudios multicaso, se pueden realizar contribuciones teóricas a las ciencias de gestión. Evaluando las contribuciones de Yin (2014) y de Stake (2006), se muestran las potencialidades de la experiencia concreta, la reflexión observacional, la conceptualización abstracta y de la experimentación activa, en los estudios multicaso y sus aportes al desarrollo de teorías en ciencias de gestión.En una colaboración internacional, las profesoras Cecilia Alexandra Portalanza, de la Universidad Espíritu Santo de Ecuador, Merlin Patricia Grueso, de la Universidad del Rosario de Colombia, y el profesor Edison Jair Duque, de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia y de la Universidad Espíritu Santo de Ecuador, son los autores del artículo titulado "Propiedades de la Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-S 9): análisis exploratorio con estudiantes en Ecuador". El trabajo tuvo como objetivo analizar las propiedades psicométricas de una escala de engagement (compromiso o lealtad de marca) académico en estudiantes pertenecientes a una institución de educación superior en el Ecuador. Las implicaciones de este trabajo en el plano teórico se relacionan con la necesidad de desarrollar un marco conceptual que permita explicar el constructo del engagement en Latinoamérica que, por sus condiciones, podría diferir de lo que ocurre en otros contextos. Desde un punto de vista práctico, la ies en la que se aplica la escala debería fortalecer su engagement, para conseguir un mayor compromiso o lealtad de sus actuales y futuros estudiantes.Finalmente, nuestra edición cierra con el aporte del profesor Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, de la Universidad del Rosario, Colombia, quien realiza una reseña del libro Teoría general de sistemas. Conceptos y aplicaciones, de autoría de Carlos Alberto Ossa, editado por la Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira.

Dottorato di ricerca in Economia e territorio ; La tesi ha rivolto la sua attenzione a uno strumento innovativo nella gestione degli investimenti pubblici sotto il profilo economico amministrativo, la concessione di valorizzazione demaniale cinquantennale che ha lo scopo di valorizzare il capitale demaniale dello Stato senza intaccare le risorse finanziarie dello stesso, vincolate dai criteri europei e prevalentemente destinate a coprire le spese correnti. La tesi descrive la prima concessione di valorizzazione demaniale cinquantennale rilasciata dallo Stato: Villa Tolomei a Firenze. Villa Tolomei è un complesso immobiliare plurisecolare immerso nelle colline di Firenze, che a seguito della riqualificazione e della valorizzazione è stato trasformato in un hotel e resort a cinque stelle, a soli 5 minuti dal centro storico e a 2,7 km dal Ponte Vecchio, dotato di tutti i comfort. Villa Tolomei è una dimora risalente al XIV secolo appartenuta alla famiglia Tolomei. Il complesso immobiliare è costituito, sin dalla sua origine, da diversi edifici per circa 3.500 mq di superficie, collocati all'interno di 17 ettari di un parco che presenta ancora le tracce della vecchia organizzazione a poderi. La tesi descrive i criteri contabili per la redazione del Bilancio dello Stato italiano e passa in rassegna i vincoli imposti dal Trattato di Maastricht, dal Fiscal Compact e dal Two Pack, da cui emerge le difficoltà dell'Italia nel fare fronte ai propri impegni europei, nel valorizzare il proprio patrimonio artistico e culturale e nel procedere con gli investimenti necessari per lo sviluppo del Paese senza il quale la politica di austerità del bilancio non ha efficacia. Il Bilancio dello Stato italiano infatti sta destinando le proprie risorse prevalentemente, se non totalmente, per finanziare le spese di funzionamento e per il ripianamento del debito, trascurando le spese in conto capitale e in particolare la valorizzazione del proprio patrimonio immobiliare. Diventa quindi fondamentale una stretta cooperazione con il settore privato, tramite i cosiddetti partenariati pubblico-privati (PPP), in cui sono realizzati progetti comuni con vantaggi reciproci e che perseguono obiettivi anche sociali. Tra questi, un ruolo particolare è quello della concessione di valorizzazione demaniale cinquantennale che permette allo stato di valorizzare il patrimonio e di creare occupazione e crescita, senza esborsi finanziari diretti. Una prima forma di Concessione Demaniale era già presente nella Roma Imperiale dove il complesso dei territori di proprietà della comunità, denominato "Ager Publicus", veniva assegnato ai cittadini meritevoli. Quasi un secolo più tardi con l'unificazione del Regno d'Italia e la stesura del Codice Civile del 1865, si ha la definitiva evoluzione del concetto di beni pubblici (sia mobili che immobili) distinti in demaniali (inalienabili e imprescrittibili) e patrimoniali (utili allo svolgimento delle attività interne ed estere proprie di uno Stato). In letteratura economica, l'analisi della possibile esistenza di vincoli finanziari per la decisione di produzione e d'investimento (Sau, 1999), è stata considerata fin dagli anni Cinquanta (Meyer – Kuh,1957; Gurley – Shaw, 1955). Tutti i contributi mostravano però il fianco a due possibili critiche: erano carenti nelle motivazioni teoriche di tali vincoli e si prestavano ad ambiguità interpretative nei riscontri empirici. Ciò contribuì al successo del teorema di Modigliani Miller (1958). Difatti, per oltre trent'anni i modelli teorici ed empirici delle decisioni d'investimento di una impresa privata si sono basati essenzialmente sul teorema di Modigliani-Miller. I due economisti si chiesero quale fosse il costo del capitale per un'impresa le cui fonti di finanziamento sono utilizzate per acquistare delle attività il cui rendimento è incerto. Formularono a tale riguardo tre proposizioni, nelle quali si afferma che, in base a determinate assunzioni, il valore di mercato di un'impresa è indipendente dalla sua struttura finanziaria, che il rendimento delle azioni è una relazione lineare crescente del rapporto d'indebitamento e che il tipo di strumento finanziario usato è irrilevante ai fini della valutazione della convenienza o meno dell'investimento. Si è applicato un identico ragionamento allo Stato, considerato come attore economico che investe alla stregua di un'impresa, per verificare se la sua struttura finanziaria sia effettivamente irrilevante rispetto alla politica d'investimento. Partendo dalla considerazione che, attualmente, il gettito fiscale è prevalentemente destinato a coprire le spese correnti e marginalmente le spese in conto capitale, ci si è chiesti quali soluzioni potesse trovare lo Stato per investire, nel rispetto dei vincoli europei. Si è escluso l'aumento del gettito fiscale poiché il livello della pressione tributaria è già elevato e l'aumento dell'indebitamento visti i vincoli europei. Inoltre, Il taglio della spesa pubblica, peraltro auspicabile, produce effetti solo nel lungo termine. Una metodologia alternativa, che renda irrilevante la struttura finanziaria rispetto alla politica di investimento, è la concessione di valorizzazione demaniale cinquantennale. Prendendo in esame le modalità di copertura del fabbisogno e inserendo, come variabile, la concessione demaniale cinquantennale, si ottiene un vincolo di bilancio in cui è dimostrabile l'assunto del teorema di Modigliani-Miller. Questo strumento non solo non sottrae risorse finanziarie per il mantenimento e/o la valorizzazione delle proprietà immobiliari dello Stato, ma genera un rendimento atteso attraverso la riscossione del canone di concessione. I vantaggi per lo Stato della concessione demaniale si rinvengono nella possibilità di attuare una politica di adeguamento infrastrutturale del Paese, limitando fortemente l'utilizzo di risorse finanziarie pubbliche. Utilizza competenze private in tutte le fasi di costruzione, gestione ed erogazione del servizio con un maggiore coinvolgimento dei soggetti finanziatori e con un trasferimento ottimale dei rischi al settore privato. Inoltre, lo Stato trae reddito con il canone di concessione cinquantennale demaniale che, nel caso di Villa Tolomei, ammonta a €150.000 all'anno per una durata di 50 anni, per un totale di €16.869.546,0011. Non da ultimo occorre ricordare che lo Stato incassa le imposte sul reddito generate dall'attività turistico-recettiva di Villa Tolomei. Per l'imprenditore privato, i vantaggi della concessione demaniale consistono in primis nei ridotti i costi d'investimento (non si acquista l'immobile); l'imprenditore nel caso di studio ha sostenuto solo i costi di riqualificazione del bene, che sono stati di circa €6,0 milioni, finanziati da istituti bancari e finanziari senza garanzia ipotecaria. L'attività turistico-recettiva è stata inaugurata il 24 maggio 2013 e i primi significativi risultati economici sono stati valutati in occasione della chiusura del primo anno di esercizio al 31/12/2014, il Bilancio 2014 che riporta Ricavi per €2.105.711,20, Costi €1.981.648,99 ed un Cash flow di €124.062,21. Questo livello di redditività garantisce la sostenibilità economica dell'attività, la remunerazione del capitale, ed è in linea con il business plan presentato nel bando di concessione demaniale cinquantennale attesta che l'imprenditore è stato in grado di pagare il canone di concessione e anche di generare un EBITDA positivo, fin dal primo anno di attività. Per la Regione Toscana, il vantaggio consiste nella valorizzazione dell'area che prima versava in stato di degrado e dal punto di vista economico nell'incasso dell'ammontare dell'IRAP e dell'addizionale regionale. Per il Comune di Firenze, oltre all'evidente incremento occupazionale2, lo strumento della concessione cinquantennale genera anche un introito per le casse del Comune consistente nella riscossione dei tributi e delle tasse locali (tassa di soggiorno, addizionale comunale, etc.). Infine, si genera un indotto locale in termini di un aumento dell'affluenza turistica (numero presenze camere) ed un incremento del volume degli scambi commerciali con le imprese locali (fornitori di beni e servizi) quantificabile in €1.285.024,89. Dalla analisi emerge come lo strumento giuridico amministrativo della concessione demaniale cinquantennale sia funzionale allo sviluppo locale, alla valorizzazione del patrimonio e alla sua tutela, nonostante i vincoli finanziari imposti sul bilancio pubblico in sede europea. 1 Ottenuti calcolando una rata annuale di €75.000 indicizzata al 2% annuo per 5 anni e una rata annuale di €150.000,00, indicizzata al 2% annuo per una ulteriore durata di 45 anni. 2 Attualmente Villa Tolomei conta alle sue dipendenze circa 50 lavoratori suddivisi fra rapporti di lavoro diretti ed indiretti. ; The thesis focused on an innovative administrative tool for the public investments' management: the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant, intended to enhance the public capital without employing the financial resources, bound by the European budget criteria and mainly devoted to finance current expenditure. The thesis describes the first state-owned fiftyyears enhancement grant issued in Italy: Villa Tolomei in Florence. Villa Tolomei is a XIV century villa on the hills of Florence, which has been transformed into a Luxury hotel and fivestar resort that offers all amenities, is 5 minutes away from the city center and 2.7 km from Ponte Vecchio. Villa Tolomei is a Villa belonged to the prestigious Tolomei family. The Villa has, since its origin, several buildings for about 3,500 square meters, located within 17 acres of park that still has traces of the old farm structure. The thesis describes the accounting policies for the preparation of the Italian State Budget and reviews the constraints imposed by the Maastricht Treaty, the Fiscal Compact and the Two Pack, the difficulties to match these commitments, to enhance their artistic and cultural heritage and to proceed with the investments without which the austerity policy of the budget is ineffective. The Italian State Budget is devoting its resources mainly, if not entirely, to fund operating expenses and the debt repayment, neglecting capital expenditures and, in particular, the real estate. It is therefore essential a close cooperation with the private sector, through the so-called public-private partnerships (PPP), in which joint projects are realized with mutual benefits and pursuing social objectives at the same time. Among them, the state-owned fiftyyears enhancement grant plays a special role because it allows the state to promote the heritage and to create jobs and growth, without direct financial outlays. An early form of State grant was available in Imperial Rome where all territories belonging to the community, called "Ager Publicus", were awarded to most valuable citizens. With the unification of the Kingdom of Italy and the drafting of the Civil Code of 1865, it was defined the concept of public goods (both movable and real estate) divided into state-owned (inalienable and imprescriptible) and capital (useful in carrying out the State activities at home and abroad). In economic literature, the analysis of any financial constraint on production and investment (Sau, 1999) has been considered since 1950 (Meyer - Kuh, 1957; Gurley - Shaw, 1955). There are two possible criticisms of these contributions: the theoretical motivations of these constraints were deficient and lent themselves to ambiguity in the empirical evidence. These facts contributed to the success of the Modigliani Miller theorem (1958). In fact, for more than thirty years the theoretical and empirical models of investment's decisions of a private enterprise has been based largely on the Modigliani-Miller theorem. The two economists faced the question of which is the cost of capital for the company whose funding sources are used to purchase assets, whose return is highly uncertain. They formulated three propositions, which stated that, based on certain assumptions, the market value of a firm is independent of its capital structure, the performance of the shares is a linear increasing function of financial leverage and the type of financial instrument used is irrelevant to the assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of the investment. The Modigliani Miller theorem has been applied to the State, as an economic actor who invests as a firm, to see if its financial structure is actually irrelevant to the investment policy. Starting from the premise that, at present, the tax revenue is mainly intended to cover the costs and only marginally the capital expenditures, it has been looked for solutions the State could found to invest, within the European constraints. Increasing tax revenues could do the financing of new investments, but this solution is not feasible because of the high tax burden; at the same time a debt is not possible because of the European constraints. Moreover, the cut in public spending, however desirable, produces effects only in the long term. An alternative tool, which makes irrelevant the financial structure compared to the investment policy, is the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant. By considering how to cover the needs and by inputting, as a variable, the granting of stateowned fifty-enhancement, it has been obtained a budget constraint in which the Modigliani- Miller theorem can hold. This tool not only removes financial resources for the maintenance and / or development of real property of the State, but generates an expected return through the collection of the concession fee. Thanks to the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant it is possible to implement the country's infrastructure, severely limiting the use of public financial resources. It uses private expertise in all phases of construction, management and service delivery with a greater involvement of stakeholders and lenders with an optimum risk transfer to the private sector. In addition, the State raises revenues from the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant that in the case of Villa Tolomei, amounts to € 150,000 per year for a period of 50 years, for a total of € 16,869,546.001. Moreover, the State collects the new income taxes generated by the tourist reception of Villa Tolomei. For the private entrepreneur, the benefits of state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant consist primarily in low investment costs (do not buy the property). In the case study, the entrepreneur claimed only the costs of the renewal of the property, which were € 6million, funded by banks and financial institutions without mortgage collateral. The hotel inaugurated on May 24th, 2013 and the first significant economic results were evaluated on 31/12/2014. The 2014 budget shows revenues of € 2,105,711.20, costs of € 1,981,648.99 and a cash flow of € 124,062.21. This level of profitability ensures the economic sustainability of the business, a fair return on capital, and is in line with the business plan presented in the notice of the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant. It confirms that the entrepreneur has been able to pay the concession fee and also to generate a positive EBITDA after the first year of operation. For the Region of Tuscany, the benefit is the enhancement of the area, which was in a state of deterioration and the collection of IRAP and additional regional tax. For the City of Florence, the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant generates an increase in employment2, and revenue for the coffers of the City consisting of local taxes (tourist tax, municipal surcharge, etc.). Finally, it generates an increase in the tourist figures and an increase in the volume of trade with local companies (suppliers of goods and services), estimated worth € 1,285,024.89. The analysis shows that the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant is a juridical tool functional to local development, to enhance the cultural heritage and for its protection, despite the financial constraints on public finances imposed by the European Union. 1 Obtained by calculating an annual concession fee of € 75,000.00 indexed at 2% per annum for five years and an annual concession fee of € 150,000.00, indexed at 2% per annum for a further term of 45 years. 2 Currently Villa Tolomei has about 50 employees divided between direct and indirect labor relations.

[Resumen]En el campo de investigación del diseño y la optimización de estructuras de protección y absorción de energía, se ha experimentado un importante avance gracias a las rápidas mejoras de las herramientas de modelado y simulación computacionales. En lo relativo a vehículos de carretera, este énfasis se ha notado desde los años 1990, motivado por las preocupaciones y necesidades de la sociedad. Las colisiones frontales son especialmente fatales para los ocupantes y, por lo tanto, se ha prestado especial atención a la absorción de energía y comportamiento frente a impacto de las partes frontales de los vehículos. Este esfuerzo ha conducido a diseños estructurales en los que los elementos frontales se aplastan longitudinalmente de forma progresiva y controlada, absorbiendo una considerable cantidad de energía cinética por medio de mecanismos de disipación plástica en metales, aplastamiento de espumas o degradación y fractura de materiales compuestos. Hoy en día, se utilizan muy habitualmente en la industria perfiles de acero o aluminio, aunque existen otros materiales igualmente adecuados. En particular, una forma de mejorar el comportamiento de estos elementos estructurales es combinar varios materiales en un único diseño, de forma que las mejores características de cada uno contribuyan al comportamiento global del componente. Esta tesis doctoral presenta una investigación acerca de la absorción de energía y el comportamiento frente a impacto de elementos estructurales consistentes en una combinación de un tubo metálico y diferentes refuerzos internos en materiales no metálicos. Se han realizado ensayos experimentales y simulaciones computacionales de elementos rellenos de láminas de fibra de carbono o fibra de vidrio, espuma de tereftalato de polietileno y un aglomerado de corcho para evaluar su comportamiento frente a impacto. En primer lugar, se presenta una campaña de ensayos experimentales y numéricos del aplastamiento axial de componentes rellenos hechos de un perfil de acero ensamblado mediante soldadura por puntos, trabajo hecho en colaboración con el centro de investigación CTAG (Centro Tecnolóxico da Automoción de Galicia) en el marco del proyecto "Hybrid Body", financiado con fondos públicos de la Xunta de Galicia. Los resultados de los componentes rellenos con placas de fibra de vidrio o espuma mostraron un comportamiento particularmente bueno en términos de distintas métricas usadas para su evaluación. Se realizó asimismo un estudio paramétrico para examinar con mayor precisión el comportamiento de los componentes rellenos de fibra de vidrio, así como la influencia del espaciado y distribución de los puntos de soldadura en los resultados. A la vista de lo anterior, se procedió a optimizar los tubos rellenos de placas de fibra de vidrio con el objetivo de obtener los diseños óptimos para dos funciones objetivo simultáneas: la absorción específica de energía y la relación de carga. Esta optimización se ejecutó sobre metamodelos de las funciones objetivo. Se utilizaron para este fin un algoritmo de gradiente conjugado y un algoritmo genético, que fueron ejecutados sobre un metamodelo de regresión de splines adaptativas multivariadas (MARS) y comparados entre sí. Se observó que el comportamiento de este componente se podría mejorar si las placas internas de fibra de vidrio se confinasen de alguna manera en el interior del tubo, dado que algunos pedazos se desprenden con las primeras fracturas. Para ello, un nuevo diseño consistente en un tubo de aluminio relleno con placas de fibra de vidrio embebidas en espuma sintética se ensayó numérica y computacionalmente. Este trabajo se realizó durante una estancia de investigación de seis meses en el laboratorio de impacto estructural (SIMLab) de la NTNU en Trondheim, Noruega. Se obtuvieron algunos resultados de interés propiciados por el hecho de que la interacción entre los dos materiales de refuerzo mejoró, en efecto, el comportamiento del elemento estructural. Esta interacción fue analizada y cuantificada por medio de la fórmula de Hanssen para secciones de aluminio rellenas de espuma, que fue modificada pertinentemente en esta tesis para tener en cuenta la interacción entre dos refuerzos. Después de estos ensayos experimentales, se construyó un nuevo modelo de elementos finitos basado en una campaña de ensayos de materiales para simular el comportamiento de este último diseño. El comportamiento de este modelo se validó con los ensayos experimentales, mostrando una excelente correlación. Se construyó también un modelo adicional considerando acero en lugar de aluminio para el tubo exterior. Se ajustó un metamodelo MARS a un muestreo de resultados computacionales considerando distintas métricas de absorción de impactos, que fueron usadas posteriormente en un problema de optimización multi-objetivo. Como variables de diseño se tomaron la densidad de la espuma y los espesores de la fibra de vidrio y los metales. El problema se resolvió con el algoritmo genético probado con anterioridad. Los resultados muestran que el comportamiento frente a impacto de tubos de acero o aluminio puede ser mejorado en gran medida con refuerzos internos de fibra de vidrio y espuma de tereftalato de polietileno. Se han obtenido diseños óptimos para elementos seleccionados considerando distintas funciones objetivo relevantes. De la fase de optimización se concluye que un algoritmo evolutivo trabaja sensiblemente mejor que uno de gradiente conjugado en este tipo de problemas, dado que el primero fue capaz de explorar los metamodelos más concienzudamente que el segundo. Se ha descubierto asímismo que la interacción entre placas de fibra de vidrio y espuma de tereftalato de polietileno colocadas en el interior de un tubo metálico es de gran importancia para una mayor absorción de energía del diseño, siendo convenientemente cuantificada. ; [Resumo]No eido do deseño e a optimización de estruturas de protección e absorción de enerxía, experimentouse un importante avance grazas ás rápidas melloras das ferramentas de modelado e simulación computacionais. No relativo aos automóbiles, esta énfase notouse desde os anos 1990, motivada polas preocupacións e necesidades da sociedade. As colisións frontais son especialmente fatais para os ocupantes e, por tanto, prestouse especial atención á absorción de enerxía e comportamento fronte a impacto das partes frontais dos vehículos. Este esforzo conduciu a deseños estruturais nos que os elementos frontais esmáganse lonxitudinalmente de forma progresiva e controlada, absorbendo unha considerable cantidade de enerxía cinética por medio de mecanismos de disipación plástica en metais, esmagamento de escumas ou degradación e fractura de materiais compostos. Hoxe en día, empréganse a cotío na industria perfís de aceiro ou aluminio, aínda que existen outros materiais igualmente adecuados. En particular, unha forma de mellorar o comportamento destes elementos estruturais é combinar varios materiais nun único deseño, de forma que as mellores características de cada un contribúan ao comportamento global do compoñente. Esta tese doutoral presenta unha investigación acerca da absorción de enerxía e o comportamento fronte a impacto de elementos estruturais consistentes nunha combinación dun tubo metálico e diferentes reforzos internos en materiais non metálicos. Realizáronse ensaios experimentais e simulacións computacionais de elementos recheos de láminas de fibra de carbono ou fibra de vidro, escuma de tereftalato de polietileno e un aglomerado de cortiza para avaliar o seu comportamento fronte a impacto. En primeiro lugar, preséntase unha campaña de ensaios experimentais e numéricos do esmagamento axial de compoñentes recheos feitos dun perfil de aceiro ensamblado mediante soldadura por puntos, traballo feito en colaboración co centro de investigación CTAG (Centro Tecnolóxico da Automoción de Galicia) no marco do proxecto "Hybrid Body", financiado con fondos públicos da Xunta de Galicia. Os resultados dos compoñentes recheos con placas de fibra de vidro ou escuma mostraron un comportamento particularmente bo en termos de distintas métricas usadas para a súa avaliación. Realizouse así mesmo un estudo paramétrico para examinar con maior precisión o comportamento dos compoñentes recheos de fibra de vidro, así como a influencia do espaciado e distribución dos puntos de soldadura nos resultados. Á vista do anterior, procedeuse a optimizar os tubos recheos de placas de fibra de vidro co obxectivo de obter os deseños óptimos para dúas funcións obxectivo simultáneas: a absorción específica de enerxía e a relación de carga. Esta optimización executouse sobre metamodelos das funcións obxectivo. Utilizáronse para este fin un algoritmo de gradiente conxugado e un algoritmo xenético, que foron executados sobre un metamodelo de regresión de splines adaptativas multivariadas (MARS) e comparados entre si. Observouse que o comportamento deste compoñente poderíase mellorar se as placas internas de fibra de vidro se confinasen dalgún xeito no interior do tubo, dado que algúns pedazos despréndense coas primeiras fracturas. Para iso, un novo deseño consistente nun tubo de aluminio recheo con placas de fibra de vidro embebidas en escuma sintética ensaiouse numérica e computacionalmente. Este traballo realizouse durante unha estancia de investigación de seis meses no laboratorio de impacto estrutural (SIMLab) da NTNU en Trondheim, Noruega. Obtivéronse algúns resultados de interese propiciados polo feito de que a interacción entre os dous materiais de reforzo mellorou, en efecto, o comportamento do elemento estrutural. Esta interacción foi analizada e cuantificada por medio da fórmula de Hanssen para seccións de aluminio recheas de escuma, que foi modificada axeitadamente nesta tese para ter en conta a interacción entre dous reforzos. Despois destes ensaios experimentais, construíuse un novo modelo de elementos finitos baseado nunha campaña de ensaios de materiais para simular o comportamento deste último deseño. O comportamento deste modelo validouse cos ensaios experimentais, mostrando unha excelente correlación. Construíuse tamén un modelo adicional considerando aceiro en lugar de aluminio para o tubo exterior. Axustouse un metamodelo MARS a unha mostraxe de resultados computacionales considerando distintas métricas de absorción de impactos, que foron usadas posteriormente nun problema de optimización multi-obxectivo. Coma variables de deseño tomáronse a densidade da escuma e os espesores da fibra de vidro e os metais. O problema resolveuse co algoritmo xenético probado con anterioridade. Os resultados mostran que o comportamento fronte a impacto de tubos de aceiro ou aluminio pode ser mellorado en gran medida con reforzos internos de fibra de vidro e escuma de tereftalato de polietileno. Obtivéronse deseños óptimos para elementos seleccionados considerando distintas funcións obxectivo relevantes. Da fase de optimización conclúese que un algoritmo evolutivo traballa sensiblemente mellor que un de gradiente conxugado neste tipo de problemas, dado que o primeiro foi capaz de explorar os metamodelos máis concienzudamente que o segundo. Descubriuse tamén que a interacción entre placas de fibra de vidro e escuma de tereftalato de polietileno colocadas no interior dun tubo metálico é de gran importancia para unha maior absorción de enerxía do deseño, sendo convenientemente cuantificada. ; [Abstract]Extensive research has been done on the energy absorption, crash performance and optimization of different protective structures, helped by recent advances in computational modeling and simulation. When it comes to road vehicles, research on occupant protection has been emphasized since the 1990s due to increasing society's concerns. Head-on collisions are particularly fatal for occupants, and therefore, special focus has been put on the energy absorption and structural performance of the vehicles' front parts. This effort led to structural designs where the front members are axially crushed in a controlled and progressive way, absorbing a remarkable amount of kinetic energy by means of plastic dissipation of metals, collapse of foams or degradation and fracture of composite materials. Nowadays, steel or aluminum profiles are vastly employed in industry, whereas other materials are also suitable. In particular, one way to improve the behavior of these structural elements is to combine several materials into a single design, so that the best characteristics of each one contribute to the component's overall performance. This thesis presents the investigations into the energy absorption and crashworthiness of structural members made of a metal tube and different non-metallic inner reinforcements. Experimental and numerical tests were performed on components filled with carbon or glass fiber reinforced polymers, polyethylene terephthalate foam or a cork agglomerate, in order to assess their crash performance. A test campaign involving the numerical and experimental axial crushing of filled components made from a spot-welded steel profile is first presented, which was carried out in close collaboration with the research center CTAG (Centro Tecnolóxico da Automoción de Galicia) under the research project "Hybrid Body", publicly funded by the regional government of Galicia. Results of GFRP-filled or foam-filled tubes showed a particularly good result in terms of different crashworthiness metrics, and a parametric study was performed afterwards in order to look closer to the performance of the GFRP-filled component and the influence of the spacing and distribution of the spot welds on the flanges of the steel profiles. Given the previous results, GFRP-filled tubes were subjected to an optimization procedure to obtain the optimum designs for two simultaneous objective functions, load ratio and specific energy absorption, by means of an optimization strategy which was run on metamodels of the objective functions. A gradient-based and a genetic optimization algorithms were run on a multivariate adaptive regression splines metamodel (MARS) and tested against each other. It was observed that the performance of this GFRP-filled tube could be improved if the GFRP plates in the inner reinforcement were somehow confined inside the tube, given that some parts were dislodged after the first fractures occurred. To that end, a design consisting of an aluminum tube filled with a GFRP skeleton embedded in PET foam was tested numerically and experimentally. This work was done during a six-monthly research stay at the Structural Impact Laboratory (SIMLab) of the NTNU in Trondheim, Norway. Some interesting results were obtained, given that the interaction between both filler materials indeed improved the crashworthiness of the design. This interaction was analyzed and quantified by terms of Hanssen's formula for foam-filled aluminum sections, modified in this thesis to account for the interaction between two reinforcement parts. A finite element model was then build to simulate the performance of this last design, assisted by a material testing campaign. The behavior of the finite element model was validated against the experimental test, showing a very good agreement. Additionally, an alternative design with a DDQ steel instead of aluminum was also considered and simulated. A MARS surrogate model was fit to a large sample of these models considering several crashworthiness metrics to be used then as objective functions in a multi-objective optimization problem. The foam density and the GFRP and metal thicknesses were chosen as design variables for the optimization problem, solved by the previously tested genetic algorithm. Results showed that the crashworthiness of steel or aluminum tubes can be improved at a larger extent with inner GFRP structures and PET foam than with other materials. Optimum pairs were obtained for selected designs considering different crashworthiness metrics as objective functions. From the optimization phases, it can be concluded that an evolutionary algorithm was slightly more effective than a conjugate-gradient method in finding the optimum designs of the models, given that the metamodel was more concisely explored by the former. The interaction between GFRP plates and PET foam reinforcements placed together inside a metal tube was found to be very relevant for the energy absorption of the component, and was conveniently quantified.

Dieses Kapitel fasst die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse des Forschungsprojekts Stand des Wissens zu Schweizer Tramsystemen im Mischverkehr zusammen. Der Fokus liegt dabei auf der Beschreibung der aktuellen Situation der Tramsicherheit in der Schweiz sowie der Sicherheitspraxis und -massnahmen bei den entsprechenden Akteuren. Die Schweizer Regulation mit Relevanz für Tramsysteme ist grundsätzlich funktional, d. h. es werden Sicherheits- respektive Schutzziele vorgegeben, aber nicht, auf welchem Wege oder mit welchen Mitteln diese erfüllt werden müssen. Dabei soll der «Stand der Technik» berücksichtigt werden. Es wird also eher ein Rahmen vorgegeben, anstatt die Regelungen in allen Einzelheiten vorzuschreiben. Es gibt im schweizerischen Recht keine spezifisch auf Tramsysteme ausgerichteten Gesetze und Verordnungen. Trams gelten als Eisenbahnen, weshalb die Eisenbahngesetzgebung zur Anwendung kommt. Da Trams aber im Strassenraum verkehren, spielt auch die Strassenverkehrsgesetzgebung eine Rolle. Das Tram hat in der Schweiz vor allen anderen Strassenverkehrsteilnehmern Vortritt. Dieses Vortrittsrecht kann bei ungenügender Kenntnis anderer Verkehrsteilnehmer zu gefährlichen Situationen führen, beispielsweise bei über das mit dem motorisierten Verkehr geteilte Tramtrassee markierten Fussgängerstreifen ohne Lichtsignalanlage oder nicht signalgesteuerten Kreisverkehrsplätzen mit Tramquerung. Die Verantwortung für die Betriebssicherheit tragen in der Schweiz die Trambetreiber. Die Hersteller sind verantwortlich für die Sicherheit ihrer Produkte. Das Bundesamt für Verkehr überwacht, ob Betreiber und Hersteller diese Verantwortung wahrnehmen. Es gibt diverse verschiedene Quellen für Tramunfalldaten in der Schweiz, die sich hinsichtlich Auflösung, Detailgrad, Abdeckung, Standardisierung und öffentliche Verfügbarkeit stark unterscheiden. Hauptanalysequellen der verschiedenen Akteure sind die Unfalldatenbanken der Betreiber, die Unfalldatenbank des Bundesamtes für Strassen (von der Polizei erfasst Unfälle), die Ereignisdatenbank des Bundesamtes für Verkehr (durch die Betreiber gemeldete Ereignisse) und für Einzelereignisse die Unfalluntersuchungsberichte der Schweizerischen Sicherheitsuntersuchungsstelle. Zum Vergleich von Unfalldaten werden üblicherweise Kennzahlen verwendet. Dazu sind Daten zu Verkehrsleistung, Streckennetzkilometer, Linienlängen, Anzahl Kurse, Rollmaterial usw. notwendig. Für eine angemessen Berücksichtigung des Kontextes werden zudem Daten zu Verkehrsmengen des motorisierten Individualverkehrs und des Langsamverkehrs sowie zur Infrastruktur benötigt. Diese Kontextdaten sind nicht in einer einheitlichen Form verfügbar und ihre Beschaffung ist mit einem erheblichen Aufwand verbunden. Vergleiche der Sicherheitslage, beispielsweise für verschiedene Städte, haben aufgrund der Unterschiede in der Datenerfassung und möglicherweise fehlender Kontextinformationen immer eine begrenzte Aussagekraft. Die vier Tramnetze in der Schweiz weisen deutliche Unterschiede hinsichtlich Bevölkerungsdichte, Netztopologie und Betriebskonzept auf. Trotz dieser Unterschiede differiert die mittlere Streckenbelastung (mittlere Anzahl Trams auf einem Netzabschnitt pro Stunde) nur wenig. Bei den spezifischen Unfallzahlen, also beispielsweise Unfälle pro Kompositions-Kilometer, bestehen grosse Unterschiede zwischen den Netzen. Eine Untersuchung durch Dritte für die Jahre 2010–2012 ergab in Zürich eine deutlich höhere Anzahl schwere Unfälle pro Kompositions-Kilometer als in den anderen Netzen. Basel und Genf wiesen vergleichbare Werte, Bern deutlich die geringsten Werte auf. Die häufigste Ursache von Unfällen mit Trambeteiligung ist die Missachtung des Vortrittsrechts der Strassenbahn (bei etwa einem Drittel der Unfälle). Etwa ein Sechstel der Unfälle wird durch Missachtung von Lichtsignalanlagen verursacht, ein weiteres Sechstel geht auf Fehlverhalten von Fussgängern zurück. Häufigste Verursacher von Unfällen mit Trambeteiligung sind in allen vier Tramsystemen die Personenwagen. An zweiter Stelle finden sich die Fussgänger. Bei den Unfallfolgen sind aber die Fussgänger am stärksten betroffen, da sie im Gegensatz zu Insassen von Personenwagen praktisch ungeschützt sind. Letztere erleiden denn auch nur sehr selten schwere Verletzungen bei Kollisionen mit Trams. Eher wenig auffällig hinsichtlich des Unfallgeschehens sind Velofahrer, was an deren vergleichsweise geringer Anzahl liegen dürfte. Kommt es aber zu einem Unfall, sind die Folgen für Velofahrer ähnlich gravierend wie für Fussgänger. Die vier Tramnetze der Schweiz weisen eine ähnliche Anzahl Kreisverkehrsplätze auf, welche vom Tramtrassee gequert werden; bezogen auf die Netzlänge variiert die Kreisverkehrsdichte hingegen erheblich. Der Anteil der Tramkollisionen bei Kreisverkehrsplätzen an allen Tramkollisionen weist zwischen den Systemen grosse Unterschiede auf. Wird dieser Anteil hingegen ins Verhältnis zur Kreisverkehrsdichte auf dem Tramnetz gesetzt, werden die Unterschiede zwischen den drei Systemen Bern, Basel und Genf sehr viel kleiner. Dies ist interessant vor dem Hintergrund, dass vom Tram gequerte Kreisverkehrsplätze in Genf als grosses Problem wahrgenommen werden, in Bern und Basel hingegen nicht. In Zürich ist die Kreisverkehrsdichte auf dem Tramnetz sehr tief, und auch der Anteil Kreisverkehrs-Tramunfälle bleibt selbst in Relation zur Kreisverkehrsdichte deutlich unterhalb der anderen Systeme. Georeferenzierte Unfalldaten erlauben die räumliche Auswertung von Unfallorten und die Identifikation von Unfallschwerpunkten. Aufgrund der geringen Anzahl Tramunfälle ist es allerdings schwierig, die statistische Signifikanz von ermittelten Schwerpunkten zu überprüfen. Im Rahmen dieses Projektes wurden Daten der Verkehrsunfallstatistik des Bundesamtes für Strassen räumlich ausgewertet. Eine qualitative Analyse der ermittelten Unfallschwerpunkte zeigt, dass diese grösstenteils an vorhersehbaren Stellen liegen: bei Fussgängern in Innenstadtbereichen und Plätzen mit hohem Fussgängeraufkommen, also an Orten mit vielen Querungen der Tramgeleise durch Fussgänger; bei Motorfahrzeugen bei Kreuzungen mit hohem Verkehrsaufkommen und auf Streckenabschnitten mit Abbiegemöglichkeit über die Tramgeleise für den Parallelverkehr. Für die Schwerpunkte von Kollisionen mit Velo/Mofa lassen sich hingegen kaum einfache Erklärungen finden. Ein Vergleich von Unfallcluster-Analysen ohne und mit Gewichtung der Unfallfolgen (mittels Opferäquivalenten) zeigt, dass es sowohl Cluster mit grosser Unfallzahl und vergleichsweise geringen kumulierten Auswirkungen als auch solche mit eher kleiner Unfallzahl und hohen kumulierten Auswirkungen gibt. Daher scheint für Analysen von Unfallclustern die Berücksichtigung der Unfallfolgen angebracht, wobei die Gewichtung mittels Opferäquivalenten eine angemessene Methode ist. Die Aussagekraft der räumlichen Analysen bleibt aufgrund der geringen Unfallzahlen und der Verwendung von Daten aus mehreren Jahren beschränkt. Ergänzend zur Auswertung der Unfalldaten sollten daher immer detaillierte Fallanalysen bei Unfallschwerpunkten durchgeführt werden, welche Rückschlüsse auf tatsächliche Unfallursachen und mögliche Massnahmen erlauben. Es gibt in der Schweiz keine einheitliche Definition des Begriffs Beinaheunfall. Im Allgemeinen wird darunter eine Situation verstanden, in der das Fehlverhalten eines Beteiligten oder mehrerer Beteiligter einen gefährlichen Zustand hervorruft, welcher aber nicht in einen Unfall mündet. Der entsprechende Standort wird demzufolge als gefährlich empfunden, obwohl statistisch keine Unfallschwerpunkte nachzuweisen sind. Die häufigsten Umstände von Beinaheunfällen in der Schweiz sind aus Sicht der Trambetreiber fehlende physische Trennungen bei Eigentrassierungen, Konflikte mit Abbiegern auf Kreuzungen, die Nichtbeachtung der Lichtsignalanlage oder anderer Signale auf Kreuzungen und die Nichtbeachtung des Tramvortritts in Kreisverkehrsplätzen. Die Trambetreiber schliessen fehlerhafte Handlungen des eigenen Fahrpersonals zwar nicht aus, führen als Ursache für gefährliche Situationen und Beinaheunfälle aber hauptsächlich die fehlende Wahrnehmung des Trams seitens der anderen Verkehrsteilnehmer auf. Einerseits spielt der fehlende Sichtkontakt eine wichtige Rolle, andererseits wird insbesondere bei Fussgängern eine starke Tendenz bei der Ablenkung durch elektronische Geräte wie Smartphones oder Tablets (visuelle Ablenkung) und Kopfhörer (auditive Ablenkung) beobachtet. Im Mischverkehr sehen die Betreiber die Hauptverursacher gefährlicher Situationen in Velofahrern und Fussgängern – häufig in Innenstadtbereichen, wo der Langsamverkehr sehr hohe Dichten aufweist. Auf Abschnitten mit Eigentrassierung, wo in der Schweiz oft physische Abgrenzungen fehlen und zahlreiche Kreuzungsmöglichkeiten für andere Strassennutzer bestehen, sehen die Betreiber die Hauptverursacher in motorisierten Strassenfahrzeugen. In solchen Abschnitten werden gefährliche Situationen durch die hohe Geschwindigkeit des Trams verschärft. Die Erfassung von Unfalldaten geschieht in der Schweiz bei schweren Unfällen potenziell durch drei Stellen: den entsprechenden Trambetreiber, die zuständige Polizeibehörde und die Schweizerische Sicherheitsuntersuchungsstelle SUST. Die Erfassung von Ereignissen durch die Betreiber ist nicht vereinheitlicht, und auch bei den Polizeibehörden gibt es in der Praxis Abweichungen bei der Dateneingabe in die nationale MISTRA-Unfalldatenbank des Bundesamtes für Strassen. Durch eine einheitliche Erfassung wären Vergleiche zwischen den Tramnetzen möglich und es könnten trotz der geringen Unfallzahl aussagekräftige Datenanalysen durchgeführt werden. Wichtig erscheint in jedem Fall eine präzise Georeferenzierung der Unfalldaten. Es gibt ungenutzte Möglichkeiten zur Datenerfassung, welche sowohl in der Unfallanalyse als auch in der Prävention eingesetzt werden könnten. Beispiele sind der Einsatz von Frontkameras oder die georeferenzierte Erfassung von Schnellbremsungen. Allerdings gibt es dabei bedeutende rechtliche und technische Hürden. Die vorhandenen Unfalldaten werden vor allem durch die lokalen Polizeibehörden relativ umfassend ausgewertet. Um eine maximale Wirkung dieser Analysen sicherzustellen, ist eine enge Zusammenarbeit der Polizei mit den Trambetreibern und weiteren Akteuren (z. B. Tiefbauamt) von grosser Bedeutung. Der Personalschulung kommt bei der Unfallprävention eine grosse Bedeutung zu – entsprechend geniesst sie bei den Betreibern einen hohen Stellenwert. Nützliche Hilfsmittel sind Fotos und Videoaufnahmen von Unfällen und Beinaheunfällen oder Übersichten über gefährliche Situationen entlang einer Linie. Im Falle eines Unfalls helfen Checklisten und stellen eine einheitliche Handlungsweise sicher. Tramsicherheitskampagnen dienen insbesondere der Bewusstseinsbildung zum allgemeinen Tramvortritt und zu den Eigenschaften des Trams (Bremsweg). Eine klare Zielsetzung und anschliessende Evaluation der Wirkung ist empfehlenswert. Bei der Infrastrukturplanung sollten präventive Sicherheitsmassnahmen eine hohe Priorität geniessen und Teil von gestalterischen Lösungen sein. Dazu sollte die Erfahrung der Trambetreiber systematisch in den Infrastrukturplanungsprozess von Strassenräumen mit Trams einbezogen und adäquat berücksichtigt werden. Ein sicherer Trambetrieb ist stark von nicht direkt durch die Trambetreiber beeinflussbaren Elementen abhängig. Insbesondere haben die Gestaltung des Verkehrsraums und die Steuerung der Verkehrstechnik einen grossen Einfluss auf die Sicherheit. So können übersichtliche Kreuzungen mit klar den jeweiligen Spuren zugeteilten Lichtsignalen viele Probleme mit Abbiegern über das Tramtrassee verhindern. Eine gute Zusammenarbeit aller beteiligten Akteure ist für eine sichere und auch betrieblich geeignete Lösung solcher Situationen von zentraler Bedeutung. Beim Rollmaterial spielt insbesondere das Crashverhalten mit schweren Strassenfahrzeugen (Sicherheit der Traminsassen und insbesondere der Tramführerin) und mit Fussgängern (Sicherheit des Fussgängers) eine grosse Rolle. Wichtig ist, in einer frühen Engineering-Phase bereits sämtliche Schutz- und Sicherheitsfunktionen zu berücksichtigen, damit auf spätere «aufgesetzte» Lösungen verzichtet werden kann. This chapter summarises the main findings of the research project State of the art of Swiss tramways in mixed traffic zones. The focus is on the description of the current safety situation in Switzerland and the safety practices and measures of the relevant stakeholders. Swiss regulation with respect to tram safety is functional, i.e., safety and protection targets are prescribed, but not how they have to be achieved and what means must be used. Thereby, the state of the art of technology must be considered. In summary, regulation rather provides a frame than detailed prescriptions. In Swiss legislation, there are no specific laws or ordinances only concerning tram systems. By law, trams are considered as railways, therefor railway legislation applies. Because trams operate on streets, also road legislation is relevant. In Switzerland, trams have right of way over all other road users. This right of way can lead to dangerous situations in cases where other road are not aware of it. For example, in the case of zebra crossings marked over the tramway that is shared with motorised vehicles, pedestrians might assume that they have right of way over trams because they do have right of way over cars in the exact same location. Another example are roundabouts crossed with tram tracks, where cars do not expect to have to yield while they are on the ring road of the roundabout. Responsibility for operational safety is borne by the tram operators and for product safety by manufacturers in Switzerland. The Federal Office of Transport supervises whether operators and producers perform the associated duties correctly. There are several sources for tram accident data in Switzerland. They differ strongly with respect to resolution, level of detail, coverage, standardisation and public availability. Main data sources for safety analyses are the accident databases of the operators, the accident database of the Federal Roads Office (accidents investigated by the police), the incident database of the Federal Office of Transport (incidents reported by operators), and the investigation reports by the Swiss Transportation Safety Investigation Board (concerning single incidents). To compare accident data, ratio measures are used usually. This requires data on service provided, network length, line length, number of vehicles in operation, type of rolling stock, etc. Furthermore, for adequate consideration of context, data is needed on traffic volumes of both motorised transport and human powered mobility. These context data are not available in standardised form and their acquisition is costly. Comparison of safety situation, e.g., in different cities, have limited validity due to differences in data recording and possibly lack of context information. The four tram networks in Switzerland are considerably different with regard to population density, network topology, and operating concepts. Nevertheless, the average network load (average number of trams on a section per hour) is similar in all networks. Looking at accident ratios, e.g., accidents per tram kilometre, there are large differences between the networks. A study for the years 2010–2012 showed a considerably higher number of severe accidents per tram kilometre in Zurich than in the other three networks. Ratios for Basel and Geneva were similar, while Berne clearly had the lowest value. The most common cause of accidents is disrespect of the tram's right of way (roughly one third of all accidents involving trams). About a sixth of tram accidents are caused by disrespect of traffic lights (by other road users), another sixth by misconducts of pedestrians. The main source of accidents involving trams are, in all four networks, cars. They are followed second by pedestrians. However, if consequences of accidents are considered, pedestrians are affected strongest because they are unprotected. Passengers of cars, on the other hand, only rarely suffer from severe injuries from accidents involving a tram. Accidents involving trams and bicycles are less common, which is mainly due to the smaller number of bicycles in overall street users. In case of accidents involving a tram, the consequences for cyclists are similarly grave as for pedestrians. The four tram networks in Switzerland have a similar number of roundabouts crossed by a tramway. However, relating to tram network length, the roundabout (with tramway) density is very different. The ratio of accidents at roundabouts involving a tram and this roundabout density is similar in Basel, Berne and Geneva. This is interesting given that roundabouts crossed by a tramway are considered a big safety issue in Geneva, but not so much in Basel and Berne. In Zurich, the roundabout density is much lower, as is the number or roundabout-related accidents. Accident data with georeferences allow for the spatial analysis of accident locations and the identification of accident hot spots. However, due to the low number of tram accidents, it is difficult to test for statistical significance of such analyses. In the present project, data form the accident database of the Federal Roads Office have been analysed spatially. The qualitative analysis of the identified accident hot spots shows that they are mostly in predictable locations: in the case of pedestrians, in inner city areas and squares with a high number of pedestrian traffic, thus, in locations with frequent crossings of the tramway by pedestrians; in the case of cars, at intersections with high traffic volumes and on sections where cars cross over tram tracks when turning. Hot spots of accidents with bicycles, on the other hand, cannot be easily explained. A comparison of accident cluster analyses without and with weighting of accident consequences (with victim equivalent values) shows that there are both clusters with high accident numbers and low cumulative consequences and clusters with relatively low accident numbers but high cumulative consequences. Therefore, it seems adequate to use weighting of accident consequences for accident cluster analyses. The explanatory power of spatial accident analyses remains limited due to the small number of accidents and the use of data from several years. Therefore, complementary to the examination of accident data, individual case analyses should be conducted to conclude about accident sources and adequate measures. In Switzerland, there is no standard definition of the term "near accident". Commonly, a near accident is understood to be a situation where the malpractice of one or several involved parties leads to a dangerous state, without this state resulting in an actual accident. The respective location is therefore perceived as dangerous, even though no statistical accident hot spot can be determined. From the perspective of tram operators, the most common circumstances of near accidents in Switzerland are lack of physical separation in sections with reserved tracks, conflicts with turning vehicles on intersections, disrespect of traffic lights or road signs and disrespect of tram right of way in roundabouts. The operators do not rule out the possibility of malpractice by their drivers, but they do see the cause of dangerous situations and near accidents mainly in the lack of tram perception by other road users. On the one hand, this involves insufficient visibility conditions (e.g., caused by obstacles), on the other hand, operators observe an increase in distracted pedestrians, mainly due to electronic equipment such as smartphones or tablets (visual distraction) and headphones (auditory distraction). In mixed traffic, operators see pedestrians and cyclists as the main causers of tram accidents, often in inner city areas with high density of human powered mobility users. On reserved tracks, where there is often no physical separation between the tramway and other road users and many crossing possibility of the latter exist, the operators see car users as the main causers of tram accidents. In such locations, dangerous situations are aggravated due to the high tram speed. The recording of accident data in Switzerland is mainly conducted by three parties: the tram operator, the local police, and the Swiss Transportation Safety Investigation Board (in severe cases). Recording of events by the operators is not standardized, and there are also differences in recording practices of police authorities and their data input into the national road accident database of the Federal Roads Office. A standardised and consistent recording would facilitate comparisons between tram networks and enable more significant analyses. In any case, precise georeference for accident data is crucial for later spatial analyses. There are unused possibilities of data acquisition that could be used for accident analysis as well as prevention. For example, this includes using frontal cameras in tram vehicles or the georeferenced recording of emergency braking manoeuvres. However, there are serious legal and technical barriers to be considered. Existing accident data is analysed in detail mostly by local police authorities. In order to ensure the impact of such analyses, tight cooperation between police authorities, tram operators, and further stakeholders (e.g., civil engineering department of the respective city) is crucial. Drivers' education is highly relevant for accident prevention. Accordingly, operators assign a high priority to it. Useful tools are pictures or videos of accidents or near accidents or overviews of dangerous locations along a line. In the case of an actual accident, check lists help to ensure consistent actions. In infrastructure planning, preventive safety measures should be included from the beginning as part of design solutions and be given a high priority. For this, it is important to include the experience and knowledge of tram operators in respective infrastructure design and planning teams. Safe operation of a tram system depends on many aspects that cannot be influenced directly by tram operators. Particularly, the design of public and road space and traffic operation and management have a high impact on tram safety. For example, clear intersection layouts with unambiguously attributed traffic lights per traffic lane can prevent many problems frequently occurring with cars turning across the tramway. Therefore, tight collaboration between all stakeholders is a key to safe operation of trams that also consider the quality of operation. Concerning rolling stock, the crash behaviour of trams with heavy road vehicles such as trucks (safety of tram passengers and particularly driver) and with pedestrians (safety of pedestrians) is particularly important. Generally, it is crucial to include all safety requirements and targets in an early engineering phase in order to avoid later, "attached" measures.

[eng] The accelerated impact of human activities is causing increasing damages to the Earth's life support systems. Consequently, the policy-making and scientific communities have advocated the urgent need for a change towards the sustainable use of natural resources and ecosystems. This thesis deals with the institutional conditions necessary for that change in coupled social-ecological systems, through an in-depth case study: the Doñana region, an estuarine social-ecological system affected by intricate water resources and wetland conservation problems located in the Guadalquivir Estuary (south-west Spain). In particular, I focus on the need for transitions from command-andcontrol schemes towards more flexible, participatory and adaptive approaches to policy and decision making: specifically, adaptive governance and adaptive management. For this purpose, I address three interrelated questions of broad research interest, using a theoretical framework that combines elements from resilience and institutional path dependence theories. The first question has implications for the implementation of participatory processes in the course of transitional designs towards adaptive governance and management, while the other two have implications at a theoreticanalytical level. The first research question focuses on assessing the usefulness of an action-research program aimed at introducing adaptive management tenets at the research-management interface of the Doñana region (Chapter 4). The program, which paralleled an adaptive restoration in the context of the hydro-ecological restoration project Doñana 2005, combined a formalised process of networking, interviews, focus groups and System Dynamics techniques that proved useful to engage and build trust among a wide range of actors who finally participated in two adaptive management workshops. The participation of stakeholders and agencies entrenched in long-standing conflicts and power struggles up to that date was considered a major success of the program. During the workshops, the participants collaboratively developed a set of policy recommendations, offering potential avenues to improve the research-management interface, water resources management and wetland conservation practices in the Doñana region and Guadalquivir Estuary. The action-research program was supported by preparatory research aimed at analysing the practices of, and learning from, best-in-class practitioners on adaptive management from British Columbia (Canada), where this approach was first conceived and implemented on a large scale (Chapter 3). Such preparatory research, which was based on a document review, interviews and a final workshop at the University of British Columbia (Vancouver), revealed that adaptive management has cycled, during the last four decades, through alternate phases of theoretical development, practical implementation and feedback, to which many scholars and practitioners have contributed. In particular, the workshop allowed current opportunities and constraints for the testing and implementation of adaptive management in Canada to be elicited, based on the direct, on-the-ground experience of practitioners and analysts. The results of that research provided the grounds and support for the strategic development of the action-research program in the Doñana region. The preliminary identification, during the action-research program, of major rigidities within Doñana's institutional framework and management agencies triggered the second part of the thesis, which addressed, through institutional analysis, the two additional research questions mentioned above. The second research question of the thesis focuses on enhancing the understanding of the roots of institutional rigidity in maladaptive social-ecological systems. Institutional rigidity that hinders change and smothers innovation represents a major constraint for adaptive governance and adaptive management. Therefore, to facilitate potential transitions towards more sustainable social-ecological systems characterised by adaptive approaches to decision-making, it is of utmost importance to understand and explain the origins of such institutional rigidity. In Chapter 5, by constructing a historical pattern, I identify the existence of a rigid institutional regime for water resources management and wetland conservation in the Doñana region, and explain, through a first theoretical iteration, the mechanisms underlying the genesis, amplification and persistence of such institutional rigidity. My explanation has two distinguishable parts: on one side, the deep-historical genesis of the regime at a critical juncture in the 19th century; and on the other side, the formation and continuity of the regime up to the last decades of the 20th century, despite its dysfunctionality for coping with crises and its inability to harmonise wetland conservation, water management and economic development. The historical pattern confirms that the Doñana's regime has followed a path-dependent dynamic, largely characterised by the historical recurrence on the application of command-andcontrol schemes. In a seeming paradox, these schemes, instead of driving the regime towards an efficient outcome, led to the formation of a rigid institutional regime that drove the Doñana region into a sub-optimal systemic rigidity trap. This rigid outcome may be theoretically qualified as contingent, for it defies the traditional expectations of neoclassical economics that lie at the logical core of the concept of institutional path dependence. The third research question of the thesis focuses on the explanatory potential of entrepreneurship and discourses, in their relationship with political-economic interests and power, as factors contributing to shape outcomes in local social-ecological systems. In particular, I discussed the explanatory potential of those factors, when the core logic of path dependence (composed by the mainstream principles of neoclassical economics) fails to predict observed outcomes in historical, evolutionary perspective, and qualifies such outcomes as contingent. In Chapter 6, I undertake a second theoretical iteration that re-examines the historical explanatory pattern developed in Chapter 5, in order to show how the Doñana's rigid outcome can be understood as more predictable. In particular, I argue that three mechanisms constituted necessary and sufficient conditions for the transformational process that led to the Doñana's rigid outcome: (1) a contextual political-discursive mechanism that mobilised power top-down and signalled increasing returns to actors downstream of the institutional regime; (2) the operation of increasing returns and self-reinforcing mechanisms bottom-up; (3) an endogenous entrepreneurial component that acted as a mechanism for action in an environment of extreme uncertainty. In the general discussion of the thesis (Chapter 7), I make the case for systematising the role of discourses and entrepreneurship factors, in their relationship with politicaleconomic interests and power, into the analysis. I argue that such systematisation contributes significantly to diminishing the degree of contingency associated to the Doñana's rigid outcome. More generally, my discussion deals with contingency as a property of the path dependence concept that can be modulated in explanations of institutional dynamics. This type of advancements could inform future policy and institutional designs for successful transitions towards adaptive governance and management in social-ecological systems, hence improving the prospects for the sustainable use of natural resources and ecosystems. Enriching the knowledge gathered during the action-research program with the in-depth analysis of institutional constraints rooted in historical factors, allowed a number of potential avenues to be identified that may aid the transition towards adaptive governance and management in the Doñana region (Chapter 9). It also allowed an informed speculation to be made about the potential role of action-research programs such as the one described in this thesis, to comply with (and complement) the requisites for public participation and social learning of European Union legislation: notably, the Water Framework Directive (Chapter 7, Section 7.4). ; [spa] El impacto acelerado de las actividades humanas está causando el aumento de los daños a los sistemas de soporte vital de la Tierra. En consecuencia, gestores y científicos gestores han defendido la necesidad urgente de un cambio hacia el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales y los ecosistemas. Esta tesis trata sobre las condiciones institucionales necesarias para dicho cambio en sistemas socio-ecológicos, a través de un estudio de caso en profundidad: la región de Doñana, un sistema socio-ecológico afectado por problemas complejos en términos de recursos hídricos y conservación de humedales, situado en el Estuario del Guadalquivir (suroeste de España). En particular, en esta tesis me centro en la necesidad de transiciones desde estrategias de mando y control hacia enfoques más flexibles, participativos y adaptativos para la elaboración de políticas y la toma de decisiones: específicamente, gobernanza adaptativa y gestión adaptativa. Para ello, abordo tres preguntas de interés de investigación, amplias e interrelacionadas, utilizando un marco teórico que combina elementos de las teorías de dependencia de la trayectoria institucional y la resiliencia. La primera pregunta tiene implicaciones para la implementación de procesos de participación en el curso del diseño de transiciones hacia la gobernanza y la gestión adaptativas, mientras que las otras dos tienen implicaciones a nivel teórico-analítico. La primera pregunta de investigación se centra en la evaluación de la utilidad de un programa de investigación-acción cuyo objetivo fue introducir principios de gestión adaptativa en la interfaz investigación-gestión de la región de Doñana (Capítulo 4). El programa, que se desarrolló paralelamente a una restauración adaptativa en el contexto del proyecto de restauración hidro-ecológica Doñana 2005, combina un proceso formalizado de networking, entrevistas, grupos focales y técnicas de Dinámica de Sistemas, que demostró ser útil para fomentar la confianza entre un amplio rango de actores que finalmente participaron en dos talleres de gestión adaptativa. La participación de partes interesadas y organismos que se habían visto anteriormente envueltos en situaciones conflictivas y disputas de poder fue considerada un gran éxito del programa. Durante los talleres, los participantes desarrollaron en colaboración una serie de recomendaciones de política, ofreciendo posibles vías para mejorar la interfaz investigación-gestión, la gestión de los recursos hídricos y la conservación de humedales en la región de Doñana y el Estuario del Guadalquivir. El programa de investigación-acción fue apoyado por una investigación preparatoria dirigida a analizar y aprender de las prácticas de profesionales líderes en gestión adaptativa de la Columbia Británica (Canadá), donde este enfoque fue concebido e implementado por primera vez a gran escala (Capítulo 3). Dicha investigación preparatoria se basó en una revisión documental, entrevistas y un taller final en la Universidad de la Columbia Británica (Vancouver), y reveló que la gestión adaptativa ha completado varias fases alternas de desarrollo teórico, aplicación práctica y retroalimentación durante las últimas cuatro décadas, a las que muchos académicos y profesionales han contribuido. En particular, el taller permitió extraer lecciones sobre oportunidades y limitaciones actuales para la implementación y evaluación de la gestión adaptativa en Canadá, basadas en la experiencia directa de profesionales y analistas sobre el terreno. Los resultados de esa investigación sirvieron de base y apoyo para el desarrollo estratégico del programa de investigación-acción en la región de Doñana. La identificación preliminar de importantes rigideces en el marco institucional y las agencias de gestión de Doñana durante el programa de investigación-acción, motivó la segunda parte de la tesis, la cual abordó las dos preguntas de investigación adicionales mencionadas anteriormente, mediante análisis institucional. La segunda pregunta de investigación de la tesis se centra en mejorar la comprensión de las raíces de la rigidez institucional en sistemas socio-ecológicos maladaptativos. La rigidez institucional representa un obstáculo importante para la gobernanza y gestión adaptativas, ya que impide el cambio y dificulta la innovación. Por lo tanto, para facilitar potenciales transiciones hacia sistemas socio-ecológicos más sostenibles caracterizados por enfoques adaptativos para la toma de decisiones, es de suma importancia entender y explicar los orígenes de la rigidez institucional. En el Capítulo 5, a través de la construcción de un patrón histórico, identifico la existencia de un régimen institucional rígido para la gestión de los recursos hídricos y la conservación de los humedales en la región de Doñana, y explico, a través de una primera iteración teórica, los mecanismos subyacentes a la génesis, amplificación y persistencia de tal rigidez institucional. Mi explicación tiene dos partes diferenciadas: por un lado, la génesis histórica profunda del régimen en una coyuntura crítica en el siglo XIX; y por otro, la formación del régimen y su continuidad hasta las últimas décadas del siglo XX, a pesar de su disfuncionalidad para hacer frente a las crisis y su incapacidad para armonizar la conservación de humedales, la gestión del agua y el desarrollo económico. El patrón histórico confirma que el régimen institucional de Doñana ha seguido una dinámica dependiente de la trayectoria, ampliamente caracterizada por la aplicación recurrente de estrategias de mando y control a lo largo de la historia. En una aparente paradoja, estas estrategias, en lugar de conducir al régimen hacia un resultado eficiente, llevaron a la formación de un régimen institucional rígido que condujo la región de Doñana a una trampa subóptima de rigidez sistémica. Este resultado rígido puede ser calificado por la teoría como contingente, ya que desafía las expectativas tradicionales de la economía neoclásica que yacen en el núcleo lógico del concepto de dependencia de la trayectoria institucional. La tercera pregunta de investigación de la tesis se centra en el potencial explicativo del emprendimiento y los discursos en su relación con los intereses político-económicos y el poder, como factores que contribuyen a la formación de sistemas socio-ecológicos a nivel local. En particular, centro mi discusión en el potencial explicativo de estos factores, cuando la lógica base de la dependencia de la trayectoria (compuesta por los principios dominantes de la economía neoclásica) fracasa en predecir los resultados observados desde una perspectiva evolutiva histórica, calificando estos resultados como contingentes. En el Capítulo 6, emprendo una segunda iteración teórica que reexamina el patrón explicativo histórico desarrollado en el Capítulo 5, con el fin de mostrar como el régimen institucional rígido Doñana puede entenderse como más predecible. En particular, sostengo que tres mecanismos constituyeron condiciones necesarias y suficientes para el proceso de transformación que llevó a la rigidez en Doñana: (1) un mecanismo político-discursivo contextual que movilizó el poder desde arriba hacia abajo e indicó rendimientos crecientes a los actores de los niveles operacionales del régimen institucional; (2) el funcionamiento de los rendimientos crecientes y mecanismos de auto-refuerzo de abajo hacia arriba; (3) un componente endógeno de emprendimiento que actuó como mecanismo de acción en un entorno de incertidumbre extrema. En la discusión general de la tesis (Capítulo 7), presento argumentos para la sistematización, en el análisis, de los discursos y el emprendimiento en relación con factores político-económicos y de poder. Sostengo que tal sistematización contribuye significativamente a disminuir el grado de contingencia asociado a la rigidez en Doñana. Más en general, mi discusión trata sobre la contingencia como una propiedad del concepto de dependencia de la trayectoria que se puede modular en explicaciones sobre dinámica institucional. Este tipo de avances podría informar futuras políticas y diseños institucionales para una transición exitosa hacia la gobernanza y la gestión adaptativas de los sistemas socio-ecológicos, y, por lo tanto, para incrementar la posibilidad de gestionar los recursos naturales y los ecosistemas de forma más sostenible. El enriquecimiento del conocimiento adquirido durante el programa de investigaciónacción con el análisis en profundidad de las limitaciones institucionales arraigadas en factores históricos, permitieron la identificación de una serie de posibles vías que pueden ayudar a la transición hacia la gobernanza y la gestión adaptativas en la región de Doñana (Capítulo 9). Asimismo, este enriquecimiento permitió una especulación informada sobre el papel potencial de programas de investigación-acción como el que se describe en esta tesis, para cumplir con (y complementar) los requisitos para la participación pública y el aprendizaje social de la legislación de la Unión Europea – en particular, la Directiva Marco del Agua (Capítulo 7, Sección 7.4).

Durante el año 2008, cursé los estudios en Patrimonio Histórico y Natural, a través del Màster Oficial de igual nombre con mención de calidad ANECA, ofertado por la Universidad de Huelva, La realización de estos estudios y el interés que suscitó el entorno de Corrales en Aljaraque, me llevaron a documentarme e iniciar un proceso de investigación en el que todavía hoy me encuentro inmersa. A los conocimientos adquiridos, tras la formación recibida en diferentes áreas del patrimonio, se une una especial sensibilidad hacia este núcleo de población y la detección de la necesidad de trabajar en su gestión patrimonial. Además, el gran potencial de este entorno y más concretamente en su núcleo de población de Corrales, respecto a su patrimonio natural (situación geográfica, características físicas, paraje natural) y cultural (restos arqueológicos, yacimientos de diferentes épocas históricas: actividad industrial minera, fruto de la presencia británica en esta zona de la ribera del Odiel, bienes muebles e inmuebles de carácter artístico,,.), hicieron necesario el diseño y elaboración de un documento que sirviese de base para potenciar y diagnosticar las diferentes áreas patrimoniales, todo ello en virtud de la puesta en valor de este lugar histórico y su repercusión en la dinamización y uso sostenible del patrimonio en su municipio. Lógicamente esta situación, junto a reflexiones sobre el porqué de la necesidad de conservar nuestra herencia cultural, fue el punto de partida de este trabajo, en principio de catalogación, que me llevó a investigar sobre la documentación existente de este departamento minero, que la Compañía de Azufre y Cobre de Tharsis, situó en Corrales y que originó mi Tesina Fin de Màster, Con la catalogación del Patrimonio Industrial que todavía conserva esta zona, hemos conseguido justificar la necesidad de conservar casi un siglo y medio de trabajo, creación, singularidad, innovación, relaciones, al fin y al cabo de vida. Este primer estudio, fue solo el inicio de lo que considero, una investigación integral de los restos patrimoniales de este núcleo de población. Tras la catalogación del patrimonio de la zona, la investigación paso a una segunda fase que nos llevó a la protección urbanística de este. Esto supuso la aceptación por parte de la entidad municipal de trabajar en colaboración, para la realización de esta parte del trabajo de investigación, con la concesión de una beca predoctoral de la que he podido disfrutar durante el período de investigación, aunque solo durante un año, en el periodo 2009-2010. La revisión de la legislación en materia urbanística, corroboró la falta de normativa existente y la necesidad de elaborar una propuesta de protección. La protección urbanística de los restos patrimoniales, es un material necesario que en cierto modo asegura la pervivencia en el tiempo de nuestro patrimonio. Y digo en cierto modo, pues realmente nadie asegura que los bienes, muebles, inmuebles, yacimientos arqueológicos, de que dispone este municipio, gocen de una protección y de un cuidado que los mantenga en el tiempo. Aún así, y una vez terminada la fase de protección, liemos continuado este proceso de investigación con una propuesto de difusión patrimonial, que si bien en un principio se planteó como un proyecto de educación no formal, al desarrollar la investigación, se va configurando como un pían de carácter formal a nivel educativo, con el objetivo de ser insertado entre las actuaciones del proyecto de centro del colegio de educación primaria de este núcleo de población, Corrales. Esta última parte del proceso de investigación, es una propuesta de tantas otras opciones de difusión que podrían plantearse. La que hemos desarrollado, es aquella que cuenta con un sector de población joven, el dedicado a los estudios de Primaria y que consideramos de vital interés, inicial* en el conocimiento de su Patrimonio Cultural. La educación es básica para la configuración de un futuro mejor, y no podemos obviar la vertiente patrimonial como pilar fundamental, al considerar que generará inercias de conocimiento, de procedimientos y actuaciones, hacia el legado social, en este caso el legado patrimonial, que favorecerán el desarrollo sostenible del territorio donde se ubique. La propuesta de difusión, responde a un carácter didáctico del Patrimonio. Conocer la forma de integrar este marco teórico de inmejorables contenidos, en una propuesta didáctica adaptada a los tres ciclos educativos de la educación primaria obligatoria, ha sido un reto cuanto menos interesante de afrontar. Planteamos que el conocimiento patrimonial es básico para la formación integral de las personas, es una forma de entender la cultura como elemento indispensable en la formación de valores tan carentes en los tiempos que corren. En esta fase del trabajo hemos trabajado y desarrollado en profundidad, los objetivos generales de la didáctica, los contenidos educativos, la metodología, recursos, evaluación, todo ello con el objeto de desarrollar tres propuestas didácticas. En conjunto responde al nombre del "Tren de la Cultura" y está secuenciada en tres unidades, una por ciclo de la enseñanza primaria; Unidad Didáctica f, "El Tren de la Cultura: Paseamos por la Marisma", Unidad Didáctica 2, "El Tren de la Cultura: Descubriendo Corrales", Unidad Didáctica 3, "El Tren de la Cultura: Conoce tu historia, Conócete". Investigar, conservar, y difundir, han sido los pasos necesarios en este proyecto de investigación patrimonial. Cada una de las fases del proyecto ha necesitado de unos criterios claros, que sustenten todo proceso de revalorización patrimonial, Según el Estatuto de Autonomía para Andalucía, en su artículo 10 refiriéndose a los objetivos básicos de la Comunidad Autónoma, establece entre ellos, el de afianzar* la conciencia de identidad andaluza, a través del conocimiento, investigación y difusión del patrimonio histórico, antropológico y lingüístico, así como en su artículo 68.3.1° atribuye a la Comunidad Autónoma la competencia exclusiva en materia de protección del patrimonio histórico, artístico, monumental, arqueológico y científico. En este sentido el artículo 6.a) de la Ley 16/1985, de 25 de junio, de Patrimonio Histórico Español, determina que se entenderán como organismos competentes para la ejecución de dicha Ley los que en cada Comunidad Autónoma tengan a su cargo la protección del Patrimonio Histórico. Así mismo y desde la ley de Patrimonio Histórico Andaluz, el "Patrimonio Histórico constituye la expresión relevante de la identidad del pueblo andaluz, testimonio de la trayectoria histórica de Andalucía y manifestación de la riqueza y diversidad cultural que nos caracteriza en el presente. El sentimiento de aprecio hacia este Patrimonio ha de constituir uno de los pilares básicos para el fortalecimiento de esta identidad colectiva, impulsando el desarrollo de un espíritu de ciudadanía respetuoso con un entorno cultural garante de una mejor calidad de vida." Es obvio por tanto y necesario, trabajar en la protección y difusión patrimonial como forma de asegurar su perdurabilidad y por tanto el uso de carácter social en beneficio de todas/os. Para ello se ha hecho necesario plantear unos objetivos a los que espero llegar con la continuidad en la gestión de estos recursos patrimoniales. Estos objetivos planteados son fruto de necesidades observadas en las relaciones sociales generadas, detectando posibilidades que facilitaran la generación y puesta en marcha de proyectos de valor patrimonial. Objetivos: • Continuar la investigación de la zona patrimonial, creando el conocimiento necesario, generador de recursos, que doten de contenido el inicio de actuaciones de conservación y difusión del patrimonio. • Fomentar la conservación del Patrimonio Cultural y Natural de este pueblo como forma de consolidar la identidad y el desarrollo de la cohesión social. • Aumentar el conocimiento y motivar a la población, de su propio legado cultural y natural. • Utilizar el Patrimonio Cultural y Natural, como refuerzo de imagen interna y externa de este municipio. • Desarrollar diferentes propuestas didácticas, tanto para el ámbito formal como no formal de la educación en el entorno de Corrales- Aljaraque. • Promover la puesta en valor de los restos patrimoniales como sector generador de riqueza y empleo en este municipio. Además, espero incentivar actuaciones de carácter local, ya que soy consciente, que este tipo de documentación que se genera, sirve de apoyo y complemento a iniciativas culturales, medioambientales y de carácter turístico, que enriquecen la dinamización del territorio. ; In 2008,1 completed studies and Natural Heritage, through the Official Master of the same name with Quality ANECA, offered by the University of Huelva. The completion of these studies and the interest generated by the environment in Huelva Corrales took me to document myself and start a process of research in which I am still immersed. In the foreground, after the training in different areas of heritage, joins a special sensitivity to tlie population center and the detection of the need to work in wealth management. Furthermore, the great potential of this environment and more specifically on its core population Corrales, about their natural heritage (location, physical characteristics, natural landscape) and cultural (archaeological remains, sites from different historical periods: industrial mining fruit of the British presence in this area along the banks of the Odiel, movable and immovable property of an artistic .), necessitated the design and development of a document that would serve as a basis for enhancing and diagnose different economic areas, all under the enhancement of this historic place and its impact on the revitalization and sustainable use of heritage in their municipality. Obviously this situation, along with reflections on why the need to preserve our cultural heritage, was the starting point of this work, cataloging principle, which led me to investigate existing documentation of this mining department, the Company of Tharsis Sulphur and Copper, situated in Corrales and that caused my Final Master Thesis. With the Industrial Heritage cataloging still retains this area, we managed to justify the need to conserve nearly a centuiy and a half of work, creation, uniqueness, innovation, relationships, after all life. This first study was only the beginning of what I consider a comprehensive investigation of the archaeological heritage of this population center, After cataloging the area's heritage, research step to a second phase that led us to this urban protection. This was the acceptance by the municipal entity to work eollaboratively, to perform this part of the research, with the award of a predoctoral fellowship from which I could enjoy during the investigation, but only for one year, in 2009-2010. The review of the planning legislation, confirmed the lack of existing regulations and the need to develop a proposal for protection. The protection of the archaeological heritage planning is a necessary material in a way that ensures the survival time of our heritage. I say somewhat because nobody really ensures that goods, furniture, buildings, archaeological sites, this county available, enjoy the same protection and care to keep them in time. Even so, once the protection phase, we continued this research process with a proposed heritage dissemination, that while it was initially planned as a noil-formal education project, to develop research, is taking shape as formal plan for education, with the goal of being inserted between the performances of the proposed center primaiy school population of this nucleus, Corrales. This last part of the research process, is a proposed broadcast so many other options that might arise. What we have developed is one that has a young population sector, the studies devoted to primaiy and which we consider of vital interest, starting in the knowledge of their cultural heritage. Education is central to the configuration of a better future, and we can not ignore the heritage as a fundamental aspect, considering that generate inertia of knowledge, procedures and actions towards the social legacy, in this case the heritage, which favor sustainable development of the territory where it is located. The proposed distribution, serves a didactic Heritage. Knowing how to integrate this content unbeatable theoretical framework, in a didactic adapted to the three educational cycles of compulsory primary education, has been a challenge to deal with the less interesting. Ask patrimonial knowledge is essential for the formation of the whole person, is a way of understanding culture as a vital element in the formation of values so lacking in current times. In this phase of the work we have worked and developed in depth, the general objectives of teaching, educational content, methodology, resources, evaluation, all with the aim of developing three educational proposals. Taken together answers to the name of the "Train of Culture" and is sequenced in three units, one for the primary cycle; Teaching Unit 1 "The Train of Culture: We walk through the marsh" Teaching Unit 2, "The Train Culture: Discovering Corrales "Teaching Unit 3," The Train of Culture: Know Your History, Know Research, preserve, and disseminate, were the necessary steps in this research project assets. Each phase of the project has required clear criteria that underpin any asset revaluation process. According to the Statute of Autonomy for Andalusia, in Article 10 referring to the basic objectives of the Autonomous Community, established between them, to strengthen awareness of Andalusian identity, through knowledge, research and dissemination of the historical, anthropological and linguistic and in Article 68.3,1 ° attributed to the Autonomous Community exclusive competence for the protection of historical, artistic, architectural, archaeological and scientific. In this regard Article 6.a) of Law 16/1985 of June 25, of Spanish Historical Heritage, determines that be construed as bodies responsible for the implementation of the Act in each region are responsible for the Heritage protection. Likewise, and from the Andalusian Historical Heritage Act, the "Heritage is the relevant expression of the identity of the Andalusian people, witness to die historical trajectory of Andalusia and manifestation of the rich cultural diversity that characterizes us in the present. The feeling of appreciation for this heritage must be one of the basic pillars to strengthen this collective identity, fostering the development of a spirit of citizenship that respects cultural environment guarantee a better quality of life." It is therefore obvious and necessary, work on the protection and dissemination assets as a way to ensure its survival and therefore the use of social for the benefit of all / I. To do this it has become necessary to raise objectives I hope to get to the continuity in the management of these heritage resources. These objectives are the result of needs identified in the social relations generated, identifying opportunities to facilitate the generation and implementation of projects of heritage value. Objectives: • Continue researching the heritage area, creating the necessary knowledge resource generator, which give content starting performances heritage conservation and promotion, • Promote the conservation of cultural and natural heritage of this town as a way of strengthening the identity and the development of social cohesion. • Increase awareness and motivate people, of then* own cultural and natural heritage, • Using the Cultural and Natural Heritage, as reinforcement of internal and external image of the municipality, • Develop different educational proposals for both in formal and noil-formal education in the Corrales-Aljaraque environment. • Promote the enhancement of the archaeological heritage as a sector that generates wealth and employment in this county. Also, I hope to encourage local character performances as I am aware, that this type of documentation generated, supports and initiatives complement cultural, environmental and tourist that enrich the revitalization of the area.

1TUGAS DAN TANGGUNG JAWAB BADAN PENANGGULANGAN BENCANA BERDASARKAN PERATURAN DAERAH NOMOR 3 TAHUN 2010 TENTANG PENANGGULANGAN BENCANA DI KABUPATEN PESISIR SELATAN JURNAL Diajukan Guna Melengkapi Sebagian Persyaratan Untuk Mencapai Gelar Sarjana HukumOleh: RULLY INDRA PERMANA NPM: 0810013111031 FAKULTAS HUKUM UNIVERSITAS BUNG HATTA PADANG20132FAKULTAS HUKUM UNIVERSITAS BUNG HATTA PERSETUJUAN JURNAL Nama : RULLY INDRA PERMANA Nomor Pokok Mahasiswa : 0810012111031 Program Kekhususan : Hukum Tata Negara Judul Skripsi : Tugas Dan Tanggung Jawab Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Berdasarkan Peraturan Daerah Nomor 3 Tahun 2010 Tentang Penanggulangan Bencana Di Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan Telah disetujui pada hari Selasa tanggal Tiga Bulan September tahun Dua Ribu Tiga Belas untuk dipertahankan dihadapan Tim Penguji.1. Nurbeti, S.H., M.H. (Pembimbing I)2. Dr .Sanidjar Pebriharihati R, S.H., M.H. (Pembimbing II)1TUGAS DAN TANGGUNG JAWAB BADAN PENANGGULANGAN BENCANA BERDASARKAN PERATURAN DAERAH NOMOR 3 TAHUN 2010 TENTANG PENANGGULANGAN BENCANA DI KABUPATEN PESISIR SELATAN Rully Indra Permana 1), Nurbeti 2), Sanidjar pebrihariati.R 2)1) Mahasiswa Program Kekhususan Hukum Tata Negara2) Dosen Program Kekhususan Hukum Tata Negara , Fakultas Keguruan Hukum Universitas Bung HattaEmail : indrapermana99@Gmail.com ABSTRACT Indonesian culture and life in the midst of things that smell renewal claiming more advanced and civilized in terms of thinking, working and acting compared with indigenous peoples in ancient times. The issues contained in this paper is 1) What forms of environmental damage that causes natural disasters? 2) What sort of responsibility for disaster management in the South Coastal District?. Authors use the juridical sociological research methods research approach that examines the look and Regulation Legislation issues and connecting with the reality on the ground. Data sources of primary data and secondary data, namely primary data obtained from interviews and secondary data obtained from the study of documents, then the data is processed using qualitative data analysis. Based on these results we can conclude 1. Other forms of environmental degradation in the South Coastal District, 2.forms responsibility for disaster response and responsibilities of local governments in disaster management set out in Article 8, namely: (1) Guarantee the fulfillment of rights and refugee communities affected, (2) protection of society from the impact of disasters, (3) integration of disaster risk reduction and disaster risk reduction, (4) the allocation of disaster relief funds. Keywords:Environment,disaster prevention,non-governmental.PENDAHULUANA. Latar Belakang MasalahIndonesia sebagai negara kepulauan yang secara geografis terletak di daerah khatulistiwa, di antara Benua Asia dan Australia serta di antara Samudera Pasifik dan Hindia, berada pada pertemuan tiga lempeng tektonik utama dunia merupakan wilayah teritorial yang sangat rawan terhadap bencana alam.Posisi geografis dan geodinamik Indonesia telah menempatkan Indonesia sebagai salah satu wilayah yang rawan bencana alam (natural disaster prone region). Indonesia merupakan negara kepulauan tempat dimana tiga lempeng besar dunia bertemu, yaitu lempeng Indo-Australia, lempeng Eurasia, dan lempeng Pasifik. Interaksi antar lempeng-lempeng tersebut lebih lanjut menempatkan Indonesia sebagai wilayah yang memiliki aktivitas kegunungapian dan kegempaan yang cukup tinggi. Lebih dari itu, proses dinamika lempeng yang cukup intensif juga telah membentuk relief permukaan bumi yang khas dan sangat bervariasi, dari wilayah pegunungan dengan lereng-lerengnya yang curam dan seakan menyiratkan potensi2longsor yang tinggi hingga wilayah yang landai sepanjang pantai dengan potensi ancaman banjir, penurunan tanah dan tsunaminya. Lingkungan hidup merupakan anugerah Tuhan Yang Maha Esa yang wajib dilestarikan dan dikembangkan kemampuannya agar tetap dapat menjadi sumber penunjang hidup bagi manusia dan makhluk hidup lainnya demi kelangsungan dan peningkatan kualitas hidup itu sendiri. Lingkungan hidup adalah ruang yang ditempati oleh manusia bersama makhluk hidup lainnya. Manusia dan makhluk hidup lainnya tentu tidak berdiri sendiri dalam proses kehidupan, saling berinteraksi, dan membutuhkan satu sama lainnya. Kehidupan yang ditandai dengan interaksi dan saling ketergantungan secara teratur merupakan tatanan ekosistem yang di dalamnya mengandung esensi penting, dimana lingkungan hidup sebagai satu kesatuan yang tidak dapat dibicarakan secara terpisah. Maka dari itu penulis tertarik untuk membahas dan mengkaji persoalan lingkungan dan menuangkannya ke dalam sebuah tulisan ilmiah yang berjudul: "Tugas Dan Tanggung Jawab Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah Di Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan Berdasarkan Perda Nomor 30 Tahun 2010 Tentang Penanggulangan Bencana".Metodologi Metode penelitian merupakan hal yang sangat penting dalam penelitian skripsi ini, karena metode penelitian dapat menentukan langkah-langkah dari suatu penulisan, baik mengenai pendekatan masalah, teknik pengumpulan data dan sumber data maupun analisis datanya. Oleh karena itu, demi mencapai tujuan dari penulisan ini, maka metode penelitian yang dipakai sebagai dasar penulisan ini, yaitu sebagai berikut:1. Pendekatan MasalahPenelitian ini menggunakan metode Pendekatan Yuridis Sosiologis yaitu berdasarkan pada peraturan perundang-undangan yang berlaku dikaitkan dengan apa yang terjadi di lapangan (pelaksanaan), sehingga dalam penelitian ini peneliti menggunakan bahan hukum.a. Sumber data1) Data PrimerData primer merupakan sumber data yang diperoleh secara langsung dari informan. Di dalam penelitian ini yang akan menjadi informan adalah pejabat Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan.2) Data SekunderData yang diperoleh peneliti dari Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah3(BPBD) Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan. Selain itu penulis juga menggunakan data sebagai berikut:a. Bahan Hukum Primer yaitu mempelajari peraturan perundang-undangan tentang Penanggulangan Bencana dan Peraturan-peraturan lainnya yang terkait yaitu:1) Undang-Undang No 32 Tahun 2009 tentang Perlindungan dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup (UUPPLH),2) Undang-Undang No 24 Tahun 2007 tentang Penanggulangan Bencana,3) Peraturan Presiden Republik Indonesia No 8 Tahun 2008 tentang Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana,4) Peraturan Daerah No 3 Tahun 2010 tentang Penanggulangan Bencana.b. Bahan Hukum Sekunder, yaitu mempelajari berbagai literatur (buku-buku, makalah, laporan penelitian, jurnal) yang berkaitan dengan masalah Penanggulangan Bencana serta kerusakan lingkungan.2. Teknik Pengumpulan dataa. Studi dokumen adalah dengan melakukan pengambilan objek dokumen-dokumen hasil monitoring atau objek surat dankliping Koran yang relevan dengan penelitian ini.b. Wawancara yaitu dengan melakukan wawancara bebas dengan para informan yaitu para pejabat Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan.3. Pengolahan dan Analisis DataMengumpulkan data dengan mengadakan pencatatan yang diambil dari dokumen, buku laporan dan buku catatan lainnya yang berhubungan dengan materi yang ditulis. Pengolahan data yang diperoleh untuk kemudian diolah lebih lanjut secara kualitatif dan dirumuskan secara sistematis dan dikaitkan dengan apa yang terjadi dalam pelaksanaannya di dalam kenyataan lalu setelah itu dikaitkan dengan pokok-pokok permasalahan dalam penulisan ini. Hasil Penelitian dan Pembahasan Pembahasan hasil penelitian ini berdasarkan pada hasil analisis data yang diperoleh, bahwa:A. Bentuk-Bentuk Kerusakan Lingkungan Yang Menyebabkan Bencana Alam di Kabupaten Pesisir SelatanSecara geografis dengan strategi bencana daerah kabupaten pesisir selatan berada disekitar 0059'-228' LS dan 10018' yang merupakan wilayah4administrasi dengan luas 5749,89 m2. Secara khusus kabupaten pesisir selatan memiliki topografi wilayah berbukit-bukit dengan ketinggian berkisar 0-1000m dari permukaan laut,memiliki 57 pulau serta dialiri sebanyak 18 sungai dengan 11 sungai besar dan 7 sungai kecil. Pesisir selatan merupakan iklim tropis dengan temperatur bervariasi antara 230C hingga 320C disiang hari dan 20 C 280C dimalam hari dengan curah hujan rata-rata 224,63 mm perbulan. Kondisi permukaan lahan kabupaten pesisir selatan dewasa ini adalah sebagai besar lahan hutan yaitu 70,54% hutan lebat dan 13,37% hutan belukar,lahan sawah 6,07%,perkebunan, 2,30% dan sisanya adalah perkampunga, kebun campuran dan kebun rakyat lainnya: 1 Bentuk-bentuk bencana Alam di Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan. berikut ini:a) TsunamiGelombang air laut yang membawa material baik berupa sisa-sisa bangunan, tumbuhan dan material lainnya menghempas segala sesuatu yang berdiri di dataran pantai dengan kekuatan dahsyat. Bangunan yang mempunyai dimensi lebar dinding sejajar dengan garis pantai atau tegak lurus dengan arah datangnya gelombang akan mendapat tekanan yang paling kuat sehingga akan mengalamikerusakan yang paling parah. Gelombang air ini juga akan menggerus pondasi dan menyeret apapun yang berdiri lepas di pemukiman dataran pantai dan dibawa ke laut. Contoh di wilayah pesisir selatan di kecamatan linggo sari baganti pada tahun 2007 terjadi tsunami yang berakibat rusaknya pemukiman tempat tinggal penduduk setempat dan hancurnya kapal-kapal nelayan setempat.b) Gempa BumiGempa bumi adalah getaran yang ditimbulkan karena adanya gerakan endogen. Semakin besar kekuatan gempa, maka akan menimbulkan kerusakan yang semakin parah di muka bumi. Gempa bumi menyebabkan bangunan-bangunan retak atau hancur, struktur batuan rusak, aliran-aliran sungai bawah tanah terputus, jaringan pipa dan saluran bawah tanah rusak, dan sebagainya. Jika kekuatan gempa bumi melanda lautan, maka akan menimbulkan tsunami, yaitu arus gelombang pasang air laut yang menghempas daratan dengan kecepatan yang sangat tinggi.5Contoh yang paling nyata adalah pada tahun 2007 di kecamatan lunang silaut terjadi gempa bumi dengan kekutan 6,9 skala richter yang mengakibatkan kerusakan -kerusakan bangunan dan menimbulkan banyak kerugian secara materil dan spritual.c) BanjirBanjir merupakan salah satu bentuk fenomena alam yang unik. Dikatakan unik karena banjir dapat terjadi karena murni gejala alam dan dapat juga karena dampak dari ulah manusia sendiri. Banjir dikatakan sebagai gejala alam murni jika kondisi alam memang memengaruhi terjadinya banjir, misalnya hujan yang turun terus menerus, terjadi di daerah basin, dataran rendah, atau di lembah-lembah sungai. Selain itu, banjir dapat juga disebabkan karena ulah manusia, misalnya karena penggundulan hutan di kawasan resapan, timbunan sampah yang menyumbat aliran air, ataupun karena rusaknya dan atau pintu pengendali aliran air. Kerugian yang ditimbulkan akibat banjir, antara lain, hilangnya lapisan permukaan tanah yang subur karena tererosi aliran air, rusaknya tanaman, dan rusaknya berbagai bangunan hasil budidaya manusia. Bencana banjir bandang merupakan salah satu bencana alam yang hampir setiap musim penghujan melanda di beberapa wilayah di Wilayah Pesisir Selatan Kecamatan Lengayang pada Tahun 2011 yang mengakibatkan hilangnya korban jiwa berjumlah 6 orang.d) Tanah LongsorKarakteristik tanah longsor hampir sama dengan karakteristik banjir. Bencana alam ini dapat terjadi karena proses alam ataupun karena dampak kecerobohan manusia. Bencana alam ini dapat merusak struktur tanah, merusak lahan pertanian, pemukiman, sarana dan prasarana penduduk serta berbagai bangunan lainnya. Peristiwa tanah longsor pada umumnya melanda beberapa wilayah Indonesia yang memiliki topografi agak miring atau berlereng curam. Di wilayah Pesisir Selatan dibeberapa Wilayah Kecamatan Tarusan, Kecamatan Bayang, IV jurai, Batang Kapas, sutera dan ranah pesisir yang selama musim hujan terjadi banyak titik rawan longsor6yang mengakibatkan kerusakan bangunan atau tempat tinggal penduduk setempat, terputusnya jalur transportasi darat, dan rusaknya areal pertanian dan perkebunan.e) Badai/Angin TopanAngin topan terjadi karena perbedaan tekanan udara yang sangat mencolok di suatu daerah sehingga menyebabkan angin bertiup lebih kencang. Di beberapa belahan dunia, bahkan sering terjadi pusaran angin. Bencana alam ini pada umumnya merusakkan berbagai tumbuhan, memorakporandakan berbagai bangunan, sarana infrastruktur dan dapat membahayakan penerbangan. Salah satu contohnya adalah di wilayah Pesisir Selatan Kecamatan IV Jurai, Sutera, dan Lengayang yang mengakibat kerusakan tempat tinggal penduduk dan kerusakan fasilitas umum .B. Bentuk Tanggung Jawab Pemerintah Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan terhadap Penanggulangan Bencana Alam di Kabupaten Pesisir Selatana. Tanggung Jawab Pemerintah Daerah:Tanggung jawab Pemerintah Daerah dalam Penanggulangan Bencana yaitu:1. Penjaminan pemenuhan hak masyarakat dan pengungsi yang terkena bencana sesuai dengan standar pelayanan minimum;2. Perlindungan masyarakat dari dampak bencana;3. Pengurangan risiko bencana dan pemaduan pengurangan risiko bencana dengan program pembangunan; dan4. Pengalokasian dana penanggulangan bencana dalam anggaran pendapatan belanja daerah yang memadai.b. Wewenang Pemerintah Daerah:Wewenang pemerintah daerah dalam penanggulangan bencana yaitu:1. Penetapan kebijakan penanggulangan bencana pada wilayahnya selaras dengan kebijakan pembangunan daerah;2. Pembuatan perencanaan pembangunan yang memasukkan unsur-unsur kebijakan penanggulangan bencana;3. Pelaksanaan kebijakan kerja sama dalam penanggulangan bencana dengan provinsi dan/atau kabupaten/kota lain;4. Pengaturan penggunaan teknologi yang berpotensi sebagai sumber ancaman atau bahaya bencana pada wilayahnya;75. Perumusan kebijakan pencegahan penguasaan dan pengurasan sumber daya alam yang melebihi kemampuan alam pada wilayahnya; dan6. Pengendalian pengumpulan dan penyaluran uang atau barang pada wilayahnya (pengawasan terhadap penyelenggaraan pengumpulan uang atau barang berskala provinsi, kabupaten/kota yang diselenggarakan oleh masyarakat, termasuk pemberian ijin yang menjadi kewenangan gubernur/bupati/walikota sesuai dengan kewenangannya)Berdasarkan Peraturan Daerah Nomor 3 Tahun 2010 tentang penanggulangan bencana yaitu:(1) Pemerintah daerah menjadi penanggung jawab dalam penyelenggaraan penanggulangan bencana(2) Dalam melaksanakan tanggung jawab penanggulangan bencana pemerintah daerah melimpahkan tugas pokok dan fungsinya kepada BPBD(3) Tugas pokok dan fungsi sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat (2) yang bersifat sangat teknis dilaksanakan oleh BPBD(4) BPBD dalam melaksanakan tugas dan fungsinya dapat melibatkan unsur-unsur antara lain masyarakat,lembaga kemasyarakatan, lembaga usaha, lembaga internasional.Adapun tugas dan BPBD yaitu:1. Menetapkan pedoman dan pengarahan sesuai dengan kebijakan pemerintah daerah dan badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana terhadap usaha penanggulangan bencana yang mencakup pencegahan bencana, penanganan darurat, rehabilitasi serta rekonstruksi secara adil dan setara.2. Menetapkan standarisasi serta kebutuhan penyelenggaraan penanggulangan bencana berdasarkan peraturan perundang undangan.3. Menyusun, menetapkan dan menginformasikan peta rawan bencana.4. Menyusun dan menetapkan prosedur tetap penanganan bencana.5. Melaksanakan penyelenggaraan penanggulangan bencana pada wilayahnya.6. Melaporkan penyelenggaraan penanggulangan bencana kepada daerah setiap sebulan sekali dalam kondisi normal dan setiap saat dalam kondisi darurat bencana.7. Mengendalikan pengumpulan dan penyaluran uang dan barang.8. Mempertanggungjawabkan penggunaan anggaran yang diterima8dari anggaran pendapatan dan belanja daerah.Melaksanakan kewajiban lain sesuai dengan peraturan perundang undangan. Kesimpulan Dari hasil penelitian yang telah peneliti lakukan, maka dapat diambil kesimpulan, Bentuk-bentuk kerusakan lingkungan yang menyebabkan bencana alam di Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan yaitu kerusakan lingkungan akibat proses alam seperti tsunami, gempa bumi, banjir, tanah longsor, dan badai angin topan,serta Bentuk tanggung jawab pemerintah Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan terhadap penanggulangan bencana alam di Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan yaitu Tanggung jawab Pemerintah Daerah dalam Penanggulangan Bencana Ucapan Terima Kasih Pada kesempatan ini penulis mengucapkan terima kasih banyak kepada pihak-pihak yang sudah membantu penulis selama menyelesaikan skripsi. Pihak-pihak yang dengan sabar membimbing dan selalu memotivasi penulis dalam menyelesaikan skripsi.Pihak tersebut adalah: (1) Ibu Nurbeti, S.H., M.H, selaku Pembimbing I dan Wakil Dekan Fakultas Hukum (2) Ibu Dr. Sanidjar Pebrihariati. R, S.H., M.H, selaku Pembimbing II (3) Bapak Suamperi, S.H., M.H selaku Ketua bagian Hukum Tata Negara Fakultas Hukum. (4) Keluarga tercinta yang selalu memberi dukungan moril maupun materi. (5) Adik-adik penulis, (6) kekasih penulis, (7) serta Teman-teman seperjuangan. Daftar PustakaA. Buku-bukuAsrul Pramudya, 2008. Kajian Pengelolaan Daratan Pesisir Berbasis Zonasi di Provinsi Jambi, Semarang: Thesis Pasca Sarjana Magister Teknik Sipil Universitas Diponegoro. Arsan Andi, I Made, 2007. Batas Maritim Antar Negara Sebuah Tinjauan Teknis dan Yuridis, Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada Univ. Press. Faried Ali, 1996. Hukum Tata Pemerintahan dan Proses Legislatif Indonesia, Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada. Huala Adolf, 1996. Aspek-aspek Negara Dalam Hukum Internasional, Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada. Jimly Asshiddiqie, 2007. Pokok-pokok Hukum Tata Negara Indonesia Pasca Reformasi, Jakarta : Bhuana Ilmu Populer. Melda Kamil, 2007. Adriano Hukum Internasional Hukum yang Hidup, Jakarta: Diadit Media. Mukhtasor, 2007. Pencemaran Pesisir dan Laut, Jakarta; Pradnya Paramita. Soerjono Soekanto dan Sri Mamudji, 1990. Penelitian Hukum Suatu Tinjauan Singkat, Rajawali Pers. Jakarta. Syamsuharya Bethan, 2008. Penerapan Prinsip Hukum Pelestarian Fungsi Lingkungan Hidup dalam Aktifitas Industri Nasional (Sebuah Upaya Penyelamatan Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehidupan Antar Generasi), Bandung: Alumni.9Zainuddin Ali, 2010. Metode Penelitian Hukum, Sinar Grafika, Jakarta.B. Karya IlmiahBadan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Departemen Luar Negeri, 1986. Perjuangan Indonesia di Bidang Hukum Laut, Jakarta : Deplu, 1986 Samsul Arifin, Permasalahan Lingkungan Hidup di Sumut, materi perkuliahan disampaikan pada perkuliahan Hukum Lingkungan Administrasi pada tanggal 4/10/2010 di kelas regular A, Program Pasca Sarjana Magister Ilmu Hukum.C. Perundang-undanganUndang-Undang No 24 Tahun 2007 tentang Penanggulangan Bencana, Undang-Undang No 32 Tahun 2009 tentang Perlindungan dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup (UUPPLH) Peraturan Presiden Republik Indonesia No 8 Tahun 2008 tentang Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana Peraturan Daerah No 3 Tahun 2010 tentang Penanggulangan Bencana di Kabupaten Pesisir selatan

Lesioni preneoplastiche della cervice uterina Il carcinoma della cervice uterina continua ad essere una delle principali cause di morte delle donne nel mondo, soprattutto nei paesi sottosviluppati. Rappresenta, infatti, nella popolazione femminile, il secondo cancro per incidenza, dopo il carcinoma mammario. Ogni anno vengono diagnosticati circa 500.000 nuovi casi. Nei Paesi sviluppati le donne sono state "educate" ad aderire a programmi di screening mediante pap-test, con una diminuzione della mortalità di circa il 70%. La maggior parte dei tumori invasivi sono preceduti, infatti, da neoplasie intraepiteliali cervicali (CIN), che possono persistere come tali anche per lungo tempo, e che sono suscettibili di trattamenti conservativi, capaci di impedirne nella quasi totalità dei casi la progressione verso forme invasive. Sono stati identificati tre gradi di precursori del carcinoma cervicale: CIN 1, 2 e 3. I primi due corrispondono rispettivamente alla displasia lieve e moderata, il terzo alla displasia grave e al carcinoma in situ. In ambito citologico, tale terminologia è stata modificata nel 2001 dall'introduzione della classificazione citologica del Bethesda System che definisce due livelli di alterazione delle lesioni squamose (SIL): quelle di basso grado (Low-SIL) e quelle di alto grado (High-SIL). La CIN 1, pertanto, corrisponde alla L-SIL, mentre le CIN 2-3 rientrano nel novero HSIL. Su tale base è nato e si è diffuso nel mondo (in Finlandia nel 1965, negli USA nel 1970, in Gran Bretagna nel 1987, etc.) lo screening del cervicocarcinoma, che coinvolge la popolazione femminile sessualmente attiva, in una fascia di età compresa tra i 25 ed i 64 anni, volto ad identificare le lesioni preneoplastiche della cervice utilizzando una metodica di facile esecuzione e di basso costo comunemente conosciuta come citologia cervico-vaginale o, meglio, pap-test, ideata nel 1945 da George Papanicolaue H-SIL. Nell'ambito degli screening organizzati, la colposcopia rappresenta un' esame di II livello. La funzione è stata ben espressa dalla Task Force Canadese (2° Rapporto Walton del 1982): "La citologia evidenzia la neoplasia preclinica e clinica cervicale. La colposcopia valuta la cervice uterina con citologia anormale e permette la localizzazione della zona della portio ove eseguire la biopsia per l'esame istologico. La colposcopia non deve essere considerata una tecnica di screening, L'accuratezza diagnostica della combinazione citologia-colposcopia è risultata, fin dagli anni '60, assai vicina al 100%. Attualmente esistono nuove tecniche per rendere la diagnosi precoce delle lesioni cervicali sempre più attendibile; tra queste l'HPV DNA test. Sono disponibili due metodiche per la determinazione della presenza del papilloma virus sulla cervice uterina: L'Hybrid capture II (HCII) (Digene) e Amplicor Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) Test. Questa tecnica prevede l'impiego di lunghe sonde genomiche ed anticorpi specifici per gli ibridi DNA:RNA allo scopo di ottenere una forte amplificazione del segnale, sfruttando il fatto che ciascuna copia del bersaglio può legare centinaia o migliaia di marcatori enzimatici. Ancor oggi dibattuto è l'utilizzo dell'HPV dna test; uno degli studi più autorevoli, pubblicato recentemente dal Dipartimento di Politica Sanitaria dell'Università di Harward , prendendo in considerazione due modalità di utilizzo del test per l'HPV – screening primario e triage della citologia borderline – in Gran Bretagna, Francia, Paesi Bassi e Italia, conclude che entrambe le scelte in tutti questi Paesi presentano vantaggi in termini di salute pubblica a fronte di costi accettabili, in confronto con le attuali strategie adottate nei singoli paesi. Questi dati, evidentemente non conclusivi, anche se altamente significativi, indicano che il problema dei costi non appare più, attualmente, motivo di prioritaria esclusione del HPV-DNA test dai programmi clinici. Poiché oltre il 97% dei carcinomi cervicali riconosce la presenza di HPV ad alto rischio (HPV-HR), il razionale per l'introduzione dell'HPV-DNA test nello screening primario viene riconosciuto nell'alto Valore Predittivo Negativo (NPV) di questo test in associazione alla citologia tradizionale (99.7-100%). Ad oggi sono stati pubblicati numerosi studi di screening primario in cui il test per L'HPV è stato utilizzato da solo o in associazione al pap-test, per un totale di circa 80.000 casi distribuiti in 11 paesi di 4 continenti. La sensibilità dell'associazione HPV test – pap-test è sempre risultata maggiore a quella di ciascun test considerato singolarmente e, come era attendibile, il NPV dell'associazione dei test è risultata nella maggior parte dei casi del 100%. Questi risultati sono estremamente interessanti e indicativi della tendenza attuale. Ovviamente le realtà locali sono enormemente diversificate, i programmi di screening non sono tutti identici e di conseguenza questi dati non possono essere assimilati ovunque nello stesso modo; per questo motivo appare ancora prematuro codificare ufficialmente l'utilizzo dell'HPV test in uno screening primario; si aprono tuttavia interessanti scenari in prospettiva, l'elemento predominate dei quali è sicuramente la garanzia della negatività dello screening con l'associazione dei due test . La gestione del pap-test ASC-US e ASC-H e delle L-SIL citologiche è stata recentemente oggetto di un notevole interesse a livello internazionale, e numerosi studi clinici hanno affrontato la questione nelle sue varie sfumature. La problematica emergente è stata sicuramente quella relativa a quale deve essere, in questi casi, la più opportuna delle scelte di triage diagnostico. Come sappiamo, tradizionalmente le opzioni in questi casi prevedono principalmente l'invio diretto alla colposcopia oppure, in alcune circostanze, la ripetizione dell'esame citologico. Ovviamente, a monte di tutto il problema, sta l'indicazione perentoria, ormai fatta propria da tutte le Società di Colposcopia, che la prevalenza di refertazione citologica ASC debba essere il più possibile contenuta entro percentuali ridotte, con il limite ottimale del 2%, circa, per un buon centro di citodiagnostica. Il triage del pap-test dubbio è sicuramente uno degli argomenti in cui l'introduzione dell'HPVDNA test ha ottimizzato le scelte di gestione clinica. Infatti il suo utilizzo in questi casi viene attualmente riconosciuto in molte Linee Guida internazionali. A questo proposito è d'obbligo fare riferimento ai risultati dello studio ALTS (ASCUS Low SIL Triage Study). A questo sono seguiti altri studi analoghi che ne hanno ricalcato il disegno, giungendo a risultati sovrapponibili. L'unicità dello studio ALTS sta nel fatto di essere l'unico studio clinico controllato randomizzato, che ha reclutato 3488 pazienti, suddivise nei tre bracci di trattamento: colposcopia immediata, ripetizione della citologia in fase liquida e HPV-DNA test. Considerando globalmente i risultati degli 8 studi pubblicati ad oggi, si conclude che la sensibilità e specificità dell'HPV-DNA test vs. CIN2-3 (96.3% e 49%) sono superiori a sensibilità e specificità della ripetizione citologica su fase liquida (85.3% e 45%). I risultati longitudinali dello studio ALTS (36) dopo 2 anni di follow-up indicano la superiorità in termini di sensibilità dell'HPVDNA test anche nei confronti della colposcopia. Sulla base di questi dati, negli Stati Uniti, l'American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, indica oggi l'HPV-DNA test come opzione ottimale per il triage del pap-test ASCUS. Il razionale circa l'utilizzo dell'HPV-DNA test come test di cura nel follow-up dei casi sottoposti a trattamento escissionale di lesioni di alto grado (CIN 2-3) per determinare il rischio di persistenza o di recidiva della CIN, è riconducibile all'evidenza che in assenza di HPV-DNA identificabile esiste un rischio quasi nullo di presenza di CIN 3. Questa ipotesi è stata pressoché completamente confermata dai risultati di circa 10 studi pubblicati negli ultimi anni. Considerando infatti globalmente i risultati di questi studi, il 97% dei casi di CIN 2-3 identificati nel corso del follow up post trattamento risultavano HPV-positivi. La sensibilità e il NPV complessivi dell'HPV-DNA test sono risultati del 96.5% e del 98.8% rispettivamente, in tutti gli studi superiori a quelle della citologia in fase liquida. In quest'ottica appare giustificato affermare che l'associazione dell'HPV-DNA test alla citologia nel follow-up post trattamento delle lesioni di alto grado presenta un significativo vantaggio in termini di sensibilità e di esclusione della persistenza/recidiva della malattia. In un prossimo futuro risulterà interessante valutare il ruolo del test per HPV E6/E7 mRNA e p16, con alta sensibilità e specificità nell'individuare pazienti con attiva espressione oncogenica. Genotipi virali e management delle lesioni di basso grado SCOPO DELLA RICERCA: lo scopo dello studio è stato quello di valutare se l'identificazione dei genotipi virali, eseguita in corrispondenza dell'esame colposcopico positivo, possa modificare il management terapeutico di pazienti affette da lesioni di basso grado (CIN 1). Inoltre si è voluto analizzare la rilevanza della presenza di coifezione riguardo la storia clinica di queste lesioni, e della loro gestione. A tal fine nel periodo compreso da gennaio 2007 a marzo 2008, presso l'Ambulatorio di Colposcopia e Patologia Cervico-vaginale dell'Università di Napoli Federico II, sono state arruolate 264 pazienti con manifestazioni cliniche HPV correlate. I criteri d'inclusione sono stati i seguenti: • Presenza di condilomatosi genitale; • Positività all'esame citologico e/o colposcopico per lesioni HPV-correlate. • Presenza di lesioni preneoplastiche della cervice uterina diagnosticate all'esame istologico. Non sono state arruolate, in questo studio, pazienti negative all'esame colposcopico, pur in presenza di citologia positiva; donne gravide, immunodepresse o con infezione da virus dell'immunodeficienza umana (HIV-positive). L'età delle pazienti era compresa tra i 16 ed i 69 anni, con una media di 34 ± 8,3 anni ed una mediana di 33 anni. Tutte le pazienti arruolate erano sessualmente attive ed hanno espresso un consenso informato per l'adesione allo studio; inoltre, come previsto dalle linee guida della Società Italiana di Colposcopia e Patologia Cervico Vaginale, è stato richiesto il consenso per sottoporsi a procedure diagnostiche ambulatoriali. Tutte le pazienti sono state sottoposte a colposcopia ed a prelievo cervicale con esecuzione di genotipizzazione virale. Le pazienti con lesione cervicale evidente di basso (ZTAG1) o di alto grado (ZTAG2) sono state sottoposte a biopsia mirata. Le pazienti che presentavano lesioni preneoplastiche di basso grado (CIN 1) hanno eseguito follow-up colposcopico e citologico per 1 anno ad intervalli semestrali. Allo scadere di questo termine, le pazienti con persistente lesione colposcopica sono state sottoposte ad ulteriore esame bioptico mirato; quelle che presentavano persistenza della lesione istologica sono state trattate con terapia distruttiva presso il nostro ambulatorio di laserchirurgia, e seguite con follow-up citologico e colposcopico, trimestrale e poi semestrale, per 1 anno. Le pazienti che presentavano una zona di trasformazione anormale (ZTA), ma biopsia negativa, sono state sottoposte comunque a follow-up colposcopico e citologico semestrale per un anno, e in caso di persistenza dell'alterazione evidenziata colposcopicamente a ripetizione della biopsia mirata al controllo annuale. Le pazienti che presentavano condilomatosi florida sono state sottoposte a trattamento tramite laserchirurgia e successivo follow-up per 1 anno, con tempi e modalità analoghe a quelle descritte. In caso di diagnosi istologica di lesioni di grado moderato o severo (CIN 2 e CIN 3) le pazienti sono state sottoposte direttamente a trattamento escissionale con ansa diatermica (Loop Electrosurgical Excision Procedure – LEEP) o conizzazione chirurgica a lama fredda, in relazione al quadro colposcopico e clinico, come previsto dalle linee guida nazionali ed internazionali. Dal nostro studio emerge che nella maggior parte delle pazienti con CIN 1 e tipizzazione virale positiva per i ceppi 16 o 18, o per infezioni multiple, si verifica persistenza o progressione della lesione a distanza di un anno. Invece, nel gruppo di pazienti con CIN 1 ed infezione da singolo genotipo virale diverso dal 16 e dal 18, si riscontra nella quasi totalità dei casi regressione della lesione nell'arco di 12 mesi. Ciò che si evince dai nostri dati, dunque, è la possibilità di utilizzare la tipizzazione virale come strumento per stabilire il management terapeutico delle pazienti affette da lesioni di basso grado. Grazie alla tipizzazione virale, infatti, è possibile identificare le pazienti con lesioni di basso grado che, a differenza di altre, necessitano di trattamento per l'elevata probabilità che la lesione non regredisca. Le pazienti che presentano lesioni precancerose di grado moderato o severo (CIN 2 o CIN 3) sono state sottoposte a trattamento chirurgico escissionale senza periodi di attesa in accordo con le linee guida della Società Italiana di Colposcopia e Patologia Cervico Vaginale del 2006. Questo management terapeutico è indicato perché, per questo tipo di lesioni, la probabilità di progressione a carcinoma invasivo è sicuramente maggiore rispetto alle lesioni di basso grado, anche se per motivazioni etiche non se ne conosce l'esatta percentuale. La letteratura, infatti, riporta dati molto controversi sulla storia clinica della CIN 3: in alcuni studi è stata descritta una regressione spontanea di queste lesioni nel 32% dei casi, ed una progressione a carcinoma invasivo in più del 12%. Altri autori, invece, osservando periodi di follow-up più lunghi, hanno riportato percentuali di progressione vicine al 100%. Ciò che proponiamo alla luce dei risultati ottenuti, è di sottoporre tutte le pazienti che presentano lesioni preneoplastiche di basso grado ad HPV-DNA test e di trattare solo quelle con tipizzazione positiva per i ceppi 16 e 18 o in caso di infezione multipla. Nelle pazienti in cui è presente un solo genotipo virale diverso dal 16 e dal 18 sarebbe utile eseguire un attento follow-up citologico e colposcopico semestrale per 1 anno, al termine del quale, se la lesione non è regredita e viene confermata all'esame istologico, si potrà procedere al trattamento. Questo protocollo di gestione potrebbe consentire una riduzione sensibile del numero dei trattamenti effettuati in caso di CIN 1. Genotipi virali e recidiva delle lesioni di alto grado Alla luce dei dati emersi dai primi anni di ricerca, cioè che i genotipi HPV 16 e HVP 18 rivestono un ruolo predominante nella persistenza e nell'evoluzione delle lesioni di basso grado verso lesioni di alto grado, abbiamo voluto porre la nostra attenzione all'utilizzo della genotipizzazione virale nel predire la recidiva delle lesioni di alto grado dopo trattamento escissionale. Dagli studi presenti in letteratura è emerso che il genotipo HPV 16 è associato ad una maggior tasso di recidiva di lesioni CIN 3 post conizzazione rispetto agli altri genotipi. Sia nello studio ASC-US LSIL triage (ALTS trial) che nel più recente studio di Heymans , le pazienti con HPV 16 sono state identificate come ad alto rischio di recidiva e pertanto sono state indirizzate ad un follow-up più stretto. Sulla base di questi dati, nel nostro studio abbiamo voluto indagare se il genotipo HPV 16 potesse rappresentare un fattore di rischio rispetto agli altri genotipi nella recidiva delle lesioni di alto grado dopo trattamento escissionale. Il nostro studio prospettico osservazionale si propone di valutare la possibile correlazione esistente tra l'insorgenza di lesioni recidivanti di alto grado ed il genotipo virale 16 . A tal fine abbiamo reclutato dal'aprile 2008 all'aprile 2011, 310 pazienti, presso l'ambulatorio di patologia cervico-vaginale del nostro Dipartimento di Ginecologia, Ostetricia e Fisiopatologia della Riproduzione umana, secondo i seguenti criteri di inclusione: a) Pazienti con diagnosi istologica di H-SIL. b) Tutti i margini dei campioni istologici devono essere liberi da lesioni. Sono state escluse tutte le pazienti con sospetto di patologia neoplastica infiltrante. Ciascuna paziente ha eseguito prima dell'intervento chirurgico: esame colposcopico, esame bioptico, tipizzazione virale (HPV-DNA test) ed endocervicoscopia, al fine di caratterizzare con precisione la topografia della lesione e la sua estensione endocervicale. Le pazienti sono state sottoposte ad trattamento ablativo o escissionale (intervento di LEEP o di Conizzazione a lama fredda) secondo le linee guida internazionali. Il follow up è stato eseguito con controlli periodici consistenti in colposcopia e pap-test a 3-6-12-24 mesi e tipizzazione virale a 6 mesi (ed eventuale ripetizione in caso di positività all'esame colposcopio e/o paptest) dall'intervento per valutare una completa clearance virale post-trattamento. Dai nostri dati si evince che il tasso di recidive di CIN 3 nelle donne con CIN3 HPV 16 correlate pretrattamento è significativamente risultato più elevato rispetto agli altri genotipi HPV ad alto rischio e che quindi queste pazienti necessitano di un follow-up più stretto.

Inhaltsangabe: Introduction and Course of Work: In 2007, at their meeting in Tanzania, the central bank governors of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) laid out a strategy to strengthen regional integration, containing the development of a common market by 2015, fixed exchange rates by 2016, and, ultimately, a monetary union with a single currency in 2018. In pursuit of this agenda, a free trade area absent of intra-regional tariffs was arranged in August 2008 with a regional customs union to follow this year. The currently fourteen member countries of the SADC committed themselves towards achieving economic convergence and to deepen monetary cooperation. In the 21st century, Africa finds itself increasingly separated from economic developments in the remaining world and fails to prosper from increased globalization. Despite a large abundance in natural resources, many countries have suffered from an extremely poor economic performance, which mainly originated from internal strives and weak and distortionary policies. Inward looking governments, conducting clientele policies, are focused on reaping economic rents rather than on fostering growth. Furthermore, tribal conflicts and civil war have sparked recurring border conflicts with neighboring countries. Although Africa has seen a large number of regional arrangements and trading blocs throughout the continent, the overall success for growth and trade expansion was limited. Against this background, the formation of a monetary union is believed to counteract economic and political weaknesses, to improve regional cooperation and to enhance both the political and economic standing in the world. A monetary union and a common currency entails both gains and losses for its members. On the cost side, countries in a monetary union effectively loose the ability to pursue independent monetary policies and to use the exchange rate as adjustment instrument to stabilize the economy. On the other hand, countries inside a monetary union benefit from reduced transaction costs and the elimination of internal exchange rate volatility. Furthermore, countries which suffer from weak internal stability and high inflation rates benefit by using the fixed exchange rate in a monetary union as external anchor. By transferring the power over monetary policy to a supranational central bank, the risk of homegrown inflation and currency devaluations is banished and economic agents are able to borrow at more favorable interest rates. Both the gains and losses from a monetary union are determined by structural characteristics inside the countries. If, in total, the benefits from a single currency exceed the costs in that the constraints imposed by fixed exchange rates are not harmful to the economy, the countries constitute an optimum currency area. In essence, the theory of optimum currency areas considers the desirability for each country to join a monetary union. The trade off between costs and benefits is affected by three features: First, the degree of intra-country trade influences the gains in efficiency and reduced uncertainty from fixing the exchange rate. Second, the degree of correlation in output fluctuations determines whether a common monetary policy is adequate for all countries. And third, the response to output shocks is eased by several adjustment mechanisms, including price flexibility and factor mobility, which restore the initial equilibrium. The purpose of this study is to evaluate whether a monetary union in Southern Africa is both desirable and feasible from an economic point of view, to discuss institutional challenges and requirements, and to give direction for which countries are best candidates to form a monetary union. Both the motivation and requirements for a successful monetary union are drawn from the theory of optimum currency areas. Unfortunately, the various aspects of the theory have been gradually developed over time and are often confounded and fragmentary in theoretical work. The aim is therefore to first derive a framework that includes relevant benefits and costs, which are subsequently related to country-specific structural criteria. Since economic integration is an important aspect for Africa, emphasis will be put on the endogenous trade effects of monetary integration. Similarly, special attention is given to fiscal distortions and weak institutions, which are sources of high inflation rates and low monetary credibility. Next, the theoretical foundations are applied to the SADC to examine the suitability of countries to form a monetary union. Although a number of studies have discussed monetary integration in various parts of Africa (Masson and Pattillo 2001, Debrun, Masson and Pattillo 2005, and Houssa 2008, for instance, cover monetary unification in West Africa while Kishor and Ssozi 2009 analyze the East African Community), relatively little has been done concerning the SADC in particular. Relevant exceptions are Agbeyegbe, Bayoumi and Ostry, Buigut and Valev, Karras and Khamfula and Huizinga. However, while the studies mentioned typically focus on one aspect of the theory of optimum currency areas, there are very few attempts so far to include all relevant aspects in one framework. Overall, the findings suggest that a monetary union encompassing the whole SADC is infeasible at this stage, and unlikely in the foreseeable future. However, there is evidence for a monetary union consisting of a smaller group of countries, based on the long standing CMA arrangement. In addition to South Africa, Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland, countries proposed for a monetary union are Botswana, Mozambique and Zambia. On the other hand, there is little evidence that the remaining countries would benefit from monetary unification in any time soon. Countries in the SADC generally differ much in their economic and political development. While some countries, namely South Africa, feature a relatively advanced economy, other countries like Congo and Zimbabwe experienced economic deterioration and high inflation rates. Especially the findings of low regional trade intensities do not hold much promise of large gains from transaction cost savings. Furthermore, both the comovement of business cycles and the correlation of output disturbances are strikingly low, indicating that a common monetary policy is unsuited for most countries. For a small number of countries with a history of high and volatile inflation rates, a common, stable currency would be however attractive in giving higher price stability and an institutional framework to insulate monetary policy from domestic fiscal pressures. Nevertheless, this path is unrealistic since it will be impossible to merge the interests of undisciplined countries with those of low inflation countries like South Africa. In sum, it is inadvisable to proceed with monetary unification to rashly. A monetary union is far from certain to promote regional integration and should not be seen as substitute for political initiatives to solve regional problems and restraining poor fiscal policies. The analysis is divided into three main sections: Section 2 reviews the theoretical implications from the theory of optimum currency areas. After introducing the benefits and costs from monetary unification, both the traditional and endogenous criteria are described to judge the desirability of a monetary union. Next, two models of monetary policy are presented so as to formalize the concept of monetary cooperation. Section 3 subsequently applies the criteria to the SADC. Special attention is given to the correlation of business cycles and comovement of output shocks. A structural vector autoregression analysis is carried out in order to separate underlying supply and demand shocks from output disturbances. Section 4 evaluates the feasibility of a monetary union in the SADC by drawing lessons from the CMA and EMU. Finally, further challenges in the transition to a monetary union are pointed out. Section 5 summarizes and concludes.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: List of Figuresiii List of Tablesiii List of Abbreviationsiii 1.Introduction1 2.Theoretical Foundations of the Optimum Currency Area Theory5 2.1Benefits and Costs of Monetary Integration7 2.1.1Benefits of Monetary Integration8 2.1.2Costs of Monetary Integration11 2.2Criteria of Optimum Currency Areas12 2.3Endogenous Effects in Monetary Integration17 2.4Policy Implications20 2.5Fiscal Distortions and Monetary Credibility22 2.6Theoretical Conclusions27 3.Theory and Empirical Evidence in the Southern African Development Community28 3.1The Economic Situation and Convergence in Southern Africa29 3.2Empirical Approaches of the Optimum Currency Area Theory and Evidence in Southern Africa38 3.3Correlation and Structure of Output Shocks and Business Cycles46 3.4Results52 4.Evaluating the feasibility of the SADC as a Monetary Union and future Prospects54 4.1The Experience of the Common Monetary Area56 4.2Lessons from the European Monetary Union58 4.3The role of Monetary and Fiscal Policies in Southern Africa60 4.4Challenges and the Path to a Monetary Union62 5.Summary and Conclusion68 AAppendix70 A.1Appendix for Section 2.570 A.2Appendix for Section 3.372Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3, Theory and Empirical Evidence in the Southern African Development Community: To recapitulate: The main criteria which have been identified in the optimum currency area theory are (i) the correlation of output shocks, (ii) the extent of regional trade and production diversification, (iii) financial integration, (iv) price flexibility and factor mobility, and (v), inflation differentials and fiscal distortions. It is generally accepted that the formation of a monetary union requires participants to first achieve convergence in a variety of criteria. In this respect, fiscal and institutional convergence and low debt burdens are of special interest since both are a measure of sustainable economic policy. Furthermore, a similar level of per capita income indicates that countries have comparable institutional developments and interests. A monetary union that fails to satisfy these preconditions tends to be instable and may lack credibility from the very beginning. Over the last years however, a number countries in the SADC have experienced an increasing rate of divergence. The transition process in the SADC towards a monetary union is supported by a number of preceding arrangements. The Southern African Customs Union between South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho and Swaziland has promoted a certain degree of regional trade. Economic integration has been however limited since the main objective of the customs union was to ease the collection of customs duties rather than industrial cooperation. Regional integration within the SADC advanced in 2008 with the Free Trade Area, which established zero tariffs for 85% of traded goods. However, for goods that have been declared as import-sensitive, most notably food and clothing, liberalization has been deferred. The overall impact on regional trade is therefore uncertain. Despite various efforts for trade liberalization in the past, political commitment has been low so far. Financial relations in the SADC are mainly limited to foreign direct investments. Nevertheless, some recent efforts have been made to harmonize national payment systems. Moreover, the SADC has agreed to work towards full currency convertibility. Since microeconomic data for Africa is scarce, the empirical evidence on optimum currency areas is mainly based on the correlation of output shocks and inflation or exchange rate differentials. Of the other criteria, factor mobility and price flexibility are especially hard to measure and estimates rely on very few observations. Not all of the criteria can therefore be analyzed in similar depth or for the same set of countries. Data was obtained from the World Bank World Development Indicators, the United Nations statistics division, the International Monetary Fund and the African Economic Outlook Database. 3.1, The Economic Situation and Convergence in Southern Africa: The SADC is unique among all regional arrangements in Africa due to the dominant role of South Africa. With a share of over 65% in real GDP (USD at 2000 prices) and 18% of the total population, South Africa is by far the largest and most industrialized economy in the region. In comparison, the remaining countries differ remarkably in size, income and economic structure. The Seychelles, the smallest country with little more than 85,000 residents, is the richest country with a real per capita income (in PPP) of over 19,000 USD in 2008 while Congo and Zimbabwe are among the poorest countries in the world with a real per capita income of approximately 290 USD and 185 USD respectively (see table 1). Life expectancy is low for most countries with an average of 53 years (ranging from 44 years in Zimbabwe to 73 years in the Seychelles) which is an indicator for the high poverty rate among the population. Income inequality as measured by the GINI Index varies considerably across contries, where South Africa (58), Angola (58) and Namibia (70) display one of the highest inequalities worldwide. Economic growth was robust for almost all countries since 1990 except in Congo and Zimbabwe and accelerated in Angola, Mauritius, Tanzania and Mozambique in recent years. Average annual GDP growth from 1990-2008 was highest for Angola (6.2%) due to increasing oil export revenues, but also the most volatile with a standard deviation of 10.5. In the four countries of the CMA, the growth performance was driven by the end of Apartheid in South Africa in 1994 and averaged to 3.7% from 1990-2008. The reeintegration of the South African economy in the world market attracted new foreign investors and trade, and more than tripled growth rates in the post-Apartheid period (from 1980-1992 the average was 1.1. On the other hand, Zimbabwe and until recently Congo experienced a drastic fall in income levels. While Congo still suffers from the aftermath of the civil war and political instability, Zimbabwe was run down by the Mugabe regime. Since at the same time these countries also have the lowest per capita income levels, it appears that the economies in the SADC diverge. Figure (4) illustrates the relationship between average per capita growth rates and relative income for 14 SADC members in the period 1990-2008. The results show that most countries with an initially high income level also had the highest average growth rates, which led to a widening of the income gap (striking examples are Botswana and Mauritius). The ambiguous relationship is a sign that positive developments in individual countries were determined by external factors rather than by improved regional cooperation. Production structure and trade: Production and export structures vary to a large extent among the SADC. While South Africa, Lesotho, Zimbabwe and Swaziland have a relatively advanced manufacturing sector, most other countries depend on primary goods production (except for Mauritius which is specialized in financial services). In the rural countries Malawi, Tanzania, Congo, Mozambique and Madagascar, agriculture still accounts for a large, although declining production share. Raw materials (mining and oil) are a main income source for Angola, Botswana, Zambia, Congo and Namibia and contribute to a large part of foreign reserves. Accordingly, those countries usually exhibit surpluses in their trade and current account (see table 1). Similar to production structures, the composition of merchandise trade reported in table (2) differs considerably across countries. A higher income level is generally associated with high export shares in manufacturing and primary products, while low income countries tend to export food products and import manufactures. As a result of different production and trade structures, the ratio of intra-industry trade are ineffectual small for all countries except South Africa, reflecting the low degree of industrialization. Regional trade in the SADC is dominated by South Africa, which exports high value manufactures in return for small amounts of raw material imports. Especially countries inside the SACU maintain important trade connections to South Africa. Commodity imports from South Africa represent on average over 44% of total imports in other SADC countries and account for approximately 80% of total imports in Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia and Botswana (see table 3). On the other hand, export shares from the SADC towards South Africa amounts to only 15% on average with Swaziland (38%), Namibia and Lesotho (both 27%) having the strongest trade linkages. As a result, South Africa typically generates substantial regional trade surpluses. In contrast, trade integration among the remaining SADC countries is at very low levels, also because of a shortage in infrastructure. The only substantial trade flows are between neighboring Namibia and Angola (10% of Namibias exports), Zimbabwe and neighboring Zambia (14% of Zimbabwes exports) and landlocked Swaziland and Mozambique (9% of Swazilands exports). Although informal trade is assumed to account for a large proportion of total trade, most of the regional trade flows are negligible. To promote intra-regional trade, various efforts have been started in recent years. Overall trade has been substantially liberalized in the past and import restrictions reduced so that effective tariff protection rates declined in most countries. Accordingly, the average share of regional merchandise exports in percent to total merchandise exports increased from 8% in 1990 to 19% in 2008, and overall merchandise exports have grown on average by 10% per year since 1990.

2007/2008 ; L'inizio di secolo 21 a rivelato al mondo intero l'inizio di una guerra di piccoli dimensioni. La geopolitica e un gigante formato da una serie di 2 giocatori di scacchi , di cui questi giocatori cercano di ottenere vantaggi di posizione. In questo gioco e cruciale di conoscere le regole attuali che governano questi movimenti. I cavalieri non può muoversi in diagonale. Dal 1945 fino al 1989, il gioco principale sulla scacchiere e stato tra gli Stati Uniti e l'Unione Sovietica, è stato chiamato "La Guerre Fredda". Oggi, il gioco e tra l'Unione Europea e Russia , e metaforicamente è stato chiamato "La Guerre Fredda del Gas". La sicurezza energetica europea confronta una serie di sfide per quanto riguarda la dipendenza dell'Unione Europea delle risorse energetiche russe e della necessità di diversificazione dei mezzi di trasporto su le risorse energetiche, si fa riferimento principalmente a gas naturale. Lo scopo di questa tesi di dottorato e quello di indagare la situazione attuale, a partire da l'idea che ci sono gravi preoccupazioni in Europa per quanto riguarda il fatto che la Russia potrebbe utilizzare le sue esportazioni di energia come arma politica per poter finalizzare la sua supremazia politica . Questa tesi si concentra sull'identificazione di una soluzione per quanto riguarda le maggiori preoccupazioni dei europei - la sicurezza dell'approvvigionamento energetico, iniziando a sviluppare nuovi vie di acceso alle risorse energetiche. Per una migliore comprensione, ho pensato la mia tesi come una scacchiera, avendo come scommessa - il sviluppo di nuovi gasdotti, con due giocatori principali (l'Unione Europea e la Russia), un giocatore chiave - La Regione del Mar Nero - e, naturalmente, con una soluzione. Le principale domande di questa ricerca sono: Nell'Unione Europea allargata può essere vero che la Russia potrebbe tentare di utilizzare le sue esportazioni di energia come un'arma politica per raggiungere la supremazia? Per vincere sarà utilizzato il prezzo dell'energia per ottenere questo vantaggio? Per poter rispondere a queste due domande se deve prima capire le relazioni tra l'Unione Europea e la Russia, e qual è il ruolo che il Mar Nero svolge in questo problema. Questo tipo di ricerca proporre un quadro teorico d'analisi, avendo come metodo di analisi, un metodo quantitativo ( di contenuto ) e un metodo qualitativo ( le discussioni informali con gli esperti di questo settore ). Per poter essere più precisa, per quanto riguarda l'ipotesi della tesi, ho avuto alcune discussioni informale con gli esperti del settore energetico e dei affari europee, in Europa, della zona del Mar Nero e della zona Caspio, paesi che sono direttamente coinvolti nel problema energetico, per discutere e analizzare l'impatto che ha la politica estera energetica russa, che se trova in pieno sviluppo sul Europa e sulla sicurezza europee, a partire dalla crisi del gas provocata dalla Russia, che ha avuto un impatto reale, influenzando considerevole l'economie europee a partire dal 2006 fino ad oggi. Il mio punto di vista è che la Russia cercherà attraverso vari mezzi di consolidare la dominazione come Leader Mondiale, usando i mezzi che gli ha - il prezzo d'energia, e il mio parere e che l'unico modo per risolvere questo problema e di cominciare a diversificare l'accesso alle risorse energetiche, sviluppando una strategia in piano energetico che collegano l'Europa dal bacino del Mar Caspio attraverso la regione del Mar Nero. Se questa strategia avrà successo, l'Europa sarà in grado di ridurre l'influenza della Russia e di creare un clima sicuro dal punto di vista energetico. Per quanto riguarda il metodo di analisi quantitativo, la teoria è basata sulla lettura di alcuni libri di riferimento dal settore energetico e quello di relazioni internazionali, con la partecipazione a conferenze e seminari sia in Romania e all'estero, compreso uno stage di formazione alla Direzione di Energia e Trasporti della Commissione Europea , il monitoraggio delle notizie e degli articoli di stampa di questo settore ( Mediafax ,Journal of European Public Policy , Euractiv , Eurobserver , Eupolitix , CNN , BBC , Euronews ). A partire da una ricca esperienza in questo settore energetico e da una cooperazione transfrontaliera, la mia tesi desidera sottolineare l'importanza di una sicurezza energetica europea in quello che riguarda l'approvvigionamento dell'Europa con l'energie. Nei seguenti capitoli di questa tesi ho studiato alcuni aspetti guardando la dipendenza energetica europea nei confronti della Russia e il ruolo dalla regione del Mar Nero, come un ponte di accesso alle fonti alternative di energia, diverse da quelle russe. Il primo capitolo inizia con due opinioni sulla sicurezza energetica e economica europea,che rivela la vulnerabilità dell'Europa, pero anche il suo potenziale che si divide tra l'Europa e gli stati dell'Eurasia Centrale. La tesi discuterà del ruolo di Gasprom sia nella politica interna e nella estera russa, che rivela una cattiva immagine della diplomazia energetica russe. Seguendo questa rotta, il obiettivo si muove da sud a est. Un capitolo parla del ruolo determinato che lo ha la regione del Mar Nero come un ponte di accesso nella sicurezza energetica europea , seguita da capitoli destinati a rivelare il ruolo specifico della Turchia in questo problema. Nel piano secondario, due progetti specifici di infrastrutture sono studiati - Nabucco e Il Gasdotto South Stream, finendo con una soluzione su un gasdotto Trans-Caspian. La tesi si conclude con l'indicazione di una strategia sulla diversificazione delle vie d'accesso energetiche. In questo momento, possiamo dire che lo scopo di questa ricerca è stato quello di definire una possibile soluzione per poter uscire da sotto la dominazione russa, quella di sviluppare una strategia comune al livello europeo sulla diversificazione del accesso alle risorse energetiche dalla regione Caspio al Mar Nero in Europa. In questo senso, la strategia energetica europea si prevede di continuare a raggiungere di tali obiettivi promuovendo nuove rotte di trasporto sicuro e al sviluppo economico territoriale, trasformando l'Europa più sicura nel accesso alle risorse energetiche. L'Unione Europea detiene in questo momento tutti gli strumenti di una politica estera per promuovere la stabilità politica e la riforma economica, per il sviluppo e il rafforzamento della democrazia e delle legislazioni nazionali, e aumentare i diritti e le libertà umane nei paesi della regione del Mar Caspio. Il più importante, le relazioni europeo - Mar Caspio , dovrebbero essere estese per quanto riguarda le dimensioni bilaterale e regionale dal punto di visto economico e commerciale e al livello diplomatico. L'ultimi eventi che sono stati sulla scacchiera energetica fornisce una vera e propria importanza alla regione del Mar Caspio per esercitare una notevole importanza come uno centrale geo-strategico, e all'Unione Europea per poter esercitare il ruolo del Leader Mondiale nella regione . Comunque per rendere reale ( per effettuare ) questo compito difficile, l'Europa deve rispettare alcuni consigli per poter formulare una strategia energetica comune nella zona del Mar Caspio , come :  di eliminare gradualmente la dominazione Gasprom da Azerbaijan .  di offrire supporto economico e politico allo scopo di costruire il progetto Nabucco e di costringere alla costruzione di un gasdotto Trans-Capian , intervenire sul mercato per assicurare la diversità e di impedire il monopolio della fornitura delle risorse energetiche verso l'est d'Europa .  di garantire la stabilità e la sicurezza nei paesi di transito e di risolvere il conflitto di Nagorno Karahbak , e imporre dei impegni più grandi sul processo di Minsk  di pensare seriamente come negoziare con Turkmenistan, mettendo nella bilancia l'apertura energetica con una generosa offerta, pero senza un coinvolgimento troppo grande sulle riforme politiche e economiche. Questo farà una chiamata alla diplomazia e tatto, e alla superiorità tecnologica e tecnica del ovest di poter pagare. Come una conclusione finale, l'Ovest , incluso l'Unione Europea e gli Stati Uniti, deve ripensare il più rapido possibile le sue politiche energetiche e non-energetiche nei confronti di Russia . Cosi come possiamo osservare in questa tesi , l'Ovest detiene veramente il vantaggio economico e politico di poter costringere la Russia per diventare più trasparente e commerciale nei confronti delle sue politiche energetiche estere . Non può più permettere a Mosca di minacciare la sicurezza energetica d'Europa , avendo la possibilità insieme al entrata dalla Romania e Bulgaria nell'Unione Europea in gennaio 2007 di sviluppare nuove rotte sul accesso alle risorse di gas dalla zona Caspio attraverso il Mar Nero in Europa. ; The beginning of 21st century revealed to the world the beginning of a small war proportion. Geopolitics is a gigantic series of two player chess games, in which the players seek positional advantage. In these games it is crucial to know the current rules that govern the moves. Knights are not allowed to move diagonally. From 1945 to 1989, the principal chess game was the one between the United States and the Soviet Union and it was called the "Cold War". Nowadays, the chess game is between European Union and Russia and it is called metaphorically the "Gas Cold War". European energy security is facing a set of serious challenges connected to Europe's dependence on Russian energy and the need for diversifying energy supply sources. Now days, European Union and Russia arrived at a crossroad regarding their agreements on energy matters. The target of this PhD is to explore the current situation, leaving from the fact that are serious concerns in Europe that Russia may try to use its energy exports as a political lever in order to settle its supremacy on the political board. This thesis focuses on finding a solution towards the European's major concern – energy security of supply, by start building new routes of gas supply. For a better understanding, I structured my paper like a chase board, with a stake – new routes of gas supply, with two major players – European Union and Russia, one key actor – The Black Sea Region and of course with a solution. The main research questions of this thesis are: In the enlarged European Union it could be true that Russia may try to use its energy exports as a political lever in order to settle its supremacy? And, in order to be successful it will use the energy price to obtain the leverage? To answer these questions a first step is to understand the relations between EU and Russia and the role that, the Black sea region plays in this meter. The research proposes a theoretical framework, using a quantitative analyze method (analysis of content) and a qualitative analyze method (informal discussions with experts from this area). In order to be more precisely with my thesis assumption, I carry out some informal discussions with experts from energy and international affairs area, from Europe, Black sea and the Caspian region, countries who were involved in the energy case, to discuss and to analyze the impact of Russia's increasingly assertive foreign energy policy on Europe and European security, started from the gas crises launched by Russia that have a real affect on Europe economy from 2006 till nowadays. My point of view is that Russia will try through different ways to consolidate its dominance as a Global leader, using its most convenient means – the "energy price" and my believes were that the only way to solve the problem is by start building a diversification supply strategy that could link Europe to the Caspian basin through the Black sea region. If this strategy will succeed, Europe will be able to reduce the Russian influence and to create a safer life climate. Regarding the quantitative analyze method, the theoretical framework was foundated by reading some record books in the international relations and energy field, by participating to conference and seminars in Romania and outside the country, including a stage at the European Commission on energy matters, monitoring the news and the press articles in this field (Mediafax, Journal of European Public Policy, Euractiv, Eurobserver, Eupolitix, CNN, BBC, Euronews). Starting from the successful work experience in the energy field and cross-border cooperation, my thesis aims to deepen the understanding of the European Union energy security of supply. In the fallowing chapters of my thesis, I studied several aspects of Europe's energy dependence on Russia, and the role of the Black Sea region as a source of alternative supplies. The first chapter begins with two overviews of Europe's economic and energy security, which show Europe's vulnerability, but also the potential lying in the complementarities between Europe and the states of Central Eurasia. The paper then proceeds to discuss the role of Gazprom in both Russian domestic and foreign policy, respectively, which provide a disturbing picture of the emerging Russian energy diplomacy. Following this, the focus shifts south and east. A chapter puts forward the role of the emerging Black Sea region as a hub in European energy security, followed by chapters devoted to the specific role of Turkey. Subsequently, two specifically important infrastructural projects are studied – the Nabucco and the South stream pipelines, ending with a pipeline solution as a Trans-Caspian pipeline. The paper final concludes with the outlining of a supply diversification strategy. At this point we can say that the aim of this paper-study was to define what might be a solution to get out under the Russian dominance and to offer as a possible solution the developing of a common European energy supply strategy from the Caspian region thorough the Black Sea into the European Union. In this sense, the EU energy supply strategy is expecting to contribute to achieving these objectives by promoting new safe routes of supply and a balanced and sustainable development of the territory, making European Union safer concerning its energy supplies. The EU holds all the foreign policy instruments required to promote political stability and economic reform, develop and straighten democracy and the rule of law, and enhance the respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the countries of the Caspian region. Most importantly, the EU-Caspian relations need to be further expanding in the bilateral and regional dimensions of economy and trade, as well as at diplomatic level. The last events that occurred in the energy chess board had give a real chance to the Caspian region to exert its importance as a significant geo-strategic pivot, as well as to the EU to play a global role in the region. However, making this a reality is fraught with difficulty and Europe must respect some recommendations in order to formulate a common energy strategy in the Caspian area, such as:  move swiftly to thwart Gazprom's overtures to Azerbaijan.  give the political and economic backing to get Nabucco built and push for the creation of the trans-Caspian, intervening in the market to ensure diversity and prevent a monopoly of supply to Eastern Europe.  ensure stability of transit countries, push to resolve Nagorno Karahbak, greater commitment to the Minsk process.  think seriously about how to deal with Turkmenistan, balancing energy overtures with generous but not overbearing support for political and economic reforms. This will require concerted diplomacy and reassertion of western technological and technical superiority and ability to pay. As a final conclusion, the West, including the EU and the United States, needs to quickly rethink its energy and non-energy policies towards Russia. As we can see in this paper, the West does have the economic and political leverage to force Russia to become more transparent and commercial in its foreign energy policies. It cannot allow Moscow to threaten the energy security of Europe anymore, having the possibility since the accession of Romania and Bulgaria to the EU in January 2007 to develop new routes of gas supply from the Caspian area through the Black sea into Europe ; XX Ciclo

La ricerca si propone di definire le linee guida per la stesura di un Piano che si occupi di qualità della vita e di benessere. Il richiamo alla qualità e al benessere è positivamente innovativo, in quanto impone agli organi decisionali di sintonizzarsi con la soggettività attiva dei cittadini e, contemporaneamente, rende evidente la necessità di un approccio più ampio e trasversale al tema della città e di una più stretta relazione dei tecnici/esperti con i responsabili degli organismi politicoamministrativi. La ricerca vuole indagare i limiti dell'urbanistica moderna di fronte alla complessità di bisogni e di nuove necessità espresse dalle popolazioni urbane contemporanee. La domanda dei servizi è notevolmente cambiata rispetto a quella degli anni Sessanta, oltre che sul piano quantitativo anche e soprattutto sul piano qualitativo, a causa degli intervenuti cambiamenti sociali che hanno trasformato la città moderna non solo dal punto di vista strutturale ma anche dal punto di vista culturale: l'intermittenza della cittadinanza, per cui le città sono sempre più vissute e godute da cittadini del mondo (turisti e/o visitatori, temporaneamente presenti) e da cittadini diffusi (suburbani, provinciali, metropolitani); la radicale trasformazione della struttura familiare, per cui la famiglia-tipo costituita da una coppia con figli, solido riferimento per l'economia e la politica, è oggi minoritaria; l'irregolarità e flessibilità dei calendari, delle agende e dei ritmi di vita della popolazione attiva; la mobilità sociale, per cui gli individui hanno traiettorie di vita e pratiche quotidiane meno determinate dalle loro origini sociali di quanto avveniva nel passato; l'elevazione del livello di istruzione e quindi l'incremento della domanda di cultura; la crescita della popolazione anziana e la forte individualizzazione sociale hanno generato una domanda di città espressa dalla gente estremamente variegata ed eterogenea, frammentata e volatile, e per alcuni aspetti assolutamente nuova. Accanto a vecchie e consolidate richieste – la città efficiente, funzionale, produttiva, accessibile a tutti – sorgono nuove domande, ideali e bisogni che hanno come oggetto la bellezza, la varietà, la fruibilità, la sicurezza, la capacità di stupire e divertire, la sostenibilità, la ricerca di nuove identità, domande che esprimono il desiderio di vivere e di godere la città, di stare bene in città, domande che non possono essere più soddisfatte attraverso un'idea di welfare semplicemente basata sull'istruzione, la sanità, il sistema pensionistico e l'assistenza sociale. La città moderna ovvero l'idea moderna della città, organizzata solo sui concetti di ordine, regolarità, pulizia, uguaglianza e buon governo, è stata consegnata alla storia passata trasformandosi ora in qualcosa di assai diverso che facciamo fatica a rappresentare, a descrivere, a raccontare. La città contemporanea può essere rappresentata in molteplici modi, sia dal punto di vista urbanistico che dal punto di vista sociale: nella letteratura recente è evidente la difficoltà di definire e di racchiudere entro limiti certi l'oggetto "città" e la mancanza di un convincimento forte nell'interpretazione delle trasformazioni politiche, economiche e sociali che hanno investito la società e il mondo nel secolo scorso. La città contemporanea, al di là degli ambiti amministrativi, delle espansioni territoriali e degli assetti urbanistici, delle infrastrutture, della tecnologia, del funzionalismo e dei mercati globali, è anche luogo delle relazioni umane, rappresentazione dei rapporti tra gli individui e dello spazio urbano in cui queste relazioni si muovono. La città è sia concentrazione fisica di persone e di edifici, ma anche varietà di usi e di gruppi, densità di rapporti sociali; è il luogo in cui avvengono i processi di coesione o di esclusione sociale, luogo delle norme culturali che regolano i comportamenti, dell'identità che si esprime materialmente e simbolicamente nello spazio pubblico della vita cittadina. Per studiare la città contemporanea è necessario utilizzare un approccio nuovo, fatto di contaminazioni e saperi trasversali forniti da altre discipline, come la sociologia e le scienze umane, che pure contribuiscono a costruire l'immagine comunemente percepita della città e del territorio, del paesaggio e dell'ambiente. La rappresentazione del sociale urbano varia in base all'idea di cosa è, in un dato momento storico e in un dato contesto, una situazione di benessere delle persone. L'urbanistica moderna mirava al massimo benessere del singolo e della collettività e a modellarsi sulle "effettive necessità delle persone": nei vecchi manuali di urbanistica compare come appendice al piano regolatore il "Piano dei servizi", che comprende i servizi distribuiti sul territorio circostante, una sorta di "piano regolatore sociale", per evitare quartieri separati per fasce di popolazione o per classi. Nella città contemporanea la globalizzazione, le nuove forme di marginalizzazione e di esclusione, l'avvento della cosiddetta "new economy", la ridefinizione della base produttiva e del mercato del lavoro urbani sono espressione di una complessità sociale che può essere definita sulla base delle transazioni e gli scambi simbolici piuttosto che sui processi di industrializzazione e di modernizzazione verso cui era orientata la città storica, definita moderna. Tutto ciò costituisce quel complesso di questioni che attualmente viene definito "nuovo welfare", in contrapposizione a quello essenzialmente basato sull'istruzione, sulla sanità, sul sistema pensionistico e sull'assistenza sociale. La ricerca ha quindi analizzato gli strumenti tradizionali della pianificazione e programmazione territoriale, nella loro dimensione operativa e istituzionale: la destinazione principale di tali strumenti consiste nella classificazione e nella sistemazione dei servizi e dei contenitori urbanistici. E' chiaro, tuttavia, che per poter rispondere alla molteplice complessità di domande, bisogni e desideri espressi dalla società contemporanea le dotazioni effettive per "fare città" devono necessariamente superare i concetti di "standard" e di "zonizzazione", che risultano essere troppo rigidi e quindi incapaci di adattarsi all'evoluzione di una domanda crescente di qualità e di servizi e allo stesso tempo inadeguati nella gestione del rapporto tra lo spazio domestico e lo spazio collettivo. In questo senso è rilevante il rapporto tra le tipologie abitative e la morfologia urbana e quindi anche l'ambiente intorno alla casa, che stabilisce il rapporto "dalla casa alla città", perché è in questa dualità che si definisce il rapporto tra spazi privati e spazi pubblici e si contestualizzano i temi della strada, dei negozi, dei luoghi di incontro, degli accessi. Dopo la convergenza dalla scala urbana alla scala edilizia si passa quindi dalla scala edilizia a quella urbana, dal momento che il criterio del benessere attraversa le diverse scale dello spazio abitabile. Non solo, nei sistemi territoriali in cui si è raggiunto un benessere diffuso ed un alto livello di sviluppo economico è emersa la consapevolezza che il concetto stesso di benessere sia non più legato esclusivamente alla capacità di reddito collettiva e/o individuale: oggi la qualità della vita si misura in termini di qualità ambientale e sociale. Ecco dunque la necessità di uno strumento di conoscenza della città contemporanea, da allegare al Piano, in cui vengano definiti i criteri da osservare nella progettazione dello spazio urbano al fine di determinare la qualità e il benessere dell'ambiente costruito, inteso come benessere generalizzato, nel suo significato di "qualità dello star bene". E' evidente che per raggiungere tale livello di qualità e benessere è necessario provvedere al soddisfacimento da una parte degli aspetti macroscopici del funzionamento sociale e del tenore di vita attraverso gli indicatori di reddito, occupazione, povertà, criminalità, abitazione, istruzione, etc.; dall'altra dei bisogni primari, elementari e di base, e di quelli secondari, culturali e quindi mutevoli, trapassando dal welfare state allo star bene o well being personale, alla wellness in senso olistico, tutte espressioni di un desiderio di bellezza mentale e fisica e di un nuovo rapporto del corpo con l'ambiente, quindi manifestazione concreta di un'esigenza di ben-essere individuale e collettivo. Ed è questa esigenza, nuova e difficile, che crea la diffusa sensazione dell'inizio di una nuova stagione urbana, molto più di quanto facciano pensare le stesse modifiche fisiche della città. ; The research aims to define guidelines for the preparation of a plan that deals with quality of life and well-being. The reference to the quality and well-being is positively innovative, because imposes to organs of the government to relate with the subjectivity of active citizens and, at the same time, makes clear the need for a broader and transversal approach to the city and a more close relationship of technicians/experts with the leaders of political and administrative bodies. The research investigates the limits of modern town-planning theory in front of the complexity of new needs expressed by contemporary urban populations. The demand for services has changed significantly compared to that one of the Sixties, not only on the quantity but also and especially in terms of quality, because of the social changes that have transformed the modern city, from the point of view of the structure and the cultural request: the intermittent citizenship, so cities are increasingly experienced and enjoyed by citizens of the world (tourists and/or visitors, temporarily present) and popular citizens (suburban, provincial, metropolitan); radical transformation of the family structure, so the family-type consisting of a couple with children, solid benchmark for the economy and politics, is now minority; the irregularity and flexibility of calendars, diaries and rhythms of life of the population active, and social mobility, so individuals have trajectories of life and daily practices less determined by their social origins of what happened in the past; the elevation of the level of education and thus the increase in demand for culture; the growth of elderly population and the strong social individualism have generated a demand for the city expressed by the people extremely varied and diverse, fragmented and volatile, and in some aspects quite new. Close to old and consolidated requests - the city efficient, functional, productive, accessible to all - there are new questions, ideals and needs such as beauty, variety, usability, security, the ability to amaze and entertain, sustainability, the search for new identities, questions that express a desire to live and enjoy the city, to fell good into the city, questions that can no longer be satisfied through a welfare simply based on education, health, pension system and social security. The modern city or the modern idea of the city, based only on the concepts of order, regularity, cleaning, equality and good governance was handed over to the past history turning into something very different hard to represent, describe, tell. The contemporary city can be represented in many different ways, both on town-planning way and social way: in the recent literature there is the obvious difficulty of defining and enclose within certain limits the subject "city" and the lack of a strong belief in the interpretation of political, economic and social transformations that have invested society and the world in the last century. The contemporary city, beyond the administrative areas, territorial expansion and urban structures, infrastructure, technology, functionalism and global markets, is also a place of human relations, representation of the relationship between individuals and urban spaces where these relationship move. The city is both physical concentration of people and buildings, but also variety of uses and groups, it's the place of dense social relations where processes of cohesion or social exclusion occur, a place of cultural norms that govern behaviour and identity, expressed physically and symbolically through public spaces of city life. It's necessary a new approach to study the contemporary city, made up of cross-contamination and knowledge provided by other disciplines such as sociology and human sciences, which help to build the image commonly known of the city and the territory, landscape and environment. The representation of the urban social life varies according to what it is considered, in a specific historic moment and in a given context, a situation of well-being. The modern town-planning aimed at maximum level of well-being for individuals and communities, modelling on "real needs of people": in the old urban systems manuals appears a "Plan of services" as an appendix to the master plan, which includes services distributed on the surrounding areas, a sort of "social master plan" to avoid neighborhoods separated by segments of population or classes. In the contemporary city globalization, new forms of marginalization and exclusion, the advent of the so-called "new economy", the re-definition of the production base and the labour market are urban expression of a social complexity that can be defined trough transactions and symbolic exchanges, rather than trough processes of industrialization and modernization towards which the historic city, adopted modern, was oriented. All of this questions are the expression of that complex of matters which are currently described as "the new welfare", opposed to the one essentially based on education, on health, on the pension system and on social assistances. The research has therefore examined the traditional tools of town-planning and territorial programming in their operational and institutional dimension: the main destination of these instruments is the classification and accommodation of services and urban containers. It's evident, however, that in order to answer to the many questions of complexity, needs and desires expressed by contemporary society the actual allocations to "make city" must necessarily overcome the concepts of "standards" and "zoning" that are too rigid and unable to adapt to a growing demand for quality and services and at the same time inadequate to manage the relationship between collective space and domestic space. In this sense it is important to consider the relationship between housing types and urban morphology and hence the environment around the house, which establishes the relationship "from the house to the city" because it is in this duality that it is possible to define the relationship between private domestic spaces and public spaces and contextualize questions of roads, shops, meeting places, accesses. After the convergence from the wide urban scale construction to the architectural scale, the attention moves from the architectural scale to the scale of urban constructions, since the criterion of well-being goes through the different scales of habitable space. Moreover, in territorial systems with a widespread well-being and a high level of economic development there's an emerging awareness that the very concept of well-being is no longer linked only to the ability of collective and/or individual income: today the quality of life is measured in terms of environmental quality and social inclusion. Thus the need of an instrument of knowledge of the contemporary city to be attached to the Plan, containing criteria to be observed in the design of urban spaces in order to determine the quality and well-being, in the meaning of "quality of feeling good", of urban environment. Obviously, to reach quality and well-being it is necessary to satisfy macroscopic aspects of social functioning and living standards, through the indicators of income, employment, poverty, crime, housing, education, etc., and also first needs, basic and elementary, and secondary, cultural and changing, moving through the welfare state to a general feeling of well-being, to wellness in a holistic sense, all expressions of a desire for mental and physical beauty and a new relationship of the body with the environment, then real expression of a need for an individual and collective wellbeing. And it is this need, new and difficult, which creates the widespread feeling of a starting new urban season, much more than physical changes of the city could represent.

Millainen on Euroopan unionin kansainvälinen asema? Onko Euroopan unionilla uskottavaa ulkopolitiikkaa? Vaikka Euroopan unioni on yksi maailman merkittävimmistä toimijoista kaupan ja kansainvälisen vaihdon alalla sekä maailman suurin avunantaja, vaikuttaa siltä, että poliittisesti sillä ei ole vaikutusvaltaa. Väitöskirjassani tutkin, onko talouden jättiläinen todellakin poliittinen kääpiö. Tutkimuskirjallisuutta analysoimalla olen etsinyt niitä EU:n piirteitä, joiden on nähty estävän unionia toimimasta todellisena kansainvälisenä toimijana; samalla olen pyrkinyt selittämään, millainen kokonaisuus EU on verrattuna tavanomaiseen ulkopoliittiseen toimijaan, valtioon, ja miten EU sopii kansainväliseen ympäristöön. Lopuksi tutkin EU:n politiikkaa laajentumisprosessissa, jossa jäseniksi otettiin Keski- ja Itä-Euroopan valtioita. EU:n ulkopolittisen toimijuuden esteinä on usein nähty puuttuva tai vaillinainen sotilaallinen aspekti ja heikko päätöksentekojärjestelmä. Kun ulkopolitiikka perinteisesti ymmärretään sotilaalliseksi toiminnaksi kriisitilanteissa, EU:n on nähty olevan kyvytön sekä määrittelemään intressinsä ja tekemään päätöksiä että toimimaan sotilaallisesti tilanteen ratkaisemiseksi. Miksi kansallisen identiteetin ja intressin puuttuminen sekä sotilaallisten toimintamahdollisuuksien vajavuus ovat niin merkittäviä ongelmia globalisoituvassa maailmassa, jossa taloudellisen vallan uskotaan olevan poliittista tärkeämpää? Kun valtiot yhä enenevässä määrin määrittelevät turvallisuusuhkansa toisin kuin sotilaallisin termein, miksi kyky sotilaalliseen toimintaan on yhä olennaista? Valtio on ollut kansainvälisen politiikan hallitseva toimija niin kauan, että meidän on vaikea tunnustaa, että tämän hetken kansainvälisessä politiikassa toimija tarvitsee erilaisia piirteitä kuin ne valtion tunnusomaiset piirteet ja kapasiteetit, joiden avulla se saattoi vahvistaa asemansa ensisijaisena toimijana. Tämän hetken kansainvälisessä järjestelmässä EU:n monenkeskisyyteen ja neuvotteluihin perustuva päätöksentekojärjestelmä saattaa osoittautua pikemminkin vahvuudeksi kuin heikoudeksi. Parhaassa tapauksessa EU pystyy hyväksikäyttämään globalisaation aiheuttamia muutoksia valtion suvereenisuuteen ja tehtäviin, ja rakentamaan tehokkaamman hallitsemisen järjestelmän. EU:n asema ei-valtiollisena toimijana mahdollistaa erilaisten toimijuuden tapojen käyttämisen, minkä seurauksena EU saattaa olla valtiota paremmin varustettu ratkaisemaan uusia turvallisuusuhkia vaikka unionin tavat vaikuttaa ovat näkymättömämpiä kuin sotilaallinen hyökkäys, ne eivät ole vailla vaikutusta. EU ei ole vähemmän kuin valtio, vaan enemmän. Sen kehitys vastaa kansainvälisen järjestelmän kehitystä ja vie sitä osaltaan poispäin valtiokeskeisyydestä. EU:n merkittävin ongelma ei ole sotilaallisen aspektin vajavaisuus, vaan se, miten rakentaa uskottava identiteetti ja saada kansalaisten kannatus Eurooppalaiselle hallinnolle. Tutkimus osoittaa, että vahvistaakseen kansainvälistä asemaansa EU:n ei tarvitse kehittää itseään federalistisempaan suuntaan, vaan käyttää hyväkseen globalisoituvan järjestelmän tarjoamia uusia mahdollisuuksia. ; Dwarf, adolescent or superpower? The European Union on the international field It seems to be a part of common knowledge that the European Union is an economic giant but a political dwarf. Although none can claim that the EU does not possess significant resources, for some reason these resources do not seem to help the EU to have much influence in foreign policy matters. Despite its large network of diplomatic relations, and its position as one of the most significant aid donors and trading partners in the world, many suggest that it has not succeeded in its attempts to develop its economic influence also into a political one. In my study I wish to examine if the EU is such an unfit actor on the international field. I will analyze how the international system (of states) defines the properties of actors, and how the definition is changing. There are two basic questions in this work: First, what position does the international system offer to the EU? Secondly, how does the EU utilize the position given to it? To find answers, I will examine a state as an actor, the international system of states, and the properties and actions of the EU. The EU in the system of states Since the international system is a system of states, the position of a state as a primary actor seems to be universal and eternal. In this thesis it is claimed that the EU is a new kind of a polity challenging the position of a Westphalian state. If the EU succeeds in this, it will have consequences for the whole international system. Yet, to be able to act in the system, the EU must not only challenge the position of a state, but also adapt to the requirements of the actorness; the EU must resemble a state in some respects to get recognized as an actor. There still is an on going test of statehood, and as long as the EU does not pass it, it is hard to consider it as an actor in its own right. The position of a state is connected to the development of the international system overall. The effects of globalization, modernization and democratization are creating new kinds of environments and cultures with new possibilities and threats. Increased interdependence between national economies and production added to the fact that all types of exchange are becoming ever more global restrict the ability of a state to act as fully sovereign . Globalisation includes many processes that affect the position of a state. The meaning of properties like sovereignty and military resources is changing, as well as a state s position on the international field. Change does not happen only inside a state and in its position, however, but also international structures change, affecting the way actors behave with each other. I claim that although the state is losing its position, it is still the dominant actor in international politics, and other polities hoping to get a position of an actor must be comparable with it: after all, structures do not change so quickly, and actors are constituted by them. The changing international context opens up the possibility to increase the importance of the EU. Sovereignty and military resources that once determined the state s position as a dominant actor have partly lost their meaning; not having them should not prevent the EU from being an actor. Furthermore, the EU might have properties that make it better capable to manage in the globalizing and fragmenting world. A foreign policy actor Rather than an international organization, the EU is a new type of political system, made up of national and European institutions that are constituted in relation to each other . The national institutions of member states and the EU institutions are so closely interwoven that they cannot be conceived as separate political systems. On the other hand, the EU is not a state, and we have many reasons to assume that it will not be one (unless the definition of a state changes). While it has some capabilities states traditionally own, it lacks others. This appears to make it an actor in some issue-areas, but not in all of them. Foreign policy has traditionally been connected to a state, it is concerned with the relation of a state to other states in the international system; it is connected to the idea of national aims and interests, and involves mobilizing national resources. Although foreign policy in its most visible form is high politics concerning high diplomacy and war, in practice most of the time it is low politics including low-level diplomatic practices between ministries and also economic policy as a means of reaching foreign policy aims. Foreign policy does not entail military force; as Karen Smith puts it, the recourse to military instruments can indicate a failure of foreign policy . In this work I will suggest that the reason why foreign policy is connected solely to states is not that making foreign policy is possible only for nation states and governments; rather it has to do with states position as primary actors in the international system. When certain conditions are metconcerning among others, a decision-making system non-state actors are also able to conduct foreign policy. There is no single EU foreign policy, but on some occasions member states agree on common interests and objectives, and mobilize national and collective resources to fulfill them: they conduct common foreign policy . For the EU, foreign policy means that its member states and institutions, to use Smith s words, have expressed a unified position in response to external events and/or formulated a plan of action directed towards the fulfillment of specified political/security objectives, and have agreed to use Community/CFSP instruments and/or instruments under national competence in a coordinated way to implement it . Even though the common foreign policy is important for the EU s ability to act as an actor, it must be put into the larger context of external relations, otherwise we fail to see the EU s importance on the international field. The division between political and economic matters has always been vague, but it is even more so at the time of globalization. It seems that those foreign policies connecting intergovernmental and community issue-areas, like the enlargement policy, have been among the most successful policies. The enlargement policy can be considered foreign and security policy because of its political and security-related aims, although the EU has applied the practices of the CFSP ­ common position and joint action ­ only a couple of times during many years of the enlargement policy. Although the EU may appear as a weak actor in high policy areas, it is an effective negotiator of low policy matters, including trade and aid, that belong to the Community issue-area . The EU does not act like a traditional foreign policy player. But what usually is seen as its weakness, may turn out to be a strength. In the contemporary international system it may be a benefit that an actor is able to take different forms in different situations, as the EU is forced to do due to its nature of lying between an international organization and a state. A civilian power There are certain requirements for an actor presented in the literature of IR, and usually these requirements do not include statehood or military resources. However, the polity´s own properties do not determinate totally the entity s position on the international field. Entry to the system is dependent on whether or not the other actors give recognition. It is claimed in this work that usually only states are recognized as actors, but even though the EU is not a state, it has at least partial recognition in practice, since it is accepted as a partner in negotiations, diplomatic relations, trade and aid. But the EU seems to suffer from a lack of credibility, or prestige that prevents it from having much of an influence especially in international crises, like in the Palestinian question. Still, by recognizing the EU as an actor in its own right ­ even partially states decrease the significance of sovereignty, and weaken their own position as primary actors. Hence, the EU may change the structure of the international system, and make room for other polities too; or, it may become a state. One possible direction of developing the EU is to strengthen its image as a civilian power. According to Hans W. Maull, a civilian power accepts the necessity of cooperation with other actors when pursuing international objectives; utilizes non-military, primarily economic means to secure its goals; and is willing to develop supranational structures to address critical issues of international management. In this thesis the term civilian power refers to an actor who trusts in cooperation, respects and enforces international values and norms as defined by international institutions and treaties, and acts through diplomacy, economic means and international institutions. Manners suggests, on the other hand, that the EU may be more important normatively than in an empirical way, since it sets normative world standards. He continues that due to its power over opinion , idée force , or ideological power , the EU would best be conceived as a normative power Europe. The EU s normative power is a significant dimension of this thesis, but I will also examine other ways of using power including the Union s foreign policy instruments. I agree with Manners that the EU s ability to shape conceptions of normality in international relations is what makes it a normative power , but I suggest that it is a part of its special nature as a civilian power ­ although also military powers may use and have used normative power. The EU clearly attempts to gain legitimacy through expansion of democratic and human rights norms, but this is not the whole picture of the EU. It is difficult to evaluate in which direction the EU will develop; even more difficult is to describe the outcome of European integration. More than a state I will propose that the EU lacks some of the properties of a state ­ although I do not see that the difference is so remarkable in the end ­ but that it does not make the EU an unfit actor in the international system; quite the contrary, the European integration includes elements that may make the EU better suitable to the international system than the traditional sovereign state. Hence, it will be suggested that instead of being less than a state the EU is actually more than a state. Within changing structure of the international system, resources and properties of states ­ sovereignty, structure of hierarchy and military resources, among others ­ will not be so significant that they guarantee the state s dominant position; quite the contrary, the strong actor have to be able to handle with global capitalism, regionalism, interdependence, and security threats raising from various sources. When the system has been increasingly perceived as interdependent, and states ability to govern has been deemed to be in question, an entity like the EU seems to be well placed to act on behalf of its members as a manager of the interdependence. Through European integration we also may find new answers to some of the problems caused by the nature of the international system itself. In this connection I will especially consider democracy and security issues, although there exists other similar issues too, for example minorities and refugees. The EU might be ­ or it might become - the first truly post-modern polity, and it is impossible to explain its significance by concentrating only on its CFSP. The change of the international system is important in giving room for an actor like the EU, but structures do not totally create actorness; the development and action of the EU reflects the dynamic relationship between structures and agency. The EU is born from the combination of external demand and opportunities, and political will and imagination of its founders. Hence, the importance of the EU cannot be evaluated by studying either its internal capacities or external opportunities; they both together create the EU s capacity to act and have an influence on the international field. Yet, internal factors associated with legitimacy and efficacy of policy processes influence the perceptions other actors have of the EU, and create expectations of the EU s ability to act. Additionally, states must create new ways of acting in the changing international system, this suggests that our picture of an actor and its ways of having an influence and making policy may be at least partially out-dated. I wish to suggest that by studying the EU within an approach that takes both structures and internal capabilities into consideration we might get new ideas about actorness overall.