Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Belhatti-6 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 468 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm of which about 363 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils, two per cent by rock lands, waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 98 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 150 cm) to deep (100 - 150 cm), 41 per cent are moderately shallow to shallow (25-75 cm) and about 18 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm) soils.  About 78 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 20 per cent loamy soils.  About 15 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 47 per cent gravelly soils (15- 35 % gravel) and 37 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) and extremely gravelly (60-80%) soils.  About 22 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 3 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and about 72 per cent low (51- 100 mm/m) and very low (9.0) and 10 percent has soils that area neutral (pH 6.5-7.3).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium and low in about 1 per cent area.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 98 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 16 per cent area and sufficient in 82 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Available zinc is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 21 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suita ble (S1) Moderate ly suit abl e (S2) Highly sui tab le (S1) Moderatel y suit able (S2) Sorghum 46 (10) 246 (53) Jackfruit - 78 (17) Maize 46 (10) 220 (47) Jamun - 183 (39) Bengalgram 4 (<1) 428 (92) Musambi 11 (2) 231 (49) Groundnut 11 (2) 176 (38) Lime 11 (2) 240 (51) Sunflower 11 (2) 173 (37) Cashew 11 (2) 236 (50) Cotton 15 (3) 336 (72) Custard Apple 46 (10) 327 (70) Banana 11 (2) 301 (64) Amla 46 (10) 266 (57) Pomegranat 11 (2) 301 (64) Tamarind - 183 (39) e Mango - 11 (2) Marigold 42 (9) 272 (58) Sapota 11 (2) 135(29) Chrysanthemu m 42 (9) 272 (58) Guava 11 (2) 131 (28) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Belhatti-6 micro-watershed (Belhatti sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1503' – 1505' North latitudes and 75036' – 75039' East longitudes, covering an area of about 468 ha, bounded by Nilogal, Kurubgatta, Devihal and Bijjur villages with length of growing period (LGP) 150-180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Belhatti-6 micro-watershed (Belhatti subwatershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 55.6 to 44.4 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52.8 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 97.2 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 9.1 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 63.6 cent.  About 45.5 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (36.4 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 63.6 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 90.9 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 6.4 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 90.9 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.4 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 46.7 % and irrigated land 13.7 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 56.9 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 29.2 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 92494 per household. Mobile and television are popular mass media communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 121609 per household, about 72.7 per cent of sample farmers having plough and sprayer (45.5 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 29198 per household; about 81 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capital food consumption is around 853.9 grams (1798.6 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 36.4 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 20120 per household. Among the entire farm households in these study area comes under the below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1365. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 635 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 296230 per year for the total area of 468.28 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 9324/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 22221) followed by chilli (Rs. 20671), cotton (Rs. 13608), bengal gram (Rs. 7344), maize (Rs. 4623), sorghum (Rs. 1311) and groundnut is negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1573/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 1806) followed by sorghum (Rs. 1339).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengal gram (Rs. 39669) followed by cotton (Rs. 34831), sorghum (Rs. 23705), maize (Rs. 23676), groundnut (Rs. 18488), onion (Rs. 16598) and chilli (Rs. 3833). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (48.7 %) followed by sorghum (16.7 %), onion (11.2 %), bengalgram (9.7%), groundnut (7.8 %) and cotton (6.0 %).  In Belhatti-6 micro-watershed major soil of Muttal (MTL) soils series are having shallow soil depth cover around 10.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing bengalgram (9.1%), chilli (17.9 %), cotton (16.9 %), maize (16.9 %), onion (18.0 %) and sorghum (21.2%). Ravanki (RNK) soils are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 12.81 % of area; the major crops are maize. Chikkamegheri (CKM) series having moderately deep soil depth cover around 6.66 % of areas; crops are maize (80 %) and onion (20 %). Balapur (BPR) series are having deep soil depth cover around 14.32 % of area; crops are groundnut (25 %), sorghum (75 %) and Lakshmangudda (LGD) series having deep soil depth cover around 14.84 % of area, the major crops grown are groundnut (37.1%), maize (35.3 %) and sorghum (27.6 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize ranges between Rs.25791/ha in RNK soil (with BCR of 1.13) and Rs.21143/ha in LGD soil (with BCR of 1.31).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs 20790/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.00) and Rs.13082/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.01).  In onion the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.54232/ha in CKM soil (with BCR of 1.35) and Rs. 20322/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.14).  In groundnut cost of cultivation range between is Rs.45590/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.00) and Rs. 31872 in LGD soil (with BCR of 1.02).  In chilli the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs 21836/ha (with BCR of 1.65).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs.22526/ha (with BCR of 1.33) and cotton the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs.21836/ha (with BCR of 1.62).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (74 to 79.7%), sorghum (64.8 to 85.9%), onion (59.5 to 90.5%), groundnut (56.6 to65.6%), chilli (96.3 %), cotton (49.4%) and bengalgram (60.8 %) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Honnegaudanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 584 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soils, five per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 27 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 93 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 3 per cent is not suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 50 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 19 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 64 per cent loamy soils and 13 per cent sandy soils.  About 38 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 41 per cent gravelly soils (15- 35 % gravel) and 16 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 76 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 85 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 10 per cent is under gently sloping (3-5%) to very strongly sloping (15-25%) lands.  An area of about 73 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 20 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and 3 per cent soils are severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 19 per cent has soils that are extremely acid (pH 3.5-4.5) to slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) ; 22 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and maximum area of about 54 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 38 per cent of the soils are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 3 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 9 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 8 per cent area and sufficient in 88 per cent area.  Available manganese is deficient (1 ppm) in 94 per cent area.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 18 per cent area and sufficient in 78 per cent area.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 187 (32) 80 (14) Sapota 26 (4) 153 (26) Maize 125 (21) 54 (9) Guava 125 (21) 55 (9) Redgram 125 (21) 290 (50) Banana 26 (4) 187 (32) Horsegram 125 (21) 293 (50) Jackfruit 89 (15) 152 (26) Field bean 26 (4) 241 (41) Jamun 115 (20) 98 (17) Groundnut - 234 (40) Musambi 115 (20 ) 98 (17) Sunflower - 231 (37) Lime 115 (20) 98 (17) Cotton 89 (15) 152 (26) Cashew 26 (5) 153 (26) Onion 26 (4) 241 (41) Custard apple 213 (37) 225 (39) Potato 26 (4) 152 (26) Amla 213 (37) 225 (39) Beans 26 (4) 241 (41) Tamarind 115 (20) 98 (17) Beetroot 26 (4) 152 (26) Marigold 125 (21) 198 (34) Turmeric 26 (4) 1525 (26) Chrysanthemum 26 (5) 241 (26) Mango 26 (4) 98 (17)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Honnegaudanahalli micro-watershed (Basavapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11044' – 11047' North latitudes and 76035' – 76038' East longitudes, covering an area of about 584 ha, bounded by Kannagal, Puttanapur and Bhimanabid villages with length of growing period (LGP) 150-180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Honnegaudanahalli micro-watershed (Basavapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52.0 to 48.0 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 54 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 72 per cent.  Social groups belong to general caste is around 70 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households.  About 60 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (30 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 17.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making of agriculture production among all sample households was found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average landholding is 0.8 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 32.7 % and irrigated land is 67.3 % of total cultivable land among the sample households.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 20.0 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 68.0 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.14057 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.10921 per household, among the all sample farmers having plough and sprayer (20 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs.17170 per household; about 60 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 471.5 grams (1195.3 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among the all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.168282 per household. About 50 per cent on of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.814. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.711 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.396566 per year for the total area of 122.6 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 75847/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in garlic (Rs. 558310) followed by onion (Rs. 120939) horse gram (Rs. 11625), sunflower (Rs. 7550), maize (Rs .7447) and sorghum (Rs. 1857).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2924/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in gram (Rs. 3203) followed by maize (Rs. 1482) and sorghum (Rs. 1671).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in turmeric (Rs. 77136) followed by sorghum (Rs. 41633), garlic (Rs. 40288), onion (Rs. 29291), sunflower (Rs. 28602), horse gram (Rs. 25170) and maize (Rs. 21128). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is by onion (26.8 %), followed by horse gram (16.2 %), sorghum (15.1 %), turmeric (14.2 %) sunflower (10.6 %), garlic (10.6 %), beetroot (3.3 %) and maize (3.3 %).  In Honnegaudanahalli micro-watershed, major soil are Hindupur (HDR) soil are having shallow soil depth cover around 10.4 % of area; crops are beet root (15.9 %), maize (31.9 %), sunflower (20.3 %), turmeric (31.9 %). Magoonahalli (MGH) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 20 % of area; crops are onion (50 %) and turmeric (50 %). Kannigala (KNG) soil are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 9.4% of area; crops area horsegram (25.4 %) and sunflower (74.6 %), Beemanabeedu (BMB) soil are having very deep moderately soils depth cover around 15.2 % of area; crops are horse gram (22.5 %), sorghum (22.8 %), onion (22.9 %), sunflower (8.4 %) and turmeric (2.4 %) and Kallipura (KLP) soil series are very deep soil depth cover around (16.9 %) of area; crops are horse gram (50%) and sorghum (50%).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sunflower ranges between Rs.40164/ha in HDR soil (With BCR of 1.02) and Rs. 27618/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.07).  In turmeric the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 818442/ha in BMB soil (with of 1.16) and Rs 93334 in HDR soil (with BCR of 2.12).  In onion the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 198935/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 2.25) and Rs. 63126/ha in MGH soil (with BCR of 3.01).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.33643/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.12) and Rs.13169/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.21).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 26791/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs. 25532/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 1.16).  In garlic the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs. 57290/ha (with BCR of 10.75).  In beetroot the cost of cultivation in HDR soil is Rs. 43823/ha (with BCR of 1.13) and maize the cost of cultivation in Rs. 24539/ha (with BCR of 1.36).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in beetroot(91.6 %), maize(79.2 %), sunflower (28.3 to 73.4 %), turmeric (0 to 39.3 %), onion (70.6 %), horse gram (9.6 to 25.6% %), sorghum(53.6% to 52.9 %), garlic (12.4 %) and onion (48.5 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chilkadabetta-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 476 ha in Chilkadabetta-1 microwatershed in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm. Maximum of 254 mm precipitation takes place during south–west monsoon period from June to September, the north-east monsoon contributes about 268 mm and prevails from October to early December and the remaining 212 mm takes place during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and 3 per cent by waterbodies, settlements, forest and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 28 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 77 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 23 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agroforestry, silvi-pasture, recreation, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife.  About 24 per cent of the soils are very deep (>150 cm), 12 per cent moderately deep (75 - 100 cm), 61 per cent moderately shallow to shallow (25-75 cm).  About 32 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 52 per cent loamy soils and 13 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  About 9 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity and about 73 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (337kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Available zinc is deficient in all the soils  The land suitability for 27 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Chilkadabetta-1 Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 82 (17) 186 (39) Guava 78 (16) 57 (12) Maize 101 (21) 155 (33) Mango 78 (16) 23 (5) Red gram 78(16) 83 (18) Sapota 78 (16) 57 (12) Groundnut 35 (7) 221(47) Jackfruit 78 (16) 23 (5) Sunflower 70 (15) 77 (16) Jamun 78 (16) 35 (7) Cotton 82 (17) 155 (33) Musambi 78 (16) 35 (5) Onion 78 (16) 190 (40) Lime 78 (16) 35 (5) Beans 78 (16) 190 (40) Cashew 78 (16) 57 (12) Potato 78 (16) 178 (37) Custard apple 78 (16) 193 (40) Beetroot 78 (16) 178 (37) Amla 78 (16) 193(40) Turmeric 78 (16) 178 (37) Tamarind 78 (16) 35(5) Horse gram 78 (16) 180 (38) Marigold 78 (16) 190(40) Field bean 78 (16) 190 (40) Chrysanthamum 78 (16) 190(40) Banana 78 (16) 69 (50) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that are edible, ecological and produce lot of biomass which helps in restoring the ecological balance in the micro watershed. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Chilakadabetta-1 Microwatershed (Shivapura sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11041' – 11042' North latitudes and 76040' – 76042' East longitudes, covering an area of about 476 ha, bounded by Hullipura, Belavadihundi, Mangala and Shivapura villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Chilakadabetta-1 micro-watershed (Shivapura sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 61.2 to 38.8 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 55.1 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 71.4 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 30 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90 per cent.  About 60.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Around 30.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 80 per cent.  Institutional participation is only 8.2 per cent.  Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 10 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 30 per cent of sample households. 2 Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 0.8 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal farmers. The dry land account for 72.1 % and irrigated land is 27.9 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 79.6 per cent and agriculture is the main agriculture labour is the subsidiary occupation around 10.2 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 93314 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs 74219 per household, about 50.0 per cent of sample farmers are having sprayer.  The average value of livestock is around Rs 25750 per household; about 58.3 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 588.3 grams (1253.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 36529 per household. All sample farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1401. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 900 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 505064 per year for the total area of 475.8 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 16231/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in tomato (Rs. 43260) followed by beans (Rs. 18914), maize (Rs. 16914), sorghum (Rs. 16401), horse gram (Rs. 7824), sunflower (Rs. 5818) and groundnut (Rs. 4485).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 449/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs. 675) followed by horse gram (Rs. 472), sunflower (Rs. 329) and sorghum (Rs. 318).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in beans (Rs. 538092) followed by tomato (Rs. 49965), sorghum (Rs. 48561), maize (Rs. 36220), sunflower (Rs. 30947), horse gram (Rs. 20349) and groundnut (Rs. 20287). 3 Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is horse gram (29.9 %) followed by sorghum (19.4 %) groundnut (18.1 %), sunflower (16.7 %), maize (8.7 %) and beans (3.6 %).  Chilakadabetta-1 Micro watershed, major soils are soil Hindupur (HDR) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 6.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing sunflower (50.0 %) and sorghum (50.0%). Hullipura (HPR) are also having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 16.6 % of area, the crops are beans (5.5 %), horse gram(44.5%), sorghum(44.5%) and tomato was 5.5 % each. Shivapura (SPR) soil series having shallow soil depth cover around 14.6 % of areas, crops are groundnut (50.0 %) and horse gram (50.0 %). Kannigala (KNG) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 11.7 % per cent of area. The major crops grown are groundnut (31.7%) and horse gram (68.3%). Annurkeri (ARK) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 7.4 % of area, the major crop grown is beans (13.1%), groundnut (36.9%), sorghum (36.9%) and tomato (13.1%). Kalligaudanahalli (KDH) and Beemanabeedu (BMB) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 7.3 % and 2.5 % of areas respectively; crops are maize, sunflower and horse gram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for groundnut ranges between Rs.18746/ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.0) and Rs.30525/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.04).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 6371/ha in SPR soil (with of 2.62) and Rs. 28728/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.57).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 11171/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 2.53) and Rs. 18249/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.71).  In tomato the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.118609 /ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 1.25) and Rs331873 in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.28).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 17602/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.94) and Rs. 33353/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.03).  In beans the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 112311/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 1.23) and Rs. 126088/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.02).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in groundnut (56.6 to 58.7 %), horse gram (24.1 to 45.8 %), sorghum (38.2 to 53.1 %), sunflower (31.7 to 39.3 %) and tomato (44.9 to 64 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Devihal-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 435 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm of which about 363 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils, three per cent by rock lands and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 97 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 3 per cent is not suitable for agriculture.  About 64 per cent of the soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) to very shallow (150 cm) soils.  About 73 per cent of the area has loamy soils at the surface, 4 per sandy and 20 per cent of the area has clayey soils.  About 9 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 80 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 9 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 16 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 81 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (0.75%) and low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 54 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 43 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 59 per cent area and sufficient in 38 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient in about 84 per cent area and sufficient in 13 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 23 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, prevailing market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 118 (27) 125(29) Sapota 43 (10) 102 (23) Maize 118 (27) 125(29) Jackfruit 35 (8) 27 (6) Cotton 71 (16) 192(44) Jamun 35 (8) 35 (8) Sunflower 71 (16) 192(44) Musambi 35 (8) 35 (8) Onion 137 (32) 125(29) Lime 35(8) 35 (8) Groundnut 137 (32) 200(46) Cashew 35 (8) 110 (25) Chilli 145 (33) 117(27) Custard apple 71 (16) 285(66) Sugarcane 71 (16) 75(17) Amla 71(16) 285 (66) Pomegranate 71 (16) 75 (17) Tamarind 35 (8) 35 (8) Tomato 145 (33) 116(27) Marigold 145 (33) 116 (27) Guava 63 (14) 8 (2) Chrysanthemum 145(33) 116 (27) Mango 35 (8) 35 (8) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LCUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to the problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also help in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Devihal-3 micro-watershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1507' – 1509' North latitudes and 75036' – 75038' East longitudes, covering an area of about 435 ha, bounded by Chabbi village on north, Nadigatti village on the west, Majjur and Devihal villages on the east with an length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Devihal-3 micro-watershed (Nilogal subwatershed, Shirahatti taluk and Gadag district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 51.8 to 48.2 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 48.2 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 69.7 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 90.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for cooking among 60.0 per cent.  About 50.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Farm households (90.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50.0 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 1.8 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 50.0 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.6 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 83.3 % and irrigated land 16.1% of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 20.4 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 74.3 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 14145 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 141683 per household, about 60 per cent of sample farmers having plough and bullock cart.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 26080 per household; about 83.3 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 878.7 grams (1898.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 50.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 40187 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1306. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 1084 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 4458572 per year for the total area of 435.54 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 12856/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 21418) followed by sorghum (Rs. 12501), groundnut (Rs. 10847), sunflower (Rs. 9116), maize (Rs. 8305) and green gram (Rs. 4950).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 1496/ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs 2379) followed by groundnut (Rs 1337) and sorghum (Rs 771).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in sunflower (Rs.32384), followed by green gram (Rs 32286), sorghum (Rs.27823), maize (Rs.23085), groundnut (Rs.16454), and onion (Rs.15504). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is groundnut (25.5 %) followed by maize (21.0 %), onion (16.1), sunflower (10.9 %), sorghum (10.7 %) and green gram (7.9 %).  In Devihal 3 Microwatershed, major soil is soil of Devihal (DVH) series is having very shallow soil depth cover around 6.32 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing onion. Kaggalipura (KGP) soil is also having very shallow soil depth cover (3.92 %) of area; the crops are sunflower. Chikkamegheri (CKM) soil series having moderately deep soil depth cover around 17.23 per cent of areas, crops are groundnut (28 %), maize (28 %), green gram (22 %) and sorghum (22 %). Lakkipura (LKR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 21.65 per cent of area; crops are sorghum (66 %) and sunflower (34 %), Ranatur (RTR) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 5.79 ha of area; crop are groundnut (47 %) and maize (53 %) and Thammadahalli soils are moderately shallow soil depth cover 26.81 per cent of area; crops are groundnut.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sunflower ranges between Rs. 35405 /ha in KGP soil (with BCR of 1.45) and Rs. 23330/ha in LKR soil (with BCR of 11.18).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 23720/ha in RTR soil (with BCR of 1.35) and Rs. 22644/ha in TDH soil (with BCR of 1.74).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 13952/ha in LKR soil (with BCR of 2.54) and Rs. 10338/ha in CKM soil (with BCR of 1.19).  In maize the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 25385/ha in RTR soil (with BCR of 1.52) and Rs. 21308/ha in CKM soil (with BCR of 1.10).  In onion the cost of cultivation in DVH soil is Rs. 14182/ha (with BCR of 3.22) and green gram the cost cultivation in CKM soil is Rs.18425/ha (with BCR of 1.30).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in groundnut (63.9 to 68.4 %), maize (79 to 82.1 %), sorghum (86.1 to 48.1 %), sunflower (51 to 30 %), onion (76.6 %) and green gram (45.3 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Shivapura-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 596 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm of which about 254 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, four per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 96 per cent area is suitable for agriculture.  About 8 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 87 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 34 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 40 per cent loamy soils and 22 per cent area has sandy soils.  About 7 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 39 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 49 per cent has very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 88 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 86 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 10 per cent is under gently sloping (3-5%) to moderately sloping (5- 10%) lands.  An area of about 64 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 22 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and 10 per cent soils are severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 2 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5); 14 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and maximum area of about 80 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 40 per cent of the soils are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 12 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 5 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 51 per cent area and sufficient in 44 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 8 (1) 183 (31) Sapota 36 (6) 6 (1) Maize 36 (6) 147 (25) Guava 36 (6) 6 (1) Redgram 36 (6) 16 (3) Banana 36 (6) 8 ( 1 ) Horsegram 36 (6) 163 (27) Jackfruit 36 (6) - Field bean 36 (6) 163 (27) Jamun 36 (6) 8 (1) Groundnut - 189 (32) Musambi 36 (6) 8 (1) Sunflower - 44 (7) Lime 36 (6) 8 (1) Cotton 8 (1) 147 (25) Cashew - 16 (3) Onion 36 (6) 155 (26) Custard apple - 108 (18) Potato 36 (6) 147 (25) Amla - 108 (18) Beans 36 (6) 155 (26) Tamarind 36 (6) 8 (1) Beetroot 36 (6) 147 (25) Marigold 36 (6) 161 (27) Turmeric 36 (6) 147 (25) Chrysanthemum 36 (6) 155 (26) Mango 36 (6) - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Shivapura-1 micro-watershed (Shivapura sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11041' – 11043' North latitudes and 76040' – 76042' East longitudes, covering an area of about 596 ha, bounded by Hullepura, Siddapura and Hundipura villages with an length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Shivapura-1 micro-watershed (Shivapura sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 54.8 to 45.1 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 64.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 80.6 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 44.4 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90.0 per cent.  About 66.6 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Farm households (44.4 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 88.8 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 55.5 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 9.6 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 12.9 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 82.1 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 1.1 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 66.3 % and irrigated land 33.7% of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 12.9 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 38.7 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 101589 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average farm assets value is around Rs.71651 per household, about 55.5 per cent of sample farmers owen of Irrigation pump and sprayer (44.4 %).  The average value livestock is around Rs.36667 per household; about 77.7 per cent of households are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 651.5 grams (1638.6 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 88.9 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.65433 per household. About 55.5 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1142. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 765 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 436466 per year for the total area of 595.6 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs. 30601/ ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in banana (Rs. 45422) followed by sunflower (Rs. 12945), cotton (Rs. 9384), horse gram (Rs. 6715), sorghum (Rs. 5915) and maize (Rs. 5902).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 904/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs. 1091) followed by and horse gram (Rs. 717).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in banana (Rs. 117195) followed by cotton (Rs. 58112), sorghum (Rs. 41407), sunflower (Rs. 35645), maize (Rs. 23218) and horse gram (Rs. 21933). 3 Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is sunflower (33.1 %) followed by sorghum (25.4 %), horse gram (15 %), banana (11.9 %), cotton (4.9 %), maize (4.7 %) and safflower (4.7 %).  In Shivapura 1 micro-watershed, major soil is soil of Shivapura (SPR) series is having shallow soil deep cover around 5.65 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing maize (50.0%) and sunflower (50 %), Hindupur (HDR) soil are also having shallow soil depth cover (45.0 %) of area, the crops are horse gram (24 %), sorghum (45 %) and sunflower (31.0 %). Devarhalli (DRH) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 31.66 per cent of areas, crops are sorghum (50 %) and sunflower (50.0 %). Hullipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 19 % of area; crops are banana (38), cotton (16 %), sorghum (23 %) and sunflower (11.0 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sorghum range between Rs. 24166/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.30) and Rs. 20250/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.34).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 18606/ha in HPR soil (with of 1.26) and Rs.16253/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.52).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 40912/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.03) and Rs. 16518/ha in DRH soil (with BCR of 2.22).  In maize the cost of cultivation is Rs. 24498/ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.24).  In banana the cost of cultivation is Rs. 62539/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.69) and cotton cultivation in HPR soil is Rs.74271/ha (with BCR of 1.13).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. 4  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in horse gram (28.5 to 24.1 %), sorghum (53.8 to 47.2%), sunflower (41.4 to 24.1 %), banana (62 %), cotton (15.6 %) and maize (77.1 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kaligaudanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 612 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 86 per cent is covered by soils, six per cent by others and two per cent is under forest. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 36 soil phases (management units) and 10 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 86 per cent area is suitable for agriculture, 6 per cent not suitable for agriculture and two per cent area is under forest.  About 56 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 36 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 34 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 40 per cent loamy soils and 22 per cent area has sandy soils.  About 7 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 39 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 49 per cent has very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 88 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 86 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 10 per cent is under gently sloping (3-5%) to moderately sloping (5-10%) lands.  An area of about 64 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 22 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and 10 per cent soils are severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 2 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5); 14 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and maximum area of about 80 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 40 per cent of the soils are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 12 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 5 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 51 per cent area and sufficient in 44 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 8 (1) 183 (31) Sapota 36 (6) 6 (1) Maize 36 (6) 147 (25) Guava 36 (6) 6 (1) Redgram 36 (6) 16 (3) Banana 36 (6) 8 ( 1 ) Horsegram 36 (6) 163 (27) Jackfruit 36 (6) - Field bean 36 (6) 163 (27) Jamun 36 (6) 8 (1) Groundnut - 189 (32) Musambi 36 (6) 8 (1) Sunflower - 44 (7) Lime 36 (6) 8 (1) Cotton 8 (1) 147 (25) Cashew - 16 (3) Onion 36 (6) 155 (26) Custard apple - 108 (18) Potato 36 (6) 147 (25) Amla - 108 (18) Beans 36 (6) 155 (26) Tamarind 36 (6) 8 (1) Beetroot 36 (6) 147 (25) Marigold 36 (6) 161 (27) Turmeric 36 (6) 147 (25) Chrysanthemum 36 (6) 155 (26) Mango 36 (6) - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 10 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kalligaudanahalli micro-watershed (Annurkeri sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11041' – 11043' North latitudes and 76037' – 76041' East longitudes, covering an area of about 584 ha, bounded by Karle, Siddapura, Siidainapura and Maguvinahalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kalligaudanahalli micro-watershed (Annurkeri sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 60 to 40 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 55 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 70.0 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward castes (OBC) among all sample households.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households.  About 20.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About of farm households (10.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70.0 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 25.7 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production among all households was found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.77 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 70 per cent and irrigated land 30 per cent of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 2.3 per cent and agriculture is a main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 48.8 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 9875 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 2520 per household, about 90.0 per cent of sample farmers owned plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 19749 per household; about 66.6 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 612.6 grams (1466.7 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 90.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.79659 per household. Among all sample farm households are above poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1543. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1119.8 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.628247 per year for the total area of 612.4 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 30962/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in potato (Rs. 125268) followed by onion (Rs. 78483), horse gram (Rs. 11372), maize (Rs. 9165), sorghum (Rs. 8385), groundnut (Rs. 4775) and sunflower (Rs. 4541).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1108/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 2315) followed by groundnut (Rs. 820), sorghum (Rs. 761) and horse gram (Rs. 536).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in cotton (Rs. 59890) followed by sorghum (Rs. 46324), sunflower (Rs. 36827), horse gram (Rs. 27546), maize (Rs. 24574), groundnut (Rs. 20546), onion (Rs. 18140) and potato (Rs. 16304). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is sorghum (24.5 %) followed by maize (16.4%) sunflower (13.8 %), groundnut (11.3 %), onion (11.3 %), cotton (10.6 %), potato (7.6%) and horse gram (5.2 %).  In Kaligaudanahalli micro-watershed, major soil is soil of Hundipura (HDR) series soils is having shallow soil depth covers around 10.9 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (39.4%), horse gram (20.4%) and sunflower (40.1%), Kannigala (KNG) soils are having moderately deep and well drained soil depth covers around 16.4 % of area, the crops are onion (33.4%) and potato (66.6%). Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) soils are having very deep and well drained soil depth covers around 13.5 % of areas; crops are maize (37.5%) and sorghum (62.5%). Kalligaudanahalli (KDH) soils are having very deep soil depth covers around 31.6 % of area, crops are maize (50.0 %), sorghum (50.0 %) and Annurkeri (ARK) soil are having very deep and well drained soil depth covers around 6.3 % of area, the major crop grown is groundnut and onion.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for onion ranges between Rs.138356/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 1.45) and Rs.88775/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 2.0).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 35530/ha in KDH soil (with of 1.70) and Rs.8688/ha in HGH soil (with BCR1.81).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation is Rs. 39223/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.13).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 30105/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 1.37) and Rs.20028/ha HGH soil (with BCR of 1.46).  In cotton cost of cultivation in HDR soil is Rs. 94916/ha (with BCR of 1.09).  In potato cost of cultivation in KNG soil is Rs. 50843/ha (with BCR of 3.46).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in ARK soil is Rs. 26982/ha (with BCR of 1.21).  In sunflower cultivation in HDR soil is Rs 48657/ha (with BCR of 1.95) and horse gram the cost cultivation in HDR soil is Rs.19056/ha (with BCR of 1.94).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. 4 Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (13.0 %), horse gram (8.3 %), sunflower (33.2 %), onion (69.6 to 75.7 %), potato (74.1 %), maize (73.1 to 78.4 %), sorghum (33.8 to 50.5 %) and groundnut (56.8 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Rampura-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 537 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 530 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 1 ha by rock outcrops and about 7 ha by others (water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 42 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 56 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 43 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 17 per cent sandy and 39 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 69 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 15 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 46 per cent area is low (51-100 mm/m) and 1 per cent area is very low (9.0)  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75).  About 70 per cent area is low in available phosphorus, 24 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 4 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha).  About 88 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 10 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 5 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 97 per cent area and deficient in 2 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 525(98) Sapota 8(1) 17(3) Maize 8 (1) 266(49) Pomegranate 8(1) 218(41) Bajra 8(1) 467(87) Musambi 8(1) 217(41) Groundnut 8(1) 191(35) Lime 8(1) 218(41) Sunflower 8(1) 218(41) Amla 8(1) 516(96) Redgram - 226(42) Cashew 8(1) - Bengal gram - 517(96) Jackfruit 8(1) 17(3) Cotton - 516(96) Jamun 8(1) 213(40) Chilli 8(1) 467(87) Custard apple 8(1) 517(96) Tomato 8(1) 266(49) Tamarind 8(1) 213(40) Drumstick 8(1) 218(41) Mulberry 8(1) 17(3) Mango 8(1) 17(3) Marigold 8(1) 517(96) Guava 8(1) 17(3) Chrysanthemum 8(1) 517(96)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Ramapura-1 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16033' – 16035' North latitudes and 77016' – 77018' East longitudes, covering an area of about 537.39 ha, bounded by Ramapura and Balacheda villages with a length growing period (LGP) 60-90 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Ramapura-1 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 57.3 to 42.7 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 group of population is around 55.3 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 50.4 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste / scheduled tribes are around 36.6 per cent  Fire wood is the main source of energy for a cooking among all sample households.  About 20.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Sample farm households (16.6 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 93.4 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 46.6 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 93.4 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.7 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The accounted for dry land of 95.3 per 2 cent and irrigated land of 4.7 per cent among the total cultivated land of sample households.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 28.4 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 44.0 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 76127 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 6681 per household, about 50.0 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 25722 per household; about 85.7 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 988.8 grams (2563.1 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 10.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 30942 per household. About 83.4 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs. 3331. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 1427.4 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.756541 per year for the total area of 537.4 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 4780/ ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in green gram (Rs.7997) followed by maize (Rs.5141), cotton (Rs. 3892), red gram (Rs.3465) and groundnut (Rs.3401).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1421/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 2500) followed by groundnut (Rs. 941) and paddy (Rs. 823).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in greengram (Rs. 59702) followed by red gram (Rs. 47583), cotton (Rs. 43124), maize (Rs. 22638) and groundnut (Rs. 19906). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (46.7 %) followed by cotton (27.5 %), groundnut (15.4 %), bengal gram (4.9 %), paddy (2.4 %), green gram (1.6 %) and maize (1.63 %).  In Ramapura-1 micro watershed, major soils are soil of alluvial landscape of Yalleri (YLR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 7.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently grow in cotton (60.0 %) and redgram (40.0 %). Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Anur (ANR) are also having deep soil cover around 9.0 % of area, the crops are cotton (33.3 %), redgram (66.7 %). Bomraldoddi (BMD) soil series have very deep soil depth cover around 1.49 % of areas; crops are cotton (100%). Hegganakera (HGN) soil series are having very deep depth cover around 18.86 per cent of area, respectively. The major crops grown are cotton (15.1 %), groundnut (17.6 %) and redgram (67.3 %). Halagera (HLG) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth covers around 24.6 % of area, the major crop grown is cotton (12.5 %), groundnut (25 %), and redgram (62.5 %). Jinkera (JNK) soil series having moderately shallow depth covers around 13.9 % of area, the major crop grown is cotton (69.2 %) and redgram (30.8 %). Mylapura (MYP) soil series having very deep and soil depth covers around 6.24 % of area; crops are cotton (12.5 %), greengram (12.5 %), maize (12.5 %) and redgram (62.5 %). Rachanalli (RHN) soil series having moderately deep and soil depth covers around 1.0 % of areas; crop are groundnut (46.2%), paddy (23.1%) and redgram (30.8%). Rampur (RMP) soil series havingg moderately shallow and soil depth covers around 9.3 % of areas crops are cotton and Sowrashtrahalli (SWR) soil series having deep and soil depth covers around 2.31 % of area crops are cotton.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs. 62452/ha in ANR soil (with BCR of 1.05) and Rs.22024/ha in HLG soil (with BCR of 1.5).  In redgram the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.52871/ha in YLR soil (with BCR of 1.12) and Rs.21599/ha in HLG soil (with BCR of 1.07).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.33168/ha in HLG soil (with BCR of 1.02) and Rs. 13831/ha in RHN soil (with BCR of 1.63).  In greengram the cost of cultivation in MYP soil is Rs.33499/ha (with BCR of 1.24).  In maize the cost of cultivation is Rs.35613/ha in MYP soil (with BCR of 1.14) and paddy the cost of cultivation in RHN soil is Rs.20967/ha (with BCR of 1.06).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and 4 water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (19 to 55 %), redgram (9.1 to 58.4 %), groundnut (7.4 to 30.6 %), paddy (70%), maize (67.4 %) and greengram negative return. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanekal-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 494 ha in Kanekal-4 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  Small area of less than 1 per cent are shallow (25-50 cm), 24 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 18 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm) and about 57 per cent soils are deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils.  About 58 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 39 per cent loamy soils and 2 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  An area of about 77 per cent has non-gravelly and 22 per cent are gravelly.  About 56 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 6 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 16 per cent low (51-100mm/m) and about 20 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 13 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 97 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 2 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in about 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 15 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Kanekal-4 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 385 (78) Sapota - 50 (10) Maize - 12 (2) Guava - 50 (10) Red gram - 370 (75) Pomegranate - 370 (75) Bajra - 381 (77) Jackfruit - 47 (9) Ground nut - 62 (12) Jamun - 301(61) Sunflower - 62 (12) Musambi - 370 (75) Cotton 219 (44) 120 (24) Lime - 369 (75) Bengalgram 238 (48) 100 (20) Cashew - - Chilli - 216 (44) Custard apple - 385 (78) Tomato - 62 (12) Amla - 386 (78) Drumstick - 370 (75) Tamarind - 301 (61) Mulberry - 47 (9) Marigold - 389 (79) Mango - 53(11) Chrysanthemum - 389 (79) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the microwatershed. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kanikal-4 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16035' – 16036' North latitudes and 770 15' – 76016' East longitudes, covering an area of about 494.19 ha, bounded by Kanikal, Rampura, Sydhapura, Neelahalli and Kudlura villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kanikal-4 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 61.2 to 38.8 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 51.8 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 61.2 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste / scheduled tribes are around 47.1 per cent  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 88.2 per cent.  About 29.4 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 11.8 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 94.1 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 31.2 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 23.5 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 47.1 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.4 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The account for 80.3 per cent of dry land 2 and 19.7 per cent of irrigated land of total cultivated land among the sample households.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 17.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 51.8 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.184954 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs.115647 per household, about 28 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average livestock value is around Rs.32666 per household; about 64 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1081.2 grams (2483.9 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 23.5 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 37155 per household. About 29.4 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs. 2816. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 2236.2 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 1093504 per year for the total area of 494.2 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 8645/ ha/year. Per hector food production services is maximum in bajra (Rs. 25693) followed by maize (Rs. 5267), redgram (Rs. 5048), greengram (Rs. 5032), groundnut (Rs. 4863) and cotton (Rs. 3792).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.1555/ ha/year. Per hector fodder production services is maximum in bajra (Rs 2717) followed by paddy (Rs 2083), groundnut (Rs.1049) and maize (Rs 370).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bajra (Rs. 110557) followed by greengram (Rs. 51173), red gram (Rs. 33808), cotton (Rs. 31928), maize (Rs. 20751) and groundnut (Rs.18037). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (47.2 %) followed by cotton (17.6 %), groundnut (16.0 %), greengram (4.8 %), maize (4.8 %), paddy (8.0 %), and bajra (1.6 %) 3  In Kanikal-4 micro watershed, major soils are soil of alluvial landscape of Sambara (SBR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 25.57 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (56.2 %), maize (25.0 %) paddy (6.2 %), and redgram (12.5 %). Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Nagalapur (NGP) are also having deep soil deep cover around 0.97 % of area, the crops are paddy (11.1 %), and redgram (88.9 %). Madhwara (MDR) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 23.42 % of areas, crops are redgram (100 %). Hosalli (HSL) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 15.53 per cent of area, respectively. The major crops grown are paddy (16.7 %) and redgram (83.3 %). Kadechoor (KDH) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth covers around 3.31 % of area, the major crop grown is bajra (8.3 %), cotton (12.5 %), greengram (16.7 %), groundnut (45.8 %) and redgram (16.7 %). Mylapura (MYP) and Rachanalli (RHN) soil series having very deep and moderately deep soil depth cover 1.54 % and 0.41 % of areas respectively; crops are cotton, greengram, maize, redgram, groundnut and paddy.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.35018/ha in MYP soil (with BCR of 1.18) and Rs.25702/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.07).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs 35615/ha in MYP soil (with BCR of 1.14) and Rs.16683/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.48).  In paddy the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 74662/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.51) and Rs. 20967/ha in RHN soil (with BCR of 1.06).  In redgram cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 29997/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.48) and Rs 8160 in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.02).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 23485/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 1.22) and Rs.13831/ha in RHN soil (with BCR of 1.63).  In greengram the cost of cultivation in MYP soil is Rs.33499/ha (with BCR of 1.24).  In bajra the cost of cultivation in KDH soil is Rs.66931/ha (with BCR of 1.43).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. 4 Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (46 to 64.6 %), maize (67.4 % to 72 %), paddy (34% to 78 %), red gram (27.3 % to 86.4 %), groundnut (26.6 % to 30.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanivaihundi Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 501 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, three per cent by others and less than one per cent is under forest. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series, 28 soil phases (management units) and 9 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 96 per cent area is suitable for agriculture, 150 cm) and 41 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 56 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 40 per cent loamy soils and 200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 96 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 65 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 31 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 5 per cent has soils that are moderately acidic to slightly acidic (pH 5.5- 6.5); 7 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and maximum area of about 84 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About two per cent of the soils are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 5 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20ppm) in about one per cent area.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 16 per cent area, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 69 per cent and high (>1.0 ppm) in 11 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 77 per cent area and sufficient in 19 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 25 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 83 (17) 244 (49) Sapota 191 (38) 59 (12) Maize 230 (46) 85 (17) Guava 203 (41) 50 (10) Redgram 230 (46) 148 (29) Banana 173 (35) 81 (16) Horsegram 230 (46) 183 (37) Jackfruit 173(35) 30 (6) Field bean 173 (35) 170 (34) Jamun 177 (36) 30 (6) Groundnut 46 (9) 277 (55) Musambi 177 (36) 30 (6) Sunflower 21 (4) 221 (44) Lime 177 (36) 30 (6) Cotton 26 (5) 149 (30) Cashew 193 (39) 106 (21) Onion 173 (35) 154 (30) Custard apple 208 (41) 205 (41) Potato 173 (35) 149 (30) Amla 208 (41) 205 (45) Beans 173 (35) 154 (30) Tamarind 177 (35) 75 (15) Beetroot 173 (35) 149 (30) Marigold 230 (46) 97 (19) Turmeric 173 (35) 149 (30) Chrysanthemum 173 (35) 170 (34) Mango 173 (35) 75 (15) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to the problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kanivaihundi Microwatershed (Hangala sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11042' – 11044' North latitudes and 76038' – 76040' East longitudes, covering an area of about 501 ha, bounded by Hangala, Hangalapura, Karle, Pasainapura and Kaligaudanahalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kanivaihundi Microwatershed (Hangala sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 45.4 to 54.6 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 48.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 66.5 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 75.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking among 79.0 per cent.  About 50.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 62.5 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 3.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 25 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 1.85 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small farmers. The dry land account for 34.3 per cent and irrigated land 65.7 per cent of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 59.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and private service is subsidiary occupation for 7.4 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 10456 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 60532 per household, among all the sample farmers having owen plough.  The average livestock value is around Rs. 29000 per households; about 60 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 617.2 grams (1408 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 87.5 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 35720 per household. About 87.5 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs. 1212. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 570 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 274907 per year for the total area of 500.69 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 72273/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in lemon (Rs. 415454) followed by horse gram (Rs. 9228), sunflower (Rs. 5480), cowpea (Rs. 3575), ragi (Rs. 1356) and sorghum is negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1407/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs. 2646) followed by cowpea (Rs. 1203) and horse gram (Rs. 1136).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum (Table 25 and Figure 12) in lemon (Rs. 57663) followed by sorghum (Rs. 37291), sunflower (Rs. 32068), horse gram (Rs. 23235), and cowpea (Rs. 8093). Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is sorghum (25.4 %), horse gram (25.4 %) followed by sunflower (21.7 %), cowpea (17.7 %), ragi (8.9 %) and lemon (0.9 %).  In Kanivaihundi Microwatershed, major soil are soil of Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) series is having very deep 30.3 per cent area On this soil farmers are 3 presently growing horse gram (50.0 %), sorghum (25.0 %), sunflower (25.0 %) followed by Hindupur (HDR) series is having shallow 13.2 % per cent of area On this soil farmers are presently growing cowpea (33.3 %), ragi (33.3 %), horse gram (14.8 %) and sorghum (14.8 %). Magoonahalli (MGH) series is havingg moderately shallow 14.0 per cent of areas, on this soil farmer are presently growing horse gram (47.4 %), sorghum (47.4 %). Gopalapur (GPR) series is having Moderately deep 45.5 per cent of area On this soil farmers are presently growing Lemon (100 %), Devarahalli (DRH) series is having moderately shallow 7.8 per cent area On this soil farmers are presently growing horsegram (50.0 %), sorghum(50 %). Kannigala (KNG) series is having moderately deep 16.7 per cent of area, on this soil farmers are presently sunflower and Annurkeri (ARK) series is having shallow soil deep cover around 4.2 per cent of area on this soil farmers are presently growing sorghum and sunflower.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for horse gram ranges between Rs. 22995/ha in DRH soil (with BCR of 1.26) and Rs. 9018 in MGH soil (with BCR of 2.40).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 29444/ha in ARK soil (with of 0.05) and Rs. 16470/ha in MGH soil (with BCR of 1.12).  In sun flower the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 27513/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 1.22) and Rs. 23566/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.31).  In ragi the cost cultivation in HDR soil is Rs. 24418/ha (with BCR of 1.08).  In cowpea the cost of cultivation in HDR soil is Rs 14467/ha (with BCR of 1.33) and lemon cost of cultivation in GPR soil is Rs 33637/ha (with BCR of 13.35).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. 4  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in ragi (71.8 %), lemon (63.2 %), sorghum (65.3 to 45.0 %), cowpea (47.2 %), sunflower (45.8 to 39.3) and horse gram (34.8 to 11.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Honavalu-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the delineated physiographic boundaries were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 446 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils, two per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 22 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 200mm/m).  An area of about 10 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 88 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 63 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 35 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 4 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), about 20 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 72 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 2 per cent soils are very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 12 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 14 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 6 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 92 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 8 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 90 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 44 per cent area, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 52 per cent and high (>1.0 ppm) in 2 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in 1 per cent of the area and sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 97 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 29 per cent of the soils.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 60 (13 ) 241 (54) Pomegranate 19 (4 ) 272 (61) Maize - 44 (10) Guava 34 (8) Bajra 34 (8) 10 (2) Jackfruit 19 (4 ) 15 (3) Redgram - 315 (71 ) Jamun - 207 (47) Bengalgram 62 (14) 323 (72) Musambi 70 (16 ) 221 (49 ) Groundnut 15 (3) 113 (25) Lime 70 (16 ) 221 (49 ) Sunflower 51 (12) 240 (54 ) Cashew - 72 (16 ) Cotton 62 (14) 323 (72) Custard apple 197 (44) 240 (54 ) Chilli - 44 (10) Amla 19 (4). 418 (94) Tomato - 44 (10) Tamarind - 207 (47 ) Drumstick 19 (4) 357 (80 ) Marigold - 300 (67 ) Mulbery 34 (8) 335 (75 ) Chrysanthemum - 300 (67 ) Mango 34 (8) Jasmine - 44 (10) Sapota 19 (4) 30 (7) Crossandra - 209 (47) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the four identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Honavalu-2 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) is located in between 15019' – 15020' North latitudes and 7603' – 7605' East longitudes, covering an area of about 446.42 ha, bounded by Vadhaganala, Katrahalli and Honavalu villages. Agro Ecological Region (AER) – 3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion). Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soil, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Honavalu-2 micro-watershed in Koppal taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52.7 to 47.3 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 58.3 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 74.0 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 100 per cent.  About 71.4 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (75.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 96.4 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 89.3 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 5.45 per cent of sample households.  Women participation is decisions making are around 39.3 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.4 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium and semi medium farmers. Major area under rain fed (76.4 %) and irrigated (23.6%) of area cultivation. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 25.2 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 55.6 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.44842 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs.68315 per household, about 39.3 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average livestock value is around Rs.17953 per livestock; about 82.0 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 703.0 grams (1727.1kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 78.6 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.29672 per household. About 10.7 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs.462 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 900.3 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 505064 per year for the total area of 446.4 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 12084/ ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in chillies (Rs.61493) followed by bengalgram (Rs.17952), cotton (Rs.8276), groundnut (Rs.5394), green gram (Rs 4691), sunflower (Rs.4607), redgram (Rs.3242), maize (Rs.3193) and bajra is negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder grain production is around Rs 1562/ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs 4725) and bajra (Rs 3794).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs.107573) followed by bengalgram (Rs.102347), cotton (Rs 74637), bajra (Rs.65782), groundnut (Rs. 45878), sunflower (Rs.36737), greengram (Rs.32410) and maize (Rs.22412). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (43.0 %) followed by Sunflower (20.8 %), cotton (10.4 %), bajra (8.7 %), green gram (7.9 %), bengal gram (3.9 %), groundnut (3.7 %), chillies (0.8 %) and red gram (0.8 %). 3  In Honavalu-2 micro-watershed, major soil is soil of alluvial landscape of Hatti (HTI) series is having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 2.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing maize (50.0 %) and sunflower (50.0 %), Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Bidanagere (BDG) are also having moderately deep soil deep cover around 11.8 % of area, the crops are bajra (62.5 %), cotton was 37.5 % each. Dambarahalli (DRL) soil series having moderately deep soil depth cover around 13.24 % of areas, crops are bajra (11.2 %), cotton (11.2 %), groundnut (3.8 %) maize (53.5 %), redgram (2.8 %) and sunflower (17.4 %), Balapur (BRP) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 18.8 % of area, respectively. The major crops grown are maize (57.3 %) and sunflower (42.7 %). Gatareddihal (GRH) soil series are having deep soil depth covers around 33.1 % of area, the major crop grown is bajra (13.5 %), bengalgram (16.9 %), chillies (3.4 %), cotton (20.2 %), maize (25.0 %) and sunflower (21.0 %). Mornal (MNL) soil series having deep soil depth cover 3.47 % of area, crops are cotton, groundnut and maize .and Kadagathur (KDT) soil series having deep soil depth cover 4.58 % of areas respectively; crops are bajra (4.9 %), greengram (49.1 %), groundnut (11.6 %) and maize (34.4 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for groundnut range between Rs. 63566/ha in DLR soil (with BCR of 1.04) and Rs.56316/ha in MNL soil (with BCR of 1.16).  In cotton the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.57633/ha in BDG soil (with BCR of 1.03) and Rs.51870/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.10).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs 46807/ha in KDT soil (with of 2.00) and Rs.17643/ha in HTI soil (With BCR of 1.03).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.33757/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs. 26253/ha in HTI soil (with BCR of 1.58).  In bajra cost of cultivation range between is Rs.41990/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.18) and Rs.33654/ha in GRH soil (with BCR of 1.06).  In redgram the cost of cultivation in DRL soil is Rs.79040/ha (with BCR of 1.04).  In chillies the cost of cultivation in GRH soil is Rs 117386/ha (with BCR of 2.1) and green gram cost of cultivation in KDT soil is Rs 19711/ha (with BCR of 1.31).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. Fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in chillies (90 %), maize (51.3 to 85.1 %), bajra (0 to 29.7 %), greengram (24.0 %), sunflower (0 to 23.8 %), cotton (0 to 10 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Harve-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 436 ha in Harve-2 microwatershed in Chamarajnagar taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 769 mm, of which about 316 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 252 mm during north-east and the remaining 201 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 87 per cent area is covered by soils, 10 per cent area is covered by mining/industrial and 2 per cent is by others (Habitation and Water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series, 26 soil phases (mapping units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the last week of July to 4th week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire cultivated area of about 86 per cent is suitable for agriculture.  An area of about 6 per cent has deep (100-150 cm) soils, an area of 16 per cent has moderately deep (75-100 cm) soils. Maximum area of about 34 per cent is under moderately shallow (50-75 cm) soils and shallow (25-50 cm) soils occupy 30 per cent area in the microwatershed.  An area of about 40 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and an area of about 47 per cent has sandy at the surface.  An area of about 21 per cent has gravelly (15-35%) soils and an area of about 65 per cent has very gravelly (35-60%) soils in the microwatershed.  About 44 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 43 per cent area is nearly level (0-1% slope) lands.  An area of about 51 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 35 per cent has soils that are moderately eroded (e2) and 1 per cent area under gullied lands.  An area of about 6 per cent soils are slightly acid to moderately acid (pH 5.5- 6.5), 21 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) soils and 60 per cent has slightly alkaline to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) soils in the microwatershed.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in 62 per cent area in available phosphorus.  An area of about 2 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5ppm) in the available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 32 per cent has soils that are deficient (<0.6 ppm) and 55 per cent has soils are sufficient in available zinc.  The land suitability for 9 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crops Suitability area in ha (%) Highly Suitable (S1) Moderately Suitable (S2) Sorghum 16(4) 231(53) Maize 16(4) 231(53) Finger millet 16(4) 231(53) Red gram 10(2) 87(19) Groundnut 16(4) 231(53) Cotton 10(2) 236(54) Chilli 16(4) 231(53) Mango - 14(3) Sapota - 97(22)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass, which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Harve 2 Microwatershed (Chamarajanagar taluk and district) is located in between 15018' – 15020' North latitudes and 7603' – 7605' East longitudes, covering an area of about 435.66 ha, bounded by Harve, Tammadahalli, Kethahalli and Kaggalipura villages with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Harve 2 Microwatershed in Chamarajanagar taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 48.8 to 51.1 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 64 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 66.6 per cent.  Social groups belong to around other backward caste (OBC) is 50.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households.  About 66.6 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (50.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 90.0 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 20.6 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 80.0 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.7 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry irrigated land of 56.4 % and rain fed land 43.6 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 15.4 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 51.3 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 15487 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 4280 per household, about 90 per cent of sample farmers weeder and drip/sprinkler (20.0 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 34444 per household; about 54.5 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 552.3 grams (1502.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 90.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.145229. per household. About 70 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1198. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 617 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 232650 per year for the total area of 435.7 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 91737/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in banana (Rs. 200516) followed by turmeric (Rs. 94392), beans (Rs. 33933), groundnut (Rs. 9452), sorghum (Rs. 4237), horse gram (Rs. 3181) sorghum and mulberry (Rs. 1561).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 1046/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs. 1425) followed by sorghum (Rs. 1022) and horse gram (Rs. 690).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in beans (Rs. 294826) followed by coconut (Rs. 239888), mulberry (Rs. 211913), banana (Rs. 3 146348), turmeric (Rs. 48512), sorghum (Rs. 38916), horse gram (Rs. 21416) and groundnut (Rs. 19822). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is horse gram (50.4%) followed by sorghum (15.4 %), coconut (13.4 %), turmeric (9.8 %), banana (6.5 %), groundnut (3.4 %) and mulberry (1.3 %).  In Harve 2 Microwatershed, major soils are soil of Harve (HRV) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 11.0 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing coconut. Kaggalipura (KGP) are also having shallow soil depth cover 17.7 % of area, the crops are banana (50 %) and turmeric (50 %). Mukahalli (MUK) soil series having shallow soil depth cover around 1.3 % of areas, crops are horsegram (50.0 %) and sorghum (50.0 %). Lakkipur (LKR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 63.8 % of area, crops are groundnut (83.9 %) and sorghum (16.1 %). Mukhadahalli (MKH) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 2.9 % of area; the major crops grown are horse gram (28.2 %) and sunflower (71.8 %). Kumachahalli (KMH) soil series are having deep soil depth covers around 2.9 % of area, the major crop grown is beans (33.6 %), turmeric (33.6 %) and horse gram (32.6 %). Balapur (BPR) soil series having deep soil depth cover 2.5 % of areas; crops are mulberry.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for horse gram ranges between Rs.27090 ha in KMH soil (with BCR of 1.54) and Rs. 13481/ha in MKH soil (with BCR of 1.69).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation ranges between 23827/ha in MUK soil (with BCR of 1.59) and Rs.220271 /ha in LKR soil (with BCR of 0.91).  In turmeric the cost of cultivation range between Rs 87150 /ha in KMH soil (with BCR of 1.54) and Rs.105782/ha in KGP soil (with BCR of 1.79).  In banana the cost of cultivation in KGP soil is Rs.86621/ha (with BCR of 3.31).  In mulberry the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs.68106/ha (with BCR of 1.02).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in LKR soil is Rs.36861/ha (with BCR of 1.30) and beans the cost of cultivation in KMH soil is Rs.23579/ha (with BCR of 2.44).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. 4  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in horse gram (20.9 to 41.2%), sorghum (45.0 to 73.6 %), groundnut (58.3 %), banana (52.6 %), coconut (51.0 %), mulberry (24.6 %) and turmeric (8.9%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Anekatte Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and behavior, use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 544 ha in Chikkanayakanahalli taluk of Tumkur district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 700 mm, of which about 378 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 179 mm during north-east and the remaining 143 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and 3 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and six land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of July to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 97 per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and three per cent not suitable for agriculture.  About 60 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm), 32 per cent moderately deep (75-100cm) and 5 per cent moderately shallow (50-75%) soils.  About 25 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 65 per cent loamy soils and 7 per cent sandy soils.  About 38 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 12 per cent gravelly (15-35%) and 48 per cent very gravelly to extremely gravelly (35-80%) soils.  About 59 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 92 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) and 5 per cent gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 52 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 45 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 21 per cent has soils that are slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) to moderately acid, 36 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 40 per cent slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 9 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is high (>10 ppm) in about 28 per cent area, low (4.5 ppm) in about 93 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 60 per cent area and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 37 per cent area.  The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71 (13) 158 (29) Guava 46 (9) 221 (41) Fodder Sorghum 71 (13) 158 (29) Pomegranate 71 (13) 172 (32) Maize - 133 (24) Banana 71 (13) 172 (32) Upland paddy 71 (13) 195 (36) Jackfruit 71 (13) 84 (15) Finger millet 71 (13) 138 (25) Jamun 71 (13) 135 (25) Redgram 71 (13) 197 (36) Musambi 71 (13) 172 (32) Horse gram 96 (18) 331 (61) Lime 71 (13) 172 (32) Field bean 71 (13) 197 (36) Cashew 46 (9) 100 (18) Cowpea 71 (13) 197 (36) Custard apple 71 (13) 356 (65) Groundnut - 305 (56) Amla 71 (13) 356 (65) Sunflower 71 (13) 133 (24) Tamarind 71 (13) 135 (25) Onion 24 (4) 147 (27) Marigold 71 (13) 197 (36) Chilli 71 (13) 197 (36) Chrysanthemum 71 (13) 197 (36) Brinjal 71 (13) 197 (36) Jasmine 71 (13) 197 (36) Tomato 71 (13) 197 (36) Coconut 46 (9) 100 (18) Mango 71 (13) 135 (25) Arecanut 46 (9) 100 (18) Sapota 71 (13) 76 (14) Mulberry - (2200) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food,fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Anekatte micro-watershed (Anekatte sub watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13024' – 13026' North latitudes and 76031' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 544.32 ha, bounded by Aralikere, Kallenahalli, Navule, Gowdanahalli, Kurubarahalli and Bevinahalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Anekatte Microwatershed (Anekatte sub watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52 to 48 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 48 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 89 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) and other backward caste (OBC) is around 10 and 40 per cent, respectively.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 60 per cent.  About 60 per cent of households have Yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (70 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 10 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.92 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 45.8 % and irrigated land 54.2 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 9 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 85.0 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 85481 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 10623 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers having plough and weeder (74 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 28125 per household; about 82.3 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 681.5 grams (1600.9 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.25693 per household. About 20 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1272 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 584 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 309005 per year for the total area of 544.32 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 11804/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs. 40596) followed by horse gram (Rs. 15989), sorghum (Rs. 11528), ragi (Rs. 5593), green gram (Rs. 4778), maize (Rs. 2562) and sesamum (Rs. 1579).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2413/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 5273) followed by ragi (Rs. 2489), horse gram (Rs. 1466), and sorghum (Rs. 423).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 3 67233) followed by sorghum (Rs 53775), green gram (Rs. 35719), maize (Rs. 33063), horse gram (Rs. 23761) and ragi (Rs. 11418). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is horse gram (24.7 %) followed by maize (14.4 %), green gram (11.8 %), ragi (31.0 %), red gram (3.3 %), sesamum (3.3%) and sorghum (11.5 %).  In Anekatte micro-watershed, major soil is alluvial landscape of Bidanagere (BDG) series is having moderately deep soil depth cover around 14.11 of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing ragi (50 %) red gram (50 %).Hooradhahalli (HDH) are also having moderately deep soil depth cover around 16.9 % of area, the crops are green gram (14.2 %), ragi (65.3 %) and sesamum (20.4 %). Mukhadahalli (BPR) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 22.25 % of areas, crops are green gram (11.1 %), horse gram (38.8 %), ragi (11.1 %) and sorghum (38.8 %). Ravanaki (LGD) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 17.62 % of area, crops are green gram (12 %), horse gram (38 %), and ragi (5.0 %). Kadagathur (KDT) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 8.5 % of area; the major crops are horse gram (33.3 %), maize (33.3%) and ragi (33.3 %). Ranatur (RTR) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 4.4 % of area, the major crop grown is green gram (50 %) and maize (50 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for green gram ranges between Rs.107918/ha in LGD soil (with BCR of 1.53) and Rs.22068/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.34).  In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 98303/ha in LGD soil (with of 1.05) and Rs.10268/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.73).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 22616/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.53) and Rs. 16591/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 2.38).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 51788/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.28) and Rs. 49867/ha in RTR soil (with BCR of 1.17).  In sesamum the cost of cultivation in HDH soil is Rs.39168 /ha (with BCR of 1.51)  In red gram the cost of cultivation in BDG soil is Rs. 47969/ha (with BCR of 1.80) and sorghum the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs.20230/ha (with BCR of 2.27).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. 4  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in ragi (83.3 to 59.5 %), green gram (58.7 to 42.2 %), maize (60.8 to 70.4 %), horse gram (13.2 %), sorghum (28.4 %) and sesamum (11.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Karahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 434 ha in Chikkanayakanahalli taluk of Tumkur district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 700 mm, of which about 378 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 179 mm during north-east and the remaining 143 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and 3 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units), and six land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of July to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 95 per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and two per cent not suitable for agriculture.  About 45 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm), 43 per cent moderately deep (75-100cm) and 7 per cent shallow to moderately shallow (25- 75%) soils.  About 5 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 89 per cent loamy soils.  About 3 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 22 per cent gravelly (15-35%) and 70 per cent very gravelly to extremely gravelly (35-80%) soils.  About 61 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 70 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) and 25 per cent gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 28 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 67 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 79 per cent has soils that are slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) to moderately acid and 16 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 18 per cent of the soils are low (0.6 ppm) in about 7 per cent area and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 87 per cent area.  The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 211 (48) Guava - 167 (38) Fodder Sorghum - 211 (48) Pomegranate - 220 (50) Maize - 114 (26) Banana - 220 (50) Upland paddy - 307 (71) Jackfruit - 139 (32) Finger millet - 255 (59) Jamun - 151 (35) Redgram - 228 (52) Musambi - 228 (52) Horse gram - 368 (85) Lime - 228 (52) Field bean - 228 (52) Cashew - 167 (38) Cowpea - 228 (52) Custard apple 31 (7) 337 (77) Groundnut - 271 (62) Amla - 368 (84) Sunflower - 211 (48) Tamarind - 151 (35) Onion - 193 (44) Marigold - 235 (54) Chilli - 228 (52) Chrysanthemum - 235 (54) Brinjal - 228 (52) Jasmine - 235 (54) Tomato - 228 (52) Coconut - 131 (30) Mango - 81 (19) Arecanut - 131 (30) Sapota - 131 (30) Mulberry 39 (9) (2282) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder, fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Karahalli micro-watershed (Anekatte sub-watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk and Tumkur district) is located in between 13023' – 13025' North latitudes and 76033' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 434.02 ha, bounded by Navule, Anekatte Varedahalli, Siddaramanagara and Marasandra villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days.We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Karahalli Microwatershed (Anekatte subwatershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk and Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52.6 to 47.3 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52.6 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 89.5 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 90.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among all the sample households.  About 70.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (50%) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 60.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities of all the sample households.  Institutional participation is only 2.6 per cent.  Women participation in local organisation is around 30 % of the sample households. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.5 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 34.4 % and irrigated land is 65.6 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 81.6 per cent and agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 13.2 per cent of the sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 13478 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs 6110 per household, about 80 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs 20476 per household; about 27.7 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 726.1 grams (1576.6 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 70 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 35342 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs 1069. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 800 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 328649 per year for the total area of 434.02 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 30921/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in coconut (Rs. 80945) followed by beans (Rs. 55109), green gram (Rs. 7575), sorghum (Rs. 7046) and ragi (Rs. 3929).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 3597/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs. 5191) followed by ragi (Rs. 4975) and greengram (Rs. 625).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 390405) followed by beans (Rs. 224539), sorghum (Rs. 38850), green gram (Rs. 32747) and ragi (Rs. 13592). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is green gram (33.6 %) followed by ragi (25.0 %) sorghum (22.6 %), horse gram (14.0 %) and coconut (4.8 %).  In Karahalli Microwatershed, major soils are Hooradhahalli (HDH) series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 14.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing greengram (40.3 %), ragi (40.3 %) and sorghum (19.4 %). Huliyapura (HLP) is also having moderately deep soil depth cover around 6.1 % of area; the crops are coconut (23.6 %) and sorghum (76.4 %). Bidanagere (BDG) soil series having moderately deep soil depth cover around 22.2 % of areas, crops are beans (50 %) and greengram (50 %). Nagalapur (NGP) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 7.7 % of area; the major crops grown are greengram (55.4 %) and ragi (44.6 %). Chikka Tanda (CKT) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 3.8 % of area, the major crop grown is ragi (50 %) and sorghum (50 %). Thondigere (TDG) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 14.4 %; crops are greengram (70.2 %) and ragi (29.8 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for greengram ranges between Rs.19147/ha in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs. 15135/ha in HDH soil (with BCR of 1.76).  In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs.36323/ha in TDG soil (with BCR of 1.23) and Rs 12152/ha in HDH soil (with BCR of 1.55).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation a range between Rs.26682/ha in CKT soil (with BCR of 1.32) and Rs. 17739/ha in HLP soil (with BCR of 2.19).  In beans the cost of cultivation in BDG soil is Rs.14051/ha (with BCR of 4.92) and coconut the cost of cultivation in HLP soil is Rs 93408/ha (with BCR of 1.87).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. 4  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in greengram (42.4 to 53.4 %), ragi (54.7 to 76.6 %), sorghum (46.4 to 70.7 %) and coconut (20.3 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

In Italy, Protection System for Asylum Seekers and Refugees (SPRAR) manages the second reception of forced migrants. This organization was founded by the Bossi-Fini law n. 189/2002 and is composed by the network of local governments, which uses the available resources of National Fund for Asylum Policies and Services provided by Government finance law and managed by the Ministry of Interior. Its principal goal is to realize integrated reception projects for refugees, asylum seekers, subsidiary and humanitarian protection holders in order to ensure their socio-economic inclusion within local contexts in cooperation with voluntary and third sector organizations. On 10th July 2014, local governments were signed an agreement between national and regional executive to create a national reception system to face the growing number of people who have arrived on the Italian coasts. The main goal of this system is to overcome only a material reception (food and lodging), in order to offer a "widespread reception" within urban areas. The strategy is to create an individual project and an accompaniment to ensure the integration of each person in the local community. The services provided consist in inclusion of migrants in the national health and scholastic system, orientation and access to other local services, professional training, job placement, legal assistance and social and housing integration . Indeed, it is crucial to emphasize that the Italian reception system is characterized by extreme fragmentation. Only SPRAR provides these services with the goal of enabling social and economic inclusion of hosted people in local context, which is why we talk about second reception centres. In Italy, there are, however, many different types of first and extraordinary reception centres for migrants . They are managed by the prefectures and differ in terms of goals, structural characteristics, services and receptive capacity. Only 18.7% of migrants are hosted in the SPRAR structures, while the remainder incurs the possibility of carrying out the entire procedure of the asylum application in the centres of first and extraordinary reception (IDOS, 2017). In recent years, the Italian reception structures have undergone a reorganization and redenomination phase, in which the SPRAR should have become a reference standard. In fact, this system has positively distinguished itself for its objectives, the structuring of his interventions and many best practices. This did not prevent bad reception occurrences even within SPRAR structures, as well as a large number of violent and verbal conflicts, some of which carried out by Italian citizens to the detriment of asylum seekers and owners of a status of international protection. These episodes, exacerbated by a political and media discourse that represents migrants as a threat (Battistelli et al., 2016), are the consequence and symbol of the fragmentary and contradictory reception policies adopted at a European level, in the individual countries and at a local level (IDOS, 2016). Instability and political, economic and social uncertainty, rulers in this historical period, are manifested in an emergency approach that is characterized by insufficient planning and a lack of coordination between the reception agencies. This orientation, supported by many and incongruent legislative changes, deprives the system of a strong structure and facilitates the overturning of the same principles of "widespread reception" of migrants in local communities. Moreover, this facilitates the affirmation of nationalist, xenophobic and localist drifts, as well as reception situations in which human rights are violated and which do not provide real opportunities for inclusion in the territories in a safe and dignified manner. Therefore, the conceptual distinction of the terms danger, risk and threat, used as the interpretative line of this work, appears fundamental to understand why subjective responses, in terms of perception and actions, differ according to the situations, as well as to manage the effects that derive in a consistent manner (Battistelli e Galantino, 2018). In order to realize the analysis, I decided to use an ethnographic approach that is traced back to the constructivist philosophical paradigm, where the vision of facts is investigated locally. Ethnographers, indeed, study subjects, artefacts and actions in their interactions, from an interpretative-dialectical point of view, without the claim of absolute objectivity of the results (Piccardo and Benozzo, 1996). Then, I have chosen to use focused narrative interviews because they turn to individuals, they aim for their "understanding", and this is part of the renewed interest in the subject's centrality and in the "deliberately intentional" social action (Weber, 1922). It is also an approach that allows investigating deeply the phenomena. It is very interactive, flexible and able to empathize in the perspective of the subject being studied. This makes it easier to interview marginal subjects neglected by "official knowledge" and to rediscover the social function of research, which is "giving voice to those who do not have it" (Crespi, 1985, pp. 351) In addition, observation and fieldwork are supported by a strong theoretical basis that offers its help to the researcher for the understanding of the social world, providing an order that supports they in their critical analysis of the facts. So, empirical work and theory support each other (Silverman, 2002). Then, narrative approach is highly adaptable to the study of organizations and to analyse the collected data. In fact, this approach is characterized for attention given to concrete situations and not to general theorizations (Czarniawska, 2000). Hence, the empirical research carried out in 2016-2018 can be summarized in the following phases: 1- Analysis of secondary data and documents produced by European and national statistical institutes, private associations, protection bodies and by SPRAR itself. 2- Participant observation in: - a political protest demonstration against the opening of a SPRAR centre in XIII Town Hall, on the north-western suburb of Rome; - nine meetings of social operators working in SPRAR network of Rome and in the national CARA and CAS reception centres; - a SPRAR centre (20 reception places increased to 40 in the south-eastern suburbs of Rome, VII Town Hall). One year of observation and shadowing of operators: 16th January 2017 – 22th January 2018; - a SPRAR apartment (14 reception places for families in the residential area of Monte Sacro neighbourhood, Town Hall III). Five days of observation and shadowing of operators in January 2018; - a seminar of reflection organized by SPRAR and ANCI on the reception system in Lazio, focused on the role of the Regions and Municipalities. 3- Forty-one narrative focused interviews: - Twenty-four SPRAR operators working in SPRAR centres of Rome; - Seventeen asylum seekers and refugees from SPRAR centre observed in Town Hall VII of Rome. The intent behind this ethnographic research started in a restructuring phase aimed to make the SPRAR a reference standard of reception for all asylum seekers who came to our country. But it was characterized, as still today, by speculative situations, the high presence on the territory of large collective reception centres and managing bodies without the necessary experience (Olivieri, 2011; Lunaria 2016). Therefore, the analysis of the risk management and the operators perception of the SPRAR of Rome has the objective to unveil and analyse the contradictions and weaknesses that may arise within this model due to a reckless management that produces specific factors of risk. The hypothesis underlying the case study is that, although the SPRAR has been recognized as an ordinary model, it can also be reproduced in a distorted manner, not respecting the reference guidelines. The alteration between SPRAR in books, the theoretical expression of a principle, and SPRAR in action, its implementation (Pound, 1910), is caused by specific factors that can cause significant effects from several points of view. To bring to light these aspects, closely related to the risk management and the perception that its operators have, I achieve a classification of the risks that I applied to three different types of SPRAR structures (large, medium and single apartment). Then, I identified a series of outcomes involving the people hosted, the operators, the local community and the SPRAR organization itself. The decision to draw the case study at the SPRAR of the city of Rome is driven by the complexity that distinguishes this territory on a social, cultural and political level. In fact, I believe it can bring out the contradictions of the model as new forms of confinement compared to territories with reduced complexity. However, allowing a glimpse of a reception of asylum seekers and holders of a protection status also possible within urban and metropolitan areas. The empirical survey shows that an increase in the distortion compared to the assumptions of an integrated and widespread reception in the territories corresponds to a greater possibility that specific risk factors are produced. Which in their turn, crystallizing into unhealthy forms, can involve the people hosted, the operators, the local community and the SPRAR organization itself. The case study and the application of the risk classification, which I achieved based on the evidence revealed from the field, reveal how the identified risk areas (socio-spatial context, production of the service, recipients) and the corresponding categories, do not produce in itself a negative result. However, this can occur if a short-sighted management acts on these aspects and does not align with the proposed guidelines. Therefore, this classification appears to be a useful tool to identify problems and to develop preventive measures, aimed to improve the management of SPRAR centres in metropolitan cities such as Rome (and other contexts), by intervening on the identified risk categories and reducing the factors that eventually emerge. The analysis, focused on three different types of SPRAR structure (large, medium, single apartment) of the Capital, shows how this alteration occurs in a disruptive way in the large collective centres, the most represented in Rome. Meanwhile, greater adherence to the model is shown, with a modality proportional to the size, in the medium-sized structure and in the apartment. The distortion detected in the large SPRAR collective centres of Rome and partly also in the medium-sized centre, reflects the ambivalence of the general reception system. It promotes on the one hand the principles of a good reception that respects human rights and the autonomy of people and by another implements foreclosure practices and new forms of borders (Vacchiano, 2011; Van Haken, 2008). The field research shows that this happens on different levels due to specific material factors (location and capacity of the centres, management of internal spaces, activation of the services provided, etc.) and through the daily practices of the operators who, in a more or less assenting, controlling and disciplining the people hosted, shape their conduct. Therefore, in the daily life of the structures in which the situations described are involved, the principles of freedom, inclusion and autonomy supported by the rhetoric of reception system are governed by a neoliberal logic of citizenship that suggests the criteria to distinguish, in the same integration paths, who is more worthy than other beneficiaries (Van Haken, 2008). Although the case study highlights strong contradictions and weaknesses that come to life in the implementation of the SPRAR model, it also shows the realization of a good reception. That which, despite being included in an extremely complex context such as Rome, attempts to oppose the "logic of large numbers and profits" of large cooperatives and which implements functional inclusion paths to achieve the objectives. Alignment and consistency with the guidelines and the SPRAR operating manual, in fact, allow the construction of a real project of individualized socio-economic integration for the person hosted. Only by acting in a widespread manner on the territory, in apartments or small centres, the genesis of new forms of borders beyond those already present is avoided. In fact, through this management most of the risks identified are eliminated or at least reduced, precisely because the "trajectory of opportunities" of risk (Reason, 1997) towards unfavourable outcomes generally develops within large collective centres. References Battistelli Fabrizio, Farruggia Francesca, Galantino Maria Grazia and Ricotta Giuseppe. 2016. "Affrontarsi o Confrontarsi? Il "Rischio" Immigrati sulla Stampa Italiana e nella Periferia di Tor Sapienza a Roma". Sicurezza e Scienze Sociali 1:86-112. Battistelli Fabrizio e Galantino Maria Grazia. 2018. "Dangers, Risks and Threats: An Alternative Conceptualization to the Catch-All Concept of Risk". Current Sociology 1-15. Czarniawska Barbara. 2000. Narrare l'organizzazione. La costruzione dell'identità istituzionale. Tr.it. Torino: Edizioni di Comunità. Crespi Franco. 1985. Le vie della sociologia. Bologna: Il Mulino. IDOS in partnership with Confronti. 2017. Dossier Statistico Immigrazione 2017. Roma: Inprinting srl. IDOS. 2016. "INTRA MOENIA. Il Sistema di Accoglienza per Rifugiati e Richiedenti Asilo in Italia nei Rapporti di Monitoraggio Indipendenti". Affari Sociali Internazionali IV (1-4). Lunaria. 2016. Il mondo di dentro. Il sistema di protezione per richiedenti asilo e rifugiati a Roma. (https://www.lunaria.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Il_mondo_di_dentro.pdf). Olivieri Maria Silvia. 2011. "L'accoglienza frantumata sotto il peso dell'«emergenza»", pp. 35-44 in Lunaria. 2011. Cronache di ordinario razzismo. Secondo libro bianco sul razzismo in Italia. Roma: Edizioni dell'Asino. Piccardo Claudia and Benozzo Angelo. 1996. Etnografia organizzativa. Una proposta di metodo per l'analisi delle organizzazioni come culture. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore. Reason James. 1997. Managing the Risks of Organisational Accidents. London: Ashgate Publishing Company. Vacchiano Francesco. 2011. "Discipline della Scarsità e del Sospetto: Rifugiati e Accoglienza nel Regime di Frontiera". Lares LXXVII (1): 181-198. Van Aken Mauro. 2008. Rifugio Milano. Vie di fuga e vita quotidiana dei richiedenti asilo. Roma: Carta. Weber Max. 1922. Economia e Società. Tr.it. Milano: Edizioni di Comunità.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bisarahalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 571 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils, three per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 21soil phases (management units) and 9 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 200mm/m) available water capacity.  About 84 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands and 12 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) lands.  An area of about 85 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 12 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 41 per cent has soils that are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 26 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 8 per cent has very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0). A very small area of about 2 per cent is neutral (2%) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of about 50 per cent low (57 kg/ha) available phosphorus.  About 54 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha), low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 71 per cent area and about 26 per cent area is high (>10 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 79 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 18 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 47 per cent area and sufficient in 50 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient in about 76 per cent area and sufficient in 21 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 20 (3) 287 (50) Jackfruit 44 (8) 56 (10) Maize 17(3) 163(28) Jamun - 174(30) Cotton 3(<1) 373(65) Musambi 47 (8) 179(31) Redgram 17(3) 225(39) Lime 47 (8) 179(31) Bengal gram 3(<1) 381 (67) Cashew 44 (8) 85(15) Bajra 92 (16) 96(17) Custard apple 166(29) 248 (43) Groundnut 11 (2) 229(40) Amla 92 (16) 321(56) Chilli 54 (9) 127 (22) Tamarind - 126(22) Drumstick 44 (8) 251(34) Marigold 17(3) 290(51) Mulbery 92 (16) 239 (42) Chrysanthemum 17(3) 290(51) Pomegranate 44 (8) 182(32) Jasmine 17(3) 164(28) Tomato 54 (9) 127(22) Crossandra 17(3) 285(50) Guava 44 (8) 56(10) Mango - 52(9) Sapota 44 (8) 56(10) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Bisarahalli-1 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk, and district) is located in between 15015' – 15016' North latitudes and 7603' – 7605' East longitudes, covering an area of about 571.40 ha, bounded by Bisarahalli and Bikanahalli villages. Agro Ecological Region (AER) – 3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed Red and Black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Bisarahalli-1 Microwatershed in Koppal taluk and district are presented here Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52.8 to 47.2 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 61 per cent.  Social groups belong to SC/ST is around 32.3 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 94.8 per cent.  About 75 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (75 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 92.7 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 87.5 per cent.  Institutional participation is only 3.9 per cent.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 4.7 per cent.  Women participation is decisions making are around 35.3 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.8 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 70.4 % and irrigated land 9.8 % of total cultivated land among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 16.1 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 61.7 per cent.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 43462 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs 147511 per household, about 9.4 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average livestock value is around Rs 19645 per livestock; about 43.7 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 754.4 grams (1799.1 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 17.7 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 30895 per household. About 15.5 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 485 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 9574.8 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 66276 per year for the total area of 571.4 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs.10363/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in chillies (Rs.60584) followed by onion (Rs.16554), green gram (Rs.13308), red gram (Rs.9023), cotton (Rs.6411), groundnut (Rs.5170), sunflower (Rs.5069), black gram (Rs.4409), sorghum (Rs.2120), bengal gram (Rs.1445), bajra (Rs.696) and maize is negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 3978/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs 5641) followed by bajra (Rs 5468), groundnut (Rs 3188) and sorghum (Rs 1616).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in green gram (Rs 85289) followed by cotton (Rs.61368), bajra (Rs.56254), black gram (Rs.51173), bengal gram (Rs.51173), red gram (Rs.44643), sunflower (Rs.31952), sorghum (Rs.31723), groundnut (Rs.27684), maize (Rs.20862), onion (Rs.11197), ragi (Rs.10564) and chillies (Rs.8126). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (32.2 %) followed by red gram (17 %), groundnut (16.4 %), bajra (13.8 %), sunflower (8.8 %), cotton (4.8 %), sorghum (3 %), onion (1.1 %), bengal gram (0.6 %), black gram (0.6 %), chillies (0.6 %), green gram (0.6 %) and ragi (0.6 %).  The distribution of major soil series are Muttal (MTL) and Chikkasavanur (CSR) soil series having shallow soil depth covering an area around 21.36 per cent and 2.94 per cent of area respectively. The moderately shallow soil depth of soil series were Hatti (HTI) of share of area 10.56 %, Kethanapura (KTP) is 0.64 % and Mukhadahalli (MKH) is 4.28 %. The soil series having moderately deep soil depth are Dambarahalli (DRL) of 9.3 %, Bisarahalli (BSR) of 6.4 %, Bidanagere (BDG) of 5.14 % and Gollarahatti (GHT) of 1.98 %. Gatareddihal (GRH) of 12.82 %, Balapur (BPR) of 12.07 %, Kumchahalli (KMH) of 7.78 %, this soil series having deep soil depth and Niduvalalu (NDL) soil series very deep soil depth which area is 1.36 per cent.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for bajra is Rs.22148/ha (with BCR of 1.27).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation is Rs 21526/ha (with BCR of 1.07).  In black gram the cost of cultivation is Rs 21526/ha and benefit cost ratio is 1.20.  The cost of cultivation of chillies is Rs.53036/ha (with BCR of 1.30).  In cotton the cost of cultivation is Rs 34715/ha (with BCR of 1.17).  In green gram the cost of cultivation is Rs.43502/ha (With BCR of 1.30).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation is Rs. 31317/ha (with BCR of 1.31).  The total cost of cultivation for maize is Rs. 28054/ha (with BCR of 1.30).  In onion the cost of cultivation is Rs.24942/ha (with BCR of 1.25).  In ragi the cost of cultivation is Rs.14965/ha (with BCR of 1.44).  In red gram the cost of cultivation is Rs 20950/ha (with BCR of 1.58).  In sorghum cost of cultivation is Rs. 15920/ha (with BCR of 1.21) and sunflower cultivation is Rs 25139/ha (with BCR of 1.19).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. Fertilizer applications are deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in chillies (92.4 %), onion (81.5 %), maize (71.2 %), red gram (44.4 %), ragi (43.5 %), sorghum (37.8 %), black gram (34.8 %), bengal gram (16.7 %), cotton (14.2 %), sun flower (13.1 %) and bajra (10.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project