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THE IMPLEMENTATION OF QUESTION AND ANSWER TECHNIQUE TO TEACH THE TENTH GRADE STUDENTS IN WRITING RECOUNT TEXT IN MA MA'ARIF NU DRIYOREJO GRESIK Firasari Fajarwati English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya firsa.soetikno@yahoo.com Drs. H. Aswandi M.pd English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya Abstract As a productive skill, writing has an important role to help the students to be able to communicate especially in indirect communication. The teacher must be creative in teaching of writing. Question and answer technique is suggested to be used as a technique in teaching writing. The teacher used recount text. In this study, the research questions consist of two questions; they are (1) how is the implementation of question and answer technique to teach the tenth grade students' writing skill of recount text in MA Ma'arif Gresik? (2) how is the students' responses after the implementation of question and answer technique? A teacher can use questions whether it is oral or written questions. It is to stimulate thinking and light the way to productive learning and retention of content material (Vacca, 1981: 159). Questions encourage students to think. Thinking can arise the students' interest and questions can also be used to evaluate. As the result of this function, it is believed that questions can direct someone's choice of ideas and activities, and can transform the often different topics from a scattered survey of the subject, problem, or theme into logical, coordinated for attaining knowledge. Based on the reason above, the researcher conducts this research about the implementation of question and answer technique to develop the tenth grade students' writing ability to write recount text in MA Ma'arif NU Driyorejo, Gresik, especially in X-1 class. The research design of this study is descriptive qualitative. The purpose of research design is to describe the activities of the teacher and the students in teaching and learning process during the implementation of question and answer technique in writing class. To collect the data, the researcher observes the implementation of question and answer technique in teaching and learning process. Then, she got the result of students' writing in every meeting. And the last, she collect the students' responses from questionnaire. After that, she analyzes all data in every meeting based on phenomenon that happen in teaching and learning process. The result of data analyzed, it can be seen that the students of X-1 had done the assignments well in every meeting. In each meeting, the students improve their writing ability. Applying question and answer technique in writing class can make the students improve their writing, especially in writing recount text. It can be seen from the students' responses the questionnaire. Almost all students said that they can improve their ability and it can motivate them to learn a foreign language, especially in writing class. It can be concluded that question and answer technique can be recommended as one of an alternative techniques in teaching writing. Because it can help the students develop their writing ability and can reduce boring situation in teaching and learning process. Keywords: Writing, Question and Answer Technique, Recount Text, Tenth Grade INTRODUCTION One way of learning foreign language is through writing. Not many centuries ago, writing was a skill in educational or religious institutions. Nowadays, written language has many functions in everyday life. They are particularly for action, information and entertainment. Sokolik (2003: 88) in Practical English Language Teaching states that writing is both physical and mental act. Nunan (2003: 88) writes out the definition of writing as a series of contrast: It is both physical and mental act. Physical act deals with committing words or ideas to some medium. Whereas mental act deals with the ability to invent ideas, express them, and how to organize them into a good writing which is clear to the reader. Its purpose is both to express and impress. Writing has a purpose to express ideas or feeling to the readers in order that the readers will be impressed with a writer's thought. It is both a process and product. In writing, there are some processes that are involved including collecting ideas, organizing, drafting, editing, and reading. Those will be very helpful in producing a good writing product. The last definition brings us to the explanation of the writing process. Langan (2005: 64) explains that there are three main steps which can help a writer create a good composition: Pre-writing In this stage, a writer will be able to think on a paper and to gradually discover what ideas that will be developed. Langan explains further that there are five techniques that will help a writer to develop ideas; they are: (1) free writing, which is a brainstorming activity in which a writer can write out every phrase or sentence that come up into mind about possible topics, (2) questioning, which can be an effective way of getting a writer to think about a topic from a number of different angles, which includes What? Why? Where? When? Who? and How? This technique is the one which is studied by the researcher, (3) making a list, in which the writer collects the ideas and details related to the subjects and makes it as a list without trying to sort the major details from minor ones, (4) clustering, which is also known as diagramming or mapping to show the relationship among ideas and detail that occur, (5) making an outline, in which the writer thinks carefully about the point that she will make. Drafting This is the part where the writer starts writing the complete thought that has been collected composition, including the introductory, the body, and the conclusion. Revising Here, the writer begins to revise the composition that has already been made. This stage can be done by rewriting, building on what has already been done, in order to make it stronger. Furthermore, writing is an important part of people's life for communication. Kelly (1999: 84) states that writing which forever defines communication in the written words is the important form of communication because it can be a solution when spoken communication is not possible. Byrne (1990: 1) supports that writing is one of language skill, which is used for medium of communication, especially indirect communication. People usually use indirect communication because of some problems; for instance: distance, time, activity, etc. by using indirect communication, they can still deliver their message. The Indonesian government gives attention to teach writing by making the English curriculum properly. The curriculum clearly states writing is one skill of learning English (BNSP, 2006: 164). Moreover, writing is a basic language skill of learning English which is important. The students need writing skill to convey their ideas in writing reports, scientific writing, short stories, etc. in the educational field. Unfortunately, many students are not interested in writing because, according to them, writing is difficult. The difficulty comes from the limited time for such an assignment that takes a continuous thinking process. However, it is still an important skill that a learner needs to master. Bramer (1981: 4) states that writing will continue to be an important part of a student's life, especially in college course and in many careers and profession. It is a skill which can make someone be recognized by the society , the schools, and objective language studies. One genre of texts taught in senior high school is recount text. The social function of recount text is to retell an activity, situation, or event in the past. Language features used in recount text is past tenses, action verbs, adverb of past time. The researcher believes that teaching writing is far more difficult than mastering the writing skill itself. Healon (1991: w135) states that writing skill is complex and sometimes difficult to teach, requiring not only of grammatical and theoretical devices, but also it has conceptual and judgment elements. Based on this problem, the researcher suggested this question and answer technique which could improve the students' ability in writing. Dealing with teaching and learning process, a technique is essential. A technique that is needed in a writing class is the one that can ease and helps the students to produce a composition. The researcher believed that the best way to stimulate ideas of the students who are learning to make a composition is by giving questions. Questions are used as an indicator of people doubt, which has occurred in his reasoning. Some people can express their thought easily, but some others cannot. It is because each person has different experience. Another influence comes from the person's psychological state. We can always find a case in a classroom where there are some students who keep the questions for themselves for fear of decision. Questions and answers are essential components of teaching and learning. Asking a good question will help the teacher to motivate students' curiosity about the topic, and it will help the teacher assesses how well they understand the materials. When constructing sentences, the students were given a series of questions. The complete answers of the questions are then constructed in a certain way to make a well-organized recount composition. RESEARCH METHOD This research is a descriptive qualitative research. This design is used to examine the events or the phenomena that happened in teaching and learning process, especially to get the data about the implementation of question and answer technique to develop student's writing. The subjects of the study were the teacher and the tenth grade students of MA Ma'arif NU Driyorejo, Gresik. The teacher is Agus Setiono, S. Pd. And there were 30 students of class X-1. The researcher will use three instruments in this study; they are (1) observation checklist, which contains some indicators, such as the teaching and learning process, the topic, and the question and answer technique, (2) field notes, which is a brief note made by researcher to observe the teaching and learning process, and (3) questionnaire, which is useful for the researcher to gather the students' responses. The data gathered from the teaching and learning process in the subject's classroom. The data will be collected through non-participant observation. Therefore, the researcher will only observe and make documentation out of the teaching and learning activities. The data will be interpreted in a descriptive manner in which the researcher describes the information which are collected with the instruments. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION After analyzing all the data, the researcher presents the result and also the discussion which is based on the theories which the researcher was elaborated previously. The Implementation of Question and Answer Technique In the first and second meeting, the teacher started the class with opening session by greeting the students. The teacher then asked the students' feeling that day. He also checked the attendance list and asked the students to prepare the lesson. The teacher asked the students about their knowledge of kinds of texts, especially recount text. Then he continued to ask the students' prior knowledge and related information about recount text. In the first meeting, the students could not answer the teacher's questions completely, so the teacher needed to explain. The teacher explained everything about recount text; the definition, the generic structure, and the language use. In the second meeting, the teacher only reminded them at a glance because they had enough explanation on the first meeting. In the teaching and learning process, only in the first meeting the teacher introduced the technique used. Because it was the first time they applied this technique. He introduced the concept of question and answer technique in writing recount text. The teacher explained the procedure of the technique deliberately and the students paid attention. He also gave the example of how to elaborate the answers on whiteboard. In both meeting, the teacher gave the students question and answer paper. He asked the students to answer the questions on the paper and then elaborated the answer to make a recount text. The teacher asked the students to finish the task on time. The teacher controls the students' interaction in the teaching and learning process. He asked the students to do the task by themselves. He walked around and asked the students to do the task quietly. He also helped students who had difficulties. In the first and second meeting, the students had done all the steps of question and answer technique. However, in the first meeting, some students still find difficulties in writing recount text. It can be seen from the students who could not use time effectively. The teacher asked to submit their work, but some students had not finished yet. But in the second meeting, they could use time more effectively. Most of them got interested in writing recount texts based on their experiences. After the students submitted their works, the teacher corrected them. The teacher then showed their mistakes in their assignments. He also gave some corrections to the students. The teacher explained the students' mistakes in details. It means that he gives feedback to the students. The students paid attention to the teacher's explanation about their mistakes. They took some notes on their notebooks. From the data of the observation, it is obvious that the implementation of question and answer technique was very effective to teach writing recount text. It helps to motivate the students and bring and interest in teaching and learning process. Question and answer technique became a better way that provided a wide opportunity for the teacher and the students to interact each other in an enjoyable learning situation. The Students' Responses The students' responses towards the implementation of question and answer technique were positive from the result of the questionnaire. The percentage of the students who likes learning English is more than 50%.most of the students enjoy writing recount text by using question and answer technique. More than half of the students did not find any difficulties in writing recount text by using question and answer technique. They also did not find any difficulties in using vocabulary and language feature. The result of questionnaire showed that the application of question and answer technique was appropriate to overcome the students' difficulties in writing recount text. Based on the explanation above, it is clear that the students' ability had progressed in writing recount text. Most of the students could create a better composition than their previous composition. It showed that this technique is effective in improving the students' skill in expressing their ideas into written form. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion In general, the implementation of question and answer technique in teaching writing in every meeting was quite good. The students could enhance their language skill. This technique is the efficient way to learn about writing, especially in writing recount text. By using this technique, the students have the same opportunities to improve their writing and develop their ideas to write a recount text. It can be concluded that question and answer technique could bring interest to the students in composing a recount text. The response of the students toward the implementation of question and answer technique in teaching writing recount text was positive. The result of the questionnaire shows that most of the students are interested in this technique. They said that this technique was unique that it can reduce their boredom in the normal monotonous classroom activities. Most of the students admitted that they find themselves improving their ability in writing recount text. Suggestion After interpreting and analyzing all the data, the researcher has suggestions for several groups of readers who have similar interest. Using a variety of technique in teaching a foreign language will increase the students' interest in learning. It will also motivate them more to be actively involved in classroom activities. Therefore, English teachers should not be afraid of implementing every teaching technique provided by the experts. Being a creative teacher will bring effectiveness in teaching and learning process. However, it does not mean to neglect the process of choosing the appropriate materials for them. It will only disturb their confidence in completing every assignment given. This research is conducted to get to know deeper about a technique that has been developed by experts. Therefore, for other researchers who have an interest in investigating more about this technique, the researcher strongly recommends to conduct a research on this technique in different language skills or in different text genres. REFERENCES Abbot Gerry, Greenwood john, Mc Keating Douglas and Wingard Peter. 1981. The Teaching of English as an International Language: A Practical Guide. Great Britain. William Collin Sons and Co Ltd. Adam, Jager. 1998. Beginning to Write. USA: Massachusets, Institute of Technology. Airey, J. 2002. The Way We Do It. English Teaching Professional. http://www.etprofessional.com, retrieved February 28, 2011. Alice, and Hogue, Ann. 1991. Writing Academic English. London: Longman. Alice, and Hogue, Ann. 1999. Introduction to Academic Writing. Weasley Publishing Company Inc. Anderson, Mark, and Kathy, A. 1998. Text Type in English 2. Australia: MacMillan Education Pty Ltd. Bram, Barli. 1995. Write Well: Improving Writing Skill. Yogyakarta: Kanisius. Bramer, George R and Sedley, Dorothy. 1981. Writing for Readers. New York: Bell and Howell Company. Byrne, Donn. 1980. Teaching Writing Skill. London: Longman Group Ltd. Carter, Bishop, and Kravits. 2002. Keys to Effective Learning. 3rd Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. Comrie, Bernard. 1985. Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Creswell, John W. 2008. Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Qualitative and Quantitative Research. United States of America: Pearson Prentice Hall. Depdiknas. 2005. Standar Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris Sekolah Menengah Atas dan Madrasah Aliyah. Jakarta: Depdiknas. Depdiknas. 2006. Standar Isi: Standar Kompetensi Lulusan Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris (SD, SMP, MTS, SMA, MA, SMK). Jakarta: Depdiknas. Derewianka, Beverly. 1990. Exploring How Text Works. Australia: Primary Teaching Association. Doddy, Ahmad et al. 2008. Developing English Competencies for Senior High School (SMA/ MA). Jakarta: Pusat Perbukuan Depdiknas. Doddy, Ahmad et al. 2008. Look Ahead: An English Course for Senior High School Students Year XI, Science and Social Study Program. Jakarta: Pusat Perbukuan Depdiknas. Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Heaton, J. B. 1997. Writing English Language Test. London: Longman. Heffernan and Lincon. 1982. Writing: A College Handbook. 1st Edition. USA: W. W. Norton & Company Inc. Hogue, Ann. 2003. The Essential of English (A Writer's Handbook). New York: Pearson Education Inc. Kagan, Spencer. 1989. The Structural Approach to Cooperative Learning. San Juan Capistrano. Kendall, Julie. 2006. Writing Sense. Portland: Publisher. Krisner, Laurie G, and Stephen R. Mendell. 1987. Basic College Writing. 1st Edition. USA: W. W. Norton & Company. Lado, Robert. 1964. Language Teaching: A Specific Approach. New York: Mc Graw Hill Publishing Scientific Co. Ltd. Lado, Robert. 1977. Language Testing: The Construction and Use of Foreign Language Test. London: Longman Group Ltd. Langan, John. 2000. English Skills. Singapore: Mc Graw-Hill Companies Inc. Langan, John. 2005. College Writing Skills. 6th Edition. The Mc Graw-Hill Companies Inc. Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2003. Teaching Language: From Grammar to Grammaring. Boston: Heinle. Mc Millan, J. H. 1992. Educational Research: Fundamental for the Consumers. New York: Harper Collin. Mc Worther and Mc Combs. 2001. Write to Read, Read to Write. New York. Meyers, Allan. 2001. Gateway to Academic Writing; Effective Sentences, Paragraph and Essay. NY: Longman. Morreillon, Judi. 2007. Strategy for Teaching Writing. Chicago: American Library Association. Murray, Donald. 1972. Teach Writing as a Process not Product. The Leafleft. Nunan, David. 1996. The Self Directed Teacher, Managing the Learning Process. United States of America: Cambridge University Press. Nunan, David. 1999. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers. Nunan, David. 2003. Practical English Language Teaching. Singapore: Mc Graw Hill. Petty, T. Walter and Sensen, M. Julie. 1980. Developing Children's Language. New York: Pearson Education Inc. Raimes. 1983. A Technique in Teaching Writing. New York: Oxford University. Reid, M. Joy. 1993. Teaching ESL Writing. New Jersey: Regents Prentice Hall. Richards, Jack C et al. 2002. Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sugiono, 2005. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: CV Alfabeta Choir. Tarigan, Henry Guntur. 1986. Menulis Sebagai Suatu Keterampilan Berbahasa. Bandung: Angkasa. Trevor, Rob. 1998. Educational Leadership. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. White, Ron and Valerie Arndt. 1991. Process Writing. England: Longman House. Wilhem, Jeffrey D. 2007. Engaging Readers and Writers with Inquiry. New York: Scolastic. Wingard, P. 1981. The Teaching of English as an International Language: A Practical Guide. London: William Collin Sons and Co Ltd.

This guide accompanies the following article: The Animal Rights Movement in Theory and Practice: A Review of the Sociological Literature, Compass 6/2 (2012): pp. 166–181, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2011.00440.xAuthor's introductionThe animal rights movement has been described as one of the most neglected and misunderstood social movements of our era. However, social movement scholars are beginning to realise the political and moral significance of the world wide animal protection movement at a time when nature itself has been included in the specialist field of environmental sociology. Just as people are beginning to see that nature matters and is not separate from society, nonhuman animals (hereafter animals) too are increasingly perceived as worthy of our respect and consideration. The long‐running animal protection movement which began in England in the 18th century is today better known as the animal rights movement. It is the men and women of this movement who, atypically for a social movement, are campaigning for a species that is not their own. The movement's theories and practices are important for what they do for animals and also because of what the animal rights controversy reveals about human beings.Author recommendsGarner, Robert. 1998. Political Animals: Animal Protection Policies in Britain and the United States. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.The book describes the progress made by the animal protection movement in the two countries where animal rights protests have been most prominent. The author presents a comprehensive examination of animal welfare policies in Britain and the US thus providing an informative comparative study of the movement's relationship with the state in these two countries. Garner's focus on policy networks corresponds to the sociologist's concept of social movement organizations. More than fifty such organizations balanced evenly between animal protectionists and animal‐user industries are discussed in the book. Political Animals provides an excellent introduction to the politics of animal rights, although missing in the accounts are the voices of the animal activists and their opponents. In the final analysis, it is the meaning activists attribute to their cause that drives the movement, a fact which Garner tacitly acknowledges.Imhoff, Daniel (ed) 2010. The CAFO Reader: The Tragedy of Industrial Animal Factories. Published by the Foundation for Deep Ecology with Watershed Media, Berkeley, LA: University of California Press.The Reader's subject – concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO) – covers most of the topics relevant to factory farmed animals and is divided into seven parts: (1) The pathological mindset of the CAFO; (2) Myths of the CAFO; (3) Inside the CAFO; (4) The loss of diversity; (5) Hidden costs of CAFO; (6) Technological takeover; (7) Putting the CAFO out to pasture. The acronym CAFO suggests a bland, mundane practice and is therefore a name which the editor believes should be replaced by the more accurate label "animal concentration camps". The chapter titles indicate what is in store for the reader but the content is perhaps less confronting than the book's companion photo‐format volume of the same name. The reader is a very comprehensive survey of how living creatures are subjected to inhumane practices for their body parts by "corporate food purveyors" and is essential reading for anyone who cares about the future survival of all of the earth's species.Kean, Hilda. 1998. Animal Rights: Political and Social Change in Britain since 1800. London: Reaktion Books Ltd.In this attractive book, the historian Hilda Kean provides one of the most comprehensive and interesting surveys of the early animal protection movement in England, the birthplace of animal rights. Kean tells a compelling story of how and why people's attitudes and practices involving animals changed over the past two centuries. She attributes these changes largely to the seemingly simple idea of "sight", or how people were influenced by seeing for themselves how animals such as horses and dogs were ill treated in public spaces such as in streets and markets. Animals "out of sight" in vivisection laboratories and in abattoirs also came to the attention of the early animal protectionists, most of whom were women. The sight and spectacle of animal abuse turned hearts and stomachs once a light was shone on these everyday cruelties by the pioneers of animal rights in England. Kean's book is nicely illustrated in keeping with the theme of seeing animals in their various relationships with humans.Munro, Lyle. 2005. Confronting Cruelty: Moral Orthodoxy and the Challenge of the Animal Rights Movement. Leiden & Boston: Brill.For most people animal cruelty is understood as unspeakable acts perpetrated by warped individuals mostly against dogs, cats, birds and sometimes horses. The animal rights movement seeks to broaden the issue of animal cruelty to include the vast numbers of animals that suffer and die in "the animal industrial complex" of intensive farming, recreational hunting and animal research and experimentation. The book draws on social movement theory to explain how and why an increasing number of people in the UK, US and Australia have taken up the cause of animals in campaigning against the exploitative practices of the animal‐user industries. Essentially, the thesis is that animal abuse is constructed by the animal rights movement as a social problem (speciesism) on a par with sexism and racism. This is the first book in the Human and Animal Studies Series which currently lists about a dozen monographs published by Brill under the editorship of Kenneth Shapiro of the Society & Animals Institute in the US.Noske, Barbara. 1989. Humans and Other Animals: Beyond the Boundaries of Anthropology. London: Pluto Press.As an anthropologist, Noske brings a different perspective to our relationship with nature, especially in the long process of animal domestication. Her chapter on "the animal industrial complex" shows how both human and nonhuman animals suffer within this structure of domination; for example, slaughterhouse work takes a heavy toll on the meat workers while the animals experience atrocious pain and misery on the assembly line of mass execution. Noske's book is valuable for its broad treatment of animal‐human relations in which she describes cultural, historical, structural and sociological aspects of these relations particularly in America and Australia.Wilkie, Rhoda and Inglis David (eds.) 2007. The Social Scientific Study of Nonhuman Animals: A Five‐volume Collection–Animals and Society: Critical Concepts in the Social Sciences. (Vols 1–5), London: Routledge.This is a collection of 90 previously published articles and book chapters in approximately 2,000 pages on the social‐scientific study of animals. The papers range from the earliest in 1928 on "the culture of canines" to the latest in 2006 on "religion and animals." Three quarters of the papers were published in the last two decades and are derived from anthropology, sociology, psychology, geography, philosophy and feminist studies.Because Animals and Society is based mostly on work derived from more than 12 different specialist journals, it has a claim to comprehensiveness; however, the editors mention topics that are not covered in the collection:
 Ethical issues;
 Animal welfare;
 The characteristics of animal protectionists;
 "Wilderness";
 The role of animals in the lives of children; and
 The animal rights movement.
The main topics included in the collection provide a hint of its value to researchers:Vol I. Representing the animal (Introduction and critical concepts in the social sciences)Vol II. Social science perspectives on human‐animal interactions (I):
 Anthropology.
 Geography.
 Feminist studies.
Vol III. Social science perspectives on human‐animal interactions (II):
 Sociology.
 Psychology.
Vol IV. Forms of human‐animal relations and animal death – the dynamics of domestication:
 Human‐pet relationships.
 Human‐livestock relations.
 Animal abuse and animal death.
Vol V. Boundaries and quandaries in human‐animal relations:
 Border troubles: are humans unique and what is an animal?
 The legal, ethical and moral status of animals.
 "The Frankenstein syndrome": animals, genetic engineering, and ethical dilemmas.
NB. The above is a shorter version of my review in Society & Animals, 16. 91–93, 2008. I thank the journal for publishing the original review and for permission to include the above version in Sociology Compass.Online materialshttp://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2007/s2159904.htmThis is the story of a protest against the live animal export trade from Australia to the Middle East. The 7.30 Report of 11 February 2008, was one of several media stories on the cruelty involved in the transport and slaughter of cattle, goats and sheep which outraged thousands of Australians when they witnessed footage shot by animal activists. The four minute video recording provides commentary and images that explain why the live animal export trade is a "hot cognition" issue in Australia and the UK. More recently, in June 2012, the callous treatment of cattle in a number of Indonesian abattoirs became a major media story that prompted public outrage and calls for an immediate and permanent ban on the trade.http://www.sharkwater.com/For many people, sharks are the most feared of all creatures and also the most misunderstood. They have been called "the mother of otherness" and as a result when they are hunted and killed there is very little concern for their welfare. This groundbreaking film explains the importance of sharks to the ocean and seeks to dispel the main stereotype of the shark as the creature from hell. The film is the work of Rob Stewart whose lifelong fascination with sharks was the catalyst for his mission to save the great predator from extinction.http://www.wspa‐international.org/Regular internet users will probably have come across the advertisements from the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA), particularly its campaign against the cruelty involved in bear dancing. The WSPA, as an international animal welfare organization, is one of a very select few animal and environmental organizations recognized by the United Nations. Another campaign which is featured on their website is "The Red Collar Campaign", the motto for which is "Collars not Cruelty". Viewers are warned that the two and a half minute video clip contains some confronting images of cruelty to dogs suspected of being infected by rabies. WSPA's objective is to end the brutality inflicted unnecessarily on thousands of dogs perceived as a human health and safety risk; its solution to the problem of rabies is simple, cheap and effective.http://www.awionline.orgThe Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) is one of the most effective animal protection societies in the US. Its founder, the late Christine Stevens, worked most of her life as an advocate and lobbyist for animals. The AWI's attractive website provides many useful features such as the AWI Quarterly and details of its seminal campaigns which include research animals, companion animals, farm animals, marine animals and wildlife. Since it was established in 1951, the AWI has had access to the US Congress and in gaining the attention of powerbrokers, the organization has succeeded in securing animal welfare improvements that are legislated in law, which owes much to the work of Christine Stevens.http://www.league.org.ukHunting is a controversial issue in England which has developed into what is actually a class war between the aristocratic class and the "great unwashed". Founded in 1924, the League is virtually a household name in England. Its website contains some revealing film clips about the cruelty involved in the hunting of foxes, deer, rabbits and other animals in the English countryside. There is a great deal of information contained in the blogs and its FAQs as well as elsewhere on its website. Mention is also made of one of the latest hunting fads, "trophy hunting" which is apparently gaining popularity in some parts of the USA.Topics for lectures & discussionPart I: introduction and overviewWhat is the animal rights movement? Why do people campaign on behalf of a species that is not their own? How do individuals and social movements make their claims on behalf of nonhuman animals? These are some of the questions that would traditionally be posed in introducing the animal rights movement.ReadingMunro, Lyle. 2012. 'The Animal Rights Movement in Theory and Practice: A Review of the Sociological Literature'. Sociology Compass6(2): 166–81.Waldau's recent book is a good introduction to what the movement is all about:Waldau, Paul. 2011. Animal Rights: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford: Oxford University Press.There are three main discourses on animal rights which provide insights into our constructions of "the animal": (1) Animals in this discourse are constructed as social problems (see Irvine, 2003 below for an example); (2) in this second discourse, animal defenders are demonised with labels ranging from "sentimental animal lovers" to "extremists" and even "terrorists" (see Munro, 1999 below for an example); (3) finally, the animal rights movement constructs our cruel treatment of animals as morally wrong and therefore deserving of the strongest condemnation (see Shapiro, 1994 below for an example). How and why people campaign against the exploitation of animals are issues explored in the following papers:Irvine, Leslie. 2003. 'The Problem of Unwanted Pets; A Case Study in How Institutions 'Think' About Clients' Needs'. Social Problems50: 550–66.Munro, Lyle. 1999. 'Contesting Moral Capital in Campaigns Against Animal Liberation'. Society & Animals7: 35–53.Shapiro, Kenneth. 1994. 'The Caring Sleuth: Portrait of an Animal Rights Activist'. Society & Animals2: 145–65.Part II: animal crueltyThis section includes some important contributions to explaining cruelty to animals.Agnew, Robert. 1998. 'The Causes of Animal Abuse: A Social‐psychological Analysis'. Theoretical Criminology2: 177–209.Munro, Lyle. 1997. 'Framing Cruelty: The Construction of Duck‐Shooting as a Social Problem'. Society & Animals5: 137–54.D'Silva, Joyce and John Webster. 2010. The Meat Crisis: Developing More Sustainable Production and Consumption. London and Washington: Earthscan.Merz‐Perez, Linda and Kathleen Heide. 2004. Animal Cruelty: Pathway to Violence Against People. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Ltd.Ascione, Frank. 2008. 'Children Who Are Cruel to Animals: A Survey of Research and Implications for Developmental Psychology.' Pp. 171–89 in Social Creatures: A Human‐Animals Studies Reader, edited by Clifton, Flynn. New York: Lantern Books.Winders, Bill and David Nibert. 2009. 'Expanding "Meat" Consumption and Animal Oppression.' Pp. 183–9 in Between the Species: Readings in Human‐Animal Relations, edited by Arnold, Arluke and Clinton Sanders. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.Part III: social movement theory and animalsThere is a large literature on social movement theory with relatively little that refers to nonhuman animals. Some of those which do take up the issue are included below along with the following books that provide a general introduction to the study of social movements.Lowe, Brian and Caryn Ginsberg. 2002. 'Animal Rights as a Post‐Citizenship Movement'. Society & Animals10: 203–15.Jasper, James. 2007. 'The Emotions of Protest: Affective and Reactive Emotions in and around Social Movements.' Volume 4 Pp. 585–612 in Social Movements: Critical Concepts in Sociology Volumes 1–4, edited by Jeff, Goodwin and James Jasper. London and New York: Routledge.Buechler, Steven. 2011. Understanding Social Movements: Theories from the Classical Era to the Present. Boulder and London: Paradigm Publishers.Cochrane, Alasdair. 2010. Chapter 6 'Marxism and Animals.' Pp. 93–114 in An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory, edited by Cochrane's. Basingstoke Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Einwohner, Rachel. 2002. 'Bringing the Outsiders in: Opponents' Claims and the Construction of Animal Rights Activists' Identity'. Mobilization7: 253–68.Part IV: animal advocacy and activism: strategy and tacticsThe above readings reveal to some extent at least why people campaign against animal cruelty. In this section's readings, the focus is on how animal activists run their campaigns in the streets (grassroots activism) and in the suites (organizational advocacy).Carrie Freeman Packwood. 2010. 'Framing Animal Rights in the "Go Veg" Campaigns of US Animal Rights Organizations'. Society & Animals18: 163–82.Paul, Elizabeth. 1995. 'Scientists' and Animal Rights Campaigners' Views of the Animal Experimentation Debate'. Society & Animals3: 1–21.Upton, Andrew. 2010. 'Contingent Communication in a Hybrid Multi‐Media World: Analysing the Campaigning Strategies of SHAC'. New Media & Society13: 96–113.Munro, Lyle. 2001. Compassionate Beasts: The Quest for Animal Rights. Westport, CT: Praeger.Munro, Lyle. 2002. 'The Animal Activism of Henry Spira (1927–1998).'Society & Animals10: 173–91.Munro, Lyle. 2005. 'Strategies, Action Repertoires and DIY Activism in the Animal Rights Movement.'Social Movement Studies4: 75–94.Jasper, James. 1997. The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography and Creativity in Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Singer, Peter. 1998. Ethics into Action: Henry Spira and the Animal Rights Movement. Lanham MD: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers Inc.Part V: academic/activist collaborationShould academic teachers collaborate with activists in their campaigns? Like the church/state relations debate this is a controversial question since there are arguments both for and against academic involvement in political and social movements. Most of the readings in the original Compass article and below tend to see more benefits than costs to collaboration; however, higher education administrators don't like dissent and it is hard to imagine an academic holding down his or her job if they were seen to be working with animal activists on a particularly controversial campaign. It might be seen as acceptable if the collaboration was with the SPCA in the US or the RSPCA in Britain but not if the activists were affiliated with members of a radical animal liberation group. Furthermore, an academic‐animal activist who campaigned say against the practice of animal experimentation at his or her university would surely be dismissed or at least threatened with dismissal unless they cut their ties with outside activists.Burnett, Cathleen. 2003. 'Passion through the Profession: Being Both Activist and Academic.'Social Justice30: 135–50.Kleidman, Robert. 1994. 'Volunteer Activism and Professionalism in Social Movement Organizations.'Social Problems41: 257–76.Focus questions
 Is the animal rights movement a genuine social movement when nonhuman animals are widely understood not to belong to society as it is generally understood?
 How would you respond to the claim that cruelty to animals is our worst vice.
 From your experience of seeing animal rights protests either on television or as the real thing, what do you think are the dominant emotions exhibited by the campaigners and their opponents?
 From what you've read or heard or seen of social movement protests, do you believe the most effective strategy is non‐violence or violence; and which of these two strategies do you think is more acceptable for the animal protection movement to follow and why?
 Should academics who lecture on social movements practice what they preach? What are some of the main benefits and problems associated with academic analysts of social movements collaborating with grassroots activists?
 The animal rights movement has been described as one of the fastest‐growing social movements in the West – and one of the most controversial. What evidence is there for these claims?
Seminar/project ideaPlease suggest an exercise to help bring the subject to life, appropriate either for undergraduate or graduate students, e.g. an assessment, a presentation, or other practical assignment.Project idea or presentation
 Compare and contrast the website of an animal welfare organization and an animal rights group in relation to (a) their objectives; (b) their most important campaign; and (c) their preferred overall strategies and tactics. Which of these organizations has the most potential in attracting new supporters and why? What advice would you give to these two organizations on how they might enhance their communicative effectiveness with the general public? (see Munro's Compass article for some clues).
 Do an oral presentation on a radical animal liberation group such as the Animal Liberation Front or SHAC in which you describe its stated objectives, its seminal campaigns, its preferred tactics and its communication strategy as indicated by the group's website. Explain how effective the group is in terms of improving the lives of animals and how the activists justify the use of violence in their campaigns.

A. Introduction A wide body of literature describes the relationship between innovation and the success of the organization. The evidence that innovative organizations are more successful is overwhelming [Bain 1956, Porter1983]. It is therefore not surprising that innovation is seen as one of the most important processes in the organization. The importance originates not only from the organization's ability to develop products with unique features and therewith improve its competitive position but also from the organization's ability to respond to changes in the environment, threatening its existing competitive position. Although the former, proactive implementation of innovation is often the organization's intention and the more glorious implication of innovation, the latter, reactive implementation represents more widely the context of innovation in organizations. There is also overwhelming evidence that many organizations have problems with innovation. In order to obtain a better understanding of these problems it is important to study the innovation process and its characteristics. The innovation process is not necessarily similar in every organization and depends on the type of activities that the organizations pursue. This study focuses on the innovation processes in Technology Intensive Organizations (TIOs) and more in particular TIOs active in High Tech industries like the semiconductor and material sciences industry. In these TIOs, technology development plays an important role in the innovation process because technology provides the functionality of the product or process. However, the technology development processes is often not considered as a part of the innovation process. In general there is more emphasis is on the New Product Development (NPD) process and the technology development process captured under the 'fuzzy front-end' of the NPD process. However, some contributions in literature indeed emphasize that the Technology Development process is not only important, but also hard to manage and quite different from the NPD process. This study supports this notion about the technology development process and intends to contribute to a better understanding of the technology development process, its role in the innovation process and how it is managed. B. Problem definition The technology development process is not well described in literature which is particular as technology becomes more and more important for new products. The tendency is that products not only comprise of more technologies, but also the manufacturing processes become more reliant on multiple technologies. It is expected that this increasing complexity and integration of product- and process technologies will continue. This implies having access to technology becomes more important. This access can be realized by licensing, technology acquisitions or by in-house developments. As a result of the higher level of integration of technologies in products, it becomes more difficult for organisation to own all the required product and process technologies. While licensing and trading technologies provides more external access, one can argue that owning and developing the core technologies of the products or processes remains crucial to maintain a strong competitive position. Therefore, the development of technologies will be important for Technology Intensive Organisations, now and in the future. Cooper argues that technology development processes are very important for the prosperity of the organisation and that that these processes are in general 'mishandled' by applying NPD-methods to it [Cooper 2006]. Cooper proposes to apply an adapted 'Stage-Gate' process to the Technology Development process, where the process is broken down in a flow where important decision points are represented by gates and the activities prior to these gates are defined as stages. This approach is not disputed but there are two issues that are not well addressed. Firstly, during the development activities that Cooper identifies as stages, many decisions are made that 'do not make it to the gate'. It is recognized that the technology developments process requires gates, especially at a management level in order to decide on resources supporting the process. Just because technology development is in general a costly and long lasting process, it requires a lot of management support to progress. However, at the operational level technology developers make all kind of decisions in order to make progress during the 'stages' of the process. These decisions have definitely impact on the outcome of the process and are therefore at least equally important to consider. The 'Stage-Gate' approach assumes that progress is made in the 'Stages', but how it is made is not discussed nor defined. Secondly, the 'stage-gate' process does not take into account the notion that technology development is subject to a certain path dependency. This notion is based on several contributions in several bodies of literature; scientific discovery [Kuhn 1972], [Klahr & Simon 1999] economics [Nelson & Winter 1981], Organizational change [Van de Ven & Poole 1995] and cognition [Garud & Rappa 1999]. An important aspect is how the organization is operating while following a path or may be even more interesting: What happens if an organization realizes that following the current path is not sufficient enough to meet the organisational goals that have been set? These different modes; following the path versus breaking with the path can be identified with the difference between evolutionary/equilibrium versus revolutionary/punctuated technology developments. This distinction is not taken into account in the 'stage-gate' approach, while the impact on the organisation can be very different. These two omitted issues will be particularly addressed in this thesis. C. Research questions The first research question is related to the technology development process and its relationship to product development and scientific discovery: What are the characteristics of the technology development process in general and in comparison to the product development process and the scientific discovery process? Technology developments that follow a certain path, progress in equilibrium, require only evolutionary changes, and have limited impact on the organization. However, technology developments that require a change of path are considered to be much more radical to the organization. There are at least five aspects that need to be understood about a path change. Firstly, it is important to understand how the organization resists against a path change. Secondly, how is a path change initiated? And thirdly, how is the organization adapting to this path change. These three aspects are addressed in the second research question: What are the processes and drivers at several levels in the organization, prior, during and after a technology path change? The fourth aspect is finding the alternative path: . How are alternative technology-paths identified, evaluated and selected? The fifth aspect is related to the required changes that are necessary to reach the alternative technology path: What are effective management techniques to manage decisions related to technology path change and the associated organizational changes? D. The Technology Development process The frame work presented in Chapter 2 comprises the following four sub-processes of the technology development process: knowledge processes, change processes, problem solving processes and organisational processes Knowledge processes: Technology can be seen as the embodiment of knowledge, indifferent whether it is scientific, explicit or tacit knowledge. Just theoretical knowledge is not enough to obtain a technology; it requires practical knowledge or 'know how' to create a 'construct' that embodies the theoretical principles. Also it is assumed that for technology development in an organizational context, knowledge is generated [Nonaka 1994], disseminated [Berends 2003] and integrated [Grant 1996]. Furthermore, technological knowledge is generated by problem solving cycles, alike scientific knowledge [Popper 1970]. This generation process is considered to be an individual process [Popper 1970, Polanyi 1962, Nonaka 1994]. Change processes: Technology developments tend to change according to punctuated equilibrium process [Pettigrew 1985, Gersick 1991]. Very similar to scientific developments evolutionary technology development tends to follow a certain predefined trajectory or paths, while revolutionary or radical technology developments are characterised by path breaking activities [Kuhn 1970, 1977]. The notion that technology development is following an existing path can be identified with an equilibrium state where the organisational changes are small and gradual. The punctuated periods where radical technology development takes place, resulting in breaking the existing path, may result in much more radical organisational changes. The skills, knowledge and capabilities the organisation developed to operate along the existing path become less relevant or even meaningless and in order to operate along a new path, new skills, knowledge and capabilities are required that can be radically different from the previously developed ones. Problem solving processes: Knowledge generation in context of new technology development is ultimately a process that takes place in the human mind, and is related to human problem solving. This individual knowledge generation process should be placed in the context of ongoing group processes and of the characteristics of the organization. The goal state in the problem solving cycles is very similar to the teleological change process as described by Van de Ven and is expected to play an important role in steering the problem solving cycles [Ven 1995]. The problem cycle is part of a broader decision making process. This process is related to the problem definition, goal state definition, the search strategy, and test strategies. These decisions are made on the basis of existing information and a stream of new information originating from the problem solving cycles. Organizational processes: The justification to view technology development as a distinct organizational process can be based on a few contributions in literature. Cooper pointed out that technology development processes are different from other development processes and deliver new knowledge, new technology, or a new technical capability. The process comprises fundamental research projects, science projects, basic research, and often technology platform projects. [Cooper 2006]. Cooper sees Technology development projects as a kind of meta-projects leading to multiple commercial projects and new product platforms. This suggests that technology development processes can be seen a distinct organisational process. Another way to look at the technology development process is to consider so-called technological options that are initiated be the Generation of Technological Option (GTO) stage, characterized by a divergent process where numerous options are created. This stage is followed by a convergent process, the Selection of Technological Option (STO) stage where various options are benchmarked and selected for further developments. In this stage the number of options is reduced. This stage is followed by a Integration of Technological Option (ITO) stage where various options are combined in order to test the combined functionality. And finally the Deployment of Technology Option stage represents the integration of a technological option into a product. The stages are forming the TO-model that is described in more detail in Chapter 3. E. Collective Frame of Reference Based on the case study research reported in Chapter 4 and 6, several patterns have been observed that appeared to be decisive on the outcome of the technology development process. These patterns are related to a phenomenon that has been identified as Collective Frame of Reference, which can be described as: Collective Frame of Reference (CFR) is a set of beliefs that is shared within a group and/or an organization. This belief is not necessarily justified (like knowledge), and can be based on shared intuition, experiences, cultures and perceptions. The CFR can proliferate through groups and across organizational boundaries. In summary the following was observed: - Coherent, coordinated activities and incoherent, uncoordinated activities coincide with the presence and absence the Collective Frame of Reference of the group. - The presence of a strong collective frame of reference keeps the group focused on its activities and allows for coordinated problem solving routines with a CFR based goal state. - The absence of the CFR initiates incoherent and uncoordinated activities; this results in uncoordinated problem solving routines were the goal state is set based on individual beliefs. - Proliferation of the CFR is based on influencing individual beliefs, and takes place internally, within the group, laterally towards functional interdependent groups and vertically, either top-down, or bottom-up. The CFR is seldom completely shared and not all individuals in an organizational structure fully conform to the CFR. From a management perspective this can be seen as an undesired situation; first order management techniques rely on a hierarchic structure where policies flow down, which are adopted smoothly. It is argued, that a not fully adopted CFR helps in situations where radical changes need to be made. The CFRs develop under the influence of interactions between management level and operational level and under the influence of internal and external factors. The internal factors include the following. - Competences: The know-how to conduct certain processes. - Technologies: The technological building blocks available to the firm, basically forming the technology paradigm. - Past Experiences: An organization carries the burden of historic failures and successes. In case of failures it imposes a certain fear factor to the CFR. - Past Strategies: Choices, made in the past, impose path dependency on technology development. These internal factors constitute in a paradigm that is related to the CFR. It is not only about the technological paradigms, but also about the routines, knowledge and skill sets that are present within an organization that constitute the paradigm of the organization. Successes and failures contributed to these paradigms and this is a burden that comes with the maturity of the organization. The external factors contributing to the development of a CFR include the following. - Market developments: The market developments obviously influence the CFR. - DESTEP factors: The Demographic, Ecological, Social-Cultural, Technological, Economic and Political factors influence CFR development. - Competitive developments: Competition can be considered as very significant in the development of CFRs with respect to prospective technologies. - External technological factors: The upcoming and downfall of technologies that are directly or indirectly related to the technology base of the organization will definitely influence the CFR of the firm. These factors are more about perceptions, rather than objective facts. Finally, four psychological and social factors are suggested that constitute to the CFR. - Values: The values of a group or individual impact on the CFR even as actors are unaware of the influence of this factor on their acting. - Individual Beliefs: The individual beliefs impact on the CFR, and tend to be more volatile than values. - Self Esteem: The self esteem is a perceptual view on the value that an individual or group has for its environment. - Risk perception: The perception of risks impacts the collective frame of reference and can be associated with entrepreneurial attitudes of a group or individual. These factors determine not only the coherency of the groups and the confidence levels contributing to the CFR, but also the course of action in the absence of a CFR. F. Management implications The management implications regarding the Collective Frame of Reference are summarized in the following management actions: Gathering and providing objective information: Managing the flow of information is considered a very important factor to influence the CFR. Providing a flow of objective information and providing the means to process this data in an efficient fashion will help for the 'good' and for the 'bad'. On the one hand, if the objective information is interpreted by the individuals in such a way that the CFR is reinforced this can be considered as 'good'; the organization is doing well, while following the existing paradigm and the members of the organization have the impression that this is sustainable. On the other hand if the objective information weakens the CFR, it can be expected that this is for good reasons; the members of the organization have the impression that following the existing paradigm is not sustainable and that change is required. Connect to the external networks: Connection to external networks provides useful information about the technological capabilities of the organization. Monitoring trends in technology allows the organization to anticipate better on 'sudden' external changes. These networks comprise scientific networks, supplier networks, user networks and other networks like for example economical think-tanks that can provide information about trends in future needs. Management of an organization can influence the CFR by assuring that professionals in the organization are connected to the relevant networks. Stimulate Confidence: Many organizations are aware that celebrating success is important to stimulate the confidence level in the organization. Showing internally the success stories is important, but for the CFR it is also important that previous failures are well understood. An organization tends to interpret failures as evidence that everything outside the comfort zone of the organization is doomed. The issue is that radical technology development results in one or two successes out of ten attempts and therefore easily can be interpreted as a waste of time and money. An organization has to manage these failures in such away that new opportunities are still considered despite the build-up of evidence that technology developments can only go wrong. Allowing non-conformist behavior: This may be the most difficult factor to manage, as the traditional management techniques assume that all members of the organization follow the strategy and contribute to the goals that are set by the management. Any behavior that is not contributing or sometimes even contradictory to the strategy can be seen easily as unwanted behavior. However as this non-conformist behavior is a source of organizational change, it should not be excluded by the organization. G. Conclusions The main conclusions of this study are: - The technology development process is positioned between the scientific discovery process and the product development process - A technological option is an artefact or construct that often is based on a scientific principle and which can provide a certain product or process function. - Based on the TO model, a technological option is passing through four phases: o A generation phase where an artefact is created, and which shows a certain functionality. o A selection phase where the functionality of the artefact is competing with alternative options, o An integration phase where a specific option and its functionality is integrated with other options. o A deployment phase where the option is incorporated into a product in order to provide this product with certain functionality. - Technology, like science develops along paths, governed by a paradigm, which provides evolutionary, more or less predictable improvements, punctuated by developments leading to new paradigms. - The paradigm character of technology plays not only on a macro- and mesoscopic scale; it is also present within Technology Intensive Organizations. - Radical or paradigm shifting technology development programs are hard to manage, unpredictable and require particular measures to weather short-term vs. long-term deliberations. - Technology development can be characterized as 'evolutionary' if it progresses along a technology path. - Technology development can be characterized as 'revolutionary' or 'radical' if it requires a paradigm shift. - Both the evolutionary and revolutionary technology development in the organization is driven by the Collective Frame of Reference. - A paradigm shift starts from and results into a recurring, cyclical phase, which represents an equilibrium state of the organization. The actual shift takes place in three phases; the reorientation phase where the organization identifies new technology paradigms to consider and start acquiring knowledge of paradigms that are thought to be suitable to provide useful and relevant technology options. In the second phase the organization takes all the decisions that are required to adopt the new paradigm. And in the third phase the organization implements decisions that have been made. - The development of the CFR changes throughout the paradigm shift; in the recurring or cyclical phase the CFR drives the focus on recurring tasks that develop the current technology option. - The breaking of the technology paradigm is assumed to be sparked by an individual who develops a belief that opposes the shared belief that keeps the organization on the current technology paradigm. - Once this individual is confident to share her or his beliefs with others, this belief may or may not be accepted by others. - If the non-conforming belief holds and gains foothold at the decision makers in the organization, a wider reorientation process is initiated to obtain knowledge about alternative technology paths. - The selection of an alternative technology paradigm is in general not a single decision point, but consists of a chain of decisions on sub aspects of the transition. - Managing the flow of information is considered a very important factor to influence the CFR. - Connecting to the external networks is important, not only because it can provide objective information as discussed above, but also because it provides access to external knowledge in that is or will become important for the reorientation process. - Stimulate Confidence is important for the balance between the CFR and non-conforming behavior. - Allowing non-conformist behavior as it is a source of change in the organization.

Background: In all societies, the burden and cost of allergic and chronic respiratory diseases are increasing rapidly. Most economies are struggling to deliver modern health care effectively. There is a need to support the transformation of the health care system into integrated care with organizational health literacy. Main body: As an example for chronic disease care, MASK (Mobile Airways Sentinel NetworK), a new project of the ARIA (Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma) initiative, and POLLAR (Impact of Air POLLution on Asthma and Rhinitis, EIT Health), in collaboration with professional and patient organizations in the field of allergy and airway diseases, are proposing real-life ICPs centred around the patient with rhinitis, and using mHealth to monitor environmental exposure. Three aspects of care pathways are being developed: (i) Patient participation, health literacy and self-care through technology-assisted "patient activation", (ii) Implementation of care pathways by pharmacists and (iii) Next-generation guidelines assessing the recommendations of GRADE guidelines in rhinitis and asthma using real-world evidence (RWE) obtained through mobile technology. The EU and global political agendas are of great importance in supporting the digital transformation of health and care, and MASK has been recognized by DG Santé as a Good Practice in the field of digitally-enabled, integrated, person-centred care. Conclusion: In 20 years, ARIA has considerably evolved from the first multimorbidity guideline in respiratory diseases to the digital transformation of health and care with a strong political involvement.

The laws of history are as absolute as the laws of physics, and if the probabilities of error are greater, it is only because history does not deal with as many humans as physics does atoms, so that individual variations count for more. — Isaac Asimov, Foundation and Empire From a certain point onward there is no longer any turning back. That is the point that must be reached. — Franz Kafka, The Trial INTRODUCTION How ought we characterise the exercise of power in our societies? Are they societies that confine and discipline our bodies, or ones that control us in potentially subtler ways? This article adopts the framework for analysis used by twentieth century French philosopher Gilles Deleuze in his short but defining essay on the subject, 'Postscript on Societies of Control'.[1] It firstly considers the background to the concept of control, then provides a definition of the concept, and, finally, asks whether our society is one of control. It argues that Deleuze is correct to say control has replaced discipline as the primary mechanism of power in our era. ORTHODOXY In order to address the question of whether societies of control are increasingly replacing disciplinary societies, it is imperative first to understand what disciplinary societies are. Discipline is a concept developed most powerfully by Deleuze's contemporary, Michel Foucault.[2] Foucault's philosophy primarily concerns the technologies of power operating within society and their effect on human autonomy. He pursues this study via a genealogical approach; that is, he employs a historical critique to interrogate the workings of powers at play in modern society. In this way—despite his vocal opposition to Hegel—Foucault is very much Hegelian in his belief that close examination of historical parallels and events can clarify and deepen our understanding of present-day technologies of power and how they shape or restrict our autonomy.[3] Through his historical work, which spans various societal and public institutions, Foucault identifies a fundamental change in the mechanisms of power exercised by the state in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. He articulates this shift as a transition away from sovereign power to technologies of discipline. This notion of discipline and disciplinary society is perhaps best exemplified by Foucault's enquiry into the French penal system in his Discipline and Punish.[4] The book opens with vivid depictions of public torture and execution in pre-eighteenth century France. Foucault explains that the physicality and the public nature of punishment in the French criminal system up until then was an essential aspect of the exercise of sovereign power. Yet, while brutal public spectacle instilled fear and awe, it also provided public fora for communities to revolt against the perceived injustices of the sovereign. By moderating power through the benevolent reform of the criminal, by the discipline of the docile body, and by the fragmentation of public space into discrete, segregated institutions, state power could be obscured and, thus, maintained. These forces are the hallmarks of a disciplinary society. REVISION In his 'Postscript', Deleuze—building on the work of Foucault—argues that the twentieth century has marked a shift from disciplinary societies to societies of control. A precise definition of control and societies of control has proven to be elusive;[5] it is therefore helpful to consider both the antecedents and critiques of Deleuze's analysis in addition to his work itself.[6] Antecedents Deleuze has attributed the concept of control to William Burroughs.[7] Burroughs, in turn, provides not a definition of control, but brief observations as to its exercise; in truth, his analogies are of only limited assistance when read in the context of mechanisms of power within society at large.[8] Nevertheless, there are two salient points to note. Firstly, Burroughs establishes that when one maintains total or absolute power over the actions of another, they can more accurately be said to be using them rather than controlling them. Secondly, Burroughs shows that control requires concessions and illusions: controllers must make concessions to the controlled in order to maintain the illusion of choice and free agreement, obscuring their true motives in order to avoid revolt. In contrast to Burroughs, Félix Guattari provides an analogy of control that usefully supports the conception Deleuze comes to advance: the gated home and community accessed and exited via electronic cards.[9] This has elements of discipline, as movement being granted or denied constitutes a form of confinement. But, as Deleuze argues, it also represents a departure from the disciplinary society, as 'what counts is not the barrier but the computer that tracks each person's position […] and effects a universal modulation'.[10] Among his identified influences, Deleuze contends that Foucault sees as 'our immediate future' societies of control.[11] Deleuze particularly emphasises that Foucault's work on discipline is historical (focused on the exercise of power in the nineteenth century); we should, therefore, not be so naive as to assume Foucault would not have recognised the possibility of further historical change. Indeed, Deleuze says that Foucault concludes his Discipline and Punish with the explicit recognition that a prison as a physical space is becoming less important in the exercise of power. This, Deleuze suggests, presages a fuller analysis of a new sort of power.[12] Deleuze makes these forceful arguments as to Foucault's understanding of power in response to a critique by Paul Virilio that Foucault did not understand the nature of modern power. Ironically, that critique is also an important precursor to Deleuze's analysis. Virilio argues that the patrolling of the highway—and not the prison—exemplifies the exercise of police power. Deleuze concurs, adding that modern authorities possess predictive technologies that anticipate the movement of subjects and consequently have less need for confining subjects. Deleuzian societies of control That predictive power is a hallmark of control. In his 'Postscript', Deleuze fleshes out this position polemically. It must be noted that Deleuze never attributes any concrete definition to the notion of control itself; he is primarily concerned with how a society of control operates. This section will similarly consider the features and modes of operation that constitute a Deleuzian society of control. Much like with the disciplinary society, the technologies of power that govern a society of control cannot be boiled down to one single technology or mechanism. Instead, there are targeted and multi-faceted ways in which societies of control manage the lives of their subjects. Most fundamentally, there are no enclosures or strictly delineated confined spaces (like, for instance, the disciplinary society's schools, barracks, and factories, which are all subject to clear separation from one another). Instead, there is a single modulation, which allows for the coexistence and connection of various states (the corporation, the education system, and the army are all connected, one flowing into the other). This brings us to the next point: exploring how these spaces or states are connected. The disciplinary society operates on the basis that its subjects start over when they move from one space to another. Though it does recognise analogies between the spaces (the discipline of the school may be similar to the discipline of the army), the spaces and norms are ultimately distinct from each other, with one having little bearing on the other. Societies of control, on the other hand, are predicated on connection between spaces, such that 'one is never finished with anything.'[13] These connections encourage a culture of constant progression or improvement. The question this cultural attitude begs (to what ends is progression and improvement directed?) admits no answer. There are also differences in the conceptualisation and treatment of the person. The disciplinary society takes the individual and subjugates her through discipline so that she will conform to the mass. No such subjugation is necessary in societies of control. The individual is not viewed as a member of a mass, but as a data point, a market audience, a sample. This allows for targeted control to take shape, where compliance is not forced upon the individual (as with discipline) but facilitated. There are no overarching aims or requirements outlined by societies of control (no 'watchwords'). The society is governed merely by way of codes that function as 'passwords'; these can allow or deny the individual access to certain information or amenities. The control of access is presumably based on the conduct of the individual and is a means of exercising control over individuals' choices: the individual self-disciplines because of incentives and disincentives encoded within herself as a data-point. This, in turn, suggests (perhaps even necessitates) a degree of technological surveillance that goes beyond that of the comparatively simple model of the Benthamic Panopticon Foucault famously employs. Additionally, there are no clear hierarchies, if there are any at all. Unlike in disciplinary societies, power is not centralised or in the hands of a single 'owner' or state. Rather, control is exercised by a corporation—invested with its own personhood—comprising stockholders. The make-up of this corporation is transitory and fundamentally transformable. All of these technologies—singular modulation across singular space, an ethos of the relentless pursuit of progress, the 'dividualisation' or 'data-fication' of the individual, the facilitation of compliance, the use of codes as passwords, technological surveillance, and the absence of clear hierarchies of power—together create a society of control. Critiques Here we will explore three critiques of Deleuze's thesis: the privatisation of public space, the role of surveillance in control, and the telos of control. Privatisation Michael Hardt deals at length with the Deleuzian conception of societies of control, both in his joint work with Antonio Negri on Empire, as well as more specifically, in a piece titled 'The Global Society of Control.' Here, Hardt contends that there is an incompleteness to Deleuze's work on control, and proceeds to elaborate on the operation of societies of control to fill in these purported gaps. He does so by situating these societies within his and Negri's broader framework of Empire. The study is multifaceted, but here only one aspect of the critique will be considered: the erasure of the dialectic between public and private. 'There is no more outside,' insists Hardt.[14] This is to say, there are no longer any meaningful or permanent divisions between private and public spaces. Nikolas Rose, similarly, argues that inherently public spaces (like public parks, libraries, and playgrounds) are being abandoned in favour of privatised and privately secured places (like shopping malls and arts centres) for acceptable members of the public.[15] Those who have no legitimate, consumerised reason to occupy these new privatised 'public' spaces are denied access to them. Populations and classes of people deemed 'dangerous' or 'undesirable' are excluded from the private-public spaces and, so, from society itself. Deleuze touches on this idea of exclusion as well, in saying that 'three quarters of humanity', who are too poor for debt (as in, those who cannot be managed through the mechanisms of 'control', because these mechanisms rely on monetary and consumerist incentives or 'passwords') and too numerous of confinement (which makes it logistically difficult to subject them to technologies of 'discipline' that rely on confinement) will have to face exclusion to shanty towns and ghettos.[16] From this, we can take two points. Firstly, that neither the societies of control, nor disciplinary societies are or have ever been able to exercise control or discipline over every individual; when they are unable to, they simply exclude these potentially unpredictable and uncontrollable threats to order. Secondly, there is the implicit acknowledgment that technologies of control and discipline can coexist; to conceive of discipline and control as dichotomous notions would be inaccurate.[17] In fact, the question posed by this essay itself may fall victim to a false dichotomy between Foucauldian discipline and Deleuzian control. These mechanisms of power are not necessarily mutually exclusive. We should, therefore, be wary to adopt a view that control represents a natural or irreversible progression (from discipline) in the exercise of power (as Hardt and Negri may be suggesting in saying that control is an intensification of discipline),[18] because they are contingent historical realities. That is what Foucault's work—and Deleuze's analysis of it—suggested of discipline, and it is no less true in the case of control. Thus, we can qualify our thesis by saying that while societies of control are increasingly replacing those of discipline, technologies of discipline (and even of sovereignty) are still employed in certain contexts. Surveillance Surveillance is implicit within Deleuze's conception of control (in the understanding of the individual as a mere data point, not the member of a mass), but Oscar Gandy articulates this technology more explicitly.[19] Such an emphasis on surveillance is problematised, however, by Rose, who posits that societies of control are not predicated on surveillance but on the instilling of self-discipline and self-regulation in their subjects. That rather misses the mark, because, as we have seen, societies of control employ a range of technologies to exercise power. Nothing suggests an emphasis on self-discipline ought to exclude the technology of surveillance, which is implicit in the incentivisation of labour and use of passwords. Telos But Rose's critique of surveillance does helpfully inform another point of discussion: the odd ideas prioritised within societies of control. Deleuze makes brilliant and incisive concluding remarks about this telos of self-improvement and self-actualisation. But what are the motivations behind this ethos of motivation? That is the question Deleuze poses in his conclusion, and it is a question that largely remains unanswered. In some ways, one can only hazard a guess at the mechanisms at work here. That is rather the point. Societies of control have evolved such that their technologies of power and their telos can be more obscure than that of disciplinary societies. VALIDATION With definitions—or, rather, understandings—of both disciplinary societies and societies of control to hand, this essay considers whether it can be said that the latter are replacing the former. The institutions of the disciplinary society Foucault identifies in his body of work—the home, the school, the prison, the barracks, the factory—are all still extant. However, as we have noted above, there need be no 'either/or' as between societies of discipline and of control; the question is more accurately one of degree and we must identify whether a general movement may be occurring. Again, that movement need not be total or irreversible. Such a movement seems to be taking place all around us. For example, remote working and learning, which Deleuze identified as increasing in the 1980's and which has skyrocketed in light of the coronavirus pandemic, has weakened substantially the disciplinary segregation of physical space.[20] At the same time, it has strengthened the all-encroaching productivity ethos of societies of control by placing work or study (itself little more than a preparatory step towards work) within the walls of the private family home. Whilst coronavirus may have accelerated a shift towards societies of control, this trend runs much deeper still. Below, we shall seek to validate the shift Deleuze identifies by employing and analysing four impressionistic vignettes. Vignette A In April 2021, Chinese state television broadcast an exposé of intolerable working conditions faced by food delivery drivers—long hours, meagre pay, algorithms that encourage dangerous driving and heavily fine lateness, and harassment from customers who have full and 'live' access to drivers' locations and contact details. China's couriers are estimated to contribute to close to 1% of the country's economic activity, but the undercover government official earned just £4.52 over a 12-hour shift.[21] The courier works in no strictly delineated or confined space, but everywhere, openly. He is the subject of constant surveillance. Customers have his precise location, his 'ETA', the corporation's promised delivery slot, and his personal mobile phone number at their fingertips. The threat of an angry call or harsh review might appear in those circumstances to operate rather like a panopticon unconfined by space, enforcing conformity. But that is only a minor part of this story; it is secondary to the algorithmic surveillance and control in which both the courier and the customer are merely variables. Drivers will be set timescales in which to complete a delivery determined by the average speed at which drivers have previously made that journey or a similar journey. If they beat that timeframe, they may be rewarded with bonus pay. If they fail, their pay will be docked. Both processes—the incentivisation of speed and disincentivisation of slowness—are automated. The algorithm does not care how the driver gets from A to B, only that he does so quickly and does not damage the customer's goods in the process. So, drivers will travel recklessly in order to beat the clock to boost their meagre pay, but this only shortens the average time of journey completion, making pay boosts harder to achieve and pay docks more likely and contributing to an insane culture of paranoia and uncertainty. Compliance with the requirements of speed in this system is facilitated, not forced. In paying the less perfect worker less and the more perfect worker more, the corporation is nudging the courier to an (ultimately ephemeral) standard of compliance. But it need take no further punishing or corrective action: it knows that the courier, impacted by these forces, will correct himself. The password operating here is that of a courier 'score' that determines the level of pay afforded for work done. This is ripe terrain to consider Deleuze's challenge as to whether the unions will be able to resist forces of control upon the breakdown of the workplace. China, where organised labour is met with fear and hostility, shows that the communist party will intervene by challenging monopolies and exposing low pay. They may moderate the technology of power, but they will not extinguish it; the work is too economically important for that. In the UK, there have been increased efforts by unions to protect insecure, 'gig-economy' labourers and they have had some success.[22] But here too the overall system of algorithmic control is not removed, but mollified. Vignette B A London-based junior employee at Goldman Sachs, one of the largest investment banks in the world, has complained that staff face 18-hour shifts that mean they are earning less than the UK living wage and regularly take sick leave due to burnout. In 2015, US employee Sarvshreshth Gupta, who had been working 100-hour weeks, took his own life.[23] The company has a £50,000 entry-level base salary.[24] The company's average employee takes home about £260,000 per year.[25] It is at first blush surprising that employees at Goldman Sachs could be said to be subjects of control by twenty-first century technologies of power, and even more surprising to suggest that their situation is comparable to that of couriers in China. But this is precisely the sort of topsy-turviness that is to be expected from (and ultimately serves to legitimate) societies of control, where we all 'work hard'. The impetus to 'get ahead' is central to the ethos of self-improvement and motivation instilled by societies of control. That is perhaps nowhere more evident than amongst the new, highly-remunerated, highly-overworked, 'meritocratic', professional or upper class of managers, bankers, and lawyers.[26] Previously, elite status was maintained through generations by inheritance. That method of status-maintenance has now mostly been displaced by investments in 'human capital'. This can be achieved directly—through funding private schooling, tuition, and even work placements paid for by the volunteer—or indirectly, through covering children's rent and paying for their goods. The crucial factor in bringing about this shift has been the rise of 'meritocracy', which purports that success (i.e. the rate of remuneration for one's work) is a result and marker of an individual's inherent drive and talent but which in reality allows 'a relatively tiny segment of the population […] to transmit advantage from generation to generation' because elite parents stack the odds in favour of their children's advancement from birth.[27] This is the society of control in action: demanding, inequitable and possessing an obscured, democratically-papered-over telos, drive and skill directed at productive activities. But the elite class are not spared from the brutalities of this system, as the above vignette suggests. Since societies are increasingly meritocratic (in the sense that the most skilled and driven will generally be remunerated the most, not in the sense that the system promotes a level playing field) young elite professionals still have to work incredibly hard to 'climb the ladder'. Even if they reach seemingly secure positions of employment, they will still want to continue to reap the rewards of their labour, still need to work intensively to secure funds to invest in their children's human capital, and still be motivated by the overwhelming and corrupting cultural ideal of self-improvement and motivation. The name of Goldman Sachs' personnel team, 'Human Capital Management', is telling. It has been noted, '[l]ives are things that people have; capital has rates of return.'[28] Vignette C About one in every hundred adults in Britain has been trained as a 'mental health first aider' by the MHFA.[29] They advertise their 'proactive' services thus: 'for every £1 spent by employers on mental health interventions, they get back £5 in reduced absence [.] and staff turnover.'[30] The second of five listed responsibilities for first-aiders is to communicate concerns about 'anyone in your workplace, for example to an appropriate manager.'[31] Separately, the UK government is providing '£1 million for innovative student mental health projects' that offer targeted support to those identified statistically as being at highest risk of mental ill-health.[32] Deleuze argued the hospital was being replaced by 'neighbourhood clinics, hospices, and day care'.[33] Similarly, the above vignette suggests that the power that would in a disciplinary society be exercised by the asylum has, in our societies of control, been exercised dispersedly by employers, with the aim being to improve profit-margins and productivity rates. The actual mental wellbeing of employees—or, rather, of human capital—is a means to that end that may give rise to some incidental good. But even these incidental goods are monetised, such as when companies compete on their 'work-life balance' or their inclusion of private therapy in 'healthcare plans' so as to attract the most human capital. Under these conditions, the public healthcare officials sectioning or supporting a member of the public who risks harm to herself or others are reduced in their significance. In their place, the anxious employer preempts possible harm to the corporation by proactively addressing and preventing harm to the employee. Similarly, 'mental health teams' in schools and universities are encouraged by the government to anticipate, based on a series of data-sets, those students who are 'more at risk' and provide targeted interventions to safeguard their health (and, by extension, their productivity). Deleuze says that 'the socio-technological study of the mechanisms of control […] would have to be categorical'. By this it is meant that we must look to each institution of power—the healthcare system, the corporate system, the educational system—and describe the power being exercised there. The above vignette shows that that has become an artificial mode of analysis in this era of control. The healthcare system has been radically dispersed, with detection, prevention, and mitigation (recovery being ancillary) of illness now increasingly undertaken by the corporation and its agents, including crucially the employee herself qua employee or human capital. She will contact her mental health first aider colleague or her employer (though any difference between the two seems doubtful). She will purchase products—self-help books, meditation apps, tickets to motivational talks—with a view to her greater productivity and, hence, 'employability'. In fact, the monetary value she attributes (through her valuable spare time as much as through her pay-power) to her own productivity and employability may reduce the corporate system's nascent role in facilitating compliance; her self-improvement becomes her guiding, internalised ethos as a consumer-employee and she will discipline herself, knowing this self-improvement will be coded and rewarded. Thus, technologies of power in the modern, mental health context cannot be identified within a healthcare system, a corporate system or an education system, nor even within what might be dubbed a 'consumer system'; there is no single system of operation of which we can speak. This conceptual challenge itself demonstrates the ultimate annihilation of the institutions Deleuze anticipates in societies of control. Vignette D In May 2021, the UK government proposed halving state funding for university courses they do not regard as 'strategic priorities', such as music, drama, visual arts, and archaeology. It is estimated that such courses would run at a deficit of £2,700 per enrolled student, and many courses may therefore have to close if the plans go ahead. The government says the decision is 'designed to target taxpayers' money towards the subjects which support the skills this country needs to build back better'.[34] They also say universities should "focus [.] upon subjects which deliver strong graduate employment outcomes in areas of economic and societal importance".[35] Deleuze foretold the 'effect on the school of perpetual training, and the corresponding abandonment of all university research'.[36] Alarming an idea as this may be, the above vignette should at least discourage us from dismissing it altogether. The government's proposal betrays a deeply production-oriented approach to higher education that sees knowledge and learning as purely instrumental to the development of concrete 'skills' to be directed at the most economically valuable production of goods and services and, correspondingly, the strongest employment outcomes. The UK education system no longer possesses its own watchwords (save, perhaps, 'instilling British Values'). Instead, all activity is directed at the future employment prospects of the student. The privatisation of schools (through academisation in England) has allowed for corporate sponsorship that makes this close instrumentalism perfectly plain: the corporation's senior managers become senior managers of underperforming schools and they are expected to foster students' 'aspirations'. Here, the corporate and educational systems are blended together, the former funding the latter, the latter supplying labour to the former. The physical spaces in which learning occurs can at times barely be distinct from the corporate, whether a company name is printed across the school entrance ('Bridge Academy in partnership with UBS') or affixed to laptops donated to school students studying remotely. CONCLUSION There is a great deal of truth to Deleuze's thesis that societies of control are replacing disciplinary societies. We have noted the destruction of swathes of confined and discrete spaces; the intermixing of institutions; the pervasive power of technology to tweak and modulate behaviour through coding; and the pointless but universal ethos of motivation. As Deleuze ably demonstrates, analyses of discipline, confinement, hierarchy, and masses can only take us so far in understanding these forces. More necessary in our quest to uncover the telos we are being made to serve is a socio-technological study of control and its methods. However, this essay has also sought to demonstrate the limits of Deleuze's proposed methodology. For a 'categorical' socio-technological study of control becomes more elusive the more deeply a society succumbs to control. Schools, prisons, barracks, hospitals, factories, offices, and homes are increasingly blended (and so less discrete) environments. The office educates, entertains, protects, and diagnoses its employees. The school is a business, its pupils are prospective employees. University is a career stage. Beds, dining tables, and lounges are workstations. For those on 'home detention' during coronavirus in the United States or under TPIMs (Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures) in the United Kingdom, these same spaces are prison cells. The gradual annihilation of the disciplines as physical and conceptual spaces—which Deleuze foresaw—also renders obsolete our existing methods of understanding power. We are in need of new tools to respond to these developments; the study of categories must be replaced with the study of networks and systems. We must explore with curiosity and thoroughness the complex web of relations operating through spaces and lives. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams R, 'English universities must prove "commitment" to free speech for bailouts' The Guardian (16 July 2020) accessed 6 May 2021 Bakare L and Adams R, 'Plans for 50% funding cuts to arts subjects at universities "catastrophic' The Guardian (6 May 2021) accessed 6 May 2021 Burroughs WS, 'The Limits of Control' in Grauerholz J and Silverberg I (eds), Word Virus: The William S Burroughs Reader (4th edn, Fourth Estate 2010) Collini S, 'Snakes and Ladders' London Review of Books (London, 1 April 2021) 15 Deleuze G, 'Foucault: Lecture 17' (University of Paris, 25 March 1986) accessed 9 May 2021 — — 'Foucault: Lecture 18' (University of Paris, 8 April 1986) accessed 9 May 2021 — — 'Foucault: Lecture 19' (University of Paris, 15 April 1986) accessed 9 May 2021 — — 'Postscript on Societies of Control' (1992) 59 October 3 Department for Education and others, '£1 million for innovative student mental health projects' UK Government (5 March 2020) accessed 11 May 2021 Ewald F, The Birth of Solidarity: The History of the French Welfare State (Cooper M ed, Johnson TS tr, Duke University Press 2020) Feng E, 'For China's Overburdened Delivery Drivers, The Customer—And App—Is Always Right' NPR (Beijing, 1 December 2020) accessed 7 May 2021 Foster M, 'Guess How Much Goldman's Average Salary Is (GS)' Investopedia (25 June 2019) accessed 10 May 2021 Foucault M, The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France 1978–79 (Senellart M ed, Burchell G tr, Palgrave Macmillan 2008) — — Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (Sheridan A tr, 2nd edn, Vintage Books 1995) Hardt M, 'The Global Society of Control' (1998) 20(3) Discourse 139 — — and Negri A, Empire (Harvard University Press 2001) Makortoff K, 'Goldman Sachs junior banker speaks out over "18-hour shifts and low pay' The Guardian (London, 24 March 2021) accessed 7 May 2021 MHFA, 'Being a Mental Health First Aider: Your Guide to the Role' accessed 10 May 2021. — — 'Workplace Info Pack' accessed 10 May 2021. Morar N, Nail T and Smith DW (eds), Between Deleuze and Foucault (Edinburgh University Press 2016) Muldoon J, 'Foucault's Forgotten Hegelianism' (2014) 21 Parrhesia 102 Nealon J, Foucault Beyond Foucault: Power and Its Intensifications since 1984 (Stanford University Press 2008) Negri A, Interview with Gilles Deleuze: 'Control and Becoming' (Joughin M tr, Spring 1990) Rice-Oxley M, 'UK training record number of mental health first aiders' The Guardian (2 September 2019) accessed 11 May 2021 Roffe J, Gilles Deleuze's Empiricism and Subjectivity: A Critical Introduction and Guide (Edinburgh University Press 2016) Rose N, 'Government and Control' (2000) 40(2) The British Journal of Criminology 321–339 Wallin J, 'Four Propositions on the Limits of Control' (2013) 39(1) Visual Arts Research 6–8 Wise JM, 'Mapping the Culture of Control: Seeing through The Truman Show' (2002) 3(1) Television & New Media 29–47 Yang Y, 'China's food delivery groups slammed after undercover TV exposé' Financial Times (London, 29 April 2021) accessed 11 May 2021 — — 'How China's delivery apps are putting riders at risk' Financial Times (London, 26 January 2021) accessed 11 May 2021 [1] Gilles Deleuze, 'Postscript on Societies of Control' (1992) 59 October 3–7. [2] On their complex relationship before and after Foucault's death, see François Dosse, 'Deleuze and Foucault: A Philosophical Friendship' in Nikolae Morar, Thomas Nail and Daniel W Smith (eds), Between Deleuze and Foucault (Edinburgh University Press 2016). [3] James Muldoon, 'Foucault's Forgotten Hegelianism' (2014) 21 Parrhesia 102. [4] Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (Alan Sheridan tr, 2nd edn, Vintage Books 1995) [5] Michael Hardt, 'The Global Society of Control' (1998) 20(3) Discourse 139. [6] Deleuze cites these authors in his 'Postscript': (n 1). [7] Gilles Deleuze, 'Foucault: Lecture 19' (University of Paris, 15 April 1986). [8] Burroughs himself concedes his analogy of the life-boat is a 'primitive' one: William S Burroughs, 'The Limits of Control' in James Grauerholz and Ira Silverberg (eds), Word Virus: The William S Burroughs Reader (4th edn, Fourth Estate 2010). [9] 'Postscript' (n 1) 7. [10] ibid. [11] 'Postscript' (n 1) 4. [12] Foucault refers to it as 'biopower'. Biopower is not something that this essay will address, but we can observe that it may be that the Foucauldian notion of biopower and the Deleuzian notion of control are broadly similar or even the same: for a fuller discussion of that relationship, see Thomas Nail, 'Biopower and Control' in Between Deleuze and Foucault (n 2). [13] 'Postscript' (n 1) 5. [14] Hardt (n 5) 140. [15] Nikolas Rose, 'Government and Control' (2000) 40(2) The British Journal of Criminology 331. [16] 'Postscript' (n 1) 7. [17] JM Wise, 'Mapping the Culture of Control: Seeing through The Truman Show' (2002) 3(1) Television & New Media 29. [18] Nail, 'Biopower and Control'. [19] Wise, 'Culture of Control' 33. [20] Deleuze, 'Foucault: Lecture 18'. [21] Yuan Yang, 'China's food delivery groups slammed after undercover TV exposé' Financial Times (London, 29 April 2021). [22] For instance, many will now be recognised as 'workers' rather than as 'self-employed', with greater protections: Uber v Aslam [2021] UKSC 5. [23] Kalyeena Makortoff, 'Goldman Sachs junior banker speaks out over "18-hour shifts and low pay' The Guardian (London, 24 March 2021). [24] ibid. [25] Michael Foster, 'Guess How Much Goldman's Average Salary Is (GS)' Investopedia (25 June 2019). [26] Stefan Collini, 'Snakes and Ladders' London Review of Books (London, 1 April 2021) 15. [27] ibid 22. [28] ibid. [29] Mark Rice-Oxley, 'UK training record number of mental health first aiders' The Guardian (2 September 2019). [30]MHFA, 'Being a Mental Health First Aider: Your Guide to the Role'. [31] MHFA, 'Workplace Info Pack'. [32] Department for Education and others, '£1 million for innovative student mental health projects' UK Government (5 March 2020). [33] 'Postscript' (n 1) 4. [34] Lanre Bakare and Richard Adams, 'Plans for 50% funding cuts to arts subjects at universities "catastrophic' The Guardian (6 May 2021). [35] Richard Adams, 'English universities must prove "commitment" to free speech for bailouts' The Guardian (16 July 2020). [36] 'Postscript' (n 1) 7.

Jordan Branch on Google
Maps, State Formation, and the International Politics of Cartography







The territorial
underpinnings of international politics are as familiar as they are contested
within the discipline of International Relations. While the presumed 'territorial
trap' of the discipline has been attacked from many sides (see, for instance, Theory Talk #4),
Jordan Branch is more interested in turning the question around. 

His work has
carefully addressed the historical constitutive effects of mapping practices
and technologies on the subsequent transformation of practices of, and ideas about,
rule and the international system. In this fascinating Talk, Branch,
amongst others, discusses the significance of cartography for international
politics, explores the effects that contemporary digital mapping might have on political
spaces, and illustrates how innovations in mapping impacted on rule with the historical
example of France.





Print version of this Talk (pdf)





What is according to your view the most
important challenge facing global politics and what is/should be the central
debate in the discipline of International Relations (IR)?



While
there are many different debates going on at the same time within the discipline,
the one that has interested me most is the relationship between ideas and
practical or material factors. There is a very simplistic version of this
dichotomy that has been debated to death in the constructivist versus
rationalists debates, particularly in the American field of IR—an over-drawn
distinction, as many have pointed out. I am more interested in actual
explanations for the process, outcome, or phenomenon we're looking at. Rather
than separating them out, I am interested in how the ideational and material
relate to one another, how they fit together.



This
relationship poses questions for my specific interest in technological change. We
are experiencing fast-paced technological changes—for example, the information
technology revolution—which can yield a natural yet incorrect assumption, namely,
that this change will inevitably have some kind of major effect on, or
interaction with, politics and, specifically, with international relations.
This may be true, but it is too often assumed. Indeed, this raises another
problem. Even if there is such an effect, is it something we'll be able to
observe, let alone predict or explain, as it is happening? From my historical
work on the role of maps in state formation, for example, it is quite evident that
for people at the time, there was no way to see the impact maps had on the
political/spatial/ideational constitution of the state.



The information
technology (IT) revolution is the most obvious current example of dramatic technological
change. Although it has been playing out for the last 20 or 30 years, it only
continues to accelerate. Over the past couple of years, a lot of discussion has
focused on 'big data' and what it implies for business, financial analysis, and
the like. Of course, it also presents possibilities as a new tool for social
science. But there is a danger here. There is a tendency of seeing new
technological phenomena only in their material contexts, specifically focusing
on possibilities for measurement, for example, thereby neglecting to think
about the ideational. How do ideas about collecting and using data actually
play into the collection and analysis itself? So while they are in practice
always entangled, analytically, I find the distinction between the ideational
and the material a very fruitful one, not so much as a debate between opposing
fields, but as way to think about technological change.





How
did you arrive where you currently are in your thinking about these issues?



It is
funny—people often ask this sort of question, and I did not necessarily see a
natural trajectory for my thinking or work until I began to look and think
back. This interest in connecting technological and political change goes as
far back as my undergraduate time at Stanford University, where I initially
majored in mechanical engineering, and later switched to International
Relations. While technology remained an important preoccupation, I became more
interested in politics, history, and theory. So the interest formed into
questions about the political implications of phenomena like technology. But
this didn't happen instantly. Just before beginning my PhD at the University of
California, Berkeley, I was planning to do comparative work on regime change
and democratization. Then my older brother (Adam Branch), who is also a
political scientist, gave me a copy of Hendrik Spruyt's The Sovereign State and its Competitors (1994), and he said: 'Hey
you might like this!' So, I literally read that on a beach the summer before
starting grad school—which may sound funny, but I sat down, read it, and found
it fascinating. Yet I didn't immediately start thinking about these questions
then. It took a year or two, when I started really thinking about what I wanted
to work on. I came back to this work and realised these were the kind of
questions I was interested in: the origins of the territorial state and its
characteristics.



The
interest in the state as a concept had been with me for slightly longer. As an
undergrad my first introductory course to IR was taught by Stephen Krasner (Theory Talk #21).
Krasner has strong views, and the class was very rigorous. A lot of his work
focuses on the state and I think his framings influenced me early on. I don't entirely
agree with some of Krasner's arguments about sovereignty, but these
disagreements are more about the specifics of salient time periods or cases.
Other work which influenced me early on was that of John Ruggie on
territoriality. Indeed his approach became central as I was developing these
questions myself. I also discovered a host of literature in political geography
that turned out to be very interesting and useful. 



So,
one could say that my trajectory was really more focused on understanding the
historical outcome of the territorial state than on what role technology,
specifically maps, played in this process. The focus on technology, while
existent from my engineering days, really began to materialize as a link missing
from existing explanations of state formation. I was thinking about how we might
be able to find some additional traction on these questions by including
technology more prominently. It has certainly been part of some scholarship on
state formation, as in Charles Tilly's work or William McNeill's on
technological change and warfare. Surely, technology has always been in there,
but the discussion has been centered on war fighting technology and maybe on
transport, and only to a lesser degree on communication technology in the
broader sense.



Another
piece of work which triggered my focus on the relationship between the
ideational and the material was Ron Deibert's book Parchment, Printing and Hypermedia (1997, read the 1995 PhD thesis
that became the book here, pdf). He talks about internet
communication technology but also about the printing press and the impact it
has on the global distribution of power. Yet, only when I read this book for
the second or third time just as I was finishing up my dissertation did I realize
how much his framing had shaped how I formulated my thesis. He does touch on
the role of mapping, but it is his elaboration on the way in which media
informs how people think about the world which was spot on for me. For me, maps
as a medium very importantly framed how people thought about and imagined the
world in the past—but of course these questions about technology and its role
in constituting the international political system, states, territorial
boundaries, and so on are still relevant today.





What would a student need to become a
specialist in global studies or understand the world in a global way?



I
think it is important to be really excited and interested in your topic and
what you want to do. The key thing is to enter a grad program that fits you in
terms of your interests and to be willing to do whatever methodological training
ends up being needed for your research project.



I
think there's a tendency to look for a 'one size fits all' graduate training
model, which does make sense at the initial level. Everyone should get a
certain amount of background in a variety of methods, whether they'll end up
using those or not. For example, I have not used quantitative methods in my own
research, but I'm glad that I had to take classes on those methods in grad school.
They give you the ability to understand work which may connect to your own but
comes at it from a different angle. And you should always be open to a variety
of methods. The key is to be able to understand a broad array of approaches, otherwise
you won't be able to engage in broad conversations.



I
also feel I gained a lot from exploring, and reading widely, from other
disciplines such as history and sociology. I already mentioned political
geography, which is really not too distant but, nonetheless, in the U.S. it
sits in a different department. You might think that some work is 'on the other
side of the fence' but it is important to be able to bring that work into your
thinking.



The
final thing is to be open and ready to change your mind, whether it is about
the answer you're expecting to get to your question, or even changing the
question itself. Obviously there is a certain point when you're almost done
with a project where that might not be a good idea…. but if it is early on and
it works and you can do it logistically, I think it is important to be willing
to do that. Five years later you're going to be a lot better off.





So far, your work has been mainly
historical. Can you explain the importance of 'looking back' for understanding
contemporary international relations?



I
think it is extraordinarily important and useful. A lot of us in this and other
fields do see strong connections between today's politics and past events,
institutions, and ideas. There is an important notion that we cannot engage
meaningfully with the present if we do not understand its genealogy. That is
certainly a driver for me in thinking about the origins of the state and
territorial boundaries. It may help us to observe patterns we might see
replicated or appear in some kind of altered yet recognizable form today.
Indeed, it can help us think about where were might be headed.



Although
I also hesitate here slightly: always looking to the past for the answers can
be problematic. History can help us to observe patterns, dynamics, and maybe
relationships that might tell us something about other periods or about contemporary
international relations. But we should never do so thinking that the patterns
are definitely going to be the same or are deterministic. I think one can look
for patterns or relationships without automatically assuming that they have to
apply everywhere.



Historical
analysis can be problematic in its own right, because there is no way to
discover or absorb the past 'as it really was.' All history is some kind of
construction, whether it is based on contemporary or historical sources. Additionally,
in the social sciences we often have to rely on secondary sources. That is not
inherently a problem; this fact just introduces more variables to think about.
Pure narrative purporting to capture 'what really happened' can be very
problematic.



Given these disclaimers, it is useful to consider
the past. I think what should be emphasized is that, specifically at the grad
school level, students should be encouraged to dig a little deeper
historically. They shouldn't hesitate to do that excavation work.





IR, it has been argued, rests firmly on
a spatial or territorial understanding of politics. What constitutive role does
territorial space play in IR and is that role based on historical fact or is it
myth?



I
like that question. I think it is actually both—sort of a myth and sort of a
fact.  In one sense, territory informs at
least the state ideal (i.e., states as we think of them): it informs what the
state is, the interests of states, and of course how we distinguish one state
from another. And yet, while this is all inherently territorial, we also know
that this is far from an accurate description of a lot of regions and places in
the world. There are many different spatial ideas, practices, and organizations
with political agency that are non-state or non-territorial.



But
regarding the myth of state territoriality: I think it is important to point
out there is a lot of detail in the 'conventional narrative' of the state, such
as timing of when territoriality came about as pinpointed in Westphalia, that
has been quite effectively debunked by a number of scholars in the last 10 or
20 years (scholars like Andreas Osiander or Benno Teschke, from different
theoretical perspectives). This is a strongly supported finding. But it really
hasn't penetrated the mainstream narrative very well. While we can gradually see
a little more nuanced discussion in IR textbooks in the U.S., they more often
than not will still start with 1648 and Westphalia.



We
can now confidently say that states—states as we think of them now—did not
appear in 1648, let alone earlier. This is especially true if we look at the
specifically territorial or spatial aspects of statehood, which again are so
central to how we think about the state internationally. The focus on defending
cleanly demarcated linear boundaries and the idea of asserting absolute
sovereign authority within those lines; this is really not consolidated until at
least the 19th century. So, part of the myth is the timing and the
how and why we have states.



But
there still is a factual quality to territoriality in this story we tell
ourselves about the foundation of the international system and the supposed
creation of sovereign states. In a certain setting and for a certain period I
think this describes the ideas and practices of international politics quite
well. The most obvious example of this is 19th century Europe. While
there are still ways in which it diverges from the ideals of the typical state system,
in a lot of ways it actually did fit that. This happened at the same time as
the development of modern Western historiography, and it was the setting for some
of the traditional foundation of political science and IR. So we can see how
one shaped the other: history-making and state-making. The singular territorial
ideal of statehood from the 19th century has subsequently been
applied to other issues, actors, and areas. Even if it does not fit exactly, it
is applied today still and it is made to fit retrospectively much earlier
periods, where it applied less well.



Ultimately,
it is a powerful myth which has informed how we think about international
relations to such a degree that we shouldn't just throw it out. Instead, we
should think about exactly how it actually informs the way that international
relations is understood and practiced.
Practitioners and officials don't exactly read IR journals and base their
decision-making on our knowledge production, but the basic ideas of states, boundaries,
and territory which inform the practice of international relations—as well as
the study of it—should be our concern.





You have looked specifically at how
mapping has contributed to imagining and formation of the modern state system. Could
you elaborate more on how something as technical as cartography matters for
international politics?



I've
argued in my recent work that early modern mapping technologies were really
essential to the consolidation of the territorial state, particularly the
specific territorial features of states today. Maps, which have been a popular
medium over the past few centuries, really do shape how people understand the
world and their place in it. This gets us back to the connection between the
material and the ideational.



In early
modern Europe a revolution took place, first in mapmaking technologies and,
slightly later, in the ideas and practices of political rule, especially as it
relates to territory. I argue this was really not a coincidence. How rulers and
subjects conceived of rule and how rulers conceived of their realms was really
altered as they increasingly used maps that depicted the world in this one
particular way. The key characteristics of modern statehood – at least of the
ideal of modern statehood – such as linear boundaries between homogenous territorial
claims, really appeared first in maps and only subsequently in political practices
on the ground. Of course, there were existing authority structures, but these were
not particularly spatial or were not spatial in this linear demarcated way. Subsequently,
however, these authority structures were ignored or sometimes even actively
renounced in favor of the kind of authority which could be literally shown and
drawn on a map.



It is
interesting because initially, maps were not predominantly produced by rulers, states,
or officials. They were certainly involved in sponsoring some mapping projects,
buying maps, and using them, but mapmaking was more of a commercial private
scientific enterprise, if we can apply the label 'scientific' in the 16th
and 17th centuries. These map-makers certainly didn't have any articulated
goal of changing politics, at least not on this broad level. They were really
concerned with making money, maybe creating art, and advancing what they
thought was a growing science of cartography.



We
can however see that the map, as a technological artifact—maps as actual things—had
an impact on the practices of rule both between rulers and between rulers and
their subjects. I argue that this process occurred quite broadly across the
European development of the international system at that time. And you can see
this sequence really clearly in a case like France.



Let
me illustrate that. Here are three maps of 'France' ranging from the 1400s to
the 1700s—the quotation marks are necessary because the notion of there being
one entity called France across this whole period is more a matter of us labeling
it as such rather than it being one recognizable entity.









The
first map is from a 15th century manuscript about royal and noble
genealogy in France. The image is purported to represent 'all the realm of
France' and shows the country as a collection of what I would call places
rather than a single linearly demarcated space. You do have the notion of spatial
boundaries here, in terms of rivers as means for demarcation. Yet, very
clearly, the visual language of this map focuses on towns. And this is how rule
was practiced and operationalized as well: negotiations would be over places, or
maybe collections of people based on identity, jurisdiction, or where they were
allowed to reside, but not in term of linear demarcations between claims.









Now
look at the second map, which is just from about 150 years later, from the
1590s. It is from an atlas by a follower of Mercator, and its label Gallia is
the Roman designation for France. From our modern perspective we can recognize
something that looks a lot like a modern map of France. Maybe even a state, although
the boundaries are not exactly like we would expect them to be. But this is the
visual language of mapping that we are familiar with: longitude, latitude,
spatial expanses colored in, homogenous territorial claims—there is something
about the space depicted that argues that it is all the same, that is all
France.



And
despite this familiarity, it was actually far from an accurate depiction of
French rule. Not just in the actual placement of the boundaries, which are
contestable, but in the discrete nature of the boundaries themselves. Along
these frontiers, so clearly demarcated on this image, the claims of the French
king were often unclear and overlapped with those of other rulers. This was
even true for the interior of France during this period.









The
third map is another 150 years later, from the 1740s. This is from a map
showing the triangulation of the realm, undertaken by a group of geographers, known
as the Cassini survey, as several generations of the Cassini family headed up
this effort. The realm is being mapped explicitly using geometric tools with
the important emphasis that the image is actually meant to represent reality.
It is understood that way: it's supposed to measure reality, in order to enable
the French king to better understand what he rules. Moreover, this mapping took
place at the same time that rule was being implemented in practice on the
ground in terms of spatial expanses as we think of them, in the form of
demarcating boundaries with neighbors which had previously been unclear,
overlapping jurisdictions.



Although
maps of the second generation (i.e., the map from the 1590s) were 'inaccurate,'
they were extremely influential. They were widely distributed and purchased by
the elite, both inside and outside of government. Using these maps provided
rulers with this particularly new territorial meaning to their centralizing and
bureaucratizing efforts. As a consequence, the use of these maps as material
tools of governing and negotiation really changed the language of rule. Rule becomes
cartographic, at least in part. When two opposing sides come to the negotiation
table, for example, they at the very least have already agreed, implicitly, that
the division should be a linear boundary—it is just a question of where.



By
the time the third map is produced, the government is much more directly
involved in map production using accurate geometrical measurement. Yet the very
desire for this mapping was shaped by the earlier use of those commercial maps
that built up the visual grammar of geometric space. The French case is useful
because it is very well documented, but we do see the same sort of process
repeated either simultaneously or later throughout Europe and also elsewhere. In
fact, there is a lot of interesting scholarship on the introduction of mapping
and modern geographic thinking into regions outside the West. Siam Mapped (1994), a book by Thongchai Winichakul,
is a fantastic study that I found really useful for my thinking about Europe,
even though it deals with Siam (Thailand) in the late 19th and early
20th centuries.



This
is my story about mapping and territory, but I think there is a broader frame
to your question: do we want to bring in these sort of technical factors into explanations
in International Relations? And while we don't want to be technologically
determinist, there is some useful thinking around technology and its effects we
should consider. The impact of maps has been so strong, and yet they are such
common artifacts that they are largely conceived of as 'unremarkable' outside
of geographic-oriented disciplines.





So can we juxtapose this insight that mapping practices precede the
practice of rule and state formation to the anthropological present, that is,
what do the contemporary, some say radical, shifts in mapping techniques entail
for international politics?



Absolutely.
When I initially present my work, there is often an assumption that I use GIS
in my study. Instead, my work focuses on analyzing mapping itself—maps as
historical artifacts, their effects and their interaction with political
identities, interests, and organizations. But I think the ways in which methodology
and the subject of study overlap on subjects like technology could potentially
contribute to stretching the boundaries of IR. The big data question is both a
question of studying what big data means for politics but also how we can use
big data to study politics. The way in which new technologies can simultaneously
play into our methods and into our answers or questions is a pressing and
fascinating issue.



For
instance, there has been a lot of back and forth on the question of whether
more open-access mapping techniques entail some sort of democratization. While
I think we have seen that more participatory forms of mapping are possible, we
shouldn't think that this type of mapping is completely open, as no
technological system is completely open to anyone and everyone at all times.
But, indeed, there is a democratization of mapping under way. Authorship in a
whole host of domains, including mapping, is opening up where there used to be
a single authoritative voice or at least a single type of authoritative voice. So
maps are an example of this opening up and collective authorship. At the same
time, accommodating more voices also means that a lot of information is being
shared without authority or attribution or what we think of as a legitimate
source… When you open a map from Rand McNally or National Geographic, you know
that specific cartographers thought this was accurate and you can blame or
praise them. But when you open up a layer of Google Earth that has been
crowd-sourced you don't know who put that pin there, and you don't know why.



It's
really interesting to explore a bit further how this is different from the
recent past. In the 19th and first half of the 20th
century, mapmaking was essentially state-led. The U.S. geological survey, the
Ordnance Survey in Britain, or large mapmaking geographical institutions such
as National Geographic represented the owners and producers. Mapping was so
technical, so obviously technical that the everyday person would not be able to
make a map to Rand McNally's standards. This has changed, and quite importantly
so. Not only do we have the technology to do this, people are aware that they
can use it as easily as opening a smartphone app, thereby incorporating more
points of view. This is not necessarily good or bad. Politically, it does open
up new possibilities. Maps have always been political, both implicitly and
explicitly. It certainly opens up the possibility of some kind of broader shift
in ideas about territory. Let me illustrate with an example. I haven't
necessarily come across specific maps that present some completely novel visual
grammar potentially reshaping the way we think about the world. But, an
interesting example I like to bring to my students: there was a September 2011blog post on Google's Lat-Long blog (which is the company's blog about Google Maps and Google Earth). Its headline
read: 'South Sudan is now official on Google Maps,' and it displayed a
screenshot of the new boundary. 







They changed their base layer by adding a boundary between South Sudan and
Sudan. This of course followed the referendum and the UN's recognition, and all
the traditional precursors to official statehood. South
Sudan became a recognizable entity on that blog. Google Earth, a
non-governmental actor, indeed a huge corporate actor—and thus not necessarily
democratizing—becomes part of the discourse of declaring South Sudan's official
existence.



This
is an example of how things might be going. Interestingly, the whole enterprise
of mapping today actually resembles more closely that of the 16th
and early 17th centuries then that of the 19th or early
20th century, not technologically but organizationally. The
state-centric view of the world was enforced by the state-authored mappings of
the 19th and 20th centuries. Now, by contrast, there is a
kind of shared or unclear authorship, there is crowdsourcing, there are multiple
sources of conflicting and quite openly unreliable or uncertain information.
This environment of rapidly increasing distribution and use also describes the
creation of the early atlases in the late 16th century and early 17th
centuries, which involved the collation of all kinds of information from multiple
sources.



And
of course it was in the 16th and 17th century when this
sort of non-state-controlled mapping presented innovative images of the world—those
images that ended up shaping and consolidating the state form of territory. And
so it was these new tools for understanding and acting on the world which gave
the state its territorial shape. As key information-producing activities are
being opened up, some forms of power are being redistributed. This certainly
means that we need to widen our scope in terms of whom we consider to be a
stakeholder or what sort of actors we want to study. We know that the dichotomy
of state versus non-state is not sufficient. We need to be subtler in our
inquiries. In IR, of course, the stereotypical over-emphasis on states is being
questioned, and this is really just one more sign that a piece of the power of
the state, in this case map-production and distribution, is shifting elsewhere.




I
recently had a conversation with students in my undergrad seminar on technology
and international politics. I went into it saying: 'Hey, all this mobile
mapping and GPS and Google Earth is totally revolutionary. This may change how
we think about the world.' And they were all completely unconvinced, since they
use these technologies all the time—to a bunch of twenty-year-olds these tools seem
unremarkable. And maybe that is actually a more accurate analysis. But it is
interesting how it is such a different analysis from that of my generation and anyone
older, all of us who have spent a lot of time, for example, driving around
without GPS. It is partly this perception and the 'unthinking usage' which make
the relationship between technologies and social and political outcomes so difficult
to observe. Our ideas may be changed, and especially the ideas of younger
generations may be changed, without anyone particularly noticing how dramatic
the changes might be. This also means that the connections, because they are
'unthinking,' can be quite foundational to people's ideas of social identities
or political practices. They are tacit and embodied. That makes it both hard to
observe but also an interesting puzzle. But it is worthwhile mentioning that
the images presented by Google Maps and other digital mapping tools,
particularly satellite imagery, might carry a greater legitimacy in terms of
depicting 'the truth'. It looks like a picture of the world and therefore
whatever is on it, even layered on data (like a new international boundary),
must be true. It represents another apex of the scientific trajectory of
mapping.





If it is just about adding a data layer on a base map that remains the
same, does that then mean that ontologically this kind of mapping technology
actually doesn't challenge territoriality?



That
gets to an interesting point, which entangles with a lot of the more careful
discussions of globalization and the state. One version of that is that the
state is not dying, is not being destroyed. It is just that other things are
being layered on top of it, and the state and its boundaries still remain and
still matter for certain things. In this case, maps are perfectly capable of
showing state boundaries—they look very fixed, very strong—but one can layer on
top other types of information, maybe transactional flows or particular places
that are connected in different ways.



I
think that could be an interesting argument: these new mapping tools can really
show so much, and it is matter of selecting what you want to show and
unselecting things you don't want to show. Thus they don't do anything to
undermine one particular view of the world. Now that is not necessarily a good
or bad thing. If we look at the history of mapping and the origins of state
territoriality, a key part of that was that it was really hard to depict
medieval jurisdictional and personal notions of rule on early modern maps. Printing
technology and mapping tools prescribed depiction in a certain way—drawing
lines and coloring in spaces. Maps made it harder to show and thus think about
the other forms of rule. If digital maps are still perfectly capable of showing
states and their boundaries, they may do very little to undermine that notion
of territory.





Finally, if we are interested in the politics of maps, to what extent do
we need to study not only the maps as political artifacts but the mapmakers as
political actors as well?



I
think it is extremely useful to do both, and obviously if we study mapping
today, we can do both. In terms of
historical work, we can only rely on very limited sources, such as what mapmakers
themselves wrote about what they were doing. We don't know a lot about their
goals or ideas about politics. I would have loved to have been able to read
exhaustive memoirs by mapmakers such as Ortelius and Mercator. Of course, they might
not have said anything about the questions we are interested in. On the other
hand, a lot of map-makers today are involved in mapping for explicit political
reasons: for example, Ushahidi-type collaborative mapping (www.ushahidi.com), or humanitarian and
relief mapping. Here we can dig into the question of how the maps produced relate
to specific objectives. That is a great way to get more analytical leverage on
a lot of these questions.



Jordan Branch joined the Political Science
department at Brown as an Assistant Professor in summer 2012. He received his
PhD in Political Science at UC-Berkeley in 2011, and spent 2011-2012 as the
Hayward R. Alker Postdoctoral Fellow at the Center for International Studies at
the University of Southern California. His interests include international
relations theory, the history of the sovereign state system, contemporary
challenges to statehood, and the intersection of technological and political
change. In 2014, Cambridge University Press published his book, The
Cartographic State: Maps, Territory, and the Origins of Sovereignty. His
research has also appeared in International Organization and
the European Journal of International Relations.







Related links





Faculty profile at Brown University
Read
Branch's Mapping the Sovereign State:
Technology, Authority, and Systemic Change (International Organization 2011) here (pdf) 
Read
Branch's Colonial Reflection' and
Territoriality: The Peripheral Origins of Sovereign Statehood (European Journal of International Relations,
2012) here (pdf) 








Print version of this Talk (pdf)




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"In "Atomic Environments," Neil S. Oatsvall examines how top policymakers in the Truman and Eisenhower administrations used environmental science in their work developing nuclear strategy at the beginning of the Cold War. While many people were involved in research and analysis during the period in question, it was at highest levels of executive decision-making where environmental science and nuclear science most clearly combined to shape the nation's policies. Because making and testing weapons, dealing with fallout and nuclear waste, and finding uses for radioactive byproducts required advanced understanding of how nuclear systems interacted with the world, policymakers utilized existing networks of environmental scientists-particularly meteorologists, geologists, and ecologists-to understand and control the United States' use of nuclear technology. Instead of profiling individuals, Oatsvall focuses on executive institutions, especially the leadership of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and high level officials in the Truman and Eisenhower White Houses, including the presidents, themselves. By scrutinizing institutional policymaking practices and agendas at the birth of the nuclear age, a constant set of values becomes clear: "Atomic Environments" reveals an emerging technocratic class that consistently valued knowledge about the environment to help create and maintain a nuclear arsenal, despite its existential threat to life on earth and the negative effects many nuclear technologies directly had on ecosystems and the American people, alike. "Atomic Environments" is divided into five chapters, each of which probes a different facet of the entanglement between environment, nuclear technologies, and policymaking. The first three chapters form a rough narrative arc about nuclear weapons. Chapter One situates bombs in their "natural habitat" by considering why nuclear tests occurred where they did and what testers thought they revealed about the natural environment and how they influenced it. Focusing on nuclear fallout, Chapter Two argues that nuclear tests actually functioned as a massive, uncontrolled experiment in world environments and human bodies that intermingled medicine, nuclear science, and environmental science. Chapter Three shows how the environmental knowledge gained in the first two chapters led to nuclear test ban treaty talks during the Eisenhower era, when the advancement of environmental knowledge and the natural world itself became crucial grounds of contention in the creation of nuclear test detection and evasion systems. The last two chapters step away from weapons to question how other nuclear technologies and facets of the U.S. nuclear program interacted with the natural world. Chapter Four examines agriculture's place in the U.S. nuclear program, from breakthrough advances in agricultural science including the use of radioisotopes and the direct application of radiation to food, to "atomic agriculture's" public relations value as a peaceful proxy, which shifted the moral calculus and further leveraged the U.S. government's atomic power. Chapter Five shows how knowledge of the natural world and the functioning of its systems proved important to uncovering the most effective ways to dispose of nuclear waste. Running throughout, Oatsvall consistently demonstrates how the natural world and the scientific disciplines that study it became integral parts of nuclear science, rather than adversarial fields of knowledge. But while nuclear technologies heavily depended on environmental science to develop, those same technologies frequently caused great harm to the natural world. Moreover, while some individuals expressed real anxieties about the damage wrought by nuclear technologies, policymakers as a class consistently made choices that privileged nuclear boosterism and secrecy, prioritizing institutional values over the lives and living systems that agencies like the AEC were ostensibly charged to protect. In the end, Oatsvall argues that although policymakers took their charge to protect and advance the welfare of the United States and its people seriously, they often failed to do so because their allegiance to the U.S. nuclear hierarchy blinded them to the real risks and dangers of the nuclear age"--

Understanding climate change impacts on Indigenous Peoples and local communities. A global perspective from local studies / Victoria Reyes-García, Santiago Álvarez-Fernández, Petra Benyei, Laura Calvet-Mir, Mouna Chambon, David García-Del-Amo, André B., Junqueira, Xiaoyue Li, Vincent Porcher, Anna Porcuna-Ferrer, Anna Schlingmann, Ramin Soleymani, Adrien Tofighi-Niaki -- Introduction / David García-Del-Amo, André B. Junquiera -- Correspondence between local and scientific knowledge of climate change: the case of Hutsuls, Northern Romanian Carpathians / Giulia Mattalia, Nataliya Stryamets, Virginia Toscano Rivalta, Victoria Reyes-García -- Local observations of climate change and impacts on livelihoods in Kamchatka, Russia / Drew Gerkey, Victoria Sharakhmatova -- Sargassum seaweed challenges from local to national level in the Caribbean: a policy cycle perspective / Patrick McConney, Janice Cumberbatch, Carina Hinds, Hazel A. Oxenford, Marina Pena -- "The weather is more erratic; it changes faster..." Local perceptions of climate change in the Eastern Carpathians, Romania / Dániel Babai -- Network analysis of climate change impacts reported by local communities of Sierra Nevada, Spain / David Garcia-del-Amo, Laura Calvet-Mir, Graham Mortyn, Victoria ReyesGarcia -- Climate and environmental change perceptions. A case from rural Sicily, Italy / Vincenza Ferrara, Johan Lindberg -- Smallholders perceptions of climate change in a post-socialist Albania / Simona Lippi, Massimiliano Sanfilippo -- Local perceptions of climate change in the context of socioeconomic and political changes in a High Andean community from the Argentine Puna / Andrea E. Izquierdo, Anna Schlingmann -- Settlement, way of life, and worldviews: how socio-environmental changes impact and are interpreted by artisanal fishing communities in Portugal / Yorgos Stratoudakis, Patrícia Gonçalves, Daniel Oliveira, Mônica Mesquita -- A complex matrix: Perceptions of environmental change and its drivers by the Tsimane', Bolivian Amazon / Victoria Reyes-Garcia, Petra Benyei, André B. Junqueira, Tomas Huanca, Esther Conde -- "Not like it used to be": contending with the altered agricultural calendar in Andean Peru's Colca Valley / Eric Hirsch -- The colonial roots of climate vulnerability. Analysing the case of the MapuchePehuenche People in Southern Chile / Rosario Carmona -- Adapting to climate change impacts in the context of global change: Introduction / Anna Schlingmann, Laura Calvet-Mir, Xiaoyue Li -- Agricultural adaptation to multiple stressors in a climate change context. A case study in south-eastern Senegal / Anna Porcuna-Ferrer, Théo Guillerminet, Benjamin Klappoth, Anna Schlingmann -- Changing terrain: evidence of climate change impacts and adaptive responses of Dagbani Indigenous communities, northern Ghana / Emmanuel M.N.A.N. Attoh, Ruddy Afriyie, Gordana Kranjac-Berisavljevic, Enoch Bessah, Fulco Ludwig -- Climate change impacts on agriculture and barriers to adaptation technologies among rural farmers in Southwestern Nigeria / Ayansina Ayanlade, Isaac Ayo Oluwatimilehin, Oluwatoyin S. Ayanlade -- Climate change impacts on agriculture, adaptation and resilience: Insights from local farmers in Chiredzi, South-East Zimbabwe / Rumbidzayi Chakauya, Simeon A. Materechera, Obert Jiri, Ereck Chakauya, Machete Machete -- Counteracting land abandonment: local adaptation strategies to climate change impacts of alpine farmers in Eastern Tyrol, Austria / Anna Fuchs, Christian R. Vogl, Christoph Schunko -- Social and cultural dimensions of reported climate change impacts and adaptations among farming communities in Kerman, Iran / Mariam Abazeri -- The role of culture in climate change adaptation: insights from two mountain regions in Kenya / Ben Mwangi, Lydia A. Olaka, Noelia Zafra-Calvo, Julia A. Klein, Aida Cunisanchez -- Roads, riding stables, and highland barley: livelihood diversification as climate change adaptation among Tibetans in Shangri-La, China / Zhuo Chen -- Faith, reciprocity, and balance: Inner Mongolian Ovoo offering ritual and its contribution to climate change adaptation / Ouerle Chao, Xiaoyue Li, Victoria Reyes-García -- Local indicators, adaptation actions, and resilience efforts for a warming climate in North Greenland / Leneisja Jungsberg, Nicola Wendt-Lucas -- How can co-management support adaptation to climate change? The case of coexisting fisheries from Pangnirtung, Nunavut, Canada / Eranga Galappaththi -- Climate change adaptation in Fiji: Local adaptation strategies to enhance national policy / Priyatma Singh, Daniela Schulman, Dhrishna Charan, Victoria Reyes-García, Anna Schlingmann, Ashneel A. Singh, Kelera Railoa.

Introduction -- Chapter 1 - The BRI in Historical Perspective: PRC Economic Statecraft Since 1949 -- Chapter 2 - China, the BRI, and the New Vocabulary of Global Governance -- Chapter 3 - The Globalizing Discourse of the Belt and Road Initiative -- Chapter 4 - The BRI in Xi's China "Grand Strategy": an instrument to restore Chinese centrality in a New Era -- Chapter 5 - People-to-People Exchanges: A Cluster of Narratives to Advance Purposeful Constructivism -- Chapter 6 - The Belt and Road Initiative in Global Governance: Impact on the International World Order -- Chapter 7 - Glocalization of Belt and Road Initiatives: The Importance of Local Agency -- Chapter 8 - The Chinese Agenda on the World Economic Forum. Assessing Political Evidence Between Rhetoric and Practice -- Chapter 9 - COVID-19 Pandemic, China and Global Power Shifts: Understanding the Interplay and Implications -- Chapter 10 - Enacting inclusive globalization in a VUCA context whilst emerging from Covid-19 -- Chapter 11 - China's Ambition in Promoting Green Finance for Belt and Road Initiative -- Chapter 12 - Liability of emergingness of emerging market banks internationalizing to advanced economies -- Chapter 13 - Chinese health strategy: a tool towards global governance -- Chapter 14 - Digital China: Governance, Power Politics and the Social Game -- Chapter 15 - The New Face of Multilateralism: The Case of "Chinese" Forums -- Chapter 16 - Secular Stagnation and World Leadership: China´s rising path -- Chapter 17 - Visuality and Infrastructure: the case of the Belt and Road Initiative -- Chapter 18 - The Belt and Road Initiative: can it signalize a new pendulum movement? -- Chapter 19 – The EU-China Geo-Economic Equilibrium in a World of Uncertainty -- Chapter 20 - A shifting current: Europe's changing approaches vis-à-vis China, the Belt and Road Initiative and the COVID-19 pandemic -- Chapter 21 - China in Central and Eastern Europe: New opportunities for small states -- Chapter 22 – China and the European Union – Inside the economic dynamics of a challenging relationship -- Chapter 23 – A review of China's contribution to the sustainable development of the European tourism industry: A case study of economic effects and sustainability issues in Albania -- Chapter 24 – A greater Eurasian Partnership? Xi and Putin's Road to integrate and lead -- Chapter 25 - Health, Road, and Russia: Perspectives on Russian Involvement with China' s Health Silk Road -- Chapter 26 – India's Challenge to the BRI: Shaping the Global Normative Consensus -- Chapter 27 – China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC): India's Conundrum and Policy Options -- Chapter 28 - China in Latin America: to BRI or not to BRI -- Chapter 29 - Why America Opposes the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) -- Chapter 30 - The Belt and Road Initiative's Security Challenges: The Chinese Globalization Project and Sino-American Rivalry -- Chapter 31 - Sino-Iranian cooperation in Artificial Intelligence: a potential countering against the US hegemony -- Chapter 32 - China and the wave of Globalization focusing on the Middle East -- Chapter 33 - China-Iran's 25-Years deal: The Implication for the Belt and Road Initiative and Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) -- Chapter 34 - China's New Maritime Silk Road Cooperation: Why Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines are Clings in Disagreement? -- Chapter 35 - The Belt and Road Initiative and the Uneven Triangle of Latvia, Belarus, and China -- Chapter 36 - The Impact of Belt and Road Initiative on Asian Economies along the Route -- Chapter 37 - The Belt and Road in the Kyrgyz Republic: Mapping economic risks and risk perceptions -- Chapter 38 - Belt and Road Initiative's economic impact on Central Asia. The cases of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan -- Chapter 39 – How Does BRI Affect the Degree of Globalisation in Southeast Asia? -- Chapter 40 – Vietnam's Attitude Toward China's Belt and Road Initiative Amid Globalization -- Chapter 41 – The South Atlantic in China's Global Policy: Why It Matters? -- Chapter 42 – Belt and Road Initiative: Impact and Implications for Africa-China Relations -- Chapter 43 – The unequal modalities of China's intervention in Africa -- Chapter 444 – Africa's thirst for infrastructure: Contemporary phenomenon that makes China the trading partner -- Chapter 45 – Why is China Going Polar? Understanding Engagement and Implications for the Arctic and Antarctica.

PrefaceSection 1Chapter 1: Getting lost in a the digital1.1 Limited or liberated by ubiquitous digital technology? 1.2 It Could Be Otherwise (ICBO) - the foundation of critical thinking1.3 Opening the black box1.4 A response to political and corporate solutionism1.5 Digitalization as a topic for Science and Technology Studies (STS) 1.6 A critical sociotechnical perspective1.7 The structure of the book1.8 ConclusionReferencesChapter 2: What is "digitalization," exactly? 2.1 Digitalization as technological fix2.2 Defining digitalization2.3 Defining digitalization as a political act in itself2.4 A digitalized world2.5 Digitalization as a sociotechnical process2.6 ConclusionReferencesSection 2Chapter 3: A sociotechnical perspective on digitalization3.1 What is a sociotechnical perspective on digitalization? 3.2 What do we mean by "technology"? 3.3 Technologies and their agency3.4 Why technological determinism is a dead end3.5 Technological reductionism3.6 How social determinism is equally problematic3.7 ConclusionReferencesChapter 4: Domestication: User perspectives on technology4.1 A user perspective on technology4.2 Domestication theory4.3 The dimensional model of domestication4.4 The history of domestication4.5 Strengths and weaknesses of domestication theory4.6 Re-domestication and dis-domestication4.7 What non-users can teach us about the use of technology4.8 Normativity and use4.9 ConclusionReferencesChapter 5: Script: Technology's manual for use5.1 Script as technology's manual5.2 The historical and theoretical position of script theory5.3 How do you do a script analysis? 5.4 Making scripts through technology development5.5 ConclusionReferencesChapter 6: Technologies as normality machines6.1 A thought experiment on a student app6.2 Technology as inclusion or exclusion? 6.3 Scripting the use and users to create differences6.4 The digital divide6.5 ConclusionReferencesChapter 7: Digital technologies in the past and present7.1 Becoming a communication society7.2 What comes after the communication society? 7.3 Digitalization and some sample diagnoses of the times7.4 ConclusionReferencesSection 3Chapter 8: Digitalization of health: Networks of care and technology8.1 In search of good health: Robots to the rescue? 8.2 Digital technology for better health? 8.3 Talking flowerpots: Welfare technology in the home8.4 Exergames: Gamifying health8.5 Support groups in social media: Communities for mental health8.6 Digitalization makes the actor network of health visible8.7 ConclusionReferencesChapter 9: Digitalization of work: Automation, responsibility, and reskilling9.1 Two visions of future work9.2 From animal laborans to homo faber9.3 Automating workers? 9.4 Who operates self-service checkouts? 9.5 The digital stopwatch and the attempt to automate care work9.6 Craftspeople at construction sites working with robots9.7 What will we do in the future--and how will we do it? 9.8 ConclusionReferencesChapter 10: Digitalization of control: Surveillance, automation, and algorithms10.1 Control through surveillance and digital tracking10.2 Control of animals using virtual fences10.3 Care, technology, and the desire for boundaries when surveilling children10.4 Predictive police algorithms: Surveillance of data sets and predictions of the future10.5 Life in a surveillance society: What digitalization does to surveillance10.6 ConclusionReferencesChapter 11: Digitalization of culture: Remix, community, and prosumers11.1 SKAM and transmedia storytelling11.2 Remix culture as the foundation of digital culture11.3 Understanding where remix culture comes from: Participatory culture and networked publics11.4 Memes: Collective creativity, both serious and humorous11.5 Fan fiction: When fans take ownership of the story11.6 Twitch.tv and livestreaming games: How innovative gamers made one of the world's biggest platforms11.7 Discussion: Prosumers' new cultural expressions11.8 ConclusionReferencesChapter 12: Digitalization of the self: Selfies, influencers and the quantified self12.1 Picture perfect? What "Instagram vs. reality" can teach us about being fakeness and authenticity online12.2 From anonymity to persistent identities on the internet12.3 Frontstage, backstage, and the cyborg's theater12.4 Selfies: The cyborg's self-portrait? 12.5 Influencers: The professionalized digital self12.6 The quantified self: Believing in a countable and optimized self12.7 Discussion: The cyborg's expanded toolbox12.8 ConclusionReferencesSection 4Chapter 13: Digitalization summarized13.1 Part 1: A critical perspective on digitalization13.2 Part 2: Theoretical Tools13.3 Part 3: Empirical case studies13.4 Digitalization as social change13.5 A user perspective on digitalization13.6 Critical thinking about digitalizationChapter 14: Analytical cheat sheet: A guide for thinking critically about digitalization14.1 Interpretative flexibility14.2 Delegation14.3 Actor-network14.4 Script14.5 DomesticationChapter 15: Methods cheat sheet: How to study digitalization15.1 Research question: What are you going to find out? 15.2 Choosing method: How are you going to find it? 15.3 Tips for getting good data15.4 From data to analysis

Part 1: Introduction -- Chapter 1: The Question of Africa's Economic Sectors and Development -- Part 2: Agriculture Sector -- Chapter 2: The African Cotton Sector: Old and New Conundrums -- Chapter 3: The Political Economy of Fisheries Reform in Senegal -- Chapter 4: Are large scale land acquisitions in Africa pro-development? A network analysis of FDI in land and agro-industry -- Chapter 5: The Contribution of the Small-Scale Agricultural Sector into South Africa's Food Value Addition Agenda -- Chapter 6: Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund in Historical Context: Evidence from Nigeria -- Chapter 7: Towards Industrialization in Tanzania: What is the Role of the Agricultural Sector? -- Chapter 8: An Analysis of the Importance of Oil Palm Tree in Central and Southern Nigeria -- Part 3: Services Sector -- Chapter 9: Entrepreneurial Literacy as a Pathway to Economic Empowerment of Rural Women in Uganda -- Chapter 10: The Impact of Education on Household Decision Making Among Women in Sierra Leone -- Chapter 11: A Critical Evaluation of Tanzania's Tourism Sector -- Chapter 12: Banking Services and Inclusive Development in Sub-Saharan Africa -- Chapter 13: Finance-Growth Nexus: Evidence from a dynamic panel model on ECOWAS Countries -- Chapter 14: The impact of COVID-19 on Africa: Health and Economic Implications -- Chapter 15: Does increased government spending on additional teachers improve education quality? -- Chapter 16: The Impact of Social Media Marketing on the Performance of SMEs: The Case of Retailing Business in Tanzania -- Chapter 17: Addressing Quality Issues in African Higher Education: A Focus on Ghana's Emerging, Private, Graduate, Business Higher Education Sector -- Part 4: Industry Sector -- Chapter 18: Industrial Similarity, Diversification and the Promotion of Intra-African Trade -- Chapter 19: The Untapped Resource: Engaging Men in Supporting Women in Business in Uganda -- Chapter 20: Aid for Trade and Sustainable Development in Least-Developed African Countries -- Chapter 21: Trade Credit Financing and Firm Growth: A Panel Study of Listed Firms in Africa -- Chapter 22: Flying Geese" or False Promises: Assessing the Viability of Foreign Direct Investment-Driven Industrialization in Nigeria's Shoe Manufacturing Industry -- Chapter 23: Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Its Motivations, Determinants, and Impact on the African Economies -- Part 5: Trade and African Continental Free Trade Area -- Chapter 24 : What Can Trade Tell Us about Economic Transformation? Composition of Trade and Structural Transformation in African Countries -- Chapter 25: Tax Structure, Competitiveness of Firms, and International Trade in Africa: Lessons from WAEMU and CEMAC for CFTA -- Chapter 26: An Assessment of the Potential Challenges of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement on Nigeria's Textile Industry -- Chapter 27: A Political Economy Assessment of the AfCFTA -- Chapter 28: What are the Potential Benefits of African Continental Free Trade Area to the Food and Beverage Sector in Africa? -- Chapter 29: The AfCFTA: Trade and Investments Benefit for Nigeria -- Chapter 30: The Impact of Regional Integration on Trade and Economic Development: A Tripartite FTA Gravity Model for the future of the AfCFTA -- Part 6: Infrastructure -- Chapter 31: Technological Progress via Imports and Economic Growth in Africa -- Chapter 32: Global Value Chain Participation and Inclusive Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa -- Chapter 33: Infrastructure Development and Sectoral Growth Nexus: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa -- Chapter 34: Female Labor Force Participation, Infrastructure and Sectoral Value Additions in sub–Saharan Africa -- Part 7: Governance -- Chapter 35: Sectoral Growth and Income Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Fiscal and Monetary Policies -- Chapter 36: Gender Wage and Employment Gaps in the Sub-Saharan Africa Economic Sectors -- Chapter 37: The Impact of Aid for Trade on Trade Costs Facing African Economies -- Chapter 38: Market Governance and Emerging Economies in Africa: A Dynamic Panel Analysis -- Chapter 39: Africa Should Discard Mainstream Economic Theory -- Chapter 40: Sustainable Economic Growth -- Chapter 41: Exchange Rate Volatility and Tax Revenue Performance in Sub-Sahara Africa -- Chapter 42: The effects of conflict on trade: do internal conflicts impede shifts to manufacturing and technology transfer?.

Introduction / Anjalé D. Welton (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA), Sarah Diem (University of Missouri, USA) and Devean R. Owens (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA) -- Part I. Political context of anti-racist educational leadership. 1. Anti-racist leadership in precarious sociopolitical contexts / Anjalé D. Welton (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA), Sarah Diem (University of Missouri, USA), Devean R. Owens (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA), and Greg Johnson (Assistant Superintendent, Oak Park and River Forest High School, USA) ; 2. The politics of racial citizenship and exclusion: implications for educational leaders / Erica O. Turner (University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA), Rob Timberlake (University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA), Abigail J. Beneke (University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA), and Maria S. Velazquez (University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA) ; 3. Reweaving the fabric of education: reaching schools' potential through anti-racist leadership / Matthew Rodriguez (University of Illinois-Chicago, USA) and Amanda Lewis (University of Illinois-Chicago, USA) -- Part II. Anti-racist educational leadership preparation and practice. 4. Anti-racist leadership as identity: a white male school Leader's expectations to breaking the educational racial contract / Daniel Liou (Arizona State University, USA) and Adam Zang (Assistant Principal, Sunland Elementary School, USA) ; 5. From the inside out: anti-racist leadership development and practices / Marcus Campbell, Assistant Superintendent and Principal, Evanston Township High School & Michael Kucera, Director of English, Niles West High School, USA) ; 6. Inquiry-based framework for anti-racist leader preparation / Mary B. Herrmann (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA) and Jessica A. Herrmann (School Administrator, USA) ; 7. Engaging in transformative change in an academically "Elite" setting: a case study of a school district's efforts to re-define success through an anti-racist initiative / Daniel Spikes (University of South Carolina, USA) Katy Swalwell (Iowa State University, USA) and Riley Drake (Iowa State University, USA) -- Part III. Community engagement, activism, and anti-racist educational leadership. 8. Disrupting the racialized organization: culturally responsive leadership in action / Bodunrin O. Banwo (University of Minnesota, USA) and Muhammad Khalifa (University of Minnesota, USA) ; 9. Let's buildr Reimaging "Successful" university-district-community partnerships / Bradley W. Carpenter (Baylor University, USA) and Decoteau Irby (University of Illinois-Chicago, USA) ; 10. Toward more equitable communities: parent leadership as a catalyst for racial justice / Jeanette Taylor (Community Organizer and Chicago Alderwoman, USA) and Rhoda Freelon (University of Houston, USA) ; 11. Advocacy leadership / Michelle D. Young (University of Virginia, USA) and Angel Nash (Chapman University, USA) ; 12. (Re)connecting schools and communities: leader activism as a mechanism to disrupt neoliberalism / Jason Salisbury (University of Illinois-Chicago, USA) and Meagan Richards (University of Illinois-Chicago, USA) -- Part IV. Supporting the work of anti-racist educational leaders and their practice. 13. The invisible labor of K-12 leaders of color / Zelideh R. Martinez Hoy (Bard College, USA), Dennis J. Perkins Jr., (Grinnell College, USA) David H. K. Nguyen, (Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)) and Ruthie L. Payno-Simmons (Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), USA) ; 14. On the backs of black women: examining how the supporting administrative role is entrenched in racism / Asia Fuller Hamilton (Principal and Lecturer, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA) and Mykah Jackson (Vice Principal, Urbana Middle School, USA) ; 15. Possibilities and challenges in leading anti-racist organizational change in PWI districts / Sharon I. Radd (St. Catherine University, USA) and Jean Jordan (Northeast Metro, District 916, USA) ; 16. Anti-racism in schools: a guide for educational administrators, students, teachers, policymakers and activists / Jeffrey S. Brooks, RMIT University ; 17. Developing anti-racist leaders through equity-expansive technical assistance / Kathleen A. King Thorius (Great Lakes Equity Center, Indiana University School of Education-IUPUI, USA) and Tiffany S. Kyser, (Great Lakes Equity Center, Indiana University School of Education-IUPUI, USA) -- Conclusion / (Sarah Diem, University of Missouri, USA), Anjalé D. Welton (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA) and Devean R. Owens (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA).

Empowering translation students through the use of digital technologies -- M.A.H. SismatThe role of university on economic development in heritage tourism area -- V.A. Qurrata, S. Merlinda, V. PurnamasariFormulation of curriculum moderation on religious mentoring: Case study from three public universities in Indonesia -- A.M. Nasih, A. Sultoni, T. ThoriquttyasTeacher's professional coaching to improve the teaching abilities of teachers in the era of the ASEAN economic community -- A. Imron, B. B. Wiyono, I. Gunawan, B. R. Saputra, D. B. Perdana, S. Hadi, A. AbbasExploring the relationship among polarity, subjectivity, and clusters characteristics of visitor review on tourist destination in Malang -- A. Larasati, J. Sayono, E. Mohamad, A. Purnomo, M. Farhan, P. RahmawatiStigma and dilemma: An ethnographic review on the medical personnel of the COVID-19 referenced hospital -- D. W. Apriadi, D. Mawarni, M. SaputraCharacter value Curriculum 2013 in traditional house typical of Batang Batang Sumenep village as a response to socio-cultural changes -- M. R. GunawanFun and creative learning with discovery learning in Islamic economic (technological approach) -- V. A. Qurrata, S.Merlinda, R. D. L. PuteriDon't they seem normal? Indonesian teachers reading gender biased folktale -- E. Eliyanah, A. ZahroPerformance library in improving reading culture during of pandemic Covid-19 -- A. Asari, R. Mahdi, D. Widyartono, P.D. Anggari, P. Adi, K.M. Raharjo, A.B.N.R. Putra, I.A. ZakariaThe development of instructional materials for reading literacy with WISE based - E.T. Priyatni, A.R. As'ari, Nurchasanah, SuharyadiAchievements and barriers to River School Community in the conservation of the Brantas Watershed - A. Tanjung, A. Kodir, S. Zubaidah, M. Syaifulloh, S.P. YunitaDevelopment of road infrastructure to support development of village tourism - H.Siswanto, Pranoto, C. P. Dewi, B. SupriyantoProblems of online learning in borderland of Indonesia in the Covid-19 pandemic - A. Sultoni, E.P. Priyatni, A.M. Nasih, A. Zahro, Juharyanto, IbrohimIntegrating gender and religion: Social transformation for strengthening identity among Indonesian Migrant Workers - Anggaunitakiranantika, P.P.AnzariInnovation in batik tulis with ICT technology for sustainability design - F. Abdullah, B.T. Wardoyo, A.M. AdnanThe influence of administrative literacy on employee's performance on the perspective of gender among local government administration staffs - A. Winarno, ZulaikahImpact of ecological landscape changes toward community life in Southern Malang during 19th-20th Century - L. Ayundasari, J. Sayono, S. D. UtariReading culture development with optimizing digital library services during the pandemic - A. Asari, I.A. Zakaria, A. Prasetyawan, M. Safii, T. Kurniawan, L. A. Rahmania, C. FajarThose who are forgotten: The existence of Ketoprak Rukun Karya in Sumenep Madura, 1976-2000s - J. Sayono, R. Ridhoi, N. Jauhari, N. Jauhari, I. H. A. Siddiq, A. Prasetyawan, N. A. D. RestantiReligious discourse, cyberspace and the social media: A trajectory from Muslim Millennial's perspective - T. Thoriquttyas, N. Muyassaroh, N. Ahsin, A. NaimSharia accounting perception according to MSMEs in East Java to foster a spirit of business continuity - D. Syariati, D.M. Putri, S.F. Putri, I.H.A. Siddiq, MahirahInfographic development of Blambangan Kingdom for history learning in senior high school - M. N. L. Khakim, I. Y. Afhimma, K. A. Wijaya, M. R. I. Ardiansyah, MarsudiCarrying capacity of local communities to developing Tamansari Tourism Village, Banyuwangi - A. Purnomo, G. S. A. Wardhani, I. H. S. Buddin, M. Rahmawati, P. Glenn, Idris, B. KurniawanDevelopment of iconic spot replications in Kampoeng Heritage Kajoetangan as learning media for indische empire culture for tourists - L. Sidyawati, J. Sayono, S. D. Anggriani, M. N. L. Khakim, J. K. B. AliCommunity-Based Tourism: Capability and community participation in tourism development - Idris, A.Purnomo, M. RahmawatiOutdoor learning based on natural laboratory as Social Studies learning resources for strengthening student's insights and characters - B. Kurniawan, S.M.Towaf, Sukamto, A. Purnomo, IdrisReorganizing the Ummah: Covid-19 and social transformation in plural society - A.A. Widianto, L.A. Perguna, T. Thoriquttyas, F. HasanahEnvironmental ethics on Mount Kelud slopes: Investigating local community responses on the utilization of Mount Kelud materials - A. S. M. Fajar, A. I. Mawardi, A. Syakur

Corporate finance and international finance. Test of the strategic market-entry hypothesis : evidence from corporate governance in Vietnam / Huu Man Dang, Duong Viet Anh Hoang, Thuy Dung Le, and Phuong Uyen Le. Base erosion, profit shifting, and tax revenue nexus : empirical evidence in Southeast Asian countries / Trung Kien Tran. Developing the stock market for economic growth : experiences for Vietnam in the ASEAN regional financial integration / Tu Nhu Nguyen and Thi Xuan Huong Tram. Exploring the intention to adopt management accounting system in the public sector : an empirical investigation of public non-income generating agencies / Quang Huy Pham and Kien Phuc Vu. Market power and risk: Evidence from ASEAN commercial banking system / Thi Anh Tien Duong -- Financial markets. Macroeconomics and banks: Specific determinants of vietnamese commercial banks' profitability from 2014 to 2018 / Thi Lan Huong Hoang and Hoang Long Nguyen. Value creation in Vietnamese bank mergers and acquisitions / Tan Khoa Duong -- Accounting. A theory extension related to task-technology fit : considering its impacts on ERP system success / Thi Bao Quyen Phan and Quang Hung Bui. Factors affecting the adoption of the international accounting standards / Xuan Thach Ha and Tran Hanh Phuong Le. Value relevance of biological assets under IFRS in Asian nations / Thi Phuong Thanh Tran. The role of human resources in the transparency of financial information amidst the increasing trend of financial autonomy in public organizations / Thi Kim Thoa Dau and Van Nhi Vo -- Business administration and management. Determinants of gender diversity and nationality diversity of the boards in vietnamese listed firms / My Tran Ngo and Hong My Ai Le. The evolution of leadership theories: A literature review / Thanh Tung Do and Ngoc Khuong Mai. How does authentic leadership influence employee-organization relationship? The mediating role of symmetrical internal communication / Mai Dong Tran, Thi Kim Quy Hoang and Phong Nguyen Nguyen. Green innovation, green entrepreneurship, and vietnamese SME development: The role of market turbulence / Anh Tuan Doan and Tri Thanh Nguyen. The mediating role of innovation speed and quality in the relationship between intellectual capital and firm performance : the case of Tien Giang small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the early stages / Kim Nhan Vo, Minh Nguyet Doan, Thanh Vu Nguyen, and Van Dat Nguyen -- Marketing. How does CSR influence customer loyalty in the banking sector? Evidence from Vietnam / Dang Khoa Tran. A critical review of factors affecting tourists' loyalty / Khanh Tung Nguyen and Dong Phong Nguyen. Supply chain integration : a case study of Vietnamese dairy industry / Thi Thu Suong Huynh. Research on solutions to improve destination competitiveness for tourism development in Can Tho City / Khanh Tung Nguyen and Dong Phong Nguyen. Buyer-supplier relationships, sustainable supplier management, green design, and firms' performance in Vietnam / Van Phuong Nguyen, Hoang Thi Tho Lam, and Tien Khoa Tran. Exploring the impact of self-construal on the perceived values of the post-purchase product customization : the context of motorcycle customization in Vietnam / Mai Dong Tran and Long Dang -- Economic development. How is smartphone advertising important for consumers' purchase intention in an emerging economy? Evidence from Vietnam / Dang Khoa Tran. The impact of public spending for education on sustainable economic growth in Asian countries / Minh Tuan Truong. The role of institutions in economic development : the case of Vietnam during 2012-2015 / Nu Ngoc Han Ton and Prapon Sahapattana. Science and technology and their applications in enterprises in Ho Chi Minh City in the context of the fourth industrial revolution / Thi Kim Hoa Luu. Impact of the state-owned investment and other factors on economic growth with SGMM and bayesian approach : the case of Vietnam / Thi Thanh Huong Tran and Thu Hang Pham -- Business and law. Factors associated with economic growth : an investigation into government spending on R&D / Nhat Thien Tran. Factors affecting youth entrepreneurial intention and suggestions for policymaking : The case of Vinh Long Province / Thu Hang Hoang and Quynh Hoa Le. E-enterprise and the law : realizing the potential risks / Van Long Tran and Quoc Tan Phan.

Frontmatter --ÍNDICE / [INDEX] --¿DISCRIMINA LA ESCALA DE DS DEL MMPI LA SIMULACIÓN DE RESPUESTAS HONESTAS Y DE PACIENTES CLÍNICOS? UNA REVISIÓN META-ANALÍTICA / [DOES THE MMPI DS SCALE DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN MALINGERING RESPONSES FROM HONEST AND REAL PATIENT RESPONSES? A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW] --SIMULACIÓN DE PSICOPATOLOGÍA EN LA INCAPACIDAD TEMPORAL: UTILIDAD FORENSE DEL SCL-90-R / [FEIGNING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY IN TEMPORARY DISABILITY: FORENSIC UTILITY OF THE SCL-90-R] --PRECISIÓN DEL SIMS EN PACIENTES QUE HAN SUFRIDO UN ACCIDENTE DE CIRCULACIÓN / [DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY OF THE SIMS IN MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT PATIENTS] --REVISIÓN META-ANALÍTICA DE LA MALEABILIDAD DE LA MEMORIA MEDIANTE 'CRASHING MEMORIES' / [A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW OF THE MEMORY MALLEABILITY USING 'CRASHING MEMORIES'] --ESTIMACIÓN DE LA CONFORMIDAD EN EL TESTIMONIO: UNA REVISIÓN META-ANALÍTICA / [ESTIMATING THE EFFECTS OF CONFORMITY IN TESTIMONY: A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW] --¿DISCRIMINAN LOS CRITERIOS DE REALIDAD DEL CBCA ENTRE MEMORIAS VISIONADAS, PERO NO EXPERIMENTADAS, Y FABRICADAS DE UN EVENTO? UNA REVISIÓN META-ANALÍTICA / [DO THE CBCA REALITY CRITERIA DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN WATCHED BUT NOT EXPERIENCED AND FABRICATED MEMORIES OF AN EVENT? A META-ANALITIC REVIEW] --ANÁLISIS DE SENTENCIAS DE DELITOS CONTRA LA LIBERTAD SEXUAL CON AGRESORES MÚLTIPLES / [JUDICIAL SENTENCES ANALYSIS OF SEXUAL OFFENCES WITH MULTIPLE OFFENDERS] --MITOS SOBRE AGRESIÓN SEXUAL EN UNA MUESTRA DE POBLACIÓN PENITENCIARIA / [MYTHS ABOUT SEXUAL AGGRESSION IN A SAMPLE OF PRISON INMATES] --VICTIMIZACIÓN PRIMARIA Y SECUNDARIA EN LA VIOLENCIA SEXUAL CONTRA MUJERES ADULTAS EN SENTENCIAS PENALES / [PRIMARY AND SECONDARY VICTIMIZATION IN SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST ADULT WOMEN IN CRIMINAL SENTENCES] --CREENCIAS Y PENSAMIENTOS DISTORSIONADOS HACIA LA VIOLENCIA EN HOMBRES Y MUJERES: AGRESIVIDAD, AUTOESTIMA Y CONTROL DEL SESGO DE RESPUESTA /[BELIEFS AND DISTORTED THINKING ABOUT VIOLENCE IN MEN AND WOMEN: AGGRESSIVENESS, SELF-ESTEEM EVALUATION OF RESPONSE BIAS] --INADAPTACIÓN SOCIAL DE VÍCTIMAS DE VIOLENCIA FILIOPARENTAL DE MENORES CON MEDIDAS JUDICIALES / [SOCIAL MALADJUSTMENT OF VICTIMS OF CHILD-TO-PARENT VIOLENCE OF UNDERAGES WITH JUDICIAL MEASURES] --VIOLENCIA FILIO-PARENTAL INSTRUMENTAL Y REACTIVA: EL PAPEL PREDICTIVO DEL MALTRATO PARENTO-FILIAL /[INSTRUMENTAL AND REACTIVE CHILD-TO-PARENT VIOLENCE: THE PREDICTIVE ROLE OF PARENT-TO-CHILD MALTREATMENT] --PREVALENCIA Y RAZONES PARA LA VIOLENCIA FILIO-PARENTAL EN ADOLESCENTES ESPAÑOLES: DIFERENCIAS DE GÉNERO EN VÍCTIMAS Y AGRESORES / [PREVALENCE AND REASONS FOR CHILD-TO-PARENT VIOLENCE IN SPANISH ADOLESCENTS: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN VICTIMS AND AGGRESSORS] --FACTORES PSICOSOCIALES ASOCIADOS A MENORES CON DELITO DE MALTRATO FAMILIAR / [PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS RELATED TO CHILDS OFFENDERS WITH FAMILY ABUSE VIOLENCE] --CONDUCTAS EN LA RED Y DIFERENCIAS DE GÉNERO EN POBLACIÓN ADOLESCENTE / [INTERNET BEHAVIOURS AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ADOLESCENT POPULATION] --AUTOENGAÑO Y MENTIRA EN ADOLESCENTES: PERSONALIDAD Y AUTOESTIMA / [SELF-DECEPTION AND LYING IN ADOLESCENTS: PERSONALITY AND SELF-ESTEEM] --FACTORES DE RIESGO PARA LA REITERACIÓN DELICTIVA EN MENORES / [RISK FACTORS FOR RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILE OFFENDERS] --CUESTIONARIO DE ACTITUDES HACIA LA VIOLENCIA (CAHV-10) EN MENORES: VERSIÓN REDUCIDA / [ATTITUDES TOWARDS VIOLENCE QUESTIONNAIRE (CAHV-10) IN MINORS: REDUCED VERSION] --ACTITUDES HACIA LAS LEYES Y COMPORTAMIENTOS DESVIADOS: UN ESTUDIO CON ADOLESCENTES EN SÃO PAULO, BRASIL. / [ATTITUDES TOWARDS LAWS AND DEVIANT BEHAVIORS: A STUDY WITH ADOLESCENTS IN SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL.] --EXPOSICIÓN A LA VIOLENCIA Y VIOLENCIA FILIOPARENTAL EN MENORES INFRACTORES Y RECLUSOS / [EXPOSURE TO VIOLENCE AND CHILD-TO-PARENT VIOLENCE IN JUVENILE OFFENDERS AND PRISONERS] --ESTRATEGIAS MOTIVACIONALES EN INTERVENCIÓN CON AGRESORES DE PAREJA: EL PLAN MOTIVACIONAL INDIVIDUALIZADO / [MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES IN INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE OFFENDER INTERVENTION: INDIVIDUALIZED MOTIVATIONAL PLANS] --SÍNTOMAS PREFRONTALES EN DELINCUENTES Y NO DELINCUENTES CON UN MISMO NIVEL EDUCATIVO / [PREFRONTAL SYMPTOMS IN OFFENDERS AND NON-OFFENDERS WITH THE SAME EDUCATION LEVEL] --VECINDARIOS Y PROBLEMAS SOCIALES: UN ACERCAMIENTO DESDE LA ESTADÍSTICA ESPACIAL / [NEIGHBORHOODS AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS: A SPATIAL STATISTICS APPROACH] --¿DIFIERE LA CAPACIDAD DE CLASIFICACIÓN DE RESPUESTAS SIMULADAS DE LA ESCALA DE F DEL MMPI-2 CUANDO SE CONTRASTA CON UN GRUPO CONTROL Y CON LA POBLACIÓN NORMATIVA? UNA REVISIÓN META-ANALÍTICA / [DOES THE PERFORMANCE TO CLASSIFY MALINGERING RESPONSES OF MMPI-2 F SCALE DIFFER WHEN IS CONTRASTED WITH A CONTROL GROUP AND WITH THE NORMATIVE SAMPLE? A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW]