Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Alawandi-2microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 443 ha in Koppaltaluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 87 per cent is covered by soils, 13 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 9 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is 200mm/m). An area of about 11 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 76 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 39 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 49 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 6 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in 87 per cent of the soils. Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 15per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 72 per cent area of the soils. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 22per cent of the area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 1 per cent of the area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area. The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 42 (9) 276(62) Pomegranate - 140(32) Maize - - Guava - - Bajra - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 98 (22) Jamun - 57(13) Bengal gram 60(14) 256 (58) Musambi 21 (5) 120 (27) Groundnut - 32 (7) Lime 21 (5) 120 (27) Sunflower 21 (5) 120 (27) Cashew - 21(5) Cotton 60 (14) 239(54) Custard apple 60(14) 310(70) Chilli - - Amla - 371 (83) Tomato - - Tamarind 57(13) Drumstick - 173 (39) Marigold - 318(71) Mulbery - 194(44) Chrysanthemum - 318(71) Mango - 17(4) Jasmine - 177(40) Sapota - - Crossandra - 44(10) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 92 (53.80%) men and 78 (45.61%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.6, marginal farmers' was 5.6, small farmers' was 5.11, semi medium farmers' was 4.55 and medium farmers' was 6. The data indicated that, 24 (14.04%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (43.27%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (29.82%) were in 36-60 years of age and 22 (12.87%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Alawandi-2 had 13.45 per cent illiterates, 22.22 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.43 per cent of them had middle school education, 22.22 per cent of them had high school education, 12.28 per cent of them had PUC education, 3.51 per cent had diploma, 2.34 per cent of them did ITI, 11.70 per cent of them had degree education and 1.17 per cent of the population did masters. The results indicate that, 76.47 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 14.71 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 2.94 per cent were general labour and 2.94 per cent of them were in trade and business. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 56.14 per cent of the household members, 14.04 per cent were agricultural laborers, 3.51 per cent were general labourers, 3.51 per cent were in private service, 1.75 per cent were into trade and business, 14.62 per cent were students, 1.75 per cent were housewives and 4.09 per cent were children. The results show that 99.42 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions; only 0.58 per cent participated in cooperative bank. The results indicate that 8.82 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 79.41 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 17.65 per cent of them possess pucca house. The results show that 94.12 per cent of the households possess TV, 67.65 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 11.76 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 58.82 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess car/four wheeler and 91.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs.3484, mixer grinder was Rs.1539, refrigerator was Rs.12000, bicycle was Rs. 1250, motor cycle was Rs.27700, car/four wheeler was Rs.200000 and mobile phone was Rs.1362. 2 About 2.94 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 20.59 per cent of them possess plough, 11.76 per cent of the households possess tractor, 8.82 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.94 per cent possess sprinkler, thresher and maize huller, 61.76 per cent of them possess weeder and 47.06 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.25000, plough was Rs.550, the average value of tractor was Rs.287500, the average value of sprayer was Rs.1750, the average value of sprinkler was Rs.200, the average value of thresher and maize huller was Rs.500, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.486 and the average value of weeder was Rs.22. The results indicate that, 14.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20.59 per cent of the households possess local cow, 11.76 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 5.88 per cent of them possess buffalo, 2.94 per cent of them possess sheep and another 2.94 per cent possess poultry birds. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.76, average own labour (women) available was 1.48, average hired labour (men) available was 6.41 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.34. The results indicate that, 76.47 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 11.76 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Alawandi-2 micro-watershed possess 43.86 ha (79.94%) of dry land and 11.01 ha (20.06%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.05 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 10.95 ha (93.12%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (6.88%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 20.36 ha (81.39%) of dry land and 4.65 ha (18.61%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.50 ha (60.52%) of dry land and 5.54 ha (39.48%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 193,734.43 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 363,235.30. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 395,200 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 255,580.19 for dry land and Rs. 741,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 157,105.94 for dry land and Rs. 429,565.22 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 105,857.14 for dry land and Rs. 363,235.30 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 5 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 14.71 per cent of the farmers. 3 The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 11.47 meters. The results indicate that, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.81 ha, 3.30 ha and 5.26 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (12.72 ha), bajra (5.67 ha), groundnut (0.81 ha), sunflower (8.64 ha), redgram (5.72 ha), bengal gram (8.50 ha), horsegram (0.81 ha), sorghum (10.08 ha), onion (1.34 ha), pomegranate (0.40 ha) and sugarcane (1.62 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, bengal gram, groundnut, sorghum, maize. Small farmers have grown bengal gram, maize, sorghum, pomegranate and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, bengal gram, sorghum, horsegram, onion, redgram, sugarcane, sunflower and maize. Medium farmers have grown bajra, bengal gram, maize, redgram, sunflower and sorghum. The cropping intensity in Alawandi-2 micro-watershed was found to be 77.67 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 76.92 per cent, small farmers it was 72.17 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 90.43 and medium farmers it was 67.55 per cent. The results indicate that, 79.41 per cent of the households have bank account. The results indicate that, 20.59 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 11.11 per cent of the households availed loan from loan from grameena bank and another 11.11 per cent of the households obtained loan from SHGs/CBOs. The results indicate that, semi medium farmer has availed an average credit of Rs.20000. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was also agricultural production. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources. Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources. The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The results indicate that, around 100 per cent of the households opined that the credit borrowed from private sir helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 51103.90. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55575. The net 4 income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 4471.10, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09. The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 19321.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 169000.64. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 149679.15. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:8.75. The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 12833.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42567.33. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 29733.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.32. The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 23441.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34783.96. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 11342.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.48. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 19998.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26282.34. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 6284.16. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.31. The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 42018.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36869.90. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -5148.32. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.88. The total cost of cultivation for Sugarcane was Rs. 33737.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 185250. The net income from Sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 151512.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:5.49. The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 26475.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19412.93. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -7062.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73. The total cost of cultivation for pomgranate was Rs. 202081.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 889200. The net income from pomgranate cultivation was Rs. 687118.75. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.4. The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 28864.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89818.18. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 60953.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.11. The total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 28605.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. -3905.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.86. The results indicate that, 20.59 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent opined that it was inadequate. The results also indicated that 5.88 per cent of the households opined that green fodder is adequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 79,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 62910, for small farmers it was Rs. 239022.22, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 150054.55 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 182750. 5 The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 10,248.63. For landless households it was Rs. 400, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6300, for small farmers it was Rs. 16645.50, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 6490.36 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 23437.50. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 76 coconut and 11 mango tree in their fields. They have also planted 5 coconut trees and 4 mango trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 38 neem trees, 2 banyan trees, 1 eucalyptus, 1 cashew, and 1 peepul tree in their fields and 2 neem trees in their backyard. The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except bajra (76.92%) and Sorghum (98.08%). The results indicated that, about 17.65 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 8.82 per cent of the farmers have sold in cooperative marketing society, 2.94 per cent have sold their produce through cooperative marketing arrangement and 82.35 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants. The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 17.65 per cent have used cart and 5.88 per cent have used truck as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 67.65 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 80 per cent of the marginal farmers, 88.89 per cent of the small farmers, 81.82 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 70.59 per cent have shown interest in soil test which accounts for 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 88.89 per cent small farmers, 72.73 per cent of semi medium farmers and 75 per cent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, 64.71 per cent of the households used firewood and 38.24 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 11.76 per cent of the households and piped supply was the source of drinking water for 88.24 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 44.12 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 40 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 9.09 per cent of the semi medium and 50 per cent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 2.94 per cent of the households possessed APL card and 2.94 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card. 6 The results indicated that, 29.41 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 85.29 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 44.12 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 52.94 per cent, fruits were adequate for 17.65 per cent, milk was adequate for 67.65 per cent, eggs were adequate for 41.18 per cent and meat was adequate for 38.24 per cent. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 14.71 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 41.18 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 41.18 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 67.65 per cent, milk was inadequate for 32.35 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 52.94 per cent of the households and meat was inadequate for 50 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 11.76 per cent, vegetables were market surplus for 8.82 per cent and fruits were market surplus for 2.94 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 70.59 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (76.47%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (79.41%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.24%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (58.82%), high rate of interest on credit (26.47%), low price for the agricultural commodities (58.82%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (58.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (79.41%), inadequate extension services (23.53%), less rainfall (14.71%) and source of agri technology information (11.76%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kamanuru-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 274 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 88 per cent is covered by soils, 4 per cent water bodies, settlements and others and 7 per cent by rock lands. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 12 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. About 26 per cent area has clayey soils, 37 per cent loamy soils and 26 per cent sandy soils at the surface. About 67 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 66 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 23 per cent area has gently sloping (3-5%) lands. An area of about 26 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 63 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 21 per cent has soils that are slightly to moderately acid (pH 5.5- 6.5), 32 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 36 per cent are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4) and 1 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in organic carbon. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 70 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 19 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 69 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 20 per cent of the soils are high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in about 4 per cent. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 52 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 21 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 82 (30) 58 (21) Pomegranate 82 (30) 96 (35) Maize 38 (14) 72 (26) Guava 80 (29) 72 (27) Bajra 84 (31) 69 (25) Jackfruit 82 (30) 71 (26) Red gram 82 (30) 53 (19) Jamun 42 (15) 135 (49) Bengalgram 25 (9) 115 (42) Musambi 82 (30) 96 (35) Groundnut 80 (29) 91 (33) Lime 82 (30) 96 (35) Sunflower 82 (30) 53 (19) Cashew 80 (29) 88 (32) Cotton 44 (16) 95 (35) Custard apple 84 (31) 158 (58) Chilli 84 (31) 26 (9) Amla 84 (31) 158 (58) Tomato 84 (31) 26 (9) Tamarind 42 (15) 91 (33) Drumstick 82 (30) 96 (35) Marigold 80 (29) 59 (22) Mulberry 82 (30) 155 (56) Chrysanthemum 80 (29) 59 (22) Mango 42 (15) 66 (24) Jasmine 80 (29) 34 (13) Sapota 82 (30) 71 (26) Crossandra 80 (29) 29 (11) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 73 (53.68%) men and 63 (46.32%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.6, marginal farmers' was 4.33, small farmers' was 4.25, semi medium farmers' was 5.13 and medium farmers' was 4. The data indicated that, 23 (16.91%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 57 (41.91%) were in 16-35 years of age, 44 (32.35%) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (8.82 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Kamanuru-2 had 31.62 per cent illiterates, 25.74 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.09 per cent of them had middle school education, 22.06 per cent of them had high school education, 7.35 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.74 per cent of them did ITI, and 1.47 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicate that, 60 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 26.67 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers and 13.33 per cent were general labourers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 38.97 per cent of the household members, 21.32 per cent were agricultural laborers, 9.56 per cent were general labour, 2.21 per cent had household industry, 5.15 per cent were in private, 16.91 per cent were students, 3.68 per cent were housewives and 2.21 per cent were children. The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 10 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 63.33 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 26.67 per cent of them possess pucca house. The results show that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 80 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 40 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 43.33 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs.6333, mixer grinder was Rs.1666, bicycle was Rs. 1916, motor cycle was Rs.34384, auto was Rs.100000 and mobile phone was Rs.1435. About 3.33 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 13.33 per cent of them possess plough, 36.67 per cent of them posses sprayer, 93.33 per cent of them possess weeder, and 13.33 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20000, plough was Rs.416, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2579, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.63. 2 The results indicate that, 13.33 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 16.67 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.33 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 3.33 per cent of them possess sheep. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.84, average own labour (women) available was 1.36, average hired labour (men) available was 7.28 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.60. The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. 16. The results indicate that, households of the Kamanuru-2 micro watershed possess 16.54 ha (46.93%) of dry land and 18.70 ha (53.07%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.63 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 10.88 ha (92.76%) of dry land and 0.85 ha (7.24%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (15.91%) of dry land and 10.70 ha (84.09%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.15 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 356656 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 459783. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 633333 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275567 for dry land and Rs. 940952 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 296400 for dry land and Rs. 504653 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 335483 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 6 functioning and 4 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning and 1 defunctioning open well in the school. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 20 per cent of the farmers, open well and tank each formed the source of irrigation for 3.33 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 29.36 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.56 meters. The results indicate that, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.85 ha, 8.86 ha and 5.80 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (1 ha), bengalgram (1.62 ha), cotton (0.85 ha), groundnut (7.12 ha), maize (11.21 ha), mango (6.11 ha), navane (2.11 ha), paddy (1.82 ha), redgram (1.73 ha) and sugarcane (1.21 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy. Small farmers have grown Bengalgram, cotton, maize, groundnut, navane and redgram. 3 Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, mango and paddy. Medium farmers have grown maize, mango and sugarcane. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kamanuru-2 micro watershed was found to be 85.27 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 99.36 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 53.73 per cent. The results indicate that, 86.67 per cent of the households have bank account and 53.33 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 46.67 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 31.25 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 12.50 per cent availed loan from friends/relatives, 87.50 per cent availed loan from money lender and 6.25 per cent of the households obtained loan from SHGs/CBOs. The results indicate that, landless, marginal, small, and semi medium farmers have availed Rs.60000, Rs.87000, Rs.155714, and Rs.243333 respectively. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 57.14 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 28.57 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions and 14.29 per cent of the households borrowed for the purpose of construction of house or cattle shed. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan. Results indicated that 75 per cent of the households partially paid their loan and 25 per cent of the households did not repay their loan. The results indicate that, around 31.58 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 52.63 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 15.79 per cent of the households said that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay the loan in time. The results indicate that, around 12.50 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 25 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirements, 37.50 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 12.50 per cent opined that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 22649.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26066.86. The net income from 4 Maize cultivation was Rs. 3417.39, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.15. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 28310.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28904.72. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 594.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.02. The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 36079.54. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35197.50. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. -882.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98. The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 44731.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61379.50. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 16648.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.37. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 41425.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45304.12. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 8671.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24. The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 32163.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 68571.91. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 36408.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.13. The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 36338.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111921.87. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 75583.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.08. The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 17541.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29078.64. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 11537.41. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.66. The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50986.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 110091.43. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 59104.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.16. The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 35639.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 177840. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 142200.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.99. The results indicate that, 23.33 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 6.67 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. Around 6.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs.123600 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs.69908, for small farmers it was Rs.120494, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.101725, and for medium farmers it was Rs.68833. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 14,600. For landless households it was Rs. 4,566.67, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 7,427.08, 5 for small farmers it was Rs. 9,156.25, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 12,111.11, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 8,980. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 48 coconut, 80 custard apple, 1748 mango, 2 lemon and 1 sapota tree in their fields. The results indicate that, households have planted 1 teak trees, 45 neem trees and 5 tamarind trees in their field. The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs.1733, for irrigation facility Rs.966, for improved crop production Rs.1000 and for improved livestock management Rs.700. The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 10 per cent of the households for land development, 3.33 per cent for irrigation facility and 3.33 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds was the source of investment for 10 per cent for irrigation facility, 6.67 per cent for improved crop production and 3.33 per cent for improved livestock management. Soft loans was the source of funds for 6.67 per cent for land development, 3.33 per cent for irrigation facility, 10 per cent for improved crop production and 6.67 per cent for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, Bengalgram, cotton, maize, mango, navane and paddy were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra was sold to the extent of 94.44 per cent, groundnut to the extent of 83.33 per cent and sugarcane to the extent of 44.44 per cent. The results indicated that, about 50 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets and 40 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants. The results indicated that, 70 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 13.33 per cent have used truck and 6.67 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 30 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 16.67 per cent of marginal farmers, 12.50 per cent of small farmers, 62.50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 66.67 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 96.67 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.33 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent used fire wood and 12.90 per cent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 6 The results indicated that, 70 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 16.67 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, 93.33 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, and 6.67 per cent did not possess PDS card. The results indicated that, 43.33 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 53.33 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 13.33 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 56.67 per cent, fruits were adequate for 56.67 per cent, milk was adequate for 86.67 per cent, eggs were adequate for 83.33 per cent and meat was adequate for 56.67 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 46.67per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 86.67 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 46.67 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 40 per cent, milk was inadequate for 13.33 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 16.67 per cent and meat was inadequate for 43.33 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 83.33 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (83.33%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (70%), inadequacy of irrigation water (70%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80%), high rate of interest on credit (86.67%), low price for the agricultural commodities (86.67%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (86.67%), less rainfall (13.33%) and inadequate extension services (63.33%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hasgal-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 508 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 71 per cent is covered by soil, 24 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below The soils belong to 14 soil series and 34 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils. About 17 per cent sandy (loamy sand), 44 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 10 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface. About 29 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 2 per cent is nearly level (0-1%), 68 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) and 0.75%) in 53 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 6 per cent area of the soils. Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 5 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper is sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 34(7) 101(20) Sapota 34(7) 77(15) Maize 34(7) 101(20) Pomegranate 34(7) 130(25) Bajra 54(11) 145(28) Musambi 34(7) 130(25) Groundnut 54(11) 155(31) Lime 34(7) 130(25) Sunflower 34(7) 73(14) Amla 54(11) 246(48) Redgram 34(7) 73(14) Cashew - 112(22) Bengal gram 54(11) 87(17) Jackfruit 34(7) 77(15) Cotton - 135(27) Jamun - 164(32) Chilli 34(7) 48(10) Custard apple 54(11) 246(48) Tomato 34(7) 48(10) Tamarind - 87(17) Brinjal 20(4) 215(42) Mulberry 34(7) 232(45) Onion 20(4) 215(42) Marigold 34(7) 101(20) Bhendi 20(4) 215(42) Chrysanthemum 34(7) 101(20) Drumstick 34(7) 140(27) Jasmine 34(7) 48(9) Mango - 34(7) Crossandra 34(7) 48(9) Guava 34(7) 77(15) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 125 (53.42%) men and 109 (46.58%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.1, marginal farmers' was 4, small farmers' was 5.06, semi medium farmers' was 4.4 and medium farmers' was 6.4. The data indicated that, 52 (22.22%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 96 (41.03%) were in 16-35 years of age, 67 (28.63%) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (8.12 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Hasgal-2 had 26.92 per cent illiterates, 0.85 per cent functional literates, 34.62 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.68 per cent of them had middle school education, 14.53 per cent of them had high school education, 6.41 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.85 per cent did diploma, 0.43 per cent of them did ITI, 2.14 per cent of them had degree education and 0.43 per cent were in masters. The results indicate that, 76 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 4 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 20 per cent were general labourers, 2 per cent of them were housewives and 2 per cent of them were children. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 48.72 per cent of the household members, 8.12 per cent were agricultural laborers, 12.39 per cent were general labour, 2.56 per cent were in private, 23.50 per cent were students, 1.71 per cent were housewives and 2.14 per cent were children. The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 14 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 74 per cent of the households possess Katcha house 4 per cent of them possess pucca house and 8 per cent of them possess semi pucca house. The results show that 84 per cent of the households possess TV, 56 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 46 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 38 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 4 per cent of them possess landline and 88 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs.7571, mixer grinder was Rs.1846, bicycle was Rs. 3347, motor cycle was Rs.37315, landline phone was Rs.3333 and mobile phone was Rs.1653. About 20 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 34 per cent of them possess plough, 2 per cent of them possess tractor, 22 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 80 per cent of them possess weeder, 4 per cent of them possess harvester, 2 per cent of them possess thresher, 10 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 2 per cent of them possess JCB/Hitachi. 2 The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.21200, plough was Rs.1016, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2844, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3300, the average value of harvester was Rs.6942, the average value of thresher was Rs.50000, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2800, and the average value of weeder was Rs.77. The results indicate that, 36 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 16 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6 per cent of the households possess buffalo, 4 per cent of them possess sheep, 2 per cent of the households possess goat and 2 per cent of them possess poultry birds. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 8.85, average own labour (women) available was 5.55, average hired labour (men) available was 11.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.79. The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Hasgal-2 micro watershed possess 42.85 ha (64.97%) of dry land and 23.11 ha (35.03%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.80 ha (84.35%) of dry land and 0.89 ha (15.65%). Small farmers possess 18.34 ha (91.39%) of dry land and 1.73 ha (8.61%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 8.38 ha (37.95%) of dry land and 13.70 ha (62.05%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 11.33 ha (62.53%) of dry land and 6.79 ha (37.47%) of the farmers possess irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 293003 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 514763. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 470674 for dry land and Rs.1347272 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 414210 for dry land and Rs. 925526 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 155120 for dry land and Rs. 474298 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123500 for dry land and Rs.382717 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning and 2 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 28 per cent of the farmers, and open well was the source of irrigation for 2 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 24.14 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 1.83 meters. 3 The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.81 ha, 3.72 ha, 13.91 ha and 5.51 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (11.62 ha), cotton (1.78 ha), groundnut (5.15 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), maize (21.74 ha), navane (1.70 ha), paddy (2.83 ha), redgram (1.62 ha), sorghum (2.18 ha), tomato (0.89 ha), and watermelon (2.91 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, watermelon and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy and watermelon. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, paddy, sorghum, tomato, watermelon and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, horsegram, paddy, redgram sorghum and maize. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hasgal-2 micro watershed was found to be 98.20 per cent. In case of marginal and semi medium farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of small farmers it was 101.67 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 87.23 per cent. The results indicate that, 62 per cent of the households have bank account and 40 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 44 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 31.82 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 13.64 per cent availed loan from cooperative bank, 22.73 per cent availed loan from grameena bank, 13.64 per cent availed loan from money lenders and 36.36 per cent of the households obtained loan from SHGs/CBOs. The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs.19285, Rs.90714, Rs.104285, and Rs.50000 respectively. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 63.64 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 18.18 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions, 9.09 per cent of the households borrowed for the purpose of construction of house or cattle shed and 9.09 per cent borrowed for household consumption. The results indicated that 80 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources, 13.33 per cent of the households partially paid and 6.67 per cent of the households fully repaid their loan. Results indicated that 81.82 per cent of the households partially paid their loan borrowed from private sources, 9.09 per cent of the households did not repay their loan and 9.09 per cent of the households fully paid their loans. 4 The results indicate that, around 46.67 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 40 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The results indicate that, around 9.09 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 18.18 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 27.27 per cent opined that the rate of interest was high in non institutional source of credits. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 37771.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70523.07. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 32751.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.87. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 46621.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67059.85. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 20438.43. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.44. The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 16260.02. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23523.81. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 7263.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45. The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 32823.70. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38634.10. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 5810.40. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.18. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 22880. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20415.02. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 2464.98. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89. The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 18070.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46930. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 28859.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.6. The total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 19107.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 10532.40. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.55. The total cost of cultivation for watermelon was Rs. 53952.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 1264061.94. The net income from watermelon cultivation was Rs. 1210109.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:23.43. The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 29826.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 84288.75. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 54461.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.83. the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 41184.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 71007.93. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 29823.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.72. 5 the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 24868.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 158304.54. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 133435.75. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:6.37. The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 34 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 88,100 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 113,218.75, for small farmers it was Rs. 107,086.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 167,966.67, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 134,600. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,539.89. For landless households it was Rs. 7,100, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 7,000, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,611.85, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,368.06, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 16,080. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 19 coconuts and 27 mangoes in their fields. They have also grown 5 coconut and 1 mango tree in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 23 teak trees, 79 neem trees, 4 tamarind trees, 2 acacia trees and 1 peepul tree in their field. The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 1,280, for irrigation facility Rs. 260, for improved crop production Rs. 720 and for improved livestock management Rs. 420. The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 16 per cent of the households for land development, 4 per cent for irrigation facility, 12 per cent for improved crop production and 14 per cent for improved livestock management. Soft loan was the source of funds for 2 per cent of the households for improved crop production. The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, horsegram, maize, navane, paddy, redgram, tomato and watermelon were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut was sold to the extent of 77.37 per cent. The results indicated that, about 30 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 38 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 24 per cent of the farmers have sold through agents/traders and 8 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that, 84 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 2 per cent have used truck and 12 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 12.50 per cent of marginal farmers, 33.33 6 per cent of small farmers, 8.33 per cent of semi medium farmers and 60 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 58 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 96 per cent used fire wood and 8 per cent of the households used LPG. Piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 86 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 12 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 42 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 50 per cent of the landless, 50 per cent of the marginal, 26.67 per cent of the small, 25 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, 96 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 2 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card and 2 per cent did not possess PDS card. The results indicated that, 54 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 96 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 56 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 16 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 56 per cent, fruits were adequate for 52 per cent, milk was adequate for 90 per cent, eggs were adequate for 84 per cent and meat was adequate for 66 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 4 per cent, pulses were inadequate for 46 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 80 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 42 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 40 per cent, milk was inadequate for 6 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 6 per cent and meat was inadequate for 24 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 58 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (72%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (48%), inadequacy of irrigation water (42%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (50%), high rate of interest on credit (54%), low price for the agricultural commodities (52%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (56%), less rainfall (20%), inadequate extension services (44%), and source of agri-technology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (12%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gabbur-2microwatershedwas conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 550ha in Koppaltalukand district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 86per cent is covered by soils, 17 per cent byrock outcrops and 3 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11soil series and 21soil phases (management units) and 4land use classes. The length of crop growing period is 200 mm/m)in available water capacity. Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%)lands. An area of about 8 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and71 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 30per cent has soils that are slightly to moderately acid (pH 5.5- 6.5), 25 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3),21 per cent are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4)and2 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is0.75%) in organic carbon. Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in11 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 1 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm). Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 51 per cent area,26per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) and high (>1.0 ppm) in about 2 per cent. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm)in 57 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 10 per cent area. Available manganeseand copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 28major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershedwere assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 24 (4) 21 (4) Pomegranate 18 (3) 167 (30) Maize 24 (4) 21 (4) Guava 18 (3) 167 (30) Bajra 43 (8) 172 (31) Jackfruit 18 (3) 167 (30) Red gram 18 (3) 26 (5) Jamun - 179 (33) Bengalgram - 75 (14) Musambi 18 (3) 167 (30) Groundnut 38 (7) 251 (46) Lime 18 (3) 167 (30) Sunflower 18 (3) 26 (5) Cashew 24 (4) 209 (38) Cotton - 45 (8) Custard apple 43 (8) 323 (59) Chilli 24 (4) 21 (4) Amla 43 (8) 323 (59) Tomato 24 (4) 21 (4) Tamarind - 23 (4) Drumstick 18 (3) 129 (23) Marigold 24 (4) 21 (4) Mulberry 18 (3) 318 (58) Chrysanthemum 24 (4) 21 (4) Mango - 18 (3) Jasmine 24 (4) 21 (4) Sapota 18 (3) 167 (30) Crossandra 24 (4) 21 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared for the4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder,fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 87 (55.77%) men and 69 (44.23%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.8, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 4.3, semi medium farmers' was 3.8 and large farmers' was 5. The data indicated that, 24 (15.38%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 70 (44.87%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (32.69%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (7.05 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Gabbur-2 had 30.77 per cent illiterates, 28.21 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.33 per cent of them had middle school education, 21.79 per cent of them had high school education, 7.69 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.64 per cent of them did ITI and 2.56 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicate that, 78.95 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 13.16 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers, 2.63 per cent were general labourers and 2.63 per cent were in private service. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 42.95 per cent of the household members, 23.72 per cent were agricultural laborers, 7.05 per cent were general labour, 1.28 per cent had household industry, 4.49 per cent were in private, 19.87 per cent were students and 0.64 per cent were housewives. The results show that 98.72 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions and only 1.28 per cent of the households participated in self help group. The results indicate that 2.63 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 92.11 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 5.26 per cent of them possess pucca house. The results show that 86.84 per cent of the households possess TV, 68.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 68.42 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 28.95 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs.2696, mixer grinder was Rs.1444, bicycle was Rs. 1038, motor cycle was Rs.31000 and mobile phone was Rs.1005. About 10.53 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 23.68 per cent of them possess plough, 21.05 per cent of them posses sprayer, 97.37 per cent of them possess weeder and 23.68 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.15500, plough was Rs.1692, the average value of sprayer was Rs.3077, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2888, and the average value of weeder was Rs.33. 2 The results indicate that, 23.68 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 10.53 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.63 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 5.26 per cent of the households possess buffalo. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.57, average own labour (women) available was 1.31, average hired labour (men) available was 6.72 and average hired labour (women) available was 13.36. The results indicate that, 44.74 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 39.47 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, only 1.92 per cent of the population migrated from the micro watershed, which included 5.26 per cent of landless farmers and 4.44 per cent of semi medium farmers. The results indicate that, the average distance of migration was 800 kms and average duration was 5 months. The results indicate that, job/wage/work was the main purpose for migration. The results indicate that, 66.67 per cent of the households opined that their quality of life improved as a result of migration. The results indicate that, households of the Gabbur-2 micro watershed possess 91.77 ha (84.24%) of dry land and 17.18 ha (15.76%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.01 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 22.30 ha (96.50%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (3.50%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.12 ha (11.45%) of dry land and 16.37 ha (88.55%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 64.35 ha (100%) of dry land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 72,977.06 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 399,832.71. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 431,586.03 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 228,620.69 for dry land and Rs. 617,500 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 141,682.60 for dry land and Rs. 389,067.76 for irrigated land. In case of large famers, the average land value was Rs. 258,000 for dry land. The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning and 7 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there was 3 functioning and 3 defunctioning open well in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 21.05 per cent of the farmers, open well was the source of irrigation for 7.89 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 17.57 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.43 meters. 3 The results indicate that, small and semi medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.81 ha and 20.43 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (24.21 ha), paddy (7.77 ha), navane (4.66 ha), groundnut (2.43 ha), bajra (2.06 ha), mango (3.36 ha), sugarcane (1.36 ha), brinjal (0.81 ha), ladies finger (0.81 ha) and bengal gram (0.81 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize, navane and bajra. Small farmers have grown maize, navane, bajra and Bengal gram. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, paddy, navane, groundnut, mango, sugarcane, brinjal and ladies finger. Large farmers have grown maize only. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gabbur-2 micro watershed was found to be 99.75 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 99.40 per cent, and large farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent. The results indicate that, 97.37 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. The results indicate that, 97.37 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 5.41 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 13.51 per cent availed loan from friends/relatives, 35.41 per cent availed loan from money lender, 35.14 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank and 10.81 per cent of the households obtained loan from SHGs/CBOs. The results indicate that, landless, marginal, small, semi medium and large farmers have availed Rs.81000, Rs.47500, Rs.46125, Rs.79636 and 135000 respectively. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was social functions which accounted for 50 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 15 per cent of the households borrowed for agricultural production, 25 per cent of the households borrowed for the purpose of construction of house or cattle shed, 5 per cent have borrowed for health care and another 5 per cent have borrowed for purchase of vehicle. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources. Results indicated that 81.82 per cent of the households partially paid their loan and 18.18 per cent of the households did not repay their loan. 4 The results indicate that, around 93.33 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 6.67 per cent of the households said that the credit was easily accessible. The results indicate that, around 18.18 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 13.64 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirements, 13.64 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 4.55 per cent opined that the interest rate was higher in non-institutional sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 24971.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28026.25. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 3054.83, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.12. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 27364.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 7646.45. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 594.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.39. The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 100090.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 310099.43. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. 210008.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.1. The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 29944.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95589. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 65644.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.19. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53586.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80670.20. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 27083.99. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.51. The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 35169.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 103740. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 68570.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.95. The total cost of cultivation for Ladies finger was Rs. 31310.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 113620. The net income from Ladies finger cultivation was Rs. 82309.24. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.63. The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 152187.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 102646.33. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. -49541.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.67. The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 152187.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 102646.33. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -49541.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.67. The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 110481.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 477827.40. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 367345.48. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.32. 5 The results indicate that, 15.79 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.26 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. Also around 23.68 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and 2.63 per cent of the households opined that green fodder is inadequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 114,400 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 82,850, for small farmers it was Rs. 112,442.19, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 271,250, and for large farmers it was Rs.148000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,585.06. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,937.50, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,343.39, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 11,624.01, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 17,500. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 14 coconut, and 830 mango trees in their fields. 42.11 per cent of the households showed interest towards cultivation of horticultural crops. The results indicate that, households have planted 64 neem trees and 9 tamarind trees in their field. The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 6,237.99, for irrigation facility Rs. 2,132.65, for improved crop production Rs. 684.32 and for improved livestock management Rs. 2,894.74. The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 55.26 per cent of the households for land development, 36.84 per cent for irrigation facility, 5.26 per cent for improved crop production and 5.26 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds was the source of investment for 5.26 per cent for land development. The results indicated that, all crops were marketed to the extent of 100 per cent. The results indicated that, about 92.11 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets and 2.63 per cent have sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement. The results indicated that, 84.21 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 5.26 per cent have used truck and another 5.26 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 31.58 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 50 per cent of marginal farmers, 56.25 per cent of small farmers and 8.33 per cent of semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 81.58 per cent have shown interest in soil test. 6 The results indicated that, 28.95 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding and 42.11 per cent of the households adopted summer ploughing. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the structures needed full replacement. The results indicated that 31.58 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by the government and another 39.47 per cent is constructed by other agencies. Piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 76.32 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 18.42 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 94.74 per cent used fire wood and 10.53 per cent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 81.58 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 25 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers. 97.37 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.63 per cent possessed APL card. The results indicated that, 26.32 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 78.95 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 15.79 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 28.95 per cent, fruits were adequate for 21.05 per cent, milk was adequate for 73.68 per cent and eggs were adequate for 73.68 per cent. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 21.05 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 73.68 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 63.16 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 65.79 per cent, milk was inadequate for 13.16 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 23.68 per cent and meat was inadequate for 63.16 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 76.32 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (73.68%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.42%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.26%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (60.53%), high rate of interest on credit (44.74%), low price for the agricultural commodities (60.53%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (60.53%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (63.16%), less rainfall (73.68%) and inadequate extension services (57.89%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chik Sulikeri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 540 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 93 per cent is covered by soils, 5 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 18 soil series and 35 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm). About 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 36 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 54 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 23 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 13 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 73 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping(1-3% slope) lands and 7 per cent area of microwatershed has gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands. An area of about 52 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 41 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 0.75%) in 15 per cent area. An area of about 93 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 33 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 5 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 16 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content. Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content. An area of about 25 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content. The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 24(4) 188(35) Sapota 15(3) 65(12) Maize 15(3) 198(37) Pomegranate 15(3) 97(18) Bajra 37(7) 235(44) Guava 15(3) 65(12) Groundnut 37(7) 227(42) Jackfruit 15(3) 65(12) Sunflower 24(4) 60(11) Jamun - 111(20) Cotton 9(2) 204(38) Musambi 24(4) 88(16) Red gram 15(3) 69(13) Lime 24(4) 88(16) Bengalgram 13(2) 218(40) Cashew 13(2) 52(9) Chilli 15(3) 151(28) Custard apple 59(11) 294(54) Tomato 15(3) 151(28) Amla 59(11) 294(54) Brinjal 36(7) 216(40) Tamarind - 61(11) Onion 36(7) 164(30) Marigold 15(3) 198(37) Bhendi 36(7) 216(40) Chrysanthemum 15(3) 198(37) Drumstick 28(5) 136(25) Jasmine 15(3) 166(31) Mulberry 28(5) 155(29) Crossandra 15(3) 141(26) Mango - 29(5) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMU s by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Results indicated that 37 farmers were sampled in Chik Sulikeri micro watershed among them 5(13.51%) were landless, 4 (10.51%) were marginal farmers, 15 (40.54%) were small farmers, 7 (18.92%) were semi medium farmers, 5 (13.51%) were medium farmers and 1 (2.70%) were large farmers. The data indicated that there were 101(59.06%) men and 70 (40.94%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 3, marginal, small, medium and large farmers' was 5b and semi medium farmers' was 6. The data indicated that, 29 (16.97%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 80 (46.78%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (29.82%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11(6.43 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Chik Sulikeri had 37.43 per cent illiterates, 44.44 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.17 per cent of them had middle school education, 6.43 per cent of them had high school education, 5.26 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.17 per cent of them did diploma, 2.34 per cent of them had degree education and 1.75 persons were doing others. The results indicate that, 91.89 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 8.11 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 25.73 per cent of the household members, 51.46 per cent were agricultural laborers, 20.47 per cent were students and 1.17 housewives and children. In case of landless farmers, 21.43 per cent were doing agriculture, 64.29 per cent were agricultural laborers, and 14.29 per cent were housewives. In case of marginal farmers 26.32 per cent were agriculturists, 31.58 per cent were agricultural laborers and 36.84 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 28.99 per cent were agriculturists, 53.62 per cent were agricultural laborers and 17.39 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers, 25.64 per cent were agriculturists, 48.72 per cent were agricultural laborer and 23.08 per cent were students. In case of medium farmers, 20 per cent were agriculturists, another 60 per cent were agricultural laborers and 20 per cent were students. In large farmers 20 per cent were agriculturists, another 40 per cent were agricultural laborers and 40 per cent were students. The results show that 100 per cent of the populations in the micro watershed have not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 13.51 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 75.68 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 10.81 per cent of them possess Pucca house. The results shows that 89.19 per cent of the households possess TV, 67.57 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 32.43 per cent of the households possess 2 bicycle, 37.84 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 97.30 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.4151, mixer grinder was Rs.1396, motor cycle was Rs.1500 and mobile phone was Rs.31285 and mobile was Rs.1472. The data showed that, about 10.81 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 18.92 per cent of them possess plough and sprayer, 94.59 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.70 per cent of them possess harvester and chaff cutter respectively. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18250, plough was Rs.1250, the average value of weeder was Rs. 23, the average value of sprayer was Rs.4571, the average value of harvester was Rs.45000 and the average value of chaff cutter Rs.3000. The results indicate that, 16.22 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 24.32 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.70 per cent of the households possess buffalo and sheep respectively. In case of marginal households, 25per cent possess local cow. Among small farmers, 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullock and 26.67 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 14.29 per cent of households possess bullock, 28.57 per cent of households possess local cow and 14.29 per cent of households possess buffalo. In medium farmers 20 per cent local cow and in large farmers 100 per cent of the household possess local cow. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 9.19, average own labour (women) available was 5.66, average hired labour (men) available was 8.05 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.13. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 31, average own labour (women) was 16, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.81, average own labour (women) was 1.69, average hired labour (men) was 9.27 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.63. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 25, average own labour (women) was 15.71, average hired labour (men) was 11.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.57. In case of medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.20, average own labour (women) was 2.60, average hired labour (men) was 9 and average hired labour (women) available was 10. In case of large farmers, average own labour men available was 1, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 8. 3 The results indicate that, 8.11 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 94.59 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Chik Sulikeri micro watershed possess 22.83 ha (35.54%) of dry land and 41.42 ha (64.46%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.06 ha (80.95%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (19.05%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 13.89 ha (77.44%) of dry land and 4.05 ha (22.56%) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 6.88 ha (52.80%) of dry land and 6.15 ha (47.20%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 12.52 ha (100%) of irrigated land, large farmers possess 3.64 18.21 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 262,672.81 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 183,427.89. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 435,882.36 for dry land and was Rs. 1,029,166.63 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 251,893.94 for dry land and Rs. 592,800. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 232,470.59 for dry land and Rs. 325,000 for irrigated land. In case of medium and large famers, the average irrigated land value was Rs. 215,546.22 and Rs. 220,000 respectively. The results indicate that, there were 17 functioning and 16 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45.95 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 77.04 meters. The results indicate that, marginal farmers were having 0.40 ha irrigated land, small farmers were having 3.24 ha of irrigated land, semi medium were having 9.39 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers had irrigated area of 12.52 ha and large farmers were having 1.62 ha of irrigated land respectively. On an average there was 27.17 ha of irrigated land. The results indicate that, farmers have grown groundnut (17.05 ha), maize (12.55 ha), bajra (4.05 ha), paddy (3.68 ha), navane (3.24 ha), mango (1.62 ha), sorghum (1.30 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha), cotton (0.81 ha) and tomato (0.40 ha) in kharif season and also grown groundnut (1.21 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, navane and tomato. Small farmers have grown groundnut, bajra, paddy, navane, horsegram and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, bajra, navane and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize and paddy. Large farmers have grown mango. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chik Sulikeri micro watershed was found to be 88.79 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 98.36 per cent, for small farmers it was 99.54 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 4 89.11 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 72.90 per cent and in large farmers it was 100 per cent. The results indicate that, 86.49 per cent of the households have bank account and 86.49 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 86.49 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 31771.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34174.67. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 2403.04, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 35771.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48158.68. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 12387.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 27138.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33379.73. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 6240.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 14751.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32604. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 17852.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.21. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 43450.70. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73850.81. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 30400.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.7. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 48854.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 25245.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.52. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 45006.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 53793.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 19144.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25177.99. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 6033.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.32. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 30875.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 203775. The net income from 5 mango cultivation was Rs. 172899.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:6.6. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 141928.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 137399.96. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -4528.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97. The results indicate that, 21.62 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.51 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. Around 2.70 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that, in landless farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 103,000, in marginal farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 27,500 and agriculture was Rs.42837.50. In small farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs. 2000, wage was Rs.22333.33, agriculture was Rs.71713.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5060.67.In semi medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 32,142.86, agriculture was Rs. 71,542.86 and dairy farm was Rs. 1,285.71. In medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 19400 and agriculture was Rs. 298400 and dairy farm was Rs. 600. In large farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 10000 and agriculture was Rs. 30000. The results indicate that, in land less farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs. 42000. In marginal farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.8333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 23,750. In small farmers the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.9000, agriculture was Rs.32266.67 and dairy farm was Rs.6600. In semi medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.9500, agriculture was Rs.31428.57 and dairy farm was Rs.2000. In medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.9,250, agriculture was Rs. 59,000 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In large farmers the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.5000 and agriculture was Rs.10000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 areca nut, 11 coconut and 607 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard. The results indicate that, households have planted 3 teak trees and 43 neem trees in their field and 1 neem trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7243.24 for land development, Rs. 2513.51 in irrigation facility and 162.16 for improved crop production. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7000 for land development. Small farmers have an average 6 investment capacity of Rs. 7866.67 for land development, Rs. 3066.67 in irrigation facility and Rs.400 for improved crop production. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8571.43 for land development and Rs. 3285.71 in irrigation facility. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10,400 for land development and Rs. 3,200 in irrigation facility. large farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10,000 for land development and Rs. 8,000 in irrigation facility. The results indicate that, for land development, 31.58 per cent of the farmers were dependent on government subsidy and 42.11 per cent of the farmers were dependent on loan from bank. For irrigation facility 15.79 per cent of the farmers were dependent on government subsidy and loan from bank respectively. For improved crop production 2.63 per cent of the farmers were dependent on loan from bank. The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, horsegram, maize, mango, navane, paddy, sorghum and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut was sold to the extent of 95.50 per cent. The results indicated that, about 8.11 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in agent/traders. 91.89 per cent farmers also sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that, 2.70 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, and 97.30 per cent have also used tractor. The results indicated that, 62.61 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 50 per cent of marginal farmers, 80 per cent of small farmers, 57.14 per cent of semi medium farmers, 80 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 75.68 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 89.19 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 10.81 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 51.35 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, marginal, medium and large farmers, 13.13 per cent of small farmers and 28.57 per cent of the semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 97.30 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.70 per cent did not possess PDS card. 7 The results indicated that, 64.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.30 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 54.05 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 35.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 48.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 78.38 per cent, milk was adequate for 54.05 per cent, eggs were adequate for 54.05 per cent and meat was adequate for 5.41 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.70 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 45.95 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 56.76 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 45.95 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 24.32 per cent, milk was inadequate for 13.51 per cent and eggs were inadequate for 16.22 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 75.68 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (64.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (29.73%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (43.24%), high rate of interest on credit (8.11%), low price for the agricultural commodities (16.22%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (13.51%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (24.32%), less rainfall (40.54%) inadequate extension services (24.32%) and source of agri technology information (13.51). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
The Mercury December, 1908 HEEP THOSE WHO HEEP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. 2**£™°I CAPS AND GOWNS TII Gettysburg College. Lafayette, Lchigh. Dickinson, State College, Univ. of Penn s> Ivani i. Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods _»»■ Degrees. The College Man's Opportunity. We offer the Surest Means of finding your right place. Hundreds of good positions open in business, in teaching and in technical work. Offices in 12 cities. Write us to-day. TUB JYMTJOJVJZ, OB»^JVIZJlTIOJV Of BXAIJV BHOXBJtS. Commonwealth Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa. HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Headquarters for BANQUETS. Electric Lights, Steam Heat, All Conveniences. Free Bus to and from station. Convenient for Commencement Visitors. BATES $2.00 PEB DAY. £iver-y Cttad-ied. Jotin P. M^tifl- Proprietor. DEALERS IN All kinds of Fresh and Smoked Meats Chambersburg St., Gettysburg, Pa. 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Vke only Jobbing House in Adams County. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. 2 * * » | Seligniqi] I * % 1 ^ B^etim | !t ** 2 Are Gettysburg's Most * * * aV * « v. « «» V* t- * * * * -3 Reliable TAILORS #»»**###*#**#*****»*** PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. i^l^^^^i^^^^^^i^i^^i^^r'i^M^l^.y^yi^-^i^^i^: as ;!. .1.1I ■>!•■ II IIfI Essentially the instruments for criti-cal and discriminating- buyers. Super-ior in every detail of construction and superb instruments for the production of a great Variety of musical effects and the finest shades of expression. Close Prices. Easy Terms. Old Instruments Exchanged. WEAVER ORGAN AND PIANO CO., MANUFACTURERS, YORK, PA , U S A. \&i^iAtt%zi&Zfc5%'i$te*&*&M$',?¥:&& s Headquarters —FOR-HATS, SHOES, A*TD GENT'S FURNISHING. Sole Agent lor WALK-OVER SHOE EGBERT'S STORE. Prices Always Right Itje Lutheran Mlieirtloji Society No 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY 8. BONER, Supt, THE KAERCURV The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XVI GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1908 No. 7 CONTENTS. A CHRISTMAS POEM 2 E. J. BOWMAN, '11. JUSTIFICATION OP THE BOYCOTT 3 E. E. SNTDER, '09. CONSTITUTION OP THE KEYSTONE DEBATING LEAGUE 7 IS THE GOVERNMENT COSTING US TOO MUCH?. 9 P. S. DENGLER, '09. OUR LITERARY SOCIETIES II.—PHRENA 11 WHY IS GETTYSBURG NOT WEALTHY? 13 ST. G. PHILLIPY, '09. THE JUNIOR "PROM" SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. .15 BIOGRAPHY OF SCHILLER 17 MISS BAUSCH, '11. CULTURE'S DISTRESSING FOE 20 G. E. WOLF, '09. THE ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE LINCOLN ROAD.22 G. L. KIEFFER, '09. THE "INDIAN STEPS." 23 E. C. STOUFFER, '11. THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FARMER; WHAT IS IT LIKELY TO BE WORTH? 25 MISS HELEN H. BRENNEMAN, '08. EDITORIALS 27 BOOK REVIEWS 29 EXCHANGES 30 THE MERCURY A CHRISTMAS POEM. E. J. BOWMAN, '11. .Behold the earth in solemn stillness lies! Again, his course traversed, the king of day Has sunk beneath the distant mountain tops. No longer glows in radiance the sky, But silent night enshrouds the wearied earth. No sound of man or beast comes forth to break The charm that over all has cast its spell. And far above from out the folds of heaven's Aetherial dome, the stars innumerable and Sublime are smiling on the earth below. All nature bows her head in reverence, thus- The God of Peace to laud and magnify. 'Twas such a night when from far Eastern lands, O'er mountains high, through valleys deep, Wise Men? Their way were tracing, guided by a star Outshining all the innumerable host That spangled all the heaven's majestic dome- When lo o'er Judah's city, Bethlehem, It stopped, and there, within a lowly hut, Behold, asleep within a manger lay The Holy One, the Buler of the Wise, By seers announced and prophets long before- 'Twas such a night when on the rolling hills O'erlooking David's City, Bethlehem, The humble shepherds, holy and devout, Their flocks were guarding from the hostile foe That roamed o'er hill and plain in quest of prey- When lo, the glory of the living God Around them shown, and, standing in their midst They saw the form of One divine in robe Of heavenly light, and in a tender voice The Messenger addressed the shepherds thus: "Fear not, I bring you tidings of great joy, THE MERCURY. To you, I bring them and to all mankind: In yonder Bethlehem is born this day A child, who is your Saviour and your Lord." Then while the shepherds filled with awe, o'er this Mysterious scene were meditating deep, Their gaze beheld a heavenly host in robes Of shining white around the Messenger Of love. Then forth upon the hallowed night The mellow strains of heavenly music broke, And there alone by God's own chosen few "Was heard the anthem of the Christmas-tide: "To God on high be glory evermore And upon earth goodwill and peace to men." JUSTIFICATION OF THE BOYCOTT. E. E. SNYDER, '09. JHE justification of the boycott is by no means an easy task. Its practice and its underlying principle have always been questioned and in view of the advanced and radical ground taken by both its advocates and its opponents, a careful study of the boycott, its history, its develop-ment, its modern forms, and its ultimate object, is necessary to enable us to pass judgment upon it, either favorable or unfavor-able. The term originated in 1880 when Captain Boycott, an Eng-lishman, who was the agent of Lord Barne in the Connemara district of Ireland, became so obnoxious because of his harsh treatment of the tenants, that they retaliated by inducing the people for miles around to have nothing whatever to do with him. They would neither speak to him, work for him; buy from him, sell to him, or in any way connect themselves with him. More than this they resorted to violence and even blood-shed, to prevent others from doing so. But this was not the ori-gin of the practice although it gave rise to the term. The prac- 4 THE MERCURY. tice extends almost as far back as history itself. In 1327 the citizens of Canterbury, England, boycotted the monks of Christ's Church. They refused to inhabit the houses of the prior, and passed an ordinance that no one should buy, sell, or exchange drink or victuals with the monastery. A severe punishment was provided against the disobedience of the order. The first use of the boycott in America was during the period just preceding the Eevolution, when the colonists boycotted several articles of British make. This culminated in the Boston Tea Part}', which was advocated and supported by our best and most patriotic citizens. Thus the advocates of the boycott claim that it was born in the cradle of American liberty. It was a great weapon, used by the Abolutionists against slavery, and it has often been used by ministers and others prominent in the social world against intemperance, immorality and other social evils. It has been used by the Manufacturer's Association against the work-ingmen, but here it is known as the "black list," and in this form it has ruined thousands of poor laborers. It has also been used by the laborers, in retaliation against the capitalists and it is this use which represents what we today recognize as the boy-cott. Thus from its history we might define boycott in its original usage, as meaning a combination of many to cause loss to one person by refusing to have any relations with him and by influ-encing and coercing others to treat him in like manner. In re-taliation for some wrong either real or imaginary, they withdraw from the victim all beneficial intercourse and even resort to force, in order to persuade others to do likewise. Today the term boy-cott means a combination of many usually organized working-men against an individual or a combination, through which they seek by withdrawing their support and services to secure redress for some infringement upon their rights. It,is this use that we would attempt to justify. The boycott, as has been mentioned, is but another name for the "black list," although it is usually practiced with a nobler end in view. The boycott usually seeks redress for wrongs, while the "black list" disregards the justice of its object and seeks only additional advantages by this coercive means. Yet the capital-ists raise a great cry of injustice when the boycott appears,, and shall be defined by the college that submits the question. THE MERCURY. lose no time in making their appeal to the courts for injunction and protection, although they are daily and yearly practicing the same principle against the laborer who can seek justice through no other means. But in this case it is the poor man's ox, that is gored instead of the rich man's, and if he would resist or seek redress, he is pointed out as dangerously affected by socialistic principles, and often suffers for trying to maintain a right guar-anteed to all by our Constitution. In practice, also, the boycott has changed, and few of the ob-noxious and injurious characteristics of the ancient boycott re-main. The boycott, as practiced at present, as has been stated, is simply the ostracism of an individual or organization, by an organization in order to secure, what they believe to be their rights. It may result in great pecuniary loss to the victim and because of this fact has often been restrained by injunction, but ■no violence attaches to it; no personal harm or injury, and in many cases individual bitterness has been eliminated. No force or coercion is used outside the obligations of membership in the contending organization, although, this fact is often changed, .and it is true that many organizations do take up the fight in sympathy. It is, when rightly used, but an effective weapon in the hands of the laborer by the use of which he is able to secure consideration and justice, when other means have failed, and as such its use is justifiable. From the laborer's standpoint its use possesses considerable economic importance, for it is only by its use, through the me-dium of his organization that he can battle, with any degree of success against the oftimes higher intelligence and more perfect organization of his employers, the capitalists. In this age, the tendency of each class, seems to be to gain wealth regardless of the loss, they may occasion. To the laborers, the boycott, is one of the few barriers that stand between him and a lower standard of living, which would be the inevitable result, were these barriers removed. Our eco-nomic welfare depends upon progress in every class. If the laborer is to share this progress he must advance and not recede. He must raise his standard of living, his culture and his edu- •cation instead of lowering them. To do this he must be in con-tinual conflict with the capitalist, who is his superior in educa- THE MERCURY. tion, and had an additional advantage because of his capital. The boycott has proved to be one of the few things which the •capitalists have not been able to overcome, and as its use enables the laborers to maintain his ground in the conflict for advance-ment, it is certainly justifiable. The boycott can also be regarded, as simply the practice of the right guaranteed to each citizen by our government, to say, write, or publish, anything he wishes, on his own responsibility. This is what the laborer claims for the boycott. He certainly has the right to govern his own words and dealings and to use his influence with others so long as he advocates a just cause and uses no coercive measures to secure adherents. This represents the workingman's idea of the boycott, and while it must be ad-mitted that it is here pictured in its most favorable form, and •that it is seldom practiced within the prescribed limits, yet the argument is founded upon a basis of justice and many decisions of higher courts have recognized this fact. As a last claim, we would advance the boycott, as the only ef-fective weapon against the "black list." No man has a right to work permanent ruin to another because of individual difference of opinion nor has an organization a similar right, and since the employer often uses this means against the employee, the laborer has a right to defend himself by the boycott. It is a hard and bitter solution to the problem. It is the Old Testament dispen-sation, "An eye for an eye." but when we consider that the con- 'ditions, from an ethical standpoint are far from normal, we must be satisfied if they do require abnormal means. Thus would we justify the boycott, from an economical view-point, but when we turn on our question the light of an ethical culture, we find it again questionable and we are compelled to ask ourselves the question, "Is there in the business activity of today, as represented by the masses on both sides, a point where ;an individual can retain pure ethical ideals and secure true eco-nomic good?" Perhaps in the masses there is not, but it is pleasing to note that here and there in the great business hustle of our age, we see sturdy advocates of a higher principle emerg-ing from the ranks of both contestants and when these shall have gained a majority the justification of the boycott will be impos-sible, but not until then. THE MERCURY. 7 CONSTITUTION OF THE KEYSTONE DEBATING LEAGUE. ARTICLE I. NAME AND MEMBERSHIP. This organization shall be known as the Keystone Inter-Colle-giate Debating League and shall have the following members: Bueknell, Lafayette and Gettysburg Colleges. ARTICLE II. PURPOSE. The purpose of this organization shall be to increase interest in debating in each of the colleges represented and to encourage inter-collegiate debating. ARTICLE III. ORGANIZATION. The executive committee shall consist of one undergraduate from each college represented and shall meet annually at the time and place of the final debate to transact all business of the League. ARTICLE IV. CONTESTANTS. Each college shall send to the contest in which it participates three representatives. Contestants shall be regularly enrolled students in the collegiate department taking at least ten hours of recitation or lecture work per week. The names of the de-baters and alternate shall be submitted to the opposing team at least ten days before the debate. No college shall protest the-eligibility of a debater later than five days before the debate. ARTICLE V. SELECTION OF QUESTION. The question for debate shall be submitted not later than six weeks and returned not later than five weeks before the debate is to be held. The college that receives the question shall select sides. No college shall submit the question to the other college twice in succession. Terms in the question, if not understood. THE MERCURY. ARTICLE VI. JUDGES. The college at which the debate is held shall submit to the visiting team at least four weeks before the debate the names of prospective judges. The visiting team may strike from the list any of "the names and shall return the remainder within one week designating the order of preference. No personal friend of any contestant and no one having had student of official relations with either of the colleges involved, shall be eligible for appoint-ment as judges. At the close of the contest, without conference-with his associates, each of the three judges, deciding for him-self, shall give his vote duly signed and sealed to the presiding officer who shall announce the decision. The judges shall base their decision on argument and composition and delivery; argu-ment to count sixty per cent., composition and delivery forty per cent. ARTICLE VII. CONTEST. The college at which the debate is held shall select the presid-ing officer. Each debater shall have fifteen minutes; ten min-utes for his opening speech and five minutes for rebuttal. The first speech in rebuttal shall be made by the negative, and the-affirmative shall close the debate. The order of speakers in re-buttal shall be left to the discretion of the respective teams. No> new material shall be introduced in rebuttal speeches. ARTICLE VIII. EXPENSES. At the annual meeting of the Executive Committee, each col-lege shall present an itemized statement of its expenses necessary for the year. This expense shall be born equally by the colleges-of the League. TIIE MERCURY. IS THE GOVERNMENT COSTING US TOO MUCH. F. S. DEX3LER, '09. F wo except the most active period of the Civil War, the total drafts upon the Treasury of the U. S. during the past Congresshavebeengreater than at any period in our history. The total appropriations made by Congress dur-ing the Civil War were $1,309,000,000 of which $1,030,000,000 was spent upon the army. The appropriations for the fiscal year 1909 reached a total of $1,007,000,000. In these days, when private fortunes sometimes run up to a hundred million dollars we are liable not to realize how large a sum a billion dol-lars really is. It would take an expert counter, working eight hours a day, over one hundred years to count a billion silver ■dollars. A billion dollars in twenty dollar bills would make a pile 13,750 feet high. What is all this money used for? The expenditures may be classed under three general heads: Postal Service, $225,000,000. Military Service, $500,000,000. Other Government Service, $225,000,000. The largest appropriation for a single department was that for the post office. The postal service is one of the greatest utilities which the government gives to the people and one which the peo-ple can appreciate every day. The post offices scattered all over the land turn into the postal department a large revenue each year but it is not sufficient to run the service. The quarter of a billion dollars is disbursed through many channels. The sal-aries of postmasters, clerks, carriers and messengers total in the millions. The railroads come in for a large amount for carrying the mail. The rural delivery was established in recent years at a cost of about $25,000,000. A bill was proposed at the last Congress to establish a rural parcels post, but it was not passed. The most significant feature of the appropriations during the year is the great amount of attention that has been given to the building up of the military branch of the government. The ex-penditures for the army and navy, if we leave out of account the years when the country was engaged in war, have been the larg-est in the history of the country. The army was granted $95,- 10 THE MERCURY. 000,000; the navy, $123,000,000; the amount $163,000,000 for pensions should be included. The remainder of the half billion dollars is spent for fortifications, military and naval academies, soldiers' homes, arsenals, armories,'navy yards and numerous other things of a similar nature. The total expenditures for military purposes, direct or indirect, is truly a colossal sum when we bear in mind that our standing army today is not over 70,000. The sending of our fleet around the world is an event in history—an event which cannot fail to have a good influence. While we may be a peaceful nation, it will show that we have strength enough to protect ourselves in time of trouble. Some people think that our navy is too large. They say that our ships have nothing to do and then they get into trouble as in the cap-turing of the Philippine Islands. The remaining quarter of a billion dollars goes for a great number of things. The Agricultural Department, the Diplo-matic and Consular service, the Indian Bill, the different bu-reaus and public works are all included. We have seen where the money goes. Now, where does it come from? The revenues of the government amount to about $800,000,000 and this will leave a deficit of about $200,000,000. The treasury has a surplus of $250,000,000 to meet this. If this is not sufficient bonds can be sold. The Speaker of the House and the House itself keep restrain-ing hands on the extravagant tendencies of the varioifs commit-tees. The tendency of Congress to spend money is increasing at an appalling rate. The money appropriated by last Congress would have run the government during the decade ending 1896. These periods are both far enough removed from the Spanish War not to be materially affected by it. The world has advanced and moved forward since 1896, but not to such an extent as to warrant the rate of increase of running the government. There seems to be a leakage somewhere. Congress should remember that even a million dollars does not flow into the treasury of its own accord but it is pushed in and that as a result of the sweat of many brows. This does not mean that a narrow-minded policy should be adopted. The American people are willing to pay well to keep their country in the front ranks of the army of THE MEKCUEY. 11 progress. The last Congress has made a record in appropriating, public money and it is up to Congress to make a record in the-spending of it. OUR LITERARY SOCIETIES II—PHRENA. N the account of Philo which was published last month we find much that is very similar to the history of" Phrena The Phrenakosmian Literary Society was founded Feb. 4th, 1831, in Linwood Hall. At the second regular meet-ing a constitution and by-laws were presented and adopted. We are fortunate in having the original copy in an excellent state of preservation. Although frequently modified and amended, this historic document retains its original and noble spirit. The whole aim of its authors and zealous defenders is admirably ex-pressed by this, the motto of the Society: Kocr/m T/iv peva. There also exists the minutes of all the meetings that have been held since the Society was organized. These also have been well cared for and may be found among the treasures of the li-brary. As for Phrena's library, it can be said that it contains 5,845 volumes, which are the results of the energetic exertions of our members. Various catalogues of these books have been made for the use of our members, but most of them are not suitable for reference work. The Society is now indebted to George Heintz. '09 for a complete card index of the library. This not only en-hances the value of the present, collection of books but insures to us the proper recognition, care, and usefulness of any works we may add. Other property of value has accrued to the Society. In 1837r when Phrena was given a large and convenient room in the new college building (Old Dorm.), efforts were immediately made to secure suitable furniture. Here again the characteristic as-siduity of Phrena's members was triumphant. Improvements have been made from year to year, and the present beautiful ap-pearance of our hall furnishes sufficient evidence of the energy 12 THE MERCURY. as well as the taste of those by whom it was accomplished. The-present apartment in Eecitation Hall is elegantly furnished. Busts of Franklin, Webster, Cicero and Demosthenes have appro-priate places on the walls. The walls are also decorated with portraits of those Phrenakosmians who have done honor to their Alma Mater by becoming capable to hold professorships in our college. The Society has helped men individually, and has contributed much to the health of college spirit. A literary contest in which much spirit is shown, is held each year, with our sister society, Philo. Formerly it was the custom of the two societies to join at commencement time and be addressed by an honorary mem-ber of each society, alternately. In earlier years, of those be-longing to Phrena, and Eev. E. J. Breckenridge, D.D. officiated in 1842, Eev. T. H. Stockton, D.D. in 1844, and Eev. George B. Cheener, D.D. Much time and labor could be spent in arranging the inter-esting events of Phrena's history, but the space on these pages-does not permit the presentation in detail of very much con-tained in the Society's records. Suffice it to say, the work of those who have gone before should be gratifying to us as presag-ing that like privileges and honors are in store for their succes-sors. With the same noble aspirations and unalterable determi-nation let us be true to our literary societies as were those who have gained so much by supporting them. At present, Phrena is wide awake, doing excellent work and living true to the spirit of her fathers. THE MEECUEY. 13 WHY IS GETTYSBURG NOT WEALTHY ? N. G. PHILLIPY, '09. N" treating this question we will consider the people as a whole, taking as broad a view as possible under the cir-cumstances. According to Webster, wealth means large possessions, opulence, riches. Of course we could not compare Gettysburg with a large city and expect the same amount of wealth, but should more properly compare it with smaller towns of its own size. One of the foremost reasons why Gettysburg is not wealthy is the lack of industries conducted on a large scale. We find no shops or anything of a like nature whereby the owners or entre-preneur can amass a fortune. The ordinary workman cannot collect a fortune as nearly all his wages are used to support his: family. As a rule where there are no large enterprises located we find little wealth. It is true the location of the town geo-graphically may be accountable for the lack of industries, but this does not demand consideration under the present question. The lack of employment for men accounts for the slow in-crease in population. An increase in the value of land and property depends largely upon an increase in population and as the values of each remain nearly the same from year to year, speculation and investments in this line are unprofitable and unremunerative in Gettysburg. The country surrounding the town is not so very fertile and agriculture is not as productive as we find in many other locali-ties. Very few agricultural products are put on the market by the farmers near the town in any great quantity. We do not find minerals profitable for mining in the neighboring localities so very little shipping is carried on. 'Eailroads depend on freight for their profits and when there is little transportation railroad facilities are usually poor. Being located inland the people have not the opportunity to carry on markets or any other pursuit which water affords. The people themselves, have a great influence on any town. If we make a careful study of the people and their pursuits we have partly, at least, the solution of our problem. In our study 14 THE MERCURY. we must take into account their likes and dislikes, their desires,, their ambitions and their doings. The people as a whole are of a retiring nature. There seems: to be little greed for money and little ambition to amass a great, fortune. Each individual is actuated by a desire to live com-, fortably and save enough to keep himself and family during old age. Judging from appearances everybody is contented and happy, a condition which is proof of the statement that the de-sire for riches is lacking. We find the population as a body, industrious, being em-ployed at different occupations. An unusual number are en-gaged in educational work who labor more for knowledge and the pleasure afforded thereby, than for the money received for their work. It is natural in a college town to have cultured people. Peo-ple of culture and refinement have their surroundings fashioned after their ideas and influence the whole community. This class has certainly added much to the community. The battlefield also attracts many well-to-do people who come here to. live a retired life and to enjoy the beautiful surroundings. In Gettysburg, if a man is not engaged in educational work, he is in sympathy with it and usually formulates his opinions accord-ingly. In conclusion, the people are interested in their personal welfare, mentally as well as physically, and do not have the de-. sire for great wealth as their sole ambition. THE JIEUCURY. 15 THE JUNIOR "PROM" SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. CLL consideration of the social significance of the Junior Prom naturally involves a taking into account the general social life of the college community. For it is obvious that the character and tone of this annual function must, to a large extent, be determined by the social life as it is developed throughout the year. And since the Junior Prom is just in its infancy,—in its formative period,—this pa-per shall be both critical and suggestive. The social life of our college seems to be the characteristic so-cial life of colleges in general. It is very different from the so-cial life that existed in earlier years of the college. New condi-tions in the social structure at large, together with the increased number of students, have all contributed to the existent social status in the college community. The present exclusive tenden-cies in modern family life, unknown to our forefathers, cannot fail to produce like tendencies among a body of students; the social product developed in our college is, in short, but an out-growth of the existing trend of home life. Though the number of students in any one college is really small, when compared with the number enrolled in a modern university, yet it has grown so that no longer can the authorities of even the small college boast that theirs is the privilege of easily acting in loco parentis, and of forming with the student body a well regulated family. Instead of one united family, thoroughly democratic in its workings and with a reasonably common purpose and as-piration, the student body has been organized by the fraternity into many little families, each with its distinctive membership making of paramount importance the promotion of its own inter-ests and those of its individual members. The college authori-ties have, in other words, failed to meet new conditions by their failure to provide a sane and invigorating college family atmos-phere for the student to grow in, and it should not be surprising, therefore, that the students have themselves provided their own substitute, inferior though it may be. The fraternity is not lacking in provsions for the diversion of 16 THE MERCURY. its members. Numerous social events are held during the year, and occasionally an inter-fraternity function is arranged. Be-tween the members of this organized portion of the student body, who are thus frequently brought together, there naturally is formed a rather strong attachment. But how about the unorga-nized portion, which is comprised, for any one of several reasons, of the men whom the fraternity has not attracted? The social opportunities of most of these men are not only more limited, they are also more individualistic. That there should be a cer-tain divergence, therefore, between the fraternity and non-fra-ternity element is not to be wondered at. The Junior Prom is a step in the direction of preventing this divergence. Every element in the student body is to be repre-sented as far as possible on a common basis. The possibilities of general good fellowship are on this occasion to be fully pre-sented and fostered. Men who are seldom to be found in com-pany of their fellows in a purely social way are to find in the Junior Prom an opportunity of seeing what such commingling means for a man and for the community. Men to whom this is not a new experience are to find pleasure in assisting the unini-tiated over the stony places. The realization of all this could not, of course, be expected in the two times in which the Junior Prom has been held. Indeed it may require several more years to accomplish the desired re-sults. It seems very apparent, however, that tendencies point in the right direction. Last year's Prom marked an improvement over the first, in that dancing was not the exclusive feature of the occasion. Provision was made, though not of a sufficiently definite and attractive character, for those who do not dance. This is not passing judgment upon dancing as a means of di-version; it does mean to imply, however, that to allow dancing or any other form of diversion to become the exclusive feature of a social event indicates a distortion that cannot fail to prove exceedingly narrowing. It implies, too, that it is altogether un-fair to expect those who do not dance to attend an affair which provides definitely only for those who do dance, and which gives dancing such predominant or exclusive place that real com-mingling is impossible. Dancing has become such a mighty factor in the social life of young people everywhere that it is not THE MERCUttY. 17 surprising that it has gained a considerable foothold in our col-leges, but to permit it to have the ascendency at an event, such as the Junior Prom, which contemplates the presence of a large number who do not dance, shows great inconsiderateness and means the blasting of the real significance of the Prom. The far-reaching influence of the Junior Prom, properly regu-lated, can hardly be appreciated at this early stage in its evolu-tion, but to behold its possibilities along the lines indicated should be sufficient to impel us to assist in its proper develop-ment. A. ± A BIOGRAPHY OF SCHILLER. MISS- MARY BAUSCH, '11. JOHANJST Christoph Frederick Schiller was born at Mar-bach, in Wurtemburg, Germany, Nov. 10, 1759. He was the only son of Johann Casper Schiller, an officer in the Wurtemburg army, who held an inferior position in the Duke of Wurtemburg's household. The elder Schiller is was a man of great strength of character. To him Schiller is indebted for his firm and positive traits. His mother, Elizabeth Dorothea Kodweis, the daughter of an innkeeper at Marbach, was just the opposite of her husband in temperament, of strong yet gentle demeanor, full of simple charm and wisdom. We can see deep traces of this mother's sweetness and gentleness in the life of the gifted poet. Schiller did not find it easy to choose a profession. He first attended school at the village of Loech, where influenced by Par-son Moser, his teacher, he prepared himself for the clerical pro-fession. These plans were thwarted by the Duke of Wurtem-burg. He next entered the public school at Ludwigsburg. At the age of fourteen, he became a student at the military academy near Solitude Park, Ludwigsburg, the Duke wishing to have his services for the state. There he pursued the study of law, which was very repugnant to him. After two years had passed he 18 THE MERC PET. gave this up, and began the study of medicine, and was subse-quently appointed regimental surgeon. During this time, however, he was engaged in. the study of lit- 'erature. He was especially fond of the classics and became very proficient in Greek. His knowledge of Greek philosophy is ap-parent in his writings. His first work of note, "The Eobbers," he completed before he was twenty-two years old. Schiller pro-tested in this work against the restraints which he felt the Duke had unjustly forced upon him. Fearing the Duke whose wrath he had thus kindled, he fled to Mannheim. There he passed through many hardships, one reverse of fortune followed an-other. But still he continued to write. Schiller's first play in verse was "Don Carlos,'"' which was pre-sented at Hamburg in August, 1787. The Duke of Weimar, whose interest had been aroused in the young poet, made him one of the counsellors of his court. Upon his arrival at Weimar, Schiller was introduced to Goethe. This acquaintance subse-quently ripened into a close friendship. Early in December, 1788, Schiller's "History of the Eevolt of the Netherlands" was published. This work brought the best results, financially, which he had yet received. It not only had a rapid sale but it aroused the attention of the intellectual world. Through the influence of Goethe, he was offered a professorship in history at the University of Jena which after some hesitation he accepted. On Feb. 22, 1790, he was married to Charlotte von Lengefeld, a most admirable woman who aided him greatly in his life work. A very busy life opened to Schiller while at Jena. It was not unusual for him to spend fourteen hours daily in lecturing and writing. But the strain of such heavy work was too great for a man so delicately constituted as Schiller. A dangerous pulmonary dis-ease overtook him so that he was forced to give up his position as instructor in the university. Then through a generous gift he was enabled to revisit Wurtemburg, where he remained almost a year. In May 1794, he returned to Jena much improved in health although never again entirely well. The period between 1796 and 1800 was especially rich in lyrical productions, of which "Der Taucher," and "Das Leid von THE MERCURY. 1$ der Glocke " aTe prominent. The latter has been considered the best known of Schiller's poems. It deals with the most dra-matic events in the life of man. His great works, "Wallenstein" and "Maria Stuart" followed in close succession. Next came "Die Jungfrau von Orleans" in 1801, "Die Brant von Messina" in 1803, and "Wilhelm Tell," the last and perhaps greatest of his works, in 1801:. In this last great tragedy, Schil-ler portrays with wonderful power the Swiss resistance to tyr-anny. He causes the leader, Wilhelm Tell to stand elevated as a national hero. In all his writings, Schiller's love of liberty and hatred of despotism is manifest, but in none so much as in Wilhelm Tell. Schiller had now reached the zenith of his glory. His man-ners and appearance had improved. The timidity and conscious-ness of youth was replaced by the dignity and ease of more ma-ture years. He was overwhelmed with public honors and enthu-siastically received everywhere he went. But alas, when prosperity and fame seemed permanently se-cured to him, the dread disease which had undermined his health again overtook him. He endured this last trouble with great fortitude; though he had to pass through many trials yet his spirit seemed as it were to soar above them all. He continued to work until at last, his weakened powers being overcome, he passed away on May 9,, 1805, at the age of forty-five. The news, of his death brought universal grief to Germany. 20 TKE MEKCURY. CULTURE'S DISTRESSING FOE. G. E. WOLFE, '09. UST as men err in making happiness a distinct end, so do they err by putting culture in a similar position. And just as they deceive themselves by trying to pro-cure happiness as they would some commodity, so they deceive themselves by like attempts to gain culture. Life would indeed be a barren thing, if it were not enriched by our capacity for happiness and culture, but it is worse than barren where there is a false conception of these enrichments. That culture should be perverted to such an extent that men would make it a fad, seems almost inconceivable, yet that is what the intellectually curious and the socially idle made it some twenty years ago. What abhorrence must have been aroused in all who possessed true cultural instincts! For a fad is always a sham—a gross perversion—and a sham in the world of art ox-literature begets a peculiar offensiveness and hatred. The short-cut, superficial methods employed in pursuing this culture fad must have been entirely detestable to all serious-minded and sin-cere people. Could it be otherwise, with genuine culture possess-ing the rich qualities of ripeness and maturity in taste, intellect and culture ? How crude and defective the sham in the presence of the real! But this perversion, while more pronounced at certain periods, lias not been confined to one or two decades. Haste and arti-ficiality have always been employed by men, in their eagerness to possess the charming ripeness and greatness of soul which mark the truly cultured man. Recent years, however, have de-veloped a new condition, the recognition of which requires no unusual insight. There has developed a foe to culture which is distressing, not simply because it is aiming at culture by per-verse methods, but because it is entirely at variance with true cul-ture and lias so widely disseminated its influence that one may rightly inquire whether the true cultural instinct will not even-tually be quenched on account of it. "Smartness" is not a modern product by any means, but never has it captivated a people as it has the present generation; never THE MERCURY 21 has it held such predominant sway. Strictly speaking this spirit belongs to the world of mediocrity, but so important has it be-come that it claims recognition as the "real thing" from alL We have our so-called "smart sets," but the spirit of smartness in these days finds fruitful soil among all classes—as well among the wealthy as among the not-rich, as well among the intelligent as among the unlettered. And it is this, we believe, that today constitutes culture's distressing foe: it is this that makes impera-tive the loud calls, "Let Us Go Back"—in the direction of "The Simple Life." Not that there are no more who possess true culture, or who are eager to possess it. There are such indeed, but so effectually has the "sporty" microbe been doing its work in the rising gen-eration, that quiet people have well-nigh been driven to despera-tion, those with undeveloped cultural instincts have been tainted or entirely diverted and others never get a desire for cultural pursuit at all. One does not have to be a pessimist to be conscious of the fact that it is the fashion for everybody to be gay; that we are all called upon to persevere in a gala atmosphere. From the ex-treme solemnity of bearing that characterized our forefathers we have swung clear to the opposite extreme. It is impossible not to come in contact constantly with the cheap jargon that is everywhere afloat; with the lightness, cyni-cism and insinuation of immoral sentiment which marks the con-versation of popular young people. Fashionable clothes and jaunty manners never played as prominent a role as today. Plain, unassuming people, to whom this pertness and super-, ciliousness is extremely repulsive, are wondering when there will \ be a reaction toward the sane and rational. Surely the reaction-must come, and parents and educators have no more important duty before them than to seek to obliterate this spirit of sm^rt-. ness. THE MEECUEY. THE ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE LINCOLN ROAD. G. L. KIEFFEK, '09. JJST order to consider this subject properly, we must first inquire into the nature of the proposed "road." There-fore, briefly, "The Lincoln Eoad" is a proposed na-tional memorial to Abraham Lincoln. The "road" is to be a grand boulevard joining Washington, D. C, with Gettysburg, Pa. Its two hundred feet of width are to be occupied by green-sward plots, hedges, and trees, a speedway for automobiles, a driveway for carriages and wagons, two double-tracked electric railways, the one for express trains and the other for local trains. The very nature of the proposed "road" declares that it shall be equally open to both the rich and the poor. This being true it will be the means of bringing to Gettysburg, for at least a day, many of the hundreds of thousands of tourists that annually visit Washington. Hence with all this traffic, the very "road" itself might become an economic asset to the United States gov-ernment. To accommodate these people appropriate hotels would have to be maintained in Gettysburg. The present hotels and restau-rants would have to be renovated and enlarged. New ones also would have to be erected. A higher standard would be the order of the day for all Gettysburg hotels when official Washing-ton would be in the habit of paying them a visit at almost any hour. To meet this increase of business occasioned by the influx of people, Gettysburg herself would have to grow and increase the number of and enlarge all her business places in whatever line they might be. Naturally all property in Gettysburg would increase in value as would also all the property along the "road" from Washington to Gettysburg. To compete with the travelling facilities which would be af-forded by the proposed "road," the facilities of the present rail-roads would have to be bettered and new roads would be built— both electric and steam. All eyes would naturally be turned towards Gettysburg, which THE MERCURY. 23 with its historic surroundings, beautiful scenery, and medicinal springs, would naturally be expected to become the greatest sum-mer resort in the United States. The character and number of tourists would necessitate gov-ernment control of all guides. Thereby would undoubtedly be obliterated the blot of blots found upon the world. With gov-ernment control of all guides the tourists would be guaranteed just and equal treatment. For the guides themselves, better days would result. To Gettysburg's educational institutions would come greater publicity and a better appreciation of these institutions' rare sur-roundings. The result would naturally be manifested by an in-crease in the student bodies and an enlargement of the institu-tions themselves. All this resulting from the proposed "Lincoln Way?" Yes, more. With it connected to Gov. Stuart's proposed highway from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, "The Lincoln Way" naturally would become the backbone of a national highway system extend-ing all over the country. Then would all roads lead to Gettys-burg, which would be, in fact, the shrine of American patriotism, the Mecca for all Americans. THE "INDIAN STEPS." E. C. STOUFFER, '11. HE immense dam of McCalPs Ferry Power Company is nearing completion. As a result the slowly rising waters of the Susquehanna river are gradually cover-ing up one of the oldest and most noted landmarks of south-eastern Pennsylvania. The old "Indian Steps" are artificial shelves, cut no doubt, by means of stone hatchets into the face of a large round-pointed rock, which juts out from the west bank of the Susquehanna river. They were cut by the North American Indians possibly centuries before the discovery of America. These steps were used by the dusky inhabitants as a place on which to stand and dip the shad as they crossed the rapids on their annual journey 24 THE MERCURY. to the spawning grounds in the upper Susquehanna. Since the settlement of the country the white man has for generations used them for the same purpose. So far-famed were these steps that the Indians from the North, South, East and West came here to fish. Only the strong, vigorous and daring could fish from this rock for only such were able to endure the chill damp night winds which frequent the lower Susquehanna. As each contestant ap-peared a chalk mark or number was placed on his hat to desig-nate his turn. When his name was called he took his place, tied himself to a ring in the rock and cast the net. Each one was ■compelled to take his catch and be content. If there were a goodly number of shad, all was well; but if it proved to be a small catch he had to go away heavy hearted and take his place in the waiting line again. Year after year from these rocks hundreds of these daintiest ■of all fishes have been caught, some to grace the humble board of ■a poor riverman, some to please the fastidious taste of a city epicurean. The land around the "Indian Steps" was originally occupied by the Conestoga Indians and was preserved for them by the first proprietors of the state. Even Maryland, which was attempting to push her lines farther and farther north, respected the rights of the natives and made no attempt to appropriate this section. 'The land was held for the Indians until August 26, 1786, when a deed was granted to Joseph Eeed on condition that the "Indian Steps" should be preserved for a fishing place for the poor of the community. This charge has been faithfully kept until now. A few months more and the old landmark will have passed away and forever this curious specimen of Indian art will be lost to Pennsylvania. THE MERCURY. 25 THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FARMER; WHAT IT IS LIKELY TO BE WORTH. MISS HELEN H. BRENNEMAN, '08. EVEEAL months ago when President Roosevelt ap-pointed a committee to investigate the condition of the farmers throughout the country, it provoked quite a little amusement on the part of some people, while on the part of others it aroused sarcasm and anger. Many people regarded the President as a "busy-body" and failed to recognize the real aim in his interest in the farmers' condition. Never before has there been a man at the head of the nation with such broad and liberal views and one who has put forth such strenuous efforts in behalf of all kinds and classes of peo-ple. And it was such a motive that prompted him to take this action. The scope of this committee's work is not to ascertain the technical methods of farming and to inquire into personal matters, but to find out what are the general sanitary, social, educational and economic conditions of country life, to find out what is needed, what improvements can be effected, and in what way the government can help them. The commission was confronted with a task not only wide in its scope but comprising a large territory, and many people were to be dealt with. The President suggested that the farmers be called together in convenient meeting places for discussions, and that the members of the commission try to get in the closest touch possible with them and find out their needs. The commission has sent out circulars to professional men, business men, farmers and many others. These circulars con-tain a list of twelve questions with respect to the public schools in the vicinity and their efficiency; whether the farmers get rea-sonable returns from the sale of their products; whether they have good railroads, highway, telephone and rural postal service-accommodations ; whether there is a sufficient supply of labor in the neighborhood. These questions show what the commission are seeking to find out. It is their desire not only to ascertain the conditions but to get opinions and suggestions as to what needs to be done. Now the question arises, "What is the investigation likely to 26 THE MERCURY. be worth ?" In the first place it is very evident that almost the entire success depends upon the attitude of the people. If they continue to take it as a joke or with a feeling of animosity, cer-tainly the progress of the commisison's work is going to be checked and its ultimate success doubtful. However Dr. Bailey of Cornell University, the chairman of the commission, says that the public interest is increasing as the people come to under-stand the commission and its work. These words are encourag-ing and indicative of a very likely success. If this investigation is going to amount to anything, there must be co-operation of the people, especially of the farmers for whose benefit these efforts are being exerted. In a recent mes-sage to the commission the President said, "It is esssential that the farmers, the men who live on the soil should feel a sense of the ownership in this commisison, should feel that you gentle-men in very truth represent them and are responsive to their de-sires, no less than to their needs." If this committee receives the support of the people, it should effect some good results. There is a larger percentage of per-sons engaged in agricultural pursuits than in any other occupa-tion and it is only just that more attention should be given to their needs. The demands for better highways, better railway and trolley service are being universally agitated, and surely the commis-sion will concentrate, its efforts towards their accomplishment thus increasing the facilities of the farmer for better profits. At the Farmers' Convention held in Madison last October scientific crop raising and the need of teaching agriculture in the schools were among the principal topics approved by that orga-nization. It is just as essential that agriculture be taught in the rural schools as manual training and trades in the city schools. Here again if such a desire could be met by the gov-ernment it would not only benefit the farmers economically but the nation also. It remains to be seen just what this investigation will amount to, but nevertheless we can surmise that the educational advant-ages in some districts will be improved, that there will be bet-ter facilities for the transaction of business and that the social, educational and economic conditions will be bettered. T H E HERCURV Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVI GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1908 No. 7 Editor-in-Chief Assistant Editor P. F. BLOOMHARDT, '09 CHARLES F. V. HESSE, '09 Exchange Editor Associate Editors H. REY WOLF, '09 SAMUEL FAUSOLD, '10 Business Manager EDWARD N. FRYE, '10 CHABLES L. KOPP, '09 Advisory Board Ass't Bus. Managers PROF. C. F. SANDERS, A. M. G. U. KNIPPLE, '10 PROF. P. M. BIKLE, PH.D. PAUL S. MILLER, '10 PROF. C. J. GRIMM, PH. D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contri-bute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. such is often the case. EDITORIALS. THE question has often been asked how a small college, with a limited number of students and a corresponding limitation of tal-ent can successfully conduct nearly as many student enter-prises as the larger univeristies— and conduct them, too, in such a way that they frequently rival similar organizations in their larger sister institutions. But Our own college may be taken as suffici- "28 THE MERCURY. ent proof. Our five varieties of athletic teams, our three publi-cations, two literary societies, debating and oratorical teams, musical clubs, and dramatic society, etc., have often been re-spected rivals to similar teams of other and larger schools. But the mere fact of the numbers of these enterprises does not neces-sarily have to affect the quality of the results accomplished. We are inclined to think that men with just as great ability and as large capacity for work are to be found in the smaller college as in the larger ones,—not as many, to be sure, but the ratio is about the same. Furthermore, the smaller college offers oppor-tunities to every one of such calibre, while in the larger schools, •only a comparatively few can take part. LAST year Gettysburg was disappointed in not being enter-tained by her dramatic society, the Mask and Wig. Presumably this was due to the lack of time for rehearsals. Nevertheless the loss was felt. This year it has been decided that no musical club trip will be taken. It has been suggested that the time, talent, and energ}', usually devoted to this organization be turned into another channel; that is, into the perfecting of a good play or minstrel show which might be allowed to take a trip, similar to the Triangle Club of Princeton. IN a few days the first term of the present collegiate year will be closed. After an arduous week's work in examinations, the Christmas vacation will be the more appreciated and enjoyed. Its rest and pleasure has been anticipated by all, but especially has it been longed for by the Freshmen. Christmas has been written about so often, and from so many different viewpoints, that little that is new is left to say. To the college student it is a joyous season to be looked forward to, but in its actual enjoy-ment, he no longer thinks of college and its surroundings for it is a vacation season at home. So, with its last issue for 1908, the MERCURY wishes all its readers a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year. THE MERCURY-. 29 BOOK REVIEWS. INDER the Crust, by Thomas Nelson Page, Phrena. This volume is composed of original stories. Each story has a philosophical side. They were evidently written to stimulate thought and the author has succeeded admirably. One of the stories, "A Brother of Diagones" is especially commenda-ble. In this story, great wealth is pointed out as a stumbling block rather than an aid to happiness. The simple life, too, is contrasted to the hustle and bustle of the metropolis. Other stories of the volume effectively contrast altruism and egoism. The Biography of Thomas Jefferson, by John T. Morse, Phrena. This biography is very impartially written. The au-thor gives us the facts indulging in neither unmerited praise nor criticism. He seems to have an insight into the man's very nature and thus vividly portrays the actions of the statesman both at home and in the blaze of public life. The biography not only enumerates the achievements of Mr. Jefferson with their causes and effects but also those of contemporary statesmen. The biographer shows Mr. Jefferson as a visionary, shrewd politician and a far-sighted statesman. The book is very readable and valuable. Tides of Bamegat, by P. Hopkinson Smith, [Philo 11:6.] This is a book which one can scarcely afford not to read. It presents a very impressive picture of life. It is an account of how one member of a noble and respectable family brought shame and disgrace to the family name There is seen the secret sufferings of the sister through false modesty. Her life would have been made happy indeed, if she had only opened her heart to her lover. It shows how one sister may give advantages and culture to another and instead of receiving gratitude, have her head bowed in shame while the other, seemingly soulless, is not af-fected. There is also brought out the yearning and love of a father for his son whom he has driven from home in a fit of anger for the evil he has done when he refuses to do right. The story is somewhat overdrawn, but otherwise one can find no fault. It is nevertheless very instructive. Although somewhat tedious at times it is generally interesting. The language is clear and wholesome. The Brass Bowl, by Louis Joseph Vance, [Philo, 11:8.] The so THE MEECURY. title of the book is somewhat fanciful as the bowl has practically the least connection with the story. Anyone wishing to read a book for entertainment and recreation will find this romance suited to his purpose as it is very interesting, simple and full of action. The thread of the story seldom breaks and the climax is near the end. The reader will be pleased with the happy ter-mination. No characters are used except those which are neces-sary to the plot. The principal parts are played by persons of high social rank, and they seem to be somewhat magnified. There is no place in the book that is tedious. The narration is clear, animated and well balanced. The language is simple and vigorous. The author has handled 'the plot very well. He shows broadmindedness, independence, the possession of a vivid imagination and a pleasant sense of humor. He has an ac-quaintance with high social life. The reader will be very much pleased with "Mad Maitland's" spirit as he makes his wild flights and also with Miss Sylvia Graeme who comes into Mait-land's life in a very peculiar way. EXCHANGES. JE are glad to have with us again most of our old ex-changes. There are a few that have not arrived yet. We trust that all will soon respond. It seems necessary again to call attention to the con-tent of the MERCURY. The MERCURY, we are trying to make a literary journal, and not a paper combining literary, athletic and the other departments of college activities. The "Gettysbur-gian," our weekly publication, contains the news of the various departments of college life. Among the good things in the "College Student" we would call attention to "Lowell's 'Biglow Papers'" and "Eelation of Diction to Character." The former is a critical essay which brings to notice many interesting facts concerning this import-ant contribution to American literature. The latter shows how the ideals and characteristics of the individual are reflected in hie writings. THE MERCURY. 31 We are glad to welcome "The Thielensian" to our exchanges. In the article entitled "Greek and Eoman Influences" the writer reminds us of some of the beauties of Athens and Borne. The beginning of philosophy was in Greece. Then from the Eomans we can learn the lesson of patriotism. Their motto was, "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori." The Eomans understood mili-tary matters, and we can also learn much from their sculpture and architecture. "Luther in the Eeformation" is also worthy of perusal. The character sketches of Taft and Bryan in the "Otterbein Aegis" are brief but very interesting. We all admire the teachings and doctrines of Socrates, the great Greek philosopher. He busied himself by trying to teach men the truth, and even though he greatly emphasized truth, he was especially eager that men should become happy and useful citizens. To be a good citizen he regarded the "summum bonum" of the individual's life. Indeed in our present age of political corruption, we can not over-emphasize high ideals of citizenship. "Making an American Citizen" in the'Thiloma-thean Monthly" presents this subject in a forceful manner. The writer gives some qualifications of the ideal American citizen. First, he must exercise the right of franchise. It is not only his right, but his duty, to vote. Secondly, he must vote intelligently and not allow himself to be bribed by a paltry farthing. Again, he must be a doer, and not depend upon party leaders. And lastly he must have strong moral convictions. As to the prob-lem of attaining this ideal, the author says, "If I were to offer a solution of this vital problem, it would be: the continual, untir-ing moral and civic training in home and school." All scholars have more or less knowledge of epic poetry. They all know something of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid and Milton's Paradise Lost, but often the epics of less renown are neglected. "The Sketch Book" contains an article entitled "Sita," which tells us of India's epics. The Eamayana and the Mahabharata are India's chief epics. "Sita" is the im-portant character in the Eamayana. She is to the Eamayana what Helen of Troy is to Homer's Ilaid. The article gives a brief summary of the epic and closes with a few ethical com-ments on the character of "Sita." 32 THE MEKCUKT. We wish to comment on two articles in the "Albright Bulle-tin." "The Character of Satan in 'Paradise Lost,'" and "Work; Man's Opportunity." The writer regards Satan as the princi-pal character of the epic, and speaks of him from that stand-point. In the latter essay, we have a very practical exposition on work and its blessings to the individual. Lovers of German literature will find pleasure in reading "Two Representatives of German Epic and Lyric Poetry" in the "Lesbian Herald." Of our High School exchanges, the "Eed and Black" (Read-ing High School) deserves special mention. The departments are well represented and as a whole the paper makes a pleasing appearance. We gratefully acknowledge the usual exchanges. "PXYK iKT2« r>rv. M3VSUT13ER5. There's no pen that gives such all-round satisfaction i Conklin's Self-Filling Fountain Pen. It's the best pen for College Men. When an ordinary fountain pen runs dry in the middle of a word, it means you've got to stop right there, hunt up a rubber squirt gun, fill your pen to overflowing, clean both pen and dropper, wash your hands, and then endeavor as best you can to collect your lost Crescent f'f train of thought. It's different with Filler Jr-l 9 FILLING "THE PEN WITH THE CRESCENT-FILLER" To fill, iust dip it in any ink, press the Crescent-Filler, and the Conklin is filled and ready to write instantly. You can't over-fill it. Hence no inky fingers, no loss of time, no ruffled temper. The feed of the Conklin is No waiting for ink to come—no jerking—no slips, blots. ng dealers handle the Conklin. IE yours does not, order direct. Look tor the Crescent-Filler and refuse substitutes. Prices, $3.00 and up. Send at once (or handsome new catalog. T3E OOHZLIH PEH CO., 31 Itiahattsn Bnildiag, Toledo, Ohio. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FUfOTTUfjE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames; Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. 3=3L ZB_ 23eri-d.ex, 37 Baltimore Si., *-tttt/xhurg;, FA EDGAR C. TAWNEY BAKER West Middle Street. J. B. WINEMAN, DEALER IN CHOICE FAMILY GROCERIES, PROVISIONS AND FRUITS, BOARDING CLUBS A SPECIALTY. 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Issue 1.2 of the Review for Religious, 1942. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious MARCH 15, 1942 S,~f. Joseph's Titles to Honor ¯ . .Aloysius C. Kemper The Scapular Devotion. : . William A. Donaghy Perfection and +he Religious . Augustine Kl~as LeoJ on the Incarnation . Cyril Vollert Profession of a Dying No,~ice . Adam C. Ellis The S+udy of +he Decalogue ¯ .- . Gerald Kelly Some Recommended Spiritual Books Book Reviews (~ues÷ions Answered Decisions of the Holy See VOLUME I "" "~-':. NUMBER 2 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ¯ VOLUME' I MARCH 15, 1942 NUMBER 2 CONTENTS SAINT JOSEPH'S TITLES TO RELIGIOUS HONOR Aloysius C. Kemper, S:J . 74 THE SCAPULAR DEVOTION AND THE SABBATINE PRIVILEGE William A. PERFECTION AND THE RELIGIOUS--Augustine Klaas, S.J. 9.4 ANNOUNCEMENT --'The Editors . ¯ . SOME RECOMMENDED SPIRITUAL BOOKS . 105 THE DOCTRINAL LETTER OF LEO I ON THE INCARNATION Cyril Vollert, S.J . 112 PROFESSION OF A NOVICE IN DANGER OF DEATH Adam C. Ellis, S.J . ¯ . 117 PAMPHLET REVIEWS . 122 RELIGIOUS AND. THE STUDY OF THE DECALOGUE Gerald Kelly, S,J . 123 BOOKS RECEIVED . ' 135 BOOK REVIEWS PROGRESS IN DIVINE UNION. By the Reverend Raoul Plus, S.J. 136 COLORED CATHOLICS IN THE UNITED STATES By the Reverend John T. Gillard. S.SIJ. 136 ONE INCH OF SPLENDOR. By Sister Rosalia of Maryknoll . 137- LITURGICAL WORSHIP. By the Reverend J. A. Jungmann, S.J. 138 MARYKNOLL MISSION LETTERS ~ . , . . 140 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 7,. Communion on Holy Thursday . 1,41 8. Obligation of Sponsor in Baptism or Confirmation . 141 9. Separation of Novices and Postulants at Recreation . 142 10. Superior's Right to Read.Mail of Subjects . . . 142 DECISIONS OF THE HOLY SEE OF INTEREST TO RELIGIOUS 143 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, 1942. Vol. I. No. 2. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November, at The College Pre~s, 606 Harrison Street, Tope~ka~ Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Application for second class entry pending. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Copyright, 1942, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S'. A. Saint: Joseph's Titles t:o Religious Honor Aloysius C. Kemper, S.J. THERE is no need at the present day to undertake a § vindication of the honor paid to St. 'joseph, foster-father of our Lord and most chaste spouse of Mary. Devotion to. him has taken so firm a hold on the popular mind, and his cult hag been so repeatedly and unstintingly approved by the Church, that St. ,Joseph stands next to Mary as the Saint °most highly esteemed and honored in the celestial hierar~chy. It is perhaps no vain hope to look for a marked increase in devotion to him and in a more insistent, confident appeal to his mighty intercession in the stress of the actual national and international crisis. St. ,Joseph ~was indeed from time immemorial regarded as eminently a social patron by various groups and religious families, in view of his headship of that singular holy group, the Family of Nazareth.- In 1621 the General Chapter of the Carmelites chose him officially as patron of the whole Reformed Order. Soon after began to appear for the first time the title of Patronage of St. 'jose~ph under which the holy Patriarch was'honored by numerous orders, religious bOdies, kingdoms and states both in the old and new world. It was not until 1847, however, that Plus IX extended the feast of the Patronage to the universal Church. From that papal grant the devotion received a new, vivifying impulse that resulted in a truly phenomenal growth. It was again Pius IX who, during a particularly calamitous period of his pontificate, bethought himself of a new title which had not until then been bestowed on any angel or saint. 'On the feast of the Immaculate Conception, in 1870, the " 74 ST. J,OSEPH'S~ TITLES TO HONOR Holy Father declared St. Joseph Patron of the Universal Church, the proximate motive for this elevatioff, being that "at this most sorrowful time the Church herself is beset by enemies on every side,, and oppressed by grievous cidamities, so that .wicked men imagine that at last the gates of hell are prevailing against her." The immediate occasion, then, for the new title was the urgent crisis of the Church at the moment. But in the same decree a more general motive for the papal action is al!eged: '"On account of this sublime dignity (of foster-father of Jesus) which God conferred on His most faithful servant, the Church has always most highly honored and lauded the most Blessed Joseph next after his Spouse, the Virgin Mother of God, and. has implored his intercession in all her great necessities." No one can fail to detect in this pontifical utterance a very sig-nificant placing of St. Joseph as one to be honored next to Mary. Nearly twenty years later, on August 15, 1889, Leo XIII issued a warmly enthusiastic encyclical letter1 -on devotion to St. Joseph. It is worthy of note that he ~hose another principal feast of Mary for this pronouncement. In it, in a more explicit manner, he placed Joseph after Mary . in the hierarchyof the Blessed, insisting "that the Christiafl people should grow accustomed to implore with an especial piety and confidence, together with the Virgin Mother of God, also her rnos~ chaste spouse, the Blessed Joseph." After recognizing that the cult of St. Joseph had advanced notably since the declaration of the Universal Patronage, Leo XIII wished to add his own authority in moving Chris-tian piety to new endeavors. He not only vindicated to St. Joseph his proper place in the devotion of the faithful next to the Virgin Mary, but for this he assigned two out- 1Quaraquarn pluries. Cf. The Ecclesiastical Review, Vol. 1, P. 362. 75 AI~OYSIUS C. KEMPI~R standing reasons, whicl~ he first briefly Stated, then feelingly expounded: "Jos.eph was the husband of Mary and the reputed father of Jesus Christ. From these two prerogatives derive all his dignity, grace, sanctity, and glory. Undoubtedly the dignity of the Mother of God is so sublime that nothing can excel it. Yet because between ,Joseph and the Blessed Virgin there existed the bond of matrimony, there can be no doubt that he approached more closely than any One else to that most lofty dignity by which the Mother of God sofar surpassed all other creatures . . . Again" he alone stands forth amongst all men by the singular dignity of having been divinely chosen to be the guardian of the Son of God, and considered by men to be His father." Here, then, is officially stated the basis of all solid devo-tion to St. Joseph, namely, his eminent dignity which sur-passes that of all the saints excepting only the Blessed Mother of the Redeemer. This dignity moreover is due to Joseph's position in the Holy Family of which he is the divinely appointed head and guardian, as husband of Mary and foster-father of Jesus. The marital and parental func-tions which he thus exercised in that l~lessed Family impli-cate him as closely as may be in the carrying into execution of the mystery of the Incarnation of the Son of God. "When the fulness of~ time came, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the Law, that he might redeem those who were under the Law, that we might receive the adop-tion of sons" (Galatians 4:4). In tha~ tremendous drama 3oseph had more than an accessory par~ to play. His coop-eration was essential. He was appointed to live and labor within the inner circle of the Incarnation, and his whole activity was displayed in the secret unfolding of this mystery. 76 ST. JOSEPH'S TITLES TO HONOR Joseph's actual presence and operation .within the circle of the Incarnation is vouched for by the simple gospel nar-rative familiar to every child. Je,sus, Mary, andJoseph are there always found together, the latter as husband of Mary and father of Jesus. In the genealogy according to St. Mat- . thew (1: 16) we read, "And Jacob begot Joseph the hus-band of Mary." Again (1:18) "When Mary his Mother was betrothed to Joseph"; ( 1 : 19) "But Joseph her husband being a just man. "; (1:20) "Do not be afraid' Joseph ¯. to take to thee Mary thy u2ife"; (1:24) "So Joseph. to0k.unto him his u2ife.'" The relation of husband and wife between Mary and Joseph is thus plainly asserted in St. Matthew. Both Matthew and Luke frequently place the three holy persons inimmediate j.uxta-position. Thus, (Matthew 2:13) "An angel of the Lord appeared in a dream to Joseph, saying, 'Arise, and take the child and his mother, and flee into.Egypt'." Four times in the brief nar-rative of the flight into Egypt are the three names thus brought together. St.Luke (2-:16) tells us of the shep-herds that "they found Mary and Joseph and the babe lying in the manger." This Evangelist is particularly intent on calling attention to a true parental relationship that bound .Joseph .to the divine Child. Thus (2:27) "And when his parents brought in the child Jesus" (at the Purification); (2:33) "And his father and mother were marvelling at the things spoken concerning him"; (2:41) "His parents were wont to go every year to J.erusalem"; (2:48) "Behold thy father and I have been seeking thee. sorrowing." These latter words, spoken under stress of strong emotion, quite unconsciously reproduce the manner of address current in the holy house at Nazareth. The character of the mutual relations within the Holy Family is thus clearly established in the gospel; Joseph is the bus- 77 ALOY$1US C. KEMPER band of Mary and in a true sense the father of Jesus. The point that should be emphasized on reading this narrative is, that Joseph is not an extrinsic companion to a closely united pair, nor a mere accessory, interested specta-tor, or helper, but is an integral and essential member of this sacred trio. This is a truth that seems often not to have been fully recognized even by those bent on showing Joseph ~his due honor. In the popular mind particularly,due per-haps inpart to catechetical instruction that was calculated to.be both safe and adequate, St. Joseph is the victim of a minimizing p~ocess that deprives him of his full dignity. Frequently the negative statement is stressed that as man 3esus had no father, and that consequently all genuine paternity should be denied his appointed guardian; or that Joseph was merely reputed to be the father by men who mistakenly looked upon Jesus as the carpenter's Son, Jesus not being his Son at all. Similarly it is often thought that ~Joseph was not the real husband of Mary, but only a faith, ful protector, serving as a safeguard to Mary's undoubted ¯ genuine motherhood in. the public eye, a consort-in name but not in reality. Besides, Mary's ~rirginity, sealed by vow, might seem to preclude the possibility of a true mar- ¯ .riage contract that would mak~ the two strictly man and wife. As a result of this endeavor to shield the exclusive divine sonship of the Child, and the virginal conception of the Mother, Joseph's full dignity is sacrificed; and he is denied the glory of the very position whence "derives all his dignity, grace, sanctity and glory," as we heard Leo XIII claim. Joseph is thus reduced almost to the status of an honorary member of the Holy Family and counts for little in the scheme of the Incarnation, Indeed, what appear to us unworthy travesties of the true glory of St. Joseph were 78 ST. JOSEPH'S TITLES TO HONOR seriously maintained and defended by more than one Cath-olic author even during the pontificate Of Leo XIII. How false such a rating of the position of the great Patrihrch would be becomes at once evident if we briefly examine the reasons that underlie the succinct gospel state-ments above enumerated. First of all, the Blessed Virgin contracted a true and proper marriage with Joseph, and this is a truth of faith according to all theologians. There was, therefore, no true sense in which it might .have been said of Mary that she was the reputed wife of Joseph. In the case of both, virginity and marriage were most perfectly con-joined, so that, as LeoXIII strongly urges, bothoare at the same time perfect exemplars of virgins and spouses. The teaching of the Church, confirmed by the Council of Trent, supposes that a true and perfect marriage bond subsists, even ihough the parties do not consummate their union. Such a marriage bond, with all its consequent .rights and duties, existed between the virgin Joseph and the Virgin Mary. They were mutually possessors and guardians of each other's spotless virginity. In the second place, it must ever be borne in mind that Joseph was the father of Jesus in a very real sense. The express statement of the gospel to this effect is not-to ~be qualified by reducing this relationship to a paternity that was only apparent. It was indeed a paternity entirely unique in kind, but most true in every, sense except the one which would make Jesus the Son of Joseph by natural gen-eration. This latter relation Scripture itself is careful to exclude; and it is with reference to this wholly natural paternity that Joseph is asserted to have been merely the reputed father of the Child. Jesus was not the carpenter's Son in the only way the people probably suspected. But He was the virginal, fruit of Mary's womb which could 79 ALOYSIUS C. KEMPER never becomingly and above suspicion have been brought into the world except within the chaste union and intimacy of two virginal spouses. It was entirely necessary for the blessed consort to shield in public esteem the fruitful vir-ginity of his true spouse: and even in this restiicted sense his paternity was no empty name. In what other sense it was real and w~olly admirable will be presently shown. Another consideration to be carefully weighed is this. In the divine plan the whole mystery of God becoming man was to remain profoundly hidden until such time as the reality of this divine prodigy of love could profitably be made public. 3esus Himseff only very gradually and with consummate prudence revealed His divine filiation during His public ministry; and its full import, inclusive of the virgin birth, was scarcely even surmised during Christ's earthly lifetime except by a favored few. Before it became finally known, 3oseph had already departed~this life, when his office of duly obscuring and shielding both the divine Son and the Virgin Mother bad been brought to a close. But this function of obscuring for a time both the Son and the Mother, necessary though it was for the proper execution of the divine decree, was neither the only one nor the most important one to give reality and splendor to the paternity of 3oseph. Suarez2 tersely says: "The Blessed 3oseph not only bore the name of father, but also the sub- Stance and reality which belongs to this name, in as far as it can be participated by any man, carnal_ generation alone excepted. He possessed accordingly a father's affection, solicitude, and even authority." He was fully and admi-rably a father to 3esus in providing Him a true home with all its unspeakable, charming intimacy, with early educa-tion, protection against danger, sustenance earned in the ZDe M~Isteriis Vitae Cbristif'Q. 29, Disp. 8, Sect. 1, n. 4. 80 ST. JOSI~PH'S TITLES TO HONOR sweat of his brow, and all of these exercised in a most per-fect and holy way, towards a Son truly his, as no father either before or after him, In addition to this intimacy Leo XIII, in the encyclical already referred to, thus expresses the reality of Joseph's fatherly office: "Accordingly, from this double dignity (as husband of Mary and father of Jesus) there followed spon-taneously the duties which nature prescribes for fathers of families, so that Joseph was the legitimate and natural guardian, curator, and defender of the divine house over which' he presided. These offices and duties he zealously exercised until the end of his lifel He strove to protect his spouse and the divine Child with supreme love and daily assiduity. He provided by his labor whatever was neces-sary in diet and maintenance for both. He was ever the unfailing companion, helper and consoler of the Virgin and Jesus." These are titles to a singularly sublime father-hood that is ill served by heaping about it the familiai denaturing negatives: "as man, Jesus had no earthly father; Joseph was only/ the foster-father, the reputed father of Jesus, not His real father in any sense." Such, then, are the titles on which isbased the dignity of St. Joseph: he is the true husband of Mary, a real father of Jesus, and an intimate, necessary cooperator in the strategic~ us.hdring into the world of the Incarnate Word. We haye. already heard two popes conclude frbm this unique and exalted position of Joseph that in dignity he excelled all the saints except bnly Mary Immaculate. It is true the Imitation (Book III, 58, n. 2) cautions us not to compa.re the saints one with another or to dispute their relative graces and merits. But for the Virgin and St. Joseph the comparative method alone does justice to the father and mother of Jesus, and most of the Fathers and ecclesiastical ALOYSIUS C. KEMPER writers have resorted to it in their case. Mary's incompa-rable excellence amongst the saints as the Mother of God entitles.her to a special worship reserved exclusively to her which, theologians style h~/perdatia. Since St. 2oseph is now by common consent ranked next to her as belonging to the hypostatic order, as we have seen, attempts hace been made to secure for him also a singular worship to be styled protoclalia, that is, the highest honor paid to any saint after Mary. The Church has not yet yielded to these entreaties, as she has also thus far refused to admit his name into the Cor~iiteor and the Canon of the Mass. On the other hand she has not shown herself averse to the claim now every-where urged that ~loseph is after Mary the greatest of the saints. Rival claims might be made in the case of St. ,lohn the Baptist and the Apostles, and these claims have been care-fully weighed by theologians. Of the Baptist our Lord Himself declared, "Amen I say to you, among those born of women there has ndt risen a greater than ,lohn the Bap-tist" (Matthew 11: 11). Yet our Lord could not have meant tl~is in an absolute sense, for He immediately adds, "Yet the least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he." Relatively to all the patriarchs and prophets of the Old Law the Precursor of the Lamb of God must be placed at the head of them all. It is revealed that he was cleansed from original sin before his birth, but even this extraordinary privilege leaves him still outside the exalted circle of the Holy Family and the immediate actors in the execution of the Incarnation. The question of the superiority of the Apostles in dig-nity over all the other saints except the Mother of God has been reverently asked through the centuries, and conflicting answers have been given. St. Anselm amongst others 82 ST. JOSEPH'S TITLES TO HONOR declares: "Even the Baptist was inferior to'the Apostles in dignity for there is no ministry greater than the aposto-late." St. Thomas seems to favor this view. Suarez~ how-ever; ventures it as a probable opinion that the ministry of St. 3osepb was of a higher order than that of the Apostles for the reason that the latter pertained to the simple order of grace, while Joseph was immediately associated with the Author of grace within the order of the hypostatic union. Hence this theologian modestly concludes, "it is not temer-arious or improbable, but on the contrary a pious and very likely opinion thatSt. 3oseph excelled all other saints in grace and beatitude." The view of St. Thomas he explains by remarking that the Angelic Doctor regarded the aposto-late as the highest ministry in the New Testament; whereas the office of the foster-father of Jesusbelonged properly neither to the 01d nor to the New Testament, but to the Author of both who as the "cornerstone joined them into one." This probable and still too conservative opinion of Suarez, however, has long ago yielded to the unquestioned belief voiced by Leo XIII when he unhesitatingly declares: "There can be no doubt that he (Joseph) approached more closely than any one else .to that most lofty dignity by which the Mother of God so far excelled all other creatures. " We have thus considered the sublime dignity attaching to the double office of Joseph as father of JeSus and spouse of Mary. From this dignity may at once be deduced the eminent gifts of grace with which he was endowed and the incomparable sanctity he attained. It is a theological axiom that God duly apportions grace according to the state and office to Which He calls a soul. Joseph's correspondence with this grace was so perfect that Scripture is content to style him, even before his union with Mary, simply "a just BLoc. tit. sect. 1, n. 10; sect. 2, n. 6. ALOYSIUS C. KEMPER man." How he must have advanced to unspeakable per-fection of sanctity through all the years of daily contem-plation and intimate association with the holy and Immacu-late Virgin, his spouse, and the Holy of Holies, the Incar-nate Son of God! Truly, the life of heaven on earth! A second corollary is deduced by Leo XIII from Joseph's position in the Holy Family. "The divine house," says the.Pontiff, "which Joseph ruled by. fatherly author-ity contained the beginnings of the nascent Church." As a consequence "the blessed Patriarch considers the innu-merable multitudes of Christians that compose the family of the universal Church as entrusted to him in a .special way, and that in it, as the husband of Mary and the father of Jesus, he enjoys practically paternal authority." The dig-nity, sanctity, and power of Joseph, these three are on a par in the mind of the Holy Father; hence his whole ericyclical is a ringing exhortation to all the faithful and to the uni-versal Church to "go to Joseph," to honor him as his exalted dignity demands, to emulate the virtues of his sanc-tity which are resplendent for all classes in the Church, and to have recourse with unfailing confidence to his very real 'fatherly authority by which he is still "lord over his house-hold and ruler of all his possessions." The exhortation of Leo XIII is as timely today as when first uttered; nay if possible, it has grown in timeliness and urgency. Today more than ever, under stress of the most colossal menace that has ever threatened Church, .state, and civilization itself, we shall not fhil to remember one cer-tain haven of refuge, and to make it a precious habit of our spiritual life' in all our needs, to "go to Joseph," after Mary, the greatest of saints. 84 The Scapular Devo!:ion and !:he Sabba!:ine Privilege William A. Donaghy, S.3. ALTHOUGH thousands of Catholic~ loyally wear the little cloth yoke which is the symbol of their ~levo. tion to our Lad~, many of them are unaware of the Spiritual wealth with which the Church has endowed the Scapular. Most Catholics~ moreover; are ignorant of the wide variety of scapulars; and there are many minor points and problems connected with the devotion that even reli-gious might profitably consider. It is the purpose of this article to present a brief sketch of the devotion's historical background, to give some of the theology connected with it, and to indicate moral and pastoral aspects of it. The traditional account of the rise and growth of the Scapular devotion brings us back tO the thirteenth cen-tury. In those ancient days, the English Crusaders brought back to England from Palestine a little group of .hermits who had been living the religious life on Mount Carmel, the rugged backdrop against which Elias the prophet had confounded the priests of Baal, as the Third Book of Kings recounts. In England, these brethern were joined by a fiery hermit named Stock--so called, because he had been living peni-tentially in the trunk, or stock, of a tree. Much like the Baptist was this shaggy zealot, in his rough clothing, his gauntness, and his white-hot devotion to God. When he attached himself to the Carmelites, he took tl~e significant name of Simon, a name wealthy in memories and prophetic of leadership. The tiny band prospered so well in England that soon WILLIAM A. DONAGHY their numbers demanded some sort of local supervision and jurisdiction. Simon Stock was named Vicar-General and, in the year 1245, he was designated General of the whole. ¯ order. ~ All along, the ideal of these holy men had been one of strict seclusion, prayer, and penance. But at that time, even as in our own, students were thronging to the universi-ties; and the need of a highly educated clergy to guide this intellectual generation became increasingly apparent. Simon decided to train his younger members to meet this demand: buk some of the elders regarded his decision as a desertion of the cloister and a dangerous innovation against which they "firmly set their faces. Meanwhile, outside the cloister walls, jealous eyes had been observing the rise and growing influ-ence of the Friars, and now these enemies raised an outcry for the suppression of this "upstart" order. Sagging beneath his ninety years and the burdens of office, besieged from Without and suspected within his own household, Simon Stock withdrew, in 125f, to the mon-astery at Cambridge, where he begged a sign of solace from the Queen of Heaven. Apparelled in light and attended by angels our Lady appeared to him holding in her hand the- B~own"Scapular: "Receive, my beloved son," she said, "this habit of thy order; this shall be to thee and to all Carmel-ites a privilege, that whosoever dies clothed in this shall never suffer eternal fire." Almost a century later, Mary appeared again, this time to the man who was short!y to become Pope 3ohn XXII. To the future Pontiff, she gave new evidence of her gener-osity and extended and enlarged the Scapular Promise by an addition which has come to be known as the Sabbatine or Saturday Privilege." Afterhis elevation to Peter's chair, 3ohn published this private revelation in a Papal Bull. Our 86 THE SCAPULAR DEVOTION Lady had assured him that she would release from Purga-tory any members of her order on the Saturday following their deaths. Let us now examine these promises more in detail to see what they mean and imply: The Scapular promise, in the first place, comprises.two elements: 1) "Whoever dies clothed in this habit"; 2) "shall not suffer the fires of Hell." Now, only the members of the Carmelite Confraternity are entitled to wear the "habit," that is, the Brown Scapu~ lar. Hence the words of our Lady, "clothed in this habit," involve membership in that confraternity. One must, therefore, voluntarily enlist in Mary's great brotherhood before a priest authorized either by the Holy See or by the Carmelite General, to receive members. The officiating priest, moreover, unless he has a special privilege to the contrary, must enter the name of any new confrfire in a reg-ister of the Confraternity. Now formally admitted, the candidate is allowed to wear the Scapular; he is now "clothed in this habit." Obviously the large habit of Carmel fulfills this condi-tion; as does its small imitation, the Brown Scapular. And by grant of Plus X, in 1910, the scapular medal may now take the place of any cloth scapular in which one has been validly ~nrolled1. The subsequent words of the Scapular promise guaran-. tee that any wearer of the "habit" will escape the fires of hell. We must not, however, interpret this falsely. A man who dies in mortal sin, no matter what his garb, cannot be saved; that is eternal truth. What, then, does the assurance 1In allowing the substitution of the medal for the various scapulars, Pins X stated that those wearing the medal could gain all indulgences and participate in all spiritual favors attached to the scapulars. Nevertheless, some consider it safer to use the Brown Scapular itself when trying to bring about the death-bed conversion of impeni-tent sinners. Cf, The Ecclesiastical Reoiew, 3ul~r, 1941, p. 43. reED. 87 WILLIAM A. DONAGHY . mean? To determine the meaning, it will help to recall the general nature of the various scapular confraternities. As we shall see later, there are many scapulars and many ¯ scapular confraternities. Through the years, the Popes have decreed the patronage, ,guidance, and control of these pious org:inizations to different religiqus orders and con-gregations of the Church., When, therefore, a man joins a confraternity, he aggregates himself in some degree to the religious body which has special control of that confra-ternity; and he thereby participates in the end and purpose of that order or congregation. All these great religious :communities have this in common, that it is their aim and intent to strive towards perfection in the spirit and accord-ing to the path of the three evangelical counsels of poverty, chastity, and. obedience. In their .degree, the scapular con,- fraternities share the aim and object of the parent order or congregation; .hence the confreres, to a limited extent, pledge fidelity, to the same high evangelical ideal. Merely to wear the scapular without baying this spirit in the soul would not only not be virtuous; it would be perilously close to, the,dry and sterile Pharisaism which our Lord so mercilessly, .ondemned. The scapular, .too, is a link which binds the wearer to the members of the first and second orders and to his fellow .members in the confraternity, thus enabling him to share on earth some of .the special fruits of the communion of saints. How absi~rd'and dangerous it would be, then, to imag-ine that th~ scapular is a magical amulet, charm, or fool-proofs. passport to heaven! Against the Semi-Pelagians who exalted man's natural powers and self-sufficiency the Coun-cil of Orange hurled a definition which re-echoed in Trent. For the Church teaches that even for the just man, the actual grace of perseverance requires a special help from 88 THE SCAPULAR DEVOTION God. It is in the light of this dogma, in fact, that some great theologians seem to understand the Scapular p.romise; for they interpret it to mean that anyone dying in our Lady's . confraternity and wearing her scapular will receive through her at the hour of death either t.he grace of perseverance or the grace of final contrition. The lessons for the office of St. Simon Stock quote the promise. But before he sanc-tioned- the office, Pope Leo XIII inserted the adverb "piously" ("pie"), to make the promise read: "Whoever dies piously wearing this habit will not suffer the flames of hell." Turning now to the Sabbatine or Saturday Privilege, .we find that the Bull of John XXII proclaiming the privi-lege declares that our Lady wanted John "to. make known to all that on the Saturday following their death she would deliver from Purgatory all who wore the Carmelite Scapu-lar." In a Bull of approbation, Paul V confirms the prom-ise but confines its application to those "who in life wore our Lady's habit, were chaste according to their state, recited the Little Office, and abstained on Wednesdays and Satur-days except when Christmas fell on one of those days. These: clients will Mary help by her intercession and her special protection after their death, especially on Saturday, the day which the Church has especially dedicated to. her." It is worthy of note that a priest who has the faculty of receiving candidates into the Scapulhr Confraternity. has also the power to commute the conditions necessary for the Sabbatine Privilege and to substitute other devotional practices. As Pope Paul. lays them down, the requirements whereby one renders oneself eligible for the Sabbatine privilege are too clear to need further explanation. Once again the shining sanity and unshakable love of truth WILLIAM A. DONAGHY which characterize the Church have removed any danger of pre.sumption or superstition. Thus far we have given the traditionally accepted accounts 6f these two private revelations to St. Simon Stock and Pope 3ohn XXII and have made the obvious commentary on them. However, it is only fair to admit that these revelations have been attacked not only by non- Catholics but by sincere Catholic scholars as well.- For-tunately, ¯ we do not have to examine the evidence of the conflicting parties and decide the matter for ourselves. .We can raise the whole controversy to the higher plane of dogmatic values. Several Pontiffs have blessed and approved the scapular promise and the Sabbatine privi-lege; under the watchful eye of the Church, thesedevotions have been preached for centuries; and such confirmation of their validity is sufficient proof for the Catholic mind which realizes that the living, teaching Church rests not on the cornerstone of a library but on the Rock that is°Peter. It is true, .of course, that the great public revelation which Christ committed to His Apostles closed with the death of the last Apostle. It is this. fixed and unchanging body of truth which the Church guards. When from time totime She defines a dogma; she affirms that the truth in question,, actually and really is part of ,that' Apostolic deposit of faith. Other private revelations which have come to individuals down through the ages/neither augment nor complement the Apostolic revelation. Strictly speaking, therefore, one is not bound ,to beli~v,e in them; nor, do they. as such, pertain to the authority of the Church. But it is the office of the Church authentically to interpret and authoritatively to decide whether or not the content of such revelations agrees with the eternal truth of which she is divinely instituted custodian. She could not condone any 90 THE SCAPULAR DEVOTION offense against either faith or morals. In his great work on the Sacred Heart devotion, which was privately revealed to St. Margaret Mary, Father Bain-vel points out that the Church's approbation signifies that there is nothing in the devotion contrary to faith or morals. Moreover, Margaret Mary's holiness, on which the Church has set the crown of canonization, is ampl~ testimony of her right to,be believed. The apparition to her is, as Father Pesch notes, only the occasion of public worship of the Sacred Heart; the real reason for the worship is the author-ity of the teaching Church accepting the devotion and incorporating it into her liturgy. So, too, with the Scapular devotion. No matter what one may think of its historical foundations, it rests on the bed-rock of divine authority. Perhaps there is no bette~r proof of the Church's attitude towards the Scapular than the indulgences, almost "innumerable" as St. Alphonsus exclaims, which she has heaped on it. Best known and most widespread of all scapulars is the Carmelite Brown Scapular, to which the foregoing remarks apply. But there are many other scapulars. One fre-quently hears references to the "five scapulars"; and it might be interesting to mention and describe them sketchily. The white scapular of the Most Bleised Trinity, marked by a blue and red cross, is the badge of the confraternity associ-ated with the ~Trinitarians. Then there is the red scapular of the Passion, control and direction of which Pius IX com-mitted to the Lazarists; the blue scapular of the Immaculate Conception, under the Theatine Fathers; the black scapular .of the Seven Dolors represents the confraternity which the Servite Fathers direct. These, with the Carmelite scapular, are the "five scapulars." As we have mentioned, a priest receives the faculty to 91 WILLIAM A. DONAGHY admit members into these various confraternities either from the Holy See or from the General Superior ofthe reli-gious family in charge of the confraternity. The receiving priest must-bless the scapular and invest the candidate with it, although it is sufficient investitureif the priest simply lays the scapular across the shoulder of the recipient. During a mission, or when there is a great crowd of candidates to be admitted, some priests have the power of enrolling people in the scapular without personally placing it on the person who is to wear it. For the blessing of a scapular, the simple .sign of the cross is not sufficient; the priest must use the prescribed formula, which is necessary for validity, though he may always use the shortest of the three blessings given in the Roman Ritual. Furthermore, any priest who has the faculty to bless scapulars and the resultant power to enroll candidates in the corresponding confraternities, has also the power to enroll himself. What of the scapulars themselves? They must not be round or oval but must be square or oblong; they must be made Qf wool, and, although it is permitted to ornament them with needlework.or painting,, the color proper to each must prevail. These conditions all affect validity. In the Ecclesiastical. Review for August, 19411 Mr. John Haffert pointed out that approximately half a million worthless Scapulars are bought annually in the United States. Unscrupulous dealers make them of felt, which is cheaper ¯ than wool. The cords binding the oblongs of the scapular may be of any material or color, except for the scapular of the Pas-sion which requires red woolen strings. The scapulars must be. worn constantly, but if one has laid them aside for a perio~t, he may resume wearing them and thus revive his title to the privileges and indulgences attached to them. 92 THE SCAPUL,~R DEVOTION Only the first scapular needs to be blessed; after that, one simply get a new pair and puts them on. The scapular medal is a substitute for the cloth scapu-lar, granted by Plus X, in 1910. Missionaries request~ed the concession, because the wearing of the cloth scapular was a great inconvenience for their native converts. The l~ontiff did not wish to have the medal supplant the cloth scapular, however: and his successor Plus XI permitted a protected scapular, enclosed in ~loth, to overcome objec-tions of a sanitary sort. Other great theologians look with regret on the passing of the cloth scapular and the popu-larity of the medal; but the medal has official approval and styles have changed so radically since 1910 that many more now have reason to substitute the medal for the cloth scapu-lar. ~!~rho may bles~ the scapular medal? Any priest having the power to bless that scapular which the medal is to replace; and a simple sign of the cross is sufficient to endow the medal with precisely the same indulgences which the cloth- scapular would enjoy.° In fact, the priest may bless many scapular medals, even if he cannot see them--as would be the case in a crowded church. But if a medal is to represent several different scapulars, the Sign of the cross should be repeated for each of those different scapulars. These are only a few aspec[s of, the scapular, the humble heraldic symbol of devotion to the Queen of Heaveri. There are many others and one might write a long work on the subject. But the whole matter is .admirably summed up for us, as far as its practical side goes, in the words of St. J~lphonsus de Liguori, the Church's great Doctor of Morals. He epitomizes his own attitude towards this devo-tion briefly and significantly: "For my own part," he writes, "I havebeen careful.to receive all these scapulars." Pert:ec!:ion and !:he Religious Augustine Klaas, S.J. " I. Introduction //r~EI~FECTION is for priests and religious. I am only a layman. I am fortunate to keep my soul in sanc-tifying grace. Perfection is not for me." --- Religious have often enough heard similar views expressed by good, exemplary layfolk, who seem to imply that they would lead the perfect life if only it were "for them." Is the life of perfection "'for them" ? Most certainly it is. Priests and religious have no monopoly on perfection. The invitation to it comes to the laity from the lips of Our Lord, Who, after He had explained the principles of perfection in the Sermon on the Mount, said to the multitude: "You there-fore are to be perfect, even as your heavenly Father is per.- .fect" (Matthew 5:48). St. Peter echoes these words in a letter to the Christian communities of Asia Minor: "As the One who called you is holy, be you also holy in all your behavior" (I Peter 1 : 15). And St. Paul: "This is the will ofGod,your sanctification". (I Thessalonians 4:3). Later St. Paul clarifies this. idea when he transmits to the Colos-sians the greetings of Epaphras, "who is ever solicitous for you in his prayers, that you may remain perfect and com-pl'etely in accord with all the will of God" (Colossians 4:12). That this is not an easy task was declared by Christ Himielf when He said to all: "If anyone wishes to come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross daily, and follow Me" (Luke 9:23). Though not always cor-rectly understood, even by religious, this doctrine of uni-versal perfection has been the constant teaching of the Cath- 94 PERFECTION AND THE RELIGIOUS olic Church. It is forcefully reiterated by Pius XI in his encyclical on St. Francis de Sales ($anuary 26, 1923) ;. "We cannot accept the belief that this command of' Christ (Matthew 5:48 above, previously cited by the Holy Father) concerns only a select and privileged group of souls and that all others may consider themselves pleasing to Him if they have attained to a lower degree of holiness. Quite. the contrary is true, as appears from the very generality of His words. The law of holiness embraces all men and admits of no exception. What is more, it appears that Francis de Sales was given to the Church by God for a very special mission. His task was to give the lie to the prejudice which in his lifetime was deeply rooted and has not been destroyed even today, that the ideal of genuine sanctity held UP for our imitation by the Church is impossible of attain-ment or, at best, is so difficult that it surpasses the capabili-ties of the great majority of the faithful and is, therefore, to be thought of as the exclusive possession of a few great souls. St. Francis likewise disproved the false idea that holiness was so hedged around by annoyances and hard-ships that it is inadaptable to a life lived outside cloister walls." Again, in the Encyclical on Marriage (December 31, 1930) : "For all men, of every condition and in whatever honorable walk of life they may be, can and ought to imi-tate that most perfect example of holiness, placed before man by God, namely, Christ our Lord, and by God's grace to arrive at the summit of perfection:" Hence, we see that men, women, and children, of every age, condition of society, and state of life not only can but should ascend the mountain of perfection even to its lofty summits. And they have done so. Some, like King Louis of 95 AUGUSTINE KLAAS France or Henry Of Germany, Queen Elizabeth of Hun-gary, Chancellor Thomas More of England or the lowly Benedict Labre of France, have been declared officially to have reached a heroic degree of perfection. Many more, like Matt Talbot, the lumberyard worker; Jerome Jaegen, the banker; Anna-Maria Taigi, the housewife; Frederick Ozanam, the professor; and Guy de Fontgalland, the pupil, have not yet been canonized. Tens of thousands more have their lives of heroic perfection writtdn only in the Book of' Life!. If the laity have a.strong invitation to strive for perfec-tion, the clergyhave a~command to seek that perfection implied in their high vocation. The Canon Law of the Church declares that "clerics must lead an interior and exterior life holiertha'n that of the laity and give thes~ the good example of virtu'e and good works." The .Bishop must see to it "that allclerics receive.~frequently the Sacra-ment of Pen;ince to be purified of their faults; that each day they apply themselves duriffg a certain length of time to the exercise of mental prayer, visit the Most Blessed Sacrament, recite the beads in honor of the Blessed M6ther of God, and make their examination of conscience . . . " (Cf. Canons 124-127). These-are essential spiritual practices leading directly to that high spiritual perfection demanded of the priesthood by.Christ and His Church., No one~ can read the ',Exhortation to the Catholic Clergy" of Pius X or.the Encyclical of Plus XI on the Priesthoodwithout being con-vinced of the necessity of perfection for the clergy. Their sublime calling to be "other Christs," their daily ministry 1Canon Arendzen raises an interesting question in The Clergg Review for October, 1941, p. 248. He wants to know whether the Church has ever canonized a married saint, apar~ from martyrdom? By married person he means one who ,actually lived in conjugal life till death, not widowers or widows, or persons who, though m~rried. lived as brother and Sister, at least for many years. If the answer is negative, it Would seem to indicate that abstinence from conjugal life is a prerequisite of heroic sanctity, or at least of canonization. What do our readers think about it? 96 PERFECTION AND THE RELIGIOUS of offering the Holy Sacrifice and of dispensing the Sacra-ments to the faithful requires much more than ordinary holiness of life. indeed, St. Thomas says that to serve Christ - in the Sacrament of the Altar "a greater interior sanctity is required than even the religious state demands." Then, too, effectiveness in apostolic work is altogether bound up with spiritual perfection. The Cur~ of Ars brought an averag~ of three hundred penitents a day to his confessional, not so much by eloquence of sermon or exactitude of litur-gical function as by his eminent personal holiness. So important is perfection for the clergy that theologians speak of a "state of perfection" for him who has the plentitude of the priesthood, the Bishop: his consecration presupposes in him a high degree of perfection already attained. Religious also are said tO be in the "state of perfection," that is, the state of perfection to be acquired. Religious are not necessarily perfect when they enter into the religious life, but they have the obligation to strive for perfection; they must put forth an honest effort to attain to it. The Canon Law of the Church defines the religious state as "the firmly established manner of living in community, by which the faithful undertake to observe not only the ordinary pre-cepts but also the ~vangelical counsels, by means of the vows of obedience, chastity, and poverty" (Canon 487), ~and declares that "each and every religious, superior as well as subject, is bound to tend toward the perfection of his state" (Canon 593). Hence, perfection is the specialty of reli-gious, the object and goal of their whole lives. They must strive earnestly for it, according to their particular institute and rule. Indeed, to refuse outright to do so, cannot-be excused from sin. The nature and limits of this obligation upon religious to strive for perfection will be discussed in a later section of thi~ article. This, at least, is true: there is AUGUSTINE KLAAS no state of life in which perfection is easier of attainment,. since in the religious life so many obstacles t6 it are removed and so many efficacious means to achieve it ~are provided. Hence, .it is not at all surprising to note the preponderance of religious who have been raised to the honors Of the altar. Statistics show that of the one hundred and forty-six saints canonized between 1600 and 1926, one hundred and ten were religious~. In a world-wide radio broadcast on Febru-ary 12, 1931, Pope Pius XI addressed to the religious of the Whole world these encouragin~ words on the excellence Of the religious life: "Sfriving after thebetter gifts and observing not only ' the precepts but also the wishes and counsels of the Divine King and Spouse by the faithful observance of your holy vows and by the religious discipli.ne of your entire lives, you render the Church of God fragrant with the odor Of vir-ginity, you enlighten her by your contemplations, you support her by your prayers, you enrich her by your knowl-edge and teaching, you daily perfect and strengthen her by your ministry of the word and by the works of your apos: tolate. Therefore, as you are partakers of a truly heavenly and angelical vocation, the more precious the treasure you carry, the,more careful watch you must keep, so that you do Got only make. your vocation and election certain, but also .that in you, as in most faithful and devoted servants, the Heart of .the King and Spouse may find some consolation and reparation for the infinite offenses and negligences with which men requite His ineffable love." II. Perfection, In General Perfection, then, is for the layman, the cleric, anti in a peiuliar way for the religious. Whatever may be the pre- 2Incidentall~r. the first nun to be solemnl~r canonized b~i the Church was Saint Clare of Assisi. She died in 1253 and was canonized in 1255. Her feast is celebrated on August 12. PERFECTION AND THE RELIGIOUS cise nature of the obligation and invitation to perfection, it is certain that perfection is possible for all. and strongly urged upon every one without exception. Does this mean that perfection is manifold? Is there one kind of perfection for the layman, another for the priest, and still another for the religious? By no m~ans. Perfection is one. Essentially, perfection is the sameforall. It is the same as to object and general means. What differences occur, are only incidental, a matter of different specific means employed, a matter of different circumstances, environment, and opportunity. Nor do religious orders and dongregations differ essentially as to the perfection for which they strive, each in its own particular way. Basically, the perfection of Francis of Assisi, Benedict, Dominic, or Ignatius Loyola does not differ from that of Theresa of Avila, 2oan of Arc, Sophie Barat, .Pius the Fifth, Charles Borromeo, John Vianney, Thomas More, or Francis de Sales. There are many lanes and many types of ~ars On the lanes and various travellers in the cars, but there is only one broad highway of perfed-tion leading to God. What is the nature of this common essential perfec-tionmperfection in the strict sense--sought after by lay-man, priest, and religious alike? A simple illustration or two will help to clarify our ideas. A watch is perfect when~ it fulfills the purpose for whic~ it was made, namely,, to tell the correct time. This it will unfa!lingly do if all its parts are in place and if it functions exactly. Presupposing the parts, a watch's perfection lies mainly in its functioning, in its faultless activity. Not that a perfect watch must always be running. It must however be capableof running per-fectly, capable of achieving its purpose, the telling of ,the exact time. Hence, we may say that the perfection of a watch consists in its habitual disposition to' function so as 99 AUGUSTINE KLAAS to unerringly tell the time. Or consider the student. The purpose of the student is to acquire the knowledge and intellectual proficiency demanded by the academic degree he is seeking. Granted that he has talent, sufgicient health, books, and other necessary acquirements, he will secure this kriowledge and consequently his degree by his activity,, his mental activity reflection, study, and research. And, other things being equa.1, the more develof0ed and precise his intellectual activity~ is, the .more perfectly will he achieve his purpose, the acquirement of knowledge and his degree. The perfection of the student therefore consists mainly in his intellectual activity. This does not mean that he ceases "to be a student the moment he stops studying, for he remains a student even though he '. sleeps~-of course, at-the proper time and place! What~makes him a student is an acquired disposition, a habit of intellectual activity in the pursuit of knowledge. The m6re perfect his mental habit and activity are, the more perfect a student will he be and the more per, fectly .will he .acqui/e knowledge and his degree. The purpose for which God. made man is that~ ulti-mately man be united to God in the enjoyment of the beatific vision in heaven. Now, this union admits of degrees. It will be more perfect in proportion as-sancti, lying grace is gr~eater in the soul when man comes :to the end of his earthly life. Thus, practically speaking, man's~per~ fection in this life consists in maintaining and increasing sanctifying grace in his soul, so that this life of grace may grow more and more "to perfect manhood, to the mature measure of the fulness of Christ" (Ephesians 4:13). How is this sanctifying grace increased in the soul? In two ways: first, by the worthy reception of the sacraments, which of themselves, as God's instruments for imparting grace,---ex, opere operato, as the theologians say,mincrease 100 PERFECTION AND THE RELIGIOU6 sanctifying grace in the soul; and secondly, by our activ-ity, bex opere operantis which can merit an increase of sanctifying grace. Like .that of the watch and student above, our perfection will consist principally in our activity. But what kind of activity? Not necessarilyphysical activity, for the Brother who excels as an athlete will not inevitably be more perfect than the Brother bound by paralysis to a wheel-chair. Neither does perfec~tion consist in mere intellectual activity, since Sister Mary Sapientia hugging her doctorate of philosophy is not necessarily more perfect than Sister Mary Martha hugging her pots and pans in the kitchen. Possibly Anna-Maria Taigi, that incom-parable plebeian housewife and mother, was more perfect than her learned confessor, and Guy de Fontgalland than some of his professors. Perfection does not consist in physi-cal prowess or intellectual acumen; perfection is concerned principally with will activity, that is, moral activity, the doing of good. And this moral activity is not merely natural: many pagans in the modern world do an immense amount of good but they are far from the perfection we are speaking of. When we speak of perfection we mean super-natural moral activity, that will activity which presupposes sanctifying grace in the soul and has the assistance of actual grace in its performance. Furthermore, perfection does not mean a bare minimum of doing good, but the utmost in quantity and quality, according to our capacities of nature and of grace, according to our circumstances of time, place, and opportunity. By frequent acts of doing good we merit an increase of sanctifying grace in the soul. By frequent acts of doing good a stable disposition or readiness" to do good. is formed, which in turn facilitates further good acts. Hence,- spiritual perfection may be defined as fi habitual supernatural disposition or readiness to accomplish as much good as one's IOL . AUGUSTINE KLAAS capac.ities and opportunities permit. By the' acts that flow from this disposition, by doing the maximum good, we achieve our life's purpose, the maximum growth of sancti-fying- grace in our souls and ultimately a greater union with God in the happiness of heavens. In heaven alone shall we ac.complish good to the t:ult extent of our capacities of nature and of grace. On earth, only two persons have done so, Jesus Christ, because He was the God-Man, and the Blessed Virgin, by special privi-lege. Ordinarily, however, it is impossible to realize this supreme ideal of perfection. In fact, it could be heresy to say that it were possible, for Catholic theology teaches that without a special privilege we cannot abstain for a lengthy period of time from committing at least semi-deliberate venial sins, that is,.sins of frailty and surprise, and hence, to that extent, we shall always fail to do our full measure of good. To the end of our lives we shall ever sincerely pray "forgive us this day our trespasses." The Church has condemned repiatedly the doctrine of an entirely~ sinless perfection in thisworld, as was taught by Pelagius, Molin0s, and others. On the other hand, the Church has also con-demhed in no uncertain terms the Alumbrados and the Qaietists for maintaining that we can arrive at such a state of lofty perfection that, overflowing~ with divine grace, we can neither progress nor regress any more in the spiritual life. Now, if there are limits to our sinlessness and limits tff our positive capacity for doing good, we can never accom-plish all the good of which we are theoretically capable: we can never reach the ideal norm of perfection. Neither did the saints attain tO it upon this earth. What, then, does aFor a fuller development of these ideas, confer Zimmerm~nn, Otto, S.J., Lebrbacb dee Aszetik, Herder, 1932, p. 16 ft. 102 DERFECTION AND THE RELIGIOUS perfection in this life really mean? It means an ~ver closer approximation to the ideal, the getting as near to the ideal as is humanly possible with the measure of God's grace.- given to us. This is exactly what the saints did. It means negatively, the avoidance of. deliberate venial sins and the greatest possible avoidance, of imperfections and semi-deliberate venial sins; and positively, the utmost perform-ance ofall good, whether¯ of precept or of counsel. Coun~ sel, of course, as here understood, is not restricted to the evangelical olaes of poverty, chastity, and obedience, but is taken in its w~dest sense, as referring to anything not of obligation: for example, to hear Mass on Sunday is a pre-cept, but to hear Mass on an ~ ordinary week-day may be a counsel for a particular individual. There is now no ques-tion of ~mortal sin. The ,battle against fully deliberate venial sin has been won, though occasional lapses may still . occur. Imperfections and semi-deliberate venial sins are avoided as much as possible. God's commandments and precepts, and above all. His counsels are faithfully carried out as far as is humhnly possible with the aid of God's grace in our particular position and circumstances of life. Hence, practically speaking, spiritual perfection consists in the habitual disposition and readiness of soul tO avoid imper-fections" and semi-deliberate venial sins as much as possible and, presupposing the observance of the precepts, in the utmost carrying out of the counsels, according to one's par-ticular circumstances of life and measure of God's grace imparted. This common perfection, sought after so earnestly by priests, religious, and laity, cannot be computed mathe-matically; it will vary with the individual, according to the many factors involved. ~lust as we cannot estimate the heroic perfection of the canonized saints relative to each 103 AUGUSTINE KLAA8 other or indeed to uncanonized ones, so we cannot estimate the perfection of individuals on this earth, except in a very general way: Perhaps spiritual perfection may be com-pared to exquisite perfume; individuals to vials. The vials are of various types, colors, capacities, artistic designs, and values: the excellent perfume in them is of almost countless blends, some very rare and costly. All, however, have a quality in common; all give forth the sweet fragrance of perfection, so pleasing to God and to. man. Perfection, as we have said, consists mainly in activity. Now, spiritual activity implies the possession and exercise of the virtues. Among the varied combination of virtues found in persons striving for perfection, is there one which always predominates? Is there one virtue which rules all the others like a queen and may be called the essence of perfe.ction? (To be continued) ANNOUNCEMENT After the publication of the first issue of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, we received many kind letters ofcommendation. We tried to answer ¯ each.letter, but we found that impossible. We wish to take the pres-ent occasion of thanking all who have sent us encouragement and suggestions. When the ,January issue was published, we printed what we con-sidered an amply sufl~cien~ number to satisfy all requests for back numbers and sample copies. But our supply was soon exhausted. However, we have arranged for a reprinting, and we shall soon be ablk to satisfy those who wish their subscriptions to begin with Volume 1, Number 1. --THE EDITORS. 104 RecornrnendecJ Spiritual Books THE PRESENT list of spiritual books and those that will follow from time to time are designed to be of practical assistance to religious, who by rule and inclination do a considerable amount of spiritual reading each year. The lists will include the spiritual classics of the past and also those more modern sl~iritual books which are of greater worth to religious. Only works written in English or that have been translated into English will be listed. Communities that are gradually building up a spiritual library will find in these guiding lists that fundamental nucleus of worthwhile books that must be the foundation of any spiritual library. No attempt was made to make this list complete, as it will be added to periodically. The books listed are for genera/, spiritual reading, unless otherwise indicated. Another list for general use will appear in an early issue of the REVIEW; and these will be fol-lowed by lists of a more specialized nature, for example, books for young religious, for more mature religious, meditation books, books on higher prayer, and so forth. Suggestions will be welcomed. In citing the books, it was deemed sufficient to give the name of the author in alphabetical order, the yearof his death if he is no loriger living, and the title of the book. Occasionally a short com-ment is added. Publishers are not mentioned, as these books can be procured through any large publishing house or bookstore. Read-ers may find it helpful to make a card-index list of these authors, as this can be conveniently augmented. I would suggest to those who are beginning a library to purchase the more modern books first, and then add the older classics progres-sively. Specifically, I would recommend starting with the following authors: Goodier, Leen, Marmion, Maturin, Mother Loyola, ~Plus, Pourrat, Saudreau, and Tanquerey. Of course, spiritual books per-tinent to one's own order or congregation will generally be given the ~reference in any library. Small communities that cannot afford a large library might obtain the advantages of such a library by pooling resources with other houses, and establishing some practical circulating system. ---~UGUSTINE KLAAS, S.J. 105 RECOMMENDED SPIRITUAL BOOKS ADAM, KARL The Spirit ,of Catholicism. Christ Our Brother. The Son of God. All excellent books for inspiration. ALPHONSUS LIGUORI, SAINT (1787) Ascetical Works, transJated by Grimm. 12 vols. AUGUSTINE, SAINT (430) The Confessions, edited by Dora ¯Roger Huddleston. Readings from St. Augustine on the Psalms, edited by Jos. Rickaby, S.J. The Teachings of St. Augustine on Prayer and the Contempla-tive Life, by Hugh Pope, O.P. BASIL, SAINT (379) Ascetical Works, edited by W. Clarke. 1 volume. These works describe the fundamental principles of monastic asceticism. BENEDICT, SAINT (543) The Rule of St. Benedict, translated with an introduction by Cardinal Gasquet. .The Rule of St. Benedict: A Commentary, by D0m Paul De-latte. Benedictine' Monachisrn, by Dom Cuthbert Butler. BERNARD, SAINT (1 153) Treatise on Consideration. translated by a priest of Mount Melleray. Treatise on the Love of God, translated by R. Terence Connolly. The Steps of Humility, translated by G~ B. Burch. The Life and Teachings of St. Bernard, by A. 3. Luddy, O. Cist. (Expensive.) Plus XI, in an Apostolic Letter recommended the reading of St. Bernard to religious. BLOS!US, ABBOT LOUIS, O.S.B. (1566) Spiritual Works. 6 volumes. ~ BONAVENTURE, SAINT (1274) Holiness of Life, edited by Ft. Wilfrid, O.F.M. Franciscan View of the Spiritual and Religious Life,mthree ,treatisds of St. Bonaventure, translated by P. D. Devas. Meditations on the Life of Christ, translated by Sister M. Em-manuel, O:S.B. (Excellent Fianciscan meditations, but of doubtful authenticity.) The works of St. Bonaventure were also recommended by Pius XI. 106 RECOLLV~NDED SPIRITUAL BOOKS BRUYERE, MADAME CECILIA (1909) Spiritual Life and Prayer. CABROL, ABBOT ~'-'ERNAND, O.S.B. Liturgical Prayer, Its History and Spirit. The Mass, Its Doctrine, Its History. The Year's Liturgy: Volume I, The Seasons; Volume II, The Sanctoral. CATHERINE OF SIENA, SAINT (1380) The Dialogue, translated by A. Thorold. Letters, edited by V. D. Scudder. CHAOTARD, JOHN B., O. CIST. (1936) The True Apostolate, translated by F. Girardey,C.SS.R. (On the relation of spiritual life to apostolic activity.) FABER FREDERICK W. (1863) Bethlehem. At the Foot of the Cross. All for Jesus. The Creator and the Creature. The Blessed Sacrament. Growth in Holiness. The Precious Blood. Spiritual Conferences. Faber's works are devotional and acutely psychological. FARGES, MSGR. ALBERT The Ordinary Ways of the Spiritual Life. (One of the best treatises on ascetical life.) FRANCIS DE SALES, SAINT (1622) Library of St. Francis de Sales. 7 volumes. St. Francis is the patron Saint of spiritual writers. His works were also recommended to religious by Plus XI. All religious should read them. FRANCIS OF ASSISI, SAINT (1226) The Wdtings of St. Francis of Assisi, translated by P. Robin-son, O.F.M. The Little Flowers of St. Francis of Assisi. The Ideals of St. Francis of Assisi, by H. Felder, O.M.Cap. GARRIGOU-LAGRANGE, REGINALD, O.P. Christian Perfection and Contemplation, translated by Sister M. Timothea, O.P. (One of the most widely discussed books in recent years.) GASQUET, F.AIDAN CARDINAL (1929) Religio Religiosi, (On the purpose and end of the religious life.) GAY, BISHOP CHARLES (1892) Christian Life and Virtues. Religious Life and Vows. 107 RECOMMENDED SPIRITUAL BOOI~ GOODIER, ARCHBISHOP ALBAN (1939) The Public Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ. 2 vols. The Passion and Death of. Our Lord Jesus Christ. Ascetical and Mgstical Theologg. The Life that is Light. 3 vols. (Meditation Outlines.) The Meaning of Life, and Other Essags." Witnesses to .Christ: Studies in the Gospels. Jesus Christ, the Son of God. Jesus Christ, the Model of Manhood. A More Excellent .Wag. (A ~pamphlet.) The School of Love. The Prince of Peace, Meditations. The Crown of Sorrow, Meditations~ Fiftg Meditations on the Passion. The Risen Jesus, Meditations. GOURAUD, MSGR. ALSlME. A Return to the Novitiate. (For monthly recollection.) GUARDINI, ROMANO The Spirit of the Lit~rgg. The Church and the Catholic. Sacred Signs. HEDLEY, BISHOP JOHN (19,15) The Holg Eucharist. The Light of Life. "['he Spirit of Faith. Wisdom from Abooe. Our Divine Saviour and Other Discourses. Lex Levitarum. or Preparation for the Cure o( Souls. A Spiritual Retreat for Priests. : A Spiritual Retreat for Religious. A Retreat: Thirtg-Three Discourses. IGNATIUS LOYOLA, SAINT (1556) The Spiritual Exercises. The Spiritual Exercises of ~St. Ignati'us, translation and commen-tary by J. Rickaby, S.J. The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, .with commentary by A. Ambruzzi, S.J. A Companion to the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, by A. Ambruzzi, S.J. JANE FRANCES DE CHANTAL, SAINT (1641 ): The "Spiritual Life. JOHN OF THE CROSS, SAINT (15 91 )' Complete Works. translated and edited by E. Allison Peers. 3 vols. (For mature religious.) 108 RECO/vIMENDED SPIRITUAL BOOKS JUERGENSMEIER, FRIEDRICH The Mystical Body of Christ as the Basic Principle of Religious Life. (A complete treatise on the spiritual life in terms ¯ . of the Mystical Body.) KEPPLER, BISHOP PAUL WILHELM (1926) " More Joy. On Suffering. LALLEMANT, LOUIS, S.3. ' (1635) Spiritual Doctrine. (For mature religious.) LEEN, EDWARD, C.S.SP. Progress through Mental Prayer. In the Likeness of Christ. The Holy Ghost and His Work in.Souls. Why the Cross? The True Vine and Its Branches. All are highly recommended. LOYOLA, MOTHER MARY (1933 The Child of God. Confession and Communion. Trust, A Book of Meditations. Welcome! Holy Communion: Before and :~fter. Hail Full of Gracer. Thoughts on the Rosary. With the Church. 2 vols. CoramSanct~simo desus of Nazareth. Heavenwards. MARMION, ABBOT COLUMBA, O.S.B. (1923)~ Christ the Life of the Soul. ,~ Christ in His Mysteries. Christ the Ideal o~ the Monk. Sponsa Verbi. The Way of the Cross. Words of Life on ~he Margin of the M~ssal. Sayings of Abbot Marmion, edited by Mother Mary St. Thomas. Certainly one of the greatest spiritual masters. MATURIN, BASLE WILLIAM. (1915) Self-knowledge and Self-discipline. Some Principles and Practices ~of t,h.e Spiritual ,Life. Laws of the Spiritual Life. Practical Studies on the Parables. MESCHLER, MAURICE, S.J. (1912) ~ Three Fundamental Principles of the Spiritual Life. Life of Our Lord desus Christ, in Meditations. 2 x~61s.' The Humanity of desus. St. doseph. The Gift of Pentecost. RECOMMENDED SPIRITUAL BOOKS MULLALY, CHARLES, J., S.J. Spiritual ReHections for Sisters. 2 volume series. NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY CARDINAL (1890) Favorite Newman Sermons, selected, by Daniel M. O'Con-nell, $.J. Heart to Heart: a Cardinal Newman Pra~lerbook, compiled by same. Kindhj Light: a Second Cardinal Newman Pra~lerbooh, com-piled by same. The Spiritual Le.qac.u of Newman, by William Robert Lamm. S.M. (A splendid synthesis of Newman's spirituality.) POURRAT, PIERRE Christian Spirituality. 3 vols. (A basic work; the only history of spirituality in English. The final fourth volume has not yet appeared in translation. A "must'; book. for serious study. Rather expensive.) PLUS, RAOUL, S.J. God Within Us. Living with God. Reparation. In Christ Jesus. Radiating Christ. The Eucharist. How to Pra[t Alwa[ls. How to pra[t Well. Facing Life---Series I: --Series H: Christ in His Brethren. The Folly of the Cross. " The Ideal of Reparation. Mary in Our Soul-life. Baptism and Confirmation. Meditations for Religious. Holiness in the Church. Progress in Divine Union. Meditations for Young Men. Meditations for Young Women. Dust, Remember Thou Art Splendor. RODRIGUEZ, ALPHONSUS, S.J. (1616) Practice of Perfection and Christian Virtues, translated by J. Rickaby, S.J. (Also recommended to religious by Plus XI.) SAUDREAU, MSGR. AUGUSTE The Degrees of the Spiritual Life. 2 vols. The Wail that Leads to God. The Life of Union with God. The Ideal of ~he Fervent Soul, These books cover all phases of the spiritual life; originally de-livered as instructions to nuns. SCARAMELLI, JOHN, S.J. (1752) The Oirectorium Asceticum, or Guide to the Spiritual Life'. 4 vols. 110 RECOMMENDED SPIRITUAL BOOKS TANQUEREY,ADOLPHE, S.S. (1932) Doctrine and Deootion. ~ The Spiritual Life. (This is the best'systematic work on ascetical theology in English. It is used as a text-book in some colleges. A "mus.t".) THERESA OF AVILA, SAINT (1582) Complete Works, translated by L~wis, edited by B. Zimmer- .man, O.C.D. (For mature religious.) THERESA OF LISIEUX, SAINT Autobiography. THOMAS A KEMPIS (1471) The Imitation of Christ. Groote or others.) (1897) (Sometimes attributed to Gerard THOMAS AQUINAS, SAINT (1274) Apology for Religious Orders. Religious State, Episcopate and Priestly Office. The Commandments of God. The Three Greatest Prayers. On Prayer and Thb Contemplative L~fe. These books must be studied, not merely read. TISSOT, JOSEPH (1894) The Interior Life Simplified. ULLATHORNE, BISHOP WILLIAM B. (1889) The Endowments of Man. Groundwork of theChristian.Virtues. Christian Patience. VONIER, ABBOT ANSCAR, O.S.B. (1938) Christ the King of Glory. A Key to the Doctrine of the Eucharist. The New and Eternal Covenant. Death and Judgement. The Life of the World t~ Come. The Angels. The Divine Motherhood. WILL)~M, DR. FRANZ The Life of desus Christ. Mary the Mother of Jesus. These books place Christ and His Blessed Mother against a background of Jewish life and customs, minutely but interest-ingly described. 11.1. The Doct:rinal Le!:!:er ot: Leo I on !:he Incarna!:ion Cyril Vollert, 8.3. THE recurrence of the Feast of the Annunciation centers our attention on an event which is never very far from the consciousness of a religious. It is the most astounding event that ever took place on this earth, the Incarnation of the Son of God. We shake our heads help-lessly when we try to appreciate what happened that day. It is too vast for the imagination to picture, too tremendous for the mind to grasp. How can we understand, with our feeble intellects, a Being who is both God and man? How can human language explain such a fact? Here, if any-where, we have need of a teacher, an interpreter. And such alone is the Church. He who will not hear the Church will go astray. No wonder, then, that throughout these two thou-sand years those who reject the Church reject this truth or, impatierit with God's revelation, pare down the truth to fit their own narrow minds. Some have insisted thai the Ttiing is impossible; and therefore Christ is only God, not man; or He is only man, not God. Others have taught that Christ was not a single Person, but two persons, God with His own divine nature, man with his own human nature. Still others, rebelling against this absurdity, and seeing in Christ only a single Person, concluded that He could have only one nature; and so, while before God became man there were two natures, one divine and one human, after the union of the two the human nature was swallowed up in the divine. Such was the notion of an ignorant and opin-ionated old monk, Eutyches by name, who in the fifth cen- 112. LEO I ON THE INCARNATION tury started a heresy which caused a theological hurricane in his own day, and which, with variations, still persists. But by the Providence of God the See of Peter was at thatl, turbulent moment Occupied by a saint and a learned theologian, Pope Leo I. Upon receipt of a full report of the error of Eutyches and the commotion stirred up by his heresy, Leo wrote a doctrinal letter about the matter to Flavian, then Bishop of Constantinople. In this letter the Pope set forth the truth in a statement so clear and exact that the Bishops assembled at the General Council of Chal-cedon a few years later acclaimed with enthusiasm. "Peter himself has spoken by the mouth of Leo"; and, "whoever does not accept the letter of our sainted Bishop Leo is a heretic." This is the famous dogmatic epistle or so-called "Tome" of Pope Saint Leo, an epistle justly cele-brated as one of the most important documents ever penned by a Roman Pontiff. In the conviction that the golden words of Leo are too precious to remain locked up in the Latin language and stored away in Volumes thumbed only by theologians and research scholars, the editors ~)f this REVIEW have desired that the principal sections of this letter be made available in an English translation. The rest of this article is devoted to such an attempt. St. Leo's Letter . All the faithful knowthe creed by which we profess belief in God the Father Almighty and in Jesus Christ His only Son, our Lord, who was born by the Holy Spirit of Mary the Virgin. By these'three propositions the machina-tions of almost all the heretics are thwarted. For belief in the omnipotent Father points out the Son, who is co-eternal ¯ with the Father and in nothing differs from the Father. because He is God born of God, Omnipotent of Omnipo- 113 CYRIL VOLLERT tint, Co-eternal of Eteraal; not later in time, not less 'in power, not Unequal in majesty, not divided in essence: And this same eternal, only-begotten Son of the eternal Father Was born by the Holy Spirit of Mary the Virgin. His birth in time, however, has taken nothing from that other divine and eternal birth from the Father; nor did it add anything, but was wholly contrived .for the redemption of man, who had been ensnared; for its purpose was to conquer death, and by its power to overthrow the tyiann~r Which the'devil exercised over death. We could not overcome the author of sin and death, unless He whom neither sin could besmirch nor death hold captive had taken.up our nature and made it His own. And so by the power ofthe Holy Spirit He was conceived in the Womb of His Virgin Mother, who gave birth to Him without hurt to her viriginity, just as she had conceived Himi without loss of the same. But we must take care not to misunders~tand this birth, which is so uniquely wonderful and so wonderfully unique. The nature proper, to the human race was not takefi away, by this new and unheard of procreation. The Ho~ly S16iri~, it is true, gave fruitfulness to the'Vir~gin, but the real body of the Son was derived from (he bod~r of the Mother. And so "the Word was made flesh, and"dwelt among hs"; .that is, the Wisdom of God built a house in the flesh which He took from a human being, and which He animated with a rational soul. ~ Thus, then, with everything pertaining to both of these natures and: substances remaining intact and coming together in one P~rson, lowliness was taken over by Majesty, weakness by Strength, mortality by Eternity. In order to pay the debt of our deplorable state, an inviolable nature was united to one that could suffer, so that one and the same Mediator between God and man, the man Jesus 114 LEO I ON THE INCARNATION Christ, could die according to one nature, even though in the other He could not die. Such was the remedy suitable to our distress. Therefore the true God was born with the complete and perfect nature of a real man, whole and entire in His own divinity, whole and entire in our humanity; in our humanity, I mean, such as the Creator made it in the beginning. This nature Christ assumed in order to restore it. The Son of God, then, has come upon our lowly earth, descending from His celestial throne without quitting the glo~ of His Father, heralding a new order of things, with a birth that is utterly unique. A new order: that is to say, He who is invisible in His own nature, has become visible in ours; He who is incomprehensible has will'ed to be com-prehended; He who exists before all time began to exist in time; the Lord of the universe, veiling His ihfinite majesty,. took the form of a servant; God incapable of suffering did not disdain to become a suffering man; God immortal did not refuse tO submit to the laws of death. And His birth was unique: for undefiled virginity, without experiencing con-cupiscence, has furnished a body of flesh. He received human nature from His Mother, but assumed no sin. But His miraculous birth does not make the human nature of our Lord ~lesus Christ, born of a Virgin, different from ours. For He who is truly God is also truly man; and although the lowliness of man and the sublimity of Deity are con-joined, there is nothing contradictory in this union. For just as God is not changed by the mercy which caused Him to become man, so neither is His humanity absorbed by His divine majesty. Each of these .natures, though in union with the other, performs functions proper to itself: ~the. Word does that which belongs to the Word, and the flesh does that which belongs to the flesh. One of these is resplend-ent with miracles, the other succumbs to injuries. And 115 CYRIL VOLLERT just as the Wor~l does not relinquish equality with the glory of the. Father, the flesh does not surrender the nature belonging to our race. One and the same Person, as we cannot repeat too often, is really the Son of God and really the son of man; God, because "in the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God"; man, because "the Word was made-flesh and dwelt among us"; God, because "all things were made through Him, and without Him was made nothing"; man, because he was "born of a woman, born under the Law." His birth according to the flesh is proof of His human nature, birth from a Virgin is a sign of His divine power. Surely when He says, "I and the Father are one," He is not speaking of the same nature as when He says, "the Father is greater than I." In a word., then, although in our Lord Jesus Christ. there is only one Person, who is both God and man, the lowliness which He~ has in common with us is from a dif-ferent source than the grandeur which He has in common with the Father. From us He has the humanity in which He is inferior to the Father, from the Father He has the divinity in which He is equal to the Father. ' This,. then, is the faith in which the Catholic Church lives, in this she grows: we believe that in Christ Jesus there is neither humanity without true divinity, nor divinity without true humanity. ~ Such in part, and without any indication of the sec-tions omitted, is the authoritative dogmatic letter written by Pope Leo I, on the 13th of June, 449. Several General Councils later incorporated some of its phrases into infallible pronouncements which in the face of heretical, opposition defined-the true. doctrine concerning Christ as revealed to the world byGod. 116 ¯ Prot:ession ot: a Novice in Danger of: Deat:h Adam C. Ellis, S.~I. pOPE Saint Pius V, a member of the Order of Preachers, issued a Constitution called Summi" Sacerdotii on August 23, 1570, whereby he allowed any novice of the second order of Dominican nuns who was in danger of death ~to make her religious profession, even though she had not completed her canonical novitiate.His motive in doing so, as stated in the Constitution, was to provide spiritual consolation for the dying novice who would otherwise be deprived of the merit of the religious profession inheaven. To the onovice thus professed at the hour of death he fur~ thermore granted all the indulgences and Other favors which the professed nuns enjoyed in the same dircumstances, and added a plenary indulgence to be gainedat the moment 6f death. By reason ~f the communication ot~ privili~ges wiaich existed between the first and second orders of St. DominiC, this favor of Saint Pius V was extendedto the first order of Friars Preachers. Later on othe~r~religious institutes obtained the same favor from the Holy See by special indult or by way of. approval of their constitutions in which it was con-tained. Pope Pius X extended this privilege to all novices of every religious order or congregation or religious society by the Decree Spirituali Consolationi of September 3, 1912, which was published by the S. Congregation Of Religious on September 10, 1912. This Decree laid down detailed regulations regarding the profession tO be made by a novice at the hour of death and regulated its effects: 117 ADAM C. ELLIS The new Code of Canon Law, which was promulgated in 1917, made no mention of the aforesaid privilege; hence the question was raised whether it was still in effect. At a -.,plenary session Of the Eminent Cardinals who form the S. Congregation of Religious, held on December 29, 1922, it was decided that the privilege still existed, and the pro-visions for this profession established by Pius X were repeated with certain additions, .and approved by Pius XI on December 30, 1922,. and ordered published the same day. We shall give the text of this document of the S. Con-gregation of Religious with a brief explanation of each point. In everg order, congregation, religious societg, or mon-asterg of men or women, likewise in institutes in which common life is observed although Oows are not taken, henceforth it is allowed to admit to profession, consecration or promise, according to the rules and constitutions, novices or probationers who, in the opinion of a doctor, are so gravely ill that they are considered to be at the point of death, even though they have not completed the period of novitiate or probation. The privilege is general, and extends to all novices, not ~onty in an order or congregation or society in which vows are taken,, but also in institutes whose members live a com- .mon life without taking public vows, but who usually, according to their constitutions, make some form of conse-cration or promise of perseverance. The only condition laid down in the general grant is that the novice, in the opinion of a ,doctor, is sick unto death. However, in order that novices or probationers ma~l be admitted to the above-mentioned profession or consecration-or promise, it is necessary: I. That they shall have canonically begun their novi-tiate or probation. 118 PROFESSION OF A DYING NOVICE The text is the same as that issued by the S. Congrega-tion of Religious in 1912. Up to that time the terms "novitiate" and "probation," "novice" and "probationer" were used synonymously. In the Code, however, the terms "probation" and "probationer" have been omitted in favor of "novitiate" and "novice", which are used exclusively to indicate those who hax;e been admitted to the period of trial preceding the religious profession. Canon 553 tells us that the novitiate begins with the reception of the habit, or in some other manner prescribed by the constitutions. This is what is meant here by beginning the novitiate or probation canonically. Postulants have not as yet begun their canon-ical novitiat.e; hence they are excluded from the privilege in question. Such is the opinion followed in practice by the S. Congregation of Religious. 2. That the superior who admits the novice or proba-tioner to the pro[ession or consecration or promise mag be, not onlg the respective major superior to whom this power belongs bg reason of the constitutions, but also the actual superior of the monasterg or novitiate or house of proba-tion, or a delegate of ang one of these superiors. Under normal' circumstances only the superior indi-cated in the constitutions can admit a novice to the profes-sion of vows. UsuallTthis power is reserved by the consti-tutions either to the superior general or to major superiors such as provincials~or their equivalent. In the case of the novice who is at the point o.f death, the local superiorof the monastery or no;gitiate house also has this power. If time permits, however, it would seem proper to refer the case t~ the major superior. To admit to profession means to give the novice permission to make his profession. The superior who does so in the case of a novice at the point of death does ¯ not need to .refer the case to his. council or to the chapter. 119 ADAM C. ELLIS Even though the dying novice be outside the monastery or novitiate house, in a hospital or sanatorium, for instance, he may be admitted to his profession, so long as .he is a canonical novice. Superiors may delegate their power of admitting the dying novice to profession, either to some other member of their institute, or to any other religious or priest, e.g. to the superior or to the chaplain of a hospital. 3. That the formula of profession or consecration or promise shall be that in use in the institute outside the case of sickness; and the vows, if taken, shall be made without determination of time or of perpetuitg. The ordinary formula of the vows, consecration, or promise is to be used, without any reference to time. There-fore such terms as: "for three years," "for ever," "for my entire life," are to be omitted. 4. That the novice who made such a profession or con-secration or promise shall share in all the indulgences, suf-frages, and other graces which the trulg professed religious receive at death; the dging novice is moreover mercifultg granted in the Lord the remission of all his sins in the form of a plenarg indulgence. This provision of the original decree of Pius X has been incorporated into .the Code in canon 567, except for the plenary indulgence. Hence every novice shares in all the privileges and spiritual graces granted to his institute, and if he dies, even though he does not make the profession in question, he has a right to the same suffrage.s which are pre.: scribed for the professed. If the novice does make his pro-fession before death, he receives a plenary indulgence granted him by the Holy See. This plenary indulgence is enjoyed only at the moment of death, since Pius V expressly states this, and Plus X intended to grant this favor in the same way in which it was originally granted. 120 PROFESSION OF A DYING NOVICE 5. That this profession or consec?ation or promise shall have no effect other than to confer the graces' (favors) men-tioned in the precedingonumber. Hence: (A) If the no~2ice 6r probationer dies intestate after ~uch 'a profession or con-secration or promise, the institute cannot lay claim .to any of the property or rights which belonged to him. (B) If the novice recovers before the expiration, of the time required for his, noviceship or pr.obation, he shall be in exactly the same condition as if he had made no profession. Accord- .inglg : a) he may freetg return to the world if he wishes to do so; b) superiors can dismiss him; c) he must fill out the entire time prescribed in each institute for the novitiate or probation, even though it eJcceed one year; d) at the expira-tion of this time, if he perseveres, the novice must make a new profession or consecration or promise. ¯ The profession made by the novice at the hour of death is personal 'and conditional. If ,the novice dies, he enters eternity as-a true religious, and receivesthe same merit as any other religious by reason of his corisecration of himself to God. " I.f he recovers, the profession made has no, canoni-cal effect whatsoever. The novice is in the same condition as he was before be .fell ill, and consequently, he, on his part, must fulfill .all the requirements of the law for his subse-quent profession. He is canonically free to leave.the novi-tiate at any time, if he so desires: Superiors, on their part, may dismiss him as they may dismiss any other novic~. The entire purpose of allowing a novice to make his profession at the hour of death is to give him the spiritual consolation of dying as a religious. Finally, the Sacred Congregation declares that there is no objection to inserting the foregoing provision in consti-tutions of orders and congregations, if the institutes them-selves ask to do so~ i21 ADAM C. ELLIS The use of the privilege contained in the declaration of the S: Congregation given above does not depend upon its being inserted in the constitutions of an institute. All dying ¯ ~novices may be allowed the use of the privilege, even though it is not contained in the constitutions of their institute. But if the institute wishes to insert the provisions of this instruc-tion in its constitutions, it must first obtain the permission of the S. Congregation of Religious, which will grant it for the asking. PAMPHLET REVIEWS ~ We have received several booklets that are deserving of special notice in a periodical such as ours. A Novena to St. Francis Xavier is a series of reflections on salva-tion and missionary work, written especially for children. The Wag of the Cross, by a Maryknoll Missionary, is a manual for the Stations which is particularly interesting because the illustrations are artistic woodcuts representing the characters of the Passion as Chinese. For information about the booklets, write to The Maryknoll Bookshelf, Maryknoll P.O., New York. A Saintly Shepherd of Souls is a pamphlet life of the Venerable John Neumann, C.SS.R., the fourth Bishop of Philadelphia. Itcon-tains 47 pages of interesting and inspiring facts. The author is the Reverend Albert Waible, C.SS.R., Vice-Postulator ofthe cause of the Venerable Neumann. The pamphlet may be procured from the Mis-sion Church Press, 1545 Tremont St., Boston, Mass. 5 cents a copy: $3.50 per hundred. Besides the foregoing, we have received two booklets by the Right Reverend Raphael J. Markham, S.T.D. : Apostolate to Assist Dying Non-Catholics; and Apostolate of Prayer for S~roinarians. We hope to treat Monsignor Markham's messages at some length in future issues of THE REVIEW. 122 I eligious and 0t: he Decalogue Gerald Kelly, S,J. I1| T IS the imperative duty of the pastor to give his days I and nights to the consideration of it (the Decalogue) : and to this he should be prompted by a desire not only to regulate his own life by its precepts, but also to instruct in the law of God th~ people committed to his care." These very strong words are quoted from the most authoritative of all catechisms, Tl~e Catechism of the Council of Trent, (also called The Ro~an Catechism). The injunction is, of course, directed to pastors of souls: but it scarcely need be pointed out howap ipropr¯iate it is for all religious, even though they be n0~ pastors, or even priests. The per-sonal reason is applid~ble to all of us; the fact that we have embraced the life of t,he Counsels does not exempt us from a careful observance of: the Commandments, The apostolic reason is also apphc,able to a very large percentage of us. Comparatively few of us.are not called upon at one time or another to:give catechetical instruction. I. Content of the Decalogue One may state, therefore, without fear of contradic-tion that religious should study and meditate over the Commandments of God. But a further question might well be asked: What should they study? What ought they to know as an aid to their personal observance of the Deca-logue and as the proper and sufficient equipment for apos- ~tolic work, should they be called upon to catechize? ~Thi~s is an important practical question, and it can hardly be answered without a few preliminary remarks concerning the content, or subject-matter, of the Decalogue. 123 GERALD KELLY It is sometimes said that every Commandment, even though it be phrased negatively ("Thou shalt not") ,, really contains two sides, an affirmative and a negative. It com-mands some things and forbids Others. This statement is a step in the right direction. It helps to counteract a purely negative attitude toward God's law. But, though a step in the right direction, the statement does not go far enough. It stil! leaves the Commandments difficult to explain. It is, perhaps, better to say that each Commandment, even though phrased in a purely negative manner, really does three things: First, it indicates a whole field of virtuous acts which it is both natural and becoming for a human being to perform; secondly, it commands certain minimum essentials of.virtue necessary for preserving the dignity of a o human being; and thirdly, it forbids certain thoughts and acts which either mar or destroy thebeauty of human nature. In subsequent issues of~this REVIEW we shall give thor-ough explanations of these Various aspects of the Com-mandments., For the present purpose, each aspect can be illustrated by a brief reference to the First Commandment. At the beginning of the Decalogue, we find the expres-sion: "I am the Lord, thy God." This is rather the foun-dation of the Commandments than a part of any one of them. It expresses a great and fundamental truth from which the Commandments flow in logical,' natural sequence. Itpresents us with a sublime picture of reality.~ On the one hand is God, almighty, eternal, a being 0f supreme and infinite excellence, and the Creator of the world; on the other hand is man; a creature endowed with intellect and free will, produced entirely by God and depending absolutely on God for all the good that he is or has or does. One who appreciates this basic relationship between 124 THE STUDY OF THE DECALOGUE man and God will not find it difficult to conclude that man ought to acknowledge his. relationship. A whole-souled devotion to his Creator is a good thing for man; and-any: acts by which he can honor God are good and appropriate for him. Fit expressions of his place with referenc~ to God are such things as adoration, the prayer of petition,~ praise, or thanksgiving. If God should speak to him, man should listen reverently and should place the most absolute faith in His word and the most unhesitating trust in His promises and in His power, and so forth. Thus, even the first glance at the reality of God and man, shows a whole field of per-fection that it is appropriate for man to cultivate. That is What is mean~ by saying that each Commandment ir~dicates a sphere of virtuous acts that it is natural and becoming fdr man to perform. From the point of view of mere appro-priateness, there is no limit to this sphere of action; the more frequently and the more fervently man can thus honor God, the better it is, The only actual limit is man's small capacity and the fact that his other needs and duties in life must necessarily prevent him from spending his entire time in explicit acts of worship. Realizing now the fitness of man's worshipping God, We come to the Second point. Are all of these acts of wor-ship optional for man, or are some of them obligatory? The very law of nature answers the question. Man must per-form some of these acts of virtue; without some worship of God, he fails to live up to the dignity of his created human nature. So this is the second thing that the Commandment does: it prescribes the minimum essentials of virtue in this field, some acts of adoration, some prayer, and so forth. Finally, we come logically to the third aspect. If acts of divine worship are appropriate for human nature, and certain acts are obligatory, it follows that any acts which conflict with~ this fundamental law of worship are 125 GERALD KELLY unworthy of man. Thus, he is forbidden to give to a crea-ture the honor belonging uniquely to God, forbidden to worship God in an unbecoming manner. These prohibi- ¯tio, s form an important part of the Commandment, bht by no means the principal part of it. They are not even understood without some reference to the positive side. The foregoing brief analysis of the First Commandment illustrates the statement that each Commandment may-be considered under three heads: the virtue indicated; the vir-tuous acts.prescribed; and the vicious acts t:orbidden. With this divisidn clearly in mind, we are now in a position to take up the question: what should a religious study in regard to the Decalogue? II. What a Religious Should Know To reverse the order and begin with the prohibitions, all religious should have a clear, well-defined knowledge of those things in which they themselves are likely to be tempted. They should know what precisely is forbidden, and to what extent it is forbidden, .that is, whether a viola-tion would be a mortal or a venial sin. This degree of knowledge is necessary for personal peace of conscience, and it should be imparted bymeans of adequate instruction. The policy of leaving all personal perplexities of conscience to be solved by an occasional word from a confessor is not a sound one. Very often a person who has not received ade-quate instruction is unable to express his difficulty to the confessor or unable to appreciatethe congessor's advice, and this sometimes leads to long periods of racking and entirely needless doubt. Moreover, the policy of hedging when explaining moral obligations to religious, of confusing ascetical norms with moral norms, slight obligations with serious obligations, is also difficult to justify. It breeds false consciences and often enough is the cause of scruples. 126 THE STUDY OF THE DECALOGUE Of course, it may be said that many of the prohibitions of the Decalogue will not affect religious: they will be seldom or never tempted in some matters. However, there is the further fact that a large percentage of our religious do give catechetical instruction on the Commandments. Now, even the small Baltimore Catechism, treating of the First Commandment, lists suchforbidden things as these: making use of spells and charms; belief in dreams, spiritists. and fortune-tellers: presumption; despair. The ability to teach the First Commandment requires that one have a. dear, soundly-theologicalknowledge of~ what constitutes sin in these matters. And the ability to teach the other Commandments requires, among other things, that one know the difference bdtween such things as blasphemy, cursing, and profane words; between just anger and inex-cusable anger; between thoughts and actions which are directly against purity and thoughts and actions which are merely dangerous to purity. A teacher should know these differences, should know also what makes a sin of injustice, disobedience, hatred: and when such sins are venial, when mortal. One does nbt get these notions by intuition: nor do the simple ,definitions of the c~itechism furnish a sufficient knowledge fo~? the teacher, inregard to almost; every sin listed here, great theologians draw sharp distinctions. These distinctions can be known only when they are studied and competently explaine& As fbr the things prescribed by the Commandments, the same:limits may be set for the minimum essentials of knowledge demanded of the' religious. He should know precisely what is commanded, and. whether itis commanded under pain of serious or Venial sin. He should know these things f0i his own peace of conscience; he should know them as a necessfiry background for his teaching, in case he should ,be called upon to instruct others ~,' i27" GERALD KELLY All this is not intended to carry the inference that reli-gious need a confessor's knowledge of the Decalogue. Nor is it even insinuated that teachers of the catechism should give their pupils complete descriptions of all the sins listed in the catechism or all the subtle distinctions that can be made between mortal and venial sin. But religious should know what is necessary for their own peace of conscience, as well as those things that form a necessary background for giving catechetical instruction, so that, when called upon for an explanation, they can give something that is simple and adapted to the listener and, above all, that they may avoid giving inaccurate answers that imbed themselves into a young soul like a malignant germ and that breed what eventually becomes a practically incurable case of scruples. Strictly speaking, the Commandments, in the sense of Divine Laws imposing moral obligations under pain of sin, consist only in preceptsand prohibitions~ Yet the study of the Commandments should not be limited to such things. These obligations cannot be correc~tly understood without some appreciation of what has been called the first aspect of the Commandments, that is, the virtues indicated by them, For how is. one to perceive the reason why he must worsbilo at some time and in some manner, unless he first realizes that the worship of God is a good and beauti-ful thing in itself? How is one to understand the obliga-tion of obedience, unless he first perceives the inherent good-ness of respect for legitimate authority? How is one to appreciate the obligations of chastity unless he first, becomes conscious of the dignity and beauty of the divine plan of paternity and family life, of which chastity is the guardian? Evidently, for th~ religious themselves, this first and eminently positive phase of the Comma'ndments is a decid-edly salutary subject of study and meditation. They may have relatively few temptations to violate them; but they 128 THE STUDY OF THE DECALOGUE have abundant oppbrtunities for living them and for loving them. Surely the refrain of the ll8th Psalm, "O Lord, how have I loved Thy law," should fill the soul of every-one dedicated to the service of God. It ~should lighten an'd make joyous the burden of his own obligations; it should communicate inspiration tO those with whom he exercises his apostolate. And the,people with whom we deal are sadly in need of inspiration; it is surprising how many of them, even ~he good people, have a decidedly negative and uninspired attitude towards the Commandments. All of us are, no doubt, familiar with the following typical scene of boy life. ~We can call the boy 3ohn, aged ten. He has finished his supper and is paging somewhat listlessly through the newspaper. He has seen the comics and the sports page' so there is reall~r nothing in the paper to-interest him. Actually he is not perfectly at ease. One gloomy eye is straining toward his bedroom where certain evil things called schoolbooks await him, another gloomy eye is straining toward the' kitchen, whence his mother will presently emerge' and order him to betake himself to those same sctiool books. (There are still some mothers like that.) Suddenly he h~ars welcome sounds. He rushes to the door and peers Out. Yes, it's "the gang" getting ready for an evening game. No more gloom in his eyes now; ~hey are all eagerness. ' "Morn," he calls, "How about letting me go out and play just one game? I'll be back in a little while." "No, 3ohn," comes the firm answer. "You've had plenty of platy today. It's time to study now, so get to your books." No amount of coaxing prevails over his mother's firm-ness, and finally 3ohn turns from the door. But the bright-ness is gone again from his eyes. Heavy feet, heavy heart, 129 GERALD KELLY slumping shoulders: he is the picture of youthful misery as he trudges his way from the sounds of boyish delight and slumps down into a chair over the dreaded school books. "She's a good mother," would run his thoughts translated into words, "but she doesn't understand. Otherwise she wouldn't make it so hard." That little drama of the child-world exemplifies the negative attitude of many even good people toward the Commandments. They find in the Commandments only ten negations of comfort and ease and content, ten privations of pleasure and freedom. They turn away from these for-bidden pleasures with a heavy Step and a heavy heart. They find no thrill in the keeping of the Commandments: often they seem to have a sneaking suspicion that God, like 3ohn's mother, just doesn't understand: otherwise He -would not make it so hard. In the various moral crises of life they overcome themselves, they keep the law, but even their victories are dulled by that boy-like heaviness of soul. They will be faithful, cost what it may: but the only joy of it lies in the subsequent good conscience. They deny them-selves, they repress themselves, and in these conflicts with self, it never occurs to them to lift up their heads and lighten their hearts with the thought that in thus repressing their lower selves they are really expressing their better selves. If possible, we should prevent or change this negative attitude. But we shall hardly do this unless we ourselves appreciate the beauty of God's law. The Roraar~ Cate-chism suggests several motives calculated to inspire a love of the Decalogue, and in particular it. stresses the fact that the observance of the moral law "proclaims more eloquently the .glory and the majesty of God than even the celestial bodies, which by their beauty and order excite the admira-tion of the most barbarous nations and compel them to acknowledge and proclaim the glory, the wisdom, and the 130 THE STUDY OF THE DECALOGUE power, of the Creator arid Architect of the universe." These solemn words touch on something fundamental to the Commandments: their relation to the glory of God. This theme is too large for fuli~ treatmen~ here. " The next section of this article contains a merely partial development of it, an indication of one kind of prayerful reflection that may serve to increase our appreciation of the Decalogue as a code of moral beauty. III. The Decalogue and Moral Beautg The observance of the Decalogue gives God great glory. In order to avoid theological technicalities in expanding on this motive, it will not be out of place for us to indul'ge in. the following bit of reverent fantasy. Imagine you have a pair of wings that will take yo~u back through time'. Swiftly you pass the century marks, the nineteenth, eighteenth., first., on into the ages before Christ, before Moses, until at last you come to the dividing line between time and eternity. You cross that line, then you turn back and rub it out; and, though it all seems quite absurd and impossible, you are alone with God before the creation of the world! You are alone with God, and you have this problem ~to solve: Why might God create the world? Remember that God is an intelligent being, and if He is to create, He must have a reason; yes, and a reason that is worthy of Himself. You are looking for that reason. Where shall you look for this reason for creating? Only in God; nothing else exists. So you must look intently upon God; you must, so to speak, search the depths of God for some possible reason for the existence of creatures. Your first search, though filled with wonders, is a dis-appointment. ,Here in God is all perfection in an infinite degree; here is the marvelous inner life, the Blessed Trinity. revealed: the Father, the Son, the Holy Spirit, infinitely 131 GERALD KELLY happy and blessed in Their possession of the Divine Essence and of One Another. But this is no reason for creating; this is rather a reason for not creating. There appears to be neither need, 'nor use, nor even the possibility of any other being. So you shake your head and turn away; you have not solved the riddle of creation. But look again, look deeper, as it were; and in- the clear placid ocean of Divine perfection you begin to see-the pat-terns of a limitless number of tiny beings, none of them equal to God, but each of them reflecting something of God. Here is one of the vast treasures of the Divinity, the tremen-dous possibility of s~arino His loveliness. Here you see the types of a great variety of beings, each of which God could bring into existence, each of which in its own way and according to its own limited capacity,, could manifest some-thing of the Divine Perfection. You have solved the riddle; you have discovered a reason for creation worthy of God Himself. It is His own Goodness which is, so to speak, a fountain of perfection that He can share with others, without loss to Himself. Thus, our little trip of fantasy has brought us face to face with the truth solemnly defined by the Vatican Council, that God created the world, not to acquire anything for Him-self or to increase His own perfection; but simply to com-municate it to otl~ers. This sublime truth, the object of our fantastic journey into the creative mind of God is intimately associated with the glory that man gives to God by the observance of the Commandments. If we return now from the mind of God into the realm of creatures, we na~turally expect to find that every creature, be it tiny, be it great; is a finite.expression of God, a reflection of some divine perfection. The drop of water, the grain of sand, the flower in the field, the family kitten, the sun, the moon, the stars, the entire universe-- 132 THE STUDY OF THE DECALOGUE each and all of these things show forth in some way the beauty, the loveliness, the majesty .of God. And they do this simply/~ beir~g tt~emseloes, by being faithful copies of~ the original masterpiece hidden within the depths of God. Everything in the world reflects God's goodness, and thus gives God glory, by following the law of its nature. Even those who never think of God are constantlT recognizing this law of the nature of things in their search for comfort and beauty and goodness. The cook enters her kitchen and bakes a cake that makes one's mouth ,water. She does not do this by seizing a. number of things at ran-dom, kneading them into some kind of dough, and tossing the mixture into the oven. She follows a definite recipe, and this recipe is only a formula worked out on the prin~ ciple that certain things react in a certain way with other things and produce a definite result. The engineer goes into his laboratory and plans a stream-lined train or some elec-trical marvel. He is searching for the laws that God wrote into the materials. The physical culturist who specializes in the body beautiful simply makes use of God's laws of sound and symmetrical bodies. The orchestra, playing a symphony that almost transports one into another world, follows the same notes that once burned through the brain of the composer. The composer is called a creator, yet he has not created. The music is also God's creature; the com-poser merely discovered .and applied the laws of harmony to produce this thing of entrancing beauty. So it is all through nature, true beauty is achieved by having things act according to their natures. That law is apparent in the simplest and in the grandest things---in the cake, in the symphony, in the splendors of the heavens. And the same law holds for man's contribution to the beauty of the universe; he must follow the law of his na-ture, the Decalogue. Man's duty and privilege is to sing 133 . GERALD KELLY unto God a glorious hymn of praise; the notes are the Com-mandments. Following these notes faithfully; he constantly ¯ raises toward heaven a sweet-toned benedicite which far ,surpasses any human composition. His unique contribu-tion to the beauty of the universe is moral beauty, and this, as The Roman Catechism points out, excels all the splen-dors of the irrational world. We all know something of the beauty of a single human soul in which the divine likeness is unblemished by sin. What if all souls were like that; what if all men at all times and in all places observed the Commandments of God! The combined interior beauty of all those souis 'would be indescribable; and exteriorly also the world would be a paradise. The one true God would be worshipped every-where according to His will; His holy name would be sounded only in reverence; all authority, as it comes from Him, would be pledged to Him .and exercised only according to His wise laws; parents would be devoted to their children, and children to their parents; human life and property and honor would be sacred;~ purity and marital fidelity would be everywhere esteemed. No idolatry, no persecutions, no blasphemies, no murder, no thefts, no .unjust. wages,, no obscenity, no backbiting or slander, no wars, no class conflict!! We could close our jails, divorce courts, reform schools; we could do away with burglar alarms and safes. There would be noarmaments to con-sume our capital, no death-weapons to slay our youth. A picture such as this reminds one of the Garden of Eden. Of course, when we view the moral turmoil that actually exists, we must label such a picture another fantasy. Yet it is .well for us to contemplate it, unreal though it happens to be; for it shows us the beauty and harmony the Com-mandments are supposed to produce. It shows us what the world could be, if man, like the irrational things, lived up 134 THE STUDY OF THE DECALOGUE to his nature. In the last section of this article, some considerations were offered that may help towards an appreciation of the Commandments as laws of moral beauty. Only the Deca-logue was mentioned exp!icitly, but for their personal meditations, religious might easily build upon that notion and see how all the laws that govern them are intended to bring out more sharply.some form of goodness. For in-stance, we know that God has given us not merely human natures, but super-natures; the life of Grace; and for pre-serving and developing this higher form of goodness He has supplemented the Decalogue with the laws of the super-natural life. The Church, legislating with authority from God, has given .us other laws, planned to make us good Catholics. The founders and foundresses of our religious societies, captivated by some particular form of Christlike-hess, have drawn up their constitutions with the aim of developing this Christlikeness in their followers. By the observance of these various laws, we can scale a tall pyramid of moral beauty. But we should ever keep in mind that at the base of this pyramid is the law that St. Augustine rightly called the foundation and epitome of all laws, the Decalogue. BOOKS RECEIVED (To be reviewed later.) MEDIEVAL HUMANISM. pan),. New York. THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL IN ENGLAND. By John J. O'Connor. MacMillan Compan),. New York. FAST BY THE ROAD. B), John Mood),. The MacMillan Compan)'. York. PRINCIPLES OF CHRISTIAN AND RELIGIOUS PERFECTIOI~L Brothers. Poughkeepsie, N. Y. By Gerald G, Walsh, S.J. The MacMillan Coat- The . New Marist 135 ook Reviews PROGRESS IN DIVINE UNION. By the R6~,erend Raoul Phs, S.J. Pp. 142. Translated from the French by Sister M. Bertlile and Sister iVl. St. Thomas, Sisters of Notre Dame, of Cleveland, Ohio. Frederick Pustet, Inc., New York, 1941. $1.S0. This little work of the well-known French ascetical writer treats cl~arly and forcefully of two. great means of making progress in union with God: namely, "generous self-conquest," and "the spirit of prayer." To the former, four chapters are devoted, each one devel-oping a major motive for self-conquest: self:preservation, expiation, imitation of our Lord, and redemption. If the redemptive process is to be completedby the Mystical Christ, that is, if more and more individual soul~ are actually to be brought to the divine life, then it is simply necessary that more and more good Chri.~tians, themselves already members, should make up in their persons what is lacking in the sufferings of Christ and thus put themselves into condition to enable others to enter that mystical incorporation or to grow in it. Christians need not only to be assimilated to Christ themselves and to be united with Him; they must go beyond this point and carry out the work of Christ in bringing others, as many as possible, to the saving knowledge and love of God. But self-conquest alone is not sufficient. To it must be added prayer, especially mental prayer, in it one learns "to experience in one's wh01e being the reality considered: the greatness of God, the immensity of His love, the infinite mercy of our Savior . the expiatory or redemptive pow. er of suffering, the incomparable price of life, or the splendor of deatfi." The work closes with a section on recollection and th~ continuous maintenance of union with God throughout all of one's occupations. No doubt this little book of Fr. Plus's xvill be much welcomed by the many for whom he has become a favorite devotional author:--G. A. ELLARD, S.,J. COLORED CATHOLICS IN THE UNITED STATES. By the Reverend John T. Gillard, S.S.J. Pp. x -f- 298. Josephlte Press, Baltimore, 1941. $3.00. All who are interested in, the Negro problem, whether from a purely scholarly or a practical point of view, will welcome this new 136 BOOK REVIEWS statistical study. Father Gillard is a well known authority on the Negro question. This, together with the care with which he has gathered his statistics and the caution with which he presents his findings, renders Colored Catholics in the United States a valuable reference book. It is not a new venture for Father Gillard. Rather it is an improvement and amplification of an earlier volume published in 1929. The book contains a pleasant mixture of facts and comment. The facts were gathered from the dioceses of the United States and the numerous organized enterprises that are predominantly Negro, and are presented in convenient tables. They cover: the Colored Catholic population according to dioceses, sections, states; free colored, slave, and white population for Southern and Northern Louisiana for the years 1810 and 1860; capacity of Negro Catholic churches in Louisi. ana in 1860; a scholarly estimate of the number of Negro Catholics in the United States at the time of emancipation; and statistics, on the churches, schools, missions, priests, nuns, and welfare works dedicated to Colored Catholics. Throughout the book Father Gillard contrasts the condition of the various fields of work in the past with the present, and offers some explanation of the losses and gains. He gives a full treatment of the difficult problems of indifference, prejudice, and migration. Since this book is something of the nature of an almanac, it is unfortunate that it is not available in an inexpensive paper-bound edition. While there is need of a well-bound edition for schools and libraries, a paper-covered copy would be convenient on the desk of every student of the race problem or worker in any of the many fields of endeavor for the betterment of the Colored race. This is especially true since the available census statistics on Colored Catholics are admittedly inaccurate.--J. T. WHITE, 8.3. [NOTE: Our readers are very likely aware of the fact that Father Gillard died quite unexpe.ctedly since this book review was written, mED.] ONE INCH OF SPLENDOR. By Sister Maw Rosalla of Ma~knoll. Pp. 90. Field Afar Press, New York, 1941. $1.00. It is good for us all to realize that the Catholic Church is truly catholic. This is one of the effects of this book. Here is a tale of old China, a whitened harvest field of souls crying for reapers. It is into this distant land that the Sisters of Maryknoll carry the torch of faith. ¯. 137 BOOK REVIEWS We go at once into the home of Chinese peasants, we see the women fingering and studying the crucifix on the Sisters' habits. The Sisters go on from village to village0 from that of Long Sand Bar to Dangerous Rapids and farther to the village of the Fr~igrance of. the Cinnamon Tree. And everywhere, into both Catholic and pagan homes, they bring the good news, the truth of the Lord of Heaven. In towns, far removed from priest and chapel, they form Rosary Sodalities which will meet on Sunday for the benefit of those unable to travel the 19ng distance to the mission church. Everywhere they recruit members for the Study-the-Doctrine- Time, the catechumenate, to be held within a few months at Rosary Convent. All their work is directed towards this goal f to get pagans to come to this instructiori class. Then, at the convent, during forty days, intensive instruction is given the neophytes. We see old women, young children, all trying to master the fundamentals of our religion. Red marks appear on brown foreheads, as the long nails of Chinese fingers bruise the skin in their effort to trace the sign of the cross. Finally, the examinations are held and the three score and odd pagans are baptized. The Church has grown another inch irr China. This book is recommended for convent community reading. Readers will find that the problems of missionary Sisters are not altogether different from those which they themselves experience. And a greater love for our Faith, which is so eagerly embraced by the Chinese, should spring up in the soul. An'inspiring oneness will.be experienced with these courageous Sisters who have left home, with all the word means, to bring light where before there had been 0nly darknes~.--M. J. DONNELLY, S.~I'. LITURGICAL WORSHIP. By ~1. A. Jungmann, S,J. Translated by a monk of St. John's Abbey, Collegeville: foreword by Rt. Ray. Alculn Deufsch, ¯ Abbot of Collecjeville. Pp.xil -k 141. Frederick Pustet, Inc., New York. 1941. $1.2S. This is a very precious little book, the best in its field known to the reviewer, and, though meant in~fiist instance for priests, both in subject-matter and in presentation, it' should appeal to all religious as Christians and as worshippers of God. In the late Summer of 1938 the Carffsianam at Innsbruck held an institute for priests on "The Theology of Today," at which '~the 138 BOOK REVIEW8 central topic of discussion was the matter of giving a mor~ forceful and dynamic expression to'abstract theological truths." Father 3ung-mann's lectures there delivered, although advanced by the author as something of a rough sketch, were demanded for publication, The German original appeared, in consequence, in 1939. The present reviewer has had the work within arm's length since then and has read it, not once or twice, but six or seven times. No author, so it seemed, had so clearly "isolated" the essentials of Christian worship, none so felicitously outlined the basic laws of development inherent in the very nature of theliturgy. Whether one is interested in some small point" of the present stiucture of the Office, or concerned with the place of the vernacular in modern Dialog Mass, the ultimate a'nswer, illustrated, by historical facts and instances, was almost sure to be indicated in 2ungmann's slender book. It is a great boon to have this now. made available in the.incomparably wider circles of the English-language public. One can list in a moment the themes handled in the volume, but only familiarity with the book itself can convey an idea of how much light is shed on a whole array of pointsall to the fore in the current liturgical movement. Starting with the elemental definition, "Liturgy is the public worship of the Church," the author with skill, and logic, and tact, shows the shortcomings of other definitions, while he draws out the unsuspected depths contained in the formula defended. The second chapter, "In Whom is the Liturgy Reposed?," deals with priesthood, the Priesthood of Christ in Head and members, and the relation of.the ministerial priesthood of Holy Orders towards both Head' and members. "Two Tendencies" are briefly sketched in Chapter Three, that of liturgy toward the beautiful and that of liturgy toward popular appeal. In tracing the working out of these tendencies, a good deal of basic religious psychology is mirrored in miniature. Chapter Four is the kernel of the book: it deals With the Ground- Plan, that worship (ideally) begins with a reading, which is followed by a song, then prayer by the people, and finally, prayer by the priest. In the remaining chapters each of these elements is handled at greater length by itself: The Reading (V), The Singing .(VI), The Prgyer of the People (VII), and The Prayer of the Priest (VIII). Each chapter is scholarly, each chapter is valuable, and their cumulative effect is irresistible. 139 ¯ BOOK. R