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This paper explores how a 'conflict and violence sensitive' framework in project assessment, design and implementation facilitates early identification and mitigation of negative consequences of competition and dispute, and promotes sustainable development over the longer term. It discusses the role of renewable resources in perpetuating conflict and violence, and distills lessons from selected development programming experiences in managing conflict risks associated with these dynamics. The study emphasizes that building capacity to productively address conflict and to improve community resilience to ecological change decreases vulnerability to violence, and improves livelihoods particularly for the world's poorest communities. The study draws on a range of development experience and specifically examines six case studies: three from the World Bank portfolio and three external to the Bank. Of the World Bank projects, the paper considers Andhra Pradesh Community Forest Management Project (India), Land Conflict and Vulnerability Pilot Project (Afghanistan), and Second Fadama Development Project (Nigeria). The paper also studies three external cases: conservation of managed indigenous areas (Ecuador) and Building the Capacity of Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN) to Resolve and Manage Environmental Conflicts in Virunga National Park (DRC), both financed by U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID); and the Community Development Component of German Technical Cooperation's (GTZ's) Palestinian Water Program (West Bank). The concluding chapter outlines good practice and lessons learned from experience, emphasizing principals for building institutional and organizational capacity that support constructive conflict management.

The World Bank's Debtor Reporting System (DRS), from which the aggregates and country tables presented in this report are drawn, was established in 1951. The debt crisis of the 1980s brought increased attention to debt statistics and to the World debt tables, the predecessor to Global development finance. Now the global financial crisis has once again heightened awareness in developing countries of the importance of managing their external obligations. International capital flows to the 128 developing countries reporting to the World Bank Debtor Reporting System (DRS) fell by 20 percent in 2009 to $598 billion (3.7 percent of Gross National Income (GNI), compared with $744 billion in 2008 (4.5 percent of GNI) and a little over half the peak level of $1,111 billion realized in 2007. Private flows (debt and equity) declined by 27 percent despite a rebound in bond issuance, portfolio equity flows, and short-term debt flows. Both foreign direct investment (FDI) flows and bank lending fell precipitously. By contrast, the net inflow of debt-related financing from official creditors (excluding grants) rose 175 percent as support was stepped up to low- and middle-income countries severely affected by the global financial crisis.

Growth has slowed down since the second quarter, but exceeded expectations. Considering the 1) political turmoil; 2) robust growth during the rebound; and 3) slowdown in advanced economies, the Thai economy was expected to contract by more than it did in the second and third quarters. The output of the manufacturing sector expanded in the second quarter, led by still-growing exports and robust private consumption. Demand indeed appears to have been higher than production, as some orders had to be filled by drawing down on inventories. However, a sharp contraction in tourism led Gross Domestic product (GDP) overall to contract in the quarter. The FY10 fiscal deficit was much smaller than initially feared when the budget was proposed. The budget for FY10 was prepared at the trough of the global financial crisis in February 2009 and anticipated only 1.35 trillion baht in revenues. Inflation levels have been low and stable but persistent increases in food prices could pose risks. Overall, slower growth in advanced economies will translate into lower GDP growth Thailand for the next two to three years. Notwithstanding a deceleration in the second half because of the waning global inventory cycle, year-on-year growth in 2010 is expected at 7.5 percent due to the low base of 2009 and the strong first half. Quarter-to-quarter growth will pick up modestly in 2011 to average over 4 percent, but the relatively high base in 2010 results in a year-on-year growth rate of 3.2 percent for 2011.

Vietnam, a one-party socialist state dominated by the Communist Party of Vietnam, has in recent years moved towards a pragmatic growth-oriented approach to economic policy. Early reform measures in 1986 with the doi moi, or new way, introduced a series of market-oriented reforms in industry and trade, as well as agriculture. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 hastened the pace of reform, as the authorities intensified monetary, banking, and structural reforms and set the stage for substantial trade and investment liberalization, and as Vietnam's arrears with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) were settled in 1993. Key lessons that emerge from the Vietnam study include: a) the Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC) process is strengthened through rigorous analytic underpinnings (for example, Vietnam development reports, public expenditure reviews, and other analytical and advisory services) that provide a shared vision of the development agenda and a menu of policy actions linked to the thematic pillars of the poverty reduction strategy; b) even in a context of high government commitment, fostering a connection to an external anchor (such as world trade organization accession) can help maintain momentum in the PRSC process and reform generally; c) PRSCs can function as an effective complement to, and catalyst for, sector operations including the development of sector-wide approaches and sector budget support; and d) with large numbers of international and government participants, it becomes increasingly important for both Government and the Bank that responsibilities for coordinating inputs and consultation and maintaining a policy overview be closely linked, defined, and adequately funded.

Curriculum material is generally considered the subject matter of information, talents, dispositions, understandings, and principles that make up research programs in the field. At a more complex level, the curricula need to contain historical and socio-political strengths, traditions, cultural views, and goals with wide differences in sovereignty, adaptation, and local understanding that encompass a diversity of cultures, laws, metaphysics, and political discourse This study aims to develop a curriculum with local content as a new approach in early childhood science learning. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC) is compiled and developed to preserve the uniqueness of local culture, natural environment, and community crafts for early childhood teachers so that they can introduce local content to early childhood. Research and model development combines the design of the Dick-Carey and Dabbagh models with qualitative and quantitative descriptive analysis. The results showed that local content curriculum products can be supplemented into early childhood curricula in institutions according to local conditions. Curricula with local content can be used as a reinforcement for the introduction of science in early childhood. The research implication demands the concern of all stakeholders to see that the introduction of local content is very important to be given from an early age, so that children know, get used to, like, maintain, and love local wealth from an early age. Keywords: Early Childhood, Scientific Learning, Local Content Curriculum Model References: Agustin, R. S., & Puro, S. (2015). Strategy Of Curriculum Development Based On Project Based Learning (Case Study: SMAN 1 Tanta Tanjung Tabalong South Of Kalimantan ) Halaman : Prosiding Ictte Fkip Uns, 1, 202–206. Agustina, N. Q., & Mukhtaruddin, F. (2019). The Cipp Model-Based Evaluation on Integrated English Learning (IEL) Program at Language Center. 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Con excelentes conferencistas y una participación dinámica, se llevó a cabo el segundo panel del Foro Nacional Estudiantil de Economía y Finanzas, en el que se trataron temas bancarios dados la coyuntura de Covid-19. En la actualidad, el gobierno colombiano se ha centrado en aplanar la curva de contagios del Covid-19, sin embargo, esto ha ocasionado una baja de productividad, ingresos y liquidez dentro de las empresas. A partir de esto, el FNE, invitó a Andrés Albán, presiente de Colombia Fintech y CEO de Punto Red, Carlos Ernesto Lora, economista y socio de Giros y Finanzas, Camilo Pérez, Gerente de Investigaciones Económicas del Banco de Bogotá, y a Carlos Castro, profesor investigador, para tratar el tema a profundidad. En primer lugar, se habló de la responsabilidad del sector bancario en la recuperación de la economía frente a la reapertura del comercio y el consumo. Todos los conferencistas estuvieron de acuerdo en que, aunque la situación nos tomó a todos por sorpresa, la banca ha trabajado de manera adecuada, eficaz y prudente, ya que ha puesto diferentes mecanismos a la mano de empresas y clientes para poder seguir en funcionamiento. Además, afirmaron que el choque ha sido tan veloz que quienes no han recibido apoyo, no es porque no haya recursos, sino porque el tiempo ha sido muy corto para la cantidad de solicitudes. En resumen, según los panelistas, la banca se encuentra sólida, con problemas técnicos y operativos, pero con la capacidad de apoyo para la productividad del país a través del mejoramiento y el trabajo mancomunado entre las empresas de tecnología y la banca. Durante el panel, a los conferencistas también se les preguntó si era posible que llegara una crisis financiera que se uniera a la crisis sanitaria de la pandemia. En cuanto a esto, los conferencistas también concluyeron que dado a que las oficinas y establecimientos no cerramos por temas económicos, sino por las estrictas medidas de prevención del contagio como la cuarentena, no se puede hablar de una crisis financiera, ya que este no fue su origen. Agregaron, además, que se debe poner especial cuidado en la "cultura del no pago" que estamos teniendo, ya que muchas personas y entidades, aprovechando la pandemia y aún teniendo los recursos, se niegan a pagar. Esto se convierte en una cadena, y, por supuesto, afecta la economía. También se les preguntó sobre los principales retos que debe enfrentar la banca para mejorar la inclusión financiera durante y después de la pandemia. A esto, todos coincidieron en que existe mucho desconocimiento sobre la banca, como el uso de las páginas web y sus diferentes metodologías y servicios, y es justamente, el aprovechamiento de los canales digitales, lo que ayudará a superar la crisis, además de garantizar la construcción de relaciones con los clientes. Sin embargo, para nuestros expertos, para perder el miedo y lograr la digitalización bancaria, se requiere de apoyo gubernamental para campañas de conocimiento, y mejoramiento de infraestructura que faciliten el acceso a internet en todo el país, para que así, poco a poco se logre cambiar la mentalidad y el temor al sistema financiero. Finalmente, la conferencia terminó con una pregunta especial para cada uno de los panelistas que respondieron según su experiencia y área de conocimiento. Carlos Ernesto Lora, habló sobre las remesas que reciben los colombianos del exterior, y de cómo se verían afectadas por la recesión global. "Las remezas en Colombia y en países subdesarrollados son sumamente importantes, para el 2019 recibimos de 6.773 millones, un equivalente al 2.2% de nuestro PIB. Para el primer trimestre del 2020, ya habían decrecido un 15%, sin embargo, el Banco de la República había diagnosticado una baja del 40%, lo que evidencia que no se han visto muy afectadas", afirmó Lora. Camilo Pérez, se refirió a los sectores más afectados por la coyuntura y a los esquemas de financiación para los mismos. "Los servicios que no son de primera necesidad, como la recreación, el turismo y diversión. El comercio de vehículos, por ejempló, cayó en casi un 100%. Los restaurantes también se ven muy golpeados, principalmente por la cuarentena. Sin embargo, la pregunta es si la crisis de esos sectores se va a mantener, seguramente no, va a haber una recuperación, ya que la banca tiene grandes proyectos de apoyo, que dependerán también de cómo el gobierno permita que lleguen estos recursos para garantizar la sostenibilidad", concluyó Pérez. Carlos Castro, tocó el tema de la ley de borrón y cuanta nueva, y del impacto que esto puede tener en el sector financiero, sobre todo en aquellos que se benefician de los créditos en Colombia. "La motivación de la ley es trata de que, en últimas, no se castigue tanto el fracaso de las iniciativas empresariales, y de que la gente pueda, de alguna manera, reinventarse financieramente y generar otro proyecto. Muchas empresas fracasan o quiebran, y se quisiera que eso no fuera impedimento para seguir intentando. Aquí el tema, es encontrar información alternativa con la que se pueda tener información crediticia y así no afectar a la banca, es reinventar el score que conocemos actualmente", dijo Castro. Andrés Albán, habló sobre el papel de las Fintech, que a pesar de la crisis podrían verse menos afectadas. "Aquellos sectores que se centran en la tecnología u ofrecen una mayor digitalización, se verán beneficiadas en la medida de que las empresas empiecen a implementar sus servicios como pagos y metodologías digitales", finalizó Albán. Para la Facultad de Economía y el comité del FNE, fue un honor contar con estos excelentes panelistas y poder poner sobre la mesa temas tan relevantes en la actualidad, además de plantear posibles soluciones. ; With excellent speakers and dynamic participation, the second panel of the National Student Forum of Economics and Finance was held, in which banking issues were discussed given the situation of Covid-19. Currently, the Colombian government has focused on flattening the contagion curve of Covid-19, however, this has caused a drop in productivity, income and liquidity within companies. From this, the FNE invited Andrés Albán, president of Colombia Fintech and CEO of Punto Red, Carlos Ernesto Lora, economist and partner of Giros y Finanzas, Camilo Pérez, Manager of Economic Research at Banco de Bogotá, and Carlos Castro , research professor, to deal with the subject in depth. In the first place, the responsibility of the banking sector in the recovery of the economy in the face of the reopening of trade and consumption was discussed. All the speakers agreed that, although the situation took us all by surprise, the bank has worked in an adequate, efficient and prudent manner, since it has put different mechanisms at the hands of companies and clients to be able to continue operating. In addition, they affirmed that the shock has been so fast that those who have not received support, it is not because there are no resources, but because the time has been very short for the number of requests. In summary, according to the panelists, the banking system is solid, with technical and operational problems, but with the capacity to support the country's productivity through improvement and joint work between technology companies and banks. During the panel, the speakers were also asked if it was possible for a financial crisis to come along that would join the health crisis of the pandemic. Regarding this, the speakers also concluded that given that the offices and establishments we do not close due to economic issues, but due to strict contagion prevention measures such as quarantine, it is not possible to speak of a financial crisis, since this was not its origin. They also added that special care should be taken in the "culture of non-payment" that we are having, since many people and entities, taking advantage of the pandemic and still having the resources, refuse to pay. This becomes a chain, and of course it affects the economy. They were also asked about the main challenges that banks must face to improve financial inclusion during and after the pandemic. To this, they all agreed that there is a lot of ignorance about banking, such as the use of web pages and their different methodologies and services, and it is precisely the use of digital channels that will help to overcome the crisis, in addition to guaranteeing building customer relationships. However, for our experts, to lose fear and achieve bank digitization, government support is required for awareness campaigns, and infrastructure improvement that facilitate internet access throughout the country, so that, little by little, I managed to change the mentality and fear of the financial system. Finally, the conference ended with a special question for each of the panelists who answered according to their experience and area of knowledge. Carlos Ernesto Lora, spoke about the remittances that Colombians receive from abroad, and how they would be affected by the global recession. "Recollections in Colombia and in underdeveloped countries are extremely important, for 2019 we received 6,773 million, equivalent to 2.2% of our GDP. For the first quarter of 2020, they had already decreased by 15%, however, the Banco de la República had diagnosed a drop of 40%, which shows that they have not been greatly affected, "said Lora. Camilo Pérez, referred to the sectors most affected by the situation and the financing schemes for them. "Services that are not essential, such as recreation, tourism and entertainment. Vehicle trade, for example, fell by almost 100%. Restaurants are also hit hard, mainly by quarantine. However, the question is whether the crisis in these sectors will continue, surely not, there will be a recovery, since the banks have large support projects, which will also depend on how the government allows these resources to arrive to guarantee sustainability ", concluded Pérez. Carlos Castro, touched on the issue of the new smear law and the impact that this can have on the financial sector, especially on those who benefit from credits in Colombia. "The motivation of the law is that, ultimately, the failure of business initiatives is not so punished, and that people can, in some way, reinvent themselves financially and generate another project. Many companies fail or go bankrupt, and it is hoped that this was not an impediment to continue trying. Here the issue is to find alternative information with which to have credit information and thus not affect the bank, it is to reinvent the score that we currently know, "said Castro. Andrés Albán spoke about the role of Fintech companies, which, despite the crisis, could be less affected. "Those sectors that focus on technology or offer greater digitization, will benefit as companies begin to implement their services such as payments and digital methodologies," concluded Albán. For the Faculty of Economics and the FNE committee, it was an honor to have these excellent panelists and to be able to put such relevant issues on the table today, in addition to proposing possible solutions.

El estudio llevado a cabo presenta en su parte inicial una breve descripción del sector de minería en el Perú y de la situación de la minería de zinc y plomo mundial. También se describe a Centromin Perú y a su Unidad de Negocios Cerro de Pasco. Empezando con un diagnóstico, se levó a cabo el análisis del entorno en el que se encuentra la Unidad de Negocios y el análisis de su situación interna. En el primer punto, se analizaron los factores del macroentorno tales como los factores políticos legales, socio cultúrales, económicos, tecnológicos y ambientales, encontrándose un entorno con condiciones favorables, sobre todo en tas políticas, tributarias y económicas. Asimismo se hizo una revisión del entorno internacional, en donde se revisó el nivel de inversiones, la cotización de los metales y niveles de oferta y demanda de concentrados de zinc y plomo. Se encontró que en términos generales en los últimos años el nivel de inversiones hacia Latinoamérica ha crecido sustancialmente. En cuanto a la determinación de los precios de los metales, según los analistas se debe incluir la producción mundial primaria como la secundaria, los stocks del metal y el consumo mundial. Además de estas variables hay que tomar en cuenta la influencia de las fuerzas de especulación, los inversionistas de bolsa que optan por coberturarse así como los factores del entorno, tanto políticos, sociales, ambientales, naturales, etc. Se realizó el análisis de las ventajas competitivas del Perú en el sector minero, llegando a la conclusión de que el país posee condiciones favorables de los factores básicos, así como en estructura y estrategia de las empresas dentro del sector, encontrando una posición intermedia en lo referente a las condiciones de la demanda y la calidad de los sectores conexos y de apoyo, sobre todo en lo referente a maquinaria y tecnología. Asimismo, el gobierno ha jugado un papel muy importante en los últimos años para darle atractivo al sector por medio de reformas en los marcos tributarios y legales. En el tercer capítulo se realizó el análisis interno de la Unidad de Negocios Cerro de Pasco. Se realizó un análisis funcional que abarcó las diferentes actividades que desarrolla la Unidad. El análisis evidenció que la empresa se encuentra en una posición interna fuerte, las principales fortalezas de gestión se generan como consecuencia del aprovechamiento de ventajas externas antes que del desarrollo de capacidades internas, mientras que las principales debilidades son consecuencia de malas gestiones anteriores. Así se tiene que las fortalezas se relacionan con la parte operativa por el lado da los costos y con los recursos humanos por el lado de la experiencia y calificación del personal. En cuanto a las debilidades estas se dan principalmente en el aspecto tecnológico y en los problemas socioeconómicos inherentes a la mina. Las principales fortalezas encontradas son: la ley de mineral de zinc por encima del promedio, personal de operación altamente calificado, costos totales debajo del promedio además de tener una cartera de dientes con las que se ha mantenido buenas relaciones. Las principales debilidades identificadas fueron los bajos niveles de productividad, la baja inversión en exploraciones de nuevos yacimientos que ocasionan la corta vida del tajo abierto, tecnología antigua en las operaciones minero-metalúrgicas, falta de un sistema de información gerencial, altos costos logísticos y la presencia de altos contenidos de fierro en los minerales que hacen bajar la valorización de los concentrados. El cuarto capitulo está dedicado a ka problemática social en Cerro de Pasco. En este sentido, la problemática social abarca la dificultad para la expansión de las operaciones mineras en áreas colindantes a la ciudad, el abastecimiento de los servicios de agua y desagüe, al mantenimiento de las viviendas del personal y todo lo relacionado con el aspecto ambiental. En el quinto capitulo se realiza un análisis del impacto ambiental de las operaciones de la mina Cerro de Pasco. Asimismo se presenta con detalle el Programa de Adecuación y Manejo Ambiental ("PAMA") y las medidas de mitigación aplicadas después de la Evaluación Ambiental Preliminar (EVAP). Por último, considerando los objetivos estratégicos de la Mina Ceno de Pasco, se han identificado las estrategias más adecuadas para la Unidad, que en términos genéricos serian: Mejoramiento de imagen ante la opinión pública Incremento de la vida de la mina Mantenimiento del nivel de producción total Mejoramiento de utilidades de la unidad. En resumen, las conclusiones finales del estudio son: El Sub sector de concentrados se presenta moderadamente atractivo para la Inversión» debido a las expectativas de crecimiento a futuro y las altas barreras de ingreso. A nivel país, se concluye que el Perú tiene ventajas competitivas en el sector minero. Del análisis interno se concluye que la U.N. Cerro de Pasco tiene una estructura interna caracterizada por las fortalezas que sobrepasan a sus debilidades. La problemática social y política actual de la ciudad de Cerro de Pasco, colindante con la mina constituye un alto sobre costo social que podrían influir en la perdida de competitividad de la mina Cerro de Pasco. Existen pasivos ambientales que representan un costo adicional para la mitigación de los problemas no tratados con anterioridad. Como recomendaciones a seguir por la Unidad de Negocios Cerro de Pasco se ha propuesto lo siguiente: Poner mayor énfasis en las operaciones subterráneas debido a que en el mediano plazo la explotador a tajo abierto pasaré a ser inviable, Invertir en las exploraciones dentro del área de producción. Implementar programas de mejoramiento de imagen institucional. Implementar programas para el aumento de eficiencia del personal. Invertir en tecnología para mejorar la calidad de los concentrados Aumentar la inversión en exploraciones de zonas cercanas a operaciones mineras. Separar los servicios básicos de la ciudad respecto de la actividad minera ; This study shows in its rnitial part a brief description about the Peruvian mining sector and the world zinc and tead mining situation. Centromin Perú and its Business Unit Cerro de Pasco (Unidad de Negocios Cerro de Pasco) are also descríbed. Begínníng with a diagnosis, it was carried out the background analysis of the Business Unit and the analysis concerning its infernal situation. In the first chapter, factors of the macrosituation were analyzed. such as legal political, social cultural, economic, technological and environmental factors, there being a background with favorable conditions, mainly in political, tax, and economic conditions. The international background was ateo reviewed considering the investment tevel, metal valué and suppty and demand levéis of zinc and tead concéntrales. In general terms, it was found that the investment tevel in Latín America has increased substantially in the last years. With regard to the determination itself of the metal prices, accordíng to the analysts, it should be included the world production as well as the secondary production, metal stocks and world consumption. In addition to these variabtes, it is necessary to take into account the influence of speculation forces, stock market investors who opt to cover themselves, as welt as the background factors (political, social, environmental, natural, etc.) It was periormed the analysis of the Peruvian competitivo advantages in the mining sector. It was concluded that the country owns favorable conditions from the basic factors, both in structure and strategy of enterprises within the sector, finding an intermediate position regarding to the demand conditions and quality of connecting and supporting sectora, mainly with respect to machinery and technology. Likewise, government has played a very important role in the last years to make the sector attractive by means of reforms in tax and legal aspeóte. In the third chapter, it was carried out the interna! analysis about the Business Unit Cerro de Pasco (U.N. Cerro de Pasco). It was performed a functional analysis that included the different activities developed by the Unit. The analysis showed that the company is in a strong intemal position. The main management strengths are generated as a consequence of the exploitation of external advantages before the devetopment of internal capacities, white the main weaknesses are a consequence of bad previous managements. Thus, strengths are related to the operational part on the side of coste and to the human resources on the side of personnel experience and qualffication. In retation to the weaknesses, these are produced basically in the technological aspect and in social economía probtems inherent in the mine. The main strengths found are: the grade of zinc ore above average. highly qualified operation personnel, total costs betow average, besides having a dient portfolio whicti it has had a good relationship with. The main weaknesses identified were: the k>w levéis of productivity, tow investment in prospecting of new deposite that causes the short litetime of open pit, oíd technology used in mining metallurgic operations, lack of a management Information system, high togistrc costs and the presence of high contente of ¡ron in minerals which get the concéntrales valuation decreased. The fourth chapter deate with the social problems in Cerro de Pasco. On this subject, the social problems include the difficulty for expanding mining operations in áreas adjacent to the city, the supply of water and drainage sen/ices, the personnel housing maintenance and all facts connected with the environmental aspect. In the fifth chapter it is carried out an environmental impact analysis about the operations in Cerro de Pasco mina it is also detailed the Environmental Management and Adjustment Program (Programa de Adecuación y Manejo Ambiental – ("PAMA") and the mitigation measures applied after the Preliminary Environmental Assessment (Evaluación Ambiental Preliminar - "EVAP"). Lastly, considering the strategic objectives drawn up by Cerro the Pasco Mine, the most adequate strategies identified for the Unit in general terms woukf be: Image improvement befare the public opinion Increase of mine lifelime Maintenanceof total production level. Improvement of Unit profits. In short, the final conclusions of study are: The subsector of concentrales appears moderately atlractive for the investment, due to the growing expectations in the futura and the high incorne barriere. At level of country, it is concluded that Peru has competitive advantages in the mining sector. From the intemal analysis, it is concluded that the Business Unit Cerro de Pasco (U.N. Cerro de Pasco) has an intemal structure characterized by the strengths that exceed its weaknesses. The present social and political problems of Cerro de Pasco city. adjacent to the mine, constitute a high social additional cost, which rnight have an influence over the competitiveness loss in Cerro de Pasco mine. There are environmental liabilities that represent an additional cost for the solutron of problems previously unsolved, As recommendations to be followed by the Business Unit Cerro de Pasco (U.N. Cerro de Pasco), there are the following proposals: To emphasize the underground operation because, at medium temi, the open pit exploitation will be unfeasible. To invest in exploralions within the production area. To implement improvement programs of instilutional image. To implement programs for personnel efficiency increase. To invest in technology in order to improve the concentrales quality To increase the investment in explorations of zones ciose to the mining operations. To separate city basic services frorn the mining activity. ; Tesis

This paper uses a large national household panel from 1999/2000 and 2007/08 to analyze the short-term effects of India's Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme on wages, labor supply, agricultural labor use, and productivity. The scheme prompted a 10-point wage increase and higher labor supply to nonagricultural casual work and agricultural self-employment. Program-induced drops in hired labor demand were more than outweighed by more intensive use of family labor, machinery, fertilizer, and diversification to crops with higher risk-return profiles, especially by small farmers. Although the aggregate productivity effects were modest, total employment generated by the program (but not employment in irrigation-related activities) significantly increased productivity, suggesting alleviation of liquidity constraints and implicit insurance provision rather than quality of works undertaken as a main channel for program-induced productivity effects.

In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you thirteen scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. In the article by Olha Chumachenko, оn the basis of a wide base of sources, the article highlights and analyzes the development of research work of aircraft engine companies in Zaporizhzhia during the 1970s. The existence of a single system of functioning of the Zaporizhzhia production association "Motorobudivnyk" (now the Public Joint Stock Company "Motor Sich") and the Zaporizhzhia Machine-Building Design Bureau "Progress" (now the State Enterprise "Ivchenko – Progress") has been taken into account. Leonid Griffen and Nadiia Ryzheva present their vision of the essence of technology as a socio-historical phenomenon. The article reveals the authors' vision of the essence of the technology as a sociohistorical phenomenon. It is based on the idea that technology is not only a set of technical devices but a segment of the general system – a society – located between a social medium and its natural surroundings in the form of a peculiar social technosphere, which simultaneously separates and connects them. Definitely the article by Denis Kislov, which examines the period from the end of the XVII century to the beginning of the XIX century, is also of interest, when on the basis of deep philosophical concepts, a new vision of the development of statehood and human values raised. At this time, a certain re-thinking of the management and communication ideas of Antiquity and the Renaissance took place, which outlined the main promising trends in the statehood evolution, which to one degree or another were embodied in practice in the 19th and 20th centuries. A systematic approach and a comparative analysis of the causes and consequences of those years' achievements for the present and the immediate future of the 21st century served as the methodological basis for a comprehensive review of the studies of that period. The article by Serhii Paliienko is devoted to an exploration of archaeological theory issues at the Institute of archaeology AS UkrSSR in the 1960s. This period is one of the worst studied in the history of Soviet archaeology. But it was the time when in the USSR archaeological researches reached the summit, quantitative methods and methods of natural sciences were applied and interest in theoretical issues had grown in archaeology. Now there are a lot of publications dedicated to theoretical discussions between archaeologists from Leningrad but the same researches about Kyiv scholars are still unknown The legacy of St.Luke in medical science, authors from Greece - this study aims to highlight key elements of the life of Valentyn Feliksovych Voino-Yasenetskyi and his scientific contribution to medicine. Among the scientists of European greatness, who at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries showed interest to the folklore of Galicia (Halychyna) and Galician Ukrainians, contributed to their national and cultural revival, one of the leading places is occupied by the outstanding Ukrainian scientist Ivan Verkhratskyi. He was both naturalist and philologist, as well as folklorist and ethnographer, organizer of scientific work, publisher and popularizer of Ukrainian literature, translator, publicist and famous public figure. I.H.Verkhratskyi was also an outstanding researcher of plants and animals of Eastern Galicia, a connoisseur of insects, especially butterflies, the author of the first school textbooks on natural science written in Ukrainian. A new emerging field that has seen the application of the drone technology is the healthcare sector. Over the years, the health sector has increasingly relied on the device for timely transportation of essential articles across the globe. Since its introduction in health, scholars have attempted to address the impact of drones on healthcare across Africa and the world at large. Among other things, it has been reported by scholars that the device has the ability to overcome the menace of weather constraints, inadequate personnel and inaccessible roads within the healthcare sector. This notwithstanding, data on drones and drone application in Ghana and her healthcare sector in particular appears to be little within the drone literature. Also, little attempt has been made by scholars to highlight the use of drones in African countries. By using a narrative review approach, the current study attempts to address the gap above. By this approach, a thorough literature search was performed to locate and assess scientific materials involving the application of drones in the military field and in the medical systems of Africans and Ghanaians in particular. The paper by Artemii Bernatskyi and Vladyslav Khaskin is devoted to the analysis of the history of the laser creation as one of the greatest technical inventions of the 20th century. This paper focuses on establishing a relation between the periodization of the stages of creation and implementation of certain types of lasers, with their influence on the invention of certain types of equipment and industrial technologies for processing the materials, the development of certain branches of the economy, and scientific-technological progress as a whole. The paper discusses the stages of: invention of the first laser; creation of the first commercial lasers; development of the first applications of lasers in industrial technologies for processing the materials. Special attention is paid to the "patent wars" that accompanied different stages of the creation of lasers. A comparative analysis of the market development for laser technology from the stage of creation to the present has been carried out. Nineteenth-century world exhibitions were platforms to demonstrate technical and technological changes that witnessed the modernization and industrialization of the world. World exhibitions have contributed to the promotion of new inventions and the popularization of already known, as well as the emergence of art objects of world importance. One of the most important world events at the turn of the century was the 1900 World's Fair in Paris. Thus, the author has tried to analyze the participation of representatives of the sugar industry in the World's Fair in 1900 and to define the role of exhibitions as indicators of economic development, to show the importance and influence of private entrepreneurs, especially from Ukraine, on the sugar industry and international contacts. The article by Viktor Verhunov highlights the life and creative path of the outstanding domestic scientist, theorist, methodologist and practitioner of agricultural engineering K.G.Schindler, associated with the formation of agricultural mechanics in Ukraine. The methodological foundation of the research is the principles of historicism, scientific nature and objectivity in reproducing the phenomena of the past based on the complex use of general scientific, special, interdisciplinary methods. For the first time a number of documents from Russian and Ukrainian archives, which reflect some facts of the professional biography of the scientist, were introduced into scientific circulation. The authors from Kremenchuk National University named after Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi presented a fascinating study of a bayonet fragment with severe damages of metal found in the city Kremenchuk (Ukraine) in one of the canals on the outskirts of the city, near the Dnipro River. Theoretical research to study blade weapons of the World War I period and the typology of the bayonets of that period, which made it possible to put forward an assumption about the possible identification of the object as a modified bayonet to the Mauser rifle has been carried out. Metal science expert examination was based on X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine the concentration of elements in the sample from the cleaned part of the blade. In the article by Mykola Ruban and Vadym Ponomarenko on the basis of the complex analysis of sources and scientific literature the attempt to investigate historical circumstances of development and construction of shunting electric locomotives at the Dnipropetrovsk electric locomotive plant has been made. The next scientific article continues the series of publications devoted to the assessment of activities of the heads of the Ministry of Railways of the Russian Empire. In this article, the authors have attempted to systematize and analyze historical data on the activities of Klavdii Semyonovych Nemeshaev as the Minister of Railways of the Russian Empire. The article also assesses the development and construction of railway network in the Russian Empire during Nemeshaev's office, in particular, of the Amur Line and Moscow Encircle Railway, as well as the increase in the capacity of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The article discusses K.S.Nemeshaev's contribution to the development of technology and the introduction of a new type of freight steam locomotive for state-owned railways. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions. ; In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you thirteen scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. In the article by Olha Chumachenko, оn the basis of a wide base of sources, the article highlights and analyzes the development of research work of aircraft engine companies in Zaporizhzhia during the 1970s. The existence of a single system of functioning of the Zaporizhzhia production association "Motorobudivnyk" (now the Public Joint Stock Company "Motor Sich") and the Zaporizhzhia Machine-Building Design Bureau "Progress" (now the State Enterprise "Ivchenko – Progress") has been taken into account. Leonid Griffen and Nadiia Ryzheva present their vision of the essence of technology as a socio-historical phenomenon. The article reveals the authors' vision of the essence of the technology as a sociohistorical phenomenon. It is based on the idea that technology is not only a set of technical devices but a segment of the general system – a society – located between a social medium and its natural surroundings in the form of a peculiar social technosphere, which simultaneously separates and connects them. Definitely the article by Denis Kislov, which examines the period from the end of the XVII century to the beginning of the XIX century, is also of interest, when on the basis of deep philosophical concepts, a new vision of the development of statehood and human values raised. At this time, a certain re-thinking of the management and communication ideas of Antiquity and the Renaissance took place, which outlined the main promising trends in the statehood evolution, which to one degree or another were embodied in practice in the 19th and 20th centuries. A systematic approach and a comparative analysis of the causes and consequences of those years' achievements for the present and the immediate future of the 21st century served as the methodological basis for a comprehensive review of the studies of that period. The article by Serhii Paliienko is devoted to an exploration of archaeological theory issues at the Institute of archaeology AS UkrSSR in the 1960s. This period is one of the worst studied in the history of Soviet archaeology. But it was the time when in the USSR archaeological researches reached the summit, quantitative methods and methods of natural sciences were applied and interest in theoretical issues had grown in archaeology. Now there are a lot of publications dedicated to theoretical discussions between archaeologists from Leningrad but the same researches about Kyiv scholars are still unknown The legacy of St.Luke in medical science, authors from Greece - this study aims to highlight key elements of the life of Valentyn Feliksovych Voino-Yasenetskyi and his scientific contribution to medicine. Among the scientists of European greatness, who at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries showed interest to the folklore of Galicia (Halychyna) and Galician Ukrainians, contributed to their national and cultural revival, one of the leading places is occupied by the outstanding Ukrainian scientist Ivan Verkhratskyi. He was both naturalist and philologist, as well as folklorist and ethnographer, organizer of scientific work, publisher and popularizer of Ukrainian literature, translator, publicist and famous public figure. I.H.Verkhratskyi was also an outstanding researcher of plants and animals of Eastern Galicia, a connoisseur of insects, especially butterflies, the author of the first school textbooks on natural science written in Ukrainian. A new emerging field that has seen the application of the drone technology is the healthcare sector. Over the years, the health sector has increasingly relied on the device for timely transportation of essential articles across the globe. Since its introduction in health, scholars have attempted to address the impact of drones on healthcare across Africa and the world at large. Among other things, it has been reported by scholars that the device has the ability to overcome the menace of weather constraints, inadequate personnel and inaccessible roads within the healthcare sector. This notwithstanding, data on drones and drone application in Ghana and her healthcare sector in particular appears to be little within the drone literature. Also, little attempt has been made by scholars to highlight the use of drones in African countries. By using a narrative review approach, the current study attempts to address the gap above. By this approach, a thorough literature search was performed to locate and assess scientific materials involving the application of drones in the military field and in the medical systems of Africans and Ghanaians in particular. The paper by Artemii Bernatskyi and Vladyslav Khaskin is devoted to the analysis of the history of the laser creation as one of the greatest technical inventions of the 20th century. This paper focuses on establishing a relation between the periodization of the stages of creation and implementation of certain types of lasers, with their influence on the invention of certain types of equipment and industrial technologies for processing the materials, the development of certain branches of the economy, and scientific-technological progress as a whole. The paper discusses the stages of: invention of the first laser; creation of the first commercial lasers; development of the first applications of lasers in industrial technologies for processing the materials. Special attention is paid to the "patent wars" that accompanied different stages of the creation of lasers. A comparative analysis of the market development for laser technology from the stage of creation to the present has been carried out. Nineteenth-century world exhibitions were platforms to demonstrate technical and technological changes that witnessed the modernization and industrialization of the world. World exhibitions have contributed to the promotion of new inventions and the popularization of already known, as well as the emergence of art objects of world importance. One of the most important world events at the turn of the century was the 1900 World's Fair in Paris. Thus, the author has tried to analyze the participation of representatives of the sugar industry in the World's Fair in 1900 and to define the role of exhibitions as indicators of economic development, to show the importance and influence of private entrepreneurs, especially from Ukraine, on the sugar industry and international contacts. The article by Viktor Verhunov highlights the life and creative path of the outstanding domestic scientist, theorist, methodologist and practitioner of agricultural engineering K.G.Schindler, associated with the formation of agricultural mechanics in Ukraine. The methodological foundation of the research is the principles of historicism, scientific nature and objectivity in reproducing the phenomena of the past based on the complex use of general scientific, special, interdisciplinary methods. For the first time a number of documents from Russian and Ukrainian archives, which reflect some facts of the professional biography of the scientist, were introduced into scientific circulation. The authors from Kremenchuk National University named after Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi presented a fascinating study of a bayonet fragment with severe damages of metal found in the city Kremenchuk (Ukraine) in one of the canals on the outskirts of the city, near the Dnipro River. Theoretical research to study blade weapons of the World War I period and the typology of the bayonets of that period, which made it possible to put forward an assumption about the possible identification of the object as a modified bayonet to the Mauser rifle has been carried out. Metal science expert examination was based on X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine the concentration of elements in the sample from the cleaned part of the blade. In the article by Mykola Ruban and Vadym Ponomarenko on the basis of the complex analysis of sources and scientific literature the attempt to investigate historical circumstances of development and construction of shunting electric locomotives at the Dnipropetrovsk electric locomotive plant has been made. The next scientific article continues the series of publications devoted to the assessment of activities of the heads of the Ministry of Railways of the Russian Empire. In this article, the authors have attempted to systematize and analyze historical data on the activities of Klavdii Semyonovych Nemeshaev as the Minister of Railways of the Russian Empire. The article also assesses the development and construction of railway network in the Russian Empire during Nemeshaev's office, in particular, of the Amur Line and Moscow Encircle Railway, as well as the increase in the capacity of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The article discusses K.S.Nemeshaev's contribution to the development of technology and the introduction of a new type of freight steam locomotive for state-owned railways. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions. ; In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you thirteen scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. In the article by Olha Chumachenko, оn the basis of a wide base of sources, the article highlights and analyzes the development of research work of aircraft engine companies in Zaporizhzhia during the 1970s. The existence of a single system of functioning of the Zaporizhzhia production association "Motorobudivnyk" (now the Public Joint Stock Company "Motor Sich") and the Zaporizhzhia Machine-Building Design Bureau "Progress" (now the State Enterprise "Ivchenko – Progress") has been taken into account. Leonid Griffen and Nadiia Ryzheva present their vision of the essence of technology as a socio-historical phenomenon. The article reveals the authors' vision of the essence of the technology as a sociohistorical phenomenon. It is based on the idea that technology is not only a set of technical devices but a segment of the general system – a society – located between a social medium and its natural surroundings in the form of a peculiar social technosphere, which simultaneously separates and connects them. Definitely the article by Denis Kislov, which examines the period from the end of the XVII century to the beginning of the XIX century, is also of interest, when on the basis of deep philosophical concepts, a new vision of the development of statehood and human values raised. At this time, a certain re-thinking of the management and communication ideas of Antiquity and the Renaissance took place, which outlined the main promising trends in the statehood evolution, which to one degree or another were embodied in practice in the 19th and 20th centuries. A systematic approach and a comparative analysis of the causes and consequences of those years' achievements for the present and the immediate future of the 21st century served as the methodological basis for a comprehensive review of the studies of that period. The article by Serhii Paliienko is devoted to an exploration of archaeological theory issues at the Institute of archaeology AS UkrSSR in the 1960s. This period is one of the worst studied in the history of Soviet archaeology. But it was the time when in the USSR archaeological researches reached the summit, quantitative methods and methods of natural sciences were applied and interest in theoretical issues had grown in archaeology. Now there are a lot of publications dedicated to theoretical discussions between archaeologists from Leningrad but the same researches about Kyiv scholars are still unknown The legacy of St.Luke in medical science, authors from Greece - this study aims to highlight key elements of the life of Valentyn Feliksovych Voino-Yasenetskyi and his scientific contribution to medicine. Among the scientists of European greatness, who at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries showed interest to the folklore of Galicia (Halychyna) and Galician Ukrainians, contributed to their national and cultural revival, one of the leading places is occupied by the outstanding Ukrainian scientist Ivan Verkhratskyi. He was both naturalist and philologist, as well as folklorist and ethnographer, organizer of scientific work, publisher and popularizer of Ukrainian literature, translator, publicist and famous public figure. I.H.Verkhratskyi was also an outstanding researcher of plants and animals of Eastern Galicia, a connoisseur of insects, especially butterflies, the author of the first school textbooks on natural science written in Ukrainian. A new emerging field that has seen the application of the drone technology is the healthcare sector. Over the years, the health sector has increasingly relied on the device for timely transportation of essential articles across the globe. Since its introduction in health, scholars have attempted to address the impact of drones on healthcare across Africa and the world at large. Among other things, it has been reported by scholars that the device has the ability to overcome the menace of weather constraints, inadequate personnel and inaccessible roads within the healthcare sector. This notwithstanding, data on drones and drone application in Ghana and her healthcare sector in particular appears to be little within the drone literature. Also, little attempt has been made by scholars to highlight the use of drones in African countries. By using a narrative review approach, the current study attempts to address the gap above. By this approach, a thorough literature search was performed to locate and assess scientific materials involving the application of drones in the military field and in the medical systems of Africans and Ghanaians in particular. The paper by Artemii Bernatskyi and Vladyslav Khaskin is devoted to the analysis of the history of the laser creation as one of the greatest technical inventions of the 20th century. This paper focuses on establishing a relation between the periodization of the stages of creation and implementation of certain types of lasers, with their influence on the invention of certain types of equipment and industrial technologies for processing the materials, the development of certain branches of the economy, and scientific-technological progress as a whole. The paper discusses the stages of: invention of the first laser; creation of the first commercial lasers; development of the first applications of lasers in industrial technologies for processing the materials. Special attention is paid to the "patent wars" that accompanied different stages of the creation of lasers. A comparative analysis of the market development for laser technology from the stage of creation to the present has been carried out. Nineteenth-century world exhibitions were platforms to demonstrate technical and technological changes that witnessed the modernization and industrialization of the world. World exhibitions have contributed to the promotion of new inventions and the popularization of already known, as well as the emergence of art objects of world importance. One of the most important world events at the turn of the century was the 1900 World's Fair in Paris. Thus, the author has tried to analyze the participation of representatives of the sugar industry in the World's Fair in 1900 and to define the role of exhibitions as indicators of economic development, to show the importance and influence of private entrepreneurs, especially from Ukraine, on the sugar industry and international contacts. The article by Viktor Verhunov highlights the life and creative path of the outstanding domestic scientist, theorist, methodologist and practitioner of agricultural engineering K.G.Schindler, associated with the formation of agricultural mechanics in Ukraine. The methodological foundation of the research is the principles of historicism, scientific nature and objectivity in reproducing the phenomena of the past based on the complex use of general scientific, special, interdisciplinary methods. For the first time a number of documents from Russian and Ukrainian archives, which reflect some facts of the professional biography of the scientist, were introduced into scientific circulation. The authors from Kremenchuk National University named after Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi presented a fascinating study of a bayonet fragment with severe damages of metal found in the city Kremenchuk (Ukraine) in one of the canals on the outskirts of the city, near the Dnipro River. Theoretical research to study blade weapons of the World War I period and the typology of the bayonets of that period, which made it possible to put forward an assumption about the possible identification of the object as a modified bayonet to the Mauser rifle has been carried out. Metal science expert examination was based on X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine the concentration of elements in the sample from the cleaned part of the blade. In the article by Mykola Ruban and Vadym Ponomarenko on the basis of the complex analysis of sources and scientific literature the attempt to investigate historical circumstances of development and construction of shunting electric locomotives at the Dnipropetrovsk electric locomotive plant has been made. The next scientific article continues the series of publications devoted to the assessment of activities of the heads of the Ministry of Railways of the Russian Empire. In this article, the authors have attempted to systematize and analyze historical data on the activities of Klavdii Semyonovych Nemeshaev as the Minister of Railways of the Russian Empire. The article also assesses the development and construction of railway network in the Russian Empire during Nemeshaev's office, in particular, of the Amur Line and Moscow Encircle Railway, as well as the increase in the capacity of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The article discusses K.S.Nemeshaev's contribution to the development of technology and the introduction of a new type of freight steam locomotive for state-owned railways. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions.

Saksan jälleenyhdistymisestä lähtien Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan suunnasta on käyty intensiivistä debattia. Viime vuosien kriisien aikana Saksan ja liittokansleri Angela Merkelin rooli on kasvanut sekä kansallisessa että Euroopan politiikassa. Samalla Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikka on näyttäytynyt paikoitellen tempoilevana ja epäjohdonmukaisena suhteessa yhdistymisen jälkeen harjoitettuun politiikkaan. Tapaus Kreikka vuonna 2010, jolloin Saksa nopeasti päätti puoltaa Kreikan tukipakettia kansan mielipiteen vastaisesti, tapaus Libya vuonna 2011, jolloin Saksa ei äänestänyt YK:n turvallisuusneuvostossa EU- ja Nato-kumppaneiden kanssa päätöslauselmasta 1973, sekä Fukushiman katastrofi, jonka yhteydessä liittokansleri Merkel päätti sulkea Saksan jo jatkoaikaa saaneet ydinvoimalat nopeutetulla aikataululla, ovat esimerkkejä tempoilevasta politiikasta. Tieteellinen tutkimus Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikasta liittokansleri Merkelin aikana onkin tarpeellista, jotta voidaan ymmärtää ja selittää nykyisiä muutoksia Saksan politiikassa ja arvioida niiden laajempia seurauksia eurooppalaiselle ja kansainväliselle politiikalle. Saksan ulkopolitiikkaa on yleensä selitetty rakenne- ja identiteettiteorioiden näkökulmasta, mutta tämä tutkimus katsoo, että ne eivät yksinään pysty selittämään ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan teon maailman kompleksisuutta. Myös yksilötaso, korkein päätöksentekijä, tulee sisällyttää analyysiin. Saksan ulkopolitiikan tutkimuskirjallisuudessa ei ole monia tutkimuksia, jotka asettaisivat korkeimman päätöksentekijän kuten liittokanslerin analyysin keskiöön. Tämä tutkimus lähestyykin Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan tutkimusta liittokansleri Merkelin näkökulmasta ja pyrkii ymmärtämään ja selittämään mahdollisia muutoksia Saksan politiikassa Merkelin poliittisten, operationaalisen koodin, uskomusten muutoksen avulla. Uskomukset ja niiden vaikutus politiikan sisältöön ja prosesseihin on laajasti tutkittu aihe kansainvälisten suhteiden alalla. Eri tutkimustraditiot näkevät kuitenkin uskomusten roolin eri tavalla. Realistinen ja rationalistinen koulukunta näkee uskomuksilla vähäisen roolin kv-politiikassa kun taas kognitiivinen ja konstruktivistinen koulukunta korostaa uskomusten kausaalista, jopa konstitutiivista, vaikutusta. Joka tapauksessa uskomuksilta puuttuu itsessään mekanismit, joiden kautta ne toimivat. Tämän vuoksi tutkimus lisää kansainvälisen ja kansallisen kontekstin Merkelin uskomusten tutkimuksen ympärille. Tämä auttaa kehittämään ymmärrystä, miten uskomukset toimivat konkreettisessa politiikan teon maailmassa. Tutkimuksen keskeinen käsite on operationaalinen koodi. Operationaalisen koodin uskomukset ovat poliittisia uskomuksia. Ne ovat jotain, jota pidämme totena politiikasta. Erityisesti käsitellessään monimutkaisia asioita ja toimiessaan epävarmuustekijöiden vallitessa päätöksentekijä saattaa tukeutua uskomuksiinsa, jotka yksinkertaistavat hänen kuvaansa maailmasta. Tämä tutkimus kartoittaa johtajan operationaalisen koodin uskomuksia perustuen Alexander Georgen määrittään 10 kysymykseen. Hän määritti, että johtajan operationaalinen koodi käsittää sekä filosofisia uskomuksia, jotka ohjaavat johtajan diagnoosia liittyen operationaaliseen toimintaympäristöön ja muihin toimijoihin että instrumentaalisia uskomuksia, jotka koskevat päätöksentekijän uskomuksia parhaasta strategiasta ja taktiikasta saavuttaa tavoitteet. Tutkimuksen tavoite on, ensinnäkin, tarkastella ja verrata liittokansleri Merkelin poliittisia operationaalisen koodin uskomuksia hänen kahden ensimmäisen kauden, 2005–2009 sekä 2009–2013, välillä. Toiseksi, tutkimus pyrkii yhdistämään operationaalisen koodin uskomukset Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan vähittäiseen muutokseen. Väitän, että uskomukset vaikuttavat sekä politiikan sisältöön ja politiikan prosesseihin. Toisin sanoen, kun liittokansleri Merkelin operationaalisen koodin uskomukset alkoivat muuttua hänen kahden ensimmäisen kauden välillä, alkoi hän vähitellen kehystää Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikkaa uudelleen. Tämä saattoi vaikuttaa myös Saksan kansalliseen instituutioiden väliseen voimatasapainoon korkeimman päätöksentekijän sekä liittopäivien ja perustuslakituomioistuimen välillä. Nämä muutokset voidaan nähdä Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan normalisoitumisena. Tutkimusmetodina käytän monimenetelmätutkimusta, joka yhdistää kvantitatiivisen operationaalisen koodin tutkimuksen sekä kvalitatiivisen pitkittäisen sisällönanalyysin ja process-tracing-menetelmän. Kvantitatiivisten ja kvalitatiivisten metodien yhdistelmä antaa paremmat mahdollisuudet löytää kausaalisuhteita uskomusten ja politiikan ts. kausaalisuuden, prosessien ja lopputuloksen välillä. Tutkimusmateriaali koostuu liittokansleri Merkelin saksankielisistä julkisista, ei spontaaneista, puheista. Merkelin operationaalisen koodin uskomusten muutosta ja niiden vaikusta Saksan politiikkaan tarkastellaan kolmessa eri asiakysymyksessä ulko- ja turvallisuuspolitiikassa, talous- ja Eurooppa-politiikassa sekä ympäristö- ja energiapolitiikassa. Kolmen tapaustutkimuksen perusteella on mahdollista vetää joitakin yleisiä johtopäätöksiä. Ensimmäinen johtopäätös liittyy operationaalisen koodin uskomusten muutokseen. Liittokansleri Merkelin poliittiset uskomukset muuttuivat, joko kääntyivät tai vahvistuivat, hänen kahden ensimmäisen kautensa välillä. Jokaisessa tapaustutkimuksessa, Merkelin uskomus liittyen operationaalisen toimintaympäristön ystävällisyyteen tai yhteistyötä painottavaan luonteeseen vahvistui kahden kauden välillä. Lisäksi uskomus eri keinojen hyödyllisyydestä laajentui käsittämään enemmän negatiivisia keinoja kuten "uhkaus" ja "sanktiot" sekä positiivisia keinoja kuten "lupaus" ja "palkitseminen", mikä puolestaan vähensi yhteen keinoon liitettyä riskiä. Analyysin perusteella uskomukset ovat muuttuneet vähitellen ajan myötä. Korkeimman päätöksentekijän "oppiminen", toisin sanoen uskomusten muutos, on tulosten mukaan kaikkein selvin liittyen laajentuneeseen keinovalikoimaan, mikä voi toimintaympäristöön liittyvien uskomusten muutoksen ohella vaikuttaa ajan myötä päämäärien uudelleenmuotoiluun ja muokata Saksan kansallista ymmärrystä. Tulosten mukaan finanssi- ja talouskriisin puhkeaminen vuonna 2008 vahvisti linkkiä Merkelin operationaalisen koodin uskomusten ja Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan välillä. Toisin sanoen, kansainvälinen kriisi ei kääntänyt Merkelin uskomuksia kohti vihamielistä näkemystä liittyen operatiiviseen toimintaympäristöön vaan kriisin jälkimainingeissa Merkelin kansainvälisen toimintaympäristön ystävällisyyttä ja yhteistyötä painottavia strategioita koskevat uskomukset jopa vahvistuivat. Voidaankin todeta, että tulokset osoittavat uskomuksilla ja ideoilla olevan jonkin verran riippumatonta, sekä suoraa että epäsuoraa, vaikutusta politiikan kehystämiseen, kun uskomuksia testataan ulkoista todellisuutta vastaan. Tutkimuksen toinen yhtenäinen tulos liittyy liittokansleri Merkelin politiikan kehystämiseen ja Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan suuntaan. Toista kautta kohti Merkel alkoi kehystää yhteistyön käsitettä, Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan jatkuvuuden tärkeintä indikaattoria, pragmaattisella tavalla. Tämä tarkoittaa, että Merkel alkoi määritellä yhteistyön käsitettä instrumentaalisemmaksi ja tavoiteorientoituvammaksi. Kun kansainväliset multilateraali- tai EU-tason neuvottelut eivät etene, on yhteistyötä määriteltävä suuntaan, joka sallii kyseisellä aihealueella pienemmät koalitiot ja kumppanuudet, jotka edistävät samoja tavoitteita. Kahden ensimmäisen kautensa aikana liittokansleri Merkel korosti nousevien talouksien roolia ja etenkin kansainvälisen finanssi- ja talouskriisin jälkimainingeissa näiden valtioiden kasvavaa vastuuta kansainvälisestä yhteistyöstä. Toisin sanoen, yhteistyökäsitteen ja yhteistyörakenteiden uudelleenkehystäminen on tarpeellista. Saksalla on taloudellista valtaa ja tämä saattoi johtaa Saksan ottamaan enemmän roolia tulevaisuuden yhteistyön ja sen rakenteiden määrittelystä eri aihealueilla. Saksan mahdollisesti kasvava vastuu ja rooli kansainvälisessä ja Eurooppa-politiikassa ei kuitenkaan tarkoita, että liittokansleri Merkel olisi luomassa suurvalta-Saksaa. Päinvastoin, tavoitteena saattaa olla kehystää kansainvälistä yhteistyötä suuntaan, joka vastaa saksalaista tapaa ajatella. On tärkeää ottaa osaa tulevaisuuden kansainvälisten yhteistyörakenteiden, niiden sääntöjen ja toimintatapojen määrittelyyn, sillä ajan myötä kansallisten rakenteiden on mukauduttava näihin sääntöihin. Tutkimukseni kolmas ja viimeinen keskeinen tutkimustulos liittyy kansainvälisen politiikan vaikuttamisen mekanismeihin. Väitän, että vallankäytön mekanismien lisäksi liittokansleri Merkel käytti kognitiivista suostuttelua tehdessään ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikkaa. Hän käytti asia- ja politiikkalinkityksiä sekä kontrolloidakseen agendoja että suostutellakseen sekä kansainvälisesti että kansallisesti. Kirjallisuudessa asialinkitykset nähdään kansainvälisen vallan harjoittamisen muotona. Tämä tutkimus ei kyseenalaista tätä argumenttia. Kuitenkin voidaan esittää, että kun uskomukset muuttuvat ja korkein päätöksentekijä alkaa uudelleenkehystää politiikkaansa, prosessissa täytyy olla mukana kognitiivisen suostuttelun mekanismi, joka sisältää sekä kansainvälisen että kansallisen yleisön. Suostuttelu liittyy kansainvälisen ja kansallisen yhteisymmärryksen muuttamiseen kyseisessä asiakysymyksessä merkitysten ja konseptien uudelleenkehystämisen avulla. Kahden ensimmäisen kautensa aikana Merkel suostutteli erilaisilla ideationaalisilla käsitteillä kuten "verkostoitunut turvallisuus", "sosiaalinen markkinatalous" ja "kestävyys". Viimeisenä huomiona voidaan nostaa esiin se, että vallankäytön lisäksi näissä kolmessa tapaustutkimuksessa, on myös mukana suostuttelun mekanismi. Tämä saattaa vähitellen muuttaa Saksan kansallista ymmärrystä liittyen Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikkaan ja kansainväliseen rooliin sekä kansallista institutionaalista voimatasapainoa. Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan tutkimuksen tulisi jatkossa keskittyä muutoksen ja jatkuvuuden välisen vuorovaikutuksen analyysiin. Lisäksi on tärkeää analysoida johtajien pragmaattista politiikan uudelleenmäärittelyä ja -kehystämistä, sillä Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan pysyvämpi muutos on mahdollista todeta vasta tulevina vuosikymmeninä. Tutkimukseni määritteli tämän politiikkojen pragmaattisen uudelleenkehystämisen Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan normalisoitumiskehitykseksi. Kolmen tason (yksilö, kansainvälinen ja kansallinen) vuorovaikutuksen ymmärtäminen analyysin taustalla on olennainen osa kattavaa mutta silti nyanssoitua Saksan ulko- ja Eurooppa-politiikan analyysia. ; Since the reunification of Germany, the direction of German foreign and European policy has been highly debated. During the series of crises during the past several years, the role of Germany and Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel has increased. However, Germany's policies have been somewhat inconsistent with its past positions, for example, as can be witnessed in the case of Libya, in euro crisis and during the Fukushima catastrophe. Thus, scientific research on German foreign and European policy under Federal Chancellor Merkel is necessary in order to be able to understand and explain the current changes in German foreign and European policy and to gain perspective on the wider the implications of these changes for both European and international politics. This study views that structural or identity theories alone are not able to explain the complex nature of foreign and European policy-making. Further, on the individual level, the key decision-maker, should be included in the analysis. There are not many current studies on German foreign policy that concentrate on the key political decision maker, such as the Federal Chancellor, as the main subject of study. Therefore, this study will approach the study of German foreign policy from the perspective of Federal Chancellor Merkel and will try to understand and explain the current changes in German foreign and European policy through the possible changes in her political operational code beliefs. Beliefs and their influence on policies and politics is widely studied in the field of international relations. However, the main research traditions view their role differently. Realist and rationalist theories assign only a minor role for how beliefs affect policies, whereas cognitive and constructivist theories emphasise their causal or even constitutive effect. However, taken alone, beliefs lack mechanisms. This study will add international and national contexts around the study of Merkel's beliefs in order to further develop understanding of beliefs and how they operate in the concrete policy-making environment. Beliefs can be defined as what we hold to be true. This study will examine a leader's operational code beliefs based on ten questions presented by Alexander George. George conceptualised a leader's operational code as a political belief system with some elements, philosophical beliefs, guiding the diagnosis of the context for action and others as well as instrumental beliefs that prescribe the most effective strategy and tactics for achieving goals. The aim of this study is, firstly, to examine and compare the political operational code beliefs of German Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel between her two first periods of office, between 2005–2009 and 2009–2013. Secondly, the study also aims to link the operational code beliefs to gradually changing German foreign and European policy. It argues that beliefs affect both policy content and policy process. Thus, as the operational code beliefs of Chancellor Merkel gradually changed, the Chancellor also began to reframe German foreign and European policy, which also affected the German domestic power balance between the key executive and domestic institutions such as the Bundestag and Federal Constitutional Court. These possible changes might indicate that German foreign and European policy is in a gradual process of normalization. The study uses a mixed method approach, which combines quantitative operational code research, qualitative longitudinal content analysis and process-tracing. It maintains that a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods is powerful in providing causal links between beliefs and policy, between causation, processes and outcome. The research material comprises public, not spontaneous, German speeches of Chancellor Merkel. The change of Merkel's operational code beliefs and its implications for German foreign and European policy will be examined in three case studies: in foreign and security policy, in economic and European policy, and in environmental and energy policy. On the basis of the three case studies, it is possible to draw some common key findings. The first finding relates to the changes in operational code beliefs. Merkel's political beliefs have changed, either reversed or reinforced, between her two first terms in office. In all three cases, Merkel's belief relating to the friendly and cooperative nature of the operational environment has reinforced between the two periods of office. Furthermore, the belief in the utility of different means available widened significantly to include even more 'threat' and 'sanctions' as well as 'promise' and 'reward' as foreign policy means, which in turn reduce the risk related to one single mean. This study views that these changes have taken place gradually over time. However, the learning of the key decision-maker, which is the most apparent in relation to the utility of different means, may gradually influence the redefinition of goals and also shape German national identity. According to the findings, the outbreak of the international financial and economic crisis in 2008 reinforced the link between Merkel's operational code beliefs and German foreign and European policy. Thus, the international crisis did not reverse the direction of beliefs towards a more hostile and protectionist view of the operational environment, rather in the aftermath of the financial crisis, Merkel's beliefs on the friendly and cooperative nature of the political universe and cooperative strategies seemed to reinforce somewhat. It can be stated that the analysis showed some of the independent effect of beliefs and ideas, both direct and indirect, on policy framing when tested against material reality. The second common finding discusses the policy framing of Chancellor Merkel and the current direction of German foreign and European policy. Towards the second term, Merkel began to reframe cooperation, an important indicator of the German policy of continuation, in a more pragmatic way, which implies a more instrumental and goal-oriented approach to cooperation. As the international multilateral or EU level negotiations in the different fields of policy did not seem to progress, the cooperation was defined towards a direction that also allowed for smaller partnerships and alliances that advanced the same goals. During the two first terms, Chancellor Merkel stressed the rise of the emerging economies and, especially in the aftermath of the international financial crisis, their increasing responsibility for international cooperation. Thus, reframing cooperation and cooperation structures is necessary. Germany has economic power and this might have led Germany to take in an increasing role in defining future cooperation structures in different issue areas. The possibly increase in responsibility and the role of Germany do not, however, imply that Chancellor Merkel is creating a super power Germany. On the contrary, the aim might be to define international cooperation structures in a way which relates better to the German way of thinking. Thus, it is important to take part in defining future international cooperation structures, their rules and procedures, because national structures must adapt to these rules over time. The third and final key finding of this study suggests that in addition to power mechanisms, Chancellor Merkel used cognitive persuasion in her foreign and European policy-making. She used issue and policy linkages for controlling agendas and persuading her audiences, both internationally and nationally. In the literature, issue linkages are often seen as a form of exercising international power. This study will not try question this argument. However, when beliefs change and the leader starts to reframe policies, there must always be a cognitive mechanism of persuasion involved including both international and domestic audiences. This relates to changing international and national understanding of an issue through reframing meaning and different concepts. In Merkel's case, she persuaded with different ideational concepts that linked various policies and means such as Vernetzte Sicherheit, Die Soziale Marktwirtschaft and Nachhaltigkeit. Thus, as a third observation, this study argues that alongside power, there was also a mechanism of persuasion involved in these three cases, which might, in addition to the national understanding of German foreign and European policy and Germany's international role, also gradually alter the German domestic institutional power balance. The future research of German foreign and European policy should continue to study the interaction between continuity and change and future German leaders' pragmatic redefinition and reframing of German foreign and European policy as it may be only be possible to state that there has been any permanent change in German policy in the upcoming decades. This study defined this pragmatic reframing of policies as the normalization in the development of German foreign and European policy. Furthermore, all levels of analysis (individual, international and national) should be included in future research in order to gain a comprehensive but still nuanced analysis of German foreign and European policy.

From the 1970s onwards, the development programs promoted by key global actors have gone through significant transformations. The industrial-expansion projects of the post-colonial era have been replaced with a set of actions increasingly focused on agriculture and rural areas. At the same time, the neoliberal policies carried out since the 1980s have deeply affected the global dynamics related to food production and distribution, giving rise to the birth of a new food regime that is driven by new modalities of regulation and new extractive strategies based on global value chains and transnational corporations. Despite the increases in productivity and the decline in food prices linked to these processes, the world economy has not managed to recover the levels of growth prior to the crisis of the 1970s. On the contrary, the neoliberal reaction to this crisis has generated a growing disillusionment towards development, fuelled also by the awakening of greater sensitivity to the ecological issues raised by environmental movements from as early as the 1960s. This "legitimacy crisis" of development, in turn, has led multilateral organisations to redefine their strategic objectives and to develop a new language. Thus, concepts such as "sustainable development" and "food security" have become increasingly important, until assuming the crucial role they currently play within the United Nations 2030 Agenda. The article provides a critical reading of the recent trajectories of agrarian change and rural development, as well as of the food narratives produced by the actors of global governance, particularly focusing on the "sustainability discourse" which inspired the United Nations 2030 Agenda. The authors point out the importance of analysing the dominant discourse and policies surrounding food production and distribution in the light of capitalist restructuring arising from the recurrent accumulation crises. In doing so, they put into dialogue food regimes analysis with world-ecology theory. The departing assumption is that capitalism – as a system characterised by a specific combination of class relations, territorial power and nature – has relied on the expansion and deepening of the frontier of accumulation, needing to continuously identify new effective ways to combine the exploitation of labour with the free appropriation of the work of human and extra-human nature. In this sense, "cheap nature" – following Jason Moore's definition – represents at once a prerequisite of capitalist development and a historical product of evolving strategies of accumulation reproducing a metabolic rift between humans and nature. These strategies are always based on a specific international division of labour and determined by global economic and geopolitical dynamics. At the same time, they are also characterised by changing patterns of (semi)proletarisation, as well as by ways of organizing nature whose constant renewal is crucial for the reproduction of capitalism. What truly distinguishes the current global scenario from the past is the "end of cheap nature", i. e. the exhaustion of the frontiers and the value relationships that have historically allowed for a reduction in the cost of four fundamental elements: labor, food, energy and raw materials. Against this phenomenon, by looking at the recent trajectories of the accumulation strategies underlying food production and distribution, two main dynamics emerge: the first one is hinged on a reconfiguration of extractivism based on natural resources dispossession and land concentration processes, as well as on a cost-reduction strategy based on labour exploitation; the second one can be portrayed as the reflex of a new governmental approach to development according to which the formal reunification of the producers with some basic means of production is functional to their inclusion into the global value-chains ruled by the agri-business corporations. Leveraging the neoliberal rhetoric of self-entrepreneurship, this second dynamic put into practice a sort of "indirect proletarisation", in which the incitement of the individual creative and productive capabilities accompanies the implementation of new mechanisms of control based on the provision of credit and other inputs, as well as on the proliferation of standardisation procedures, practices of patenting of nature, and technological control. Under these premises, the authors read the food security discourse embedded in the UN 2030 Agenda as an attempt to elude the socioecological contradictions inherent in capitalism, which ends up providing a sort of ideological legitimacy to the aforementioned dynamics, thereby engendering new explosive contradictions. The article is divided into three sections. The first one retraces the transformations that the capitalist world-ecology has experienced from the 1970s onwards from a food regimes approach. The second section aims to deconstruct the discursive practices underlying the United Nations 2030 Agenda, as well as to bring to light the ambiguities and contradictions inherent in development policies inspired by the concepts of 'sustainable development' and 'food security'. In the last section, the authors use the world-ecology perspective to interpret ongoing agrarian change dynamics. In seeking to revitalise the neoliberal development model, the authors argue, the dominant food narratives use scarcity as a pretext to extend and intensify the logics of the market, turning it into a universal principle for the regulation of human and extra-human nature. Dominant food policies aim to elude the problems deriving from the exhaustion of the frontier logic underlying the historical evolution of capitalism through the creation of a new spatiality and a new way of organising nature. Yet, this operation exacerbates the tension between capital's inclination towards the commodification/monetisation of ever new areas outside the sphere of production and its need to keep relying on extended sources of unpaid work of human and extra-human nature. The lack of new effective solutions to this tension is, in turn, feeding a combination of contrasting tendencies. While it produces a deepening of the mechanisms of control and exploitation driven by global market logics, it also nourishes processes of de-globalisation, along with a set of phenomena which recall the dynamics described by Karl Polanyi's theory of the "double movement". At the same time, it has also constituted a fertile ground for the emergence of new conflicts, counter-narratives and anti-systemic movements for food sovereignty and agroecology. The authors come to the conclusion that the reorganisation of the food regime in XXI century world-ecology will be highly affected by the responses provided to the ongoing pandemic crisis, thus representing an important opportunity for each of the aforementioned tendencies to gain ground over the others. ; A partir de un análisis crítico de la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible, este artículo se propone evidenciar los nexos que unen los discursos dominantes sobre alimentos y agricultura con las dinámicas socioecológicas que subyacen a las transformaciones y a la crisis del capitalismo contemporáneo. El supuesto inicial es que el capitalismo —en cuanto ecología-mundo— debe su supervivencia a la posibilidad de identificar continuamente nuevas y efectivas formas de combinar la explotación del trabajo asalariado con la apropiación gratuita de la naturaleza humana y extrahumana. Esto implica que la crisis en la que el capitalismo se halla hoy en día representa también la crisis de una forma específica de organizar la naturaleza. Más precisamente, es una crisis que tiene sus raíces en el "fin de la naturaleza barata", es decir en el agotamiento de las fronteras y de las relaciones de valor que han permitido reducir periódicamente el coste del trabajo, de los alimentos, de la energía y de las materias primas. Frente a este fenómeno, las reacciones adoptadas por los principales actores de la gobernanza global han propiciado una reconfiguración general de las estrategias de acumulación vinculadas a la producción y distribución de alimentos. Como muestra el artículo, uno de los principales pivotes en torno al cual actualmente giran estas estrategias es representado por las políticas que se inspiran en los conceptos de "desarrollo sostenible" y "seguridad alimentaria", tal y como están articulados en la Agenda 2030. Nuestra tesis es que detrás de estos mismos conceptos es posible detectar una racionalidad de gobierno que pretende eludir los problemas que surgen de las contradicciones socioecológicas inherentes al capitalismo mediante el establecimiento de nuevas relaciones de valor y nuevas maneras de organizar y producir la naturaleza. Esta operación, sin embargo, exacerba la tensión entre la inclinación del capital a la mercantilización y monetización de nuevas áreas situadas al margen de la esfera productiva y su necesidad de poder seguir contando con amplias fuentes de naturaleza gratuita y trabajo no remunerado. La imposibilidad de devolver el excedente ecológico a niveles que permitan iniciar una nueva fase de expansión, por un lado, da lugar a una intensificación de los procesos de explotación impulsados por la lógica de los mercados globales y, por otro lado, hace cada vez más evidente la crisis del modelo neoliberal de desarrollo, alimentando algunas contratendencias que con la emergencia pandémica parecen destinadas a alcanzar un nivel de madurez más elevado. La primera parte del artículo reconstruye las recientes transformaciones de la economía-mundo capitalista a través de las lentes proporcionadas por el análisis de los regímenes agroalimentarios. La segunda parte se propone deconstruir las prácticas discursivas subyacentes a la Agenda 2030 y poner de relieve las ambigüedades y contradicciones inherentes a las políticas de desarrollo inspiradas en los conceptos de "desarrollo sostenible" y "seguridad alimentaria". La última parte utiliza la perspectiva de la ecología-mundo para exponer con mayor profundidad las tesis del artículo.

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 공과대학 협동과정 도시설계학전공, 2020. 8. 김세훈. ; This dissertation investigated the spatial characteristics and social impact of 'urban shrinkage' and 'housing abandonment' in four separate but related papers focusing on the following sub-themes: (1) major paths of abandonment in the East Asian context, (2) distribution pattern and characteristics in terms of socio-spatial inequalities, (3) residents' perceptions of vacant houses, and (4) neighborhood-specific clusters of vacant houses. Studies have been conducted in Incheon, one of the cities experiencing both city-wide growth and the decline of the inner city. Paper 1_ Housing abandonment in shrinking cities of East Asia: Case study in Incheon, South Korea Despite growing signs of urban shrinkage in countries such as Korea, Japan and China, few studies have examined the generalizable pattern of urban shrinkage and its relationship to the characteristics of housing abandonment in the East Asian context. This study explores five major paths that may explain the emergence of vacant houses in declining inner-city areas, based on empirical observations in the city of Incheon, South Korea. The paths are: (1) strong government-led new built-up area development plans (pull factor for population movement); (2) delay and cancellation of indiscriminate redevelopment projects (push factor for population movement); (3) initial poor development and concentration of substandard houses; (4) aging of the elderly population; and (5) the outflow of infrastructure and services. These paths, also found in Japan or China, are expected to be combined in a local context, leading to more serious housing abandonment. This study suggests that it is important to take appropriate countermeasures based on the identification of the paths causing vacant houses. Paper 2_ Planned inequality of the locational pattern of housing abandonment in shrinking inner-city areas of Incheon, South Korea Housing abandonment is one of the most distinctive features of urban shrinkage associated with depopulation and a loss of neighborhood attractiveness. Previous studies investigated the scale and the process of housing abandonment in the former industrialized cities in the United States and Europe. Yet very little was known about the characteristics of housing abandonment in cities that have experienced rapid urbanization in terms of spatial unevenness. In the study, based on a unique parcel-level dataset of vacant houses in Incheon, South Korea, the firth's logistic regression analysis revealed that the building and parcel, urban neighborhood, economic, and socio-demographic determinants might explain the spatially selective occurrence of housing abandonment at intra-urban level. The results indicated that older, smaller, and inaccessible residential buildings developed with lower quality during the rapid urbanization period were more vulnerable to abandonment. The failure of indiscriminately planned redevelopment projects under the growth-oriented policies contributed to housing abandonment in concentrated areas. With the devastation of manufacturing and commercial areas due to the out-migration of households to the new suburbs, socially unsustainable environments, such as the concentration of elderly and less-educated people in the inner city, were significantly associated with the emergence of abandoned houses. Paper 3_ Perceptions of abandonment: Analyzing subjective perception on vacant houses using the photo-elicitation method Vacant houses have been regarded, in terms of the broken windows theory, as one of the signs of neighborhood disorder inducing prevalent violent crimes. Previous studies, mostly in the fields of public health and criminology, have indicated that vacant houses not only pose a threat to the physical health of residents but also deteriorate their mental health. However, little is known about the residents' experiences and interpretations of vacant houses in declining neighborhoods. In this study, the perceptions of vacant houses in shrinking inner-city neighborhoods of Incheon, South Korea, were analyzed utilizing the semi-structured questionnaire and photo-elicitation methods. The surveyed residents expressed that they had been suffering from persistent daily life problems, not from the issues caused by the simple presence of vacant houses. The survey revealed that the residents' degree of understanding and responsibility for neighborhoods and the level of experiences of and information on vacant houses affected subjective perceptions of vacant houses. Additionally, the photo-elicitation method involving both resident and non-resident groups revealed that the fear of vacant houses arose not only from the visible presence of abandonment but also from invisible wrongdoers or outsiders. The perception of how abandonment is managed also determined their feelings and responses toward vacant houses. The results suggest that suitable vacant house management and usage measures in shrinking cities should be provided for the remaining residents with pieces of broken windows. Paper 4_ The causes and characteristics of housing abandonment in an inner-city neighborhood: Focused on the Sungui-dong area, Nam-gu, Incheon The study aims to analyze the causes and characteristics of housing abandonment at a micro level and to draw the implications for urban design in the declining inner-city neighborhoods of Sungui-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon. This study created a theoretical frame explaining the mechanism between urban shrinkage and housing abandonment, and identified the spatial distribution pattern, characteristics, and causality of housing abandonment, applying qualitative methods. 80 vacant houses in Sungui-dong were distributed intensively in the four clusters. The results indicated that the different physical conditions of each cluster acted as driving forces influencing the pattern of housing abandonment. The clusters with poor physical environments, such as narrow streets and small parcels, attracted redevelopment's cancellation and spatial concentration of socially-vulnerable populations, leading to the proliferation of vacant houses. The maintenance of public areas surrounding vacant houses played a decisive role in the occurrence of additional decline and the formation of stigmatized neighborhood images. Additionally, residents perceived the seriousness of housing abandonment differently depending on their residence locations and social characteristics. Further studies could aim to conduct an in-depth analysis of the urban spatial characteristics of housing abandonment, prepare public domain management plans, and identify residents' awareness and behavior. ; 도시쇠퇴는 전 세계 수많은 도시들이 경험하고 있는 가장 두드러지는 도시현상들 중 하나이다. 도시쇠퇴는 공통적이면서도 차별화된 세계적 현상으로, 경제적·사회적·물리적 측면에서 특정 개발 논리를 따르는 한편, 국가 및 도시에 따라 다양한 동기, 유형, 접근방식을 가진다. 서구 도시들에서는 탈산업화, 교외화, 인구감소가 쇠퇴의 주요 패턴으로 이해되어 왔다. 도시쇠퇴의 가장 심각하고 명백한 공간적 발현으로는 주택 포기, 즉 빈집을 꼽을 수 있다. 빈집은 도시쇠퇴와의 하향적 악순환의 관계 안에서, 물리적 환경의 악화, 지역 활력도의 저하, 부동산 가치의 감소, 관리비용의 증가 등을 통해 추가적인 쇠퇴를 유도한다. 빈집은 건물 자체로는 쇠퇴도시의 황폐화된 건조환경을 나타내지만, 넓게는 분포패턴을 통해 구시가지와 신시가지 사이의 공간사회적 불균형을 드러낸다. 더불어 장기간 방치된 빈집은 쇠퇴근린에 자의적 또는 타의적으로 남겨진 주민들의 일상생활에 서서히 침투하여, 신체적 및 정신적 건강을 포함한 삶의 질에 악영향을 미친다. 한국의 경우, 통계청에 따르면 2017년 기준으로 총 주택 수의 7.4%에 해당하는 약 130만 채의 빈집이 집계되었으며, 이는 2010년의 약 80만 채 대비 59.3%가 증가한 수치였다. 한국 정부는 빈집 발생을 심각한 사회현상으로 인지함에 따라, 2017년에 「빈집 및 소규모주택 정비에 관한 특례법」을 제정하였다. 그런데 한국 쇠퇴도시 내 빈집현상에 대한 포괄적 논의의 필요성과 체계적 대책마련의 시급성에도 불구하고, 지금까지 대부분의 관련 연구들은 미국 또는 유럽의 사례들 그리고 그들의 시각에 초점을 맞춰왔다. 또한 지금까지 추진된 빈집 관련 정책 및 사업들은 단기적이고 일시적인 대책들을 제시하는 것을 우선시 해왔다. 이에 본 논문은 도시쇠퇴의 시기, 속도, 양상에 있어 서구와는 구별되는 징후들을 드러내는 동아시아 국가들, 그 중에서도 특히 한국 인천에서의 실증적 관찰을 기반으로 경로, 원인, 특성, 영향력, 주민인식을 포함한 빈집의 역학에 대해 분석하고자 했다. 결과적으로, 다음의 네 개의 연구를 통해 쇠퇴도시 내 악순환의 고리를 끊고, 빈집을 바람직하게 관리·활용하며, 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질을 개선하기 위한 토대를 마련하고자 했다. 첫 번째 연구는 아직까지 동아시아 맥락에서 도시쇠퇴의 일반화 가능한 패턴과 이것의 빈집 발생의 특성과의 관계에 대해 조사한 연구는 거의 없다는 점에 착안하여, 한국 인천에서의 경험적 관찰을 기반으로 쇠퇴하는 구시가지에서 빈집 발생의 원인 및 양상을 설명하는 다섯 가지 주요 경로들을 분석하고자 했다. 먼저는 도시쇠퇴의 구조적 문제에 부정적으로 영향을 준 두 개의 정치경제적 측면의 경로들로, 각각 강력한 정부 주도의 신시가지 개발 및 공공기관의 이전 그리고 구시가지에서 무차별적으로 시행된 정비사업의 지연 및 취소에 해당되었다. 빈집 발생과 관련된 신시가지와 구시가지 사이의 인구이동에 있어 전자는 유인요인, 후자는 배출요인으로 작용하였으며, 특히 후자는 빈집 클러스터를 야기하는 역할을 하였다. 세 번째 경로는 압축 성장 하의 급격한 도시화의 기간 동안 불충분한 기반시설을 바탕으로 개발된 열악한 건물들과 이들의 가속화된 노후화와 관련되었다. 네 번째 경로는 급격한 사회구조의 변화 및 심각한 고령화 현상에서 비롯되었으며, 유지관리의 부족으로 황폐화된 건조환경에 취약계층이 집중됨에 따라 공간적 불균형이 고착화되고 새로운 인구의 유입을 저해하였다. 마지막 경로는 낙인 찍힌 지역에서 기반시설, 서비스, 젊은 인구층의 유출로 인해 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질이 저하되고 빈집 발생의 악순환이 지속됨을 드러내었다. 각각의 경로들은 지역적 맥락에서 서로 밀접하게 관계를 맺고 동시에 그 영향력 행사함으로써, 보다 극심한 빈집 문제를 초래할 것으로 예상되었다. 더불어 동아시아적 관점에서, 이와 같은 경로들은 국가주도의 도시개발을 통한 고도경제성장을 경험한 일본과 중국에서도 유사하게 발견됨과 동시에, 도시계획 관련 법 및 정책, 도시개발의 시기 및 방식에 따라 그 양상의 차이를 보임을 확인할 수 있었다. 본 연구의 다섯 가지 경로들에 대한 탐색은 빈집의 주요 원인에 따라 발생 특성이 상이하기에, 적절한 빈집 관리 방안의 마련과 추후 급증에 대한 예방을 위해서는 빈집 발생의 주요 경로들과 그들의 상호관계를 이해하는 것이 중요함을 시사하였다. 두 번째 연구는 필지 수준의 데이터를 기반으로 퍼스(firth)의 로지스틱 회귀분석을 활용하여 짧은 시간 내에 도시화 및 경제성장을 경험한 지역에서 빈집 발생이 공간적 불균형의 측면에서 어떤 특성을 지니는지에 대해 분석하고자 했다. 2017년 기준으로, 연구 대상지인 인천 구시가지에는 인천 전체 빈집의 3/4에 해당하는 약 1,600여 채의 빈집이 위치했으며, 건물 및 필지, 도시근린, 경제적, 인구사회적 측면의 결정요인들이 빈집의 공간선택적인 발생 패턴을 설명할 수 있을 것이라 예상되었다. 분석결과에 따르면, 급속한 도시화의 시기에 저품질로 개발된 보다 오래되고, 규모가 작고, 접근성이 떨어지는 주거용 건물들이 빈집으로의 전환에 더 취약했다. 성장 지향적 정책 하에서 무차별적으로 계획된 정비사업의 실패는 빈집 밀집지역을 초래했으며, 실제 구시가지 빈집의 약 64%가 정비구역에 위치했다. 제조업의 영세화와 상업지역의 황폐화는 지역 경제활동과 커뮤니티의 활력을 약화시킴으로써, 인구유출에 기반한 빈집 발생을 촉진시켰다. 더불어, 구시가지로의 노인 및 저학력 인구의 집중과 같은 사회적으로 지속 불가능한 환경의 조성은 근린의 낙인 찍힌 이미지를 형성함과 동시에, 고학력의 젊은 인구층의 이탈을 통한 빈집 출현에 기여했다. 본 연구는 앞선 분석결과를 기반으로 도시설계 및 계획의 관점에서 더욱 심도 있게 논의되어야 할 세 가지 이슈를 제시하였다. 첫째, 뚜렷한 공간적 불균형이 도시 내, 구시가지 내, 근린 내, 심지어 도시블록 규모와 같이 점점 더 작은 공간단위에서 발현되고 있다는 것이다. 둘째, 구시가지 내에서 지연되거나 취소된 정비사업 구역이 빈집 밀집지역의 온상이 되고 있다는 것이다. 셋째, 이미 잘 알려진 경제적 불평등 및 이와 관련된 주거지 분리에 더해, 왜곡된 인구구조가 사회적 지속가능성을 위협하는 공간적 양극화를 심화시키고 있다는 것이다. 세 번째 연구는 지속적·점진적인 쇠퇴를 경험하는 도시에서 도시설계 및 계획의 렌즈를 통해 빈집에 대한 주민들의 경험 및 해석에 대해 탐색한 연구는 거의 없다는 점에 착안하여, 설문조사 및 사진유도기법(photo-elicitation)을 활용하여 인천 남구의 쇠퇴하는 구시가지 근린에서 빈집에 대한 인식을 분석하고자 했다. 지금까지 빈집은 주로 공중보건 및 범죄학의 분야에서 깨진 유리창 이론의 관점을 통해, 폭력범죄의 만연을 유도하는 근린 무질서의 징후들 중 하나로 간주되어 왔다. 하지만 본 연구는 무질서에서 범죄로의 전환 가능성, 무질서가 발생하는 지역의 주요 인구사회학적 및 건조환경의 특성을 검토함으로써, 이 이론을 한국의 쇠퇴도시에서 재맥락화 하고자 했다. 연구의 첫 번째 단계에서는 인천 남구의 93명의 주민들을 대상으로 빈집 인식과 관련된 설문조사를 진행하였다. 빈집에 대한 인식은 신체적 및 정신적 건강, 행동적 대응, 공동체 활동에의 참여의 세 가지 측면을 통해 확인되었으며, 인구사회학적 특성, 개인적인 경험, 공동체 상호작용과 관련된 요인들이 인식의 이질성을 형성하는 데 관여했다. 두 번째 단계에서는 인천 남구 숭의동의 주민 10명과 비주민 10명을 대상으로 사진유도조사를 실시함으로써, 총 13장의 빈집 사진에 대해 두 집단이 두려움을 느끼는 정도와 이유에 대해 비교하였다. 연구결과는 쇠퇴도시 내 빈집들을 효율적으로 관리하고 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질을 개선하기 위해 다음의 네 가지 이슈들을 제시하였다. 첫째, 주민들은 지속적인 쇠퇴를 경험하는 구시가지 근린에서 강력범죄보다는 고착화된 빈집들에서 기인한 쓰레기, 먼지, 악취 등의 일상생활의 문제들로부터 끈질기게 영향을 받아왔다. 둘째, 근린에 대한 이해 및 책임의 정도, 빈집에 대한 경험 및 정보의 수준이 빈집에 대한 주민인식에 있어 차이를 형성했다. 셋째, 단순히 빈집의 존재가 아닌, 건조환경 측면에서 관리의 유무를 암시하는 물리적 요소들이 빈집에 대한 감정 및 대응을 결정지었다. 넷째, 빈집에 대한 두려움의 감정은 가시적인 건조환경뿐만 아니라 비가시적인 사회적 환경에서도 기인했다. 네 번째 연구는 빈집의 체계적인 관리 및 활용을 위해서는 도시근린과 같은 미시적 공간 차원에서의 빈집 발생 메커니즘에 대한 파악이 필수적이라는 점을 바탕으로, 쇠퇴현상을 겪고 있는 인천 남구 숭의동 내 근린, 특히 빈집 클러스터를 중심으로 빈집 발생의 원인 및 특성을 분석하고자 했다. 정성적인 연구 방법론을 활용하여 도시쇠퇴와 빈집 사이의 반복 및 누적되는 악순환의 고리를 드러내는 메커니즘을 이론적 틀로 정리한 후, 빈집의 분포 현황 및 특성, 그리고 인과관계를 탐색하였다. 남구의 공가현황 자료 및 현장답사를 기반으로, 숭의동에는 약 80여 채의 빈집이 4개의 클러스터에 집중 분포되어 있는 것을 확인하였다. 각 클러스터의 서로 다른 건축적·도시공간적 특성들이 빈집 발생 양상의 차이를 만들어내는 요인으로 작용하고 있었다. 클러스터 1은 열악한 물리적 환경으로 인해 재개발 취소의 영향력이 심화된 구역이었으며, 클러스터 2는 양호한 물리적 환경을 보유했지만 재개발에 대한 기대 심리를 기반으로 빈집이 발생하게 된 구역이었다. 클러스터 1과 2의 경우 동일하게 재정비촉진지구로 지정된 후 해제되었지만, 기존의 도시·건축적 특성의 차이로 인해 빈집의 밀도, 건물 및 가로의 상태에 있어 서로 다른 양상과 영향력을 드러냈다. 더불어 클러스터 3은 사회취약계층의 공간적 집중과 가로변 건물들의 개보수로 인해 상대적 쇠퇴가 심화된 구역이었으며, 클러스터 4는 열악한 기반시설 및 대규모 기피시설이 빈집 발생을 유도한 구역이었다. 연구결과에 따르면, 폐쇄적 블록, 협소한 가로, 소규모 필지 등의 열악한 물리적 환경이 재정비촉진지구의 해제, 사회취약계층의 공간적 집중 등과 결합됨에 따라 빈집현상의 심화 및 확산으로 연결되었다. 또한 빈집 인근 공적영역의 유지관리 여부가 추가적인 쇠퇴의 진행 및 쇠퇴 이미지 형성에 중요한 역학을 하고 있었다. 한편 연구결과를 통해 거주위치 및 거주특성에 따라 주민들이 빈집문제의 심각성을 인식하고 대응하는데 있어 차이가 존재함을 확인할 수 있었다. ; Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Housing abandonment in shrinking cities of East Asia: Case study in Incheon, South Korea 5 1. Introduction 5 2. Theoretical Framework and Research Site 10 3. Results 14 4. Discussion 26 5. Conclusion 35 Chapter 2. Planned inequality of the locational pattern of housing abandonment in shrinking inner-city areas of Incheon, South Korea 37 1. Introduction 37 2. Literature Review 41 3. Data and Methods 47 4. Results 58 5. Discussion 70 6. Conclusion 76 Chapter 3. Perceptions of abandonment: Analyzing subjective perception on vacant houses using the photo-elicitation method 78 1. Introduction 78 2. Literature Review 83 3. Methods 90 4. Results 96 5. Discussion 119 Chapter 4. The causes and characteristics of housing abandonment in an inner-city neighborhood: Focused on the Sungui-dong area, Nam-gu, Incheon 125 1. Introduction 125 2. Theoretical Consideration 136 3. Results 143 4. Discussion 162 5. Conclusion 164 Conclusion 167 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 174 REFERENCES 175 ABSTRACT IN KOREAN 184 ; Doctor

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 공과대학 협동과정 도시설계학전공, 2020. 8. 김세훈. ; This dissertation investigated the spatial characteristics and social impact of 'urban shrinkage' and 'housing abandonment' in four separate but related papers focusing on the following sub-themes: (1) major paths of abandonment in the East Asian context, (2) distribution pattern and characteristics in terms of socio-spatial inequalities, (3) residents' perceptions of vacant houses, and (4) neighborhood-specific clusters of vacant houses. Studies have been conducted in Incheon, one of the cities experiencing both city-wide growth and the decline of the inner city. Paper 1_ Housing abandonment in shrinking cities of East Asia: Case study in Incheon, South Korea Despite growing signs of urban shrinkage in countries such as Korea, Japan and China, few studies have examined the generalizable pattern of urban shrinkage and its relationship to the characteristics of housing abandonment in the East Asian context. This study explores five major paths that may explain the emergence of vacant houses in declining inner-city areas, based on empirical observations in the city of Incheon, South Korea. The paths are: (1) strong government-led new built-up area development plans (pull factor for population movement); (2) delay and cancellation of indiscriminate redevelopment projects (push factor for population movement); (3) initial poor development and concentration of substandard houses; (4) aging of the elderly population; and (5) the outflow of infrastructure and services. These paths, also found in Japan or China, are expected to be combined in a local context, leading to more serious housing abandonment. This study suggests that it is important to take appropriate countermeasures based on the identification of the paths causing vacant houses. Paper 2_ Planned inequality of the locational pattern of housing abandonment in shrinking inner-city areas of Incheon, South Korea Housing abandonment is one of the most distinctive features of urban shrinkage associated with depopulation and a loss of neighborhood attractiveness. Previous studies investigated the scale and the process of housing abandonment in the former industrialized cities in the United States and Europe. Yet very little was known about the characteristics of housing abandonment in cities that have experienced rapid urbanization in terms of spatial unevenness. In the study, based on a unique parcel-level dataset of vacant houses in Incheon, South Korea, the firth's logistic regression analysis revealed that the building and parcel, urban neighborhood, economic, and socio-demographic determinants might explain the spatially selective occurrence of housing abandonment at intra-urban level. The results indicated that older, smaller, and inaccessible residential buildings developed with lower quality during the rapid urbanization period were more vulnerable to abandonment. The failure of indiscriminately planned redevelopment projects under the growth-oriented policies contributed to housing abandonment in concentrated areas. With the devastation of manufacturing and commercial areas due to the out-migration of households to the new suburbs, socially unsustainable environments, such as the concentration of elderly and less-educated people in the inner city, were significantly associated with the emergence of abandoned houses. Paper 3_ Perceptions of abandonment: Analyzing subjective perception on vacant houses using the photo-elicitation method Vacant houses have been regarded, in terms of the broken windows theory, as one of the signs of neighborhood disorder inducing prevalent violent crimes. Previous studies, mostly in the fields of public health and criminology, have indicated that vacant houses not only pose a threat to the physical health of residents but also deteriorate their mental health. However, little is known about the residents' experiences and interpretations of vacant houses in declining neighborhoods. In this study, the perceptions of vacant houses in shrinking inner-city neighborhoods of Incheon, South Korea, were analyzed utilizing the semi-structured questionnaire and photo-elicitation methods. The surveyed residents expressed that they had been suffering from persistent daily life problems, not from the issues caused by the simple presence of vacant houses. The survey revealed that the residents' degree of understanding and responsibility for neighborhoods and the level of experiences of and information on vacant houses affected subjective perceptions of vacant houses. Additionally, the photo-elicitation method involving both resident and non-resident groups revealed that the fear of vacant houses arose not only from the visible presence of abandonment but also from invisible wrongdoers or outsiders. The perception of how abandonment is managed also determined their feelings and responses toward vacant houses. The results suggest that suitable vacant house management and usage measures in shrinking cities should be provided for the remaining residents with pieces of broken windows. Paper 4_ The causes and characteristics of housing abandonment in an inner-city neighborhood: Focused on the Sungui-dong area, Nam-gu, Incheon The study aims to analyze the causes and characteristics of housing abandonment at a micro level and to draw the implications for urban design in the declining inner-city neighborhoods of Sungui-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon. This study created a theoretical frame explaining the mechanism between urban shrinkage and housing abandonment, and identified the spatial distribution pattern, characteristics, and causality of housing abandonment, applying qualitative methods. 80 vacant houses in Sungui-dong were distributed intensively in the four clusters. The results indicated that the different physical conditions of each cluster acted as driving forces influencing the pattern of housing abandonment. The clusters with poor physical environments, such as narrow streets and small parcels, attracted redevelopment's cancellation and spatial concentration of socially-vulnerable populations, leading to the proliferation of vacant houses. The maintenance of public areas surrounding vacant houses played a decisive role in the occurrence of additional decline and the formation of stigmatized neighborhood images. Additionally, residents perceived the seriousness of housing abandonment differently depending on their residence locations and social characteristics. Further studies could aim to conduct an in-depth analysis of the urban spatial characteristics of housing abandonment, prepare public domain management plans, and identify residents' awareness and behavior. ; 도시쇠퇴는 전 세계 수많은 도시들이 경험하고 있는 가장 두드러지는 도시현상들 중 하나이다. 도시쇠퇴는 공통적이면서도 차별화된 세계적 현상으로, 경제적·사회적·물리적 측면에서 특정 개발 논리를 따르는 한편, 국가 및 도시에 따라 다양한 동기, 유형, 접근방식을 가진다. 서구 도시들에서는 탈산업화, 교외화, 인구감소가 쇠퇴의 주요 패턴으로 이해되어 왔다. 도시쇠퇴의 가장 심각하고 명백한 공간적 발현으로는 주택 포기, 즉 빈집을 꼽을 수 있다. 빈집은 도시쇠퇴와의 하향적 악순환의 관계 안에서, 물리적 환경의 악화, 지역 활력도의 저하, 부동산 가치의 감소, 관리비용의 증가 등을 통해 추가적인 쇠퇴를 유도한다. 빈집은 건물 자체로는 쇠퇴도시의 황폐화된 건조환경을 나타내지만, 넓게는 분포패턴을 통해 구시가지와 신시가지 사이의 공간사회적 불균형을 드러낸다. 더불어 장기간 방치된 빈집은 쇠퇴근린에 자의적 또는 타의적으로 남겨진 주민들의 일상생활에 서서히 침투하여, 신체적 및 정신적 건강을 포함한 삶의 질에 악영향을 미친다. 한국의 경우, 통계청에 따르면 2017년 기준으로 총 주택 수의 7.4%에 해당하는 약 130만 채의 빈집이 집계되었으며, 이는 2010년의 약 80만 채 대비 59.3%가 증가한 수치였다. 한국 정부는 빈집 발생을 심각한 사회현상으로 인지함에 따라, 2017년에 「빈집 및 소규모주택 정비에 관한 특례법」을 제정하였다. 그런데 한국 쇠퇴도시 내 빈집현상에 대한 포괄적 논의의 필요성과 체계적 대책마련의 시급성에도 불구하고, 지금까지 대부분의 관련 연구들은 미국 또는 유럽의 사례들 그리고 그들의 시각에 초점을 맞춰왔다. 또한 지금까지 추진된 빈집 관련 정책 및 사업들은 단기적이고 일시적인 대책들을 제시하는 것을 우선시 해왔다. 이에 본 논문은 도시쇠퇴의 시기, 속도, 양상에 있어 서구와는 구별되는 징후들을 드러내는 동아시아 국가들, 그 중에서도 특히 한국 인천에서의 실증적 관찰을 기반으로 경로, 원인, 특성, 영향력, 주민인식을 포함한 빈집의 역학에 대해 분석하고자 했다. 결과적으로, 다음의 네 개의 연구를 통해 쇠퇴도시 내 악순환의 고리를 끊고, 빈집을 바람직하게 관리·활용하며, 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질을 개선하기 위한 토대를 마련하고자 했다. 첫 번째 연구는 아직까지 동아시아 맥락에서 도시쇠퇴의 일반화 가능한 패턴과 이것의 빈집 발생의 특성과의 관계에 대해 조사한 연구는 거의 없다는 점에 착안하여, 한국 인천에서의 경험적 관찰을 기반으로 쇠퇴하는 구시가지에서 빈집 발생의 원인 및 양상을 설명하는 다섯 가지 주요 경로들을 분석하고자 했다. 먼저는 도시쇠퇴의 구조적 문제에 부정적으로 영향을 준 두 개의 정치경제적 측면의 경로들로, 각각 강력한 정부 주도의 신시가지 개발 및 공공기관의 이전 그리고 구시가지에서 무차별적으로 시행된 정비사업의 지연 및 취소에 해당되었다. 빈집 발생과 관련된 신시가지와 구시가지 사이의 인구이동에 있어 전자는 유인요인, 후자는 배출요인으로 작용하였으며, 특히 후자는 빈집 클러스터를 야기하는 역할을 하였다. 세 번째 경로는 압축 성장 하의 급격한 도시화의 기간 동안 불충분한 기반시설을 바탕으로 개발된 열악한 건물들과 이들의 가속화된 노후화와 관련되었다. 네 번째 경로는 급격한 사회구조의 변화 및 심각한 고령화 현상에서 비롯되었으며, 유지관리의 부족으로 황폐화된 건조환경에 취약계층이 집중됨에 따라 공간적 불균형이 고착화되고 새로운 인구의 유입을 저해하였다. 마지막 경로는 낙인 찍힌 지역에서 기반시설, 서비스, 젊은 인구층의 유출로 인해 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질이 저하되고 빈집 발생의 악순환이 지속됨을 드러내었다. 각각의 경로들은 지역적 맥락에서 서로 밀접하게 관계를 맺고 동시에 그 영향력 행사함으로써, 보다 극심한 빈집 문제를 초래할 것으로 예상되었다. 더불어 동아시아적 관점에서, 이와 같은 경로들은 국가주도의 도시개발을 통한 고도경제성장을 경험한 일본과 중국에서도 유사하게 발견됨과 동시에, 도시계획 관련 법 및 정책, 도시개발의 시기 및 방식에 따라 그 양상의 차이를 보임을 확인할 수 있었다. 본 연구의 다섯 가지 경로들에 대한 탐색은 빈집의 주요 원인에 따라 발생 특성이 상이하기에, 적절한 빈집 관리 방안의 마련과 추후 급증에 대한 예방을 위해서는 빈집 발생의 주요 경로들과 그들의 상호관계를 이해하는 것이 중요함을 시사하였다. 두 번째 연구는 필지 수준의 데이터를 기반으로 퍼스(firth)의 로지스틱 회귀분석을 활용하여 짧은 시간 내에 도시화 및 경제성장을 경험한 지역에서 빈집 발생이 공간적 불균형의 측면에서 어떤 특성을 지니는지에 대해 분석하고자 했다. 2017년 기준으로, 연구 대상지인 인천 구시가지에는 인천 전체 빈집의 3/4에 해당하는 약 1,600여 채의 빈집이 위치했으며, 건물 및 필지, 도시근린, 경제적, 인구사회적 측면의 결정요인들이 빈집의 공간선택적인 발생 패턴을 설명할 수 있을 것이라 예상되었다. 분석결과에 따르면, 급속한 도시화의 시기에 저품질로 개발된 보다 오래되고, 규모가 작고, 접근성이 떨어지는 주거용 건물들이 빈집으로의 전환에 더 취약했다. 성장 지향적 정책 하에서 무차별적으로 계획된 정비사업의 실패는 빈집 밀집지역을 초래했으며, 실제 구시가지 빈집의 약 64%가 정비구역에 위치했다. 제조업의 영세화와 상업지역의 황폐화는 지역 경제활동과 커뮤니티의 활력을 약화시킴으로써, 인구유출에 기반한 빈집 발생을 촉진시켰다. 더불어, 구시가지로의 노인 및 저학력 인구의 집중과 같은 사회적으로 지속 불가능한 환경의 조성은 근린의 낙인 찍힌 이미지를 형성함과 동시에, 고학력의 젊은 인구층의 이탈을 통한 빈집 출현에 기여했다. 본 연구는 앞선 분석결과를 기반으로 도시설계 및 계획의 관점에서 더욱 심도 있게 논의되어야 할 세 가지 이슈를 제시하였다. 첫째, 뚜렷한 공간적 불균형이 도시 내, 구시가지 내, 근린 내, 심지어 도시블록 규모와 같이 점점 더 작은 공간단위에서 발현되고 있다는 것이다. 둘째, 구시가지 내에서 지연되거나 취소된 정비사업 구역이 빈집 밀집지역의 온상이 되고 있다는 것이다. 셋째, 이미 잘 알려진 경제적 불평등 및 이와 관련된 주거지 분리에 더해, 왜곡된 인구구조가 사회적 지속가능성을 위협하는 공간적 양극화를 심화시키고 있다는 것이다. 세 번째 연구는 지속적·점진적인 쇠퇴를 경험하는 도시에서 도시설계 및 계획의 렌즈를 통해 빈집에 대한 주민들의 경험 및 해석에 대해 탐색한 연구는 거의 없다는 점에 착안하여, 설문조사 및 사진유도기법(photo-elicitation)을 활용하여 인천 남구의 쇠퇴하는 구시가지 근린에서 빈집에 대한 인식을 분석하고자 했다. 지금까지 빈집은 주로 공중보건 및 범죄학의 분야에서 깨진 유리창 이론의 관점을 통해, 폭력범죄의 만연을 유도하는 근린 무질서의 징후들 중 하나로 간주되어 왔다. 하지만 본 연구는 무질서에서 범죄로의 전환 가능성, 무질서가 발생하는 지역의 주요 인구사회학적 및 건조환경의 특성을 검토함으로써, 이 이론을 한국의 쇠퇴도시에서 재맥락화 하고자 했다. 연구의 첫 번째 단계에서는 인천 남구의 93명의 주민들을 대상으로 빈집 인식과 관련된 설문조사를 진행하였다. 빈집에 대한 인식은 신체적 및 정신적 건강, 행동적 대응, 공동체 활동에의 참여의 세 가지 측면을 통해 확인되었으며, 인구사회학적 특성, 개인적인 경험, 공동체 상호작용과 관련된 요인들이 인식의 이질성을 형성하는 데 관여했다. 두 번째 단계에서는 인천 남구 숭의동의 주민 10명과 비주민 10명을 대상으로 사진유도조사를 실시함으로써, 총 13장의 빈집 사진에 대해 두 집단이 두려움을 느끼는 정도와 이유에 대해 비교하였다. 연구결과는 쇠퇴도시 내 빈집들을 효율적으로 관리하고 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질을 개선하기 위해 다음의 네 가지 이슈들을 제시하였다. 첫째, 주민들은 지속적인 쇠퇴를 경험하는 구시가지 근린에서 강력범죄보다는 고착화된 빈집들에서 기인한 쓰레기, 먼지, 악취 등의 일상생활의 문제들로부터 끈질기게 영향을 받아왔다. 둘째, 근린에 대한 이해 및 책임의 정도, 빈집에 대한 경험 및 정보의 수준이 빈집에 대한 주민인식에 있어 차이를 형성했다. 셋째, 단순히 빈집의 존재가 아닌, 건조환경 측면에서 관리의 유무를 암시하는 물리적 요소들이 빈집에 대한 감정 및 대응을 결정지었다. 넷째, 빈집에 대한 두려움의 감정은 가시적인 건조환경뿐만 아니라 비가시적인 사회적 환경에서도 기인했다. 네 번째 연구는 빈집의 체계적인 관리 및 활용을 위해서는 도시근린과 같은 미시적 공간 차원에서의 빈집 발생 메커니즘에 대한 파악이 필수적이라는 점을 바탕으로, 쇠퇴현상을 겪고 있는 인천 남구 숭의동 내 근린, 특히 빈집 클러스터를 중심으로 빈집 발생의 원인 및 특성을 분석하고자 했다. 정성적인 연구 방법론을 활용하여 도시쇠퇴와 빈집 사이의 반복 및 누적되는 악순환의 고리를 드러내는 메커니즘을 이론적 틀로 정리한 후, 빈집의 분포 현황 및 특성, 그리고 인과관계를 탐색하였다. 남구의 공가현황 자료 및 현장답사를 기반으로, 숭의동에는 약 80여 채의 빈집이 4개의 클러스터에 집중 분포되어 있는 것을 확인하였다. 각 클러스터의 서로 다른 건축적·도시공간적 특성들이 빈집 발생 양상의 차이를 만들어내는 요인으로 작용하고 있었다. 클러스터 1은 열악한 물리적 환경으로 인해 재개발 취소의 영향력이 심화된 구역이었으며, 클러스터 2는 양호한 물리적 환경을 보유했지만 재개발에 대한 기대 심리를 기반으로 빈집이 발생하게 된 구역이었다. 클러스터 1과 2의 경우 동일하게 재정비촉진지구로 지정된 후 해제되었지만, 기존의 도시·건축적 특성의 차이로 인해 빈집의 밀도, 건물 및 가로의 상태에 있어 서로 다른 양상과 영향력을 드러냈다. 더불어 클러스터 3은 사회취약계층의 공간적 집중과 가로변 건물들의 개보수로 인해 상대적 쇠퇴가 심화된 구역이었으며, 클러스터 4는 열악한 기반시설 및 대규모 기피시설이 빈집 발생을 유도한 구역이었다. 연구결과에 따르면, 폐쇄적 블록, 협소한 가로, 소규모 필지 등의 열악한 물리적 환경이 재정비촉진지구의 해제, 사회취약계층의 공간적 집중 등과 결합됨에 따라 빈집현상의 심화 및 확산으로 연결되었다. 또한 빈집 인근 공적영역의 유지관리 여부가 추가적인 쇠퇴의 진행 및 쇠퇴 이미지 형성에 중요한 역학을 하고 있었다. 한편 연구결과를 통해 거주위치 및 거주특성에 따라 주민들이 빈집문제의 심각성을 인식하고 대응하는데 있어 차이가 존재함을 확인할 수 있었다. ; Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Housing abandonment in shrinking cities of East Asia: Case study in Incheon, South Korea 5 1. Introduction 5 2. Theoretical Framework and Research Site 10 3. Results 14 4. Discussion 26 5. Conclusion 35 Chapter 2. Planned inequality of the locational pattern of housing abandonment in shrinking inner-city areas of Incheon, South Korea 37 1. Introduction 37 2. Literature Review 41 3. Data and Methods 47 4. Results 58 5. Discussion 70 6. Conclusion 76 Chapter 3. Perceptions of abandonment: Analyzing subjective perception on vacant houses using the photo-elicitation method 78 1. Introduction 78 2. Literature Review 83 3. Methods 90 4. Results 96 5. Discussion 119 Chapter 4. The causes and characteristics of housing abandonment in an inner-city neighborhood: Focused on the Sungui-dong area, Nam-gu, Incheon 125 1. Introduction 125 2. Theoretical Consideration 136 3. Results 143 4. Discussion 162 5. Conclusion 164 Conclusion 167 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 174 REFERENCES 175 ABSTRACT IN KOREAN 184 ; Doctor

Part five of of an interview with educators in the Leominster, Massachusetts area. Topics include: Experiences as students in the Leominster school system. Kindergarten classes and moving students along in bilingual education. Funding to keep students in school and in programs that work for individuals. How parents support education. ; 1 SPEAKER 1: For example, um, we talked about the original Head Start. You went to kindergarten. I couldn't believe that. [Laughter] Okay. I mean, the whole intent, and correct me if you see it differently, but the whole intent of Head Start is that society sees that there's a group of children who don't have the exposure, whether it's cultural, whether it's language development, they don't have the exposure in their formative years. And when they get to kindergarten or when they get to first grade, they're kind of behind. And, primarily, we identify those kids as coming from lowest socio-economic backgrounds. Okay? So, the idea was to begin a Head Start program and target that population. But who will fund it? A wonderful idea. And I think that as you look at the longitudinal studies that have been done over 20, 30 years since Head Start, you see that kids who have gone through Head Start have been more successful in school, is less apt to drop out, less pregnancy, uh, less involvement with substance abuse, and so on. It seems to be a pair, okay? And yet, the federal government only funds Head Start to the point where only about 56 percent of the kids who are eligible, not all preschoolers, only the kids from socio-economic background who are financially eligible for Head Start, that's how many can go. You check with a Head Start program [alumnus], or you go to the government, you go anywhere you want, and they cannot take all of the kids who qualify. Why? Because the funding isn't there. That's the problem. A need is seen but the immediacy of that need is not recognized. SPEAKER 2: Is that why…? What is the reason that Lancaster Street had the only kindergarten? And you went to that. SPEAKER 3: You know, that I don't know. SPEAKER 1: But maybe, just… SPEAKER 3: My experience was like kind of just the opposite because my kindergarten teacher was Ms. [Trinkle]. She married another teacher. SPEAKER 4: Coach Sullivan.2 SPEAKER 3: Sullivan. Right. SPEAKER 1: Okay. SPEAKER 2: She married [unintelligible - 00:02:28]? How do you know so? SPEAKER 3: So, then I was ready for the first break. Now, I'm in kindergarten, and she felt I was ready for the first grade, so they sent me. My birthday was in January, so therefore, I was supposed to wait like another year. And I remember Miss Lincoln… do you remember her? She had some administrative position. And I remember her testing me [unintelligible - 00:02:55]. SPEAKER 2: Was the class at Lancaster Street predominantly Italian? SPEAKER 3: Everybody were. SPEAKER 4: I went to that one before she did and my kindergarten teacher was Ms. Kendall, and they started the kindergarten because the whole area was all Italian children. They did not speak English. SPEAKER 2: And that, really, in disguise, was the first bilingual program in Leominster. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. It was the forerunner. SPEAKER 3: I think so. Probably true. SPEAKER 2: That… really. SPEAKER 1: They were trying to address the same name in a different way. SPEAKER 2: But the way they went about it is a lot different from "transitional bilingual education." SPEAKER 3: But, instead of keeping me in that class for two years, she move me on. SPEAKER 1: If you want… to tell you the story, the same thing happened to him. They want to keep him back. Am I right? SPEAKER 3: No, I'm just saying age-wise. SPEAKER 2: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: Right. SPEAKER 3: I would have had to stay there another year. SPEAKER 1: Right. I see. SPEAKER 3: Probably because they felt that I was [pretty] and trusted me. 3 SPEAKER 4: And then, moving on. SPEAKER 1: Let's say they did something different. They did something different for that population. They put them in kindergarten. They brought them to school a year earlier. SPEAKER 4: That's right. SPEAKER 1: They didn't do that for the general population. Right? SPEAKER 3: A friend of mine gave me a copy of the class picture that I had never seen in my life until maybe the last year, year and a half, and I must tell you, we really did look like ragamuffins [laughter]. But it's such a pleasure to look at that picture. I mean, it's your roots. SPEAKER 2: Yeah. SPEAKER 3: It's your roots. SPEAKER 4: Now, my kindergarten class progressed as a whole. You were in kindergarten. The next year you're in first grade, second grade, and I don't remember a lot of kids being held back. They just went on. SPEAKER 2: This is my whole point of modern versus [test], need versus popularity -- popular to have the bilingual program, need to get these kids go on and started. SPEAKER 4: It's also numbers. SPEAKER 2: Absolutely. SPEAKER 4: It's also numbers. SPEAKER 2: Absolutely. And experiment. SPEAKER 3: We were a very small… Leominster was a very small… SPEAKER 2: But the philosophy. I don't care if there are a thousand or a hundred. The philosophy was different. That's my whole point. Our philosophy was to get them in there, teach them English, get them going, and they'll be fine. And that turns out to be exactly true because as Lucy said, you want to go back and trace the history of folk. Those Italian kids started that first bilingual class. They did fine. They did very well in the city of Leominster. 4 SPEAKER 4: On the other hand, there were kindergarten students [unintelligible - 00:05:29] were we at 12th grade, or…? SPEAKER 5: Well, they never had… SPEAKER 3: Twelfth. SPEAKER 1: With me, as I said, I was 9 years old, so I would have started third grade. I guess about third grade and I stayed just a couple of months. We came to the United States and landed in February and I was put into the first grade. I didn't speak a word of English. I was 9 years old put into the first grade just to be under that school year. And then, I spent that summer in Indiana. I came back in the fall. I went into grade 2. Halfway through the year, the teachers made a decision and they pulled me out of the second grade. They felt I knew English well enough at that point. And they brought me across the hall and put me in the fourth grade classroom. So I started the year on grade 2, ended the year on grade 4. That following September, I was in [unintelligible - 00:06:37] and went into grade 5 with Mrs. McGraw. SPEAKER 2: Today, if you were 12, you had a CORE evaluation. Think about it. SPEAKER 4: Yes. SPEAKER 1: I still graduated a year behind you know, my age group. I lost a year, okay, although I ended up you know, skipping a couple of grades. But I was fortunate in that I was able to survive that. But I'm telling you that there were many others who did not survive that kind of so called "immersion." So, you know, Vinnie is right. You have to look at the individual and say, you know, "What's best for this person?" Not just today, but think about what you're doing in terms of how it's going to affect that person's lifetime. Because the greatest cost for failure is after a person leaves school. Well, you can put a kid into special education as costly as that might be. You can put a kid into bilingual program and some added cost. But you 5 have a youngster who drops out of school and fails, end up in jail or gets pregnant, is on drugs. Your sending a youngster to jail is going to cost you $50,000 a year to keep that person. SPEAKER 3: And you know, when they went in, they will know when they come out because they learned from each other. There's a teaching going on there as well. SPEAKER 1: Exactly. And that's why I believe in you know, rehabilitation programs in prisons, because, I mean, what else are you going to spend that money for? If it's just for punishment, if it's just for revenge, you wanted… you know, a person did something wrong, you're going to pay. So you're going to spend 10 years behind bars. Okay? But then stop and think about what happens when that person comes out. Are you going to end up sending that person back? Hopefully, that person becomes a contributing member of the society or if not contribute, at least you know, not detract from society. It's you know, the longer range. We're all human beings. SPEAKER 2: If you wanted to trace back again to that kindergarten class and at the beginning of that program with Lucy's, and trace how many of those people "went to jail" or on drugs, that got in trouble? You'd find there are few. You'd find very few. Think about it. And, going back to the point, the last one, we didn't have to spend a lot of money on the law enforcement, okay? Because parents… let's get to that point. Ethnic families – French, Italian, and others [unintelligible - 00:09:04] – were very proud people. Okay? And they didn't want to be embarrassed by having an officer come to the house. They took care of their own problems. All the teachers had… I can remember breaking a window. It was an accident but I was throwing stones and threw it the wrong direction and broke a window. Ms. Gallagher called up my house, the principal, to tell my mother. End of problem. End of problem. [Laughs] I mean, guys, I didn't have to be told more than once. SPEAKER 4: No. That's right.6 SPEAKER 2: Okay? Because that's the difference there. SPEAKER 3: Starting with Miss [Partimo], she was a fourth grade teacher, I had [unintelligible - 00:09:44] Miss [Partimo] for two weeks. And it was [glorious]. So they somehow closed down the fourth grade, and they sent half the class to the third grade and half the class to the fifth grade. And I had Miss [Gallagher] and Miss [unintelligible - 00:10:01]. She was the principal and she taught girls. I went to see her. She is deceased this year. But a year ago, when we did all that for the honorary members, I brought flowers to each of these women that couldn't attend the meeting partially because of transportation. And Miss Gallagher was one of them. And we sat and had the longest chat and then we talked about [unintelligible - 00:10:28]. One of the things that I came away with, she marveled at how… she found her job as relatively easy because of the parents that she worked with, the Italian parents and how… they wanted the best for their children. They wanted an education for their children. But the teacher was always right that they were going to follow the rules. And boy, the last thing a teacher has to say to you was, "I'm going to tell your parents." Oh, my God. You'd shiver and shake because again that was the worst thing in the world. Not to say [unintelligible - 00:11:08]. I don't mean that but… SPEAKER 2: Do you remember when your mother went to the [unintelligible - 00:11:12] to the open house [unintelligible - 00:11:14] you know. I didn't worry about my mother saying, and I know your mother well… I didn't worry about my mother saying and the teacher saying "Joseph is not doing…" That was expected. You came from an Italian home. You're expected to do well. "How is he behaving?" The teacher said, "Well, Joseph is a little loquacious." SPEAKER 4: [Laughter].7 SPEAKER 2: [Laughs]. I would hide under the… like a fool, I was hiding under the sheets. [Unintelligible - 00:11:46] [Laughter] But that was called pride. Your parents had pride and you didn't embarrass them. SPEAKER 1: They wanted you to be respectful. SPEAKER 2: That's right. SPEAKER 1: But I have to believe that… I don't care what ethnic group you're talking about, that basically parents want their kids to succeed. SPEAKER 3: That's right. SPEAKER 1: Okay? And you know, today, we use the word partnership. Education is a partnership, you know, the home and the school. I mean, they're all elements in a successful equation, I guess, if you want to call it that. You do have to have parents that support kids and support education. You know, Vinnie, tell us the story about you that you were telling me last week when you came to the United States. And at some point, there was a decision to be made about you going on in school or going to work. I thought that was quite interesting, okay? You might share that. SPEAKER 2: Maybe the support system that we have today is quite different from what it used to be years ago when family would contribute their ideas. And what relatives would say would be very important to determine what young children would take as their career, would take as a job, would do as the next thing. In my own personal experience, I know that it wasn't easy for me to go to school, especially to middle school in Italy because first of all, conditions were right after the war. Everything was with much destruction all around. And the fields, I remember one of the main sources of our income was the vineyards. My grandfather produced grapes and wine to be sold and to be processed. And as the story goes, they just had an attack by [unintelligible - 00:14:03] which destroys the grapevines, and then you need seven years before you can get production up again. So, the source of income was not available. My father had just come back from being a prisoner of war, and of course, you don't earn money while you're a prisoner of war. You're as 8 destitute when you come out as you were when you went in. And he was there seven years. This was in 1947. And when you make a decision to have your son continue the education, you have to buy the books. You have to provide the money to go to the district school which is [unintelligible - 00:14:53], which is not very far, but the bus that took you there was a jungle bus that also went to Padova, and so it took about 45 minutes for what would nowadays be maybe a 10-minute ride. SPEAKER 1: It was seven miles, and [unintelligible - 00:15:06]. SPEAKER 2: [Unintelligible - 00:15:06] But it took at least half an hour, 45 minutes with a detour to [unintelligible - 00:15:14] with stops for the general public. But, if you have to go everyday to school like that, you have to have a subscription to the bus and you have to come up every month with the money to pay for this transportation, plus the books were expensive. The books that you buy are dictionaries, textbooks. And I remember, I still have some of my old textbooks. The paper on which they were printed was so flimsy and the margins almost nonexistent because they tried to cram as much print as possible in the fewest number of pages. But, anyway, I know that my mother, whenever we needed to buy a textbook and we didn't have the money, she'd have to go around and beg, borrow, steal, as they say, for money for me to buy these books so we could continue our education. So, when we finally decided that I would come to the States and the idea was, "Well, should I go to work or should I continue with my education, knowing I have done reasonably well in school and that my family has invested all this money and effort in my ongoing education?" And of course, my father at that time was not in the best of health and my relatives were pointing out you know, "He's young. He's strong. He can get a job and get relatively good money coming right away. 9 Whereas, if you decide that he should go to school, first of all, he'd have to learn English, second, you have no income for him, third, you have to provide him with decent clothes and food. So that's going to be, instead of a plus, a drain on the family." But…/AT/mb

This paper analyzes a set of environmental conditions that influence the development of Technology Based Enterprises (TBCs) in innovation-based and efficiency-based economies. The existing literature on this phenomenon is reviewed and data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) is used. Exploratory factorial analysis is handled out with the application of the Varimax Orthogonal Rotation method. The study concludes that some of the factors identified are influential in certain economic environments for the consolidation of EBT's, particularly in innovative economies. Keywords: Entrepreneurship, technological base, efficient, innovative. URL:http://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/883 DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.31164/bcoyu.24.2020.883 References: Acs, Z. J., Audretsch, D. B., & Lehmann, E. E. (2013). The knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 41(4), 757-774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-013-9505-9 Alarcón, M. 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Emprendedores y capital riesgo en España: El caso de Fond-ICO Global. Revista Icade. Revista de las Facultades de Derecho y Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, 0(94), 31. https://doi.org/10.14422/icade.i94.y2015.002 Díaz, E., Souto, J., & Tejeiro, M. (2013). Nuevas empresas de base tecnológica. Netbiblo, S. L. https://www.madrimasd.org/uploads/informacionidi/biblioteca/publicacion/doc/Nebts3.pdf Etemad, H. (2016). Special Thematic Issue on: International Interactions and Activities of University-Based Technology Entrepreneurship. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 14(3), 277-284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-016-0189-5 García, A. M., García, M. G., & Olivares, A. (2018). Entrepreneurs' Resources, Technology Strategy, and New Technology-Based Firms' Performance. Journal of Small Business Management. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12411 Guercio, M., Martinez, L., & Vigier, H. (2017). Las limitaciones al financiamiento bancario de las Pymes de alta tecnología. Estudios Gerenciales, 33(142), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.estger.2017.02.001 Gutiérrez Olvera, S. (2018). Emprendimiento en las empresas familiares / Entrepreneurship in family businesses. RICEA Revista Iberoamericana de Contaduría, Economía y Administración, 4(7), 163. https://doi.org/10.23913/ricea.v4i7.119 Harbi, S. E., & Anderson, A. R. (2010). Institutions and the shaping of different forms of entrepreneurship. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 39(3), 436-444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2010.02.011 Hernández, I., Álvarez, R., Blanco, C., & Carvajal, A. (2014). El ascenso de la "mano invisible": Análisis para el surgimiento de un mercado formal de financiación para empresas de base tecnológica (ebt) en Colombia. FACE: Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, 13(1), 5–32. Huang, Y., Audretsch, D. B., & Hewitt, M. (2013). Chinese technology transfer policy: The case of the national independent innovation demonstration zone of East Lake. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 38(6), 828-835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-012-9292-5 harbiKirwan, P., Sijde, P., & Groen, A. (2006). Assessing the needs of new technology based firms (NTBFs): An investigation among spin-off companies from six European Universities. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 2(2), 173-187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-006-8683-1 Kuratko, D. F., & Menter, M. (2017). The Role of Public Policy in Fostering Technology-Based Nascent Entrepreneurship. En J. A. Cunningham & C. O'Kane (Eds.), Technology-Based Nascent Entrepreneurship (pp. 19-52). Palgrave Macmillan US. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59594-2_2 Larsen, M., Vigier, H. P., Guercio, M. B., & Briozzo, A. E. (2014). Financiamiento mediante obligaciones negociables. El problema de ser PyME. Visión de futuro, 18(2). http://visiondefuturo.fce.unam.edu.ar/index.php/visiondefuturo/article/viewFile/26/18 Lasso, S., Mainardes, E., & Motoki, F. (2017). Why do entrepreneurs open tech startups? A comparative study between Brazilian and foreign enterprises. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0445-8 Lecluyse, L., Knockaert, M., & Spithoven, A. (2018). The contribution of science parks: A literature review and future research agenda. The Journal of Technology Transfer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-018-09712-x Lima, R. (2016). Economic Growth and Human Capital in the Post-Knowledge Era: A Focus on Positive Externalities and Spillover Effects of Knowledge in Italy and the Emergency of the Less Developed Areas. Journal of Industrial Integration and Management, 01(03), 1650010. https://doi.org/10.1142/S242486221650010X Lloret, S., Ferreres, A., Hernández, A., & Tomás, I. (2014). El análisis factorial exploratorio de los ítems: Una guía práctica, revisada y actualizada. Anales de Psicología, 30(3), 1151-1169. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.30.3.199361 Löfsten, H. (2016). Business and innovation resources: Determinants for the survival of new technology-based firms. Management Decision, 54(1), 88-106. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-04-2015-0139 Maculan, A.-M., Hernández, C. N. J., & Domínguez, O. F. C. (2015). Aprendizaje en el proceso de incubación de empresas de base tecnológica. Económicas CUC, 36(1), 9-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.17981/econcuc.36.1.2015.21 Malhotra, N. K. (2008). Investigación de mercados. Pearson Educación. McAdam, M., & Marlow, S. (2011). Sense and sensibility: The role of business incubator client advisors in assisting high-technology entrepreneurs to make sense of investment readiness status. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 23(7-8), 449-468. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620903406749 Mian, S., Lamine, W., & Fayolle, A. (2016). Technology Business Incubation: An overview of the state of knowledge. Technovation, 50-51, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2016.02.005 Ramaciotti, L., Muscio, A., & Rizzo, U. (2017). The impact of hard and soft policy measures on new technology-based firms. Regional Studies, 51(4), 629-642. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2016.1255319 Ramírez, M., & Fernández, M. (2018). Unravelling the effects of Science Parks on the innovation performance of NTBFs. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 43(2), 482-505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-017-9559-y Sempere, F., & Hervás, J. L. (2014). Innovación tecnológica y no tecnológica: Efectos complementarios en la performance empresarial. Economía Industrial, 2014, 71-76. https://riunet.upv.es/handle/10251/51948 Shane, S. (2012). Reflections on the 2010 AMD Decade Award: Delivering on the Promise of Entrepreneurship As a Field of Research. Academy of Management Review, 37(1), 10-20. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2011.0078 Torrecilla, J. A., Skotnicka, A. G., & Tous, D. (2017a). Dimensiones que afectan a los emprendedores tecnológicos: El auge de las nuevas empresas de base tecnológica. 1-10. http://www.revistaespacios.com/a18v39n11/a18v39n11p16.pdf Vereinte Nationen (Ed.). (2018). Frontier technologies for sustainable development. United Nations. Vicens, L., & Grullon, S. (2011). Innovación y emprendimiento. Un modelo basado en el desarrollo del emprendedor. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, 1-31. https://publications.iadb.org/es/publicacion/15039/innovacion-y-emprendimiento-un-modelo-basado-en-el-desarrollo-del-emprendedor Xiao, L., & North, D. (2017). The graduation performance of technology business incubators in China's three tier cities: The role of incubator funding, technical support, and entrepreneurial mentoring. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 42(3), 615-634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-016-9493-4 Zapata, G., López, S. F., Vivel, M., Neira, I., & Rodeiro, D. (2014). El emprendimiento de base tecnológica; características diferenciales. 2-21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284545728_El_emprendimiento_de_base_tecnologica_caracteristicas_diferenciales Zapata, Á. R. P., & Morales, L. I. R. (2016). Innovación y emprendimiento en América Latina Desafíos y oportunidades de la región para sumarse a la sociedad del conocimiento: México. 23. Zapata, G., Fernández, S., & Neira, I. (2018). El emprendimiento tecnológico en Suramérica: Una aproximación a sus determinantes individuales. Perfiles Latinoamericanos, 26(52), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.18504/pl2652-003-2018 Zea, M. P. C., Fonseca, M. P., Pérez, R. A., Bermeo, M. R., & Molina, X. C. (2016). Emprendimientos Informáticos: Una mirada desde la Universidad del Siglo XXI. Revista Didasc@ lia: Didáctica y Educación. ISSN 2224-2643, 7(3), 153–158. Zhang, H., & Sonobe, T. (2011). Business Incubators in China: An Inquiry into the Variables Associated with Incubatee Success. Economics: The Open-Access, Open-Assessment E-Journal, 5(2011-7), 1. https://doi.org/10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2011-7 ; El presente trabajo analiza un conjunto de condiciones del entorno que influyen en el desarrollo de Emprendimientos de Base Tecnológica (EBT) en economías basadas en innovación y en economías basadas en eficiencia. Se realiza una revisión de la literatura existente respecto a este fenómeno y se utilizan los datos del Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Se lleva a cabo análisis factorial exploratorio con la aplicación del método de Rotación Ortogonal Varimax. El estudio concluye que algunos de los factores identificados resultan influyentes en determinados entornos económicos para la consolidación de los EBT's, particularmente en las economías innovadoras. Palabras clave: Emprendimiento, base tecnológica, eficientes, innovadoras. URL:http://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/883 DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.31164/bcoyu.24.2020.883 Referencias: Acs, Z. J., Audretsch, D. B., & Lehmann, E. E. (2013). The knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 41(4), 757-774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-013-9505-9 Alarcón, M. A., & Díaz, C. del C. (2016). La empresa de base tecnológica y su contribución a la economía mexicana en el periodo 2004-2009. Contaduría y Administración, 61(1), 106-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cya.2015.09.004 An, H. J., & Ahn, S. J. (2016). Emerging technologies—beyond the chasm: Assessing technological forecasting and its implication for innovation management in Korea. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 102, 132-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.06.015 Aportela, I. (2015). La información como recurso estratégico en las empresas de base tecnológica. 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The effect of entrepreneurship education in schools on entrepreneurial outcomes: A systematic review. Management Review Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-019-00168-3 Brunet, I., & Alarcón, A. (2004). Teorías sobre la figura del emprendedor. Papers. Revista de Sociologia, 73, 81. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/papers/v73n0.1108 College, B., & Park, B. (2017). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor report. 155. Colovic, A., & Lamotte, O. (2015). Technological Environment and Technology Entrepreneurship: A Cross-Country Analysis: Technological Environment and Technology Entrepreneurship. Creativity and Innovation Management, 24(4), 617-628. https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12133 Cooper, S. (2006). Exploring the pre-entrepreneurial careers of high-technology entrepreneurs. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life-Long Learning, 16(5), 341. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCEELL.2006.010957 Costantini, V., & Crespi, F. (2015). European enlargement policy, technological capabilities and sectoral export dynamics. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 40(1), 25-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-013-9307-x Cunningham, J. A., Lehmann, E. E., Menter, M., & Seitz, N. (2019). The impact of university focused technology transfer policies on regional innovation and entrepreneurship. The Journal of Technology Transfer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-019-09733-0 De los Ríos, S., Rodríguez, I., & Sáenz, R. (2015). Emprendedores y capital riesgo en España: El caso de Fond-ICO Global. Revista Icade. Revista de las Facultades de Derecho y Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, 0(94), 31. https://doi.org/10.14422/icade.i94.y2015.002 Díaz, E., Souto, J., & Tejeiro, M. (2013). Nuevas empresas de base tecnológica. Netbiblo, S. L. https://www.madrimasd.org/uploads/informacionidi/biblioteca/publicacion/doc/Nebts3.pdf Etemad, H. (2016). Special Thematic Issue on: International Interactions and Activities of University-Based Technology Entrepreneurship. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 14(3), 277-284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-016-0189-5 García, A. M., García, M. G., & Olivares, A. (2018). Entrepreneurs' Resources, Technology Strategy, and New Technology-Based Firms' Performance. Journal of Small Business Management. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12411 Guercio, M., Martinez, L., & Vigier, H. (2017). Las limitaciones al financiamiento bancario de las Pymes de alta tecnología. Estudios Gerenciales, 33(142), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.estger.2017.02.001 Gutiérrez Olvera, S. (2018). Emprendimiento en las empresas familiares / Entrepreneurship in family businesses. RICEA Revista Iberoamericana de Contaduría, Economía y Administración, 4(7), 163. https://doi.org/10.23913/ricea.v4i7.119 Harbi, S. E., & Anderson, A. R. (2010). Institutions and the shaping of different forms of entrepreneurship. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 39(3), 436-444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2010.02.011 Hernández, I., Álvarez, R., Blanco, C., & Carvajal, A. (2014). El ascenso de la "mano invisible": Análisis para el surgimiento de un mercado formal de financiación para empresas de base tecnológica (ebt) en Colombia. FACE: Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, 13(1), 5–32. Huang, Y., Audretsch, D. B., & Hewitt, M. (2013). Chinese technology transfer policy: The case of the national independent innovation demonstration zone of East Lake. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 38(6), 828-835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-012-9292-5 harbiKirwan, P., Sijde, P., & Groen, A. (2006). Assessing the needs of new technology based firms (NTBFs): An investigation among spin-off companies from six European Universities. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 2(2), 173-187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-006-8683-1 Kuratko, D. F., & Menter, M. (2017). The Role of Public Policy in Fostering Technology-Based Nascent Entrepreneurship. En J. A. Cunningham & C. O'Kane (Eds.), Technology-Based Nascent Entrepreneurship (pp. 19-52). Palgrave Macmillan US. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59594-2_2 Larsen, M., Vigier, H. P., Guercio, M. B., & Briozzo, A. E. (2014). Financiamiento mediante obligaciones negociables. El problema de ser PyME. Visión de futuro, 18(2). http://visiondefuturo.fce.unam.edu.ar/index.php/visiondefuturo/article/viewFile/26/18 Lasso, S., Mainardes, E., & Motoki, F. (2017). Why do entrepreneurs open tech startups? A comparative study between Brazilian and foreign enterprises. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0445-8 Lecluyse, L., Knockaert, M., & Spithoven, A. (2018). The contribution of science parks: A literature review and future research agenda. The Journal of Technology Transfer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-018-09712-x Lima, R. (2016). Economic Growth and Human Capital in the Post-Knowledge Era: A Focus on Positive Externalities and Spillover Effects of Knowledge in Italy and the Emergency of the Less Developed Areas. Journal of Industrial Integration and Management, 01(03), 1650010. https://doi.org/10.1142/S242486221650010X Lloret, S., Ferreres, A., Hernández, A., & Tomás, I. (2014). El análisis factorial exploratorio de los ítems: Una guía práctica, revisada y actualizada. Anales de Psicología, 30(3), 1151-1169. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.30.3.199361 Löfsten, H. (2016). Business and innovation resources: Determinants for the survival of new technology-based firms. Management Decision, 54(1), 88-106. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-04-2015-0139 Maculan, A.-M., Hernández, C. N. J., & Domínguez, O. F. C. (2015). Aprendizaje en el proceso de incubación de empresas de base tecnológica. Económicas CUC, 36(1), 9-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.17981/econcuc.36.1.2015.21 Malhotra, N. K. (2008). Investigación de mercados. Pearson Educación. McAdam, M., & Marlow, S. (2011). Sense and sensibility: The role of business incubator client advisors in assisting high-technology entrepreneurs to make sense of investment readiness status. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 23(7-8), 449-468. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620903406749 Mian, S., Lamine, W., & Fayolle, A. (2016). Technology Business Incubation: An overview of the state of knowledge. Technovation, 50-51, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2016.02.005 Ramaciotti, L., Muscio, A., & Rizzo, U. (2017). The impact of hard and soft policy measures on new technology-based firms. Regional Studies, 51(4), 629-642. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2016.1255319 Ramírez, M., & Fernández, M. (2018). Unravelling the effects of Science Parks on the innovation performance of NTBFs. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 43(2), 482-505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-017-9559-y Sempere, F., & Hervás, J. L. (2014). Innovación tecnológica y no tecnológica: Efectos complementarios en la performance empresarial. Economía Industrial, 2014, 71-76. https://riunet.upv.es/handle/10251/51948 Shane, S. (2012). Reflections on the 2010 AMD Decade Award: Delivering on the Promise of Entrepreneurship As a Field of Research. Academy of Management Review, 37(1), 10-20. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2011.0078 Torrecilla, J. A., Skotnicka, A. G., & Tous, D. (2017a). Dimensiones que afectan a los emprendedores tecnológicos: El auge de las nuevas empresas de base tecnológica. 1-10. http://www.revistaespacios.com/a18v39n11/a18v39n11p16.pdf Vereinte Nationen (Ed.). (2018). Frontier technologies for sustainable development. United Nations. Vicens, L., & Grullon, S. (2011). Innovación y emprendimiento. Un modelo basado en el desarrollo del emprendedor. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, 1-31. https://publications.iadb.org/es/publicacion/15039/innovacion-y-emprendimiento-un-modelo-basado-en-el-desarrollo-del-emprendedor Xiao, L., & North, D. (2017). The graduation performance of technology business incubators in China's three tier cities: The role of incubator funding, technical support, and entrepreneurial mentoring. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 42(3), 615-634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-016-9493-4 Zapata, G., López, S. F., Vivel, M., Neira, I., & Rodeiro, D. (2014). El emprendimiento de base tecnológica; características diferenciales. 2-21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284545728_El_emprendimiento_de_base_tecnologica_caracteristicas_diferenciales Zapata, Á. R. P., & Morales, L. I. R. (2016). Innovación y emprendimiento en América Latina Desafíos y oportunidades de la región para sumarse a la sociedad del conocimiento: México. 23. Zapata, G., Fernández, S., & Neira, I. (2018). El emprendimiento tecnológico en Suramérica: Una aproximación a sus determinantes individuales. Perfiles Latinoamericanos, 26(52), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.18504/pl2652-003-2018 Zea, M. P. C., Fonseca, M. P., Pérez, R. A., Bermeo, M. R., & Molina, X. C. (2016). Emprendimientos Informáticos: Una mirada desde la Universidad del Siglo XXI. Revista Didasc@ lia: Didáctica y Educación. ISSN 2224-2643, 7(3), 153–158. Zhang, H., & Sonobe, T. (2011). Business Incubators in China: An Inquiry into the Variables Associated with Incubatee Success. Economics: The Open-Access, Open-Assessment E-Journal, 5(2011-7), 1. https://doi.org/10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2011-7