Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Honageri-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 600 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 572 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, An area about 2 ha in the microwatershed is covered by rock outcrops and about 26 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 572 ha (95%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 85 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 10 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm).  About 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 26 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 65 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 95 per cent area in the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 8 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 12 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 4 per cent area very low (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 480(80) 40(7) Sapota - 34(6) Maize 3(<1) 517(87) Pomegranate - 512(85) Bajra 3(<1) 549(91) Musambi 313(52) 198 (32) Groundnut - 74(12) Lime 313(52) 198 (32) Sunflower 346(58) 135(21) Amla 66(11) 454(76) Redgram - 450(74) Cashew - 3(<1) Bengal gram 477(80) 43(7) Jackfruit - 3(<1) Cotton 349(58) 172(28) Jamun - 509(85) Chilli - 551(92) Custard apple 478(80) 43(7) Tomato 3(<1) 303(51) Tamarind - 509(85) Drumstick - 511(84) Mulberry - 3(<1) Mango - 35(6) Marigold - 551(92) Guava - 34(6) Chrysanthemum - 551(92) Brinjal 169(28) 382(63) Bhendi 284(47) 267(45) Onion 232(39) 106(18)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 112 (64.37%) men and 62 (35.63%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 5.6, semi medium farmers' was 6 and medium farmers' was 2.  The data indicated that, 33 (18.97 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (42.53%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (31.03 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (7.47%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Honageri-2 had 63.79 per cent illiterates, 8.62 per cent of them had Primary School, 1.72 per cent of them had Middle School education, 12.07 per cent of them had High School education, 8.62 per cent of them had PUC education and 1.15 per cent had degree and masters education.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 8.82 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborer and 2.94 per cent were Trade & Business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 68.39 per cent of the household members, 2.87 per cent were agricultural laborers and children, 2.30 per cent were general laborers, 0.57 per cent were in government and private service, 1.15 per cent were trade and business, 16.09 per cent were students and 2.87 per cent were Housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 8.82 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 64.71 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 26.47 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 91.18 per cent of the households possess TV, 41.18 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder and motor cycle and 88.24 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,387, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,957, motor cycle was Rs. 50,714 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,165.  About 23.53 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 20.59 per cent of the households plough, 2.94 per cent of the households possess seed/ fertilizer drill and Tractor, 11.76 per cent of the households possess Sprayer, 8.82 per cent of them possess weeder and harvester and 14.71 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results indicate that, bullock cart it was Rs.22,125, plough it was Rs.909, seed/fertilizer drill it was Rs.500, tractor it was Rs. 300,000, Sprayer was Rs. 3,500, Weeder was Rs. 200, Harvester was Rs. 40 and Chaff Cutter was Rs. 314. 2  The results indicate that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 26.47 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.88 per cent of the households possess goat and 2.94 per cent of the households possess Poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.38, average hired labour (men) available was 7.59 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.03.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Honageri-2 micro-watershed possess 28.39 ha (86.34%) of dry land and 4.49 ha (13.66%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.36 ha (99.34%) of dry land and 0.05 ha (0.66%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 17.39 ha (94.31%) of dry land and 1.05 ha (5.69 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.64 ha (73.23%) of dry land and 1.33 ha (26.77%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.06 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 703,501.07 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 912,342.34. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,165,068.72 for dry land and the average value was Rs.18,525,000.41 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 597,951.58 for dry land and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 858,301.16. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 274,444.44 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 274,444.44 of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 7 functioning and De-functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 20.59 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 10.76 meters.  The results indicate that small, semi-medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.47 ha, 3.43 ha and 0.45 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (23.14 ha), paddy (2.71 ha), red gram (1.79 ha), sorghum (1.76 ha) and groundnut (1.21ha). The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Honageri-2 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 76.47 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 76.47 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 27030.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70387.69. The net 3 income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 43357.16. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.6.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 36266.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 90304.31. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 54037.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.49.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 163090.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 304132.32. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 141041.98. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 41086.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63686.27. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 22599.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.55.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 29555.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 16466.67. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -13088.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.56.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 20.59 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 20,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 115,744.62, for small farmers it was Rs. 126,758.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 111,000 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 122,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,328.99. For landless households it was Rs. 8,333.33, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,620.51, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,741.27, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 25,500 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 5 coconut in their field and 1 coconut in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 27 teak, 31 neem, 7 tamarind and 1 peepul trees in their field and 1 teak and 3 tamarind in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,588.24 for land development.  The results indicated that Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 41.18 per cent for land development and soft loan was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 60 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 82.14 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 76.92 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 59.18 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 91.18 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 2.94 per cent of them sold in regulated markets. 4  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 91.18 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 11.76 per cent of the households used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and Bore Well was the major source of drinking water for 2.94 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 26.47 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 61.76 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses and oilseed were adequate for 97.06 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 94.12 per cent, fruits was adequate for 2.94 per cent, Milk were adequate for 82.35 per cent and eggs were adequate for 23.53 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses and oilseed were inadequate for 2.94 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 5.88 per cent, fruits was inadequate for 94.12 per cent, milk were inadequate for 17.65 per cent, Meat were inadequate for 100 per cent and eggs were inadequate for 76.47 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.18 per cent, Wild animal menace on farm field and frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.24%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (11.76%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals, high rate of interest on credit and Lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.29%), Low price for the agricultural commodities (100%), Inadequate extension services (5.88%), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (82.35%), less rainfall and source of agri-technology information (2.94%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 524 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 246 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 271 ha by rock outcrops and 6 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 246 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 30 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 18 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 8 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 9 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 18 per cent area very low (0.75%) and 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area 31 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) and 16 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low ( 20 ppm) in 9 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 45 per cent and deficient ( 0.6 ppm) in11 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 41(8) 65(12) Guava - 41(8) Maize 41(8) 65(12) Sapota - 41(8) Bajra 41(8) 65(12) Pomegranate - 54(10) Groundnut - 41(8) Musambi - 54(10) Sunflower - 54(10) Lime - 54(10) Redgram - 106(20) Amla 41(8) - Bengal gram - 13(3) Cashew - - Cotton - 54(10) Jackfruit - 41(8) Chilli 41(8) 13(3) Jamun - - Tomato 41(8) - Custard apple - 54(10) Brinjal 41(8) - Tamarind - - Onion 41(8) - Mulberry - 41(8) Bhendi 41(8) 13(3) Marigold 41(8) 13(3) Drumstick - 41(8) Chrysanthemum 41(8) 13(3) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (51.17%) men and 104 (48.83%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 5.1, small farmers' was 4.1, semi medium farmers' was 5.33 and medium farmers' was 4.75.  The data indicated that, 37 (17.37%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 112 (52.58%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (23.94%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (6.10%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Yadgir Rf-1 had 46.95 per cent illiterates, 1.88 per cent of them were functional literate, 18.78 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.41 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.90 per cent of them had high school education, 5.16 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.41 per cent of them did diploma, 0.47 per cent did ITI and 2.82 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 14.29 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 2.86 per cent of them were in private service and 2.86 per cent of them were students.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 42.72 per cent of the household members, 5.63 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.47 per cent were general labourers, 6.10 per cent were in private service, 21.60 per cent were students, 18.78 per cent were housewives and 4.69 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 8.57 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 68.57 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 22.86 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.86 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 8.57 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.9000, mixer grinder was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.56666 and mobile phone was Rs.2170.  About 17.14 per cent of them possess plough and another 17.14 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1500 and the average value of weeder was Rs.52.  The results indicate that, 5.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 2.86 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.81, average own labour (women) available was 1.61, average hired labour (men) available was 13.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.61.  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Yadgir Rf-1 micro-watershed possess 27.76 ha (83.01%) of dry land and 5.68 ha (16.99%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 6.23 ha (91.83%) of dry land and 0.55 ha (8.17%). Small farmers possess 13.29 ha (72.17%) of dry land and 5.13 ha (27.83%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 8.24 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 457,274.06 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 914,814.83. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 930,864.20 for dry land and Rs. 2,343,795.61 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 375,951.30 for dry land and Rs. 760,299.93. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 230,500.99 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 25.71 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 24.38 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal and small farmers had irrigated area of 0.55 ha and 5.13 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (4.16 ha), greengram (2.63 ha), groundnut (4.88 ha), paddy (2.43 ha), red gram (20.62 ha) and sorghum (0.11 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton, green gram, paddy, red gram and sorghum. Small farmers have grown cotton, green gram, groundnut, paddy and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton, groundnut and redgram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yadgir Rf-1 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 32235.30. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67390.98. The net income from Redgram cultivation was Rs. 35155.69, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.09.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 190514.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 457407.39. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 266893.23. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.4.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 36492.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 249503.47. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 213010.99. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:6.84. 3  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 33904.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 66147.43. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 32242.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.95.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 160646.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80061.85. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -80584.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.5.  The total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 22474.80. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73475.07. The net income from greengram cultivation was Rs. 51000.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.27.  The results indicate that, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and another 8.57 per cent opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 138,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 121,079.17, for small farmers it was Rs. 174,133.33 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 371,833.33.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 16,411.43. For landless households it was Rs. 30,400, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,861.11, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,360 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 85,555.56.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 coconut and 2 custard apple trees in their backyard and 3 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 103 neem trees, 1 tamarind tree in their field and 1 neem tree in their backyard.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 80 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 5.71 per cent sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 33.33 per cent of the marginal farmers, 26.67 per cent of the small farmers and 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 65.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test which accounts for 83.33 per cent of marginal farmers, 73.33 per cent small farmers and 66.67 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households used firewood and 14.29 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 94.29 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 5.71 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of the landless, 66.67 per cent of the marginal, 46.67 per cent of the small and 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the households possessed APL card.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 22.86 per cent, fruits were adequate for 31.43 per cent, milk was adequate for 97.14 per cent, eggs were adequate for 97.14 per cent and meat was adequate for 65.71 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 100 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 77.14 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 71.43 per cent, milk was inadequate for 2.86 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 2.86 per cent of the households and meat was inadequate for 34.29 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 88.57 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71%) and lack of marketing facilities in the area (8.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Honageri-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 574 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 501 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 25 ha by rock outcrops and 47 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent area is moderately shallow (150 cm).  About 73 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 15 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area of 87 per cent in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 12 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m).  About 40 per cent area in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 48 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 48 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 40 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 27 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 38 per cent soils is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) and 22 per cent soils are strongly to very strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 - >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of entire soils of the microwatershed is dominantly 4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 432 (75) 65 (11) Guava - 14 (2) Maize - 496 (87) Sapota - 14(2) Bajra - 502 (87) Pomegranate - 446 (78) Groundnut - 14 (2) Musambi 431 (75) 15 (3) Sunflower 426 (74) 15 (3) Lime 431 (75) 14 (3) Redgram - 446 (78) Amla - 497 (87) Bengal gram 432 (75) 56(10) Cashew - - Cotton 426 (74) 62 (11) Jackfruit - 9(2) Chilli - 502 (88) Jamun - 437 (76) Tomato - 496 (87) Custard apple 441 (77) 56(10) Brinjal 142(25) 361(63) Tamarind - 437 (76) Onion 395 (69) 56(10) Mulberry - 9(2) Bhendi 201(35) 301(52) Marigold - 502 (88) Drumstick - 446(78) Chrysanthemum - 502 (88) Mango - 135(24)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 94 (59.12%) men and 65 (40.88%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 3.7, small farmers' was 3.8 and semi medium farmers' was 5.2.  The data indicated that, 31 (19.50 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (43.40 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 45 (28.30 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (8.81 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Honageri-1 had 56.60 per cent illiterates, 0.63 per cent of them had functional literate and masters, 13.84 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.14 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.69 per cent of them had high school education, 2.52 per cent of them had PUC education and 6.29 per cent had degree education.  The results indicate that, 52.78 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 47.22 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourer and 2.78 per cent were general labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 41.51 per cent of the household members, 33.33 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.26 per cent were general laborers, 0.63 per cent were in private service, 16.98 per cent were students and 6.29 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 22.22 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 69.44 per centre of them possess Katcha house and 8.33 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 77.78 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.78 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder and tempo, 16.67 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 94.44 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8,785, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,000, motor cycle was Rs. 59,333, tempo was Rs. 180,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,002.  About 8.33 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.78 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. About 8.33 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.78 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results indicate that, 19.44 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 13.89 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.78 per cent of the households possess buffalo. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.52, average own labour (women) available was 1.19, average hired labour (men) available was 8.52 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.70.  The results indicate that, 75 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Honageri-1 micro-watershed possess 39.98 ha (92.16 %) of dry land, 2.59 ha (5.97%) of irrigated land and 0.81 ha (1.87%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 6.12 ha (88.31 %) of dry land and 0.81 ha (11.69%) of Permanent Fallow. Small farmers possess 7.86 ha (100 %) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 26.01 ha (90.94 %) of dry land and 2.59 ha (9.06 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 632,750, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 1,157,812.48 and the average value of permanent fallow was Rs. 642,200. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,062,541.37 for dry land and Rs. 642,200 for permanent fallow. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 662,310.86 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 522,751.33 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 1,157,812.48 of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 2 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.56 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.93 meters.  The results indicate that semi-medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.59 ha, respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (17.43 ha), groundnut (15.48 ha), cotton (3.87ha), sorghum (3.72 ha) and bajra (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Honageri-1 micro-watershed was found to be 96.03 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 37189.90. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69834.81. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 32644.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.88.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 33175.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51960.12. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 18784.20. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.57.  The total cost of cultivation for Groundnut was Rs. 44384.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 110787.87. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 66403.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.5. 3  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 42476.37. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95269.99. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 52793.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.24.  The total cost of cultivation for Bajra was Rs. 66871.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78926.34. The net income from Bajra cultivation was Rs. 12055.03. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.18.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 62,500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 78,500, for small farmers it was Rs. 104,666.67 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 89,105. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,851.39. For landless households it was Rs. 6,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,615, for small farmers it was Rs. 11,805.56 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,972.22.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 1 mango trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 114 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,694.44 for land development.  The results indicated that own funds was the source of additional investment for 33.33 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 71.43 per cent, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 68.22 per cent, red gram was sold to the extent of 86.49 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 60.94 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 2.78 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/ traders, 66.67 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 6.67 per cent of them sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 2.78 per cent of the households have used head load and 72.22 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 72.22 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, 69.44 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.78 per cent of the sampled households has not possessed PDS card.  The results indicated that, 88.89 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses and meat were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 2.78 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 50 per cent, fruits was adequate for 8.33 per cent and eggs and meat were adequate for 97.22 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseed were inadequate for 97.22 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 50 per cent, fruits was inadequate for 91.67 per cent, milk and eggs were inadequate for 2.78 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil, frequent incidence of pest and diseases, high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals and high rate of interest on credit was the constraint experienced by 75 per cent of the households and wild animal menace on farm field (77.78 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ramasamudram-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 766 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 443 ha (58%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 272 ha (35%) by rock out crops and 51 ha (7%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 5 per cent soils are deep (100 to 150 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 33 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 52 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 6 per cent is slightly eroded (e1), 47 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 5 per cent is severely eroded in the microwatershed.  An area of about 2 per cent is strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), 10 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 11 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 27 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 8 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3- 7.8) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 2 per cent area is low (0.6 ppm) in 47 per cent area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 90(12) 146(19) Guava - 98(13) Maize - 236(30) Sapota - 98(13) Bajra - 257(33) Pomegranate - 188(25) Groundnut - 118(16) Musambi 39(5) 149(19) Sunflower 18(2) 149(19) Lime 39(5) 149(19) Redgram - 188(25) Amla 125(16) 111(14) Bengal gram 90(12) 146(19) Cashew - 77(10) Cotton 66(9) 171(22) Jackfruit - 77(10) Chilli - 257(33) Jamun - 111(14) Tomato - 185(24) Custard apple 168(22) 69(9) Brinjal 168(22) 91(12) Tamarind - 111(14) Onion 140(18) 118(15) Mulberry - 77(10) Bhendi 168(22) 91(12) Marigold - 257(34) Drumstick - 188(25) Chrysanthemum - 257(34) Mango - 18(2)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 147 (59.76%) men and 97 (39.43%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5.33, marginal farmers' was 6.76, small farmers' was 6.91, semi medium farmers' was 7.5 and medium farmers' was 8.  The data indicated that, 69 (28.05%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 100 (40.65%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (26.02%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (5.28%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Ramasamudram-1 had 55.28 per cent illiterates, 2.44 per cent functional literates, 18.70 per cent of them had primary school education, 5.28 per cent of them had middle school education, 6.91 per cent of them had high school education, 3.25 per cent of them had PUC education and 2.44 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 86.11 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 8.33 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 2.78 per cent of them were in private service and 2.78 per cent of them were housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 53.25 per cent of the household members, 3.25 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.41 per cent were general labourers, 2.85 per cent were in private service, 26.42 per cent were students, 7.72 per cent were housewives and 6.10 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 13.89 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 38.89 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 47.22 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 63.89 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.33 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.56 per cent of them had bicycle, 30.56 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 88.89 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.9000, mixer grinder was Rs.2166, bicycle was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.35636 and mobile phone was Rs.12812.  About 36.11 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent of them possess sprayer and 47.22 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1500, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.52.  The results indicate that, 36.11 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 27.78 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.09, average own labour (women) available was 1.82, average hired labour (men) available was 12.70 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.06.  The results indicate that, 91.67 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Ramasamudram-1 micro-watershed possess 25.90 ha (70.64%) of dry land and 10.77 ha (29.36%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 11.27 ha (96.53%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (3.47%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 10.18 ha (75.14%) of dry land and 3.37 ha (24.86%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.45 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 6.99 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 598109.67 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 417857.14. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 886575.74 for dry land and Rs.988000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 412485.09 for dry land and Rs.742187.51 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 291909.09 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 228703.70 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 22.22 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 21.59 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 3.37 ha and 6.19 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (8.47 ha), greengram (9.73 ha), groundut (3.32 ha), paddy (4.16 ha) and redgram (10.19 ha). Marginal and small farmers have grown cotton, Greengram, groundnut, paddy and redgram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton and Greengram. Medium farmers have grown paddy and redgram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Ramasamudram-1 microwatershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 22105.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51835.46. The net income from Greengram cultivation was Rs. 29730.20, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.34.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 108908.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 99903.78. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. -9004.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.92. 3  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 84841.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 135857.02. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 51015.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.6.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 33618.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75113.15. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 41494.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.23.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 40666.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 83806.85. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 43140.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.06.  The results indicate that, 38.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 38.89 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 233,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 181,178.82, for small farmers it was Rs. 185,920, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 157,200 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 342,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 24,837.75. For landless households it was Rs. 80,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,326.64, for small farmers it was Rs. 9,661.16, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 71,000 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 99,444.44.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 coconut trees and 1 mango tree in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 65 neem and 12 tamarind tree in their field. Also, 16 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 91.67 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 88.89 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 2.78 per cent carried head loads.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 88.89 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.78 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 91.67 per cent and bore well was the source of drinking water for 8.33 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, 52.78 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.78 per cent of the households did not possess any PDS card.  The results indicated that, 86.11 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5.56 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 25 per cent, fruits were adequate for 27.78 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 94.44 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.67 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.89%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.89%), inadequacy of irrigation water (91.67%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.67%), high rate of interest on credit (94.44%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.67%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (5.56%) and inadequate extension services (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kyaspanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 473 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 427 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 2 ha by railway line and about 44 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 44 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 46 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 14 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 10 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 37 per cent area very low (0.75%), 80 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 5 per cent is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area 26 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 1 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 53 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 1(<1) 144(30) Guava - 1(<1) Maize 1(<1) 144(30) Sapota - 1(<1) Bajra 1(<1) 144(30) Pomegranate - 1(<1) Groundnut - 46(10) Musambi - 1(<1) Sunflower - 1(<1) Lime - 1(<1) Redgram - 100(21) Amla 1(<1) 45(9) Bengal gram - - Cashew - 1(<1) Cotton - 1(<1) Jackfruit - 1(<1) Chilli 1(<1) 45(9) Jamun - - Tomato 1(<1) 45(9) Custard apple 1(<1) 45(9) Brinjal 1(<1) 45(9) Tamarind - - Onion 1(<1) 45(9) Mulberry - 1(<1) Bhendi 1(<1) 45(9) Marigold 1(<1) 45(9) Drumstick - 1(<1) Chrysanthemum 1(<1) 45(9) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 111 (63.43%) men and 64 (36.57%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.8, marginal farmers' was 4.86, small farmers' was 5.09, semi medium farmers' was 5.90 and medium farmers' was 3.50.  The data indicated that, 31 (17.71%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 83 (47.43%) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (31.43%) were in 36-60 years of age and 6 (3.43%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kyaspanahalli had 57.14 per cent illiterates, 0.57 per cent functional literate, 13.71 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.29 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.86 per cent of them had high school education, 6.86 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.29 per cent of them did ITI and 3.43 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 74.29 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 22.86 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 2.86 per cent of them were general labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 48.57 per cent of the household members, 9.71 per cent were agricultural laborers, 2.29 per cent were general labourers, 1.71 per cent were in private service, 26.86 per cent were students, 8 per cent were housewives and 2.86 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 22.86 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 51.43 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 34.29 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 77.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 31.43 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 2.86 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 5.71 per cent of the households possess auto and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.9000, mixer grinder was Rs.2000, refrigerator was Rs.8000, motor cycle was Rs.47333, auto was Rs.85000 and mobile phone was Rs.2259.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess sprayer and 60 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1500, the average value of sprayer was Rs.1000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.50.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 17.14 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.26, average own labour (women) available was 1.42, average hired labour (men) available was 11.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.35.  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Kyaspanahalli micro-watershed possess 16.55 ha (44.48%) of dry land and 20.66 ha (55.52%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.66 ha (97.05%) of dry land and 0.08 ha (2.95%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.87 ha (81.74%) of dry land and 2.65 ha (18.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (12.81%) of dry land and 13.77 ha (87.19%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.16 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 428,777.50 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 566,092.06. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,015,068.49 for dry land and Rs. 6,174,999.91. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 328,435.05 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 867,328.25. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and Rs. 493,709.58 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers it was Rs. 504,571.97 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 42.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 42.24 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.08 ha, 2.65 ha, 13.77 ha and 4.16 ha.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (12.9 ha), green gram (10.95 ha), red gram (7.86 ha), groundnut (4.16 ha) and paddy (1.36 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton, green gram, red gram and paddy. Small farmers have grown cotton, green gram and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton Green gram, red gram and paddy. Medium farmers have grown groundnut.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kyaspanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 2.86 per cent of the households have bank account in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, 2.86 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, average credit availed in the micro watershed was Rs. 80000. 3  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources of credit.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 45812.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 118585.38. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 72772.63, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.59.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 43878.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 182303.81. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 138425.64. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.15.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 22740.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63118.12. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 40377.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.78.  The total cost of cultivation for Groundnut was Rs. 35032.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 64000.66. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 28968.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.83.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 395605.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 515104.42. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 119499.10. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.3.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 28.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 48,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 118,428.57, for small farmers it was Rs. 152,487.36, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 210,160 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 252,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 15,496.49. For landless households it was Rs. 6,400, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 11,387.76, for small farmers it was Rs. 11,620.87, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 13,983.33 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 81,500.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 coconut trees, 2 lemon trees and 11 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 teak, 42 neem and 1 banyan tree in their field.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, Greengram to the extent of 84.1 per cent, groundnut to the extent of 66.7 per cent, paddy to the extent of 57.6 per cent and redgram to the extent of 69.6 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 85.71 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants. 4  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 60 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 85.71 per cent of the marginal farmers, 45.45 per cent of small farmers, 80 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 77.14 per cent have shown interest in soil test which accounts for 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 81.82 per cent of small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium farmers and 50 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households used firewood and 20 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 88.57 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 11.43 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 5.71 per cent of the households possessed APL card.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.86 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 22.86 per cent, fruits were adequate for 20 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 94.29 per cent and meat was adequate for 54.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 97.14 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 77.14 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 80 per cent and meat was inadequate for 40 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71%) and lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hadagimadra Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 593 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 498 ha (84%) ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 13 ha (2%) by rock outcrops and about 83 ha (14%) by others (Habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 84 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 59 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), whereas 17 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and about 8 per cent soils are shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 17 per cent area of the microwatershed is medium (101-150 mm/m) and about 8 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 67 percent is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands, about 17 per cent soils are nearly level (0-1% slope) lands in the microwatershed.  Maximum area of about 67 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and about 17 per cent are slightly (e1) eroded lands in the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area is neutral (6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%), about 50 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 3 per cent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 9 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 75 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in an area of about 11 per cent, about 26 per cent is medium (10-20 ppm) and about 47 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of about 72 per cent and 12 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 2(<1) 349(59) Guava - - Maize - 351(59) Sapota - - Bajra - 351(59) Pomegranate - 246(42) Groundnut - - Musambi 2(<1) 244(41) Sunflower 2(<1) 244(41) Lime 2(<1) 244(41) Redgram - 351(59) Amla - 2(<1) Bengal gram 2(<1) 244(41) Cashew - - Cotton 2(<1) 244(41) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 246(42) Jamun - 2(<1) Tomato - - Custard apple 2(<1) 244(41) Brinjal - - Tamarind - 2(<1) Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - 246(42) Marigold - 246(42) Drumstick - 2(<1) Chrysanthemum - 246(42) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 94 (62.25%) men and 57 (37.75%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.8, marginal farmers' was 4.22, small farmers' was 4.73 and semi medium farmers' was 4.  The data indicated that, 32 (21.19%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 73 (48.34%) were in 16-35 years of age, 36 (23.84%) were in 36-60 years of age and 10 (6.62%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Hadagimadara had 48.34 per cent illiterates, 26.49 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.65 per cent of them had middle school education, 3.97 per cent of them had high school education, 7.28 per cent of them had PUC education, 3.31 per cent of them had degree education and 0.66 per cent of the population had diploma.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 11.43 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 2.86 per cent of them were in private service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 21.19 per cent of the household members, 50.99 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.66 per cent were in private service, 23.18 per cent were students, 0.66 per cent were housewives and 3.31 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 22.86 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 54.29 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 25.71 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 97.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 48.57 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 2.86 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 77.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess landline phone and 94.29 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.5735, mixer grinder was Rs.1811, refrigerator was Rs.5000, motor cycle was Rs.51464, landline phone was Rs.1000 and mobile phone was Rs.4616.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 28.57 per cent of them possess plough, 8.57 per cent of the households possess tractor, 25.71 per cent of them possess sprayer, 25.71 per cent of them possess weeder and 20 per cent of them possess harvester.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.23000, plough was Rs.2050, the average value of tractor was Rs.600000, the average value of sprayer 2 was Rs.4500, the average value of harvester was Rs.1380 and the average value of weeder was Rs.445.  The results indicate that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 48.57 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.4, average hired labour (men) available was 4.97 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.40.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Hadagimadara micro-watershed possess 27.78 ha (97.17%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (2.83%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 11.73 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 13.94 ha (94.51%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (5.49%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.11 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 406,628.79 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 741,000. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 588,095.24 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 294,047.62 for dry land and the average land value was Rs.741000. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 141954.03 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 10 meters.  The results indicate that, small had an irrigated area of 0.81 ha.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (24.45 ha), red gram (2.92 ha), sorghum (0.83 ha) and greengram (0.81 ha).  Marginal farmers have grown cotton, greengram, red gram and sorghum. Small farmers have grown cotton and semi medium farmers have grown red gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hadagimadara micro-watershed was found to be 101.42 per cent.  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 62.86 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 33982.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75413.24. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 41430.65, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.22. 3  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 24883.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57920.08. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 33036.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.33.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 22681. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39520. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 16839. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.74.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 62922.56. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36931.25. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -25991.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.59.  The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 20 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 16,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 168,420, for small farmers it was Rs. 139,166.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 183,833.33 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 310,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 9,809.24. For landless households it was Rs. 6,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 13,318.10, for small farmers it was Rs. 3,925.93, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 6,250 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 24,375.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 custard apple trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 2 teak, 44 neem, 2 tamarind, 5 eucalyptus and 3 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 4600.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 14.29 per cent and soft loan was the source of additional investment capacity for 42.86 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except cotton which was sold to the extent of 93.97 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 25.71 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 57.14 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 2.86 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 33.33 per cent of the marginal farmers and 36.36 per cent of small farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. 4  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test which accounts for 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 100 per cent small farmers and 100 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 60 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 40 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent of the households did not possess any PDS card.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 68.57 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 25.71 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 25.71 per cent, fruits were adequate for 54.29 per cent, milk was adequate for 31.43 per cent and eggs were adequate for 37.14 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 31.43 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 68.57 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 68.57 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 28.57 per cent, milk was inadequate for 31.43 per cent and eggs were inadequate for 60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 88.57 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (71.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (40%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (34.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (17.14%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (34.29%), inadequate extension services (5.71%) and less rainfall (40%) and source of agri-technology information (11.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gajarkot-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 638 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 628 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 10 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 67 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 8 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 13 per cent area in loamy and 77 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 91 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 0.75%) in 66 per cent area.  57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 17 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 80 per area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 98 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 95 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 160(25) 39(5) Guava - 12(2) Maize - 199(31) Sapota - 4(<1) Bajra - 199(31) Pomegranate - 164(26) Groundnut - 4(<1) Musambi 153(24) 12(2) Sunflower 153(24) 12(2) Lime 153(24) 12(2) Redgram - 164(26) Amla - 199(31) Bengal gram 160(25) 35(5) Cashew - - Cotton 160(25) 35(5) Jackfruit - 4(<1) Chilli - 192(30) Jamun - 160(25) Tomato - 192(30) Custard apple 157(25) 43(7) Brinjal 20(3) 179(28) Tamarind - 160(25) Onion 4(<1) 35(5) Mulberry - 4(<1) Bhendi 24(4) 176(28) Marigold - 199(31) Drumstick - 164(26) Chrysanthemum - 199(31) Mango - 20(3)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The data indicated that there were 73 (53.68%) men and 63 (46.32%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 5.78, small farmers' was 6.07, semi medium farmers' was 4.17 and medium farmers' was 6.5.  The data indicated that, 14 (7.25%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 89 (46.11%) were in 16-35 years of age, 76 (39.38%) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (7.25%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Gajarkot-2 had 51.81 per cent illiterates, 0.52 per cent functional literates, 14.51 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.55 per cent of them had middle school education, 12.44 per cent of them had high school education, 5.70 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.52 per cent of them did ITI, 1.04 per cent did masters and 9.33 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 65.71 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 5.71 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 11.43 per cent were general labourers, 2.86 per cent of them had household industry, 2.86 per cent of them were in private service, 2.86 per cent were in trade and business and 5.71 per cent were housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 44.56 per cent of the household members, 2.07 per cent were agricultural labourers, 7.25 per cent were general labourers, 1.04 per cent had household industry, 0.52 per cent were in government service, 7.77 per cent were in private service, 1.04 per cent were in trade and business, 8.29 per cent were students and 23.32 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 2.86 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 68.57 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 28.57 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 22.86 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 31.43 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 94.29 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.8000, mixer grinder was Rs.1462, motor cycle was Rs.65090, and mobile phone was Rs.2560.  About 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 20 per cent of them possess plough, and 77.14 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.22000, plough was Rs.14385, and the average value of weeder was Rs.90. 2  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.43 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess goat, and 2.86 per cent of them possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.47, average own labour (women) available was 1.83, average hired labour (men) available was 11.83 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.30.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Gajarkot-2 micro watershed possess 28.59 ha (70.45%) of dry land and 12 ha (29.55%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 6.56 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 15.39 ha (95%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (5%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.64 ha (60.22%) of dry land and 4.39 ha (39.78%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.80 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 388067 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 283333. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 578668 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 370305 for dry land and Rs. 494000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 240828 for dry land and Rs. 410147 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 176428 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 11.43 per cent of the farmers, and canal formed the source of irrigation for 5.71 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the average depth of bore well in the micro watershed was found to be 12.19 meters.  The results indicate that, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.69 ha and 6.80 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (9.52 ha), greengram (5 ha), groundnut (13.38 ha), paddy (3.24 ha), and redgram (9.46 ha). Marginal and small farmers have grown cotton, Greengram, groundnut and redgram. Semi medium farmers have grown Greengram, groundnut and redgram. Medium farmers have grown cotton and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gajarkot-2 micro watershed was found to be 100.06 per cent.  The results indicate that, 91.43 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. 3  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 3.23 per cent of the household availed loan from grameena bank in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the average amount of credit borrowed in micro watershed by medium farmers was Rs.11250.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Redgram was Rs. 34615.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55667.92. The net income from Redgram cultivation was Rs. 21052.58, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61.  The total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 31406.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 64958.25. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 33551.58. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.07.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 52599.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 65137.64. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 12538.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24.  The total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 24014.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60741.53. The net income from greengram cultivation was Rs. 36726.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.53.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 42268.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95712.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 53444.16. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.26.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs.60000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs.184055, for small farmers it was Rs.150269, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.213333, and for medium farmers it was Rs.450000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 17,954.82. For landless households it was Rs. 5,750, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 10,253.09, for small farmers it was Rs. 11,440.34, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 24,777.78, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 105,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 3 coconuts, 1 guava and 7 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 5 banyan trees, 52 neem trees and 2 peepul trees in their field. 4  The results indicated that, cotton, greengram, paddy and redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut was sold to the extent of 99.49 per cent.  About 100 per cent of the marginal, small, semi medium and medium famers have sold their produce to local/village merchants.  About 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, and 2.86 per cent have used truck as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Around 91.43 per cent used fire wood, 2.86 per cent used biogas and 5.71 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of domestic fuel.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  About 42.86 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of the landless, 55.56 per cent of the marginal, 23.08 per cent of the small, 33.33 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  Around 85.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 74.29 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 37.14 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 28.57 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 60 per cent, fruits were adequate for 51.43 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 25.71 per cent, pulses were inadequate for 65.71 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 71.43 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 40 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 45.71 per cent and meat was inadequate for 40 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (65.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (14.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (22.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80%), high rate of interest on credit (74.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (62.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (74.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80%), less rainfall (14.29%) inadequate extension services (60%), and source of agritechnology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (2.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Devarapalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 554 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 343 ha (62%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 204 ha (37%) covered by rock outcrops and others covers an area of 8 ha (1%) in the microwatershed. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 343 ha (62%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75 -100 cm), 34 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm) and 18 per cent soils are shallow (25 -50 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 45 percent soils are loamy and 10 per cent soils clayey at the surface.  An area of 29 per cent soils are non gravelly (0.75%) and 32 percent is medium (0.50- 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 1 percent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and about 41 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 20 percent is low (337kg/ha), about 30 percent is medium (145- 337 kg/ha) and 29 percent is low (20ppm), 20 percent is medium (10-20ppm) and 42 percent area is low (4.5ppm) in an area of about 59 per cent and deficient (<4.5ppm) in an area of about 3 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 16(3) 226(41) Guava - 55(10) Maize 55(10) 188(34) Sapota - 55(10) Bajra 55(10) 187(34) Pomegranate - 55(10) Groundnut 38(7) 72(13) Musambi - 55(10) Sunflower - 54(10) Lime - 55(10) Redgram - 54(10) Amla 55(10) 187(34) Bengal gram - - Cashew - 16(3) Cotton - 148(27) Jackfruit - 55(10) Chilli 55(10) 188(34) Jamun - - Tomato 55(10) 188(34) Custard apple 55(10) 187(34) Brinjal 55(10) 188(34) Tamarind - - Onion 55(10) 188(34) Mulberry - 55(10) Bhendi 55(10) 188(34) Marigold 55(10) 188(34) Drumstick - 55(10) Chrysanthemum 55(10) 188(34) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 83 (47.7%) men and 91 (52.30%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 5.13, small farmers' was 5.09 and semi medium farmers' was 4.  The data indicated that, 30 (17.24%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 83 (47.70%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (28.74 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (6.32 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Devarapalli-2 had 62.07 per cent illiterates, 16.09 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.87 per cent of them had middle school education, 9.77 per cent of them had high school education, 2.30 per cent of them had PUC education and 4.6 per cent them possess degree education.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 22.86 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourer.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 16.67 per cent of the household members, 63.79 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.57 per cent were in private service, 16.09 per cent were students and 1.72 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 97.14 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 2.86 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 77.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 34.29 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 17.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 85.71 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 5.71 per cent of them possess computer/laptop.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,944, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,416, motor cycle was Rs. 46,666, mobile phone was Rs. 2,882 and computer/ laptop was Rs. 25,500.  About 5.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 11.43 per cent of them possess plough, 17.14 per cent of them possess sprayer, 25.71 per cent of them possess weeder and 14.29 per cent of them possess harvester.  The result shows that, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,000, plough was Rs. 1,550, sprayer was Rs. 8,333, weeder was Rs. 68 and harvester was Rs. 1,022.  The results indicate that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 2.86 per cent of the households possess local cow buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.67, average own labour (women) available was 1.64, average hired labour (men) available was 5.34 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.47. 2  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Devarapalli-2 micro-watershed possess 31.55 ha (100%) of dry. Marginal farmers possess 10.64 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 14.44 ha (100 %) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.48 ha (100 %) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 367,521.81. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 563,926.94 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 304,596.41 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 185,250 for dry land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (1.49 ha), red gram (24.08 ha) and sorghum (0.40 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Devarapalli-2 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 71.43 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative and grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in microwatershed was Rs, 19,960.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 40 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from high rate of interest.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 59533.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39102.03. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. -20431.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.66.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 28727.77. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46849.73. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 18121.96. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.63.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 29383.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69866.19. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 40482.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.38.  The results indicate that, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. 3  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 20,833.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 62,893.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 102,181.82 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 173,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,508.83. For landless households it was Rs. 3,166.67, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,015.56, for small farmers it was Rs. 8,779.61 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,779.61.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 coconut and 2 mango trees in their field and also 2 coconut guava trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 31 eucalyptus, 2 teak and pongamia, 20 neem, 6 tamarind and 1 pongamia trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 371.43 for land development and Rs. 57.14 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that asset selling was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton and sorghum was sold to the extent of 100 per cent and red gram was sold to the extent of 95.33 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 31.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 51.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households have used cart and truck, 77.14 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 42.86 per cent and 54.29 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 91.43 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 60 per cent, 4 vegetables were adequate for 42.86 per cent, fruits were adequate for 45.71 per cent, milk were adequate for 11.43 per cent, eggs were adequate for 20 per cent and meat were adequate for 2.86 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.86 per cent, pulses were inadequate for 8.57 per cent, oilseed was inadequate for 40 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 48.57 per cent, milk were inadequate for 74.29 per cent, egg were inadequate for 80 per cent and meat were inadequate for 97.14 per cent.  The results indicated that, vegetables were market surplus for 2.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 77.14 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field and frequent incidence of pest and diseases (74.29%), Inadequacy of irrigation water and high rate of interest on credit (20%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemical (48.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.86%), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agril produce to the market (31.43%), less rainfall (42.86%) and source of agri-technology information (34.29%) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Malakapanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 491 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 445 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 8 ha by railway, 3 ha by rock outcrops and 36 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 80 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy and 11 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area of the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 49 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 58 per cent area.  51 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 40 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 0.09 per area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 29 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in an area of about 21 per cent and medium (10 -20 ppm) in 70 per cent.  About 48 per cent area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 61 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 83(17) Guava - - Maize - 83(17) Sapota - - Bajra - 83(17) Pomegranate - - Groundnut - 62(13) Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - 21(4) Amla - 62(13) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - 62(13) Jamun - - Tomato - 62(13) Custard apple - 62(13) Brinjal - 62(13) Tamarind - - Onion - 62(13) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 62(13) Marigold - 62(13) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 62(13) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 105 (59.46%) men and 75 (40.54%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.75, marginal farmers' was 4.38, small farmers' was 5.2, semi medium farmers' was 4.33 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 30 (16.22%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 86 (46.49%) were in 16-35 years of age, 62 (33.51%) were in 36-60 years of age and 7 (3.78%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Malakapanahalli had 51.89 per cent illiterates, 0.54 per cent functional literates, 11.35 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.24 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.22 per cent of them had high school education, 3.78 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.54 per cent had diploma, 0.54 per cent did ITI, 4.55 per cent of them had degree education and and 0.54 per cent did masters.  The results indicate that, 79.49 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 7.69 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers, 2.56 per cent of them were general labourers, 2.56 per cent were in private service and 7.69 per cent were into trade and business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 55.68 per cent of the household members, 4.32 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.62 per cent were general labourers, 0.54 per cent were in private service, 4.32 per cent were into trade and business, 22.16 per cent were students, 3.78 per cent were children and 7.57 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 7.69 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 74.36 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.95 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 82.05 per cent of the households possess TV, 20.51 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 5.13 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 87.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 9,093, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,637, motor cycle was Rs. 62,500 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,470.  About 2.56 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 7.69 per cent of them possess plough, and 10.26 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,000, plough was Rs. 3,333 and the average value of weeder was Rs.55.  The results indicate that, 17.95 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 7.69 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.06, average own labour (women) available was 1.13, average hired labour (men) available was 11.32 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.84.  The results indicate that, 82.05 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Malakapanahalli micro-watershed possess 21.48 ha (62.96%) of dry land and 12.64 ha (37.04%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.99 ha (94.27%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (5.73%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.38 ha (66.12%) of dry land and 3.78 ha (33.88%). Semi medium farmers possess 6.11 ha (59.71%) of dry land and 4.12 ha (40.29%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.25 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 865,523.74 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 640,634.01. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,088,050.63 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.60 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 501,316.51 for dry land and Rs. 1,004,925.08 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,014,172.19 for dry land and Rs. 460,549.56 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 376,380.95 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 11 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 28.21 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 30.17 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.49 ha, 3.78 ha, 4.13 ha and 4.25 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (9.86 ha), green gram (5.96 ha), sorghum (0.89 ha), cotton (12.73 ha), paddy (3.08 ha) and groundnut (1.62 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton, Green gram, red gram and sorghum. Small farmers have grown cotton, Green gram, groundnut, paddy and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton and paddy. Medium farmers have grown Green gram and red gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Malakapanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 34708.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59706.13. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 24997.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.72. 3  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 32880.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82384.66. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 49504.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.51.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 29627.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80921.50. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 51294.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.73.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 62824.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 267068.74. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 204244.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.25.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 66750.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 44399.15. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 121890.89. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 145040.22. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 23149.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.19.  The results indicate that, 15.38 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate for 15.38 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 51,250 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 103,961.54, for small farmers it was Rs. 140,700, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 155,666.67 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 187,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11,083.53. For landless households it was Rs. 3,968.75, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,023.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 15,020, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 14,166.67 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 50,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 34 custard apple trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 5 tamarind, 10 pongamia and 104 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,179.49 for land development and Rs. 2,564.10 for irrigation facility.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.56 per cent for land development. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 7.69 per cent for land development and for 5.13 per cent for irrigation facility. Own funds were the source of additional investment for for 5.13 per cent for land development and soft loan was the source of additional investment for 10.26 per cent of the households for land development.  The results indicated that all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except sorghum, which was sold to the extent of 64.71 per cent. 4  The results indicated that, about 74.36 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 5.13 per cent of them sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 79.49 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 28.21 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 71.79 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 76.92 per cent of the households used firewood and 23.08 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.44 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 56.41 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.44 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.56 per cent of the households possessed APL card.  The results indicated that, 87.18 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 97.44 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5.13 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 25.64 per cent, fruits were adequate for 30.77 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 94.87 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 71.79 per cent and fruits were inadequate for 69.23 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 79.49 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (76.92%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (76.92%), inadequacy of irrigation water (76.92%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (79.49%), low price for the agricultural commodities (70.49%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (10.26%) and inadequate extension services (2.56%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gajarakot-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 479 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 436 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 43 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 65 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (0.75%) in 87 per cent area.  9 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 58 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 25 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium, 76 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 11 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 82 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 73 (15) Guava - 22(4) Maize - 126(26) Sapota - 22(4) Bajra - 73(15) Pomegranate - 22(4) Groundnut - 55(11) Musambi - 22(4) Sunflower - 22(4) Lime - 22(4) Redgram - 22(4) Amla - 73(15) Bengal gram - 72(15) Cashew - - Cotton - 72(15) Jackfruit - 22(4) Chilli - 73(15) Jamun - - Tomato - 73(15) Custard apple 22(4) 51(11) Brinjal - 73(15) Tamarind - 22(4) Onion 0.02(<1) 72(15) Mulberry - - Bhendi 0.02(<1) 72(15) Marigold - 73(15) Drumstick - 22(4) Chrysanthemum - 73(15) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 95 (56.55%) men and 73 (43.45%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5.7 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 27 (16.07%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (41.07%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (32.14%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.71%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Gajarakot-1 had 45.24 per cent illiterates, 17.26 per cent of them had primary school, 6.55 per cent of them had middle school, 15.48 per cent of them had high school education, 4.17 per cent of them had PUC and 4.76 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 11.43 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 18.45 per cent of the household members, 59.52 per cent were agricultural labourers, 20.24 per cent were in student, 0.60 per cent were housewives and 1 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 11.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 71.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.14 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 80 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.14 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 20 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess auto and tempo and 88.57 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,428, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,916, motor cycle was Rs. 40,428, auto was Rs. 30,000, tempo was Rs. 300,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,542.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart and weeder, 8.57 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, tractor and chaff cutter, 5.71 per cent of them possess sparyer and harvester.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 23,750, plough was Rs. 9,000, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 20,000, tractor was Rs. 5000,000, sprayer was Rs. 5,000, weeder was Rs. 410, harvester was Rs. 266 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3,000. 2  The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 8.57 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.43, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average hired labour (men) available was 6.37 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.80.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Gajarakot-1 micro-watershed possess 30.28 ha (87.06 %) of dry land and 4.50 ha (12.94%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 9.48 ha (95.44%) of dry land and 0.45 ha (4.56%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.34 ha (93.34%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (6.66%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 9.45 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 3.24 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 399,505.41 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 444,244.60. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 759,350.99 for dry land and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 882,142.85. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 290,795.57 for dry land and Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 169,178.08 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 185,250 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 3 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 8.57 per cent of the farmers and 2.86 per cent of the households used open well.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.57 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.45 ha, 0.81 ha and 3.24 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (23.34 ha), cotton (6.24 ha), paddy (2.88 ha) and groundnut (2.1 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, cotton, paddy and groundnut. Small farmers have grown red gram, cotton and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram and cotton. Medium farmers have grown red gram and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gajarakot-1 micro-watershed was found to be 90.70 per cent. 3  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 7.14 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 3.57 per cent of the households have cooperative bank and money lender and 14.29 per cent of the households have borrowed from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 29,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households unpaid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 16.67 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was high rate of interest.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 39960.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54048.62. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 14087.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53471.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89194.59. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 35723.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 35900.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 68864.55. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 32963.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.92.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 48228.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50750.66. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 2522.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.05.  The results indicate that, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 58,500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 104,993.75, for small farmers it was Rs. 134,750, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 198,750 and medium farmers it was Rs. 618,800. 4  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13,393.10. For landless households it was Rs. 4,055.56, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,833.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,192.71, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 21,687.50 and medium farmers it was Rs. 198,800.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 45 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 7 eucalyptus, 37 neem, 5 tamarind and 3 acacia trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 171.43 for land development and improved crop production.  The results indicated that soft loan was the source of additional investment for 8.57 per cent for land development and 5.71 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 81.63 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 84.21 per cent and red gram to the extent of 87.38 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 17.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 68.57 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households used firewood and 11.43 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 77.14 per cent and 22.86 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 48.57 per cent, fruits were adequate for 37.14 per cent, milk were adequate for 5 8.57 per cent, egg were adequate for 20 per cent and meat were adequate for 25.71 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 5.71 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 8.57 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 62.86 per cent, milk were inadequate for 74.29 per cent, egg were inadequate for 77.14 per cent and meat were inadequate for 71.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil and wild animal menace on farm field was the constraint experienced by 80 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (31.43%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40%), high rate of interest on credit (11.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (20%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.14%), inadequate extension service (14.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (34.29%), less rainfall (14.29%), and source of Agri-technology information (45.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Biogas production from anaerobic digestion of organic resources can potentially contribute to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions in several sectors and can play a central role in both the bioeconomy and the circular economy. Several European countries have political goals to increase biogas production and to increase the amount of manure to anaerobic digestion. The treatment method is, however, known to be costly and the markets for biogas and for digestate are immature. There is a need for a better understanding of how the biogas value chains should be designed to minimise environmental impacts while at the same time achieving profitability for the actors. In Norway the most common substrates for biogas production are sewage sludge and organic waste from households and industry. Manure is identified as the substrate with the greatest theoretical biogas potential, but there are currently few plants utilising manure. Until recently, biogas in Norway has mainly been applied to generate heat, where a large share has been utilised internally at the plant or in surrounding buildings. In the last few years, however, several new and existing plants have invested in upgrading equipment to produce biomethane for use as a fuel in the transport sector. The most common treatment of the digestate, which is a co-product from anaerobic digestion, is to dewater it and use the dry fraction as a soil improvement product, while the wet fraction is sent to waste water treatment. A few new plants do, however, deliver liquid digestate to agriculture as a biofertiliser. The objective of this thesis has been to make a contribution towards knowledge regarding ways of optimising Norwegian biogas value chains to reduce environmental impacts, by developing models that can provide decision support. The aim is to suggest improvements to the regulatory systems and the preconditions for further development of the biogas industry in Norway. Systems theory and system analysis methodology was applied, and three different domains were assessed: environmental impacts, economy of the actors in the value chain and policies. The case studies were limited to the substrates organic waste from households (food waste) and manure from cattle and pigs. In the economic assessment, only the annual results for the biogas plants and cattle and pig farms were calculated. Four scientific papers were developed as part of this PhD thesis. In the first paper, life cycle assessment methodology and generic results were presented for the BioValueChain model. The model was developed to be able to evaluate the environmental impacts of different options for biogas value chains. In the second paper, environmental assessment was combined with economic assessment of large scale biogas plants for four different value chain configurations. In addition, the most profitable option was used as a reference to calculate the incentives necessary to make the most preferable option in terms of reduction of environmental impacts as profitable as the reference. A comparative assessment of biogas value chains in Norway and Denmark was carried out in Paper 3. Denmark has implemented an end-use support of biogas through a feed-in tariff, while Norway provides investment support and support for farmers per tonne manure delivered to a biogas plant. The objective was to evaluate the effect of different regulatory systems. This was achieved by defining a Norwegian and a Danish biogas value chain, and calculating the costs and income. In addition, the economic results were calculated for the Norwegian value chain when assuming Danish conditions, and vice versa. In paper 4 the methodology of an optimisation model for the use of manure resources for anaerobic digestion in one region was described, and the model was employed to perform a case study on 50 farms in one region in Norway. The model calculated the economic profit for farmers and the greenhouse gas emissions for three options: no biogas production, farm scale biogas production and centralised biogas production. The results in this PhD work showed that the amount of organic waste and manure used for anaerobic digestion should be increased to reduce environmental impacts. The most preferable option for the use of biogas is as a fuel for transport to substitute diesel, and the best use of the digestate is as a fertiliser in agriculture as a substitute for mineral fertiliser, which requires a high level of sector integration in the value chain. To obtain a maximal reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, efforts should be made to avoiding diffuse emissions and reducing emissions from the storage of digestate. The economic calculations showed that large-scale biogas plants in general lack economic incentives to include the agricultural sector in the value chain. Inclusion of the transport sector is the most profitable option for use of biogas only for the largest scale biogas plants and for those who are able to sell biomethane for a high price. The most profitable option regarding the management of manure for cattle and pig farms was the supply of manure to a centralised biogas plant and the return of the digestate as biofertiliser. This was, however, dependent on the agreement between the farm and the biogas plant. As a result of the newly introduced support per tonne manure sent to biogas production, investment in a small scale biogas plant can also be profitable for most cattle and pig farms, all though the majority of farms in Norway would struggle to find a good use for the biogas on the farm. This indicates that the current barriers to increased use of manure resources for biogas production are not principally economic. The current support system has contributed to an increase in biogas production. Based on the assessments performed as part of this thesis, however, some recommendations were made to improve the framework conditions of an optimised biogas production in Norway, to reduce environmental impacts and achieve the political objectives. While the exemption from CO2 tax and road fee has contributed to an increased use of biogas in the transport sector, an increase in the taxes for fossil fuels could contribute to making upgrading of the gas the most profitable option for most large-scale biogas plants. Raising the importance of the environmental aspects in public procurements would enhance the role of biogas in achieving the political objectives of obtaining fossil free public transport and in the reduction of environmental impacts from waste treatment. In addition, it is important to consider measures that motivate large scale plants to use manure as a substrate and deliver digestate to agriculture. An increase in the knowledge regarding the economy of farm scale biogas production in a Norwegian context would make the results from the economic assessment more robust and reduce the risk for farmers in making the investment. These include knowledge with regard to the start-up and operation of small scale plants to avoid unforeseen costs. Political instruments that encourage the development of technology for cheaper small scale upgrading solutions could further reduce the greenhouse gas emissions, as would the use of raw biogas in tractors and other agricultural equipment currently using fossil fuels. In some regions, this could also be achieved by implementing regional development plans for farm scale production with piping infrastructure and centralised upgrading. These measures could promote an increase in the amount of manure for biogas production The work carried out as part of this thesis has shown that models combining environmental life cycle assessment and economic cost assessments can serve as decision support and can make a valuable contribution to policy development. The results are, however, highly dependent on the quality of the data used and the level of detail in the models. In order to increase the robustness of the results, there is a need for more research into the quantification of emissions from the storage and spreading of digestate, and ways in which they can be reduced. In addition, there is a need for a greater understanding of the properties of digestate as a fertiliser, such as the fertilising effect, carbon storage and other contributions to soil quality. More research should also be carried out on the emissions from dewatering and composting of digestate, and its use as a substitute for peat. Furthermore, the cost assessments could be expanded to also to include the economy of the actors in the transport sector and the farmers receiving digestate. ; Biogassproduksjon fra anaerob utråtning av organiske ressurser kan potensielt bidra til reduksjon av klimagasser i flere sektorer og kan spille en viktig rolle i både bioøkonomien og sirkulærøkonomien. Flere europeiske land har politiske målsetninger om å øke biogassproduksjon og øke mengden gjødsel til anaerob behandling. Behandlingsmetoden er derimot kjent for å være kostbar, og markedene for biogass og biorest er umodne. Det er behov for en bedre forståelse av hvordan verdikjedene bør utformes for å minimere miljøbelastningene samtidig som man oppnår lønnsomhet for aktørene. I Norge er de vanligste substratene for biogassproduksjon kloakkslam og organisk avfall fra husholdninger og industri. Gjødsel er identifisert som substratet med det høyeste teoretiske biogasspotensialet, men det er foreløpig få biogassanlegg som bruker gjødsel som råvare. Inntil nylig har biogass i hovedsak blitt brukt til å generere varme, hvor en stor andel har blitt brukt internt i anleggene eller til å varme opp bygninger i nærheten. I løpet av de siste årene har derimot flere nye og eksisterende anlegg investert i oppgradering og produserer biometan til bruk i transportsektoren. Den vanligste behandlingen av bioresten, som er et biprodukt fra den anaerobe behandlingen, er å avvanne den og bruke den tørre fraksjonen som et jordforbedringsprodukt og sende vannfasen til renseanlegg. Noen få nye anlegg leverer derimot den flytende biorest til lanbruket som biogjødsel. Hensikten med denne avhandlingen har vært å bidra til økt kunnskap om hvordan norske biogass verdikjeder bør optimaliseres for å redusere miljøbelastninger ved å utvikle modeller som kan gi beslutningsstøtte. Målet er å foreslå forbedringer av virkemiddelapparatet og forutsetningene for videre utvikling av biogassindustrien i Norge. Systemteori og systemanalyse-metodikk ble brukt, og tre ulike aspekter ble analysert: miljøpåvirkninger, økonomien til aktører i verdikjeden og politikk. Casestudiene er begrenset til substratene organisk avfall fra husholdninger (matavfall) og gjødsel fra storfe og gris. I økonomianalysene ble kun det årlige resultatet til biogassanlegg og storfe- og grisegårder analysert. Fire vitenskapelige artikler ble utviklet som en del av avhandlingen. I den første artikkelen ble livsløpssmetodikk og generelle resultater for BioValueChain-modellen presentert. Modellen ble utviklet for å muliggjøre evaluering av miljøpåvirkninger fra ulike alternativer for biogass verdikjeder. I den andre artikkelen ble miljøanalyser kombinert med økonomiberegninger for storskala biogassanlegg for fire ulike verdikjede-konfigurasjoner. I tillegg ble det mest lønnsomme alternativet brukt som referanse til å beregne hvilke insentiver som er nødvendig for at den mest gunstige løsningen med tanke på reduksjon miljøbelastninger, blir like lønnsom som referansen. En komparativ analyse av biogass verdikjeder i Norge og Danmark ble gjennomført i Paper 3. Danmark har implementert støtteordninger for sluttbruk av biogass gjennom en feed-in tariff, mens Norge tilbyr investeringsstøtte og støtte til gårder per tonn gjødsel levert til biogassanlegg. Hensikten var å undersøke effekten av ulike virkemiddelsystemer. Dette ble utført ved å definere en norsk og en dansk biogass verdikjede og beregne kostnadene og inntektene. I tillegg ble de økonomiske resultatene beregnet for den norske verdikjeden under danske forutsetninger, og vice versa. I Paper 4 ble metodikken til en optimaliseringsmodell for bruk av gjødselressurser i en region til biogassproduksjon beskrevet, og modellen ble brukt til å gjennomføre en casestudie på 50 gårder i en region i Norge. Modellen beregnet årlig økonomisk resultat for gårdene i regionen og utslipp av klimagasser for tre alternativer: ingen biogassproduksjon, biogassproduksjon på gårdsanlegg og sentralisert biogassproduksjon. Resultatene i PhD-arbeidet har vist at organisk avfall og gjødsel i større grad bør benyttes til biogassproduksjon for å redusere miljøbelastninger. Den beste løsningen for bruk av biogassen er som drivstoff slik at biogassen kan erstatter diesel, og den beste løsningen for bruk av biorest er som biogjødsel i landbruket til å erstatte mineralgjødsel, noe som krever et høyt nivå av sektorintegrering i verdikjeden. For å oppnå maksimal reduksjon av klimagassutslipp, bør det fokuseres på å redusere diffuse utslipp og å redusere utslipp fra lagring av biorest. Økonomiberegningene vise at storskala biogassanlegg mangler generelt økonomiske insentiver for å inkludere landbrukssektoren i verdikjeden. Inkludering av transportsektoren er kun det mest lønnsomme alternativet for anlegg over en viss skala eller for anlegg som får en høy pris for den oppgraderte gassen. For storfe og grisegårder er det mest lønnsomme alternativet med tanke på gjødselhåndtering å levere gjødsel til et sentralt biogassanlegg, og å få bioresten i retur. Denne konklusjonen er svært avhengig av avtalen mellom gården og biogassanlegget. Takket være den nylig introduserte støtten per tonn gjødsel til biogassanlegg, kan investering i et gårdsanlegg også gi økonomisk overskudd for bonden, til tross for vanskeligheter med å finne et godt bruksområde for gassen. Dette gir en indikasjon på at barrierene for å øke mengden gjødsel til biogassproduksjon på det nåværende tidspunkt ikke i hovedsak er økonomiske. Det eksisterende virkemiddelapparatet har bidratt til en økning i biogassproduksjonen. Basert på analysene som er utført i denne avhandlingen kan det likevel gis noen anbefalinger til forbedringer i rammevilkårene for en optimalisert biogassproduksjon i Norge, for å redusere miljøpåvirkningene og for å oppnå de politiske målsetningene. Unntak fra CO2-avgift og veiavgift har sannsynligvis bidratt til en økning i bruk av biogass i transportsektoren. En ytterligere økning i avgiftene for fossile drivstoff vil sannsynligvis medføre at oppgradering blir den mest lønnsomme løsningen for de fleste storskala biogassanlegg. Et økt fokus på viktigheten av miljøaspekter ved offentlige innkjøp kan bidra til å oppnå de politiske målsetningene for fossilfri kollektivtransport og reduksjoner av miljøbelastninger fra avfallshåndtering. I tillegg er det viktig å vurdere virkemidler som kan motivere storskalaanlegg til å bruke gjødsel som substrat og levere biorest til landbruket. En økt forståelse for økonomien til gårdsanlegg under norske forhold vil gjøre resultatene fra de økonomiske beregningene mer robuste og redusere risikoen for bønder som ønsker å investere. Dette inkluderer kunnskap om oppstart og drift av småskalaanlegg for å unngå uforutsette utgifter. Politiske virkemidler som legger til rette for utvikling av teknologi for billigere småskala-oppgradering kan redusere klimagassutslippene ytterligere. Det samme kan bruk av rågass i traktorer og annet landbruksutstyr, som på det nåværende tidspunkt bruker fossilt drivstoff. I noen regioner kan det være aktuelt å lage en regional plan for biogassproduksjon med rørnett og sentralisert oppgradering. Disse tiltakene vil kunne bidra til å øke mengden gjødsel til biogassproduksjon. Arbeidet som er gjennomført i forbindelse med denne avhandlingen har vist at modeller som kombinerer livsløpsanalyser og økonomiberegninger kan bidra med beslutningsstøtte og kan gi verdifulle innspill til politikkutforming. Det er likevel viktig å være oppmerksom på at resultatene er svært avhengig av kvaliteten på datagrunnlaget og detaljnivået til modellene. For å øke robustheten til resultatene er det behov for mer forskning på kvantifisering av utslipp fra lagring og spredning av biorest, og reduksjon av disse utslippene. Det er i tillegg behov for en bedre forståelse av egenskapene til biorest som et gjødselprodukt, slik som gjødseleffekt og karbonlagringseffekt og andre bidrag til jordkvalitet. Det er også behov for mer kunnskap om utslipp fra avvanning og kompostering av biorest og på erstatning av torv. Videre kan kostnadsberegningene med fordel utvides til å inkludere aktørene i transportsektoren og gårder som mottar biorest. ; publishedVersion

[SPA] El crecimiento demográfico, el desarrollo industrial, la expansión de la agricultura de regadío y el aumento de la calidad de vida han dado lugar en los últimos años a una fuerte presión sobre los recursos hídricos. En climas áridos y semiáridos se presentan frecuentes situaciones de déficit hídrico que afectan principalmente a la agricultura, que con un 75% de la demanda total de recursos hídricos representa el mayor consumidor de agua. Por tanto, actualmente es de gran interés el desarrollo de técnicas y herramientas para optimizar el uso de agua, especialmente en la agricultura. Las pérdidas por evaporación en embalses pueden representar una importante pérdida de agua en zonas áridas y semiáridas. Varios estudios a escala mundial señalan la importancia de estas pérdidas de agua. Gökbulak y Özhan (2006) estiman que la evaporación anual en lagos y embalses de Turquía es mayor que la suma del consumo urbano e industrial de dicho país. Craig et al. (2005) indicaron que hasta un 40% del agua almacenada en embalses se pierde por evaporación en muchas regiones de Australia. En el sureste español, la continua expansión de las zonas regables durante las últimas décadas ha dado lugar a un gran aumento de la demanda de recursos hídricos. En la cuenca del Segura (CS), este desarrollo de las zonas de regadío ha supuesto un déficit hídrico estructural de 460 hm3, que afecta a 3,5?105 ha de regadío (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, 2000). Gran parte de los recursos hídricos de la CS proceden de trasvases de agua desde otras cuencas, dependiendo por tanto de la disponibilidad hídrica en la cuenca de origen, y están sujetos a decisiones políticas que son difíciles de predecir, especialmente en situaciones de sequía. Las comunidades de regantes de la CS reciben sus dotaciones de agua en función de la disponibilidad de recursos y, generalmente, la distribuyen a sus usuarios mediante una organización por turnos. Cada regante debe disponer de un embalse de riego en el que almacenar el agua suministrada durante su turno, para poder regar cuando resulte oportuno y poder hacer frente a periodos sin disponibilidad de recursos. Este tipo de organización en la distribución de las dotaciones, junto a la elevada incertidumbre en el suministro, ha conllevado la construcción masiva de pequeños embalses o balsas de regulación de riego en la CS. La pérdida de agua por evaporación que se produce en estos numerosos embalses no había sido estudiada rigurosamente con anterioridad a este trabajo de investigación. Para poder evaluar la importancia de las pérdidas de agua por evaporación de los embalses de riego de la CS, se ha realizado un estudio detallado. El primer paso ha sido la identificación del número, localización y dimensión de cada uno de los embalses de riego existentes en la CS, que se ha realizado mediante la fotointerpretación de la imagen aérea del vuelo SIGPAC 2003 (http://sigpac.mapa.es/fega/visor/) con el Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG) ArcGis 9.2. Esta imagen ha permitido estimar el área de cada embalse. Además, se ha tenido en cuenta que los embalses se encuentran normalmente por encima de un tercio de su capacidad total con el fin de mantener un cierto nivel de seguridad en caso de periodos de sequía prolongados. Por tanto, a efectos de considerar una superficie evaporante representativa, se ha considerado en los cálculos que los embalses están a dos tercios de su capacidad, S2/3, lo que equivale aproximadamente al 85% de su superficie total, ya que los embalses tienen generalmente taludes con pendiente 1/1. Una vez conocida la localización y dimensión de los embalses, el siguiente paso ha sido la determinación de la evaporación en cada uno de ellos, para posteriormente agregar esta información y obtener el valor de evaporación regional. Un método sencillo para estimar la demanda evaporativa es el uso de tanques evaporímetros estándar Clase A. Para estimar la evaporación de un embalse, E, a partir de datos de evaporación en tanque, Ep, es necesario aplicar un coeficiente de conversión (Kp = E/Ep). Para determinar Kp, hay que tener en cuenta las condiciones climáticas locales y las dimensiones geométricas del cuerpo de agua. Martínez-Álvarez et al. (2007) mostraron que el valor anual de Kp dependía principalmente de la superficie del embalse, no afectando significativamente su profundidad, mientras que la variación espacial de Kp a nivel de cuenca estaba relacionada con el valor anual del déficit de presión de vapor (DPV). La metodología propuesta por Martínez-Álvarez et al. (2007) se ha aplicado para calcular el valor anual de Kp en cada embalse, considerando su superficie (S2/3) y el DPV local de su localización. Se han elaborado mapas de Ep y VPD de la CS para calcular el Kp y la superficie evaporante de cada embalse y, mediante la combinación de toda esta información, estimar su evaporación. En la determinación de la evaporación total en la cuenca y en las distintas zonas hidrológicas se han utilizado técnicas de agregación espacial con GIS. El total de pérdidas por evaporación en los embalses de riego en la CS se ha estimado en 58,5 hm3, lo que corresponde a una lámina de agua evaporada de 1.404 m anuales. Esta cifra representa el 8,3% del agua distribuida para riego durante el periodo de estudio, es más del doble del consumo industrial, equivale a un 27% del consumo urbano y es igual la demanda medioambiental. Teniendo en cuenta el señalado déficit hídrico de la CS, estas cifran ponen de manifiesto la importancia de las pérdidas de agua por evaporación en embalses de riego y la necesidad de plantear posibles soluciones. A escala mundial, los pequeños embalses son muy numerosos y se destinan a usos tan diferentes como la acuicultura, la jardinería, el uso recreativo, el riego, los abrevaderos de ganado, etc. Se estima que cubren en conjunto 77.000 km2 (Downing et al., 2006). A pesar del creciente interés en optimizar el uso de los recursos hídricos, apenas se han realizado trabajos de investigación sobre la evaporación en estos pequeños embalses, basándose los pocos estudios disponibles en datos escasos y de baja calidad (Rosenberry et al., 2007). Tampoco existen trabajos relevantes centrados en el proceso de evaporación y la evolución de las componentes del balance de energía en pequeños embalses, cuyo conocimiento es fundamental para poder modelizar y predecir adecuadamente las pérdidas por evaporación. En el presente trabajo de investigación se ha llevado a cabo la cuantificación y análisis detallado de las componentes del balance de energía de un embalse de riego de la CS, basado en datos experimentales. Para ello se ha monitorizado un embalse de riego típico de la CS durante un año (2007), registrándose datos de evaporación, del perfil de temperatura y de las variables meteorológicas relacionadas, que han dado lugar a datos diarios de gran calidad no disponibles con anterioridad a este estudio. A partir de estos datos, se han descrito y cuantificado todos los flujos del balance de energía, así como la distribución de la energía disponible para la evaporación a escala mensual, poniéndose de manifiesto la importancia de considerar la inercia térmica del cuerpo de agua para el cálculo de la evaporación a una escala inferior a la anual. Los resultados muestran que la radiación neta y la evaporación (principales términos del balance de energía) se encuentran desfasados temporalmente debido a la acumulación de calor en el cuerpo de agua. Como consecuencia de este desfase se producen importantes errores en la estima de la evaporación a partir de relaciones lineales con la radiación neta, en las que no se considera el calor almacenado en el cuerpo de agua. Además se ha propuesto una ecuación simplificada que permite estimar el calor almacenado a escala mensual a partir de datos de temperatura del aire, dado que habitualmente no se dispone de la información sobre la temperatura del agua requerida para su cálculo. Los valores anuales y la evolución mensual del coeficiente de advección de Priestley-Taylor y de las componentes advectiva y radiativa del método de Penman también han sido estudiados y se dan simplificaciones y recomendaciones para el uso de estos métodos. En general, este trabajo representa una referencia fundamental para el estudio de evaporación en pequeños cuerpos de agua, especialmente para aquellos ubicados en zonas de clima semiárido. Otro objetivo fundamental de la tesis ha sido el estudio de la mitigación de las pérdidas por evaporación. Para reducir la evaporación en superficies de agua existen diferentes alternativas, que pueden clasificarse en los siguientes grupos: métodos físicos, métodos operacionales, coberturas químicas y métodos estructurales (Brown, 1988). Los métodos físicos son aquellos que modifican las propiedades físicas del agua, como la des estratificación artificial del agua. Los métodos operacionales hacen referencia a las buenas prácticas de manejo orientadas a la prevención de la evaporación. Las coberturas químicas se forman aplicando productos químicos en la superficie del agua, que crean una capa reductora de la evaporación. Por último, los métodos estructurales incluyen las coberturas y módulos flotantes, que reducen los intercambios de masa y energía entre la superficie de agua y el aire circundante, los cortavientos, que protegen la superficie del agua de la exposición al viento y las coberturas de sombreo suspendidas, que minimizan el paso de la radiación solar y protegen de la acción directa del viento. Entre todos estos métodos, las coberturas de sombreo suspendidas parece ser una de las técnicas más prometedora para la reducción de la evaporación. (Craig et al., 2005; Martínez-Álvarez et al., 2006). ; [ENG] Current global population growth, industrial development, sustained increase of living standards and the trend towards irrigated agriculture have produced a strong competition for water resources. In arid and semiarid climates, this causes water shortages that mainly affect agricultural users. There is an urgent need to improve water management by developing new water-saving technologies, especially in agriculture, whose water consumption accounts for 75% of the human water use. In arid and semiarid regions, evaporation loss from agricultural water reservoirs (AWRs) for irrigation can be potentially large. Several studies have pointed out the importance of evaporation losses. Gökbulak and Özhan (2006) estimated that annual evaporation from lakes and dams in Turkey is greater than the water used for domestic and industrial purposes. Craig et al. (2005) estimated that in many areas of Australia up to 40% of the stored water in on-farm storages can be lost through evaporation. In the semiarid region of south-eastern Spain, sustained development of new irrigated lands over the last few decades has led to an important increase in water demand. This has caused a dramatic water deficit, estimated at 460 hm3 in the Segura River Basin (SRB), affecting 3.5·105 ha of irrigated farmlands (Ministry of Environment, 2000). Agricultural allotments in the SRB mainly come from adjacent basins and its quantity and temporal availability mainly depends on political decisions that are difficult to anticipate, especially in drought periods. The collective irrigation schemes, which have intermediate infrastructures for medium-term storage of allotted water, distribute water to farms generally by turn. Due to the water distribution system by turn and in order to deal with irregular water allotment and extended periods without water supply, many farms and collective irrigation schemes built and now use AWRs. These reservoirs guarantee water throughout the year and therefore have an important impact on agriculture productivity and revenues of farming systems. To assess the actual importance of evaporation loss in the SRB, a detailed study was carried out. The first step was to identify the number, location and dimensions of all irrigation reservoirs in the SRB. The aerial orthophoto SIGPAC (http://sigpac.mapa.es/fega/visor/) of 2003 was meticulously photointerpreted, using ArcGIS 9.2 Geographical Information System (GIS), to identify all extant AWRs in the SRB. The usual practice in south-eastern Spain is to keep AWR water level above one third of its total depth, in order to maintain some level of insurance against the uncertain and poorly timed delivery of irrigation water to farms. For this reason, a floodable area (S2/3) corresponding to two thirds of the total depth of each AWR was considered a realistic value for determining the average annual evaporative area, which represents about 85% of the floodable area for most cases since embankments usually have an inner slope of 1/1. Once the extension and location of all evaporating area were known, the next step was to estimate evaporation from each reservoir and then aggregate the information to obtain the regional evaporation. The simplest way to estimate evaporation from AWRs is to use Class-A pan evaporation data, Ep. This method is commonly used to derive the evaporation rate, E, of a water surface, for hydrological applications. An empirical pan coefficient, Kp (defined as the ratio of E to Ep), is to be applied to estimate E. To determine Kp, local climate conditions and the geometric dimensions of the water body need to be considered. Martínez-Alvarez et al. (2007) found that, at a given location in the SRB, annual Kp values mostly depend on the AWR flooded area, S, and depend loosely on depth, D, and that spatial variation of annual Kp at a regional or catchment scale is related to the annual air vapour pressure deficit, VPD. In this study, the methodology proposed by Martínez-Alvarez et al. (2007) was applied to calculate Kp, taking into account the surface of reservoirs (S2/3) and the local VPD. Regional maps of Ep and VPD were produced and then combined with evaporating area and Kp of each reservoir in order to calculate the evaporation of each reservoir. To calculate the regional evaporation loss, spatial aggregation GIS techniques were used. Results indicated that annual water loss at a basin scale reaches 58.5 hm3, which corresponds to 1,404 m of water depth over the flooded area. To assess the importance of total evaporation loss within the water budget of the Segura River Basin, the evaporation loss was compared to the rest of the water demands in the basin. The total regional loss corresponds to 8.3% of irrigation water use, it is higher than the industrial demand, similar to the environmental demand, and it is equivalent to 27% of the domestic water use. Considering that the SRB, like most of semiarid basins, presents a marked water deficit, the latter figures underline the need of further research on evaporation from water storages and alternatives to reduce this water loss. Accurate estimates of free water evaporation from on-farm water storages are essential for assessing storage efficiency and for evaluating the use of mitigation measures. Small water storages for livestock, fishing, irrigation or recreational activities are estimated to cover about 77,000 km2 worldwide (Downing et al., 2006). In spite of the increasing interest in optimizing storage efficiency in irrigation districts, detailed evaporation studies of these numerous small water bodies are scarce and often based on sparse or remotely collected data (Rosenberry et al., 2007). To our knowledge, there are very few studies that provide a detailed insight into the dynamics of the energy balance components and evaporation loss of on-farm water reservoirs. There is a need to study in detail the dynamics of small storages. A thorough quantification and analysis of the components of the energy balance of a typical AWR based on detailed experimentation is of main interest. The second part of this research work was focused on the mitigation of evaporation from on-farm water storages. To reduce evaporation losses, a wide variety of methods have been proposed, which can be classified into the following groups: physical, operational, chemical and structural methods. Among these methods, suspended shade cloth covers (SSCCs) have been pointed out as one of the most promising techniques from a technical point of view (Craig et al., 2005; Martinez-Alvarez et al., 2006). ; Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena

The agricultural and food production sector plays a key role in fighting poverty and food insecurity in Moldova, but is facing critical challenges to modernize and integrate into the international market. This paper focuses on smallholder farms, which make up 95 percent of all farms, and explores their potential for growth and the poverty links. Findings reveal that structural change is slow and smallholder farm growth in Moldova is an exception, not the rule. Only a small share of smallholder farms have the interest or capacity to commercialize but need targeted support policies to grow, intensify their farm activities, and integrate into the markets. For the remaining majority, enhancing their livelihoods calls for policies beyond the agricultural sector to help farm households diversify toward non-farm income.

The purpose of this paper is to provide information on how to transform and strengthen pluralistic agricultural extension and advisory systems in moving toward the broader goal of increasing farm income and improving rural livelihoods. The focus of this book is primarily on the technical knowledge, management skills, and information services that small-scale farm households will need to improve their livelihoods in the rapidly changing global economy. In addition, the book will also include information on how extension should help all types of farmers in dealing with escalating natural resource problems, including climate change. The primary focus of this paper will be a comparative analysis of different extension strategies, organizational models, institutional innovations, and resource constraints and how an extension system might be transformed and strengthened through specific policy and organizational changes as well as needed investments. This paper is organized into nine chapters. These chapters follow an institution building strategy used by many donors and governments as they seek to improve their extension system. The diagram in Figure one outlines these basic planning, implementation, and evaluation procedures that will be considered. The sections outlined below will provide a brief overview of the different chapters included in this paper.