Suchergebnisse

The article shows the problem of environmental pollution when using fuel oil in thermal and power plants. The use of high sulfur fuel oil to ensure the operation of cogeneration plants, thermal power and boiler plants in stationary equipment in Ukraine has been prohibited since 2018. The potential ban of using of this type of fuel for the operation of mobile emission sources, including maritime transport has become an international trend. Therefore, the aim of the work was to substantiate the requirements of national legislation and to determine the advantages of low-sulfur fuel oil in comparison with high-sulfur. The article provides an estimate of emissions of harmful substances, including suspended solids, sulfur, nitrogen, carbon, vanadium compounds, organo-containing volatile compounds during the combustion of fuel oils with different chemistry. The tasks of the work were to evaluate the chemistry of the studied fuels, the efficiency of the treatment equipment, the processes of binding pollutants with ash, and the calculation of the emission factors of pollutants and the values of their emissions during the combustion of a ton of fuel in the furnaces of power and heating equipment. The paper used calculation methods for determining emissions into the air during fuel combustion based on indicators of emissions of pollutants contained in the emissions, according to the methodology of the Ukrainian Scientific Center of Technical Ecology, developed using international guidelines and standards. The above calculation of emissions of harmful substances during the burning of fuel oil can used in the development of permits by enterprises polluting the atmospheric air. When conducting a comparative analysis, high values were determined for sulfur dioxide emissions for high sulfur fuel oil, for other indicators, pollutant emissions during the combustion of various types of fuel oil are similar. The article also determined that most of the carbon in the studied fuels goes into carbon dioxide emissions and a smaller part – into carbon monoxide emissions. Most of the nitrogen goes into the emission of nitric oxide and a smaller part – into the emission of dinitric oxide. Thus, the work proved the danger of high-sulfur fuel oil in terms of sulfur compounds emissions, however, when using sulfur reduction technologies, such fuel oil can also be used as low-sulfur fuel, since they have a similar qualitative and quantitative composition of emissions of other pollutants. ; В статье показана проблема загрязнения окружающей среды при использовании мазутов в тепловых и энергетических установках. Использование высокосернистых мазутов для обеспечения работы теплоэлектроцентралей, теплоэлектростанций и котельных в стационарном оборудовании в Украине запрещено с 2018 года. Международной тенденцией стал потенциальный запрет использования этого вида топлива для работы передвижных источников выброса, в том числе морского транспорта. Поэтому целью работы стало обоснование требований национального законодательства и определение преимуществ малосернистых мазутов в сравнении с высокосернистыми. В статье приведена оценка выбросов вредных веществ, в том числе суспендированных твердых частиц, соединений серы, азота, углерода, ванадия, органосодеращих летучих соединений при сжигании мазутов с разным химическим составом. Заданиями работы стала оценка химического состава исследуемых топлив, эффективности работы очистного оборудования, процессов связывания поллютантов золой и расчет по определенным данным коэффициентов эмиссии загрязняющих веществ и величины их выбросов при сгорании тонны топлива в топках энергетического и теплового оборудования. В работе использованы расчетные методы определения выбросов в атмосферный воздух при сжигании топлив на основании показателей эмиссий загрязняющих веществ, содержащихся в выбросе, по методике Украинского научного центра технической экологии, разработанной с использованием международных методических рекомендаций и стандартов. Приведенный расчет выбросов вредных веществ при сжигании мазутов может использоваться при разработке предприятиями, загрязняющими атмосферный воздух, разрешительных документов. При проведении сравнительного анализа определены высокие значения по выбросам диоксида серы для высокосернистых мазутов, по другим показателям выбросы загрязняющих веществ при сжигании разных видов мазутов схожи. В статье также определено, что большая часть углерода исследуемых топлив переходит в выброс диоксида углерода и меньшая – в выброс оксида углерода. Большая часть азота переходит в выброс оксида азота і меньшая – в выброс оксида диазота. Таким образом, в работе доказана опасность високосернистых мазутов с точки зрения выбросов соединений серы, однако при использовании технологий снижения содержания серы такие мазуты могут использоваться также как и малосернистые, так как имеют схожий качественный и количественный состав выбросов других загрязняющих веществ. ; В статті показана проблема забруднення довкілля при застосуванні мазутів у теплових та енергетичних установках. Використання високосірчистих мазутів для забезпечення роботи теплоелектроцентралей, теплоелектростанцій та котельних у стаціонарному устаткуванні в Україні заборонене з 2018 року. Світовими тенденціями стала потенційна заборона цього виду палива для роботи пересувних джерел викиду, зокрема морського транспорту. Тому метою роботи стало обґрунтування вимог національного законодавства та визначення переваг малосірчистих мазутів у порівнянні із високосірчистими. В статті наведена оцінка викидів шкідливих речовин, зокрема суспендованих твердих частинок, сполук сірки, азоту, вуглецю, ванадію, органовмісних летких сполук при спалюванні мазутів із різним хімічним складом. Завданнями роботи стала оцінка хімічного складу досліджуваних палив, ефективності роботи очисного устаткування, процесів зв'язування поллютантів золою та розрахунок за визначеними даними коефіцієнтів емісії забруднюючих речовин та величини їх викидів при згорянні тонни палива у топках енергетичного та теплового устаткування. У роботі застосовані розрахункові методи визначення викидів в атмосферне повітря при спалюванні палив на основі показників емісій забруднюючих речовин, що містяться у викиді за методикою Українського наукового центру технічної екології, що розроблена із використанням міжнародних методичних рекомендацій та стандартів. Приведений розрахунок викидів шкідливих речовин при спалюванні мазутів може бути використаний при розробці підприємствами, що забруднюють атмосферне повітря, дозвільних документів. При проведенні порівняльного аналізу виявлені високі значення по викидам діоксиду сірки по високосірчистим мазутам, за іншими показними викиди забруднюючих речовин при спалюванні різних видів мазутів є схожими. У статті також визначено, що більша частка вуглецю досліджуваних палив переходить у викид діоксиду вуглецю і менша – у викид оксиду вуглецю. Більша частка азоту переходить у викид оксиду азоту і менша – у викид оксиду діазоту. Таким чином, в роботі доведена небезпека високосірчистих мазутів з точки зору викидів сполук сірки, однак при застосуванні технологій щодо зниження вмісту сірки такі мазути можуть застосовуватись на рівні із малосірчистими, оскільки мають схожий якісний і кількісний склад викидів інших забруднюючих речовин.

The article shows the problem of environmental pollution when using fuel oil in thermal and power plants. The use of high sulfur fuel oil to ensure the operation of cogeneration plants, thermal power and boiler plants in stationary equipment in Ukraine has been prohibited since 2018. The potential ban of using of this type of fuel for the operation of mobile emission sources, including maritime transport has become an international trend. Therefore, the aim of the work was to substantiate the requirements of national legislation and to determine the advantages of low-sulfur fuel oil in comparison with high-sulfur. The article provides an estimate of emissions of harmful substances, including suspended solids, sulfur, nitrogen, carbon, vanadium compounds, organo-containing volatile compounds during the combustion of fuel oils with different chemistry. The tasks of the work were to evaluate the chemistry of the studied fuels, the efficiency of the treatment equipment, the processes of binding pollutants with ash, and the calculation of the emission factors of pollutants and the values of their emissions during the combustion of a ton of fuel in the furnaces of power and heating equipment. The paper used calculation methods for determining emissions into the air during fuel combustion based on indicators of emissions of pollutants contained in the emissions, according to the methodology of the Ukrainian Scientific Center of Technical Ecology, developed using international guidelines and standards. The above calculation of emissions of harmful substances during the burning of fuel oil can used in the development of permits by enterprises polluting the atmospheric air. When conducting a comparative analysis, high values were determined for sulfur dioxide emissions for high sulfur fuel oil, for other indicators, pollutant emissions during the combustion of various types of fuel oil are similar. The article also determined that most of the carbon in the studied fuels goes into carbon dioxide emissions and a smaller part – into carbon monoxide emissions. Most of the nitrogen goes into the emission of nitric oxide and a smaller part – into the emission of dinitric oxide. Thus, the work proved the danger of high-sulfur fuel oil in terms of sulfur compounds emissions, however, when using sulfur reduction technologies, such fuel oil can also be used as low-sulfur fuel, since they have a similar qualitative and quantitative composition of emissions of other pollutants. ; В статье показана проблема загрязнения окружающей среды при использовании мазутов в тепловых и энергетических установках. Использование высокосернистых мазутов для обеспечения работы теплоэлектроцентралей, теплоэлектростанций и котельных в стационарном оборудовании в Украине запрещено с 2018 года. Международной тенденцией стал потенциальный запрет использования этого вида топлива для работы передвижных источников выброса, в том числе морского транспорта. Поэтому целью работы стало обоснование требований национального законодательства и определение преимуществ малосернистых мазутов в сравнении с высокосернистыми. В статье приведена оценка выбросов вредных веществ, в том числе суспендированных твердых частиц, соединений серы, азота, углерода, ванадия, органосодеращих летучих соединений при сжигании мазутов с разным химическим составом. Заданиями работы стала оценка химического состава исследуемых топлив, эффективности работы очистного оборудования, процессов связывания поллютантов золой и расчет по определенным данным коэффициентов эмиссии загрязняющих веществ и величины их выбросов при сгорании тонны топлива в топках энергетического и теплового оборудования. В работе использованы расчетные методы определения выбросов в атмосферный воздух при сжигании топлив на основании показателей эмиссий загрязняющих веществ, содержащихся в выбросе, по методике Украинского научного центра технической экологии, разработанной с использованием международных методических рекомендаций и стандартов. Приведенный расчет выбросов вредных веществ при сжигании мазутов может использоваться при разработке предприятиями, загрязняющими атмосферный воздух, разрешительных документов. При проведении сравнительного анализа определены высокие значения по выбросам диоксида серы для высокосернистых мазутов, по другим показателям выбросы загрязняющих веществ при сжигании разных видов мазутов схожи. В статье также определено, что большая часть углерода исследуемых топлив переходит в выброс диоксида углерода и меньшая – в выброс оксида углерода. Большая часть азота переходит в выброс оксида азота і меньшая – в выброс оксида диазота. Таким образом, в работе доказана опасность високосернистых мазутов с точки зрения выбросов соединений серы, однако при использовании технологий снижения содержания серы такие мазуты могут использоваться также как и малосернистые, так как имеют схожий качественный и количественный состав выбросов других загрязняющих веществ. ; В статті показана проблема забруднення довкілля при застосуванні мазутів у теплових та енергетичних установках. Використання високосірчистих мазутів для забезпечення роботи теплоелектроцентралей, теплоелектростанцій та котельних у стаціонарному устаткуванні в Україні заборонене з 2018 року. Світовими тенденціями стала потенційна заборона цього виду палива для роботи пересувних джерел викиду, зокрема морського транспорту. Тому метою роботи стало обґрунтування вимог національного законодавства та визначення переваг малосірчистих мазутів у порівнянні із високосірчистими. В статті наведена оцінка викидів шкідливих речовин, зокрема суспендованих твердих частинок, сполук сірки, азоту, вуглецю, ванадію, органовмісних летких сполук при спалюванні мазутів із різним хімічним складом. Завданнями роботи стала оцінка хімічного складу досліджуваних палив, ефективності роботи очисного устаткування, процесів зв'язування поллютантів золою та розрахунок за визначеними даними коефіцієнтів емісії забруднюючих речовин та величини їх викидів при згорянні тонни палива у топках енергетичного та теплового устаткування. У роботі застосовані розрахункові методи визначення викидів в атмосферне повітря при спалюванні палив на основі показників емісій забруднюючих речовин, що містяться у викиді за методикою Українського наукового центру технічної екології, що розроблена із використанням міжнародних методичних рекомендацій та стандартів. Приведений розрахунок викидів шкідливих речовин при спалюванні мазутів може бути використаний при розробці підприємствами, що забруднюють атмосферне повітря, дозвільних документів. При проведенні порівняльного аналізу виявлені високі значення по викидам діоксиду сірки по високосірчистим мазутам, за іншими показними викиди забруднюючих речовин при спалюванні різних видів мазутів є схожими. У статті також визначено, що більша частка вуглецю досліджуваних палив переходить у викид діоксиду вуглецю і менша – у викид оксиду вуглецю. Більша частка азоту переходить у викид оксиду азоту і менша – у викид оксиду діазоту. Таким чином, в роботі доведена небезпека високосірчистих мазутів з точки зору викидів сполук сірки, однак при застосуванні технологій щодо зниження вмісту сірки такі мазути можуть застосовуватись на рівні із малосірчистими, оскільки мають схожий якісний і кількісний склад викидів інших забруднюючих речовин.

Biofuels are fuels produced from biomass, mostly in liquid form, within a time frame sufficiently short to consider that their feedstock (biomass) can be renewed, contrarily to fossil fuels. This paper reviews the current and future biofuel technologies, and their development impacts (including on the climate) within given policy and economic frameworks. Current technologies make it possible to provide first generation biodiesel, ethanol or biogas to the transport sector to be blended with fossil fuels. Still under-development 2nd generation biofuels from lignocellulose should be available on the market by 2020. Research is active on the improvement of their conversion efficiency. A ten-fold increase compared with current cost-effective capacities would make them highly competitive. Within bioenergy policies, emphasis has been put on biofuels for transportation as this sector is fast-growing and represents a major source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Compared with fossil fuels, biofuel combustion can emit less greenhouse gases throughout their life cycle, considering that part of the emitted returns to the atmosphere where it was fixed from by photosynthesis in the first place. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is commonly used to assess the potential environmental impacts of biofuel chains, notably the impact on global warming. This tool, whose holistic nature is fundamental to avoid pollution trade-offs, is a standardised methodology that should make comparisons between biofuel and fossil fuel chains objective and thorough. However, it is a complex and time-consuming process, which requires lots of data, and whose methodology is still lacking harmonisation. Hence the life-cycle performances of biofuel chains vary widely in the literature. Furthermore, LCA is a site- and time- independent tool that cannot take into account the spatial and temporal dimensions of emissions, and can hardly serve as a decision-making tool either at local or regional levels. Focusing on greenhouse gases, emission factors used in LCAs give a rough estimate of the potential average emissions on a national level. However, they do not take into account the types of crop, soil or management practices, for instance. Modelling the impact of local factors on the determinism of greenhouse gas emissions can provide better estimates for LCA on the local level, which would be the relevant scale and degree of reliability for decision-making purposes. Nevertheless, a deeper understanding of the processes involved, most notably emissions, is still needed to definitely improve the accuracy of LCA. Perennial crops are a promising option for biofuels, due to their rapid and efficient use of nitrogen, and their limited farming operations. However, the main overall limiting factor to biofuel development will ultimately be land availability. Given the available land areas, population growth rate and consumption behaviours, it would be possible to reach by 2030 a global 10% biofuel share in the transport sector, contributing to lower global greenhouse gas emissions by up to (IEA, 2006), provided that harmonised policies ensure that sustainability criteria for the production systems are respected worldwide. Furthermore, policies should also be more integrative across sectors, so that changes in energy efficiency, the automotive sector and global consumption patterns converge towards drastic reduction of the pressure on resources. Indeed, neither biofuels nor other energy source or carriers are likely to mitigate the impacts of anthropogenic pressure on resources in a range that would compensate for this pressure growth. Hence, the first step is to reduce this pressure by starting from the variable that drives it up, i.e. anthropic consumptions.

The case for climate action has never been stronger. Current weather extremes, including storms, floods and drought, affect millions of people across the world. Climate change is putting water security at risk; threatening agricultural and other supply chains as well as many coastal cities. The likelihood of severe pervasive and irreversible impacts will grow without action to limit and reverse the growth of GHG emissions globally. Last year's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report makes clear the overwhelming need to take action now on climate change and that the costs of inaction will only rise. The challenge is to decarbonize our economies by 2100 with action in the next decades being critical. The choices made by government, the private sector, and civil society as part of the transition to a decarbonized economy will determine the extent of future climate impacts but also provide an opportunity to unlock investment and build an innovative, dynamic low-carbon economy.

Abstract Agriculture is the main source of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), which are the nutrients accelerating the eutrophication of waters in Finland. Hence, mitigation measures are needed to reduce the nutrient loading from the arable land. Since Finland's accession to the EU in 1995 and the subsequent adaptation to its agri-environmental policy, constructed wetlands (CWs) have been one of the mitigation measures for which farmers may receive agri-environmental subsidies. The aim of this study was to find out how efficiently such CWs are able to retain the loading and how they should be designed and dimensioned in order to optimize their performance. Particular attention was paid to CW hydrology and hydraulics, since the dynamics of the water flowing through a CW is the major factor governing retention. Water quality and flow measurements were made in three CWs located in agricultural watersheds in southern Finland during 1999-2002. Hydraulic properties were examined in 2 of the CWs by simulations with 2-dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality models. According to the calculations of material fluxes, the maximum annual retention was 72% for solid material (TSS), 67% for total P and 40% for total N. The lowest retentions were slightly negative, because the CW with the smallest CW-to-watershed area ratio (0.5% in the Alastaro CW) sometimes acted rather as a source than a sink of nutrients. The highest percent retentions were found in the Hovi CW with the largest CW-to-watershed area ratio (5%). In terms of mass per CW area, the Hovi CW retained 25 kg of total P and 300 kg of total N per one hectare per one year. In the Hovi CW also dissolved reactive P retention was high (49% in situ and 34% in laboratory microcosm experiments), obviously due to high contents and low P saturation of Al and Fe oxides of the CW soil. The basic underlying reason behind the high retentions of both dissolved nutrients and particulate matter in the Hovi CW was the long water residence time coupled with high hydraulic efficiency. In the deep part of the Hovi CW, near-bottom increase of dissolved O2 was found in phase with diurnal temperature changes. The oxygen transport by this kind of convective circulation of CW water inhibited near-bottom anoxia and thus decreased the risk of P desorption. According to the hydrodynamic simulations coupled with simulated tracer tests made for the Hovi CW, a 40% improvement in hydraulic efficiency was achieved by baffles directing the main flow to optimally exploit the CW area. The rectangular, elongated shape of the Alastaro CW also showed fairly high hydraulic efficiency. Hydrodynamic simulations were also coupled with a sediment transport model, which proved to be a useful method in predicting the change of TSS concentrations in CWs. Hourly datasets of inflow and outflow revealed high attenuation of runoff peaks in the well-designed and -dimensioned Hovi CW. The hourly outflow modeled with the reservoir routing method corresponded to the observed with a reasonable accuracy. When carefully designed, painstakingly implemented and wisely located, CWs may – even in cold climate – efficiently contribute to agricultural water pollution control.

2010 Spring. ; Includes bibliographic references. ; Covers not scanned. ; Print version deaccessioned 2022. ; Energetic materials have a wide variety of industrial, civil, and military applications. They include a number of organic compounds such as RDX (1,3,5- trinitroheahydro-s-triazine), HMX (octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-l ,3,5,7-tetrazocine), DAAF (3,3'-diamino-4,4'-azoxyfurazan), DAATO35 (3,3'-azobis(6-amino-l,2,4,5- tetrazine)-mixed N-oxides), etc. These materials release huge chemical energy during their decomposition. The decomposition of energetic materials is initiated with a shock or compression wave or a spark. Such events in solids generate molecules in the excited electronic states. Hence, in order to maximize release of the stored chemical energy in the most efficient and useful manner and to design new energetic materials, the unimolecular decomposition mechanisms and dynamics from excited electronic states should be understood for these systems. This thesis describes understanding about unimolecular decomposition of energetic materials from their excited electronic states. A few fundamental questions at molecular level dealing with electronic excitation of energetic materials are addressed here: (a) what happens immediately after electronic excitation of energetic molecules?; (b) how is excess energy partitioned among product molecules following electronic excitation?; (b) what are the mechanism and dynamics of molecular decomposition?; (d) does nonadiabatic chemistry (a process that span multiple electronic potential energy surfaces) through conical intersection (crossing of different potential energy surfaces) dominate system behavior? Both energy and time resolved spectroscopic techniques are used in this effort. The product internal state (rotational and vibrational) distributions are probed using mass and energy resolved spectroscopic techniques using time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOFMS) and laser induced fluorescence (LIF) spectroscopy. Analyzing the product internal state distributions, the mechanisms of unimolecular decomposition of energetic molecules from excited electronic states are determined. The femtosecond pump-probe spectroscopic technique is utilized to determine ultrafast decomposition dynamics of these molecules. From a theoretical point of view, multiconfigurational methodologies such as, CASSCF and CASMP2 are used to model the processes involving excited electronic states of energetic molecules. Influence of nonadiabatic chemistry in the overall decomposition of energetic molecules is also theoretically judged. The primary energetic systems whose nonadiabatic chemistry discussed here are the nitramine (e.g., RDX, HMX), furazan (e.g., DAAF), and tetrazine-N-oxide (e.g., DAATO3.5) based energetic species. A number of model systems, which are simple analogue molecules of the large and more complex energetic materials, are studied in detail to understand nonadiabatic energetic behavior of a single energetic moiety of particular class. Subsequently, the decomposition mechanism for more complex energetic systems are studied and compared with that of their model systems. Nitramine energetic materials and model systems undergo nitro-nitrite isomerization followed by IV NO elimination. Nitramine energetic materials dissociates in the ground state generating rotationally cold (20 K) distribution of the NO product. Nitramine model systems dissociates in the excited state surface producing rotationally hot (-120 K) distribution of the NO product. The nitro-nitrite isomerization happens through conical intersection. Furazan based model molecules (e.g., furazan) possess two different pathways of decomposition: ring contraction and ring opening. These two pathways are electronically nonadiabatic. The ring contraction mechanism generates rotationally cold (20 K) product NO and the ring opening mechanism generates rotationally hot (100 K) product NO. Furazan based energetic material (DAAF), however, dissociates only through a ring contraction mechanism. Thus nonadiabatic pathways control the decomposition of furazan based molecules. Decomposition of tetrazine-2,4-dioxide based molecules involves a ring contraction mechanism through (Si/So)ci, producing only rotationally cold (20 K) but vibrationally hot (1200 K) distributions of the NO product. Tetrazine-l,4-dioxde undergoes similar decomposition pathway through (Si/So)ci; however, it produces rotationally hotter (50 K) but vibrationally colder distribution of the NO product. Thus the relative position of the oxygen atoms attached to the tetrazine ring is important parameter along with their nonadiabatic chemistry controlling their final energetic reactivity. Decomposition dynamics of all energetic materials is faster than 180 fs. Considering the influence of conical intersections in the excited electronic state decomposition of energetic materials, rotationally cold N2 product is predicted to be the major decomposition product of high nitrogen content energetic species. The present work infers that generation of internally cold product is an important characteristics of a true energetic molecule. Presence of low lying chemically relevant conical intersections provides a direct pathway of ultrafast decomposition chemistry of energetic molecules. The energy barrier to the low lying chemically relevant conical intersection, in principle, would be a point of interest to make a system more or less energetic.

Includes bibliographical references. ; Sponsored by the ASAIHL ; published_or_final_version ; Keynote address Wang, Gungwu Wang, Gungwu 2 ; Country reports ; A Health hazards of environmental pollution ; B Monitoring and instrumentation of environmental pollution ; C Legal controls of environmental pollution ; D Treatment and prevention of environmental pollution ; Australian approaches to finger printing sources of environmental lead with isotopes Gulson, B.L. Gulson, B.L. 13 ; The contribution of health care departments in tertiary institutions in Hong Kong to combating the hazards of pollution King, A.R. King, A.R. 19 ; The role of institutions of higher learning in combating health hazards of environmental pollution Rampal, K.G. Rampal, K.G. Ismail, N. Ismail, N. 26 ; Education programmes for training of agrichemical users in New Zealand Penman, D.R. Penman, D.R. 31 ; The role of Philippine ASAIHL institutions in combating the hazards of environmental pollution in Manila Quirino, T.U. Quirino, T.U. 35 ; Characteristics of acid rain in mainland China Hong, Y.T. Hong, Y.T. 42 ; Improving the total environmental of Singapore Tan, T.C. Tan, T.C. 46 ; The role of Thai universities in combating health hazards of environmental pollution Wangsuphachart, V.L. Wangsuphachart, V.L. 54 ; Introductino 63 ; Impact of industry on the health of surrounding communities: an analysis of epidemiological and public health challenges Bhopal, R.S. Bhopal, R.S. 65 ; Epidemiology and environmental health: reliable risk measurement in well-populations Lam, T.H. Lam, T.H. Hedley, A.J. Hedley, A.J. Peters, J. Peters, J. 74 ; An investigation into the presence of anaerobic bacteria in coastal waters of Hong Kong Boost, M.V. Boost, M.V. Wong, L.P. Wong, L.P. Wong, P.S. Wong, P.S. Ma, K.C. Ma, K.C. 82 ; Pollutions within the built environment Burnett, J. Burnett, J. Chan, D.W.T. Chan, D.W.T. 87 ; The effects of pesticides use on the health of on farmers in East Java, Indonesia Mukono, J. Mukono, J. 94 ; Noise and human activities in Hong Kong: a review Tan, T.C. Tan, T.C. Wong, L.T.L. Wong, L.T.L. 98 ; Analysis of organophosphorus insecticides in vegetables Tanner, P.A. Tanner, P.A. Leung, K.H. Leung, K.H. 105 ; Health risk and environmental pollution: the hidden factors Peters, J. Peters, J. Lui, J. Lui, J. Wong, C.M. Wong, C.M. Hedley, A.J. Hedley, A.J. Lam, T.H. Lam, T.H. Ong, S.G. Ong, S.G. Tam, A.Y.C. Tam, A.Y.C. 109 ; Risk assessment and management in the prevention of adverse effects on human health and the environment Spickett, J.T. Spickett, J.T. 117 ; Indoor and outdoor pollution in shops and offices in Hong Kong and health effects Bacon-Shone, J. Bacon-Shone, J. Liao, S. Liao, S. 122 ; Climatological assessment of potential heat stress in Hong Kong Kyle, W.J. Kyle, W.J. 126 ; Asbestos dust: a silent enemy Lam, K.Y. Lam, K.Y. 131 ; Integrating environmental health problems into urban planning: problems in the Asian-Pacific region and the challenges for universities Simpson, R.W. Simpson, R.W. 134 ; Organic solvent exposure in some manufacturing industries in Malaysia Tan, G.L.E. Tan, G.L.E. 138 ; Introduction 145 ; Monitoring and instrumentation of environmental pollution Tebbutt, T.H.Y. Tebbutt, T.H.Y. 145 ; The air quality monitoring programme of the Hong Kong environmental protection department Leung, R.T.M. Leung, R.T.M. 152 ; Low technology sampling can show spatial and temporal patterns of airborne metal pollution Lloyd, O.L. Lloyd, O.L. Fay, Gailey Fay, Gailey 159 ; Heavy metal contamination in coastal waters - a case study of the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia Supriharyono Supriharyono 165 ; Determination of phosphorus in natural water at parts per trillion level by laser thermal lens effect Wu, L. Wu, L. Siu, G.G. Siu, G.G. Chiu, D.D.S. Chiu, D.D.S. Stokes, M.J. Stokes, M.J. 171 ; A geographical approach to evaluating the human impact upon water quality Peart, M.R. Peart, M.R. 178 ; Modular auto-enrichment subsystem for use in environmental high pressure liquid chromatography analysis Chen, S.C. Chen, S.C. Chang, J.Y. Chang, J.Y. Wang, R.K. Wang, R.K. 183 ; Exposure to environmental pollutants in the work environment: a case study of a traffic toll booth in Malaysia Yaziz, M.I. Yaziz, M.I. 187 ; A proposed air quality index in Hong Kong Ng, C.N. Ng, C.N. Tanner, P.A. Tanner, P.A. 191 ; Background level of trace elements in soils of mainland China Chen, J.S. Chen, J.S. Tao, S. Tao, S. Deng, B.S. Deng, B.S. Wang, X.J. Wang, X.J. 196 ; Indoor monitoring of nitrogen oxides Cheung, M.T. Cheung, M.T. 200 ; Development of a piezoelectric crystal sorption detector for continuous monitoring of organic vapours at the workplace Fung, Y.S. Fung, Y.S. 205 ; Effects of some standard fixatives on fish gill morphology Shepherd, M. Shepherd, M. Ivanstoff, W. Ivanstoff, W. 210 ; Simulation of urban traffic noise on the environment Pamanikabud, P. Pamanikabud, P. 215 ; Investigation into the haze episodes in the Kelang Valley, Malaysia Samah, A.A. Samah, A.A. 221 ; Photoacoustic determination of organic pollutant gases in Hong Kong air Shi, B. Shi, B. Siu, G.G. Siu, G.G. Chiu, D.D.S. Chiu, D.D.S. 228 ; Application of the proton induced X-ray emission (PIXE) technique for the study of respirable suspended particulated (RSP) in Hong Kong Cai, Z.X. Cai, Z.X. Sze, P.Y.K. Sze, P.Y.K. Stokes, M.J. Stokes, M.J. Young, E.C.M. Young, E.C.M. 234 ; Follow-up stream sediment geochemical reconnaissance surveys in the vicinity of Tai Mo Shan, New Territories, Hong Kong Yim, W.W.S. Yim, W.W.S. Ng, C.Y. Ng, C.Y. Thornton, I. Thornton, I. 240 ; Introduction 249 ; Environmental pollution, higher education, and the rule of law Axline, M. Axline, M. 251 ; Legal controls of environmental pollution in Asia: how effective are they? Allen, J. Allen, J. 256 ; Hong Kong's water pollution controls: are we serious? Baillie, B.G. Baillie, B.G. 265 ; Environmental law in Hong Kong - a legal practitioner's point of view Skrine, R. Skrine, R. 277 ; Has the use of unleaded petrol provided a lead-free environment in Hong Kong? Au, C.T. Au, C.T. Chou, K.M. Chou, K.M. Wong, K.Y. Wong, K.Y. 282 ; The influence of the health act on present environmental problems Prabawa Utama, S.H. Prabawa Utama, S.H. 288 ; Environmental impact assessment and the role of legislation in environmental control - the case of Malaysia Idris, A.B. Idris, A.B. Fuad, A. Fuad, A. 294 ; Social responsbility awareness assessment of selected university respondents in combating environmental pollution Barcelona, A.C. Barcelona, A.C. 301 ; Alternatives to legal controls on environmental pollution Kaine, G. Kaine, G. Reeve, I. Reeve, I. Musgrave, W. Musgrave, W. 306 ; Introduction 315 ; Towards low-waste technology Diaper, J. Diaper, J. 317 ; Changing environmental values and institution building: the role of ASAIHL Hills, P. Hills, P. 325 ; Prevention and treatment of environmental pollution Mena, M.M. Mena, M.M. 332 ; The nature and control of motor vehicle emissions - methanol as an alternative fuel Cheung, C.S. Cheung, C.S. Lui, Y.B. Lui, Y.B. Leung, T.P. Leung, T.P. 335 ; Treatment and disposal of heavy metal wastes using cementitious solidification Peralta, G.L. Peralta, G.L. Ballesteros, F.C. Ballesteros, F.C. Cepeda, M.L. Cepeda, M.L. 340 ; A membrane anaerobic system for wastewater treatment Fakrul-Razi, A. Fakrul-Razi, A. 346 ; Prevention and treatment of air pollution in Hong Kong Lam, J.C. Lam, J.C. 351 ; Environmental education - a strategy for the treatment and prevention of environmental pollution Manalo, J.A. Manalo, J.A. Sergovia, V. Sergovia, V. Hocson, T.R. Hocson, T.R. 357 ; Bacterial reduction during sewage treatment - the Hong Kong experience Hodgkiss, I.J. Hodgkiss, I.J. Chiu, S.H.C. Chiu, S.H.C. 360 ; Treatment and prevention of environmental pollution in the Philippines De Jesus, E.M. De Jesus, E.M. 366 ; Microbiological study of shellfish and water quality in Deep Bay, Hong Kong Kueh, C.S.W. Kueh, C.S.W. 369 ; Environmental deterioration in greater Bangkok, Thailand Paraken, Y. Paraken, Y. 376 ; The 'polluter pays' principle: the distribution of economic impacts Rahim, K.A. Rahim, K.A. 378

The primary objective of the Southern Gobi Regional Environmental Assessment (REA) is to provide guidance for sustainable management of environmental resources in the future development of the Southern Gobi Region (SGR), development that will be led by rapid expansion of mining. The REA defines two development scenarios-a base-case and a high case-and explores their direct and indirect impacts on the natural environment, taking into account the opportunities, constraints, and vulnerabilities of the Gobi natural systems; the individual and cumulative direct environmental impacts and potential indirect impacts of the planned development; and, at a general level, the institutional capacity to manage the impacts. The REA target audience includes government officials at central, regional, and local levels; private sector investors and the consultants who are engaged for project design and environmental impact assessment; development finance organizations; and Mongolian civil society. This report was discussed in draft form at stakeholder workshops held in Ulaanbaatar and Dalanzagdad in April 2009 and has been revised to reflect comments received. Thanks are due to all those who joined those discussions. The report draws on information from workshops held in Mongolia, in May, September, and October 2008, and a field mission to the Southern Gobi Region in November 2008. Other information was obtained from various mining companies in Mongolia including Ivanhoe mines Mongolia, Inc., and its consultant Eco Trade; Rio Tinto; Energy Resources LLC; and South Gobi Sands.

Governments and international development agencies have intensified efforts to promote small-scale enterprises as an engine of pro-poor growth. In Brazil, however, small scale industries may also be responsible for the bulk of air pollution emissions. Although employees of polluting small-scale industries in Brazil are not disproportionately poor, simulations suggest that stringent environmental regulation resulting in widespread closures of pollution-intensive small-scale industries would result in a non-negligible increase in poverty among employees of these firms. The results suggest that the enthusiasm for small-scale enterprises needs to be tempered by awareness of the potential environmental costs imposed by this sector.

Energy is at the heart of the climate crisis—but also at the heart of any efforts for climate change mitigation. Energy consumption is namely responsible for approximately three quarters of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Therefore, central to any serious plans to stave off a climate catastrophe is a major transformation of the world's energy system, which would move society away from fossil fuels and towards a net-zero energy future. Considering that fossil fuels are also a major source of air pollutant emissions, the energy transition has important implications for air quality as well, and thus also for human and environmental health. Both Europe and Germany have set the goal of becoming GHG neutral by 2050, and moreover have demonstrated their deep commitment to a comprehensive energy transition. Two of the most significant developments in energy policy over the past decade have been the interest in expansion of shale gas and hydrogen, which accordingly have garnered great interest and debate among public, private and political actors. In this context, sound scientific information can play an important role by informing stakeholder dialogue and future research investments, and by supporting evidence-based decision-making. This thesis examines anticipated environmental impacts from possible, relevant changes in the European energy system, in order to impart valuable insight and fill critical gaps in knowledge. Specifically, it investigates possible future shale gas development in Germany and the United Kingdom (UK), as well as a hypothetical, complete transition to hydrogen mobility in Germany. Moreover, it assesses the impacts on GHG and air pollutant emissions, and on tropospheric ozone (O3) air quality. The analysis is facilitated by constructing emission scenarios and performing air quality modeling via the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with chemistry (WRF-Chem). The work of this thesis is presented in three research papers. The first paper finds that methane (CH4) leakage rates from upstream shale gas development in Germany and the UK would range between 0.35% and 1.36% in a realistic, business-as-usual case, while they would be significantly lower - between 0.08% and 0.15% - in an optimistic, strict regulation and high compliance case, thus demonstrating the value and potential of measures to substantially reduce emissions. Yet, while the optimistic case is technically feasible, it is unlikely that the practices and technologies assumed would be applied and accomplished on a systematic, regular basis, owing to economics and limited monitoring resources. The realistic CH4 leakage rates estimated in this study are comparable to values reported by studies carried out in the US and elsewhere. In contrast, the optimistic rates are similar to official CH4 leakage data from upstream gas production in Germany and in the UK. Considering that there is a lack of systematic, transparent and independent reports supporting the official values, this study further highlights the need for more research efforts in this direction. Compared with national energy sector emissions, this study suggests that shale gas emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) could be significant, though relatively insignificant for other air pollutants. Similar to CH4, measures could be effective for reducing VOCs emissions. The second paper shows that VOC and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from a future shale gas industry in Germany and the UK have potentially harmful consequences for European O3 air quality on both the local and regional scale. The results indicate a peak increase in maximum daily 8-hour average O3 (MDA8) ranging from 3.7 µg m-3 to 28.3 µg m-3. Findings suggest that shale gas activities could result in additional exceedances of MDA8 at a substantial percentage of regulatory measurement stations both locally and in neighboring and distant countries, with up to circa one third of stations in the UK and one fifth of stations in Germany experiencing additional exceedances. Moreover, the results reveal that the shale gas impact on the cumulative health-related metric SOMO35 (annual Sum of Ozone Means Over 35 ppb) could be substantial, with a maximum increase of circa 28%. Overall, the findings suggest that shale gas VOC emissions could play a critical role in O3 enhancement, while NOx emissions would contribute to a lesser extent. Thus, the results indicate that stringent regulation of VOC emissions would be important in the event of future European shale gas development to minimize deleterious health outcomes. The third paper demonstrates that a hypothetical, complete transition of the German vehicle fleet to hydrogen fuel cell technology could contribute substantially to Germany's climate and air quality goals. The results indicate that if the hydrogen were to be produced via renewable-powered water electrolysis (green hydrogen), German carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) emissions would decrease by 179 MtCO2eq annually, though if electrolysis were powered by the current electricity mix, emissions would instead increase by 95 MtCO2eq annually. The findings generally reveal a notable anticipated decrease in German energy emissions of regulated air pollutants. The results suggest that vehicular hydrogen demand is 1000 PJ annually, which would require between 446 TWh and 525 TWh for electrolysis, hydrogen transport and storage. When only the heavy duty vehicle segment (HDVs) is shifted to green hydrogen, the results of this thesis show that vehicular hydrogen demand drops to 371 PJ, while a deep emissions cut is still realized (-57 MtCO2eq), suggesting that HDVs are a low-hanging fruit for contributing to decarbonization of the German road transport sector with hydrogen energy. ; Energie ist der Kern der Klimakrise—aber auch der Kern jeglicher Bemühungen zur Eindämmung des Klimawandels. Der Energieverbrauch ist heute für ungefähr drei Viertel der weltweiten Treibhausgasemissionen verantwortlich. Grundlegend für einen ernsthaft gemeinten Plan eine Klimakatastrophe abzuwenden ist daher eine umfassende Umgestaltung des weltweiten Energiesystems von fossilen Brennstoffen weg in Richtung zukünftige Netto-Null-Emissionen. Angesichts der Tatsache, dass fossile Brennstoffe auch eine Hauptquelle für Luftschadstoffemissionen sind, hat die Energiewende wichtige Auswirkungen auf die Luftqualität und damit auch auf die Gesundheit von Mensch und Umwelt. Sowohl Europa als auch Deutschland haben sich zum Ziel gesetzt, bis 2050 treibhausgasneutral zu werden und zeigen darüber hinaus ihr tiefes Engagement für eine umfassende Energiewende. Zwei der wichtigsten Entwicklungen in der Energiepolitik im letzten Jahrzehnt waren das Interesse an der Ausweitung von Schiefergas und Wasserstoff, das entsprechend großes Interesse und große Diskussionen in der Öffentlichkeit, im Privaten und in der Politik erzeugt hat. In diesem Zusammenhang können fundierte wissenschaftliche Informationen eine wichtige Rolle spielen, indem sie Interessenvertreter und zukünftige Forschungsinvestitionen informieren und evidenzbasierte Entscheidungen unterstützen. Diese Doktorarbeit untersucht die Umweltauswirkungen möglicher, relevanter Veränderungen im europäischen Energiesystem, um wertvolle Erkenntnisse zu vermitteln und kritische Wissenslücken zu schließen. Insbesondere werden mögliche zukünftige Schiefergasentwicklungen in Deutschland und im Vereinigten Königreich (UK) sowie ein hypothetischer, vollständiger Übergang zur Wasserstoffmobilität in Deutschland untersucht. Darüber hinaus werden die Auswirkungen auf die Treibhausgas- und Luftschadstoffemissionen sowie auf die Luftqualität von troposphärischem Ozon (O3) bewertet. Die Analyse wird durch die Erstellung von Emissionsszenarien und die Durchführung von Luftqualitätsmodellen über die Chemie-Version des "Weather Research and Forecasting Model" (WRF-Chem) erleichtert. Die Forschung dieser Doktorarbeit wird in drei wissenschaftlichen Artikeln vorgestellt. Der erste Artikel beschreibt, dass die Methan (CH4)-Leckraten aus einer vorgelagerten Schiefergasproduktion in Deutschland und Großbritannien in einem gewöhnlichen Fall zwischen 0.35% und 1.36% liegen würden, während sie in einem optimistischen, streng regulierten Fall signifikant zwischen 0.08% und 0.15% niedriger wären, und zeigt damit die Bedeutung und das Potenzial von Maßnahmen zur wesentlichen Reduzierung der Emissionen auf. Obwohl der optimistische Fall technisch machbar ist, ist es aufgrund der Wirtschaftlichkeit und der begrenzten Überwachungsressourcen unwahrscheinlich, dass die angenommenen Praktiken und Technologien systematisch und regelmäßig angewendet und durchgeführt werden. Die in dieser Studie geschätzten realistischen CH4-Leckraten sind vergleichbar mit Werten, die in Studien in den USA und anderswo angegeben wurden. Im Gegensatz dazu ähneln die optimistischen Raten den offziellen CH4- Leckraten aus der vorgelagerten Gasproduktion in Deutschland und Großbritannien. In Anbetracht des Mangels an systematischen, transparenten und unabhängigen Berichten, die die offziellen Werte stützen, unterstreicht diese Studie die Notwendigkeit weiterer Forschungsanstrengungen in diese Richtung. Im Vergleich zu den Emissionen des nationalen Energiesektors deutet diese Studie darauf hin, dass die Schiefergasemissionen flüchtiger organischer Verbindungen (VOC) erheblich sein könnten, andere Luftschadstoffe jedoch relativ unbedeutend bleiben. Ähnlich wie bei CH4 könnten Maßnahmen zur Reduzierung der VOC-Emissionen wirksam sein. Der zweite Artikel beschreibt, dass VOC- und Stickoxidemissionen (NOx) einer zukünftigen Schiefergasindustrie in Deutschland und Großbritannien potenziell schädliche Folgen für die europäische O3-Luftqualität sowohl auf lokaler als auch auf regionaler Ebene haben. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen Spitzenanstieg des maximalen täglichen 8-Stunden-Durchschnitts von O3 (MDA8) im Bereich von 3.7 µg m-3 bis 28.3 µg m-3. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass Schiefergasaktivitäten zu zusätzlichen Grenzwertüberschreitungen des MDA8 bei einem erheblichen Prozentsatz der regulatorischen Messstationen sowohl vor Ort als auch in Nachbar- und entfernten Ländern führen können, wobei bei bis zu etwa einem Drittel der Stationen in Großbritannien und einem Fünftel der Stationen in Deutschland zusätzliche Überschreitungen auftreten. Darüber hinaus zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass die Auswirkungen von Schiefergas auf die kumulative gesundheitsbezogene Metrik SOMO35 (jährliche Summe des Ozonmittel über 35 ppb) mit einem maximalen Anstieg von ca. 28% erheblich sein könnten. Insgesamt deuten die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass die VOC-Emissionen von Schiefergas eine entscheidende Rolle bei der O3-Erhöhung spielen könnten, während die NOx-Emissionen in geringerem Maße dazu beitragen würden. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen daher, dass eine strenge Regulierung der VOC-Emissionen im Falle einer künftigen europäischen Schiefergasentwicklung wichtig ist, um schädliche gesundheitliche Folgen zu minimieren. Der dritte Artikel beschreibt, dass ein hypothetischer, vollständiger Übergang der deutschen Fahrzeugflotte zur Wasserstoff-Brennstoffzellentechnologie wesentlich zu Deutschlands Klima- und Luftqualitätszielen beitragen kann. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass bei einer Erzeugung des Wasserstoffs durch erneuerbare Wasserelektrolyse (grüner Wasserstoff) die Emissionen des deutschen Kohlendioxidäquivalents (CO2eq) jährlich um 179 MtCO2eq sinken würden. Wenn die Elektrolyse jedoch mit dem aktuellen Strommix betrieben würde, würden sich die Emissionen stattdessen um jährlich 95 MtCO2eq erhöhen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen im Allgemeinen einen bemerkenswerten Rückgang der Luftschadstoffemissionen in Deutschland. Weiterhin legen sie nahe, dass der Wasserstoffbedarf von Fahrzeugen 1000 PJ pro Jahr beträgt, was zwischen 446 TWh und 525 TWh für Elektrolyse, Wasserstofftransport und -speicherung erfordern würde. Wenn nur das Segment der Schwerlastfahrzeuge (HDVs) auf grünen Wasserstoff umgestellt wird, zeigen unsere Ergebnisse, dass der Wasserstoffbedarf der Fahrzeuge auf 371 PJ sinkt, während immer noch eine tiefgreifende Emissionsreduzierung erzielt wird (-57 MtCO2eq). Dies zeigt, dass die Umstellung der HDVs auf grünen Wasserstoff einen entscheidenden Beitrag zur Dekarbonisierung des deutschen Straßenverkehrs leisten kann.

Landfill gas (LFG) management can help mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to the overall safe operation of a landfill, sometimes simultaneously generating revenue. However, financing these systems can be a challenge, particularly in low-resource settings. Recognizing that landfill emissions are expected to rise into the foreseeable future, this report outlines a variety of ways that city governments, private landfill owners, or other project developers finance LFG management systems that mitigate these emissions. It is intended to offer policy-makers and practitioners an overview of financing models that have been used around the world and insights from existing projects, including key enabling conditions and risk mitigation strategies.

Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências Agronómicas e Florestais ; Um sistema de bovinicultura leiteira intensiva com base em duas culturas forrageiras anuais foi desenvolvido no Noroeste de Portugal. Este sistema gera anualmente grandes volumes de chorume e, embora este efluente possa ser utilizado para o fornecimento de nutrientes às culturas forrageiras praticadas, a disponibilidade de solo é limitada para a sua reciclagem. Para garantir a sustentabilidade da produção agrícola nesta região, o excesso de chorume bovino precisa de ser tratado e/ou transportado para explorações com necessidades acrescidas de nutrientes. O objetivo geral desta tese foi avaliar os impactos ambientais e agronómicos no sistema de duas culturas forrageiras anuais de milho / aveia, decorrentes do tratamento de chorume por separação mecânica de sólidos e pela aplicação de aditivos, a fim de definir as práticas que mais contribuam para a redução das perdas de nutrientes e, simultaneamente, garantam o aumento da eficiência e do rendimento das culturas e o seu valor nutritivo. Esta tese está organizada em 5 capítulos. O Capítulo 1 apresenta o state-of-the-art relativamente ao ciclo do azoto em sistemas leiteiros, emissões gasosas provenientes da agricultura, mecanismos e fatores que controlam a volatilização de amoníaco (NH3) e as emissões de metano (CH4) e óxido nitroso (N2O) durante o armazenamento de chorume e após a sua aplicação ao solo. Neste capítulo, dá-se ainda ênfase às estratégias de mitigação para minimizar as emissões desses gases. No Capítulo 2 descreve-se um ensaio onde foi avaliado o impacto do tratamento do chorume por aditivos biológicos (EU 200®, Bio-buster® (BB) e JASS®) e de um aditivo acidificante (H2SO4) aplicado a dois tipos de efluentes (chorume bruto (WS) e a sua fração líquida (LF)), sobre as características físico-químicas, as fibras (celulose, hemicelulose e lenhina) e as emissões gasosas (NH3, CH4, dioxido de carbono (CO2) e N2O) durante o armazenamento anaeróbio e após aplicação ao solo do efluente animal. A acidificação do chorume bruto inibiu a degradação de materiais orgânicos (celulose, hemicelulose, matéria seca, matéria orgânica e do carbono) mas aumentou a concentração de N e reduziu as perdas de NH3 durante o armazenamento (69%) e depois de aplicação ao solo (93%) relativamente ao chorume não tratados aditivos biológicos não mostraram qualquer efeito significativo nos parâmetros analisados. Após aplicação ao solo, as emissões de NH3 a partir do chorume bruto (18,1 kg N ha−1) foram superiores às observadas a partir da fração líquida (9,3 kg N ha−1) e da fração sólida compostada (0,3 kg N ha−1). No Capítulo 3, um sistema especializado para o estudo da desnitrificação em condições controladas (DENIS), que aplica uma técnica de lavagem da atmosfera do solo, foi usado a uma temperatura constante de 20 ° C, durante 32 dias, para estudar ou comparar o efeito nos processos de nitrificação e desnitrificação do tratamento da fração líquida (LF) do chorume por acidificação (LFA) a pH 5,5, com LF sem tratar e LF tratado com inibidores de nitrificação (3,4- Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP)) (LF+DMPP) bem como as emissões gasosas (de óxido nítrico (NO), N2O e CO2) e dinâmica do azoto mineral do solo. A origem das emissões de N2O foi estimada como sendo principalmente o processo de desnitrificação. O tratamento ALF reduziu as emissões de N2O em 52% relativamente ao tratamento LF (não tratado) enquanto a adição de DMPP reduziu as emissões em cerca de 30%. Relativamente às emissões de NO, o tratamento ALF atingiu uma redução de 36%, enquanto que a adição de DMPP permitiu uma redução de 79%. No Capítulo 4 é descrito um ensaio de campo de 2 anos realizado em Vila Real (Portugal), entre Julho de 2013 e Maio de 2015. Nesse ensaio, o efeito do tratamento de chorume por separação mecânica e do tratamento da fração líquida (LF) com aditivos (H2SO4 a um pH 5,5 (LFA) e H2SO4 + DMPP (LFAD)) foi comparado com os tratamentos convencionais (chorume bruto e fertilizante mineral (nitrato de amónio)) aplicados ao milho (cultura de verão) e aveia (cultura de inverno), relativamente aos seguintes parâmetros: produção de matéria seca e qualidade de forragem, exportação de nutrientes, indicadores de eficiência de utilização do N (Valor de Substituição de Adubos Azotados, calculado com base na produção de matéria seca (NFRVDM) e recuperação aparente do azoto (ANR)), bem como o valor residual de N mineral do solo depois de cada cultura. A maior quantidade de matéria seca (média de 2 anos) foi obtida quando a LFA e a LFAD foram aplicadas. A LFAD aumentou a concentração de N nas folhas do milho 31,4% relativamente à LF e ao fertilizante mineral. No caso da aveia, a aplicação de fertilizante mineral conduziu a uma quantidade mais elevada de matéria seca (4,2 t ha-1), embora não significativamente diferente dos tratamentos WS e LF. O N exportado no tratamento LF aumentou para valores semelhantes ao fertilizante mineral após o tratamento com acidificação ou acidificação mais DMPP. Após a colheita do milho, o potencial de lixiviação de nitratos nos tratamentos com chorume foi inferior ao tratamento com N mineral. Conclui-se (Capítulo 5) que a utilização dos aditivos biológicos com o objetivo de diminuir as emissões gasosas e modificar as características dos chorumes não apresentou vantagens evidentes. Contudo, a acidificação do chorume é uma tecnologia eficaz na redução das perdas de NH3, N2O e NO após a aplicação e para aumentar o valor agronómico do efluente durante o armazenamento. Também, a separação mecânica permite a redução das perdas de NH3 no campo após a aplicação das frações líquidas, redução que é justificada pela maior infiltração do efluente no solo, devido ao decréscimo do teor de matéria seca decorrente da separação mecânica. O ALF pode ser usado como alternativa ao LF+DMPP para mitigar emissões de N2O, mas no caso das emissões de NO, o ALF não foi tão benéfico como o LF+DMPP. O chorume tratado por separação mecânica e pelos aditivos não biológicos (H2SO4 ou H2SO4 + DMPP) pode ser uma técnica viável de tratamento de chorume com beneficios ambientais (potencial de lixiviação inferior) e valor fertilizante equivalente à aplicação de adubo mineral no sistema de produção milho/aveia nas condições climáticas Mediterrânicas. ; An intensive dairy system based on a double crop foraging system has been developed in the North-West of Portugal. This system results in huge volumes of slurry produced annually and although this slurry could be utilized to meet crop nutrient demand, there is limited land for recycling of slurry nutrients. To ensure sustainability of agricultural production in this region, excess slurry needs to be treated or transported to farms in deficit of nutrients. The overall aim of this thesis was to evaluate the environmental and agronomic impacts of the treatment of slurry by mechanical separation and slurry additives under maize/oat double crop foraging system in order to make recommendations for practices that reduces nutrient losses as well as increase crop yield and quality. This thesis is organised into 5 chapters. Chapter 1 provides a-state-of-the-art in relation to nitrogen cycle in dairy systems, gaseous emissions from agriculture, mechanisms and factors controlling ammonia (NH3) volatilization, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) during slurry storage and after application. In this chapter, emphasis is also given to mitigation strategies to minimize emissions of these gases. In chapter 2, the impact of the treatment of slurry using biological additives (EU 200®, Bio-buster® (BB) and JASS®) and an acidifying (H2SO4) additive applied to two effluent types (cattle whole slurry (WS) and its liquid fraction (LF)) on the physical-chemical characteristics, fibre components (cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin) and gaseous emissions (NH3, CH4, carbon dioxide (CO2) and N2O) during anaerobic storage and after soil application was evaluated. Slurry acidification inhibited the degradation of organic materials (cellulose, hemicellulose, dry matter, organic matter and total carbon) but increased the N concentrations and reduced NH3 losses during storage (69%) and after soil application (93%) relative to the untreated slurry. Biological additives had no impact on all measured parameters. After soil application, NH3 losses in the WS (18.1 kg N ha−1) was higher than the LF (9.3 kg N ha−1) and composted solid fraction (CSF) (0.3 kg N ha−1). In chapter 3, a specialized denitrification system (DENIS/gas-flow-core technique) was used to study or compare the impact of the treatment of slurry LF by acidification (LFA) to pH 5.5 with the untreated LF and LF treated with a nitrification inhibitor (3,4-Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP)) (LF+DMPP) on nitrification and denitrification processes as well as gaseous emissions (nitric oxide (NO), N2O and CO2) and nitrogen speciation evolution in the amended soils for 32 days at constant temperature of 20 °C. Emission of N2O was mainly produced from denitrification. The ALF reduced N2O by 52% relative to the untreated LF whereas the DMPP tended to reduce N2O emissions by 30%. The ALF reduced NO emissions by 36% whereas the DMPP led to a greater decrease of 79%. A 2-year field experiment (chapter 4) was conducted in Vila Real, Portugal between July 2013 and May 2015. The impacts of the treatment of slurry by mechanical separation and treatment of the LF with additives (H2SO4 to a pH 5.5 (LFA) and H2SO4+DMPP (LFAD)) were compared with that of the conventional treatments (whole slurry and mineral fertilizer (ammonium nitrate)) applied to maize (summer crop) and oat (autumn/winter crop) relative to the following parameters: forage dry matter yield (DMY) and quality, nutrient removal, N use efficiency indicators (Nitrogen fertilizer replacement value based on dry matter yield (NFRVDM) and apparent nitrogen recovery (ANR)) as well as the residual soil mineral N content after each cropping season. The highest maize DMY (2-year average) of 16.7 t ha−1 was achieved when the LFA and LFAD were applied. The LFAD increased N concentration of maize leaves by 31.4% relative to the LF and Mineral fertilizer. In relation to the oat crop, the mineral fertilizer led to the highest DMY of 4.2 t ha−1 although not significantly different from the WS and LF treatments. The N removal in the LF increased to values comparable to the Mineral fertilizer after treatment with acidification (LFA) or both acidification plus DMPP (LFAD). The nitrate leaching potential in slurry treatments were lower than the mineral fertilizer after maize harvesting. Overall, it was concluded (chapter 5) that the use of the above biological additives to decrease pollutant gases and to modify slurry characteristics are questionable. Slurry acidification is a potent tool to reduce NH3, N2O and NO losses from slurry after application and to increase the agronomic value (mainly N and S concentrations) of slurry during storage. Reducing slurry dry matter through mechanical separation can mitigate NH3 losses from field applied slurry. The NH3 reductions in the LF is mainly related to the higher infiltration of ammonium in the top soil (0-5cm layer) relative to the whole slurry. The ALF can be used as an alternative to LF+DMPP to mitigate N2O emissions but in the case of NO emissions, the ALF was not as beneficial as the LF+DMPP. Slurry treated by mechanical separation plus additives (H2SO4 or H2SO4 + DMPP) can be recommended as a viable technique with environmental benefits (low nitrate leaching potential) and an equivalent fertilizer value as the mineral fertilizer in a maize-oat cropping system under Mediterranean climatic conditions. ; People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013

В 2012 г. правительство Ямало-Ненецкого округа совместно с НИИ Арктики и Антарктики Росгидромета провело первую комплексную экспедицию по обследованию полуострова Ямал (КАЭМБ Ямал-Арктика 2012). Ключевыми участками наблюдений стали пос. Новый Порт, пос. Усть Юрибей и о-в Белый. К последнему участку сейчас привлечено максимальное внимание общественности, поскольку он выбран для начала осуществления программы по очистке Арктики от мусора и отходов, накопившихся в процессе функционирования полярной инфраструктуры. Пробы почв были отобраны из шурфов в августе 2012 г. Тяжелые металлы, а также содержание оксидов кремния, алюминия, железа, титана, марганца определялись на рентгенфлуоресцентном анализаторе «Спектроскан-МАКС». Полученные значения сопоставлялись с ОДК и ПДК принятыми в РФ. Так как накопление тяжелых металлов связано с их фиксацией органическим веществом почв, параллельно производилась оценка содержания органического углерода и азота на приборе VARIO EL III. Применение профильного подхода к изучению химического состава почв помогло установить среднеглубинные и глубокие надмерзлотные максимумы накопления приоритетных неорганических токсикантов и других тяжелых металлов. Это связано, скорее всего, с развитием двух групп почвенных процессов: элювиально-иллювиальных и криогенного массообмена. В результате элювиально-иллювиальных процессов некоторые тяжелые металлы перераспределяются по профилю, аккумулируясь в средней части профиля. Между тем в тундровых почвах доминирующими являются процессы криогенного массобмена, приводящие к сильному перемешиванию почвенной толщи и накоплению некоторых компонентов химического состава в надмерзлотном или надмерзлотно-глеевом горизонте. Это главная причина второго максимума содержания тяжелых металлов в нижней части профилей почв. Проведенные исследования показывают, что, хотя чаще всего тяжелые металлы аккумулируются в верхних горизонтах почв, в случае тундровых почв процессы профильного перераспределения приводят к тому, что при поверхностном отборе проб происходит недооценка общих запасов веществ в почвенном профиле. ; In 2012, for the first time the Government of the Yamal-Nenets region in conjunction with the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute ofRosHydromet, performed the first comprehensive expedition for the examination of the Yamal Peninsula (KAEMB Arctic Yamal-2012). As key observation plots there were selected: settlement Novy Port, Ust Yuribey and the Island Bely. To the last section now there is attracted the maximum attention of the public, because it is selected for the starting of the program for the cleaning up Arctic from the debris and the wastes accumulated during the process of the functioning ofpolar infrastructure. Soil samples were selected from the prospecting pits in August, 2012. Heavy metals, as well as the content of oxides of silicon, aluminum, iron, titanium, manganese were detected with X-ray fluorescent analyzer «Spectroscan-MAX. The values obtained were compared with the Approxible Permissible Concentrations and Maximum Allowable Concentrations adopted in Russia. Since the accumulation of heavy metals is related with their fixation by soil organic matter, concomitantly there was evaluated the content of organic carbon and nitrogen with the use of the device VARIO EL III. The application of the profile approach to the study of the chemical composition of soils helped to establish mid-ground and deep supra permafrost accumulation maximums of priority inorganic toxicants and other heavy metals. This is most likely related to the development of two groups of soil processes: eluvial-illuvial and cryogenic mass exchange. As a result of the eluvial-illuvial processes, some heavy metals are redistributed along the profile, and accumulating in the middle part of the profile. Meanwhile, in the tundra soils dominant processes are cryogenic mass exchange, leading to a strong mixing of the soil column and the accumulation of certain components in the chemical composition in the supra permafrost or suprapermafrostgley horizon. This is the main reason for the second peak of the content of heavy metals in the bottom of the soil profiles. Performed studies show that although most heavy metals are accumulated in the upper soil horizons, in the case of tundra, soil profile redistribution processes lead to the fact that in the case of the surface sampling, there is underestimation of the total reserves of substances in the soil profile.

Memoria presentada por Beatriz Sánchez Page, graduada en Química y Máster en Química Molecular y Catálisis Homogénea, para optar al grado de Doctor en Ciencias, en el programa de Doctorado en Química Inorgánica. Esta Tesis Doctoral se presenta en la modalidad de Tesis por compendio de publicaciones. ; [ES]: El trabajo desarrollado en esta Memoria se ha centrado en el diseño, síntesis, caracterización y estudios de estabilidad de compuestos moleculares de rodio e iridio soportados en materiales nanoestructurados de carbono. La actividad catalítica de los nuevos materiales híbridos y la de los complejos moleculares relacionados de rodio e iridio se ha evaluado en la hidrosililación de alquinos y en la oxidación química y electroquímica de agua, respectivamente. Los complejos de rodio(I) y (III) soportados en un óxido de grafeno reducido térmicamente a 400 ºC por enlace covalente carbono-nitrógeno entre un ligando NHC mesoiónico (4-fenil-3-metil-1,2,3-triazol-5-ilideno) y la pared del grafeno, Rh(I)/Rh(III)-NHC@TRGO, y los complejos moleculares relacionados muestran alta actividad en la hidrosililación de alquinos y una excelente regio- y estereoselectividad al isómero cinético β-(Z)-vinilsilano. Concretamente, el catalizador ciclometalado [Cp*RhI(C,C')-Triaz] (Triaz = 1,4-difenil-3-metil-1,2,3-triazol-5-ilideno) es un catalizador sobresaliente en la hidrosililación de alquinos terminales, alifáticos y aromáticos, a temperatura ambiente con completa regio- y estereoselectividad al isómero β(Z)-vinilsilano. Por otro lado, aunque el catalizador híbrido relacionado de rodio(III)-triazolilideno no es activo a temperatura ambiente, muestra la misma actividad y selectividad que el catalizador homogéneo a 60 °C. Adicionalmente, los catalizadores híbridos basados en grafeno modificado Rh-NHC@TRGO son completamente reciclables en la hidrosililación de alquinos con excelente control de la selectividad β-(Z). Los estudios por DFT del mecanismo de hidrosililación para el catalizador molecular de Rh(III) evidencian la posible participación de un mecanismo bifuncional metal-ligando basado en una ciclometalación reversible. Los materiales híbridos basados en complejos Ir(I)-NHC anclados a nanotubos de carbono a través de grupos éster, Ir(I)-NHC@CNT, son catalizadores eficientes en la oxidación química y electroquímica de agua. El estudio ha revelado que tanto los catalizadores moleculares homogéneos como los heterogéneos que poseen un ligando NHC funcionalizado con un grupo sulfonato son mucho más activos que los catalizadores moleculares relacionados con ligandos NHC no hidrosolubles, tanto en la oxidación química de agua, con CAN como oxidante de sacrificio, como en la oxidación electroquímica en la que se alcanzan valores de TOF de hasta 22000 h-1 a 1.4 V para el catalizador híbrido NHC-sulfonato. Por otro lado, se ha observado que la estructura grafítica del soporte juega un papel importante en el rendimiento electrocatalítico de oxidación de agua con complejos de iridio(I)-NHC soportados por enlace carbonato a dos óxidos de grafeno de diferente estructura grafítica. Se ha comprobado que el desplazamiento del ligando cloruro en los centros metálicos de iridio por grupos oxigenados de la pared nanoestructurada del grafeno tiene un impacto negativo en la actividad electrocatalítica del catalizador híbrido resultante. ; [EN]: The work developed in this Memory has been focused on the design, synthesis, characterization and stability studies of rhodium and iridium molecular compounds supported on carbon nanostructured materials. The catalytic activity of the new hybrid materials together and that of related molecular complexes of rhodium and iridium has been evaluated in the hydrosilylation of alkynes and in the chemical and electrochemical water oxidation, respectively. Rhodium(I) and (III) complexes supported on a thermally reduced graphene oxide at 400 °C by carbon‐nitrogen covalent bond between a mesoionic NHC ligand (4‐phenyl‐3‐methyl‐1,2,3‐triazole‐5‐ylidene) and the graphene wall, Rh(I)/Rh(III)‐NHC@TRGO, and related molecular complexes show high catalytic activity in hydrosilylation of alkynes with excellent regio‐ and stereoselectivity to the kinetic β‐(Z) vinylsilane isomer. Remarkably, the cyclometalated catalyst [Cp*RhI(C,C')‐Triaz] (Triaz = 1,4‐diphenyl‐3‐methyl‐1,2,3‐triazol‐5‐ylidene) shows an outstanding performance in the hydrosilylation of terminal, aliphatic and aromatic, alkynes with various hydrosilanes at room temperature with full regio‐ and stereoselectivity to β‐(Z)‐vinylsilanes. On the other hand, the related rhodium(III) triazolylidene hybrid catalyst is not active at room temperature although it shows an excellent catalytic performance at 60 °C. In addition, the hybrid catalysts based on modified graphene, Rh‐NHC@TRGO, are fully recyclable in alkyne hydrosilylation with excellent β-(Z) selectivity control. DFT studies on the alkyne hydrosilylation mechanism by the Rh(III) molecular catalyst point to the possible participation of a bifunctional metal‐ligand mechanism based on a reversible cyclometalation. The hybrid materials based on Ir(I)‐NHC complexes covalent attached to carbon nanotubes through ester functions, Ir(I)‐NHC@CNT, are efficient chemical and electrochemical water oxidation catalysts. The study has revealed that both homogeneous and heterogeneous molecular catalysts featuring NHC ligands functionalized with a sulfonate group are much more active than the related molecular catalysts lacking hydrosoluble NHC ligands, both in water chemical oxidation, using CAN as a sacrificial oxidant, or in electrochemical oxidation with TOF values up to 22000 h‐1 at 1.4 V for the sulfonate functionalized hybrid catalyst. On the other hand, it has been observed that the graphitic structure of the supports plays an important role in the water oxidation electrocatalytic performance of Ir(I)‐NHC complexes supported by carbonate bonding to two graphene oxides with different graphitic structure. A negative impact on the electrocatalytic activity has been found for the hybrid catalysts where the chloride ligand in the coordination sphere of the iridium metal centers has been displaced by oxygenated groups on the graphene nanostructured wall. ; Projects CTQ2016-75884-P, RTI2018-098537-B-C22, PID2019-103965GB-100, CTQ2013-42532-P and the Regional Governments of Aragón/FEDER/DGA 2014-2020 "Building Europe from Aragón" (groups E42_17R and E12_17R) and Principado de Asturias (FEDER: IDI/2018/000121). ; Peer reviewed

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Synthese und Charakterisierung von nanostrukturierten Mikropartikelpulvern mit einstellbarem Zerfalls- und Dispergierungsverhalten und deren Anwendung als verstärkender Füllstoff sowie deren Eignung für Sensoranwendungen. Sie ist in drei Teilbereiche gegliedert: Der erste Teil beschreibt die Synthese der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikelpulvern durch Sprühtrocknung von kolloidalen oxidischen (silicatischen und eisenoxidischen) Nanopartikeln. Es wird ausgeführt, wie durch Variation der Art und Größe der Primärpartikel und deren mengenanteiligen Kombination Mikropartikel unterschiedlichster nanostruktureller Maserung und Ausprägung erhalten wurden. Das Spektrum dieser Partikel reichte von homogen verteilten Strukturen bis hin zu Kern-Satellit-Struktur, von kontrollierter Aggregierung bis hin zur vollständigen Dispergierbarkeit. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurden die Partikel im Hinblick auf ihre Eignung und Verwendung als Füllstoffe für Elastomer-Matrices untersucht. Im Fokus stand die Verstärkungswirkung und die Korrelation mit dem Dispergierverhalten in PDMS. Im dritten Teil der Arbeit wurde das Syntheseprinzip der Herstellung nanostrukturierter Mikropartikel auf Hydroxid-basierte Systeme wie LDHs erweitert. Teil I: Von Silica-NP zu nanostrukturierten Mikropartikeln mit einstellbarem Zerfallsverhalten Um nanostrukturierte Mikropartikel mit einem integrierten Zerfallsverhalten zu erzeugen, wurden zunächst kolloidale Silica-NP mit einer Größe von 20 nm abgestuft mit unterschiedlichen Mengen (0, 1/10, 1/5, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 1) eines hydrophobierend wirkenden Silans (Triethoxyoctylsilan, OCTEO) modifiziert. Neben den beiden Extremen der vollständigen und unmodifizierten Varianten (1 und 0) wurden teilweise modifizierte Zwischenstufen erhalten, indem die Silanmenge auf 2/3, 1/2, 1/3, 1/5 und 1/10 im Vergleich zu den vollmodifizierten Silica-NP verringert wurde. Die modifizierten Nanopartikel zeigten beim Dispergieren in verschiedenen Flüssigkeiten (Wasser, Toluol) eindeutige und graduell klar differenzierbare Unterschiede in Abhängigkeit vom Bedeckungsgrad der Partikeloberfläche mit dem Silan. Wie erwartet nahm das hydrophobe Verhalten der Nanopartikel mit zunehmendem Bedeckungs- und damit Modifizierungsgrad zu und die Nanopartikel waren in unpolaren Flüssigkeiten wie Toluol gut dispergierbar, während sie in polaren Flüssigkeiten wie Wasser zur Agglomeration und Sedimentation neigten. In einem nächsten Schritt wurden die zu unterschiedlichen Graden mit OCTEO modifizierten kolloidalen Silica-NP mittels Sprühtrocknung in mikroskalige Pulver überführt. Die nanostrukturierten Mikropartikelpulver wurden mit verschiedenen Analysemethoden wie REM-Aufnahmen, BET-, FTIR- und TG-Messungen untersucht, und die Eigenschaften der gebildeten Partikel charakterisiert. Die nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel zeigten auf den REM-Aufnahmen abhängig vom Modifizierungsgrad der Nanopartikel ein sehr unterschiedliches Aussehen. Während die Mikropartikel aus vollständig modifizierten Nanopartikeln eine eher raue Oberfläche besaßen, hatten die aus unmodifizierten Nanopartiklen gebildeten eine sehr glatte, kompakt erscheinende Oberfläche, was als Hinweis auf eine Kondensation und eine damit verbundene Aggregation der Nanopartikel gewertet wurde. Da sich diese Hypothese anhand der Aufnahmen aber nicht beweisen ließ, wurden in einer nächsten weiterführenden Testreihe Nano-Indenter-Experimente unter dem REM mit den aus voll- und unmodifizierten Nanopartikeln aufgebauten Mikropartikeln durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse bestätigten den ersten Eindruck der REM-Aufnahmen insofern, als das sich die sehr kompakt wirkenden unmodifizierten Partikel nicht mit einer Wolfram-Spitze eindrücken ließen und damit die Hypothese mechanisch stabiler Aggregate untermauerten. Ganz anders verhielten sich die vollmodifizierten Partikel, die mithilfe der Wolfram-Spitze so eingedrückt werden konnten, dass die Nanopartikel aus dem Mikropartikelverbund herausgelöst wurden und teilweise vereinzelt vorlagen. Hier handelte es sich mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit um Agglomerate, die unter der Einwirkung einer Scherkraft wieder vereinzelt werden konnten. Da es mit mikroskopischen Verfahren wie REM nicht möglich war, unmittelbare Aussagen bezüglich der Wechselwirkung der Nanopartikel im Mikropartikel zu treffen, wurden zunächst die Oberflächeneigenschaften mittels BET-, FTIR- und TG-Messungen untersucht. Im Hinblick auf die spätere Anwendung war es sehr wichtig, die Oberflächeneigenschaften der Mikropartikel möglichst umfassend zu charakterisieren, da diese entscheidend zur Dispergierbarkeit der Partikel in einem Matrixsystem beitragen. Mithilfe der FTIR- und TG-Messungen konnte die Anwesenheit und Menge von Silan auf der Partikeloberfläche bestimmt werden. Es zeigte sich ein klarer Trend für die zu verschiedenen Graden mit OCTEO modifizierten Silica-NP. Mit zunehmender Silanmenge nahm sowohl die Intensität der FTIR-Bande für die CH2- und CH3-Streckschwingung als auch der Masseverlust zu. Im Gegensatz zu diesen Messungen zeigte sich bei den BET-Messungen kein klarer Trend in Abhängigkeit vom Bedeckungsgrad der Silica-NP. Die höchsten Werte für die spezifische Oberfläche hatten Mikropartikel, die aus 1/5- und 1/3-modifizierten Silica-NP bestanden. Eine schlüssige Erklärung wird darin gesehen, dass durch die Alkylgruppen auf der Oberfläche ein Kondensieren der Silica-NP weitestgehend verhindert wurde und gleichzeitig noch genügend Mikroporen vorhanden blieben, die mit den Stickstoffmolekülen wechselwirken konnten. Neben den Standard-Analysemethoden wurden Dispergierbarkeitsuntersuchungen durchgeführt sowie die Hansen-Dispergierbarkeitsparameter (HDP) und die ET (30)-Werte mit dem Reichardt-Farbstoff bestimmt. Anhand der Dispergierbarkeitsuntersuchungen konnten erste qualitative Aussagen getroffen werden, ob es sich um hydrophile oder hydrophobe Partikel handelt. Diese ersten Ergebnisse und Trends konnten anschließend mit den HDP und dem RD quantitativ untermauert werden. Die Polarität der Mikropartikel, die aus zu unterschiedlichen Graden mit OCTEO modifizierten Silica-NP aufgebaut waren, nahm mit zunehmender Oberflächenbedeckung ab. Dieser Trend korrelierte mit den aus den FTIR- und TG-Messungen erhaltenen Werten. Da es mit den Silica-basierten Mikropartikeln nicht möglich war, unmittelbare Aussagen zum Agglomerations- bzw. Aggregationsgrad der Nanopartikel im Mikropartikel zu treffen, wurde das Prinzip der Agglomerations/Aggregationssteuerung über Oberflächenmodifikation auf magnetische Nanopartikel übertragen und so ein Modell geschaffen, das die Wechselwirkung auf nanopartikulärer Ebene sichtbar und messbar macht. Diese Informationen zum Agglomerationsgrad der Nanopartikel lieferten wertvolle Hinweise im Hinblick auf die Dispergierbarkeit der Partikel in einer Matrix: Handelte es sich bei den Partikeln um lose Agglomerate, könnten diese zum Beispiel in einem Elastomer wieder auf Primärpartikelgröße dispergiert werden, während Aggregate nur in undefinierte Sekundärstrukturen zerfallen. Gleichzeitig wurde mit dieser Systemübertragung die Frage beantwortet, ob es sich bei den teilmodifizierten Partikeln um eine Mischung aus voll- und unmodifizierten Partikeln handelte oder ob das Silan statistisch über die komplette Oberfläche verteilt war. Wie auch schon beim Silica-System wurden die Nanopartikel zunächst abgestuft mit OCTEO modifiziert (0, 1/10, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 1) und anschließend sprühgetrocknet. Aufgrund ihrer magnetischen Eigenschaften konnten die Eisenoxid-Partikel mittels ZFC- und FC-Messungen untersucht werden. Diese spezielle Analysemethode erlaubte es, Aussagen über den Grad der magnetischen Wechselwirkung der Partikel zu treffen und somit indirekt auch über den Grad der Agglomeration/ Aggregation der Nanopartikel im Mikropartikel. Es zeigten sich klare Unterschiede in den Werten für die Blocking-Temperatur (TB) zwischen den voll- und unmodifizierten Partikeln. TB ist die Temperatur, ab welcher die Magnetisierungsrichtung der Partikel aufgrund der thermischen Energie frei fluktuieren kann. Die vollmodifizierten Partikeln hatten einen sehr niedrigen Wert für TB, was auf eine schwache Dipol-Dipol- Wechselwirkung zwischen den einzelnen Eisenoxid-NP schließen ließ, während die unmodifizierten Eisenoxid-Partikel einen hohen TB-Wert hatten, woraus zu schließen war, dass es sich um Aggregate mit einem sehr geringen Partikel-Partikel-Abstand handelte und einer deshalb höheren Wechselwirkung. Die Werte der teilmodifizierten Partikel folgten dem Trend, dass mit zunehmender Silan-Bedeckung der TB-Wert abnahm. Um die Frage der Silan-Verteilung zu beantworten, wurde zusätzlich ein Mischsystem aus voll- und unmodifizierten Eisenoxid-NP versprüht. Sollte es sich bei den teilmodifizierten Partikeln (als Beispiel 1/2) nicht um eine statistische Verteilung der Octylgruppen auf der Oberfläche handeln, müssten die beiden Messungen Übereinstimmungen aufweisen. Dies war allerdings nicht der Fall, was mithilfe der ZFC- und FC-Messungen gezeigt werden konnte. Der TB-Wert des Mischsystems lag zwischen dem der voll- und zu 2/3-modifizierten Partikel, während der Tir-Wert dem der unmodifizierten Partikel entsprach. Die Breite der Aufspaltung zwischen TB undTir konnte als breite Partikelverteilung (Mischung aus Agglomeraten und Aggregaten) interpretiert werden. Im Hinblick auf die Anwendung als Füllstoff wurden die Mikropartikel in eine PDMS-Matrix eingearbeitet und erneut ZFC- und FC-Messungen durchgeführt, wobei die gleichen Trends wie bei den reinen nanostrukturierten Mikropartikeln erhalten wurden. Das bedeutete, dass sich die vollmodifizierten Eisenoxid-NP gut im Elastomer verteilt hatten und somit eine nur sehr geringe Dipol-Dipol-Wechselwirkung vorhanden war. Mit dem entwickelten System der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel lässt sich der Agglomerations- bzw. Aggregationsgrad der Nanopartikel mehr oder weniger gezielt einstellen, und es können zusätzlich Voraussagen über die Redispergierbarkeit des Partikelpulvers in einer geeigneten Matrix gemacht werden. Basierend auf den gewonnen Erkenntnissen, die zum Verständnis der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel beitrugen, wurden in einem nächsten Schritt gezielt komplexe Strukturen aufgebaut. Für eine gezielte Strukturierung von Nanopartikeln in Kern-Satellit-Partikel wurde zunächst große 100 nm Silica-NP mit einem PCE funktionalisiert und anschließend mit kleinen und großen unmodifizierten Silica-NP versprüht. Wurden die geeigneten Verhältnisse (70:20:10; 100 nm Mel : 100 nm blank : 20 nm blank) der Partikel zueinander gewählt, konnten Kern-Satellit-Strukturen auf der Mikropartikeloberfläche erzeugt werden. Beim Dispergieren der Mikropartikel in einer Flüssigkeit und in einem Elastomer (PDMS) konnten vereinzelte Kern-Satellit-Strukturen erhalten werden. Um zu bestätigen, dass es sich bei den dispergierten Kern-Satellit-Partikeln nicht um durch Trocknungseffekte entstandene Strukturen handelte, wurden in-situ-Flüssigkeitszellen- TEM-Aufnahmen gemacht. Die Aufnahmen konnten zeigen, dass sich die Kern-Satellit- Partikel in Abhängigkeit zueinander bewegen und nicht jeder Nanopartikel für sich, was auf eine Bindung der Partikel untereinander hindeutete. Neben den Silica-basierten Kern-Satellit-Partikeln konnten auch welche erzeugt werden, deren Satellit-Partikel aus Eisenoxid bestanden. Mit diesem System ist es möglich, multifunktionelle Partikel mit verschiedensten Eigenschaften und Strukturen herzustellen. Teil II: Anwendungspotential nanostrukturierter Mikropartikel Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde zunächst die Anwendung der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel als Füllstoff in IR und PDMS untersucht. Dafür wurde ein weiteres Silan, Si69TM, zur abgestuften Modifizierung der Silica-NP eingesetzt. Es handelt sich um ein multifunktionelles Silan, welches sowohl an die Partikeloberfläche als auch an das Elastomer binden kann. Bei den mechanischen Untersuchungen der IR-Silica-Komposite zeigte sich, dass das Silan einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Verstärkung bei kleinen Deformationen hatte. Während bei dem monofunktionellen Silan (OCTEO) eine direkte Korrelation zwischen Bedeckungsgrad und mechanischer Verstärkung (G') bei gleichbleibendem Füllstoffgehalt beobachtet werden konnte, hatte der Bedeckungsgrad beim multifunktionellen Silan (Si69TM) keinen Einfluss. Anders als bei kleinen Deformationen zeigte sich bei großen Deformationen ein gegenteiliges Bild. Die Verschleißrate der IR-Silica-Komposite nahm bei beiden Silantypen mit zunehmendem Modifizierungsgrad ab, wobei die mit Si69TM modifizierten Partikel-Komposite wesentlich beständiger gegen Verschleiß waren als die mit OCTEO modifizierten Partikel-Komposite, was auf die zusätzliche Matrixanbindung des Si69TM zurückzuführen war. Wurden die IR-Silica- Komposite mit den PDMS-Silica-Kompositen verglichen, konnten keine übereinstimmenden Trends gefunden werden. Im PDMS-System war die mechanische Verstärkung für Mikropartikel aus 2/3 mit OCTEO modifizierten Silica-NP maximal. Diese Unterschiede könnten sowohl auf die unterschiedliche Einarbeitung als auch auf die sehr unterschiedlichen Matrices zurückgeführt werden. Als weitere Anwendung wurden die nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel als Schersensoren für den 3D-Druck untersucht. Hierfür wurden die Silica-NP mit einem PCE modifiziert und anschließend sprühgetrocknet. Um die entstandenen Mikropartikel vollständig in einer Matrix zu dispergieren, waren hohe Scherkräfte und lange Scherzeiten erforderlich, was eine mögliche Anwendung als Schersensor nur schwer realisierbar macht. Teil III: Erweiterung des Ansatzes zur Herstellung nanostrukturierter Mikropartikel auf Hydroxid-basierte Systeme Im dritten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde das System zur Modifizierung von oxidischen Silicaund Eisenoxid-Partikeln auf ein hydroxidisches Systeme übertragen. Hierfür wurden mittels Fällungsprozess LDH-Partikel hergestellt, die anschließend mit OCTEO modifiziert und abschließend sprühgetrocknet wurden. In gleicher Weise wie bei den Mikropartikeln aus Silica-NP nahm der hydrophobe Charakter der LDH-Mikropartikel mit zunehmendem Modifizierungsgrad der Ausgangspartikel zu, was sich anhand von Untersuchungen zur Dispergierbarkeit in Flüssigkeiten unterschiedlicher Polarität zeigte. Zudem ließen sich die aus vollmodifizierten LDHs aufgebauten Mikropartikel in einer PDMS-Matrix wieder in vereinzelte Partikel dispergieren. Die Verstärkung der Komposite war für die teilmodifizierten Partikel (2/3) maximal, da es sich hier, wie auch bei den anderen Partikelsystemen (Silica und Eisenoxid), um eine Mischung aus vereinzelten LDHs und kleineren Aggregate handelte, was aufgrund der starken Füllstoff-Füllstoff-Wechselwirkung zu einer mechanischen Verstärkung bei kleinen Deformationen/Dehnungen führte. Die Eigenschaften der Polymer-Partikel-Komposite ließen sich über den Modifizierungsgrad der Primärpartikel einstellen. Dies konnte für alle drei Partikelsysteme (Silica, Eisenoxid und LDH) beobachtet werden. Ausblick In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte die Synthese von verschiedenen nanostrukturierten Mikropartikeln und deren einstellbaren Zerfall gezeigt werden. Um den Zerfall der Mikropartikel noch gezielter einstellen zu können, sollte in weiterführenden Arbeiten vor allem die Modifizierung der Nanopartikel noch eingehender untersucht werden. Mithilfe der magnetischen Messungen konnte zwar zwischen einer Mischung aus un- und vollmodifizierten Partikel im Vergleich zu teilmodifizierten Partikel unterschieden werden, es konnten jedoch keine konkreten Aussagen zur Verteilung der Silanmoleküle auf der Partikeloberfläche getroffen werden. Hierfür sollten weitere Charakterisierungsmethoden hinzugezogen werden, die die Modifizierung auf molekularer Ebene analysieren. Zusätzlich sollte die Verteilung/Anordnung der teilmodifizierten Nanopartikel im Mikropartikel untersucht werden. Gerade für Nanopartikel mit einem geringen Modifizierungsgrad (1/10, 1/5 und 1/3) sind verschiedene Anordnungen möglich. Die Nanopartikel können sich während der Sprühtrocknung so anordnen, dass sich die Alkylketten entweder nach außen oder in die Mitte des Mikropartikels orientieren/ausrichten. Die Anordnung der Nanopartikel hat einen großen Einfluss auf die Polarität der entstehenden Mikropartikel- pulver. Darüber hinaus hat sie einen Einfluss auf die Aggregation der Nanopartikel untereinander und somit auf die Bildung von komplexen Unterstrukturen wie zum Beispiel Kern-Satellit-Partikel. Neben der Modifizierung der Nanopartikel sollte die Herstellung der komplexen Strukturen/Suprapartikel weiter optimiert werden. Mit einem detaillierten Verständnis der physikalischen Prozesse während der Sprühtrocknung könnte die Anzahl der Satelliten auf den Kernpartikel kontrollierter eingestellt werden. Grundsätzlich kann das hier entwickelte System der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel mit einstellbarem Zerfallsverhalten an eine Vielzahl von Anwendungen angepasst werden. Da das System für zahlreiche Partikeltypen (Silica-, Eisenoxid-NP und LDH) geeignet ist, könnten verschiedene Partikel ko-versprüht und so Suprapartikel mit ganz neuen Funktionalitäten und Eigenschaften erzeugt werden. Diese können als verstärkende Füllstoffe in Elastomere oder zur Stabilisierung von Dispersionen eingesetzt werden. Mischpartikel aus Silica- und Eisenoxid-Partikel hätten zum Beispiel den Vorteil, dass sie eine Dispersion stabilisieren und gleichzeitig wieder magnetisch abgetrennt werden können. Diese Mischpartikel könnten auch als Füllstoffe in komplexe Kunststoffbauteile eingearbeitet werden, in denen sie zum einen als mechanisch verstärkender Füllstoff wirken und gleichzeitig durch induktive Erwärmung das Bauteil vernetzt. Beim induktiven Erwärmen handelt es sich um eine schonende Methode Bauteile gezielt zu vernetzen, indem die Wärme im Bauteil selbst, über magnetische Verluste der Magnetpartikel in einem magnetischen Wechselfeld, erzeugt wird und nicht über seine Oberfläche eingebracht werden muss. Eine weitere interessante Anwendung für Mischpartikel ist die als magnetooptisch aktiver Marker oder Tracer in der medizinischen Diagnostik. Aufgrund von Quenching-Effekten (Auslöschungseffekte) ist es schwierig magnetische Nanopartikel mit einer Farbigkeit oder Fluoreszenz auszustatten.[385] Mischt man jedoch die magnetischen Nanopartikel mit einem weiteren Partikelsystem wie zum Beispiel Silica-NP oder LDHs, können magnetooptische Eigenschaften erhalten werden ; The herein presented work deals with the synthesis and characterization of nanostructured microparticle powders with adjustable burst behavior and their application as reinforcing fillers as well as their application as a shear sensors. For this purpose, the work was structured into three parts. The first part was dedicated to the synthesis of nanostructured microparticle powders produced by spray-drying colloidal nanoparticles. Depending on the composition of the particles during the spray-drying process, it was possible to produce nanoparticulate structures such as core-satellites. In the second part of the work, these nanostructured microparticles could be redispersed in a suitable matrix such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and then tested for a potential application as reinforcing fillers. In the third and final part of the work, the synthesis approach was extended to hydroxide-based systems such as layered double hydroxides particles (LDHs). Part I: From silica nanoparticles to nanostructured microparticles with adjustable burst behavior To generate nanostructured microparticles with an integrated burst behavior, colloidal silica nanoparticles with a size of 20 nm were either partially or completely (1/10, 1/5, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 1) modified with triethoxyoctylsilane (OCTEO), which makes the nanoparticle surfaces hydrophobic or semi-hydrophobic, or the nanoparticles were left blank (0). To achieve the part-modification" the amount of silane was reduced accordingly to 2/3, 1/2, 1/3, 1/5 and 1/10 compared to the completely modified silica nanoparticles. The modified nanoparticles showed clear differences when dispersed in different liquids (water, toluene) depending on the silanization degree of the particle surface. As expected, the hydrophobic behavior of the nanoparticles increased with increasing silane coverage and the nanoparticles were redispersible in non-polar liquids such as toluene while they tended to agglomerate and sediment in polar liquids such as water. In a next step, the colloidal silica nanoparticles, which were modified to different degrees with OCTEO, were spray-dried to yield a powder. The obtained nanostructured microparticle powders were then characterized by various analysis methods such as scanning electron microscope (SEM), specific surface area measurement by nitrogen adsorption according the Brunauer, Emmett and Teller theory (BET), FTIR measurements and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) to examine the properties of the formed particles in more detail. SEM revealed that the nanostructured microparticles showed a very different appearance depending on the degree of modification of the nanoparticles. The microparticles consisting of completely modified nanoparticles had a rather rough surface, while the ones consisting of non-modified nanoparticles had a very smooth and compact surface, which could be due to possible condensation and associated hard agglomeration of the nanoparticles. Since based on SEM images alone it was not possible to confirm this assumption, in a next series of tests, in situ nano-indenter experiments were carried out in the SEM with microparticles composed of completely and non-modified nanoparticles. These results finally confirmed the first impression gained by SEM, as the very compact non-modified particles could not be indented with a tungsten tip which is possibly a good indication that hard agglomerates prevail in this case. The completely modified particles could be indented with the tungsten tip, thus behaved quite differently. The microparticles showed a ductile/plastic behavior and the nanoparticles could be separated from each other. This suggests that these particles probably consist of soft agglomerates of nanoparticles which can be separated again by force. Since it was not possible to make substantiated statements regarding the interaction of the nanoparticles within the microparticle with microscopy methods such as SEM, the surface properties of the particles were studied using BET, FTIR measurements and TGA. With a view to later applications, it it was important to characterize the surface properties of the microparticles in detail, since these are essential for the dispersibility of the particles in a matrix system. Using FTIR measurements and TGA the presence and amount of silane on the particle surface was determined. There was a clear trend for the silica nanoparticles which were modified to different degrees with OCTEO. As the amount of silane increased, both the intensity of the FTIR band for CH2 and CH3 stretching and mass loss increased. In contrast to these measurements, the BET measurements showed no clear trend depending on the surface coverage of the silica nanoparticles. The highest values for the specific surface area were found for microparticles consisting of 1/5- and 1/3-modified silica nanoparticles. In these cases, the condensation of the silica nanoparticles was largely prevented by the surface alkyl groups, and at the same time, there were still enough micropores that were able to interact with the nitrogen molecules which may explain the higher values. In addition to the standard analytical methods, liquid tests were performed and Hansen dispersibility parameters (HDP) and ET (30) values with Reichardt's dye (RD) were determined. Based on the liquid tests, first qualitative statements, concerning the hydro- philicity or hydrophobicity of the particles, modified to a different extend with silane, were made. These results and trends were then quantitatively substantiated with the HDP and the RD experiments. The polarity of the microparticles which were built up to different degrees with OCTEO modified silica nanoparticles decreased with increasing surface coverage. This tendency correlated with the values obtained from the FTIR and TG measurements. Since it had not been possible so far to determine the degree of soft and hard agglomeration of the silica nanoparticles in the microparticles, the system was transferred to iron oxide nanoparticles. The degree of agglomeration of the nanoparticles was crucial for subsequent dispersion in a matrix: If the particles were loose, soft agglomerates, they could be redispersed into primary nanoparticles in an elastomer, while hard agglomerates would only disintegrate into undefined secondary structures. At the same time, this system transfer was intended to answer the question whether the partially modified particles are a mixture of completely and non-modified particles or whether the silane is statistically distributed over the entire surface of all nanoparticles, i.e. whether all nanoparticles are modified to the same extend with silane. Similar to the silica system, the iron oxid nanoparticles were modified to different degrees with OCTEO (0, 1/10, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 1) and then spray-dried. Due to their magnetic properties, the iron oxide particles could be analyzed by Zero-Field-Cooled (ZFC) and Field-Cooled (FC) measurements. This special analysis method made it possible to deduce statements on the degree of the magnetic interaction of the particles and thus indirectly on the degree of soft and hard agglomeration of the nanoparticles in the microparticle. There were significant differences in the blocking temperature (TB) between the completely and the non-modified particles. TB is the temperature at which the magnetization direction of the particles can freely fluctuate due to thermal energy. The completely modified particles had very low TB value, suggesting a weak dipole-dipole interaction between the individual iron oxide nanoparticles. In contrary to this, the non-modified iron oxide particles had a high TB value, suggesting that the nanoparticles form hard agglomerates , coming with a very small particle-particle distance and therefore a higher interaction. The values of the partially modified particles followed the trend that the TB value decreased with increasing silane coverage. In order to answer the question of the silane distribution, a mixed system consisting of completely and non-modified iron oxide nanoparticles was also spray-dried. If the partially modified particles (as example 1/2) were a mixture of non-modified and modified nanoparticles and therefore the silane was not statically distributed on the nanoparticle surface, the TB value should be the same as for the mixed system. This was not the case however, as demonstrated by the ZFC and FC measurements. The TB value of the mixed system was between the one of the completely and 2/3-modified particles, while the irreversible temperature (Tir) value corresponded to that of the non-modified particles. The width of the splitting between TB and Tir could be interpreted as a broad particle distribution (mixture of soft and hard agglomerates). For the use as fillers, the microparticles were incorporated in a PDMS matrix and ZFC and FC measurements were again performed, and the same trends were observed as for the pure nanostructured microparticles. From this it could be concluded that the completely modified iron oxide nanoparticles had been well distributed in the elastomer and thus had very little dipole-dipole interaction. With the developed system of nanostructured microparticles, the degree of soft and hard agglomeration of the nanoparticles can be adjusted more or less specifically, and additional predictions can be made about the redispersibility of the particle powder in a suitable matrix. Based on the insights gained to understand the system, more complex structures were built up. For the adjustable structuring of nanoparticles in core-satellite particles, large 100 nm silica nanoparticles were firstly functionalized with a polycarboxylate ether (PCE) and afterwards spray-dried with small and large non-modified silica nanoparticles. By choosing a suitable ratio (70:20:10, 100 nm Mel : 100 nm blank : 20 nm blank) of the particles composition was chosen, core-satellite structures were generated on the microparticle surface. The dispersion of microparticles in a liquid or in an elastomer (PDMS) resulted in isolated core-satellite structures. In situ liquid cell TEM was carried out to confirm that the dispersed core-satellite particles were not only structures created by drying-effects. It was possible to record core-satellite particles moving/rotating in relation to each other which was an indication that the small particles were bound to the larger ones. In addition to the silica-based core-satellite particles, core-satellite particles were synthesized whose satellite particles consisted of iron oxide. This proved the approach being suitable to produce multifunctional particles with different properties and structures. Part II: Application potential of nanostructured microparticles In the second part of the work, the application of the nanostructured microparticles as reinforcing fillers in isopren rubber (IR) and PDMS, as well as shear sensor in 3D printing was examined. For this purpose, the silica nanoparticles were modified with the silane bis(triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide (Si69TM) in addition to OCTEO. Si69TM is a multifunctional silane capable of covalently binding to both, the particle surface via the ethoxy groups and the elastomer via the sulphur. The mechanical investigations of the IR-silica composites demonstrated that the silane modification of the silica nanoparticles had a significant influence on the reinforcement at small strain amplitudes. While the monofunctional silane (OCTEO) revelaed a direct correlation between the degree of coverage and mechanical reinforcement (G') at a constant filler content, the degree of coverage of the multifunctional silane (Si69TM) had no effect. In contrast to small strain amplitudes, a completely different behavior was found for large strain amplitudes. The wear rate of the IR-silica composites decreased with increasing modification degree for both silane types. The Si69TM modified particle composites were much more resistant to wear than the OCTEO modified particle composites due to the additional matrix binding of the Si69TM. When comparing the IR-silica composites to the PDMS-silica composites, no consistent trends were found. In the PDMS system, the mechanical reinforcement by the particles was at maximum for particles being modified on their surface to an extend of 2/3 by OCTEO. These differences could be attributed to the different incorporation processes as well as the different matrices. Another potential application for the nanostructured microparticles as shear sensor in 3D printing was tested. For this purpose, the silica nanoparticles were modified with a PCE and then spray-dried. In order to completely disperse the resulting microparticles in a matrix, high shear forces and long shear rates were required, which makes a potential application as shear sensor for the current system rather challenging to be realized in practice. Part III: Extension of the approach for the preparation of nanostructured microparticles to hydroxide-based systems In the third part of this work, the system of silica particle modification was transferred to hydroxide-based particles. For this purpose, LDHs were produced by a precipitation process and then modified with OCTEO and finally spray-dried. LDHs are an interesting material due to the broad application potential like as adsorbers for gases, drug containers, and flame-retardants. Exactly as with the silica particles, the hydrophobic character of the LDH microparticles increased with increasing modification degree of the primary LDHs which could be shown by liquid tests. In addition, the microparticles consisting of completely modified LDHs could be dispersed into isolated particles in a PDMS matrix. Similar to the silica particle systems, the reinforcement of the composites was the highest for the partially modified particles (2/3). The partly modified particles consisted of a mixture of isolated LDH particles and small hard agglomerates, which lead to a mechanical reinforcement at small strain amplitudes due to the strong filler-filler interaction. The properties of the polymer-particle composites could be adjusted by the modification degree of the primary LDHs. Outlook In the present work, the synthesis of different nanostructured microparticles and their adjustable burst was shown. In order to be able to carefully adjust the disintegration of the microparticles, the modification of the nanoparticles in particular should be investigated in more detail in future woks. Although it was possible to differentiate between a mixtures of non-modified and completely modified particles compared to partially modified particles, it was not possible to make any specific statements about the distribution of the silane molecules on the particle surface. For this purpose, further characterization methods should be consulted, which analyze the modification at the molecular level. In addition, the distribution/arrangement of the partially modified nanoparticles in the microparticle should be investigated. Especially for nanoparticles with a low degree of modification (1/10, 1/5 and 1/3) different arrangements are possible. During spraydrying, the nanoparticles can either be arranged in such a way that the silane molecules orient themselves in the direction of the particle surface or in the center of the particle. The arrangement of the nanoparticles has a great influence on the polarity of the resulting microparticle powders. In addition, it has an influence on the hard agglomeration of nanoparticles and thus on the formation of complex substructures, such as core-satellite particles. In addition to the modification of the nanoparticles, the production of complex structures/supraparticles should be further optimized. With a detailed understanding of the physical processes during spray-drying, the number of satellites on the core particles could be more controlled. In principle, the system of nanostructured microparticles with adjustable burst behavior, which has been developed herein, can be adapted to a large number of applications. Since the system is suitable for many types of particles (silica, iron oxide and LDH), different nanoparticle building blocks particles could be spray-dried together to create supraparticles with completely new functionalities and properties. These can be used as reinforcing fillers in elastomers or for the stabilization of dispersions. For example, mixed particles of silica and iron oxide particles would have the advantage to stabilize a dispersion and at the same time may be magnetically recovered again. These mixed particles could also be incorporated as fillers into complex plastic components in which they act as mechanically reinforcing fillers on the one hand and, at the same time, crosslink the components by inductive heating. The inductive heating is a gentle method to selectively crosslink components, since the heat produced by the magnetic particles in the component itself and does not have to be introduced over its surface