Suchergebnisse

IV. De homogeneidades y heterogeneidades ¿dónde está el problema? Es bien sabido que la mayor homogeneidad o cercanía políticas no ayudan necesariamente a la integración regional. Cuesta imaginar un bloque integrado de países –siempre como aquí entiendo a la integración- formado por dictaduras militares. El razonamiento acaso suene como una versión simplificada en extremo del "liberalismo republicano", pero creo que puede convenirse a priori que los gobiernos militares no son los regímenes políticos más propicios para poner en marcha un proceso de integración regional. Por el contrario, el retorno de varios países del Cono Sur a la democracia en los ochenta fue un factor clave para el impulso y auge de las iniciativas de integración de esos años. La homogeneidad en la democracia también ayudó a la concertación regional que tuvo en esa época su etapa de gloria. Chile, todavía en dictadura, quedó fuera de ese proceso. Puede aceptarse en trazos gruesos que hay homogeneidades que obstaculizan o favorecen la integración. Sin embargo, también es claro que la simultaneidad de regímenes democráticos con una misma orientación de gobierno no es garantía de avances en ese campo. El ascenso de gobiernos con orientaciones similares en torno a una "agenda de desarrollo" en la década de 2000 no se tradujo en una nueva forma de convergencia que pudiera oxigenar a los alicaídos procesos de integración en América del Sur. En nombre del "nacionalismo" y del desarrollo de las capacidades endógenas, gobiernos que podrían considerarse afines se han resistido a profundizar la liberalización del comercio y a asumir compromisos en otras áreas (Bouzas, da Motta Veiga y Ríos: 332). La cercanía política, para dar otro ejemplo, no ha posibilitado profundizar el Mercosur. A pesar de la proximidad –al menos en los papeles- entre la Argentina, Brasil, Paraguay y Uruguay, el gobierno de este último país bajo el mandato de Tabaré Vázquez contempló la opción de firmar un acuerdo preferencial de comercio con los Estados Unidos que, de haberse concretado, hubiera abierto otra herida considerable al Mercosur. Intereses nacionales o gubernamentales, como cabe esperar, han tenido por lo general más peso en las decisiones que las afinidades ideológicas. Dicho esto, es preciso reconocer que la heterogeneidad política tiende a operar como un factor de dispersión. Puesto de otro modo, si se trata de elegir es mejor ser más homogéneo que heterogéneo para integrarse. No cabe duda que diferencias esencialmente políticas determinaron la decisión de Hugo Chávez de retirar a Venezuela de la CAN en 2006, una medida que contribuyó en mucho a profundizar su crisis. Razones políticas también pueden rastrearse con facilidad en los acuerdos de libre comercio que firmaron los gobiernos de Colombia y Perú con Estados Unidos, dos decisiones que también afectaron seriamente a la CAN, aunque por motivos opuestos a los de Caracas. Reconocido y aceptado este punto, cabe ahora señalar que otras heterogeneidades, anteriores a la "mayor heterogeneidad" de los 2000, han sido decisivas para poner frenos o frustrar los procesos de integración en América Latina. Me refiero al tamaño de las economías, la estructura productiva, los patrones de comercio exterior, las nuevas asimetrías de poder y de proyección internacional, las crecientes diferencias de intereses, la atenuación de las complementariedades y hasta la diversa situación geográfica2. Todos estos factores modelan las estrategias de inserción internacional de los países latinoamericanos y condicionan el peso que cada país le da a la región con el telón de fondo de la globalización y del cambio progresivo del centro de gravitación de la política y economía mundiales. No es éste el lugar para dar cuenta de estos dos macro-procesos y su papel en el curso de las relaciones intrarregionales. Sí me importa a los fines de este artículo señalar que la globalización económica, por la oportunidades y riesgos que ofrece, influye cada vez más y de manera distinta en la importancia relativa de la región para sus países y, más específicamente, para actores de peso político y económico significativo dentro de cada país. Aparece aquí un evidente aunque ambiguo vínculo entre globalización e integración que es preciso explorar. Por su parte, el proceso de redistribución global del poder también abre puertas para un juego político internacional más diversificado y, con ello, para políticas exteriores diferentes en sus objetivos y prioridades externas que sin duda ejercen un fuerte impacto en los vínculos intrarregionales. En este marco, al tiempo que algunos se preguntan ¿cómo nos integramos más y mejor –la pregunta clásica- para hacernos más fuertes en un mundo que cambia y frente a los impactos negativos de la globalización? Otros reflexionan ¿en qué medida la integración regional favorece o limita las estrategias nacionales de vinculación con el exterior? La pregunta no tiene porqué plantearse en término excluyentes, pero bastante o mucho de esto hay cuando se la formula poniendo la mirada en procesos de integración que no han cumplido sus promesas. Por consiguiente, en lugar del ejercicio otrora dominante de la integración hacia la que se convergería hay casi tantos juegos como países en los que cada uno busca la mejor manera de relacionarse con el mundo. En este tablero, la región puede ser o no una prioridad y cuando lo es, no necesariamente ocupa ese lugar por las mismas razones para los gobiernos. Asimismo, puede serlo en teoría pero no traducirse en la práctica. La Argentina de los Kirchner, por ejemplo, ha levantado como principal bandera de su política exterior el latinoamericanismo y, en particular, la profundización del Mercosur. Sin embargo, su propensión a favor de las políticas defensivas no solo acentuó la "fatiga" del bloque, sino que contribuyó a la baja disposición de Brasilia a aceptar límites externos –en este caso de la Argentina- al manejo autónomo de su política exterior. La integración nunca dejó de ser un objetivo para Brasil aunque fue adquiriendo con el tiempo un peso menor en las prioridades de su política exterior; su rechazo a resignar soberanía y autonomía fue uno de los factores determinantes de la debilidad institucional del Mercosur. Además, como señala Monica Hirst, "…la importancia de las economías sudamericanas como espacio de expansión de la grandes empresas brasileñas y la presencia del Estado como inversor (Petrobrás) y financiador (BNDES) se tornaron más importantes para los intereses materiales y estratégicos del país que el proceso de integración regional, especialmente el Mercosur" (Hirst,:257). Por su parte, Colombia, Chile, México y Perú han seguido apoyando al regionalismo abierto como un complemento a sus tratados de libre comercio con el mundo mientras que la Venezuela de Chávez y algunos de sus gobiernos aliados en el ALBA proclaman un regionalismo que retoma las banderas de la unión latinoamericana en clave antiimperialista y anticapitalista., en claro contraste con el de los países mencionados. América Latina: una "unión fragmentaria" Estamos frente a una dinámica compleja que alienta la fragmentación antes que la polarización. Esta última remite a la idea de proyectos enfrentados mientras que la fragmentación refiere un proceso de partes de un todo que se quiebran o fracturan o actúan en soledad. Si se va muy a fondo en el análisis, la misma idea de fragmentación también podría cuestionarse, dado que lo que se separa debió haber estado antes unido a un todo. Sin embargo, la noción sigue siendo útil porque ayuda a contrastar la situación actual con las de otros momentos, sin duda mejores, de la vida de los procesos de integración subregional e incluso con las aspiraciones que le dieron sustento. Sin embargo, solo vale a estos fines, no si se la usa para caracterizar el estado de las relaciones intrarregionales o para marcar su rasgo predominante. Otros procesos juegan a favor de la unión de partes en la región. Aquí está quizás la mayor paradoja de América Latina. Recientemente, una Cámara de la justicia civil en la Argentina confirmó un fallo de divorcio en primera instancia por causas que constituyeron en la pareja "una unión fragmentaria que se sostuvo en un equilibrio precario, de no reciprocidad y no entendimiento que se dio no solo en los últimos años, sino que persistió con la calificación de habitualidad". (http.//www.diariouno.com.ar. 2010) Más que las circunstancias atendidas por los jueces, que remiten a conductas frecuentemente citadas para dar cuenta de la integración realmente existente en América Latina, lo que me atrajo del fallo es la idea de "unión fragmentaria"; me parece una expresión feliz para describir la actual condición de América Latina como una región todavía débilmente vertebrada en la que intervienen poderosas fuerzas de unión y de separación. En efecto, la integración tropieza o retrocede pero la región o partes de ella se hacen más interdependientes, poco a poco se avanza en la vinculación física, las relaciones entre las fuerzas armadas de muchos países alcanzan niveles de cooperación inéditos y sorprendentes, las sociedades encuentran formas más intensas de contacto a través de las fronteras y aumenta, por consiguiente, el espacio de los intereses comunes y el conocimiento mutuo. También crecen, sin y aun con mala integración, el comercio y las inversiones entre los países, especialmente entre los más cercanos mostrando la importancia de las fronteras compartidas en la densidad de las relaciones económicas. La geografía sigue pesando en la inserción internacional de sus países, determina prioridades y opera a un tiempo como un factor de unión y de desunión regional. La democracia es despareja y en ciertos casos hasta incierta, pero constituye el sustento de nuevos modos de cooperación y concertación entre los países. También un dique para que la sangre no llegue al río, en una región en la que existe una larga tradición de mediación y resolución de conflictos y un arraigado "consenso normativo" para la solución pacífica de las controversias interestatales en lugar del uso de la fuerza. En la segunda cita que hago al inicio del texto, Carlos Franz nos habla de una América Latina "más literaria que literal" porque pone a la región bajo el tamiz de la unión o la dispersión, la contrasta con los anhelos fallidos de fundirse en un proyecto mayor y de actuar con una sola voz. Opone, como suele hacerse, aspiraciones de integración con un realidad que se niega a coincidir con ellas. Se trata de una literalidad ansiada que siempre termina, por excesiva, en frustración. Fuera del terreno de la literatura, y a fin de entender el sentido propio de la idea política de América Latina, es conveniente trazar una raya entre la literalidad figurada y la literalidad verdadera de la región, esto es, la que expresa su circunstancia en esta hora. América Latina, como dije, es una región fragmentaria, un continente lleno de contradicciones que ofrece muchas lecturas. Uso el adjetivo fragmentario en el doble sentido de "compuesto de partes o fragmentos" y de cosa "inacabada, incompleta". La región no se integró, tal como se pensaba hace unos años atrás, pero tampoco se polarizó. Fragmentos de unidad que surcan las fronteras de los países muestran que el proceso de regionalización tiene muchas caras y que está vivo. Múltiples actores estatales y privados contribuyen día a día a darle fluidez y van vertebrando un conjunto fenomenal de nuevos vínculos. No es el ALCA, ni el sueño bolivariano, ni un remedo de la Unión Europea. Mucho más modesto en sus alcances y menos perceptible, este proceso de regionalización seguirá, al igual que la globalización, una marcha ascendente. Seguramente no unirá a toda la región, pero si hará más fuertes las relaciones entre algunos países o dentro de subregiones. Me mostré al principio reacio a los análisis agregados de América Latina y a los que cotejan su rumbo sobre la base de otras experiencias porque no llegan demasiado lejos, además se repiten y resultan aburridos. Mucho más rico y útil es meterse en los multiformes vericuetos de las relaciones entre países o grupos de países, incluso en niveles subnacionales. En estos territorios, más específicos y movidos, están algunas de las principales claves para descifrar la textura que dará forma a las relaciones intrarregionales en los próximos años. * Ph.D. en Relaciones Internacionales, The Paul Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), The Johns Hopkins University Director de la Maestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella Presidente de la fundación Grupo Vidanta 1. El presente artículo es una versión reducida de un trabajo preparado para el German Institute for International and Security Affair 2. Las diferencias en el tamaño de las economías o en la estructura productiva son factores siempre presentes en toda unión aduanera y no tienen que convertirse necesariamente en una valla infranqueable para constituirla, como lo muestra la historia de la Unión Europea y la Unión Aduanera Sudafricana (SACU). Sí lo han sido hasta aquí, por la falta de mecanismos de trade offs que generen incentivos para una relación de cooperación estable, en el caso del Mercosur. Por caminos algo distintos, el resultado de la CAN ha sido el mismo (Bouzas, da Mota Veiga y Ríos, 324). Bibliografía Bouzas, Roberto; da Motta Veiga, Pedro y Ríos, Sandra (2008): "Crisis y perspectivas de la integración en América del Sur." En Lagos, Ricardo (compilador) (2008): América Latina ¿integración o fragmentación? Buenos Aires: Editorial Edhasa. Castañeda, Jorge (2006): "Latin America's Left Turn." En Foreign Affairs, Vol: 85, No. 3 (May - Jun., 2006). Franz, Carlos (2010): "Doscientos años de soledad." En La Nación, 27 de mayo. Hirst, Monica (2008): "La política sudamericana de Brasil: entre el peso de las asimetrías y la incidencia de nuevas coyunturas." En Escenarios Políticos en América Latina: cuadernos de gobernabilidad democrática 2: Trabajos del Observatorio Regional / coordinado por Fernando Calderón, Primera Edición. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI Editores. Peña, Felix: "¿Una nueva etapa del Mercosur?: Horizontes abiertos tras la Cumbre de San Juan." Disponible en: http://www.felixpena.com.ar/index.php?contenido=negociaciones&neagno=informes/2010-08-horizontes-abiertos-cumbre-san-juan. Ramos, Jorge Abelardo (1957): Revolución y contrarrevolución en la Argentina. Las masas en nuestra historia. Buenos Aires: Editorial Amerindia. Romero, Carlos A. (2009): "Venezuela y Cuba. Una seguridad diferente." Disponible en: http://nuevomundo.revues.org/55550 Wendt, Alexander (1999): Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

La formulación de políticas para satisfacer las necesidades de cuidado de la sociedad nunca había sido más urgente que ahora. En muchas partes del mundo desarrollado, la creciente participación de la mujer en el empleo remunerado ha socavado el modelo tradicional del padre como sostén de la familia, el cual descansaba sobre la disponibilidad de una esposa dependiente que permanecía en el hogar para cuidar de los hijos y los parientes discapacitados, mayores o frágiles. Con este documento se busca comprender la forma en que se configuran las políticas del cuidado. Se examina la dinámica existente entre la forma en que el público formula demandas de cuidado y las distintas maneras en que las políticas de cuidado se crean y aplican en diferentes contextos nacionales, regionales e históricos. El énfasis de este estudio recae principalmente en las políticas de cuidado infantil para las madres y los padres trabajadores de Europa, pero también se abordan las políticas dirigidas a las personas discapacitadas y a los proveedores de cuidado no remunerados. El objetivo de este trabajo es entender la relación, en determinados contextos, entre (i) la articulación de las demandas con base en las necesidades de aquellos que brindan o reciben cuidado; (ii) los marcos políticos y la lógica de las políticas relativas a las necesidades de cuidado; y (iii) los resultados de dichas políticas para distintos grupos de beneficiarios y proveedores de cuidados. El documento se divide en dos secciones principales. La primera se ocupa de las diferentes formas en que los actores políticos enmarcan o delimitan las políticas de cuidado en Europa. La sección comienza con un breve repaso de las teorías y los conceptos que sustentan el documento, para luego proceder con la aplicación de dichas teorías y conceptos en un análisis sobre la forma en que se interpretan las necesidades de cuidado en las demandas de aquellos que representan a los proveedores y beneficiarios del cuidado. Se definen cinco áreas de demandas: conciliación entre el trabajo y el cuidado; apoyo a las personas discapacitadas; cuidado no remunerado; exigencias de flexibilidad por parte de los sindicatos; y cuidado suministrado por migrantes. Según la autora, las demandas de cuidado en estas áreas, tomadas en su conjunto, amplían las exigencias de reconocimiento, derechos y redistribución de responsabilidades en materia de cuidado y apuntan hacia un marco general de justicia social. El análisis de la formulación de políticas en Europa revela que algunos de los discursos relacionados con las nociones de justicia social se ven reflejados en la política del cuidado, pero también muestra que el marco predominante es el de la política del cuidado como forma de inversión social en capital humano. En este documento se examinan las oportunidades y limitaciones políticas relativas al surgimiento de derechos sociales para los padres e hijos en Europa. En la segunda parte del documento se examinan las políticas en diferentes contextos nacionales a partir de las siguientes interrogantes: ¿qué factores llevan a la formulación de las políticas? y ¿qué significa esto para los resultados que pueden obtenerse en relación con las desigualdades sociales? Los factores analizados son el cambio demográfico, la inversión social, la generación de empleo y la naturaleza mundial de la política del cuidado. A manera de conclusión, se señala en el documento que las políticas del cuidado en Europa están impregnadas de tensiones y contradicciones dimanantes de las perspectivas tanto de los proveedores como de los beneficiarios del cuidado. Por una parte, se han registrado importantes cambios en los diez últimos años. Por ejemplo, el reconocimiento del potencial de empleo de aquellos que hasta ahora han permanecido marginados del trabajo remunerado, como las madres y las personas discapacitadas; el reconocimiento de la capacidad de los hombres para suministrar cuidado; el aumento de las responsabilidades del Estado como proveedor de cuidados, en especial el cuidado infantil; y el reconocimiento de los parientes proveedores de cuidado. Por la otra, estas oportunidades han venido de la mano con limitaciones, entre ellas el sentido de obligación de las madres y las personas discapacitadas de conseguir trabajo a menudo en las partes más precarias del mercado laboral; una mayor comodificación de los servicios de cuidado; y la producción de padres y proveedores de cuidado, personas mayores y discapacitadas que ejercen su opción como consumidores en el mercado del cuidado, en lugar de hacer oír su voz como ciudadanos en el ámbito público del cuidado. Estos acontecimientos también han tenido como consecuencia la creación de una fuerza laboral migrante pobremente remunerada. En esta situación, el desafío clave radica en utilizar aquellos espacios en los cuales el cuidado se ha politizado y se han adquirido derechos para fomentar el valor político, social y económico del cuidado como componente fundamental de las demandas de justicia social nacional y transnacional. / ; Abstract. The question of how to devise policies to meet the care needs of society has become more urgent than ever. In many parts of the developed world, women's increasing involvement in paid employment has undermined the traditional male breadwinner model which assumed the availability of a dependent wife at home to care for children, disabled family members and older, frail relatives. This paper seeks to understand how care policies are shaped. It looks at the dynamic between how constituencies make care claims and the ways in which care policies are constructed and delivered in different national, regional and historical contexts. The focus is mainly on childcare policies for working parents in Europe, but the purview here also includes policies for disabled people and unpaid carers. Its aim is to provide an understanding, within particular contexts, of the relationship between (i) the articulation of claims based on the needs of those who provide and/or receive care; (ii) the political frames and logics of policies which attend to care needs; and (iii) the outcomes of such policies for different groups of care receivers and providers. The paper is divided into two main sections. The first focuses on the ways different political actors frame care policies in Europe. It starts with a brief review of the theories and concepts that inform the paper. It goes on to apply these to an analysis of how care needs are interpreted in the claims of those representing the providers and receivers of care. Five areas of claims are identified: work/care reconciliation; disabled people's support; unpaid care; trade union demands for flexibility; and migrant care work. It proposes that, together, claims in these areas expand demands for recognition, rights and the redistribution of responsibilities in relation to care, and that they look to an overarching frame of social justice. The analysis of policy making in Europe shows that some of the discourses attached to notions of social justice find reflection in care policy but that the dominant frame is that of care policy as a form of social investment in human capital. The paper examines political opportunities and constraints in the emergence of social rights for parents and children in Europe. The second part examines policies in different national contexts by asking which issues drive policies and what this means for outcomes in terms of social inequalities. The issues examined are demographic change, social investment, employment creation and the global nature of care policy. In conclusion, the paper finds that care policies in Europe are imbued with tension and contradiction from the perspective of those who provide and receive care support. On the one hand, the last decade has seen important changes: for example, the recognition of the employment potential of those previously marginalized from paid work such as mothers and disabled people; the recognition of men's caring capacities; the rise of state responsibilities for care provision, especially in child care; and the recognition of family carers. On the other hand, these opportunities have been accompanied by constraints, including a sense of obligation by mothers and disabled people to find work often in the more precarious parts of the labour market; the increased commodification of care services; and the construction of parents/carers, older and disabled people exercising choice as consumers in the care market, rather than exercising their voice as citizens in the public domain of care. Such developments have also had the consequence of creating a poorly paid migrant labour economy of care. In this situation the key challenge is to use those spaces in which care has become politicized and rights have been won to advance the political, social and economic value of care as a crucial component in claims for national and transnational social justice. / ; Résumé. Comment concevoir des politiques qui puissent répondre aux besoins de soins des sociétés? La question se pose en termes plus urgents que jamais. Dans bien des pays développés, les femmes sont de plus en plus nombreuses à avoir un emploi rémunéré, ce qui a affaibli le modèle traditionnel de l'homme soutien de famille, qui supposait la présence au foyer d'une épouse à charge s'occupant des enfants ainsi que des parents handicapés ou âgés et fragiles. L'auteur de ce document cherche à comprendre comment sont conçues les politiques des soins et de l'assistance aux personnes. Elle examine la dynamique entre les revendications des différents publics en la matière et la façon dont les politiques sont élaborées et appliquées dans divers contextes nationaux, régionaux et historiques. Elle s'est intéressée principalement aux politiques de garde des enfants mises en place pour les parents qui travaillent en Europe, bien que les politiques relatives aux handicapés et aux soignants non rémunérés entrent aussi dans son champ d'étude. Son objectif est de faire comprendre, dans des contextes particuliers, la relation entre (i) l'articulation des revendications qui partent des besoins des soignants et/ou des soignés; (ii) les cadres et logiques des politiques soucieuses de répondre aux besoins en matière de soins et d'assistance aux personnes; et (iii) les effets de ces politiques sur les différents groupes de soignés et de soignants. Le document se divise en deux sections principales. La première porte sur la manière dont différents acteurs politiques conçoivent les politiques de soins et d'assistance aux personnes en Europe. L'auteur commence par un bref exposé des théories et des concepts qui informent le document. Elle poursuit en les appliquant à une analyse des besoins en matière de soins et d'assistance tels qu'ils ressortent de l'interprétation qu'en donnent les représentants des soignants et des soignés dans leurs revendications. Elle recense cinq domaines de revendication: nécessité de concilier travail et soins; aide aux personnes handicapées; soins non rémunérés; revendications syndicales de flexibilité; et place des migrants dans le secteur des soins. Elle suggère que, collectivement, les revendications dans ces domaines tendent à obtenir une reconnaissance, des droits et une redistribution des responsabilités en matière de soins et d'assistance aux personnes, et se réfèrent à un modèle général de justice sociale. L'analyse des politiques élaborées en Europe montre que certains des discours qui s'inspirent des notions de justice sociale se traduisent concrètement dans les politiques de soins et d'assistance aux personnes mais que le cadre dominant consiste à concevoir la politique de soins et d'assistance aux personnes comme une forme d'investissement social dans le capital humain. L'auteur examine ce qui, en politique, favorise l'émergence de droits sociaux pour les parents et les enfants en Europe et ce qui y fait obstacle. La deuxième partie est consacrée à l'examen des politiques dans leurs différents contextes nationaux. L'auteur examine les questions qui peuvent être à l'origine de ces politiques-l'évolution démographique, l'investissement social, la création d'emplois et la nature de la politique des soins dans le monde-et se demande quels en sont les résultats en termes d'inégalités sociales. En conclusion, l'auteur estime que les politiques des soins en Europe sont pleines de tensions et contradictions du point de vue des soignants comme des soignés. D'une part, d'importantes évolutions se sont produites en dix ans: on reconnaît aujourd'hui l'employabilité de personnes qui étaient tenues naguère à l'écart de l'emploi rémunéré telles que les mères de famille et les personnes handicapées, de même que les aptitudes des hommes en matière de soins; les Etats assument davantage de responsabilités dans la prestation de services, en particulier dans le secteur des garderies pour enfants et l'on reconnaît le rôle des soignants familiaux. De l'autre, ces chances ne vont pas sans contraintes: ainsi, les mères et les personnes handicapées se sentent obligées de trouver du travail, souvent dans les secteurs les plus précaires du marché; on assiste à une marchandisation accrue des services de soins et les parents, soignants, personnes âgées et handicapées sont plus perçus comme des consommateurs faisant des choix sur le marché des soins que comme des citoyens dans le domaine public des soins. Ces évolutions ont eu aussi pour effet de créer une économie des soins portée par des travailleurs migrants mal payés. Dans ces circonstances, le grand défi est d'utiliser les espaces dans lesquels les soins sont politisés et où des droits ont été acquis pour faire valoir l'aspect politique, social et économique des soins comme revendication cruciale de justice sociale aux plans national et transnational.

¿Qué significa estudiar las relaciones internacionales? Y más en concreto, ¿qué significa pensar teóricamente acerca de los asuntos mundiales? Sin lugar a dudas que existe más de una forma de responder a estas interrogantes. Sin embargo, como intentaré explicar en las siguientes líneas, considero que hay una sola forma prometedora de hacerlo. Es sólo a través de un profundo respeto y comprensión del carácter descentralizado (o "anárquico") de las relaciones internacionales, de sus límites y de su alcance, que se vuelve verdaderamente posible entender, analizar y aspirar a mejorar los diversos problemas comunes del escenario mundial.No obstante, dos elementos centrales deben ser atendidos primero. Por un lado, para poder responder a la primer interrogante, es necesario consensuar qué significa el término "relaciones internacionales"; es decir, sobre qué hace único y distintivo a este campo de estudio con respecto a otros, como por ejemplo la ciencia política o la economía empresarial. Sólo luego será posible explicar qué significa "estudiar" las relaciones internacionales. Y por el otro lado, para aproximar una respuesta a la última pregunta, es clave comprender la importancia de buscar buenos métodos para simplificar la realidad (como por ejemplo, el pensar en diversos niveles de abstracción) para poder así desentrañar mejor tanto las fuerzas que moldean los asuntos internacionales -a veces incluso de una manera poco perceptible- como también su alcance, límites e importancia en el estudio de las relaciones internacionales.En este sentido, si bien la disciplina de las relaciones internacionales es algo relativamente moderno --téngase en cuenta que la primer escuela dedicada al estudio de los asuntos internacionales data de 1919, en Aberystwyth, Gales--, su foco de análisis es tan antiguo como el ser humano. Así, el estudio del fenómeno de la guerra entre diversos "grupos sociales" a lo largo de toda la historia (ya sea que hablemos de imperios, estados, naciones, principados, ciudades-estado, o incluso de pandillas o tribus), desde siempre ha constituido una preocupación central de la humanidad; y es y seguirá siendo la gran concentración de los académicos de relaciones internacionales.Ahora bien, si pensamos sobre qué hace realmente único y distintivo a las relaciones internacionales con respecto a cualquier otro campo de estudio, veremos que en su nivel más fundamental la respuesta se encuentra en que, a diferencia otros ámbitos, en el escenario internacional no existe un gobierno central que resguarde el orden, que sostenga un sistema unificado de leyes, ni que provea bienes de uso público global. En otras palabras, el sistema de estados es "tierra de nadie". Siguiendo al famoso pensador inglés Thomas Hobbes, los estados se encuentran internacionalmente en un virtual "estado de naturaleza" o en una situación "anárquica", donde cada cual debe proveerse su propia seguridad.Las implicancias de esta ausencia de una entidad global que centralice el poder son numerosas y muy importantes. Algunas de las más evidentes, por ejemplo, consisten en que si un estado ve amenazada su supervivencia en el escenario internacional, como dice John J. Mearsheimer, no hay un "911" al cual recurrir. Como consecuencia de ello, las múltiples necesidades comunes de la humanidad (como el resguardar los derechos humanos, o el combatir la pobreza endémica, el terrorismo internacional, la proliferación nuclear, la contaminación ambiental, etc.) usualmente son totalmente desatendidas. Veamos con más detalle algunos de estos elementos.Por un lado, la condición anárquica del sistema internacional conlleva consigo una potencial gran negligencia en cuanto al manejo de los asuntos más importantes concernientes a la paz y la guerra entre los estados. Dado que en las relaciones internacionales los estados son también grupos sociales unificados, éstos tienden a desarrollar normas, valores y objetivos auto-interesados, que de una u otra manera involucran fuertemente la cuestión de su supervivencia como grupo. En este mundo de grupos sociales necesitadamente egoístas, es muy difícil que un estado desarrolle un interés verdaderamente altruista o cosmopolita, poniendo en segundo plano (o incluso en riesgo) a los suyos. Es decir, surge una típica situación en donde prima la raison d'État, y donde difícilmente se persigue una raison du système. En la vida internacional "cada cual atiende su juego".Por el otro, resaltar la importancia de los efectos limitantes de la anarquía internacional por sobre las diversas áreas de estudio y de actividad humana a nivel global es, tal vez, uno de los aportes más básicos y fundamentales que la disciplina de las relaciones internacionales puede brindar a las ciencias sociales en general. Si, por ejemplo, observamos las implicancias de llevar diversos campos de estudio, como el derecho, la economía, o incluso la ciencia política misma al plano internacional, se vuelve evidente que muchos de los preceptos básicos de cada uno de ellos pierden rápidamente su aplicabilidad en el escenario internacional. En palabras de Kenneth Waltz, el cambio de "principio ordenador", o el paso de un orden basado en un gobierno a uno basado en la ausencia del mismo, hace a la especificidad de la disciplina de relaciones internacionales como un campo propio de estudio.Por ejemplo, en el caso del derecho internacional, donde no existe un gobierno central, las normas y los contratos no cuentan con un órgano internacional imbuido de una verdadera capacidad de "hacer cumplir" tales acuerdos (sobre todo, si para ello se requiere del uso de la fuerza). En definitiva, si bien los estados pueden conformar una "sociedad internacional" en anarquía, desarrollando valores, objetivos y hasta incluso identidades comunes, la deficiencia estructural dada por la ausencia de un "poder ejecutivo" y de un "poder judicial" a nivel global, deja a todo emprendimiento de derecho internacional en manos de la voluntad de cada uno de los estados para cumplir o no con tales compromisos. En otras palabras, si un estado decide no formar parte de un tratado internacional, los efectos legales de éste, simplemente no pueden ser aplicados para juzgar el comportamiento de dicho estado o de sus ciudadanos.Lo mismo ocurre con la economía internacional, en donde la ausencia de un "ministerio internacional de economía" que regule el mercado mundial hace que la única forma de poder avanzar efectivamente en acuerdos internacionales de comercio sea a través del consenso y de largas y tediosas rondas de negociación dentro de foros internacionales, como la OMC., que muchas veces va incluso en detrimento de muchos de los estados interesados en temas específicos, como por ejemplo los países productores agrícolas necesitados de superar su condición de sub-desarrollo.Por último, pero no por ello menos importante, la ausencia de un gobierno mundial capaz de respaldar, en casos extremos, con acciones coercitivas los acuerdos y las normas internacionales que los estados establecen voluntariamente entre sí (no sin cierta dificultad), así como de castigar a quienes desafíen el orden establecido, hace que todas las soluciones que la humanidad ha elaborado en el pasado para resolver problemas similares a nivel nacional o interno, cuando intentan ser aplicados o extrapolados al plano internacional deban ser profundamente re-evaluadas, re-pensadas, y re-diseñadas. Ello se debe, en gran medida, a que al no existir un sheriff internacional, las relaciones internacionales descansan (aquí también) en la voluntad y capacidad de cada uno de los actores internacionales de cumplir con sus compromisos y/o de sobrellevar los costos de sus decisiones a nivel mundial. Algunos de las catástrofes más grandes de la historia de la humanidad, como por ejemplo la primera y segunda guerras mundiales, no sólo no pudieron ser evitadas sino que hasta incluso fueron, en cierto sentido, incentivadas indirectamente por haber implementado aparentes soluciones políticas que no se apoyaron en la comprensión de los límites que la anarquía internacional ejercía sobre los proyectos idealistas de principios de siglo, que buscaban aplicar en el mundo de los estados las mismas recetas aplicadas a la vida doméstica. * * *En suma, entonces, tal vez lo más fascinante de estudiar los asuntos internacionales en su expresión abstracta es que éstos poseen un elemento que es único y distintivo: que toda actividad política en el plano internacional ocurre en ausencia de un poder central capaz de dirimir qué es "lo justo" y qué no lo es, y de aplicar un uso coercitivo de la fuerza en pos de ello cuando sea necesario. Esta falta de un "gobierno mundial", aunque algo simple y básico de entender, es una característica fundamental para comprender la naturaleza y, sobre todo, los límites y alcance de las relaciones internacionales, pero que usualmente es dado por sobre-entendido u olvidado por completo.En esta disciplina, que se apoya en todas las demás áreas de las ciencias sociales pero que las lleva al plano internacional y las hace propias, existen paradójicamente bastante pocos enfoques teóricos que tomen como punto de partida el carácter anárquico de su propio campo de estudio y de acción. Uno de los enfoques que mejor y más sólidamente sí lo ha hecho, es el neorrealismo. Éste, en tanto constituye una teoría estructural o sistémica, parte del estudio del contexto en donde los estados actúan y desarrollan su accionar. Con ello, también, el neorrealismo es una teoría que se centra en los factores perdurables, estáticos y recurrentes de las relaciones internacionales, ya que éstos permiten desentrañar mejor cuáles son los límites y los alcances del accionar presente y futuro de los estados. El neorrealismo, a diferencia de otros enfoques de orden doméstico o focalizados más bien en factores dinámicos, constituye el camino correcto y más prometedor para comenzar a estudiar el mundo de las relaciones internacionales.En los últimos tiempos, nos hemos mal acostumbrado a "hacer teoría" por medio del ataque a los paradigmas y enfoques más tradicionales de la disciplina, como el neorrealismo. Sin embargo, todas las alternativas propuestas han pecado de un excesivo optimismo y de un hubris intelectual, en parte por abandonar las enseñanzas básicas del neorrealismo con respecto a los límites y alcances que nos impone la anarquía internacional a las aspiraciones ilimitadas del ser humano, y en parte también por una búsqueda (liderada por la necesidad) de encontrar nuevos esquemas analíticos que nos permitan dar mejores explicaciones a los nuevos fenómenos que siempre emergen en la escena internacional.No obstante, el camino más prometedor a seguir ya no puede seguir pasando por la búsqueda de la abolición de la teoría más importante de la disciplina. Se hace cada vez más necesario ayudar al neorrealismo a refinar y ampliar su poder explicativo, aunque sin olvidar sus preceptos básicos, en vez de seguir combatiéndolo ciegamente. Es cierto que se ha perdido bastante el rumbo, pero siempre es posible volver a retomarlo. Si por medio del estudio, respeto y reconocimiento de la "anarquía internacional", algo nos enseña la disciplina de las relaciones internacionales, ello es que tal vez la lección más importante consiste en reconocer que existen límites al poder y ambición humanos, y que estos mismos límites no provienen de nosotros sino del contexto en el cual tiene lugar la política; que no todo a nuestro alrededor es moldeable y que existen fuerzas en el mundo a las cuales incluso los más poderosos deben ajustarse. La popular idea de que "la anarquía es lo que los estados hacen de ella" es un síntoma de hubris intelectual que debe ser profundamente re-pensado a la luz de un enfoque más humilde y limitado de qué significa hacer teoría en las relaciones internacionales.Textos sugeridos:Raymond Aron, "The Anarchical Order of Power", Daedalus, Vol. 95, No. 2 (Spring, 1966), pp. 479-502.http://www.jstor.org/pss/20026981Martin Wight, Power Politics, ed. por Hedley Bull y Carsten Holbraad, (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, RIIA), especialmente cap. 9.http://www.amazon.com/Power-Politics-Martin-Wight/dp/0826461743/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258492062&sr=1-2Helen Milner, "The Assumption of Anarchy in International Relations Theory: A Critique", Review of International Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1 (January 1991), pp. 67-85.http://www.jstor.org/stable/20097244Alexander Wendt, "Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics", International Organization, Vol. 46, No. 2 (Spring 1992), pp. 391-425.http://web.pdx.edu/~kinsella/ps442/wendt.pdfHobbes, Thomas; Leviathan. Or the Matter, Forme & Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civill, ed. por A. R. Waller (London: Cambridge University Press, [1651] 1904).Stephen Van Evera, "The Hard Realities of International Politics", Boston Review, Vol. 17, No. 6 (November–December 1992), p. 19.John J. Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001), especialmente cap. 1.http://www.amazon.com/Tragedy-Great-Power-Politics/dp/039332396XJean-Jacques Rousseau, "The State of War", en: A Lasting Peace and the State of War, trad. por Charles E. Vaughan (London: Constable and Company Limited, 1917).http://files.libertyfund.org/files/1010/0147_Bk.pdfMarc Trachtenberg, "The Problem of International Order and How to Think About It", The Monist, Vol. 89, No. 2, pp. 207-31.http://www.polisci.ucla.edu/faculty/trachtenberg/cv/monist.pdfMarc Trachtenberg, "The Question of Realism: An Historian's View", Security Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Autumn 2003), pp. 156-94.http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/1258358578-3061436/content~db=all~content=a714005360Arnold Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration: Essays in International Politics(Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1962), especialmente cap. 1.http://www.amazon.com/Discord-Collaboration-Essays-International-Politics/dp/0801806917/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258492722&sr=1-1Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, ma: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1979).http://www.amazon.com/Theory-International-Politics-Kenneth-Waltz/dp/0075548526/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258492750&sr=1-1 *Candidato a la Maestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato di TellaBuenos Aires, Argentina

Author's introductionThis article examines the process of social differentiation in the context of sex, gender and sexuality, providing insight into the ways in which all three rely on mutually exclusive and dichotomous categories. Intersexuality, transgender and bisexuality are all exceptions to these boxes and the boundaries around them that can call our categorizations and the decisions we make based upon them into question. Given that social inequality and stratification rely on our ability to make clear distinctions between categories (or boxes, as conceptualized here), the existence of individuals, experiences and identities that cross these boundaries problematizes the persistence of inequality.Author recommendsHere I focus on monographs and edited volumes rather than articles. Many of the chapters in these books began life as journal articles. When examining issues related to intersexuality, transgender and bisexuality, it is important to give voice to individual experiences rather than relying solely on 'expert' accounts by outsiders. These recommendations reflect a mix of scholarly approaches (empirical and theoretical) and narratives.Baumgardner, Jennifer. 2007. Look Both Ways: Bisexual Politics. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Known for her third‐wave feminist work with co‐author Amy Richards, Baumgardner writes here about her experiences as a bisexual woman. She does a fine job of situating her experiences in a broader social and cultural context, offering a nice mix of the personal and the political. This book is an excellent example of the potential of theoretically informed memoir.Fausto‐Sterling, Anne. 2000. Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. New York: Basic Books.As a pioneer among biologists questioning the dichotomy between male and female, Fausto‐Sterling challenges us to question our most basic assumptions about sex, gender and sexuality. In this book, she provides both an historical and a biological/medical perspective on the key issues. Her book is an excellent resource for social scientists who may feel ill‐prepared to answer their students' questions about natural‐science perspectives.Hutchins, Loraine and Lani Kaahumanu, eds. 1991. Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out. Los Angeles, CA: Alyson Books.This book of narratives was one of the first to give voice to the diverse experiences of bisexual people. Students reading this book will hear the stories of bisexual women and men, people of different races and religions, making sense of their experiences living outside the conventional boxes of sexuality.Kessler, Suzanne J. 1998. Lessons from the Intersexed. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Kessler was doing research (talking to physicians, parents of intersexed children and intersexed adults) on these issues before they even appeared on most people's radar. This book examines key questions related to intersexuality, including the 'medical management' that has become so controversial. Kessler includes a glossary of terms that many readers will find useful.Meyerowitz, Joanne. 2002. How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Historian Meyerowitz provides a detailed overview of the social and cultural development of transsexuality in the United States during the twentieth century. She includes the perspectives of transgendered individuals themselves, as well as the wide‐ranging views of others involved in the debate, from doctors, journalists and lawyers to feminists and gay‐rights advocates.Nestle, Joan, Clare Howell and Ricki Wilchins, eds. 2002. GenderQueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary. Los Angeles, CA: Alyson Books.This volume of narratives written by people who identify as somehow differently gendered offers students windows into the day‐to‐day lives of people living outside the boxes and on the boundaries. Paired with academic accounts that offer theoretical and conceptual information, this book will show students what it means to live beyond conventional categories – both the pain and the joys of such existences are on display here.Preves, Sharon E. 2003. Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.As one of the first studies to provide first‐person accounts of the experiences of intersexed people, Preves's book offers incredible insights into the consequences of how our society has reacted to intersexuality. Intersex and Identity is also a fine piece of sociology, integrating medical sociology, sociology of gender and the social psychology of Erving Goffman into a compelling theoretical perspective.Rust, Paula C. Rodriguez, ed. 2000. Bisexuality in the United States: A Social Science Reader. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Rust brings together 30 articles that provide a variety of perspectives on bisexuality, many of them her original contributions to this literature. Anthologies like this one provide an important service, offering overviews of a variety of topics and gathering diverse perspectives in one volume.Serrano, Julia. 2007. Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity. Emeryville, CA: Seal Press.Transwoman Serrano provides a compelling account that links our culture's responses to transgender individuals (especially transwomen) to its negative valuation of femininity. Some of what she argues is sure to be controversial; but she examines issues like 'cissexual privilege' (i.e. privileges afforded to those people who do 'normal' genders) as no one else has.Stryker, Susan and Stephen Whittle, eds. 2006. The Transgender Studies Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.While a bit heavy on humanities perspectives, this volume provides an invaluable resource on transgender issues. It gathers important historical documents as well as contemporary perspectives by and about transgender people. Everything from Janice Raymond's infamous diatribe against transwomen to Gayle Rubin's call for feminists to accept and celebrate gender diversity is included here.Online materialsBisexual Resources Center http://www.biresource.org/ This website provides links to 'all things bisexual.' From resources to information about events and conferences to links to bi and bi‐inclusive groups around the world, it can all be found here. Through virtual storefronts, one can purchase books, art and the newest edition of the Bi Resource Guide. Links to 'sibling sites' provide users with access to even more information.Intersex Society of North America website http://www.isna.org/ Intersex Society of North America (ISNA) was one of the first organizations to bring intersexed people together and work to protect their rights. Their site includes a list of frequently asked questions; a section on intersexuality and the law; a library of bibliographies, books and videos; and a section on intersex in the news that also documents mass media portrayals of intersexuality. Note that, in an attempt to get people to rethink the concept of intersexuality, ISNA has started to use the term 'disorders of sexual development.'Trans‐Academics.org website http://www.trans‐academics.org/ This website is a project of the Association for Gender Research, Education, Academia & Action (AGREAA). It provides a reference library, educational materials (including documents on terminology and syllabi), a document for those considering doing research with transgender subjects, links to academic transgender studies programs, and a list of community announcements. Approximately twenty syllabi are posted here.TransBiblio: A Bibliography of Print, AV and Online Resources Pertaining to Transgendered Persons and Transgender Issues http://www.library.uiuc.edu/wst/Transgender%20Bibliography/transbiblio.htm One of the first links on this page is to a list of transgender definitions. Many versions of such a list exist on the Web. Such lists are an important resource for students: most transgender terms are new to them and it helps to have a list to keep referring back to; definitions also provide a good starting point for discussion of relevant issues (e.g., names, pronouns and language). This website indexes: films, autobiography/biography/interviews, cultural and historical studies, other directories and bibliographies, fiction/poetry/drama, literary and cinematic studies, periodicals and journals, photographic and pictorial works, and other websites and online resources. It includes articles on cross‐dressing, gender identity and expression, intersexuality, legal and employment issues, medical and health issues, psychology and counselling, public policy, religion/ethics/spirituality, theory and politics, and transsexualism (general, female‐to‐male and male‐to‐female).FilmsThere are a number of feature films about transgender and bisexual topics, some better than others. Boys Don't Cry (Kimberly Peirce, 1999) and Transamerica (Duncan Tucker, 2005) provide much material for discussion. Note that Boys Don't Cry is very violent at the end (it depicts the rape and murder of Brandon Teena and is based on a true story). Chasing Amy is one of the few feature films that provides a complex portrait of bisexuality. Here are a few documentaries to consider. Hermaphrodites Speak (Cheryl Chase, 1997, 30 minutes)The camera work leaves something to be desired and the voices are sometimes difficult to hear – but this is a film that should not be missed. A small group of intersexed people gathered at the first Intersex Society of North America conference to talk about their experiences. They sit together outside on a blanket, talking matter of factly and compellingly about their lives. (Available for purchase at ISNA website.) No Dumb Questions (Melissa Regan, 2001, 24 minutes)This short film documents the experiences of a family (mother, father and three daughters, ages 6, 9 and 11) who has learned that Uncle Bill is becoming Aunt Barbara. The focus is on the reactions of the various family members; Barbara appears only briefly (but significantly, as this is the first time the family has seen her as a woman) in the film. The different reactions of the daughters provide much material for class discussion. (Available for purchase from various outlets, including nodumbquestions.com.) Southern Comfort (Kate Davis, 2001, 90 minutes)Transman Robert Eads is dying from ovarian cancer. This film documents his life and family, providing a compelling portrait of the failure of the medical profession to provide care to transgender individuals and of the creation of support networks by trans people. Of all the films I have ever shown in a class, none has outraged my students more than this one. It does an excellent job of showing the daily lives of transgender folks and documenting their loves and struggles. (Available for purchase from various outlets.)Sample syllabus Topics for lecture and discussion Week I: Making Sense of Sex, Gender and Sexuality Reading:Connell, Robert William. 2002. 'Difference and Bodies.' Pp. 28–52 in Gender. Malden, MA: Polity Press.Jackson, Stevi. 2005. 'Sexuality, Heterosexuality and Gender Hierarchy: Getting Our Priorities Straight.' Pp. 15–37 in Thinking Straight: The Power, the Promise and the Paradox of Heterosexuality. New York, NY: Routledge.Johnson, Allan. 2005. 'Ideology, Myth, and Magic: Femininity, Masculinity and "Gender Roles".' Pp. 78–98 in The Gender Knot: Unraveling our Patriarchal Legacy (revised and updated edition). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Lorber, Judith. 1994. '"Night to His Day": The Social Construction of Gender' and 'Believing Is Seeing: Biology as Ideology.' Pp. 13–54 in Paradoxes of Gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Weeks II–III: Beyond Dichotomies The Social Construction of Sex Reading:Fausto‐Sterling, Anne. 2000. 'The Five Sexes, Revisited.'The Sciences 40: pp. 18–23.Preves, Sharon E. 2003. 'Beyond Pink and Blue.' Pp. 1–22 in Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. The Social Construction of Gender Reading:Dozier, Raine. 2005. 'Beards, Breasts and Bodies: Doing Sex in a Gendered World.'Gender & Society 19: 297–316.Lucal, Betsy. 1999. 'What It Means to Be Gendered Me: Life on the Boundaries of a Dichotomous Gender System.'Gender & Society 13: 781–797. The Social Construction of Sexualities Reading:Ault, Amber. 1999. 'Ambiguous Identity in an Unambiguous Sex/Gender System: The Case of Bisexual Women.' Pp. 167–185 in Bisexuality: A Critical Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.Clausen, Jan. 1999. 'Introduction.' Pp. xv–xxix in Apples and Oranges: My Journey through Sexual Identity. Boston. MA: Houghton Mifflin.Putting It All Together ...Reading:Lucal, Betsy. 2008. 'Building Boxes and Policing Boundaries: (De)Constructing Intersexuality, Transgender and Bisexuality.'Sociology Compass 2: 519–536, DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00099.x.Etc ...Focus questions

What are some ways in which our society supports the idea that sex, gender and sexuality each comprise two mutually exclusive categories? In other words, how do we contribute to building the boxes that Lucal discusses?
Think of an experience from your own life that was a result of people (perhaps yourself) policing the boundaries of the sex, gender or sexuality categories. Describe this experience (its context, your reaction, etc.). How did it feel to be policed in this way? How does 'policing' relate to the concept of norms?
Imagine that you are the parent of an infant born with an intersexed condition. What would you do? What are the pros and cons of medical and surgical intervention? How do these considerations relate to the concept of boxes and boundaries?
Consider a day in the life of a transgendered person, from waking up in the morning to going to bed at night. List all the times throughout the day when this person will be expected to place themselves in one of the gender boxes. Reflect on your list: What would a day in this life be like?
Make a list of stereotypes of and slang terms for bisexuals, gays and lesbians (together and separately) and heterosexuals. How are these lists similar and different? How do these lists relate to the idea of boxes and boundaries?

Seminar/project idea Individual project: considering the wider social context Choose a social institution (e.g. family, education, mass media, religion, health and medicine) related to sex, gender and sexuality. Within that social institution, choose a narrower topic (e.g. access to health care, having and raising children, sitcom images). Do some research on how this specific topic relates to the lives of intersexed, transgender and bisexual individuals. Prepare an oral presentation for your class in which you compare and contrast the issues facing these three groups in the context of this topic. (Keep in mind, of course, that individuals might be members of more than one of these groups.) How are the issues facing each group in this context similar? How are they different?

[spa] El Stadiasmo o Periplo del Mar Grande, es un texto en lengua griega que se ha conservado de forma fragmentaria en un manuscrito: el Matritensis Graecus 12, una recopilación tardía que parece configurarse como una summa o compendio de geografía de la cual forma parte también la crónica de Hipólito del 234-235 dC. La primera edición del códice fue publicada por Iriarte en Madrid en 1769, seguidas de la realizada por Grail en París en 1828 y por Hoffmann en Leipzig el año 1841. Anotaciones y correcciones filológicas a la edición de Grail fueron efectuadas por Letronne en el Journal des Savants en el año 1829. Es de resaltar la edición del Stadiasmo hecha por Müller en 1855 en el primer volumen de su Geographi Graeci Minores, que constituye aún la última edición integral del texto, la cual será la empleada fundamentalmente en esta memoria de investigación. La cronología de de la compilación del documento estudiado ha sido muy debatida, como testimonia el hecho de las hipótesis formuladas por distintos estudiosos que discuten su pertenencia a lo largo de cinco siglos: desde el Imperio hasta la época tradoantigua. Sin duda a ello a contribuido que el texto no contenga referencias históricas explícitas que permitan un encuadre cronológico seguro. Debe tenerse presente, no obstante, que el problema de la datación podría deberse a colección de las diversas divisiones de un texto orgánico, más que a la composición de un verdadero y propiamente dicho texto ex novo, considerando que el Stadiasmo aparece como una obra compuesta y redactada a partir del uso de diversos portulanos, así como de diversos centros de instrucción náutica que abarcan distintas regiones del Mediterráneo, como desarrollaremos en el epígrafe 2.7. de esta memoria. La datación tardía del texto ha estado asociada al hecho de que diversas localidades y algunos puertos están descritos como abandonados o en estado de destrucción, lo que puede ponerse en relación conb las condiciones de decadencia que se verifican localmente a partir del s. III dC. y de forma general en los dos siglos siguientes. Entre los numerosos ejemplos parece particularmente significativa la lectura histórica dada a la situación de Leptis Magna, que en el Stadiasmo es recordada como una ciudad privada de puerto. Considerando el extraordinario desarrollo que la ciudad conoció en época severiana, ya Müller avanzó la hipótesis de una redacción de texto posterior al 200 dC: "Similiter (con riferimento ad Utica e ad Hadrumetum, n.d.a.) Leptis Magna limšna oÙk œcei (§ 93); nimirum priscus portus tunc arenis obrutus erat, ut etiamnum videre est, dirutis molibus quae fluxum maris et eluviem arcerent. Jam vero quum Leptis sub Romanis imperatoribus eximie floreret et a Septimio Severo maxime, cui ea urbs patria erat, splendidissimis monumentis ornaretur, portum, utilissimum divitiarum instrumentum, a Severo susque deque habitum undarumque ludibrio proditum esse nemo non cum Barthio, doctissimo Libyae exploratore, negaverit. Itaque post annum 200 p.C. periplum scriptum esse persuasum est". Sobre la base de ésta y de otras consideraciones, Müller aboga por una datación en la segunda mitad del s. III dC.: "Quatenus igitur ex tenuioribus indiciis probabiliter aliquid colligi potest, peripli partem nauticam eum orae maritimae statum, qui erat inter regna Severi et Constantini, prodere et ex libro inter annos 250 – 300 p.C. scriptio desumtam esse censeo" Una datación comprendida entre fines del II e inicios del s. III dC es defendida por Cuntz, que aporta una amplia discusión crítica sobre los elementos internos útiles para su reconstrucción cronológica. Una datación en el s. IV o V dC, por fuerza demasiado tardía, es a veces sostenida sin una discusión crítica por Kretschmer en su monumental obra dedicada a los portulanos medievales italianos, en la cual, cuyo epígrafe, dedicado a nuestro texto, lo titula Der byzantinische Stadiasmos Por otro lado, Delatte hace referencia a una cronología también tardía, colocando genéricamente el Stadiasmo al inicio del Imperio de Oriente La generalizada condición de abandono y de destrucción en que se encontraban muchas localidades citadas en el texto podrían a inducirnos a valorar la datación más tardía, hacia el s. V dC, sin embargo, esta datación sería por completo contradictoria con la atención que el Stadiasmo dedica a los santuarios paganos y la total ausencia de indicios de cultos cristianos. Estos indicadores hacen difícil de justificar la datación tan baja, si pensamos que en época de Teodosio, en el 391 dC, se emite el edicto contra los cultos paganos. Incluso parece ya extraño después de Constantino, como demuestra la Tabula Peutingeriana. Tras las numerosas tentativas de datación en ese arco de unos cinco siglo, el reciente estudio de Giovanni Uggeri permiten situar hacia la mitad del s. I dC la cronología de este singular texto. El anónimo Stadiasmo o Periplo del Mar Grande se conserva dividido en cuatro secciones: 1. Costa norteafricana de Alejandría hasta Utica (1-126). 2. Costa desde Siria hasta Asia Menor, de Arados hasta Caria, en la zona de Alicarnaso y de Mileto (133-296). 3. El periplo de Chipre (297-317). 4. El periplo de Creta (318-355). A estos se adjunta, en correspondencia con Caria, las islas, particularmente Rodas y Delos que podemos considerar como apartados de la segunda (271-284) El título mismo de la obra nos indica el sistema de medida de las distancias empleado, que no es el de jornadas de navegación, sino el de estadios. Por lo tanto, en unidad de medida lineal: stadiasmo significa literalmente "medida por estadio" (un estadio era aproximadamente 180 m.). La calidad de la información náutica es medianamente homogénea, aunque sea la sección de la costa norteafricana la que parece contener un carácter práctico más acentuado, con detalles técnicos muy precisos respecto, por ejemplo, a la sección sobre la costa Siria y del Asia Menor; donde se encuentra alguna diferencia a nivel tecnológico y en el modo de exponer los datos. Las zonas de Licia y Caria, en particular, se reducen a poco más que un elenco de las localidades y de las distancias. Las secciones sobre Chipre y Creta, en conjunto, presentan características similares a la sección norteafricana aunque se trata de forma menos detallada. Tales subdivisiones indican que el Stadiasmo estaba organizado en secciones paralelas. Procediendo con un criterio geográfico general, en lo respecta a la descripción de la costa siguiendo una determinada dirección. El punto de partida parece estar representado en Alejandría, con dos progresiones separadas: una hacia el Oeste y otra hacia el Este. Dentro de este orden, en correspondencia con las regiones descritas, se desarrolla las secciones dedicadas a las travesías desde y hacia las islas, mientras los periplos de las islas mayores serán tratados separadamente. Por sus características podemos considerar el Stadiasmo como el primer y, por el momento, único portulano articulado de la antigüedad. En el que encontramos efectivamente las noticias de tipo práctico necesarias al navegante, en un estilo sobrio y esencial que lo distingue medievales, sin adornos formales, sin digresión metodológica, histórica o etnográfica. Acaso la información puede resultar escueta, incompleta o insuficiente, el carácter del texto es siempre inequívoco. Podemos reconocer inmediatamente cómo el Stadiasmo es un texto completamente distinto de los periplos clásicos, los cuales son obras literarias de argumento geográfico. Efectivamente, de un momento náutico esperamos aún otras informaciones como, por ejemplo, la relativa a la batimetría, que son referidas de una forma genérica, simplemente recordando la existencia de bajos fondos, mar profundo o de escollos que afloran a la superficie. Sin embargo, están presente todos los caracteres fundamentales de la instrucción náutica que concuerdan perfectamente con los preceptos que nos indica Flavio Vegecio en su obra De re militari (IV, 43): "Es propio de los marineros y del nucleiros (patrón) reconocer los puertos y lugares hacia los cuales se navega, para evitar que los peligros a causa de los escollos que emergen del agua, así como de los sumergidos, y conocer los puntos navegables y los bajíos. El mar, no obstante, es tanto más seguro cuanto más profundo" En el Stadiasmo son significativas las exhortaciones en la forma verbal del imperativo, que califical al documento destinado al uso práctico, dirigido al marino: estate atento al noto (viento del Sur) [18]; navega al largo! A lo que sigue la distancia de respeto a la costa, para evita riesgos representados por los bajíos y los escollos (37, 46, 146); navega hacia septentrión (117); ciñe (124). Están indica dos los puntos de referencia costera que caracterizan una localidad (torre, castillo, templo), especificando si hay habitantes o las fortificaciones están abandonadas. En las diversas localidades están señaladas las posibilidades de encontrar agua dulce, precisando si se trata fuente, cisterna o de río; así como el lugar preciso para encontrarla, evidenciando igualmente la fundamental importancia de la aguada. Por el contrario se revela si el puerto o la localidad están privados de agua dulce. Está señalada la presencia de cursos fluviales para repostar agua y cuáles pueden navegarse hasta alguna localidad. El derrotero es descrito minuciosamente, indicando, no sólo las escalas principales, sino también las de menor importancia. En este documento se dedica mucha atención a valorar la calidad de los embarcaderos (simple escala de refugio, fondeadero, embarcadero, puerto con servicios). Se distingue igualmente si se trata de un embarcadero estival, utilizable sólo con buen tiempo, o si se trata de un puerto adaptado a la invernada. Se subraya la mayor o menor seguridad en relación al régimen de vientos, a la presencia de escollos y bajos fondos y, así mismo la capacidad de acoger naves de gran o pequeño tonelaje, o eventualmente sólo de barcas menores. Se indica la proximidad de mercados o de templos, con claras referencias a los aspectos mercantiles y religiosos, que son la base en definitiva del intercambio ultramarino. Por estos motivos encontramos una terminología de los puertos muy especializada, pero no difícil de entender su significado preciso. Se presta gran atención a la dirección del derrotero, particularmente de alta mar, indicando los vientos favorables para afrontar la travesía de altura, aspecto que complementa los anteriores y en conjunto nos califican el documento estudiado de verdaderamente náutico. Están contemplados todos los tipos de navegación, desde el pequeño al gran cabotaje y hasta la navegación de altura; igualmente las travesías que se desarrollan en una singladura, como las que precisan varias, como de Rodas a la Argólida o la de Cos a Delos. En estos se van indicando cuáles islas se dejan a babor y cuáles a estribor. A partir de estas consideraciones sobre la naturaleza técnica de Stadiasmo, nos preguntamos cuál podía ser la difusión de este género de documentos y cuál es su verdadera utilización por parte de los navegantes. La navegación en el Mediterráneo podía, en efecto, ser conducida fundamentalmente sin el empleo de instrumentos técnicos, gracias a la particular conformación geográfica de este mar y a la presencia de islas y de puntos de referencia a lo largo de la ruta que se recorría habitualmente. Pero debemos aún considerar que las circunstancias accidentales para que una nave pudiera finalizar la travesía eran numerosas y frecuentes; en este caso, el auxilio de un portulano era seguramente muy importante. Por otro lado, la ordenación sistemática de una documentación náutica, como es el caso de nuestro texto, podía tener fines didácticos, en la fase de instrucción avanzada para el piloto que debía prepararse para afrontar un viaje de largo recorrido. El uso de portulanos debía de ser particularmente extendido entre los pilotos que operaban en las grandes líneas de navegación de edad Altoimperial, como la que unía Ostia con Grecia (El Pireo), coon Alejandría y con otros puertos del Mediterráneo oriental, derroteros de grandes naves mercantes, que navegaban habitualmente con convoyes Las aventursa de San Pablo, recogida en los Hechos de los Apóstoles, y la de la nave Isis, descrita por Luciao, son dos ejemplos significativos del problema de las grandes onerarias podían encontrarse en estas travesías. Pensemos también en los pilotos de la marina militar, que debían adquirir un profundo conocimiento del litoral y de sus peligros, mientras que los oficiales superiores debían preocuparse de dirigir las maniobras en el interior de la escuadra naval. Ambas operaciones muy complejas, por lo cual el estudio preventivo de las condiciones locales era ciertamente fundamental. Nos resulta significativa, por todo ello la noticia que nos proporciona Plutarco sobre "el libro del piloto" que el autor pone en evidencia al relacionarlo con el desarrollo de la formación del marino. Igualmente significativa parece la coincidencia cronológica, considerfando que Plutarco vive en un periodo inmediatamente después a la redacción del Stadiasmo, según las dataciones a que hemos hecho referencia. Podemos plantear la hipótesis que "el libro del piloto" fuese un texto similar al Stadiasmo. Otro aspecto importante es la puramente comercial. La disponibilidad de un portulano debía tener una función importante en la preparación de las empresas y de las expediciones comerciales por vía marítima, permitiendo conocer anticipadamente la ruta mejor a seguir, las condiciones de vientos favorables en función del la estación del año, la disponibilidad y la tipología de las escalas, los puntos útiles para las aguadas, las ciudades en las que se encontraba un mercado u otras infraestructuras útiles a la empresa comercial. El Stadiasmo abre una ventana importante en el panorama técnico de la navegación de la primera edad imperial.

Part seven of an interview with Gloria Mulcahy and Marion Madonia. Topics include: The Italian-American reaction to their father becoming mayor. A typical day for their father as mayor. Their family's future in politics. People who were important to their father's campaign, including Margaret Kelty, who wrote their father's speeches. ; 1 SPEAKER 1: We were like, "Oh!" SPEAKER 2: So did people stay up all night at [Boyd One]? SPEAKER 1: Oh, yeah, we stayed up all night partying. SPEAKER 3: Yeah, yeah. SPEAKER 1: I think we ended up in the Marconi Club or the Pizzeria, least of all the Pepe Club. The Pizzeria… Pizzeria Club, I forget the name of it. It's up near that… it's down here on Middle Street. That was a Sicilian thing, though, too. SPEAKER 3: Right. SPEAKER 1: As you can see, we talk more about my father, about the Sicilians. SPEAKER 3: Uh-huh. SPEAKER 1: But that's Italy, that's Italian, you know. I think Sicily and Italy are the same you know. Being Italian, being Sicilian and being… that's Italian. I mean, it's just that, you know, why do they separate everything? I wonder. SPEAKER 2: Well, I guess for different reasons. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. It must have been that. Yeah. SPEAKER 2: Italy wasn't even unified until 1860, mini-states really. And everyone had their own dialect, their own way of life. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, right. SPEAKER 2: So when they came here, the regions were very important. So tell me again about the bonfires. How did people celebrate that night? SPEAKER 1: Yeah, well, the police chief made it that people could light fires. They gave them a -- not a compensation but what do you call it, that they could do these things? And we had a parade that was miles long of cars. SPEAKER 2: That very night? SPEAKER 1: Yeah. SPEAKER 3: That night, oh yeah. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. And… [Crosstalk] SPEAKER 3: And everyone came out.2 SPEAKER 1: Everybody was out of the house and yelling and screaming and cheering! It was a big, big victory. It was like D-Day in a way, wasn't it? It was. I mean… SPEAKER 3: D-Day, VJ, that day. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, right. Remember VJ Day when -- because we remember that at the end of the war. Oh, my god. But yeah, everybody -- oh, it was… it was a victory for the Italians. SPEAKER 3: Right. SPEAKER 1: And they were proud, too. I think they were proud that he won, you know, the majority. You know, you always get one or two of each nationality that doesn't want… SPEAKER 3: Naturally. SPEAKER 1: In those days, you always had somebody that really wasn't for you even though they were Italian, you know. But you just -- that's what life's about, right? When you're in politics, you learn that, too, that people are going to say, well, I want to vote for you. But later on, you don't know what they're going to do. I mean, we do -- I do the same thing. Yeah, you have to, otherwise -- but I think the Italians were proud to have someone representing them. SPEAKER 2: So whether or not they voted for him eventually… SPEAKER 1: Yeah. But, the majority of them did vote. The majority of the Italians did, because he did get a good vote. I just wish we had the figures now, just to reminisce. SPEAKER 3: Right, yeah. SPEAKER 2: Do you think… SPEAKER 1: Because that was a big thing for us. I mean, he was -- being Italian is a bigger thing. But then for being, for him to go so far and everything -- in everything he did, he was a leader, you know. I mean, in every organization, he had to be president and… SPEAKER 3: He did it really without an education.3 SPEAKER 1: Without education. He could speak beautiful, yeah. It was like he had a college education. SPEAKER 3: Right. SPEAKER 1: And that's what followed. But the mayor really just took the cake because that was a big thing in Fitchburg. SPEAKER 2: Now, was that a full-time job or…? SPEAKER 1: It wasn't supposed to be, no. It was supposed to be a part-time -- part-time pay, part-time job. But he -- it was a full-time. He spent full-time. SPEAKER 3: Right. SPEAKER 2: So what was a day like for him? A typical day. You know, you said that he would be getting you up. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, yeah. Well, and he would drop -- I know when I worked at the office, we would drive to city hall together. And then, of course, he'd be in his office and have meetings or whatever all day long. I was in the office for two weeks when Mary took a vacation. SPEAKER 3: Oh. Well… SPEAKER 1: I was in the mayor's office. And I mean, people would come in, all kinds of people, you know. And they'd want to set up an appointment or talk with him, and they'd… you know, I guess he would discuss -- the meetings were always at night, but the city council meeting was at night, right? And then I don't know if he had meetings with the department heads during the day, but… he must have. SPEAKER 3: Yeah. So much of what the mayor does now. SPEAKER 1: Right. Whatever they do. Yeah, right. Of course, it was similar. And when you go in city hall, too, you know, they have pictures of all the past mayors of Fitchburg. Yeah. So that's a nice thing. Every time you go in city hall, near the city clerk's office and the mayor's office, you see the pictures. And dad's, of course, stands 4 right out because it's our father. But… I guess his day was… dictating letters, and you know all those things that the normal mayor must do. You know, especially -- look at what happened in New York. Imagine. If we had that now, if dad was mayor and that happened, I mean… SPEAKER 3: Yeah. SPEAKER 2: Would he still go home for lunch? SPEAKER 1: No, he never went -- no, I don't think he came. Now that, I wouldn't remember. I wasn't at home. I don't think so because the car was always there. I think either somebody would send across the street at [Murnex] or John's for lunch. Yeah, course he had luncheon engagements, right? And you know, they're so busy. Because I remember -- yeah, because I know that the car would be there. Oh, I know at break time the car was there. I don't think he went home for lunch when he was mayor. Or maybe he did. I don't know. I wasn't home [laughter]. SPEAKER 2: Was he mayor for two or four years? SPEAKER 1: Six years. SPEAKER 2: Six years. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, '50 to '56. SPEAKER 2: So he really only ran once. SPEAKER 1: No, no. He ran every two years. SPEAKER 2: Oh, every two years. SPEAKER 3: The term is two years. SPEAKER 1: He went three terms, oh, yeah. SPEAKER 2: So did people wave the Italian flag when he won, or…? SPEAKER 1: Oh see, that I don't remember. See, I wasn't into the -- I'll be truthful, I wasn't into being Italian. I mean, because I was born Italian. You know, we're Italian. Then it was for prestige, you know, city official, and then being mayor. I don't remember being…5 SPEAKER 3: No. SPEAKER 1: But I know when we came down once, you knew you were Italian and they were -- maybe they did have flags out. I never noticed. Did you? SPEAKER 3: No, no. SPEAKER 1: No, we were… SPEAKER 3: Too excited. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, we were excited. It was glorious. It really was. SPEAKER 2: So did they… SPEAKER 1: He really took us into it. I mean, he really made us enjoy politics so much. And I think that's what happened to us. We were -- that was something that we always loved. And we helped other people. And we used to go -- I mean, look how many years. We always were involved with it all those years with him, you know. And then when election night comes now, we still feel the same way. You know, we like to see the person that we voted for, if they won. SPEAKER 3: Right. SPEAKER 1: And now it's nice because on TV -- now that we're a little older, on TV we can watch the precincts coming in. SPEAKER 3: Right. SPEAKER 1: With the city clerk in Fitchburg, and it's great to see that. SPEAKER 2: Have you continued supporting people, even after your father got out? SPEAKER 1: For a while we did. SPEAKER 3: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: You did, you and Jack. Jack did. SPEAKER 3: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: And then Jack ran once. SPEAKER 3: He ran once. For council in '06. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. He lost it. SPEAKER 3: Then we just -- I mean, we always vote, even in the primaries.6 SPEAKER 1: Right. We never -- yeah, because that's a privilege that we have. SPEAKER 3: And I've never really… SPEAKER 1: No, I haven't really been out either. SPEAKER 3: Out in the open. SPEAKER 2: What about your children? Do you see any future politicians? SPEAKER 1: Well, maybe Flora's daughter. SPEAKER 3: My daughter, Debbie, is a schoolteacher. She has election at her school, right in her class. She started the school for Crocker, so she's really… SPEAKER 1: The Crocker School. Oh, she's very -- every year, there's something. SPEAKER 3: I mean, the whole school comes to vote. They set up polls and everything. It's really interesting. SPEAKER 1: She has election-day on election… SPEAKER 3: I know. She names the politicians, and they come for class, like nine in the morning. SPEAKER 1: She does a good job. SPEAKER 3: I go up and help her a couple of times. But she's about the only one. SPEAKER 1: She's the only one that is patriotic right now, and that's in politics. She's carried on her grandfather's tradition. SPEAKER 3: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: And it's always in the Sentinol, an article. SPEAKER 3: It's a big thing, really. SPEAKER 1: To her, that's why she does it. SPEAKER 3: Right. SPEAKER 1: For the dad, yeah. SPEAKER 3: Yeah. SPEAKER 2: Now what is her name? Debbie? SPEAKER 3: Debbie Jeffries, J-e-f-f-r-i-e-s. She's a second grade schoolteacher.7 SPEAKER 1: Yeah. Oh, it's great. And you work with your -- you and Debbie had an event this year. I missed it. I went -- [came a couple years]. SPEAKER 3: We had -- Deb took flags on Election Day with navy blue coats. SPEAKER 2: Oh, nice. SPEAKER 3: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: The politics tie. And I think that I'm the only one that really would go. I tried -- I've got to get you to join the Sons of Italy. But I always support Sons of Italy. SPEAKER 3: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: But, you know, originally we would go to the Italian… activities. And I would support like [unintelligible – 00:09:24] for Children. We played county… SPEAKER 3: Oh, you did? SPEAKER 1: I played father. He wouldn't believe it. He wouldn't believe it if, you know, if he was alive now, because yeah, I am very interested in all that stuff. So now, like tonight, I have to go to a wake with the family that… but you know, it's fun. But like the politics, Debbie is the only one. I would have liked to, but I never did. But I did run once for city clerk. I went up there and I had a speech in front of the city council. I had to speak in front of the city council. I was looking for work. SPEAKER 3: Applied for that job. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, I applied for the job of city clerk, but the person that was in the office got it, of course. But, that would have been great. I would have loved -- I think that then would have got me going. SPEAKER 3: Going, yeah, yeah. SPEAKER 2: When was that about? SPEAKER 3: I don't know how many years ago. I kept the paper downstairs. I have it in the paper. Let's see, this is… was I… I wasn't… was I 8 in my forties or early fifties maybe? Maybe it was 10, 20 years ago. SPEAKER 3: Yeah. SPEAKER 2; That's interesting. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, because I was very interested. SPEAKER 3: Well, was dad around then? SPEAKER 1: Yeah, he was around, but he was… SPEAKER 3: No, but I'm just trying to figure out when, you know. SPEAKER 1: Oh, yeah. He died 13 years ago. SPEAKER 3: All right. SPEAKER 1: Right? So, wait a minute. So, when was that? And Margaret Kelty was still alive, because she used to write his speeches. I had her help me write my speech. SPEAKER 2: Who was this? SPEAKER 1: This woman, Margaret Kelty, used to help. She was a schoolteacher, and she used to write speeches for a lot of people in Fitchburg. /AT/pa/ke/es

En el Capítulo 1 se provee el marco teórico y los objetivos planteados en este estudio. En elCapítulo 2 se presentan las grillas de precipitación y temperatura hechas a partir de unarecopilación de datos mensuales en la región. Se compilaron 218 y 114 registros deprecipitaciónytemperaturarespectivamente,provenientesdeinstitucionesgubernamentales y privadas de la región. Estos datos fueron interpolados mediante latécnica de co-kriging para obtener grillas de precipitación y temperatura de 20 km x 20 kmcubriendo el norte de la Patagonia desde 63° a 75° longitud Oeste y 35° a 45° latitud Sur.Estas nuevas grillas (Grillado Climático para Patagonia Norte, o GCPN) representan lasvariaciones de los rasgos espaciales en los campos medios de temperatura y precipitaciónde una manera más realista que las grillas climáticas globales disponibles en la actualidad.También se comparó el desempeño de estas grillas con otras grillas climáticas globales deuso común en la región. A partir del trabajo realizado en este capítulo se ha publicado unartículo científico en una revista indexada (DOI:10.1007/s13351-015-5058-y).En el capítulo 3 se analizó la variabilidad espacial y temporal de la precipitación y latemperatura (utilizando las grillas presentadas en el capítulo 2) y su relación con fenómenosclimáticos de gran escala. La variabilidad espacio-temporal de los campos de precipitacióny temperatura a escala regional fue establecida aplicando un Análisis de ComponentesPrincipales (ACP) a los datos grillados. Una vez determinados los patrones dominantes, seexploraron los forzantes del sistema climático a escala hemisférica y global asociados a lavariabilidad en la temperatura y precipitación en el norte de la Patagonia. A grandes rasgos,el análisis de componentes principales aplicado a las series de precipitación y temperaturaidentificó cuatro grandes patrones de variabilidad temporal en la región. El patrón asociadoal sector noroeste de la región presenta un clima tipo mediterráneo. El patrón asociado alsector Este y Noreste coincide con el clima frio semiárido. El patrón asociado al sector Sury Sudeste coincide con el clima árido frio, mientras que el patrón asociado a la región Sur ySudoeste coincide con la región de clima oceánico. La comparación de estos patrones dominantes de variabilidad en la temperatura y laprecipitación sobre el norte de la Patagonia con índices de circulación océano/atmosferaarrojó algunas relaciones de interés. Por ejemplo, existe una relación negativa entre laprecipitación en el Oeste de la región de estudio (clima tipo Mediterráneo) durante laprimavera, el verano y el otoño y la Oscilación Antártica (AAO). El fenómeno El Niño-Oscilación del Sur (ENOS) está relacionado, en su fase cálida, a un aumento deprecipitación sobre la Cordillera de los Andes, particularmente al Oeste de esta durante laprimavera. En el invierno, los eventos cálidos ENOS están asociados a mayoresprecipitaciones en el sector Este de la región. Los índices del Océano Atlántico (SAODI yTSA) solo muestran una relación negativa con la precipitación en el Este de la regióndurante el invierno. La AAO resulta ser el principal forzante de las variaciones en latemperatura en el norte de la Patagonia. Muestra relaciones positivas con esta variable en elSur de la región durante el verano, el otoño y la primavera; y en el Este de la región duranteel invierno.En el capítulo 4 se analiza la variabilidad espacial y temporal del Índice de VegetaciónNormalizado (IVN) mediante el análisis de componentes principales, y se comparan lasregiones que resultan de este análisis con clasificaciones previas de la vegetación en laregión que tienen en cuenta atributos estructurales o funcionales de la misma. Lavariabilidad espacio-temporal del IVN derivado de sensores remotos fue analizada tanto anivel de Región Ecológica Homogénea o Tipo Forestal , como a escala regional aplicandoel Análisis de Componentes Principales (ACP). La variabilidad temporal se analizó a nivelintra-anual e interanual, filtrando el ciclo anual mediante el cálculo de los desvíosestandarizados. Se pudieron reconocer, a grandes rasgos, cuatro regiones donde lavariabilidad temporal del IVN se comporta de manera relativamente homogénea: 1) Regiónde Clima Mediterráneo, que se corresponde con los Tipos Forestales Araucaria, Coihue ?Raulí ? Roble, las Regiones Ecológicas de Pastizales Subandinos y de Sierras y Mesetas(en transición con el clima Frio Semiárido), y el Tipo Forestal Lenga, en transición con elclima Templado Oceánico; 2) Región de clima Semiárido Frío y Árido Frío, quecomprende a las Regiones Ecológicas de Sierras y Mesetas, Distrito central de Chubut yDistrito del Golfo (que a su vez conforman la Provincia Fitogeográfica Patagónica); 3) Región de climas Templado Oceánico y Subpolar Oceánico, que comprende a los TiposForestales Alerce, Siempreverde Valdiviano y Lenga adyacentes; 4) Región de Clima Friosemiárido, representada principalmente por la Provincia Fitogeográfica del Monte (MonteAustral y Monte Oriental). A grandes rasgos, se puede observar que el ciclo anual es elrasgo predominante de la variabilidad del IVN hacia el Noroeste de la región (zona declima mediterráneo). El ciclo anual pierde su amplitud hacia el Sur y hacia el Este, amedida que adquieren mayor importancia los ciclos intra- e inter-anuales.En el capítulo 5 se analiza la relación entre la variabilidad en el IVN y las variaciones en lasprecipitaciones y la temperatura, considerando diferentes escalas temporales en las que sepueden manifestar estas relaciones. La temperatura, particularmente al comienzo de laestación de crecimiento, parece ser el factor climático determinante del crecimiento de losBosques Templados y de algunas regiones ecológicas pertenecientes a la ProvinciaFitogeográfica de la Patagonia (Distritos del Golfo y Central de Chubut). Para la regiónecológica del Monte Oriental, la precipitación de verano es el factor determinante de ladinámica del IVN a escala intra-anual. Este acoplamiento entre la precipitación y el IVN enesta región no ha sido reportado en trabajos anteriores. Esta relación pareciera estarasociada a la mayor abundancia relativa de especies C4 en esta región. Las especies C4 sonparticularmente eficientes para aprovechar los eventos esporádicos de lluvia durante elverano. Este acoplamiento entre el IVN y la precipitación es evidente a diferentesfrecuencias temporales, particularmente en la escala interanual.En el capítulo 6 se abordó el estudio de la relación entre la variabilidad del IVN y lasvariaciones climáticas de gran escala. Los índices muestran diferentes asociaciones con lospatrones de IVN según la región y la época del año. En líneas generales, la AAO influenciatodos los patrones de IVN. Esto probablemente se deba a que su influencia en laprecipitación y la temperatura abarcan casi la totalidad de la región estudiada. El fenómenoEl Niño-Oscilación del Sur también muestra asociaciones con tres patrones, pero surelación más notoria con el IVN se observa en los Bosques Siempreverde y de Alercedurante la primavera y el verano. Por su parte, tanto los índices asociados a la circulacióndel Océano Atlántico, así como las TSM del Atlántico tropical, influyen las variaciones en los patrones que corresponden a las Regiones Ecológicas del Monte Austral y MonteOriental y la Provincia Fitogeográfica de la Patagonia. ; This doctoral dissertation is organized in seven chapters. Chapter 1 provides the theoretical framework and the main goals of this thesis. In Chapter 2, 218 and 114 precipitation and temperature records, respectively, were compiled from different governmental and private institutions to develop a gridded climatic data base across northern Patagonia. Based on a co-kriging methodology, these precipitation and temperature records were interpolated into 20 x 20 km-resolution grids covering northern Patagonia from 63º to 75º W longitude (from Atlantic to Pacific coast) and from 35º to 45º S latitude. These new grids (Northern Patagonia Climate Grids, NPCG) represent spatial variations of both temperature and precipitation fields in a more realistic manner than other global climate grids currently available for the region. The performance of NPCG was contrasted with other global climate grids commonly used in northern Patagonia. This work has already been published in an international, indexed journal (DOI:10.1007/s13351-015-5058-y). In Chapter 3, spatial and temporal variations in temperature and precipitation, based on NPCG (chapter 2) were analyzed, along with their relationships with large-scale climate forcings. The dominant modes of spatial and temporal variability in temperature and precipitation were determined by applying a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to the gridded data sets. Once that the main patterns of temperature and precipitation variability were identified, they were compared with large-scale (continental, hemispheric to global) climatic drivers. Overall, the PCA analyses of the temperature and precipitation grids identified four different patterns of spatio-temporal variability in northern Patagonia. The northwestern Patagonia pattern shows the classical features related to the Mediterranean climate across Central Chile and the adjacent Cordillera de los Andes. The pattern associated with the cold semiarid climate prevails in the eastern and northeastern sectors of northern Patagonia. The spatial pattern related to the south-southeastern region in northern Patagonia encompass the dominant cold arid climate, whereas the southern and southwestern sectors in the study region coincides with the Pacific oceanic climate. The dominant patterns of variability in temperature and precipitation showed interesting links with several atmosphere/ocean circulation indexes. For example, negative relationships were recorded between precipitation in the Mediterranean sector during spring, summer and fall and the Antarctic Oscillation index (AAO). In contrast, the warm events of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are associated with positive rainfall anomalies west of the Andes range during spring. In winter, warm ENSO events are related to above-mean rainfalls anomalies in the Eastern sector of the study area. The indices associated with the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean (SAODI and TSA) are negatively related to precipitation in the Eastern sector during winter. The AAO seems to be the main driver of temperature variability in northern Patagonia. The AAO shows positive relationships with temperature in the southern sector of northern Patagonia during summer, autumn and spring, and in the eastern sector during winter. The establishment of the spatio-temporal variations in the Normalized-Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), based on Principal Component Analysis, was the main goal of Chapter 4. The NDVI-based regions identified were compared with vegetation classifications based on structural or functional features of vegetation across northern Patagonia. The spatio-temporal variability in NDVI was estimated based on previously established ecosystems (from forests to dry steppe) and similarities in NDVI according to PCA analysis). Temporal variations were analyzed in both intra and inter-annual scales. The annual cycle in NDVI was removed from the original time series by computing the standard deviations in relations to the period 2001-2010. Four regions with relativehomogeneous temporal behaviors were identified: 1) The Mediterranean climate region, which shows similarities with the Coihue – Rauli – Roble, Lenga and Araucaria forest types, and the Pastizales Subandinos and Sierras y Mesetas grassland-upper steppe types; 2) The region with cold semiarid and arid climate, which spatially overlaps with the Sierras y Mesetas, Distrito Central de Chubut and Distrito del Golfo steppe regions; 3) The region of temperate and subantartic oceanic climates, which is associated with the Alerce, Siempreverde Valdiviano and Lenga forest types; and 4) The region of cold semiarid climate related to the Monte Austral and Monte Oriental ecological regions. Overall, a dominant annual cycle is the main feature of the temporal evolution of the NDVI in the Mediterranean climate zone. The amplitude of the annual cycle diminishes towards the south and the east where intra- and inter-annual cycles gain importance. In Chapter 5, the relationships between the variability of NDVI and temperature and precipitation are documented, taking into consideration the different temporal scales in which interactions between these variables occur. Temperature, mainly at the beginning of the growing season, seems to be the determinant factor for the growth of the temperate forests and the Distritos del Golfo and Central de Chubut grassland-steppe regions. For the Monte Oriental ecological region, summer rainfall is the most important factor related to the inter-annual dynamic in the NDVI. This strong temporal coupling between summer rainfall and NDVI in the Monte oriental has not been previously reported. This relationship seems to be associated with the abundance of C4 species in this ecological region. C4 species take advantages of the sporadic summer rainfalls more efficiently than C3 plants. This coupling between rainfall and NDVI is present at different timescales, particularly at the inter-annual scale. Relationships between NDVI variability and large-scale climate forcings were documented in Chapter 6. Linkages between NDVI and large-scale atmospheric circulation indices vary according to the seasons and different vegetation regions across northern Patagonia. Overall, the AAO influences most patterns of NDVI variability, in response to the pervasive influences of the AAO on temperature and precipitation regimens over most northern Patagonia. ENSO shows linkages with the Siempreverde Valdiviano and Alerce forest types during spring and summer. Finally, the indices associated with variations in the circulation of the Atlantic Ocean and Sea Surface Temperatures (SST) across the tropical Atlantic Ocean are related to NDVI patterns in the Monte Austral and Monte Oriental ecological regions. Finally, Chapter 7 discuss the results and provides directions for further research. ; Fil: Bianchi, Emilio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Centro de Investigaciones del Mar y la Atmósfera. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Centro de Investigaciones del Mar y la Atmósfera; Argentina

Importance: Both low and high gestational weight gain have been associated with adverse maternal and infant outcomes, but optimal gestational weight gain remains uncertain and not well defined for all prepregnancy weight ranges. Objectives: To examine the association of ranges of gestational weight gain with risk of adverse maternal and infant outcomes and estimate optimal gestational weight gain ranges across prepregnancy body mass index categories. Design, setting, and participants: Individual participant-level meta-analysis using data from 196 670 participants within 25 cohort studies from Europe and North America (main study sample). Optimal gestational weight gain ranges were estimated for each prepregnancy body mass index (BMI) category by selecting the range of gestational weight gain that was associated with lower risk for any adverse outcome. Individual participant-level data from 3505 participants within 4 separate hospital-based cohorts were used as a validation sample. Data were collected between 1989 and 2015. The final date of follow-up was December 2015. Exposures: Gestational weight gain. Main outcomes and measures: The main outcome termed any adverse outcome was defined as the presence of 1 or more of the following outcomes: preeclampsia, gestational hypertension, gestational diabetes, cesarean delivery, preterm birth, and small or large size for gestational age at birth. Results: Of the 196 670 women (median age, 30.0 years [quartile 1 and 3, 27.0 and 33.0 years] and 40 937 were white) included in the main sample, 7809 (4.0%) were categorized at baseline as underweight (BMI <18.5); 133 788 (68.0%), normal weight (BMI, 18.5-24.9); 38 828 (19.7%), overweight (BMI, 25.0-29.9); 11 992 (6.1%), obesity grade 1 (BMI, 30.0-34.9); 3284 (1.7%), obesity grade 2 (BMI, 35.0-39.9); and 969 (0.5%), obesity grade 3 (BMI, ≥40.0). Overall, any adverse outcome occurred in 37.2% (n = 73 161) of women, ranging from 34.7% (2706 of 7809) among women categorized as underweight to 61.1% (592 of 969) among women categorized as obesity grade 3. Optimal gestational weight gain ranges were 14.0 kg to less than 16.0 kg for women categorized as underweight; 10.0 kg to less than 18.0 kg for normal weight; 2.0 kg to less than 16.0 kg for overweight; 2.0 kg to less than 6.0 kg for obesity grade 1; weight loss or gain of 0 kg to less than 4.0 kg for obesity grade 2; and weight gain of 0 kg to less than 6.0 kg for obesity grade 3. These gestational weight gain ranges were associated with low to moderate discrimination between those with and those without adverse outcomes (range for area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.55-0.76). Results for discriminative performance in the validation sample were similar to the corresponding results in the main study sample (range for area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.51-0.79). Conclusions and relevance: In this meta-analysis of pooled individual participant data from 25 cohort studies, the risk for adverse maternal and infant outcomes varied by gestational weight gain and across the range of prepregnancy weights. The estimates of optimal gestational weight gain may inform prenatal counseling; however, the optimal gestational weight gain ranges had limited predictive value for the outcomes assessed. ; Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC): Funded by grant 102215/2/13/2 from the UK Medical Research Council and Wellcome, core support from the University of Bristol, grant R01 DK10324 from the US National Institutes of Health, grant agreement 669545 from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), award MC_UU_12013/5 from the UK Medical Research Council, and Dr Lawlor is a National Institute for Health Research senior investigator (NF-SI-0611-10196). Cohort of Newborns in Emilia Romagna (CoNER): No funding reported. Danish National Birth Cohort (DNBC): The Danish Epidemiology Science Centre initiated and created the DNBC and this center was established by the Danish National Research Foundation via a major grant. Additional support was obtained from the Pharmacy Foundation, the Egmont Foundation, the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation, the Augustinus Foundation, and the Health Foundation. The 7-year follow-up study was supported by award 195/04 from the Lundbeck Foundation and award SSVF 0646 from the Danish Medical Research Council. Étude des Déterminants pré et postnatals du développement et de la santé de l'ENfant (EDEN): Supported by the French foundation for medical research, the French national agency for research, the French national institute for research in public health (IRESP: TGIR cohorte santé 2008 program), the French ministry of health, the French ministry of research, the INSERM bone and joint diseases national research and human nutrition national research programs, Paris-Sud University, Nestlé, the French national institute for population health surveillance, the French national institute for health education, the European Union FP7 programs (2007-2013; HELIX, ESCAPE, ENRIECO, and Medall projects), the French diabetes national research program through a collaboration with the French association of diabetic patients, the French agency for environmental health safety (now ANSES), the Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale (a complementary health insurance), the French national agency for food security, and the French-speaking association for the study of diabetes and metabolism. Family and Children of Ukraine (FCOU): Supported by the Fogarty International Center at the US National Institutes of Health, the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the US Environmental Protection Agency, and the National Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine. Genetica e Ambiente: Studio Prospettico dell'Infanzia in Italia (GASPII): Supported by the Italian ministry of health. Groningen Expert Center for Kids with Obesity (GECKO Drenthe): Supported by an unrestricted grant from Hutchison Whampoa Ltd and funding from the University of Groningen, Well Baby Clinic Foundation Icare, Noordlease, the Paediatric Association of the Netherlands, and Youth Health Care Drenthe. Genetics of Glucose regulation in Gestation and Growth (Gen3G): Supported by operating grant 20697 from the Fonds de recherche du Québec en santé, operating grant MOP 115071 from the Canadian Institute of Health Reseach, a grant from Diabète Québec, and operating grant OG-3-08-2622-JA from the Canadian Diabetes Association. Generation R: The general design of the study received financial support from Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research and the Ministry of Health, Welfare, and Sport, and the Ministry of Youth and Families. The research leading to these results received funding from the European Union Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under grant 733206 (LifeCycle Project). Dr Jaddoe received grant ERC-2014-CoG-648916 from the European Research Council. Dr Gaillard received grant 2017T013 from the Dutch Heart Foundation, grant 2017.81.002 from the Dutch Diabetes Foundation, and grant 543003109 from the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development. Generation XXI: Funded by Programa Operacional de Saúde–Saúde XXI, Quadro Comunitário de Apoio III and Administração Regional de Saúde Norte (Regional Department of Ministry of Health), by POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016837 through the Operational Programme Competitiveness and Internationalization and national funding from the Foundation for Science and Technology (Portuguese Ministry of Science, Technology, and Higher Education) under the project PathMOB, by FCT PTDC/DTP-EPI/3306/2014 (Risco cardiometabólico na infância: desde o início da vida ao fim da infância), by POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006862 and UID/DTP/04750/2013 (Unidade de Investigação em Epidemiologia-Instituto de Saúde Pública da Universidade do Porto), and FCT investigator contract IF/01060/2015 awarded to Dr A. C. Santos. Growth, Exercise and Nutrition Epidemiological Study In preSchoolers (GENESIS): Supported by a research grant from Friesland Hellas. German Infant Nutritional Intervention plus environmental and genetic influences (GINIplus): Supported for the first 3 years by the Federal Ministry for Education, Science, Research, and Technology (intervention group) and Helmholtz Zentrum Munich (observation group). The 4-, 6-, 10-, and 15-year follow-up examinations were covered from the respective budgets of the 5 study centers (Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Research Institute at Marien-Hospital Wesel, LMU Munich, TU Munich, IUF-Leibniz Research-Institute for Environmental Medicine at the University of Düsseldorf) and by funding from the European Commission 7th Framework Programme (MeDALL project), Mead Johnson, and Nestlé and grant FKZ 20462296 from the Federal Ministry for Environment (awarded to IUF Düsseldorf). Norwegian Human Milk Study (HUMIS): Funded by award FP7/2007-2013 from the European Commission 7th Framework Programme, grant 289346 from European Union EarlyNutrition project, and by funds for project 213148 from the Norwegian Research Council's MILPAAHEL programme. INfancia y Medio Ambiente (INMA)-Sabadell: Funded by grant Red INMA G03/176 from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III in Spain and grant 1999SGR 00241 from the Generalitat de Catalunya-CIRIT. INMA-Valencia: Funded by grants FP7-ENV-2011 cod 282957 and HEALTH.2010.2.4.5-1 from the European Commission, grants G03/176, FIS-FEDER PI09/02647, PI11/01007, PI11/02591, PI11/02038, PI13/1944, PI13/2032, PI14/00891, PI14/01687, PI16/1288, Miguel Servet FEDER CP11/00178, CP15/00025, and CPII16/00051 from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III in Spain, and grants UGP 15-230, UGP-15-244, and UGP-15-249 from the Generalitat Valenciana, Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research of Valencia Region. INMA-Gipuzkoa: Funded by grants FISFIS PI06/0867, FIS-PS09/0009 0867, and Red INMA G03/176 from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III in Spain, grants 2005111093 and 2009111069 from the Departamento de Salud del Gobierno Vasco, and grants DFG06/004 and FG08/001 from the Provincial Government of Guipúzcoa. INMA-Menorca: This study was funded by grant Red INMA G03/176 from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III in Spain. Child, parents and health: lifestyle and genetic constitution (KOALA): Data collection from pregnancy up to the age of 1 year was supported by grants from Royal Friesland Foods, the Triodos Foundation, the Phoenix Foundation, the Raphaël Foundation, the Iona Foundation, the Foundation for the Advancement of Heilpedagogie, the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (2100.0090), the Netherlands Asthma Foundation (3.2.03.48 and 3.2.07.022), and the Netherlands Heart Foundation (2008B112). Krakow Cohort: Funded by grants R01ES010165 and R01ES015282 from the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and by funding from the Lundin Foundation, the John and Wendy Neu Family Foundation, the Gladys and Roland Harriman Foundation, and the Anonymous Foundation. Influences of Lifestyle-Related Factors on the Immune System and the Development of Allergies in Childhood plus the influence of traffic emissions and genetics (LISAplus): Mainly supported by grants for the first 2 years from the Federal Ministry for Education, Science, Research, and Technology, the Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, the Research Institute at Marien-Hospital Wesel, and a pediatric practice in Bad Honnef. The 4-, 6-, 10-, and 15-year follow-up examinations were funded by the respective budgets of the involved partners (the Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, the Research Institute at Marien-Hospital Wesel, a pediatric practice in Bad Honnef, and the IUF–Leibniz-Research Institute for Environmental Medicine at the University of Düsseldorf), by grant FKZ 20462296 from the Federal Ministry for Environment (awarded to IUF Düsseldorf), and by support from the European Commission 7th Framework Programme (MeDALL project). LUKAS Cohort: Funded by EVO/VTR grants, grants 139021 and 287675 from the Academy of Finland, grant QLK4-CT-2001-00250 from the European Union, and funding from the Juho Vainio Foundation, the Foundation for Pediatric Research, the Päivikki and Sakari Sohlberg Foundation, the Finnish Cultural Foundation, and the National Institute for Health and Welfare in Finland. Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa): Supported by the Norwegian Ministry of Health and Care Services and the Ministry of Education and Research, contract N01-ES-75558 with the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, and grants UO1 NS 047537-01 and UO1 NS 047537-06A1 from the US National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Nascita e INFanzia: gli Effetti dell'Ambiente (NINFEA): Partially funded by the Compagnia San Paolo Foundation and by the Piedmont Region. Prevention and Incidence of Asthma and Mite Allergy (PIAMA): Supported by the Organization for Health Research and Development, the Organization for Scientific Research, the Asthma Fund, the Ministry of Spatial Planning, Housing, and the Environment, and the Ministry of Health, Welfare, and Sport (all organizations in the Netherlands). Piccolipiù Project: Financially supported by CCM grants during 2010 and 2014 from the Italian National Center for Disease Prevention and Control and funding (art 12 and 12 bis D.lgs 502/92) from the Italian Ministry of Health. PRegnancy and Infant DEvelopment (PRIDE Study): Supported by grants from the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development, the Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, and the Lung Foundation Netherlands. Project Viva: Funded by grants R01 HD034568 and UG3OD023286 from the US National Institutes of Health. Polish Mother and Child Cohort Study (REPRO_PL): Funded by grants DEC-2014/15/B/NZ7/00998 and FP7 HEALS 603946 from the National Science Centre in Poland and grant 3068/7.PR/2014/2 from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education. Exposure of Preschool-Age Greek Children (RHEA): Financially supported by European Commission projects FP6-2003-Food-3-NewGeneris, FP6-STREP Hiwate, FP7-ENV.2007.1.2.2.2, FP7-2008-ENV-1.2.1.4 Envirogenomarkers, FP7-HEALTH-2009-single stage CHICOS, FP7-ENV.2008.1.2.1.6, FP7-HEALTH-2012, and 211250-Escape and proposals 226285 ENRIECO and 308333 HELIX and by the Greek Ministry of Health. Slovak PCB Study: Support was provided by grants R01 CA096525, R03 TW007152, P30 ES001247, P30 ES023513, and K12 ES019852 from the US National Institutes of Health. STEPS: This study was supported by the University of Turku, Abo Akademi University, the Turku University Hospital, the City of Turku, the Juho Vainio Foundation, and the Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation and by grants 121569 and 123571 from the Academy of Finland. Southampton Women's Survey (SWS): Supported by funding from the Medical Research Council, the National Institute for Health Research Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, the University of Southampton, Dunhill Medical Trust, and the University Hospital Southampton National Health Service Foundation Trust, FP7/2007-2013 from the European Commission 7th Framework Programme, and grant 289346 from the European Union EarlyNutrition project.

Building no. 02. The Regiment House has been called by many names. Although small in stature, it has a diverse history. Not only has its use and title changed many times since it was built, it has also misled some local historians into reporting it as being located at different places. Once affectionately known as "The Little Chapel at Fort Brown," it originally stood with its back to the Rio Grande and faced the parade grounds near the present Gateway International Bridge and Customs facilities. Sources noted it had "been moved from its original location to a point near the international bridge." Another account described the chapel as once being located near the Jefferson entrance and used as a school for African-American soldiers. These minor errors that crept into historical record made Building No. 2. an interesting study. There were actually two chapels; each one moved one time and still in use today. The first chapel was originally built to be used as a school and library. In 1889, plans were originally designed for it to be made of wood. However, a hurricane in 1880 may have convinced the Army that a brick building would last longer. Maps showed that building No. 2 was built between 1882 and 1884. It was used as a school until 1907. Between 1907 and 1922 its use is uncertain. From 1922 to 1941 it was used as a Post Chapel, N.C.O. "Bachelors'" Quarters, Officers' Guests Quarters, Post Office and N.C.O. Quarters, and the Chaplain's office prior to October 1941 as will be explained later. Earliest Post Engineer's records show that a single 20' x 30' ft. bedroom and 16' x 18' living room comprised the floor space with an open porch. At that time it listed a capacity for 50 persons. "The larger room was the chapel's auditorium, while the smaller room was its vestry." Later records show the building was divided with a hall to make three bedrooms and small kitchen to house a single family by 1938. It was also painted at one time. By then, the. porch was screened. In 1951, the Little Chapel at Fort Brown was remembered at the time for being a "popular place for weddings of soldiers and local girls" when it was transferred by the city of Brownsville as a museum to the Brownsville Historical Association. The BHA restored the building and opened it in 1952. The BHA was organized in 1946 and granted a charter by the state of Texas in 1947. They were granted use of the Chapel as a museum for 50 years. However, by 1958, the Stillman house at 1305 E. Washington Street was purchased by Chauncey Stillman, a great-grandson of Charles Stillman, and donated to the BHA as their permanent home. When businessmen in downtown Brownsville heard about this, they petitioned to oppose the BHA relocating there under the charge that "a museum would stifle the growth of the immediate area." The BHA restored the home and moved in by 1960. Now with the expanded Brownsville Heritage Complex, the BHA continues to organize a wide range of activities to promote local history and preserve historical records. From 1960 to 1991, Building No. 2 was used as an office for the General Services Administration (GSA) and a tool and maintenance building. Little maintenance had been done on the building and after thirty years of neglect, the building had seen better days. In 1992 when expansion of the U.S. Customs facility would require that it be removed, the "Little Chapel" was suddenly in need of a few small miracles. Mark Lund, Director of City Planning, (Heritage Officer for Brownsville at the time) had first hand experience from the initial dismantling, storage, and restoration of Building No. 2. He stated that the city had a contract with the GSA to remove (demolish) the building. When the Texas State Historical Commission became involved, the "Planning staff and Heritage Council persuaded the City Commission to intervene such that the building's demolition (disassembly) was done carefully to allow it at a future date to be possibly reassembled." The GSA was anxious to remove Building No. 2 because it delayed construction by standing in the way of a road that had to be widened for trucks to make a sharp turn from the bridge for inspection. Once the Historical Commission was satisfied assessment requirements were met, the process to demolish was approved. When the city was contracted by the GSA to demolish Building No. 2, Mr. Lund involved the Heritage Council and Planning Director Joe Galvan, who spoke with Butch Barbosa of the City Commission, to find what could be done to save the little building. Bricks were not numbered as previously believed. Instead, temporary workers were hired and instructed to carefully remove the bricks and place them on pallets to be stored for future use. The City Manager, Kirby Lellijedahl, sent Parks Department trucks to transport brick and wooden pieces, which were labeled and protected by tarps. There was no funding to immediately relocate the building. One ideal plan was to situate the building near the entrance at the Fort Brown Memorial Golf Course as a visitor's center. Until Building No. 2's fate would be known, components would be temporarily stored in Brownsville Compress warehouses free of rent for several months by compress owners. After several months, the city was asked to begin paying rent. Since the building was eligible to receive funds from the Community Development Block Grant – Community Development Funds (CBDG), approximately $1,200 was used to keep the parts in storage until it could be decided where it would be rebuilt. Around this time Los Caminos Del Rio was producing a film to highlight significant architectural buildings along both sides of the Rio Grande Valley to be aired by the Public Broadcasting System (PBS). The Dallas-based philanthropic Meadows Foundation supported this production and representatives were visiting Brownsville. After learning about Building No. 2, they advised the City to write a formal grant proposal. Once funding by the Meadows Foundation was assured, TSC got involved with the Texas Historical Commission and the City Planning Department in planning a new site for the building on the historical campus. TSC officials must have considered Building 2 as an inherent part of the historical assemblage of fort buildings and that it would be turned over to them, even though it had fallen under ownership of the GSA and later, transferred to the City. The project was entitled "Building Number Two" by the City and an Inter-Local Agreement was signed between the City and TSC under which the City would pay all costs once a $50,000 grant was secured by the Meadows Foundation. Construction was to be supervised by Heritage Officer Mark Lund and progress of the work would be reported to Michael Putegnat, TSC Executive Director. Once the job was completed, the City would "turn over title and control to TSC. Costs involved for TSC would be time and landscaping." Bricks were delivered near the parking lot on the site it would be rebuilt. This pile caused rainwater to flood the parking lot and Michael Putegnat, was pressured to correct this situation. For a short while, stagnant water became known as "Putegnat's Pond." Bricks had to be reset aside to allow for proper drainage. During reconstruction, the contractor became dissatisfied with the amount of his reimbursement when the small building proved to be a bigger challenge than he anticipated. He had stored some of the wooden pieces from the Brownsville Compress in his garage and held up construction. Mark Lund was faced with two problems: One was to hire a new contractor to complete the half-finished project with the amount of funds that were left over (most contractors would not want to bid on a halffinished job) and the second was to get the wooden pieces back. Lund had the police called in as a precautionary measure to ensure parts would be delivered. The Parks Department was used again to deliver wooden parts to the second contractor, Carroll Adams, who saw the project to the end. (His nephew, Jearel Adams, worked on the Cavalry building). Some wooden pieces had become damaged from being taken apart, stepped on, or exposed to moisture. Carroll Adams, having worked on historic building restoration jobs before and seeing Mark had been scraping pieces of interior wood trim so that they may be used again, took it upon himself to purchase wood pieces with his money to see the job be done correctly. Another obstacle to rebuilding was met below the ground on which Building No. 2 now stands. Because of its heavy 12" brick walls, a continuous concrete brick foundation had to be placed below the ground. Utility pipes obstructed digging and created problems for re-builders: Boxed openings were made in the reinforced concrete foundation. Steel pieces were placed on the top of the openings after the concrete cured. This was done to handle the loads of substantial masonry walls. The City sidewalk crew (under the direction of Santana Vallejo) built this concrete foundation. They did very well in dealing with the challenges presented by the existing utilities. The foundation design was done by the City Engineer, P. J. Garcia, P. E. The private contractor was hired to do the subsequent work… after the foundation was completed. Mark Lund also had the odious task of placing insulation from the crawl space beneath the floor of Building No. 2. Work was completed by 1993 and it now sits near the Art Annex Building No. 89. Most peculiar about this building is that there is no historical subject marker on the Little Chapel for visitors to inform them where the building was once located, what it was used for, and to memorialize the people who all worked together to save it. A second Post Chapel (Building No. 62) once stood in the area between Tandy Hall and the Lightner Student Center, next to the Post Theater. This chapel was the actual "Regimental" chapel. It had a larger capacity to hold services for a larger number of men. The large wood-frame structure with a steeple was built in 1941 and had a 350 person capacity. It measured 81'-3" long and 37' wide. The Quartermaster record lists it as a "temporary" building and classify it as a "Regimental Chapel" on the floor plan. It was dedicated on Sunday, October 26, 1941. There was a movable altar for Jewish, Catholic, or Protestant services. Before that, services were held in the service club near Building No. 2. Chaplain Stephan K. Callahan moved his office from Building No. 2 into the new chapel the following Monday. In 1947, the two chapels and other buildings at Fort Brown were declared surplus property by the War Assets Administration (WAA). An appeal was made to the WAA to secure Building No. 2 (The Little Chapel) as a museum for the BHA that had just had its first annual meeting at the Brownsville Chamber of Commerce after being chartered by the State of Texas. Immaculate Conception Church bought Building No. 62 for the St. Joseph Church on the corner of Sixth and 555 W. St. Francis. Luke Waters of Harlingen took the job of moving the building from the fort to its new site. For a job that would have normally lasted a few days or couple of weeks at the most, it actually took nearly five months. It was a burden Mr. Waters carried to the end. Waters began the task in October of 1947. To move it presented a problem because streets were only 30 feet wide. Weighing 150,000 pounds, it was moved by heavy trucks. Telephone cables were either lowered or raised to make way for the chapel. Electric lines were also cut. This upset some people who found themselves temporarily without electricity. The weather caused the greatest problems. Whenever it rained, the job would be halted, as the earth was too soft to move over without getting the load stuck in the mud, which it did at various points. The "front end" was pulled out of one of Water's trucks. Two winch trucks were damaged and cable lines broke several times. Mr. Waters also broke his arm in a fall on January 2nd. Asked if he remembered the exact route that was followed in moving, his reply was "I certainly do. I'll never forget it." After leaving Fort Brown, the building proceeded on Jefferson to East Ninth, turned north to Madison, west on Madison to Seventh, north on Seventh to Van Buren, west on Van Buren across the Southern Pacific railroad tracks to Ninth, south on Ninth to Jackson, west on Jackson between the Resaca and City Cemetery, across Palm Blvd. to West First, south across vacant lots to Jefferson, west on Jefferson to W. Seventh, south to Elizabeth, east to half-way between W. Fourth and Fifth, west again to Seventh, south on Seventh to St. Francis, and finally to its destination at W. Sixth and St. Francis. For the "wandering church" to reach its destination, brush had to be cleared on some vacant lots to move it. It finally reached its destination on February 17, 1948. Father Chateau officiated services and Father Casey was appointed first pastor in 1953. It remained a parish until 1962 when a new church was built across the street. Research material showed that historian A. A. Champion and his wife, Isabel, were members of this church. The church has been covered in brick with an addition on its west side and the steeple has been removed. It now serves as a youth center for the church. ; https://scholarworks.utrgv.edu/ftbrown/1511/thumbnail.jpg

Building no. 62. Constructed in 1941-10-10. O.q.m.g. plan no. 7033-787-1; Regiment chapel. The Regiment House has been called by many names. Although small in stature, it has a diverse history. Not only has its use and title changed many times since it was built, it has also misled some local historians into reporting it as being located at different places. Once affectionately known as "The Little Chapel at Fort Brown," it originally stood with its back to the Rio Grande and faced the parade grounds near the present Gateway International Bridge and Customs facilities. Sources noted it had "been moved from its original location to a point near the international bridge." Another account described the chapel as once being located near the Jefferson entrance and used as a school for African-American soldiers. These minor errors that crept into historical record made Building No. 2. an interesting study. There were actually two chapels; each one moved one time and still in use today. The first chapel was originally built to be used as a school and library. In 1889, plans were originally designed for it to be made of wood. However, a hurricane in 1880 may have convinced the Army that a brick building would last longer. Maps showed that building No. 2 was built between 1882 and 1884. It was used as a school until 1907. Between 1907 and 1922 its use is uncertain. From 1922 to 1941 it was used as a Post Chapel, N.C.O. "Bachelors'" Quarters, Officers' Guests Quarters, Post Office and N.C.O. Quarters, and the Chaplain's office prior to October 1941 as will be explained later. Earliest Post Engineer's records show that a single 20' x 30' ft. bedroom and 16' x 18' living room comprised the floor space with an open porch. At that time it listed a capacity for 50 persons. "The larger room was the chapel's auditorium, while the smaller room was its vestry." Later records show the building was divided with a hall to make three bedrooms and small kitchen to house a single family by 1938. It was also painted at one time. By then, the. porch was screened. In 1951, the Little Chapel at Fort Brown was remembered at the time for being a "popular place for weddings of soldiers and local girls" when it was transferred by the city of Brownsville as a museum to the Brownsville Historical Association. The BHA restored the building and opened it in 1952. The BHA was organized in 1946 and granted a charter by the state of Texas in 1947. They were granted use of the Chapel as a museum for 50 years. However, by 1958, the Stillman house at 1305 E. Washington Street was purchased by Chauncey Stillman, a great-grandson of Charles Stillman, and donated to the BHA as their permanent home. When businessmen in downtown Brownsville heard about this, they petitioned to oppose the BHA relocating there under the charge that "a museum would stifle the growth of the immediate area." The BHA restored the home and moved in by 1960. Now with the expanded Brownsville Heritage Complex, the BHA continues to organize a wide range of activities to promote local history and preserve historical records. From 1960 to 1991, Building No. 2 was used as an office for the General Services Administration (GSA) and a tool and maintenance building. Little maintenance had been done on the building and after thirty years of neglect, the building had seen better days. In 1992 when expansion of the U.S. Customs facility would require that it be removed, the "Little Chapel" was suddenly in need of a few small miracles. Mark Lund, Director of City Planning, (Heritage Officer for Brownsville at the time) had first hand experience from the initial dismantling, storage, and restoration of Building No. 2. He stated that the city had a contract with the GSA to remove (demolish) the building. When the Texas State Historical Commission became involved, the "Planning staff and Heritage Council persuaded the City Commission to intervene such that the building's demolition (disassembly) was done carefully to allow it at a future date to be possibly reassembled." The GSA was anxious to remove Building No. 2 because it delayed construction by standing in the way of a road that had to be widened for trucks to make a sharp turn from the bridge for inspection. Once the Historical Commission was satisfied assessment requirements were met, the process to demolish was approved. When the city was contracted by the GSA to demolish Building No. 2, Mr. Lund involved the Heritage Council and Planning Director Joe Galvan, who spoke with Butch Barbosa of the City Commission, to find what could be done to save the little building. Bricks were not numbered as previously believed. Instead, temporary workers were hired and instructed to carefully remove the bricks and place them on pallets to be stored for future use. The City Manager, Kirby Lellijedahl, sent Parks Department trucks to transport brick and wooden pieces, which were labeled and protected by tarps. There was no funding to immediately relocate the building. One ideal plan was to situate the building near the entrance at the Fort Brown Memorial Golf Course as a visitor's center. Until Building No. 2's fate would be known, components would be temporarily stored in Brownsville Compress warehouses free of rent for several months by compress owners. After several months, the city was asked to begin paying rent. Since the building was eligible to receive funds from the Community Development Block Grant – Community Development Funds (CBDG), approximately $1,200 was used to keep the parts in storage until it could be decided where it would be rebuilt. Around this time Los Caminos Del Rio was producing a film to highlight significant architectural buildings along both sides of the Rio Grande Valley to be aired by the Public Broadcasting System (PBS). The Dallas-based philanthropic Meadows Foundation supported this production and representatives were visiting Brownsville. After learning about Building No. 2, they advised the City to write a formal grant proposal. Once funding by the Meadows Foundation was assured, TSC got involved with the Texas Historical Commission and the City Planning Department in planning a new site for the building on the historical campus. TSC officials must have considered Building 2 as an inherent part of the historical assemblage of fort buildings and that it would be turned over to them, even though it had fallen under ownership of the GSA and later, transferred to the City. The project was entitled "Building Number Two" by the City and an Inter-Local Agreement was signed between the City and TSC under which the City would pay all costs once a $50,000 grant was secured by the Meadows Foundation. Construction was to be supervised by Heritage Officer Mark Lund and progress of the work would be reported to Michael Putegnat, TSC Executive Director. Once the job was completed, the City would "turn over title and control to TSC. Costs involved for TSC would be time and landscaping." Bricks were delivered near the parking lot on the site it would be rebuilt. This pile caused rainwater to flood the parking lot and Michael Putegnat, was pressured to correct this situation. For a short while, stagnant water became known as "Putegnat's Pond." Bricks had to be reset aside to allow for proper drainage. During reconstruction, the contractor became dissatisfied with the amount of his reimbursement when the small building proved to be a bigger challenge than he anticipated. He had stored some of the wooden pieces from the Brownsville Compress in his garage and held up construction. Mark Lund was faced with two problems: One was to hire a new contractor to complete the half-finished project with the amount of funds that were left over (most contractors would not want to bid on a halffinished job) and the second was to get the wooden pieces back. Lund had the police called in as a precautionary measure to ensure parts would be delivered. The Parks Department was used again to deliver wooden parts to the second contractor, Carroll Adams, who saw the project to the end. (His nephew, Jearel Adams, worked on the Cavalry building). Some wooden pieces had become damaged from being taken apart, stepped on, or exposed to moisture. Carroll Adams, having worked on historic building restoration jobs before and seeing Mark had been scraping pieces of interior wood trim so that they may be used again, took it upon himself to purchase wood pieces with his money to see the job be done correctly. Another obstacle to rebuilding was met below the ground on which Building No. 2 now stands. Because of its heavy 12" brick walls, a continuous concrete brick foundation had to be placed below the ground. Utility pipes obstructed digging and created problems for re-builders: Boxed openings were made in the reinforced concrete foundation. Steel pieces were placed on the top of the openings after the concrete cured. This was done to handle the loads of substantial masonry walls. The City sidewalk crew (under the direction of Santana Vallejo) built this concrete foundation. They did very well in dealing with the challenges presented by the existing utilities. The foundation design was done by the City Engineer, P. J. Garcia, P. E. The private contractor was hired to do the subsequent work… after the foundation was completed. Mark Lund also had the odious task of placing insulation from the crawl space beneath the floor of Building No. 2. Work was completed by 1993 and it now sits near the Art Annex Building No. 89. Most peculiar about this building is that there is no historical subject marker on the Little Chapel for visitors to inform them where the building was once located, what it was used for, and to memorialize the people who all worked together to save it. A second Post Chapel (Building No. 62) once stood in the area between Tandy Hall and the Lightner Student Center, next to the Post Theater. This chapel was the actual "Regimental" chapel. It had a larger capacity to hold services for a larger number of men. The large wood-frame structure with a steeple was built in 1941 and had a 350 person capacity. It measured 81'-3" long and 37' wide. The Quartermaster record lists it as a "temporary" building and classify it as a "Regimental Chapel" on the floor plan. It was dedicated on Sunday, October 26, 1941. There was a movable altar for Jewish, Catholic, or Protestant services. Before that, services were held in the service club near Building No. 2. Chaplain Stephan K. Callahan moved his office from Building No. 2 into the new chapel the following Monday. In 1947, the two chapels and other buildings at Fort Brown were declared surplus property by the War Assets Administration (WAA). An appeal was made to the WAA to secure Building No. 2 (The Little Chapel) as a museum for the BHA that had just had its first annual meeting at the Brownsville Chamber of Commerce after being chartered by the State of Texas. Immaculate Conception Church bought Building No. 62 for the St. Joseph Church on the corner of Sixth and 555 W. St. Francis. Luke Waters of Harlingen took the job of moving the building from the fort to its new site. For a job that would have normally lasted a few days or couple of weeks at the most, it actually took nearly five months. It was a burden Mr. Waters carried to the end. Waters began the task in October of 1947. To move it presented a problem because streets were only 30 feet wide. Weighing 150,000 pounds, it was moved by heavy trucks. Telephone cables were either lowered or raised to make way for the chapel. Electric lines were also cut. This upset some people who found themselves temporarily without electricity. The weather caused the greatest problems. Whenever it rained, the job would be halted, as the earth was too soft to move over without getting the load stuck in the mud, which it did at various points. The "front end" was pulled out of one of Water's trucks. Two winch trucks were damaged and cable lines broke several times. Mr. Waters also broke his arm in a fall on January 2nd. Asked if he remembered the exact route that was followed in moving, his reply was "I certainly do. I'll never forget it." After leaving Fort Brown, the building proceeded on Jefferson to East Ninth, turned north to Madison, west on Madison to Seventh, north on Seventh to Van Buren, west on Van Buren across the Southern Pacific railroad tracks to Ninth, south on Ninth to Jackson, west on Jackson between the Resaca and City Cemetery, across Palm Blvd. to West First, south across vacant lots to Jefferson, west on Jefferson to W. Seventh, south to Elizabeth, east to half-way between W. Fourth and Fifth, west again to Seventh, south on Seventh to St. Francis, and finally to its destination at W. Sixth and St. Francis. For the "wandering church" to reach its destination, brush had to be cleared on some vacant lots to move it. It finally reached its destination on February 17, 1948. Father Chateau officiated services and Father Casey was appointed first pastor in 1953. It remained a parish until 1962 when a new church was built across the street. Research material showed that historian A. A. Champion and his wife, Isabel, were members of this church. The church has been covered in brick with an addition on its west side and the steeple has been removed. It now serves as a youth center for the church. ; https://scholarworks.utrgv.edu/ftbrown/1388/thumbnail.jpg

GESCHICHTE DER STADT UND DES GERICHTSBEZIRKES ODRAU Geschichte der Stadt und des Gerichtsbezirkes Odrau ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([I]) Vorwort. ([III]) Inhaltsangabe. (VII) I. Abschnitt. II. Abschnitt. III. Abschnitt. Odrau unter den Herren von Sternberg: IV. Abschnitt. Odrau unter den Herren von Liderau und Hoyer von Füllstein: V. Abschnitt. Odrau unter den Herren von Zwola: VI. Abschnitt. Odrau zur Zeit des dreißigjährigen Krieges: (VII) VII. Abschnitt. Odrau unter den Herren von Werdenberg: (VII) VIII. Abschnitt. Odrau unter den Herren von Lichnowsky. (VIII) IX. Abschnitt. Odrau unter Maria Theresia, Reichsgräfin von Schlabrendorf, und Charlotte, Landgräfin zu Fürstenberg. (VIII) X. Abschnitt. 1848 - 1900: (IX) Verzeichnis der Bilder. (XI) I. Abschnitt. Geographischer Überblick. ([1]) [Abb.]: Oderquelle. (2) [Abb.]: Blick ins Odertal vom Hirnik (Jogsdorf-Lautsch). (3) [Abb.]: Blick auf Odrau vom Pohorschberg beim Steinteichl. (4) [Abb.]: Mankendorfer Brücke. (5) Am linken Ufer fließen der Oder, abgesehen von einigen unbedeutenden und unbenannten Gewässern, folgende Bäche zu: (7) [Abb.]: Partie aus dem Tschermenktale. (7) Die Zuflüsse der Oder am rechten Ufer sind: (8) [Abb.]: Partie aus dem Steinbachtale (Wolfsdorf). (8) [Tabelle]: Als 40 jähriges Normalmittel der Temperatur von 1851 - 1890 in Graden nach Celsius ermittelt: (9) [Tabelle]: Die Vertheilung auf die einzelnen Gemeinden ist aus nachstehender Tabelle ersichtlich: (10) Geologische Übersicht. Vorgeschichtliche Zeit. (10) [Abb.]: Petersdorfer Brücke. (12) [Abb.]: Vorgeschichtliche Funde bei Mankendorf. (14) II. Abschnitt. (17) Überblick über die älteste Landesgeschichte. (17) [Abb.]: Eisernes Tor (mähr.-schles. Landesgrenze). (19) [Abb.]: Milichberg mit Taschenberg im Hintergrunde. (23) Besiedlungen im Odergebiete. Odrau einst Wihnanow genannt. (26) [Abb.]: Mariastein an der Oder. (27) [Abb.]: Odrau vom Milichberg. Der Standort von Wihnanow und Pohorschberg im Hintergrund. (30) Deutsches Recht. (31) III. Abschnitt. (35) Odrau unter den Herren von Sternberg. (35) [Abb.]: Wappen der Herren von Sternberg. (36) [Abb.]: Blick von der Pochhütte auf Sternfeld. (39) [Abb.]: Kunzendorfer Erbscholtisei. (43) [Abb.]: Wappen der Herren von Krawarn. (46) [Abb.]: Jahrmarktsbild. (47) Die Husitenkriege. (49) [Abb.]: Mord- oder Wehrgang auf der Stadtmauer. (51) [Abb.]: Citadine im Zwinger. Letzter Rest der Stadtbefestigung. (54) [Abb.]: Taschendorfer Holzkirche. (57) [Abb.]: Patronenmalerei von der Decke der Taschendorfer Kirche. (60) [Abb.]: Patronenmalerei vom Chore der Taschendorfer Kirche. (63) IV. Abschnitt. Odrau unter den Herren von Liderau und unter Hoyer von Füllstein. (64) [Abb.]: Wappen der Herren von Lidareu. (65) [Abb.]: Dreiteiliges Flügelaltarbild in der Taschendorfer Kirche (Geschlossen). (68) [Abb.]: Dreiteiliges Flügelaltarbild in der Taschendorfer Kirche (Offen). (69) [Abb.]: Ältestes Wandbild des hl. Martin in der Taschendorfer Kirche. (71) [Abb.]: Entwicklung des Odrauer Stadtwappens. (73) Kunzendorf! (76) V. Abschnitt. Odrau unter den Herren von Zwola. (77) Hinek von Zwola-Namiescht auf Odrau. (77) Johann Thomas von Zwola-Goldenstein auf Odrau. (79) [Abb.]: Wappen der Herren von Zwola-Goldenstein. (80) Streitigkeiten mit den Bürgern. (81) [Abb.]: Altes Rathaus von Odrau. Abgebrochen 1863. (83) In welch bescheidenen Verhältnissen sich die Einnahmen und Ausgaben bewegten, zeigen die einzelnen Posten, die wir in der damaligen Schreibweise anführen. (85) A. Einnahmen: (85) [Tabelle]: (85) [Abb.]: Wappenschild vom alten Rathaus. (87) [Tabelle]: B. Ausgaben. (87) [Abb.]: Wappen der Schuster-, Schneider-, Kürschner- und Fleischerzunft. (90) [Abb.]: Wappen der gemischten Zunft, der Leinweber-, Bäcker- und Tuchmacherzunft. (91) [Abb.]: Aältestes Einsagzeichen der Schneiderzunft. (94) [Abb.]: Einsagzeichen der Schneiderzunft v. J. 1612. (95) Streitigkeiten mit den Bauern. (96) [Abb.]: Einsagzeichen der Kürschnerzunft. (100) [Abb.]: Einsagzeichen der Schusterzunft. (101) Andere Streitigkeiten. (102) Johann Bohusch von Zwola-Goldenstein auf Odrau. (105) Städtische Verhältnisse. (106) [Tabelle]: Aus dem Jahre 1590 hat sich das Register der städtischen Ausgaben erhalten, dem wir das Folgende entnehmen: (106) [Abb.]: Einsagzeichen der Leinweberzunft. (108) [Abb.]: Einsagzeichen der Tuchmacherzunft. (109) Streit mit den Bürgern und Bauern. (110) Andere Streitigkeiten. (113) [Abb.]: Einsagzeichen der gemischten Zunft. (114) Plünderung durch Geißbergs Völker. (115) Neuregelung des Zunftwesens. (118) [Abb.]: Mankendorfer Erbrichterei. (118) [Abb.]: Heinzendorfer Erbrichterei. (123) [Abb.]: Wessiedler Erbrichterei. (128) [Abb.]: Dobischwälder Erbrichterei. (133) Rechtspflege. (134) [Abb.]: Lautscher Erbrichterei. (137) [Abb.]: Jogsdorfer Erbrichterei. (140) [2 Abb.]: Klein-Hermsdorfer Erbrichterei. (144) Reformation und Gegenreformation. (147) [Abb.]: Groß-Hermersdorfer Erbrichterei. (148) [Abb.]: Dörfler Erbrichterei. (151) [Abb.]: Kamitzer Erbrichterei. (154) [Abb.]: Wolfsdorfer Erbrichterei. (158) Kunzendorf. (162) [Abb.]: Taschendorfer Erbrichterei. (163) VI. Abschnitt. Odrau zur Zeit des dreißigjährigen Krieges. (164) Georg und Johan Friedrich von Stitsch und Poln.-Jagel auf Odrau. (164) Schebor Praschma von Bilkau auf Odrau. (166) [Abb.]: Wappen der Herren von Praschma. (167) Der dreißigjährige Krieg. I. Periode. (168) [Abb.]: Meierhof in Odrau. (170) Der dreißigjährige Krieg. II. Periode. (171) [Abb.]: Meierhof in Mankendorf. (173) Hans Bernhard Praschma von Bilkau auf Odrau. (174) Der dreißigjährige Krieg. III. Periode. (176) [Abb.]: Meierhof in Klein-Petersdorf. (176) Odrau unter kaiserlichem Sequester. (178) IV. Periode des dreißigjährigen Krieges. (179) [Abb.]: Herrschaftl. Brettsäge in Lautsch. (180) Johann Freiherr von Winz auf Odrau. (182) Der dreißigjährige Krieg. V. Periode. (183) [Abb.]: Mühle und Brettsäge in Lautsch. (184) [Abb.]: Große-Mühle oder Schloßmühle in Odrau. (187) Michael Alvernia Saluzzo, Markgraf zu Clavesana, auf Odrau. (189) Plünderung dirch die Schweden. (190) [Abb.]: Herrschaftliches Bräuhaus. (191) Untertansverhältnisse nach dem Urbar vom Jahre 1650. (196) [Tabelle]: Die Rechnung nach den Metzen wurde erst später üblich. (197) [Abb.]: Siegel der Strumpfstrickerzunft. (198) [Abb.]: Schloß Odrau. (202) [Tabelle]: Die weiteren Robotleistungen der Bauern aus den genannten Dörfern sind aus folgender Tabelle zu entnehmen: (206) [Tabelle]: Die Gemeinden als solche brachten der Herrschaft seit uralter Zeit folgende Gaben, die man Ehrungen nannte: (207) [Abb.]: Erntebild. (208) [Abb.]: Erntewagen. (212) Gewerbe. (213) [Abb.]: Glockentürmchen in Jogsdorf. (215) Kirche und Schule. (216) VII. Abschnitt. Odrau unter den Herren von Werdenberg. (218) Johann Baptist Freiherr von Werdenberg auf Odrau. (218) [Abb.]: Wappen der Herren von Werdenberg. (220) [Abb.]: Pfarrkirche in Odrau. (225) Johann Georg Freiherr von Hofmann auf Odrau. (228) [Abb.]: Grundriß der Pfarrkirche in Odrau. (231) Johann Peter Anton Graf von Werdenberg auf Odrau. (232) [Abb.]: Begräbniskirche in Odrau. (237) Gewerbe. (242) [Abb.]: Partie aus der Neustadt in Odrau. (243) [Abb.]: Werdenberger Meierhof. (249) Rechtspflege. (255) [Abb.]: Tschermenkamühle. (257) Kirche und Schule. (260) [Abb.]: Hennhof. (262) [Abb.]: Forellenteichl. (267) [Abb.]: Hennbach bei Hochwasser. (272) Kunzendorf. (274) VIII. Abschnitt. Odrau unter den Herren von Lichnowsky. (275) Franz Leopold Freiherr von Lichnowsky auf Odrau. (275) [Tabelle]: (276) [Tabelle]: Zu Ostern hatten 19 Schultern oder Schinken zu geben oder 385 gr. zu zahlen. Auf diese einzelnen Dörfer verteilte sich dies folgendermaßen: (277) [Abb.]: Wappen der Herrn von Lichnowsky. (278) Großer Rechtsstreit mit den Bürgern und Bauern. (279) [Abb.]: Lange Brücke in Odrau. (283) [Abb.]: Franziskusstatue auf der langen Brücke. (288) Barbara Cajetana Gräfin Lichnowsky. (291) [Abb.]: Johannesstatue auf der langen Brücke. (293) [Abb.]: Schloß Odrau (Parkseite). (298) [Abb.]: Florianistatue am Stadtplatze. (303) Johann Karl Gottlieb Graf Lichnowsky. (304) Dritter schlesischer oder siebenjähriger Krieg. (304) [Abb.]: Hochwasser in der Oder, von der Viehweidbrücke gesehen. (309) Rechtsstreit mit den Schankbürgern. Gründung neuer Kolonien. (312) [Abb.]: Glockentürmchen in Lautsch. (315) [Abb.]: Siegel von Neumark (321) Bayrischer Erbfolgekrieg. (321) Wiederaufnahme des Rechtsstreites mit den Schankbürgern. Gründung weiterer Kolonien. (323) [Abb.]: Siegel von Dörfel, Kamitz, Lautsch und Großhermsdorf. (326) [Abb.]: Siegel von Mankendorf, Dobischwald, Taschendorf, Kleinhermsdorf und Wessiedel. (331) Untertansverhältnisse. Urbarialentwürfe. Robothauptpatent. (332) [Abb.]: Siegel von Heinzendorf, Jogsdorf, Wolfsdorf, Petersdorf, Werdenberg, Emaus und Neudörfel. (336) Neue Urbarien. Beschwerden der Herrschaft wegen derselben. (340) [Abb.]: Kreuz in der Neumark. (341) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Aus der Tabelle A sind jedorch die Hauptleistungen derselben an Grundzinsen und Roboten zu entnehmen, (2)während Tabelle B das von den einzelnen Dörfern der Herrschaft zu schüttende Zinsgetreide angibt. (342) Einziehung der Zinsflecken. Einkaufsgesetze und Kommissionskäufe. (345) [Abb.]: Brücke in Neudörfl. (346) Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft und Einräumung des Eigentums an die Untertanen. (350) [Abb.]: Werdenberg. (351) Außerordentliche Robotaushilfe. Aufruhr. (354) [Abb.]: Sternfeld. (356) Neues Steuer- und Urbarialsystem. (356) [Tabelle]: Flächeninhalt der obrigkeitlichen; Flächeninhalt der untertänigen (360) [Tabelle]: 1. Acker und Trieschfelder 2. Wiesen und Gärten 3. Hutweiden 4. Wälder (361) Karl Fürst Lichnowsky. (362) [Abb.]: Emaus. (363) Wiederabschaffung des neuen Steuer- und Urbarial-Systems. (364) Gewerbe. (365) [Tabelle]: [Gewerbe] (366) [Abb.]: Marienstatue am Stadtplatze. (369) [Abb.]: Kreuz in der Bachgasse. (375) Rechtspflege. (380) [Abb.]: Kreuz in der Obergasse. (380) [Abb.]: Kirche in Dörfel. (387) Reihenfolge der bekannten Bürgermeister von Odrau: [1485 - 1787] (389) Reihenfolge der bekannten Stadtvögte und Stadtrichter von Odrau: [1542 - 1695] (390) Stadtrichter: [1696 - 1787] Reihenfolge der bekannten Stadtschreiber: [1547 - 1765] (391) [Abb.]: Kirche in Mankendorf. (392) Stadt- und Dorfpfarren. (393) [Abb.]: Kirche in Petersdorf. (399) [Abb.]: Kirche und Erbscholtisei (nach dem Brande) in Kunzendorf. (404) Stadt- und Dorfschulen. (407) [Abb.]: Kirche in Wessiedel. (409) [Abb.]: Windmühle in Wessiedel. (414) [Abb.]: Ackersmann in Dörfel. (418) [Abb.]: Windmühle in Kamitz. (421) Kunzendorf. (423) IX. Abschnitt. (425) Odrau unter Maria Theresia, Reichsgräfin von Schlabrendorff, und Charlotte, Landgräfin zu Fürstenberg. (425) [Abb.]: Wappen der Schlabrendorff. (425) [2 Abb.]: Schießstätte. (429) [Tabelle]: Am 2. Jänner 1806 war die Epidemie in Abnahme begriffen, nur in Mankendorf griff sie noch weiter um sich. Den Umfang, den sie genommen, zeigt folgende Zusammenstellung: (430) [Abb.]: Viehweidbrücke (Hofbrücke) mit Lerchenfeld. (433) [Abb.]: Wappen der Fürstenberg. (438) Stadt- und Dorfgeschichte. (442) [Abb.]: Städtisches Brauhaus im Zwinger. (443) [Abb.]: Josefihof. (447) [Abb.]: Rosengasse. (450) [Abb.]: Kirchengasse. (453) [Abb.]: Weitzkirchnerstraße. (456) [Abb.]: Prospekt u. Grundlage der Stad Oderau in Reserlich Schlesien von Morgen gegen Abend anzusehen. (459) [Tabelle]: A Gemeinden Flächeninhalt der ertragsfähigen (produktiven) Gründe; Anzahl der Häuser Wohnparteien; Von diesen Betrieben waren Landwirtschaft, Gewerbe, Landw. u. Gewerbe, Honoratioren, Taglöhner; Viehstand Pferde, Fohlen, Ochsen, Kühe, Schafe (460) [Tabelle]: B Gemeinden Obrigkeitliche oder Dominikalgründe; Untertänige oder Rustikalgründe (461) [Tabelle]: C Gemeinden Anzahl der Bestiftungen mit ihrem Bsitzstande (462) [Abb.]: Stadt. Odrauer Tuchschaerrer Zunftsiegel. (464) Gewerbe. (465) [Abb.]: Kapelle in Heinzendorf. (466) [Abb.]: Kapelle in Neudörfel. (468) [Abb.]: Kapelle in Kleinhermsdorf. (470) [Abb.]: Kapelle in Großhermsdorf. (472) [Abb.]: Kapelle in Kamitz. (475) [Abb.]: Städt. Volks- und Bürgerschule in Odrau. (477) [Abb.]: Dr. Jur. u. Phil. Heinrich Joh. Demel. Direktor der Theresianischen Akademie in Wien. (479) [Abb.]: Alois Klein. kön. Sektionschef in Agram. (481) [Abb.]: Eduard Gerlich Professor am eidgenössischen Polytechnikum in Zürich. (484) [Abb.]: Dr. Ernest Freißler k. k. Regierungsrat, Landessanitätsreferent, Direktor des Krankenhauses in Troppau. (486) [Abb.]: Gustav Ritter von Kreitner Asienreisender und Generalkonsul in Yokohama. (488) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Mankendorf. (490) Stadt- und Dorfpfarren. (492) [2 Abb.]: Schulhaus in Heinzendorf. (493) [Abb.]: P. Gregor Joh. Mendel Prälat im Königskloster in Brünn hervorragender Botaniker. (495) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Wessiedel. (497) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Dobischwald. (499) Stadt- und Dorfschulen. (500) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Lautsch. (501) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Kleinhermsdorf. (503) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Großhermsdorf. (505) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Dörfel. (507) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Kamitz. (509) [Abb.]: Dorfwirtshaus in Kamitz. (511) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Kunzendorf. (516) [Tabelle]: Schulort 1818; Schulfähige Kinder; Schulzimmer (517) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Wolfsdorf. (520) [Tabelle]: Name der Schule; Derzeitige Dotation des Lehrers; Jährliche Unterstützung für die Zukunft von der Obrigkeit/Gemeinde (521) [Abb.]: Schulhaus in Taschendorf. (524) [Abb.]: Johann Schindler akademischer Bildhauer in Wien. Medaillon von seinem Grabmal am Matzleinsdorfer Freidhofe. (527) Kunzendorf. (530) [Abb.]: Siegel von Kunzendorf. (531) X. Abschnitt. Stadt und Gerichtsbezirk Odrau im Zeitraume 1848 bis 1900. (532) Allgemeiner Überblick. Verfassung, Verwaltung und Rechtspflege. (532) [Abb.]: Landgräfl. Fürstenberg'sches Krankenstift. (535) [Tabelle]: Die Eintheilung des Bezirkes Odrau in Orts-, Katastral- und Konskriptionsgemeinden ist aus der Tabelle A ersichtlich. (538) [Abb.]: Landgräfl. Fürstenberg'sche Leichenhalle. (539) [Tabelle]: B. Ortsgemeinden und zugleich Katastralgemeinden; Konskriptionsgemeinden (541) Herrscjaft Odrau. Stiftungen der Landgräfin Charlotte zu Fürstenberg. (542) [Abb.]: Landgräfl. Fürstenberg'sches Siechenhaus. (543) [Tabelle]: Die folgende Tabelle zeigt die bisherigen Leistungen der Untertanen und die für die Ablösung derselben an die Grundentlastungskasse gestellten Ansprüche. (544) [Abb.]: Landgräfl. Fürstenberg'sche Mädchenschule. (547) [Abb.]: Landgräfl. Fürstenberg'sches Kaplanhaus. (551) [Abb.]: Landgräfin Charlotte Fürstenberg. (555) [Abb.]: Städtisches Epidemiespital. (559) [Abb.]: Friedhof-Situation. (563) [Abb.]: Städtische Leichenhalle. (567) Stadt Odrau von 1848 bis 1900. (568) [Abb.]: Mausuleum der Familie Gerlich. (571) [Abb.]: Grabmal der Familie Kuntschik. (575) [Abb.]: Volksbad. (579) [Abb.]: Blumensteg. (583) [Abb.]: Oberer Teil des Stadtplatzes. (587) [Abb.]: Neue Straße am Milichberg. (591) [Abb.]: erster Felsenkeller. (595) [Abb.]: Partie aus dem Scheuergrund mit Altbürgermeister Julius Gerlich. (599) [Tabelle]: Nachstehende Tabelle zeigt den Viehstand im Gerichtsbezirke vom Jahre 1890. (602) [2 Abb.]: Zweiter Felsenkeller. (603) [Tabelle]: Dieses gemeinnützige Institut hat trotz der kurzen Zeit seines Bestandes, wie folgende Tabelle zeigt, recht günstige Resultate erzielt. (604) [Abb.]: neue Wasserleitung mit Kreuzbrünnl, Filter und Hochreservoir. (607) [Abb.]: Kaiser-Josef-Hochstrahlbrunnen. (609) [Abb.]: Gerlich'sche Tuchfabrik. (612) Die Dorfgemeinden. (613) [Tabelle]: Die Tabelle A gibt über die in den einzelnen Gemeinden vorhandenen steuerpflichtigen und steuerfreien Grundstücke im Jahre 1898 Aufschluß: (613) [2 Tabellen]: (1)B. Ortsgemeinden; Organe der autonomen Gemeinde (2)Ihre Verteilung auf der einzelnen Gemeinden zeigt die Tabelle C. (614) [2 Tabellen]: (1)[Schulbau] (2)Die Verteilung auf die einzelnen Gemeinden ist aus der vorstehenden Tabelle E zu entnehmen. (615) [Tabelle]: F Die Gesamteinnahmen für Schulzwecke beliefen sich auf 12.200 Fl. Die Verteilung auf die einzelnen Gemeinden zeigt Tabelle F. (616) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Ausgaben für Armenpflege. Welchen Anteil hieran die einzelnen Dörfer hatten, zeigt die Tabelle G. (2)Die Aktivvermögen der Armenfonde betrug 20. 621 Fl. Die Verteilung auf die einzelnen Gemeinden zeigt die Tabelle H. (617) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Über die bestehenden katholischen Stiftungen a) und die katholischen Pfarrarmenfonde ohne Stiftungskataster b) gibt die Tabelle I Aufschluß. (2)Über die Umlagen der einzelnen Gemeinden zur Deckung der Gemeindeauslagen gibt die Tabelle K näheren Aufschluß. (618) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Sechs Gemeinden reichten mit den Umlagen zur Deckung der Erfordernisse nicht aus und mußten Darlehen im Gesamtbetrage von 22.682 Fl. 31 Kr. aufnehmen. Über deren Stand Ende 1898 gibt Tabelle L Aufklärung. (2)Über den den einzelnen Gemeinden als solchen gehörenden Grundbesitz gibt die Tabelle M und über die Größe der Jagdgebiete (619) [Tabelle]:. über das Erträgnis der Jagd und über die Verwendung derselben im Jahre 1899 die Tabelle N Aufschluß. (620) [Abb.]: Filiale der Gerli'schen Tuchfabrik. (620) [Abb.]: Waschkas Seidenwarenfabrik. (622) [Abb.]: Kolisch' Seidenwarenfabrik. (624) [Abb.]: Kohnbergers Gummiwarenfabrik. (626) [Abb.]: Färberei und Walke der Gummiwarenfabrik. (628) [Abb.]: Teltschiks Steinnußknopffabrik in Jogsdorf. (630) Gewerbe und Industrie. Landwirtschaft und Viehzucht. Verkehr. (631) [Abb.]: Englisch' Flachsbereitungsfabrik in Mankendorf. (632) [Abb.]: Schittenhelms Schotter- und Zementfabrik in Jogsdorf. (634) [Abb.]: Dr. Flachas Schieferbruch am Wessiedelberg in Odrau. (636) [Abb.]: Herrschaftliche Ziegelei in der Zieb. (638) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Welche Wandlungen die Tuchindustrie von 1845 bis 1853 in den Städten Schlesiens durchmachte, zeigt folgende Tabelle: (2)Den tiefsten Stand hatte Odrau im Jahre 1852 erreicht, seit welcher Zeit sich wieder ein Aufschwung bemerkbar machte, wie folgende Produktionstabelle von Odrau zeigt: (640) [Abb.]: Haltestelle Mankendorf. (641) [Tabelle]: Die Fabrikation befand sich damals auf dem Höhepunkte und nahm seit jener Zeit sehr rasch ab, wie es die Tabellen der Erzeugung von Streichgarn und Tuch in den Jahren 1870 und 1875 dartun. (642) [Tabelle]: Die Tabelle auf S. 643 zeigt uns die Produktionsverhältnisse in den Hauptbetriebsorten der schlesischen Tuchindustrie im Jahre 1895. (643) [Abb.]: Bahnhof Odrau. (643) [Abb.]: Station Jogsdorf. (644) [Abb.]: Haltestelle Glockersdorf. (646) [Abb.]: Inneres der Odrauer Pfarrkirche. (648) [Abb.]: Chor in der Odrauer Pfarrkirchen (651) [Abb.]: Dreifaltigkeitssäule bei der Pfarrkirche. (654) [Tabelle]: A Ortsgemeinden; Äcker, Wiesen, Gärten, Hutweiden, Waldungen (655) [Tabelle]: Die Verteilung der genannten Nutztiere auf die einzelnen Gemeinden zeigt die Tabelle B. (656) [Abb.]: Johann Bardutzky Dechant und Stadtpfarrer. (657) [Tabelle]: Solche Spar- und Darlehenskassen-Vereine bestehen in Kleinpetersdorf, Dörfel, Dobischwald und Lautsch und gibt die nachstehende Tabelle über deren Gebarung bis Ende 1900 Aufschluß (659) [Abb.]: Kirche in Dobischwald. (660) [Abb.]: Kirche in Wolfsdorf. (663) [Abb.]: Kapelle in Lautsch. (665) [2 Tabellen]: Welchen Aufschwung der Personen- und Güterverkehr auf der innerhalb des Bezirkes gelegenen Bahnstrecke seit dem Eröffnungsjahre genommen hat, zeigen die beiden folgenden Tabellen. (1)A. Personenverkehr. (2)B. Güterverkehr. (666) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Einen lehrreichen Einblick über die Ein- und Ausfuhr verschiedener Produkte im Bezirke gibt folgender Ausweis über die auf- und abgegebenen Güter nach Artikeln in Tonnen in den Frachtenstationen Odrau und Jogsdorf. (2)Welchen Aufschwung das im Jahre 1836 errichtete Postamt Odrau und das am 14. Jänner 1894 in Jogsdorf eröffnete nahmen, zeigt folgender Ausweis: (667) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Die Postsparkasse-Sammelstellen Odrau und Jogsdorf hatten in den Jahren 1895 und 1899 nachstehenden Verkehr. (2)Nachstehende Tabelle zeigt die Entwicklung des Telegraphenamtes in Odrau (668) [Abb.]: Jubiläumsfestwagen. (1891.) (669) Stadt- und Dorfpfarren. (670) [Abb.]: Bauernhochzeit. (1891.) (672) [Abb.]: Kuhländerin beim Spinnrocken. (675) [Abb.]: Kuhländer Bauern. (678) [Abb.]: Kuhländer Rind. (681) Stadt- und Dorfschulen. (682) [Abb.]: Professor Hubert Wondra Hofopernchor-Direktor. (684) [Abb.]: Altbürgermeister Otto Wladar. (686) [Abb.]: August Hermansky Stifter des Kindergartens. (688) [Abb.]: Kaiser-Franz-Josef-Jubiläums-Park. (692) [Abb.]: Bürgermeister Franz Riedel. (696) [Abb.]: Landespräsident Graf Thun nach Besichtigung des Bauplatzes des Gerichtsgebäudes. (700) [Tabelle]: Die Verteilung auf die einzelnen Gemeinden ist aus folgender Tabelle ersichtlich. (701) Vereinswesen. (701) [Abb.]: Neues Gerichtsgebäude in Odrau. (703) [Tabelle]: Über die einzelnen Feuerwehren des Verbandes gibt weiteren Aufschluß die nachstehende Tabelle: (704) [Abb.]: Altbürgermeister Julius Gerlich. (705) [Abb.]: Landespräsident Graf Thun nach Besichtigung des Krankenstiftes. (708) [Abb.]: Landespräsident Graf Thun eröffnet die Bienenzuchtausstellung. (711) [Abb.]:Odrau vom Pohorschberg. (715) [Abb.]: (717) Benützte Quellenwerke. (718) Spezialverzeichnis (719) A (719) B (719) C (720) D (721) E (722) F (722) G (723) H (724) I (725) J (725) K (726) L (728) M (729) N (730) O (731) P (745) Q (746) R (746) S (747) T (749) U, V (750) W (750) Z (752) Berichtigungen. (753) Anhang. Geschichte der 50 Schankbürgerhäuser in schematischer Zusammenstellung. (754) [Abb.]: Odrau vom Milichberg ( - ) [Karte]: Gerichtsbezirk Odrau ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

Funding text #1 We thank all the hospitals and clinical microbiology laboratories who submitted data and isolates to the reference laboratories as part of their surveillance programmes. We acknowledge the assistance of laboratory personnel who made important contributions to the microbiological data in this study: Wendy Keijzers, Ilse Schuurman, and Agaath Arends in the Netherlands Reference Laboratory for Bacterial Meningitis, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Marie-C?cile Ploy, Carole Grelaud, and all the microbiologists of the French Regional Observatory of Pneumococci Network (Limoges, France); Alice Enefer, Anna Lewis, Karina Micah, Samuel Rose, Chenchal Dhami, and Roger Daniel at the Public Health England Respiratory and Vaccine Preventable Bacteria Unit, London, UK; Xilian Bai, Aiswarya Lekshmi, Jay Lucidarme, Andrew Walker, Lloyd Walsh, and Laura Willerton at the Public Health England Meningococcal Reference Unit in Manchester, UK; Ana Paula Silva de Lemos and Samanta Cristine Grassi Almeida at the .View all Funding text #2 We thank all the hospitals and clinical microbiology laboratories who submitted data and isolates to the reference laboratories as part of their surveillance programmes. We acknowledge the assistance of laboratory personnel who made important contributions to the microbiological data in this study: Wendy Keijzers, Ilse Schuurman, and Agaath Arends in the Netherlands Reference Laboratory for Bacterial Meningitis, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Marie-Cécile Ploy, Carole Grelaud, and all the microbiologists of the French Regional Observatory of Pneumococci Network (Limoges, France); Alice Enefer, Anna Lewis, Karina Micah, Samuel Rose, Chenchal Dhami, and Roger Daniel at the Public Health England Respiratory and Vaccine Preventable Bacteria Unit, London, UK; Xilian Bai, Aiswarya Lekshmi, Jay Lucidarme, Andrew Walker, Lloyd Walsh, and Laura Willerton at the Public Health England Meningococcal Reference Unit in Manchester, UK; Ana Paula Silva de Lemos and Samanta Cristine Grassi Almeida at the .View all Funding text #3 The following authors received support for work unrelated to this study: MPGvdL has received grants from Pfizer, Merck, and the Robert Koch Institut; RB has done contract research on behalf of Public Health England for GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer, and Sanofi Pasteur, but received no personal remuneration; MC has received grants from Pfizer; SAC has done contract research on behalf of Public Health England for GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer, and Sanofi Pasteur, but received no personal remuneration; SD has received a grant from Pfizer; SJG did contract research (carriage studies) for vaccine manufacturers (GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer) on behalf of Public Health England, but received no personal remuneration; MH has received grants from Pfizer and the Federal Office of Public Health, and personal fees (for being on an advisory board) from Pfizer and Merck Sharp & Dohme; HH has received grants from Astellas and Pfizer; KAJ has received a grant from Wellcome Trust and personal fees from GlaxoSmithKline; SNL has done contract research for vaccine manufacturers (GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer, and Sanofi Pasteur) on behalf of St. George's University of London, but received no personal remuneration; DJL has received grants from GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer; SM has received a grant from Sanofi Pasteur; CM-A has received grants from Quiastat, Roche, Pfizer, and Genomica, and personal fees from Roche, Pfizer, and Qiagen; LS has received a grant from GlaxoSmithKline; H-CS has received a grant from Pfizer; MI has received non-financial support from GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer, personal fees from Pfizer (speaker fees) and Merck Sharp & Dohme (speaker fees), and grants from Merck Sharp & Dohme; M-KT has received grants from GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer, and Sanofi Pasteur; ASk has received grants and non-financial support from Pfizer, and personal fees from Pfizer, Merck Sharp & Dohme, and Sanofi Pasteur; CLS has received grants from Pfizer and GlaxoSmithKline for investigator-led research; EV has received grants on behalf of her institution (Intercommunal Hospital of Créteil) from Pfizer and Merck Sharp & Dohme; MT has received grants from GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer; NKF's institution (Public Health England) has received funding for investigator-initiated research from GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer, and Affinivax, but NKF received no personal remuneration; AvG has received a grant from Sanofi Pasteur; NMvS has received a grant from Pfizer, a fee for service paid to their institution from Merck Sharp & Dohme and GlaxoSmithKline, and also has a patent (WO 2013/020090 A3) on vaccine development against Streptococcus pyogenes, unrelated to this study, with royalties paid to University of California San Diego, CA, USA; and MKT has a patent (630133) for a vaccine for serogroup X meningococcus with GlaxoSmithKline. All other authors declare no competing interests. Publisher Copyright: © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 license ; Background: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria meningitidis, which are typically transmitted via respiratory droplets, are leading causes of invasive diseases, including bacteraemic pneumonia and meningitis, and of secondary infections subsequent to post-viral respiratory disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of invasive disease due to these pathogens during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: In this prospective analysis of surveillance data, laboratories in 26 countries and territories across six continents submitted data on cases of invasive disease due to S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and N meningitidis from Jan 1, 2018, to May, 31, 2020, as part of the Invasive Respiratory Infection Surveillance (IRIS) Initiative. Numbers of weekly cases in 2020 were compared with corresponding data for 2018 and 2019. Data for invasive disease due to Streptococcus agalactiae, a non-respiratory pathogen, were collected from nine laboratories for comparison. The stringency of COVID-19 containment measures was quantified using the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker. Changes in population movements were assessed using Google COVID-19 Community Mobility Reports. Interrupted time-series modelling quantified changes in the incidence of invasive disease due to S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and N meningitidis in 2020 relative to when containment measures were imposed. Findings: 27 laboratories from 26 countries and territories submitted data to the IRIS Initiative for S pneumoniae (62 837 total cases), 24 laboratories from 24 countries submitted data for H influenzae (7796 total cases), and 21 laboratories from 21 countries submitted data for N meningitidis (5877 total cases). All countries and territories had experienced a significant and sustained reduction in invasive diseases due to S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and N meningitidis in early 2020 (Jan 1 to May 31, 2020), coinciding with the introduction of COVID-19 containment measures in each country. By contrast, no significant changes in the incidence of invasive S agalactiae infections were observed. Similar trends were observed across most countries and territories despite differing stringency in COVID-19 control policies. The incidence of reported S pneumoniae infections decreased by 68% at 4 weeks (incidence rate ratio 0·32 [95% CI 0·27–0·37]) and 82% at 8 weeks (0·18 [0·14–0·23]) following the week in which significant changes in population movements were recorded. Interpretation: The introduction of COVID-19 containment policies and public information campaigns likely reduced transmission of S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and N meningitidis, leading to a significant reduction in life-threatening invasive diseases in many countries worldwide. Funding: Wellcome Trust (UK), Robert Koch Institute (Germany), Federal Ministry of Health (Germany), Pfizer, Merck, Health Protection Surveillance Centre (Ireland), SpID-Net project (Ireland), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (European Union), Horizon 2020 (European Commission), Ministry of Health (Poland), National Programme of Antibiotic Protection (Poland), Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland), Agencia de Salut Pública de Catalunya (Spain), Sant Joan de Deu Foundation (Spain), Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (Sweden), Swedish Research Council (Sweden), Region Stockholm (Sweden), Federal Office of Public Health of Switzerland (Switzerland), and French Public Health Agency (France). ; Peer reviewed

Background: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria meningitidis, which are typically transmitted via respiratory droplets, are leading causes of invasive diseases, including bacteraemic pneumonia and meningitis, and of secondary infections subsequent to post-viral respiratory disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of invasive disease due to these pathogens during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: In this prospective analysis of surveillance data, laboratories in 26 countries and territories across six continents submitted data on cases of invasive disease due to S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and N meningitidis from Jan 1, 2018, to May, 31, 2020, as part of the Invasive Respiratory Infection Surveillance (IRIS) Initiative. Numbers of weekly cases in 2020 were compared with corresponding data for 2018 and 2019. Data for invasive disease due to Streptococcus agalactiae, a non-respiratory pathogen, were collected from nine laboratories for comparison. The stringency of COVID-19 containment measures was quantified using the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker. Changes in population movements were assessed using Google COVID-19 Community Mobility Reports. Interrupted time-series modelling quantified changes in the incidence of invasive disease due to S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and N meningitidis in 2020 relative to when containment measures were imposed. Findings: 27 laboratories from 26 countries and territories submitted data to the IRIS Initiative for S pneumoniae (62 434 total cases), 24 laboratories from 24 countries submitted data for H influenzae (7796 total cases), and 21 laboratories from 21 countries submitted data for N meningitidis (5877 total cases). All countries and territories had experienced a significant and sustained reduction in invasive diseases due to S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and N meningitidis in early 2020 (Jan 1 to May 31, 2020), coinciding with the introduction of COVID-19 containment measures in each country. By contrast, no significant changes in the incidence of invasive S agalactiae infections were observed. Similar trends were observed across most countries and territories despite differing stringency in COVID-19 control policies. The incidence of reported S pneumoniae infections decreased by 68% at 4 weeks (incidence rate ratio 0·32 [95% CI 0·27–0·37]) and 82% at 8 weeks (0·18 [0·14–0·23]) following the week in which significant changes in population movements were recorded. Interpretation: The introduction of COVID-19 containment policies and public information campaigns likely reduced transmission of S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and N meningitidis, leading to a significant reduction in life-threatening invasive diseases in many countries worldwide. Funding: Wellcome Trust (UK), Robert Koch Institute (Germany), Federal Ministry of Health (Germany), Pfizer, Merck, Health Protection Surveillance Centre (Ireland), SpID-Net project (Ireland), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (European Union), Horizon 2020 (European Commission), Ministry of Health (Poland), National Programme of Antibiotic Protection (Poland), Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland), Agencia de Salut Pública de Catalunya (Spain), Sant Joan de Deu Foundation (Spain), Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (Sweden), Swedish Research Council (Sweden), Region Stockholm (Sweden), Federal Office of Public Health of Switzerland (Switzerland), and French Public Health Agency (France).

Issue 49.5 of the Review for Religious, September/October 1990. ; R[ vl~ w ~-OR R~-t ~G~OUS (ISSN 0034-639X) ~,, pubhshed b~-monthly at St Louis Unlver,,~ty by the M~s-soun Prov~nce Educational Institute ol the Society of Jesus: Editorial Office; 3601 Lmdell Blvd. Rm. 428; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis MO. Single copies $3.50. Subscriptions: United States $15.00 for one year; $28.00 for two years. Other countries: US $20.00 for one year: if airmail. US $35.00 per year. For subscription orders or change of address. write: R~vtEw FOR R~-:~.w, ous: P.O. Box 6070: Duluth. MN 55806. POSTMASTER: Send address changes tu R~:vw~:w vor Rv:~.~aot~s; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. ~1990 Rv:vt~.:w vor Rl.:Li~;~ot~s. David L. Fleming, S.J. Philip C. Fischer, S.J. Elizabeth McDonough, O.P. Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Editor Associate Editor Canonical Counsel Editor Assistant Editors Advisory Board David J. Hassel, S.J. Mary Margaret Johanning, S.S.N.D. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Sean Sammon, F.M.S. Wendy Wright, Ph.D. Suzanne Zuercher, O.S.B. September/October 1990 Volume 49 Number 5 Manuscripts, books for review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to Rv:\'~:w v'o~ Rv:w.uaot~s; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. I~mis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the department "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Eliza-beth McDonough, O.P.; 5001 Eastern Avenue; P.O. Box 29260; Washington, D.C. 20017. Back issues and reprints should be urdered from Rr:\'~:w roa Rr:~.~;m~s; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. IA~uis, MO 63108-3393. "Out of print" issues are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. A major portion uf each issue is also available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually impaired. Write to the Xavier Suciety for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York. NY 10010. PRISMS. At the May meeting of the Advisory Board for REvIEw FOR RELIGtOUS, the members became engrossed in a discussion of the heritages-- Benedictine, Dominican, Salesian, and many others--that consecrated life fosters and should foster in the Church. Sometimes women and men religious forget their special call to be channels of their own spiritual tra-dition and practice. Religious life, signalized in Vatican II documents as belonging to the charismatic structure of the Church, continues to give birth anew to its members by the overshadowing of the Spirit. The particular spiritual in-sights and practices which establish each religious community become permanent gifts not only to the vowed members but also to the whole Church. The Church's recognition and approval is based on this prem-ise. Religious life plays a critical role in carrying forward the Christian spiritual-life traditions in the Church community. The Church expects in-dividual religious and religious families to give witness to their spiritual traditions. It is no surprise, then, that books and journals dealing with the spiritual life (such as REv=Ew FOR REUCtOUS) are so often the product of people living in this consecrated lifeform. In our times we are being made far more aware of the tradition of the Pauline Body of Christ, with the differing gifts of its members. One of the gifts specially present in religious life is its responsibility to hand on the spiritual-life traditions within the Christian community. Obviously God's gifts are never merely self-enhancing, and so religious life was never meant to be a caste apart or its own separate church. The gift of religious life within the Church only heightens the ways that Christians feel called to live out their following of Jesus in their own day--not only the members with a particular religious calling,.but also friends, cowork-ers, students, parishioners---in a word, all who are touched in some way by members of a religious community. This journal's very title could seem to restrict its reading audience to people following a certain consecrated lifeform recognized in the Church. But, as a matter of fact, from its beginnings almost fifty years ago, REvmw FOR REL~CIOUS has invited diocesan priests, bishops, and lay people to find in its pages the roots of our Christian spiritual heritage which nourish us all. The number of subscribers other than religious was small in the beginning, but has grown steadily, especially with the bur- 641 642 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 geoning of ministries and prayer groups in the Church after Vatican II. Articles in REvmw FOR RELm~OtJS will continue to focus on various Christian heritages which religious life helps keep alive in the Church. We hope thereby to provide for all our readers access to roots as well as to budding developments in the living of the Christ-life. The authors in this issue again are representative of our reading audi-ence. For example, Barbara Dent, well-known for her spiritual writings, continues her own experiential reflections on a prayer tradition deep in the Carmelite religious family. Father Richard Lamoureux, a.a., takes an "American" approach to an age-old Augustinian tradition of prayer. The diocesan priest Father Clyde Bonar uses the experiences of St. Fran-cis of Assisi to suffuse with faith the human experience of shame. Dr. James Magee, professor of gerontology, in his article "Planning an In-tercommunity Skilled Nursing Facility," tries to facilitate the working together of religious groups coming from various religious traditions. Perhaps at this time in history we especially need to grow in our ap-preciation of religious life as the purveyor of the Christian spirituality heritage. If we do grow in this way, the Church worldwide will become all the richer in its own life and mission. David L. Fleming, S.J. Moral Issues in Spiritual Direction Shaun McCarty, S.T. Father Shaun McCarty, S.T., teaches in the Washington Theological Union and is a staff member of the Shalem Institute for Spiritual Formation. His address is Holy Trinity Mission Seminary; 9001 New Hampshire Avenue; Silver Spring, Maryland 20903. My gracefully aging mother has acquired a certain Wisdom from the ex-perience of her years, yet she still seeks confirmation from her clerical eldest in matters of faith and morals! Vatican II suited her just fine be-cause, she says, "It said a lot of things I always thought!" On my weekly visits, she will often begin with, "Now tell me if I'm to think this way, but . " And then she will go on to comment on some issue she has been thinking about in the quiet of her "digs" in a condomin-ium for the elderly (which she sometimes thinks may be the only heaven she will get to!). On the issue of Church: "I go to church because I like to, not because I have to. But I can't see running in and out all the time. Especially when people need you. What good is it to go to church if it does not help you be a better person outside?" On prayer: "God's not just in church. He is (she is not fully feminist yet!) in my apartment too. And I do not think ! have to say a lot of prayers; God and I just have these talks when I say what is on my mind and he talks to me." On sev-eral occasions she has raised this moral issue: "Now tell me if I am wrong to think this way, but I think a lot of these rules that come from the Church are not God's. Most are man-made. Now I think God gave us heads to think ourselves. Not just run off and ask the priest what is right or wrong or wait for the Pope to tell us what to do or not do. If you ask me, I just think the reason people do that is because they are too damn lazy to think for themselves! Now is it wrong for me to be think-ing this way?" I ask her: "Now, Morn, don't you think the Church has 643 644 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 anything to say about what is right or wrong?" She answers: "Of course, but I'm choosy about whom I listen to!" I just smile, shake my head and assure her that she will probably escape ecclesiastical censure! Actually, she gives new meaning, life, and hope for the terms spiritual and moral life! 'Moral is one of those words laden for many with negative undertones ~uch as repressive, punishing, puritan, pharisaical, and the like. Spiri-tual often connotes an a_nemic and pious evasion of down,t0-earth~ d~ ~o-day living. Until we encounter both embodi_e_d_and~i0tegr_~t_ed_i_n~--~l ,rpeople like Mom ,hose lives and choices validate t~]~ch~i'~hg0i~nd prayer! rYOften, too, moral life and spiritual life are separated: the former re- .ferring to what is right and wrong; the latter, to what is good and beetler. 19 the ministry of spiritual direction, which aims primarily-at-'spiri~ual ~rowth, moral issues frequently arise and discrepancies become appa~ ~.nt either within the value system of the dii'ectee, between the dire~tee an~ Church teaching, or between the value systems of the d~rector and the~ dtrectee. What follows wall be an attempt to provide a frame.w~o_rk m which spiritual gu~des~can-tleal'w~th~moral-~ssues'and'grapple with such ~liscrepancies. ~I will first explore the meaning and relationships of some key terms ip.cluding moral and spiritual life, conscience and discernment. Then, I will consider the role of Church as teacher and the role of the spiritual director as guide in the formation of conscience, including some specific ~reas in which the director can be helpful. Finally, I will raise some dif-ficulties that can occur in dealing with moral issues in the ministry of s~iritual direction. ~Moral and Spiritual Life I.n the context of this article, spiritual life means graced growth in the~spirit, that is, in that dimension of human existence by which we are ~.open t~___.transcendent_ rove and drawn by the Spirit into intimate union ~.with God and communion with each other through, with, and in Christ. ~lokalli~ refers t0-th-~t ~i~e~ct of life that has to~do with. human C~h~0~ic~-s ~fi~eely~made~and~lowngl6ehav~ors~freely:embraced~that;-:under:grace, en- ~able one to pursue good, avoid evil, and~ herice, grow hurria-~ly. ,~ As moral theologians point out, unfortunately in the past, there tii~S ~.been and continues to be a split between moral and spiritual theology. Respected Redemptorist theologian, Bernard Haring says: Moral theology for the use of confessors and penitents was almost un- Moral Issues / 645 avoidably guided by the knowledge of dominion and control. Since such a theology, written mostly for controllers, could threaten the freedom of believers in the realm of things solicited by grace, it seemed best to leave out or bypass spirituality . ~ This resulted in a dual track for Christians: one for an elite who wanted to strive for maximum ideals in "seeking perfection" and the other for those who were satisfied to meet minimum expectations in "sav-ing their souls." Beatitudes were for the former; commandments for the latter. Not only was there a split between classes of Christians, but indi-vidual conscience also was divided into two compartments: one for moral norms, the other for "works of supererogation" (those above and be-yond the call of duty!). ~e dichotomies_are unfortunate. Moral and spiritual life are warp and w~i'~?oi;~ameTf:~l~i-U.~'~'~]i~fiaor~a~:~on focuses on an~ai-ea key to human, and therefore, spiritual growth--namely, that of choices that define a person more-thah anything else and behaviors that promot~ ~0~ih~. ;there is a universal call to holiness. To love God with all our hearts and to love others as Christ loves us is a normative ideal for every Christian. The choice is not between a "spiritual" life or a "moral" life. Whether intentional or not, every Christian is on a spiritual journey and summoned to be challenged by the beatitudes as well as by the com-mandments. Again, B. Haring: It is detrimental to the very fundamental norms of Christian ethics, but especially to the formation of a distinctively Christian consciousness, if the law of growth and the criteria for a deeper understanding of Chris-tian love are relegated to another discipline . But it should be equally clear that a distinctively Christian formation of conscience does not belong to those who specialize in "knowledge of control"! For it is at the very heart of salvation.2 The bottom line is that love is the highest common denominator of every moral act as well as the source and goal of all spiritual growth. ~Con~_s_cience ~I~n general, as a faculty of moral lif~-,-~ohscience is concerned with .~ ~ . ~.-:~ ~. . - ~ . .~- ,h~urfian cbOic6s of good or ewl. An ~nformed conscience is the final ar-biter of moral choice. It refers to that element in the experience of free-dom that makes one aware of responsibility and accountability for one's decisions and actions. The biblical term for conscience is "heart" in which God's will is written (Rm 2:15). Theologically speaking, it is "self-consciousness passing moral judgment.' ,3 In speaking of the dig- 646 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 nity of moral conscience, the Fathers of Vatican II described conscience as ". the most secret core and sanctuary of a man (sic). There he is alone with God, whose voice echoes in his depths."4 Conscience may be said to operate at three levels: ~(1) Fundamental level: This refers to th~ hiJFria--ff-~apacity freely t6 ~hoose a life-orientation towards God (the Choi~ce); _tp. p~_rsue .good(the Wight) and to avoid evil (the Darkness) with an awareness of respp.n__s_i~ ~ility and accountabilii'~At this level, one may be said to have a ge~n- ~ral sense of value.' A fundamental choice for the Light assumes that to be human is to have basic freedom and to have a radical openness to the mystery of God which, again, defines a person more than anything else. To take this option is to experience metanoia (change of heart) which af-fects the whole person (body, mind, and spirit). It is an invitation to turn over all of one's energies to God, to put one's life at the disposal of God, to be a disciple in loving service of others as Christ did and to live under the guidance of the Spirit in subsequent day-to-day decisions. It is in the light of this fundamental level of conscience that important life-decisions such as marriage, priesthood, and vowed life should be made. (2) Reflection/assessment level (individual choices): This level con-cerns day-to-_day choices of varying degrees of importance requiring a process of moral reasoning related to concrete situations.~It calls for re-flection, discussion, and analysis. I think it is what my mother means I~y "using the head that God gave us." Here one is concerned with spe-cific perception of value. At this level, there is room for difference, dis-agreement, error, blindness, distortion, rationalization, confusion, and cultural blindness. Consequently, it is primarily at this level that a per-son needs assistance from more objective sources including Sacred Scrip-ture, one's faith community, friends, confessor, and spiritual director. It is precisely at this level that conscience needs continually to be formed and informed. For that to happen effectively, a person needs humility so that conscience can "kneel at the altar of truth" to which conscience is always subject. It is at this level that the teaching Church as reposi-tory of the values of a faith-community, has an important but limited role as moral teacher and one distinct from that of spiritual director. More about this later. ~,~.(3)~Action level: This refers.to.the_moral judgment or choice of wh~t one believes to be right that brings with it a moral imperative to act. At C~his lev~e_l, a person exercises responsibility and accountability for actions ~and for the consequences of actions that conscience commands. A sign of responsible moral choice is growth in willing, compassionate concern/ Moral Issues / 647 action as opposed to willful, selfish action/inaction. In other words, genu-ine moral judgments and decisions find their completion and become enfleshed in moral deeds. pis:ernn~en~t i Discernment refers to the prayerful sorting out of interior movements ~expenenCe~d ~n-theprocess of tnakmg judgments and deos~ons to deter-m~ ne'wh~ch are of the Spent consequently resonant w~th the fundamen-taVl level-of c-~fiscie0.~e.-It presupposes a quest Of interior freedom as w~ll ~.ffs-careful attent~0n to the concrete particulars of a situation taking into i~onsideration subjective feelings as well as objective facts. It is possible to speak also of levels of discernment that bear some correlation with the levels of conscience occurring at: (1) the fundamen-tal (or core) level of faith, where a person becomes aware of God-experience in light of which one perceives that way of life where she or he can best express and pursue a fundamental choice of God and the good; (2) the reflection/assessment level of day-to-day choices of vary-ing degrees of significance and permanence made with a sufficient de-gree of interior freedom and in resonance with one's fundamental expe-rience of God; (3) the action level whereby a discerned judgment or de-cision is brought to completion by translating it into a concrete behavior that, if it is truly discerned, will bear the fruits of the Spirit. Relationship of DiScernment and Conscience Discernment is critical in the process of what lawyer-priest, R.P. Stake, calls the "evangelization of conscience" which entails the power of the Gospel to reveal to an individual the fact and the seriousness of one's sins.5 What discernment brings to the evangelization of conscience in:~ cludes: (l) a sharper focus on the subjective and unique factors at work,] for this person in this .situation (especially important at a time of accel-erating moral complexity and waning adequacy of objective moral norms and extrinsic moral authority); (2) a situating of decision-making within ff ~?a biblical tradition of both Old and New Testaments, especially in the letters of John and Paul;~(3) a rooting and contextualizing of the decision-r~ aklng process in a person's prayer and experience of Go~l; (4) a more ihtentional attempt to examine motivations to see from where they are ~commg and to where they are 'l~ading so as to create the conditions for greater interior freedom in making choices;~(-5) a nuancing of choicest-- not just of the good over the bad, the genuinely good over the supposed good, but also choices among goods; ~(6) in contrast to an excessive de- 6411 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 pendence on laws and authority as sources of moral judgment, discern-ment is conducive to ~clearEr focusing of responsibility four,the decision ~. 3. -- a~nd its cons~equ_e_n-ces on_ the pers_on making the de_.c~!s~on; (~7) ~n contrast to an individualistic and isolated process, a situating of the decision~ making process within the context of a person's faith commUfiity; (,8)~ contrast to a more exclusively rational and deductive approach (~s is often the case in the exercise of prudence ), ] serious~consideration of human affectivit~ as an important locus of grace~in human choice. , In testing the spirits oy measunng them against one s tunoamen-tal God-experience, moral judgments are more likely to be integrated with conscience as well as reinforcing of conscience at the level of one's fundamental choice¯ In short, discernment makes for a more prayerful, thorough, personalized, interiorized, and human process of conscience formation¯ Hopefully the discussion thus far makes clear that discernment is not dispensation from moral law, but rather an invaluable help in observing it. Rather than an "occasional exercise," discernment presupposes the cultivation of a "prayerful mode" and commitment to contemplative practice that can clarify one's vision and solidify one's dedication to truth¯ It is interesting to note that moral theologians today are showing a marked interest in a discernment approach to moral choice.6 ~,Role of the Church in Formation of Conscience ~The Church (understood as the e~n~ir'~Z~P~'o~le~f~G~d)~ qt preserves and hands down a faith-community's values, is an impor-tant, but limited agent in the evangelization of conscience¯ The teaching ~'Church is not a substitute for conscience; nor is its proper role one o~ ~Grand Inquisitor"; nor yet is it the ultimate arbiter of morality¯ Con-science is. But the Church is a privileged moral teacher and recognized ~leader that plays a significant role in thg~ilJp_mination of conscience. It d~es not create morality. Rather it helps people to discover God's de-sires for humankind which are written on the "fleshy tablets" of the hu- ~man heart¯ Not only does the Church embrace historically and cross-culturally an experience far wider than that of a single individual or cul-ture, but believers hold that the Church has special guidance from the Holy Spirit. Though the Church cannot be expected to address all the val-ues in every moral situation, it can provide norms against which people can measure their own moral judgment. Such norms protect values. Val-ues may be protected in different ways in different eras and/or cultures. Above all, the Church is eminently equipped to help form mature Chris-tian consciences that will enable people to accept responsibility for "us- Moral Issues / 6t19 ing the heads God gave them" in arriving at sound moral decisions. ~Role of-Sp~tual Director in Formation of Conscience ¯ ,Since:mOraVand~spiritual~life:should not'be d~vided~ the~d~rector ob7- ~o~s.~y ~ concerned w~th the moral choices of the directee. In the pro-cess of disce~ment, choices should be consonant with a fundamental choice of the Light and with the person's value system. Though neithe~ ~a represeatative 6fthe-teaching Church as such nor a moral judge of oth- .ers -Consc~ence~ ~n the role of spiritual dire&or, nevertheless ihe-dir~' t~r dbe~ have a responsibility to assist in the ongoing evangelization of conscience by way of enabling individuals to find their own way.- The director also needs to pay attention to his or her own blocks, biases, and unfreedoms that can arise from conflicts between the director's value sys-tem and that of the directee. The director's moral code is not normative ,for the directee. ~ spiritual director acts best as moral guide by being a witness to ~,(trut~hd pers0ndleXample Of integrity~- In addition, the director can help form consciences by appropriate interventions, pat~'e nt wa~t~ng," " compas-sionate understanding, and by maintaining a non-judgmental attitude, -~hde at the same t~me offering honest challenge. The most helpful in-tervention is attentive listening. All spiritual growth, including the evangelization of conscience, happens incrementally. This calls for pa-tience and attentiveness to the readiness of the directee in a~iving at her or his own judgments. It should be noted that self-denigration is one of the most basic moral issues with which many in direction need to deal~ Real or supposed moral lapse especially can deepen it, and this calls for compassionate understanding. Yet, good people are prone to subtle ways of rationalizing and, at times, need honest challenge. It is one thing to experience ambiguity in moral issues; it is another to refuse to wrestle with it] It is comfo~ing to remember that when difficulties arise, the same Holy Spirit who illumines discerning hea~s is also leading persons to moral integrity~ What specifically can a spiritual guide do to enable the formation of conscience? At the fundamental level of conscience, it can be assumed that the person coming for direction has made a fundamental choice of God and the pursuit of good. It would be important in making discerned moral choices that persons continue to refer back to the deepest level of their God-experience. In reference to a major life-decision affecting a per-son's deepest commitments (for example, to enter or to leave marriage, priesthood, vowed life), a director might ask: Has the directee spent shf-ficient time in serious prayer? Made a careful examen of motives? Asked 650 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 others for feedback? It is at the reflection/assessment level of conscience that most guid-ance is sought. :S~6'~ " a "ec o be ~i~fulz ~ (1 ) In assessing moral maturity: What is the quality of the moral rea-soning process of the directee in reference to this choice? Does the per-son have a sufficiently informed conscience? Where are the blind spots? To what extent is the directee open to outside input? Is she or he making efforts to inform conscience by some reference to moral norms? (for ex-ample, Scripture, norms of his or her faith community?) Has the directee already made up his or her mind and now is unwilling to be "confused with the facts"? Does the directee rely on authority and law for some directives she or he likes, but on a subjective process of "discernment" for others she or he does not? Who will be affected and how by this moral choice? (2) In clarifying values: What values seem important to the directee (as they become visible in choices acted upon as well as spoken of!) and in what priority are they held? Does the person have sufficient clarity con-cerning these priorities? What values does the directee perceive in refer-ence to the specific moral issue with which she or he is now struggling? Is there any struggle? In "grey" areas is the directee willing to strug-gle? Has the director grappled with the same issue and know where she or he stands at present? Is the director clear about his or her own value system? What unfreedoms in the director might significantly hinder fa-cilitating the directee's discernment? (3) In establishing a prayerful mode: Is the directee bringing the is-sue to prayer/discernment: sufficiently in touch with her or his experi-ence of God? seeking inner freedom? gathering sufficient data? attentive to affective responses as options are explored and data gathered? In re-flecting on and in assessing options, does the directee feel any incongru-ence or resistance within towards one or the other option? In deciding on the action level of conscience: Does the directee trans-late moral judgments into deeds? Is she or he open to accountability? Will-ing to take responsibility for his or her actions? What are the conse-quences of the directee's moral decision for others? For self? ~Difficulties Facing Directors in Dealing with Conscience ,Since consciences differ as people do, it .is tO be expe~.cot_eod_~that diffi- ~'ulties can arise indealing with moral issues. These include: ~(1) Difference in moral conviction: When there is a difference of moral conviction on an issue with a directee (for example, divorce, Moral Issues / 651 greed, tax fraud, contraception, sexual activity, and so forth), what is the moral responsibility of the spiritual director? Although a guide in the process of moral choice rather than a teacher of morality, a spiritual di-rector must make a judgment as to whether she or he feels so strongly about an issue as to be unable to help the person deal with it. The direc-tor might pose the question: Will my own strong conviction constitute a major interference in the direction process? What would be appropri-ate to share with the directees at this time concerning my difference of conviction? (For example, a director might be absolutely unwilling to help a person "discern" an abortion.) ~(2) Inadequate social moral consciousness of the directee: What can a director do to help a person broaden the horizons of a conscience lack-ing in social consciousness or with little sense of social sin? On the one hand, the director needs to respect the value system of the directee and to respect readiness for change. On the other hand, the working alliance between the two should also have provided for appropriate challenge as a help to growth. If social consciousness seems to need broadening, a director might: (a) suggest readings to provoke thought; (b) be attentive to possible points of entry for discussion arising from life experience re-ported by a directee that can be occasions of broadening social aware-ness-- for example, a chance brush with a beggar or a personal experi-ence of discrimination; (c) suggest firsthand exposure to situations of so-cial concern--for example, volunteering time at a shelter for the home-less; (d) at times of periodic assessment (for which a good working alli-ance will also make provision), an honest and direct, yet gentle challenge may be in order. ~)(3) Distress after moral lapse: Without unduly mitigating a healthy sense of guilt that helps a person to recognize culpability and move to repentance, a compassionate director can help minimize the debilitating preoccupation that often accompanies guilt. If a person is overly dis-traught over a moral lapse, a director can help by getting the directee to contextualize it, that is, to see it in relationship to his other fundamental option and to the rest of his or her moral life. Does it reverse the funda-mental optioh? Erode it? Not substantially affect it? In addition to sin, where has grace been experienced? How might the experience of moral lapse and its aftermath (for example, a lessening of spiritual pride) been an occasion of grace? Conclusion In dealing with moral issues in spiritual direction, we have explored the meaning and relationship of moral and spiritual life and seen that the 652 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 two should not be divided. Moral life has as one of its concerns a key aspect of spiritual life--namely, decision-making and its relationship to character formation. Discernment is not an alternative to, but an enrich-ment of moral decision-making. Both Church as moral teacher and spiri-tual director as moral guide play significant, but different and limited roles in the formation of conscience--the final arbiter of moral judgment which, in turn, must always remain open to ongoing formation. Finally, we considered some ways for a spiritual director to deal with difficulties that arise in dealing with moral issues. Hvopefully, both Church and spiritual director will provide teachi~g~ find guidance that will enable folks, as-Mom says, "to use the heads God !~ga,~ethem to think for themselves!" That might give both the terms moral and spiritual life better press! You know, as I think of it, my mother was and continues to be my first (and probably my best!) profes-sor of moral and spiritual theology! Exercise Can you think of a situation in which your moral judgment differed from that of a directee? One in which the directee's was in conflict with Church teaching? What did you judge as your own moral responsibility towards the di-rectee? How did this affect your ability to discern as spiritual director? How did you try to discern what you should share with the directee? What aided your discernment? NOTES ~ See B. Haring, Free and Faithful in Christ, Vol. I (New York: Seabury, 1978), pp. 2-3. 2 Ibid, p. 253. 3 K. Rahner & H. Vorgrimler, Theological Dictionary (Herder & Herder, 1968), p. 95. 4 "Gaudium et spes," (n. 16) The Documents of Vatican II, W.M. Abbott, ed. (New York: Guild Press), p. 213. 5 R.P. Stake, "Grounding the 'Priest-Penitent Privilege' in American Law," Con-fidentiality in the United States (Washington, D.C.: CLSA, 1988), p. 151. 6 For example, see Tracing the Spirit, J.E. Hug, ed. (New York: Paul ist, 1983), pp. 379ff. Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? Timothy Brown, S.J. and Harriet A. Learson Father Timothy Brown, S.J., is assistant professor of law in the Sellinger School of Business and Management, Loyola College in Baltimore, Maryland. Harriet Lear-son, M.B.A., M.A., is a senior management consultant, Right Associates, in Phila-delphia, Pennsylvania, and is a practicing spiritual director. Correspondence may be addressed to Loyola College; 4501 North Charles Street; Baltimore, Maryland 21210- 2699. In today's service-oriented society, one can hardly avoid the media's al-most daily reports about the issue of malpractice. Doctors, lawyers, psy-chologists, psychiatrists, and human service professionals are becoming increasingly liable and vulnerable to public scrutiny regarding their prac-tices, philosophies, and ethics. In an editorial in the Jesuit publication Human Development Father James Gill, S.J., a Jesuit psychiatrist, raised the question of licensing spiritual directors. He comments: Haven't we reached a point in the Church's history when a group of well-trained and experienced spiritual directors can come together and deter-mine what type and amount of preparation would entitle a candidate to be licensed as a spiritual director? For the self-confidence of the direc-tors, no less than the well-being of their directees, a board of examiners and a certifying process comparable to those maintained by clinical psy-chologists, nurses, and physicians should be created. These profession-als have, in conscience, set high standards for their performance for the sake of their clients. We who are given access to the deepest recesses of souls should hardly be less conscientious. I There has been an outpouring of lawsuits against Churches and clergy as a result of alleged malpractice in recent years. The term that 653 654 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 has been coined is clergy malpractice which covers a wide variety of torts and crimes including child abuse, paternity suits, and intentional inflic-tion of emotional distress. The constitutional questions, under both state and federal Constitutions, oftentimes deny a cause of action because of the First Amendment issue of separation of Church and State. A number of cases have come to the attention of the media in the area of clergy mal-practice. One of the most noteworthy comes from California, Nally vs. Grace Community Church.2 In this case, parents whose son committed suicide brought an action against a church and church-related counselors, alleging negligent coun-seling and outrageous conduct which ultimately led to the death of their son.3 I. Constitutional Issues in Nally Vs. Grace Community Church Kenneth Nally committed suicide after having become part of a re-ligious organization that his parents alleged suggested to his son that, if you kill yourself, you will go to heaven. His parents brought suit against the Grace Community Church of the Valley, a fundamentalist sect, lo-cated in Southern California. The parents sued the church and four pas-tors for malpractice, negligence, and outrageous conduct. They con-tended that the church's evangelical fundamentalist teachings "in-culcated in their son the belief that he had betrayed Christ's love and trust, and otherwise exacerbated Ken's preexisting feelings of guilt, anxi-ety, and deep depression with the knowledge that these acts would in~ crease the tendencies of Ken to attempt to take his own life."4 The church countered that the young man had been examined by five physi-cians and a psychiatrist after an earlier suicide attempt and that the coun-selors had arranged or encouraged many of these visits. A trial judge dis-missed the case after the close of the plaintiff's case, 5 and the case was appealed. The appellate court reversed the trial court's nonsuit of the negli-gence and outrageous conduct allegations against the Grace Community Church and several of its pastoral counselors. They held that the Church's counselors negligently failed to refer this suicidal youth to those authorized and best suited to prevent his death.6 Associate Justice Johnson writing for the majority began the opinion by clearing up the confusion regarding the issue of clergy malpractice: The court., does not view the causes of action discussed in our opin-ion to involve 'clergy malpractice.' Instead, we see them more accu-rately characterized as 'negligent failure to prevent suicide,' and 'inten- Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? tional or reckless infliction of emotional injury causing suicide'- which negligence and intentional or reckless acts happens to have been committed by church-affiliated counselors. In our view this case has lit-tle or nothing to say about the liability of clergymen for the negligent performance of their ordinary ministerial duties or even their counsel-ing duties except when they enter into a counseling relationship with sui-cidal individuals.7 The church appealed the ruling by the California Court of Appeals for the Second District. After eight years of litigation after the suicide of Kenneth Nally, the Supreme Court of California in a 5-2 opinion held that the "legal duty of care" imposed by the State on licensed praction-ers did not apply to the clergy.8 Chief Justice Lucas writes: "Neither the legislature nor the courts have ever imposed a legal ob-ligation on persons to take affirmative steps to prevent the suicide of one who is not under the care of a physician in a hospital. Imposing such a duty on nontherapist counselors could have a deleterious effect on coun-seling in general and deter those most in need of help from seeking treat-ment out of fear that the private disclosures could subject them to invol-untary commitment to psychiatric facilities."9 The California court notes the California legislature's recognition that "access to the clergy for coun-seling should be free from state imposed counseling standards." to Two other Justices agreed that the case should be dismissed but said the defendants did have a legal duty of care but that the evidence showed the pastors never breached it or contributed to the man's death. The Court unanimously dismissed the case. II. Spiritual DirectionmA Definition Whether spiritual directors should be licensed to prevent the kind of tragedy described in the Nally case is a question that is presently being debated by many in the field. Spiritual direction has a very broad con-notation. It can be defined as an interpersonal situation in which one per-son assists another person to growth in the spirit, in the life of faith (prayer), hope (difficulties), sufferings (trials), and love (the person's life in the Christian community). 1~ Spiritual direction may better be defined by what it is not, rather than by what it is. Spiritual direction is not pri-marily information even though it may be the occasion for sharing ideas. It is not primarily therapeutic even though there are times when issues of mental and psychological need get discussed. It is not seen as primar-ily advisory although in many situations good advice is imparted. Spiri-tual direction is viewed as primarily the opportunity to get clarification and discernment. How this gets accomplished is by discussing the prayer 656 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 life and spiritual life of the directee so as to shed some light on what is happening in the life of faith, hope, and love in relation to God. In spiritual direction, the directee tries to describe to a spiritual di-rector his or her prayer experiences. The subject matter of that discus-sion constitutes such areas as when prayer happens, how often, how, what actually happens in the prayer period, other daily life issues such as anxiety over family, job, day-to-day depressions, joys, consolations and desolations, issues of tolerance, patience, and possible manipulation of others. The director's role is to help the person to objectify those per-sonal experiences, to assist by asking appropriate questions in order to gain some clarity on the directee's personal issues. The spiritual direc-tor is interested in helping the directee in the life of prayer so that the relationship with God and the men and women with whom they live and work can become strengthened and enhanced. III. Basic Skills Required of a Spiritual Director At the Jesuit Spiritual Center in Wernersville, Pennsylvania a com-petency profile was developed in an effort at concretizing and articulat-ing the requisite personal qualities, knowledge, skills, and graces to do spiritual direction. Here are some of the standards that were established in that study: 1. Personal Characteristics/Qualities A. Living a vital spiritual life B. Being a recipient oneself of spiritual direction C. Docility to the Spirit D. Kindness E. Gentleness F. Psychological Maturity G. Initiative H. Having a broadly lived human experience J. Stability K. Respect for confidentiality L. Sociability M. Detachment N. Productivity 2. Knowledge A. Lived experience in the Christian tradition B. Christian Doctrine/tradition C. Sacred Scripture D. Christian mystical/ascetical traditions E. The Spiritual Exercises Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? / 657 F. Ecclesiology G. Grace H. Christology J. Vatican II K. Justice L. A psychological matrix (theory & language) M. Jungian Psychology 3. Skills/Abilities A. Intrapersonal (affective awareness) B. Discernment C. Listening D. Clarifying E. Diagnosing F. Prescribing G. Judgment H. Common sense J. Interpersonal Skills K. One-on-one L. Group M. Trustworthiness 4. Graces A. Spiritual freedom B. An ongoing call to this work by others C. Called by grace to this work D. Seeing the Gospel happening~2 IV. Ministerial Malpractice Malpractice refers to professional misconduct or the failure of one rendering services in the practice of a profession to exercise the degree of skill and learning normally applied by members of that profession in similar circumstances.~3 The traditional elements necessary to state a cause of action in negligence have beenstated by Prosser as: 1) a duty, or obligation, recognized by the law, requir-ing the actor to conform to a certain standard of conduct for the protection of others against unreasonable risks; 2) a failure on his part to conform to the standard re-quired; 3) a reasonably close causal connection between the con-duct and the resulting injury; and 4) actual loss or damages resulting to the interests of an-other. 14 Review for Religious, September-October 1990 The problem that the courts would face in trying to construe a duty, and then defining that duty in the area of spiritual direction, is in attempt-ing to define what falls within the parameters of the spiritual as opposed to psychological counseling. How would a court make some kind of de-termination as to whether a directee's problem is, in fact, a spiritual or psychological one. The reason that distinction is so necessary is to safe-guard and protect members of the clergy involved in spiritual direction. Father John English, S.J. has written that the distinction between spiri: tual and psychological counseling is oftentimes a fine one. He comments that "although it may be helpful for the director to distinguish between psychological and spiritual counseling, these realities are not distinct within the person being counseled. And the concern is always with the total person." ~5 There are occasions when a director can see that the real need in direction is no longer to facilitate growth in relationship with God but instead to move the person into a psychological counseling setting so that other issues in the directee's life can better be addressed. What are some of the occasions when someone should be referred to therapy? One spiritual director, Mercy Sister Maureen Conroy, R.S.M. regards three situations as clearly signals to refer. They are: 1) when a person experiences serious psychological and emotional disorders, including depression, severe neuro-sis, suicidal tendencies, psychosis; 2) when more time needs to be spent exploring a present life issue, such as a marital problem; and 3) when specific therapeutic skills are needed to explore the conscious and unconscious effects of past life expe-riences, such as sexual abuse or emotional neglect in child-hood. 16 The Supreme Court of California in the Nally case addressed the is-sue of referral of seriously ill directees. Regarding the duty as to "whether the court should impose a duty on defendant and other 'nonth-erapist counselors' (that is, persons other than licensed psychotherapists who counsel others concerning their emotional and spiritual problems) to refer to licensed mental health professionals once suicide becomes a foreseeable risk," the court said no.~7 In determining the existence of a duty of care in any given case, a number of factors were considered, including: "the foreseeability of harm to the injured party, the degree of certainty that he suffered injury, the closeness of the connection be-tween defendants' conduct and the injury suffered, the moral blame at-tached to (defendants), the policy of preventing future harm, the extent Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? / 659 of the burden to the defendants and consequences to the community of imposing a duty to exercise care with resulting liability for breach, and the availability, cost, and prevalence of insurance for the risk in-volved. ' ' 18 The court cautiously noted the inappropriateness of imposing a duty to refer in areas involving spiritual counseling because of the very na-ture of the relationship. So many times those relationships are informal, spur of the moment, and gratuitous. The foreseeability of harm may not always be recognized in a one hour session with a disturbed directee. The court concluded by saying that "imposing a duty on defendants or other nontherapist counselors to. insure their counselees [are also] under the care of psychotherapists, psychiatric facilities, or others authorized and equipped to forestall imminent suicide could have a deleterious ef-fect on counseling in general." 19 The California legislature has exempted the clergy from any kind of licensing requirement applicable to "mar-riage, family, child and domestic counselors, and from the operation of statutes regulating psychologists.' ,20 The court took note that the reason why the legislature has exempted clergy from licensing is in order to ex-plicitly "recognize that access to the clergy for counseling should be free from state imposed counseling standards, and that the secular state is not equipped to ascertain the competence of counseling when performed by those affiliated with religious organizations.''2~ V. The Difficulty of Devising Workable Standards For Determining Negligence Along with the difficulty the court recognized with arriving at some kind of workable standard of competency to be established in religious counseling situations, the Nally court also noted the added problem of identifying to whom the duty of duc care should be applied. It would be an immense task to define what exactly constitutes a spiritual direction relationship. Who qualifies as aspiritual director (only the ordained? mem-bers of religious orders?) as well as trying to resolve the issue of relig-ious diversity demonstrates difficulty in determining in what context the interaction is framed. There are all kinds of First Amendment issues in-volved as well. The court expressed the dilemma writing: "Because of the differing theological views espoused by the myriad of religions in our state, and practiced by Church members, it would certainly be impracti-cal and quite possibly unconstitutional to impose a duty of care on pas-toral counselors. Such a duty would necessarily be intertwined with the religious philosophy of the particular denomination or ecclesiastical teach-ings of the religious entity.' ,22 66{I / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 Establishing some kind of criteria of competency that a court could apply would always involve a state intrusion into the realm of religious doctrine and practice. The state would be put in the position of asking whether a particular religious practice was indeed being employed, a par-ticular teachin~g applied correctly, a particular style of spirituality or dis-cernment used properly. All these determinations entail a great deal of state entanglement in sectarian matters. In 1971 the Supreme Court in Lemon vs. Kurtzman,23 adopted a three prong test to decide whether a government activity violates the Estab-lishment Clause of the First Amendment. The test requires that: 1) The purpose of the action be clearly secular; 2) The primary effect of the action must neither advance nor inhibit religion; and 3) the activity may not result in excessive government en-tanglement with the religion.2a Any kind of judicial enforcement of some kind of standard of com-petency for spiritual directors would fail the Lemon vs. Kurtzman test on all three points. The effect of the government overseeing the practices of spiritual directors would more than likely inhibit some of the freedom required to explore, discern, and clarify issues in spiritual direction. The potential for excessive church-state entanglement in the area of enforce-ment of guidelines for direction is limitless. Any standard of care applied in determining qualified licensed prac-tioners in the field of spiritual direction would involve some sort of check as to whether the practice was in step with the religious criteria set forth in the religious teachings of the sect. At best it could be argued that some minimum standard of.training and competence to protect the public from religious fanatics, charlatans, or frauds might be established, but any full-fledged licensing would stifle First Amendment freedom and inhibit re-ligious practice. VI. Difficulties in Establishing a Standard of Care for Spiritual Di-rectors Looking at the Competency Profile of the Jesuit Spiritual Center, one wonders how a court would be able to determine what constitutes com-petency when the spiritual qualification requirements of directors include such characteristics as: 1) Living a vital spiritual life--a life of charity; 2) Habitual experience of individual prayer; 3) A life of Charity .toward all peop!e coupled with an awareness of the w~der needs of the human family; Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? / 661 4) An evermore intense interior experience; 5) An ever-growing delicacy of conscience; 6) Kindness--having and showing a benevolent readi-ness to intend the good of others; 7) Giftedness--honoring another's perceptions, judg-ments, and person; a non-defensiveness of spirit, pa-tience, and sympathy; 8) Psychological maturity--free from crippling emo-tional, mental, or volitional habits of a neurotic nature; 9) Sociability--the ability to interact with a variety of per-sonalities; 10) Knowledge--lived experience in the Christian tradi-tion; 1 1) Skills and abilities--interpersonal awareness of one's interior mental and emotional states; 12) Discernment--the experiential knowledge of self in the congruence of the object of choice with one's funda-mental religious orientation; 13) Judgment--the ability to form wise opinions, esti-mates, and conclusions from circumstances presented to the director; 14) Graces-spiritual freedom --without undue influence of disordered affections and attachments; 15) An inner suppleness of character.25 Looking over this list of characteristics needed to be a competent spiri-tual director one could see the difficulty that a court of law would have in trying to render a determination of standards which would meet licens-ing requirements. Courts are not in any position to evaluate the content of the prescribed qualifications. Aside from the obvious First Amend-ment problems found in making judgments on what grace, kindness, char-ity, and other criteria operative within the practice of spiritual direction are, licensing could discourage and diminish the gifts of both the direc-tor and directee. It is the view of the authors that licensing, evolving in the current secula¢ context, goes against the very grain of what spiritual direction is all about and could do a real disservice to those who enter into a direction relationship fearing lawsuits. It could also have a chill-ing effect on directees as well. There is something unique, healing, and very human about spiritual direction as a growth process if we view it as art, science, and discipline. 662 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 VII. Some Final Observations In reviewing the current legal opinions regarding malpractice in the area of spiritual and pastoral counseling, the authors present several ob-servations. --Licensing spiritual directors is clearly a prophetic question as pro-posed by Gill and is coming increasingly into its own time. The issues surrounding licensing are complex, profound in their implications, dis-turbing, and hopeful as we look at the work of defining the criteria for training, developing, and evaluating competent directors. --Defining what competencies are needed in a spiritual director in different schools of spirituality, religious groups and sects, and what con-tent needs to be included in their training programs producing such pro-fessionals is a challenge that is only beginning to be publicly addressed, discussed, or attempted. --In light of the current legal findings and opinions, spiritual direc-tors need to demand and seek training that is concerned with addressing issues of competency as defined by the required knowledges, skills/ abilities, and personal characteristics/qualities reflecting their spiritual tra-dition towards achieving competency in the training of spiritual direc-tors. --First steps would be for practitioners in the field to come together in a spirit of open inquiry, genuine unselfish concern, and humble aware-ness of the enormity of the task to be accomplished. Developing semi-nars and forming associations or professional forums could provide prac-titioners the milieu to discuss, study, and outline priorities and action steps towards the establishment of professional criteria and guidelines for training, developing, and evaluating spiritual directors. NOTES Gill, "License Spiritual Directors?" 6 Human Development 2 (Summer, 1985). Nally vs. Grace Community Church, 204 Cal. Rptr. 303 (Cal. App. 3 Dist. 1984). Ibid, at p. 303. 4 Ibid, at p. 303. 5 Ibid, at p. 303. Nally vs. Grace Community Church, 253 Cal. Rptr. 97, 1988. lbid, at p. 219. 8 lbid, at p. 105. 9 Ibid, at p. 105. ¯~o Ibid, at p. 105. Jesuit Center for Spiritual Growth, Competency Profile. ~2 Restatement (Second) of Torts 299A (1977). t3 Ibid. ~4 W. Prosser, Law of Torts (1966). 15 j. English, Spiritual Freedom (1975). 16 M. Conroy, Growth in Love and Freedom (1987). 17 Nally vs. Grace Community Church, 253 Cal. Rptr. 97 at p. 106. Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? / 663 18 Ibid, at p. 106. 19 Ibid, at p. 103. 20 Ibid, at p. 108. 21 Ibid, at p. 108. 22 Ibid, at p. 109. 23 Lemon vs. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602. 24Ibid, at p. 60. 25Jesuit Center for Spiritual Growth, Competency. The Risk You take a risk when you invite the Lord Whether to dine or talk the afternoon Away, for always the unexpected soon Turns up: a woman breaks her precious nard, A sinner does the task you should assume, A leper who is cleansed must show his proof: Suddenly you see a hole in your roof And a cripple clutters up your living room. There's no telling what to expect when He Walks in your door. The table set for tea Must often be enlarged and decorum Thrown to the wind. It's His voice that calls them And it's no use to bolt and bar the door: His kingdom knows no bounds-~of roof, or wall, or floor. Marcella M. Holloway, C.S.J. 6321 Clemens Avenue St. Louis, Missouri 63130 Prayer as Desire: An American ViewI Richard E. Lamoureux, a.a. Father Richard E. Lamoureux, a.a., has been provincial for the Augustinians of the Assumption. His address is Assumptionist Center; 330 Market Street; Brighton, Mas-sachusetts 02135. The contemporary American artist Andrew Wyeth teaches us a good deal about prayer. Many of his paintings, depicting everyday objects--a bowl of fruit, a cookie jar, a cooling blueberry pie--invite a quiet, simple gaze. But it is not just Wyeth's spare, silent scenes that lead us in the direction of prayer. So many of his portraits are unconventional inas-much as they present the subject turning away from the viewer, appar-ently looking for something in the distance. Forrest Wall, shown in the Man from Maine (1951), turns his back to us and peers out a window partially visible on the right. Elizabeth James, in Chambered Nautilus (1956), does the same from her sick bed. What may be Wyeth's most famous painting depicts Christina Olsen (Christina's WorM, 1948) sit-ting in the field below her home, straining with all her might in the di-rection of the house as if she might return there on the strength of her desire despite the palsied legs that restrict her to the ground. Two of his most beautiful paintings are portraits of Jimmy Lynch. One (The Swinger, 1969) shows him on a porch swing looking off into the dis-tance; the other (Afternoon Flight, 1970) catches him similarly absorbed. What is it on the horizon that draws his gaze?2 This most American artist explores a dimension of our existence that I would consider to be a central ingredient in prayer. In what follows, I want to explain how longing or desire is at the heart of prayer and how desire has fared in our recent American experience. Finally, I will sug-gest a way to address the particular challenge that faces us as American 664 Prayer as Desire / 665 women and men of prayer. No one has explained better than Saint Augustine how desire is re-lated to prayer. Sometime at the beginning of the fifth century, Augustine received a letter from Proba, a Roman woman whose husband had just died.3 Her purpose in writing was to ask a simple question: can you tell me something about prayer that would be helpful? In his response, Augustine writes unexpectedly at great length about widowhood and then tries to explain how it relates to prayer. For example, he says to Proba: What characteristic of widows is singled out if not their poverty and deso-lation? Therefore, insofar as every soul understands that it is poor and desolate in this world, as long as it is absent from the Lord, it surely commends its widowhood, so to speak, to God its defender, with con-tinual and most earnest prayer (p. 400). Augustine very simply reminds Proba that her widowhood, that is, her experience of loss and especially her desire for presence once again, is a precious opportunity to learn about prayer. If you would want to pray, Augustine seems to be saying, begin with the experience of desire or longing. Augustine, then, defines prayer primarily as desire. Words and pi-ous activities, which we normally think of as prayer, are useful only to the extent that they intensify our desire for God. They are necessary, he writes, so that we may be roused and may take note of what we are asking, but we are not to believe that the Lord has need of them . Therefore, when we say "Hallowed be thy name," we rouse ourselves to desire that his name, which is always holy, should be held holy among men and women also . . . (p. 391). Desire then is synonymous with prayer. In relating the two in that way, Augustine teaches us three very important lessons about prayer. First, prayer is really very simple. It is as natural for human beings as desire is. And desire, as we all know, is a universal human experience. It is as natural for a person to pray as it is for a person to desire. And a person who desires is a person who can pray. Second, by defining prayer in terms of desire rather than in terms of methods or formulas or actions, Augustine more clearly situates it as a function of the human heart. There is little that is more personal to us or that we are more hesitant to divulge than our desires. And Augustine would have us understand that it is precisely in that most intimate and personal place that prayer is born and grows. 666 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 Finally, by relating prayer to desire, Augustine helps us to under-stand that we can grow in prayer, for taking our desires seriously is a stimulus to such growth. He develops this idea in his letter to Proba and most especially in the Confessions. To Proba he writes: God wishes our desire to be exercised in prayer that we may be able to receive what he is preparing to give (1 Co 2:9) . Therefore, it is said to us: "Be enlarged, bear not the yoke with unbelievers" (2Co 6:13, 14), (p. 389). Desire helps to enlarge the heart. Augustine would claim that by fan-ning the flame of desire, we will become more able to recognize God's gift when it is offered and to appreciate it to the extent that it deserves. In the Confessions Augustine explains even more clearly how tak-ing our desires seriously is a stimulus to growth in prayer and can lead to deeper faith and intimacy with God. These desires are a complex re-ality ["Who can unravel that complex twistedness?" (II, 10)4] But rather than shy away from the complexity, Augustine sets out on a long journey precisely to get to the bottom of those desires. He goes all the way back to his earliest desire for the milk from his mother's breast, then recalls the games of his youth, and also the longing for wisdom when he read Cicero. With anguish, he remembers the burning desires that char-acterized his early relations and the resistance he put up to other desires lurking in his heart. "My soul turned and turned again, on back and sides and belly, and the bed was always hard" (VI,16). Augustine's long journey through the labyrinth of his soul was marked by a painful experience of desires at war with each other, but even more so by a confidence that the battle waged in all honesty and with his friends would lead to a liberation of his deepest desire, one that he came to understand could only be satisfied by God. "Behold thou art close at hand to deliver us from the wretchedness, of error and estab-lish us in thy way, and console us with thy word: 'Run, I shall bear you up and bring you and carry you to the end' " (VI, 16). Augustine took all of his desires seriously, even those that troubled him and brought him to tears, because he believed that all of them were in some way, at times in some distorted ways, a path to the deepest craving of the human heart. He seemed sure of God's love and also confident that deep within his own heart was an enormous love for God: "Thou hast made us for thy-self." (Confessions I, 1). Those are convictions we all find hard to come by, but they are crucial for growth along the way of prayer. To summarize then and to make the point clearly: for Augustine prayer is not more complicated than giving free rein and full expression Prayer as Desire / 66"/ to the sometimes confused desire for God that God has placed in our hearts. As he writes in his commentary' on the first letter of St. John: "Love and do what you will." Or perhaps I can say: "Desire and do what you will." Now, that may sound simple, but there are a few complicating fac-tors, some of which Augustine was aware of. Many of the complicating factors, however, are particular to our own time and culture; they are the shadow side of the cultural qualities we cultivate in the United States. One of the recent most popular movies, Dead Poets Society, is a se-rious indictment of American culture. It tells the story of a private pre-paratory school in the United States in 1959, where faculty and student body alike hold in highest esteem the pursuit of successful careers and high social status. Along comes an eccentric poetry teacher, effectively portrayed by Robin Williams. He succeeds in opening a few sleepy, even blind eyes, urges his students to ("carpe diem") "seize the moment," and awakens them to the excitement of poetry. Dull, distracted boys be-come spirited young men full of powerful desires. They found their own secret society where dead poets--and dead students-~come back to life. The movie was successful, I suppose, because it touched a sensitive chord in our American hearts. Though we are reluctant to admit this, the movie helped us see that we might be dull people, men and women with-out longing, without desire. But you might object: "Doesn't every human being desire some-thing?" As I reflected on the movie, I came to understand that for a va-riety of reasons and in different ways desire has been drained from our hearts. I could see it happening in four or five different ways. At other times and in other contexts, I might present the following items in a much more positive vein, as qualities that are proper to us as Americans. But in the context of this discussion on desire, what might be consid-ered the merits of our particular American way of living and looking at things becomes a liability. 1) In our day, in this country, by hard work, ingenuity, abundant natu-ral resources and a little bit of luck, we have attained a level of material satisfaction that enables us to meet most of our needs. We acknowledge that there are unsatisfied needs in us, but we are also confident that the only kinds of needs we have are needs that we can eventually satisfy our-selves. And if it takes too long to satisfy them, we energetically look for and usually find other remedies; there are many "quick fixes" we can turn to. But then if all the needs are satisfied, what is there left to de-sire? I am not simply condemning American materialism, nor am I re- Review for Religious, September-October 1990 ferring here to the unrestrained pursuit of pleasure and sensual satisfac-tion. Instead, I am suggesting 'that the level of material security we en-joy may be having a subtle, debilitating effect on our capacity to long for less material goods. When the Israelites complained to Jeremiah that it would be preferable to return to Egypt rather than remain in exile, he urged them to stay where they were for Yahweh was with them. Instead, however, they returned to Egypt "where at least they would not hun-ger" (Jr 42:1~4). It is not pleasant to be hungry, but can we live without desire? We can call this sort of person "the comfortable self," and the "comfortable sell'' has few desires. 2) Today especially we seek to be creative and responsible members of the human race. We are inclined to set aside as somewhat irrelevant and escapist distractions those vague interior Iongings that apparently can never be satisfied: there is too much in the world to do and no time to lose. We tend to set aside the simple and less gifted i~mong us and have little patience for wasted time and effort. In Bonfire of the Vanities, Tom Wolfe would say that our ambition is to be a "Master of the Universe," and we are convinced we just might succeed. The "creative, functional sell''has little time or. need for vague longings and can realize his desires by rolling up his sleeves. 3) Psychology has helped us uncover, identify, and explain many of our desires. But Freud would also have us demystify these desires, re-duce them to understandable drives, and either "manage" them so they do not interfere or banish them completely. The "psychological sell" runs the risk of reducing desires to insignificance by denying them the possibility of any transcendent origin, significance, or purpose. 4) Dead Poets Society points an accusing finger at a society drained of desire and life. But I think the movie suffers from the sickness it is trying to identify. Note the poets that are quoted in the movie: they are almost exclusively what we call the romantic poets. Other sections of the poetry anthology used by the students are ripped out. No mention of Shakespeare or Homer, Milton or Hopkins. Why should we read poetry, according to this movie? For the excitement of it, I gather. The movie seems to say: it does not really matter what you give your life to as long as you feel passionately enough to give your life. I admire the passion, but it is a self-destructive passion, self-preoccupied, narcissistic. Really, in the end, no passion at all. The desires of the "romantic sell'' self-destruct in a beautiful, but tragically brief burst of flame. 5) Finally, a word about the "tolerant sell'' and what that, in its most recent form, has done to desire. In many ways I consider this to Prayer as Desire / 669 be the most serious attack on desire in our day, and I will discuss it at greater length.5 The founders of our country, acutely aware of the reasons for which Europeans came to these shores and the political struggle that led to in-dependence, enshrined the principles of freedom and equality at the heart of our Constitution. They did so in revolt against oppression in the coun-tries they came from, to assure that in this new regime each person would be free to profess and practice the religion of one's choosing or none at all. In order to assure that no one religion would be given ascendancy and that all religions would be considered equally valid. Such liberty and equality imply a prior commitment to tolerance. As Locke had earlier suggested,6 not only does tolerance forestall religious wars and oppression, it would seem to be synonymous with Christian char-ity. We should hesitate to tamper with a doctrine such as that of toler-ance, which has brought us many blessings, but there may be some side effects that need to be taken into account. If tolerance leads us to assert that all religions are equally valid, then it seems inevitable that at some point one will begin to wonder whether it is worth embracing this par-ticular religion rather than another., or any at all. Tolerance as the paradigmatic American virtue in religious matters erodes conviction and desire; it all too often leads to indifference and loss of confidence.7 Let me explain with a non-religious example. For one person, work-ing hard to provide housing for the homeless is an important "value"-- to use that word as we are accustomed to using it today. For another per-son, earning a million dollars a year and dining at a 4-star restaurant five nights a week is a "value" she or he would hold to with as much, per-haps even more vigor. In a society where tolerance is the paramount vir-tue and where there can be no criteria for ranking so-called "values," our social worker has no right to consider his "value" more important than that of the millionaire. I think that is the conclusion we have to draw, and my guess is that our "tolerant" selves would be reluctant to draw any other. In that case, I could easily imagine the social worker, returning home after a frustrating fifteen-hour day, and exclaiming in quiet desperation: "why bother?" If all "values" are equal, our social worker will begin to doubt the real worth of what she or he is doing and be drained of passion or desire for the cause being promoted. Tolerance is a great American virtue. It protects us from oppression and even allows us to be critical of the regime. But the brand of toler-ance practiced today also exacts a high price. It can drain our soul of all 670 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 passion. Without passion or desire, the "tolerant self' will find it very difficult to pray. The comfortable self, the creative self, the psychological self, the ro-mantic self, the tolerant self--so many ways in which desire has been disarmed. It has been disarmed or short-circuited. What keeps desire alive has been eliminated. Etymologically, the word "desire" with its reference to "sidera," the stars, suggests that without an object that tran-scends the self, desire that is not created by the self, or under its con-trol, or in any way dependent upon the self, desire quickly evaporates. I think the social and political consequences of diluted or disarmed de-sire have been considerable, but in the context of this discussion I want to draw attention to the consequences for our faith and our prayer as well. So, how do we recover desire? The question is an old one. It already appears in the Gospel. But, as I have tried to explain above, our American context leads us to pose it in a particularly acute way. It should not come as a surprise that since we Americans are closest to the problem that it is we Americans who have also hit upon a solution. I think that Alcoholics Anonymous and its 12-step program, begun in this country some fifty years ago, may be helping us rediscover desire and could be more helpful to those wanting to pray than any crash course on meditation.8 This may come as a surprising suggestion. But consider some of the more traditional methods used to foster growth in prayer. Among the early desert fathers and mothers, one popular and effective method (known in the Russian Orthodox tradition today as "starchestvo") is a practice whereby the novice reveals to his spiritual master all of his in-terior thoughts and feelings and humbly seeks help in discerning what God calls him to through these apparently confused experiences.9 Augustine himself sought to grow in prayer by telling story after story of how he pursued one way then another in search of happiness and peace. Ignatius of Loyola in the sixteenth century devised a system of spiritual exercises, whereby the one seeking to grow spiritually reveals the promptings of his heart to a spiritual guide who helps him interpret and discern the desires that will lead to growth. Ignatius even urged that his followers, members of his Society, regularly "manifest their con-science" to their superiors, much like the monks in the desert, in order to gain enlightenment. Those are the traditional methods of spiritual growth, but for some reason today for many they are not working, or we are not inclined to take them seriously. But many are taking the 12 steps seriously. One of Prayer as Desire / 671 the insights on which the 12-step method is based is the importance of recounting, at a meeting or to a sponsor, the story of one's desires-- desires for alcohol, for sex, for food, desires that have run out of con-trol, but also a desire, perhaps only a small spark at the outset, but a de-sire for sobriety. It is in the telling and the retelling of the story that the desires are sorted out, that the healthiest sparks are fanned into stronger flames, and that one begins to come to deeper serenity and happiness. Why does the 12-step program work? Because I begin to name desires rather than blindly accede to them, proudly condemn them, or run from them in fear. Because I acknowl-edge that a power greater than I alone guides human affairs, inspires hu-man desires, and fulfills the deepest among these: the desires I can sat-isfy will not bring peace to a restless heart. Because I acknowledge that in addition to that power other people are necessary to test my desires and help me keep the best alive. Because I know that helping others will intensify my own desire at the same time as it helps another. I cannot explain adequately in this context the effectiveness of the 12-step program. I am grateful to those friends and confreres who have given me some understanding of the 12 steps and for their own witness to the program's power. They could better make the point I want to make. Beneath the program is an understanding of life deeply consonant with the Gospel and, I would maintain, profoundly nourishing for one's life of prayer. Remember Augustine's words to Proba: Insofar as every soul understands that it is poor and desolate in this world as long as it is absent from the Lord, it surely commends its wid-owhood, so to speak, to God its defender, with continual and most ear-nest prayer (p. 400). Prayer is impossible if you start from a distorted understanding of the Gospel. As Americans, our comfortable self may be too sated to seek a Savior, our creative self may lead us to think we can save ourselves, our psychological self may convince us that the desire for a Savior is escapism, our romantic self may consider the desire an end in itself, our tolerant self may think open-ness and tolerance are identical with love. The Gospel, the writings of Augustine, and the 12-step program re-flect both more skepticism and more confidence about human nature than any of these false selves. They are not so afraid or angry with their hu-manness that they deny or disregard their desires, but they do not accept 672 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 that responding to the most pressing desires will necessarily lead to the greatest happiness. They are deeply confident that their deepest desires can be satisfied, but have surrendered the illusion that they can or must explain or satisfy those desires on their own. They, like St. Paul, refuse to judge and condemn themselves, and certainly not others, but they cou-rageously and unambiguously name the desire that has led them to dis-aster and they can say: "My name is Richard or John or Dorothy, and I am an alcoholic!" Many are seeking new ways to pray, and a 12-step meeting is hardly an ancient method. But if I were to suggest the practices of sacramental confession or spiritual direction as ways to grow in prayer, many would not take note. Something has happened to our traditional practices or our use of them that has made them seemingly ineffective. What I am sug-gesting is that the 12-step program with its emphasis on confession/ story telling, community, and commitment to service--is a contempo-rary method that I feel convinced can teach us how to pray. I cannot help but believe that God is attentive to the simple prayer of a recovering al-coholic, a wounded person full of desire, who speaks with the words of the psalmist: God, you are my God, for you I long. For you my soul is thirsting. My body pines for you like a dry, weary land without water. So I gaze on you in the sanctuary to see your strength and your glory, for your love is better than life. My lips will speak your praise, so I will bless you all my life. NOTES ~ A first version of this paper was presented as the keynote address for a Conference at Assumption College, Worcester, Massachusetts, entitled "Prayer--A Psychologi-cal Perspective." I am grateful to the organizers of the Conference, Dr. George Scar-lett and Rev. Edgar Bourque, A.A., for their invitation to address the Conference. 2 These paintings are reproduced in Davis McCord and Frederick A. Sweet, Andrew Wyeth (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1970). 3 Quotations from Augustine's letter are taken from The Fathers of the Church-- Saint Augustine: Letters Vol. II (New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc. 1953). 4 Quotations from the Confessions are taken from the translation by Frank J. Sheed in The Confessions of St. Augustine (London: Sheed & Ward, 1984, original edition 1944). 5 Although many have discussed this notion, the most thorough and cogent discus-sion recently is in the book by Allen Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987). 6 See John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration, ed, by James H. Tully (Indian- Prayer as Desire / 1573 apolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 1983). 7 In J. Hector St. John Crevecoeur, Letters from an American Farmer, (New York: Fox, Duffiealad and Company, 1904, reprinted from the original 1782 edition), pp. 64-65, we read an eighteenth-century account of religion in America. After describ-ing in letter no. 3 the variety of creeds cultivated in the country, the author contin-ues: "Each of these people instruct their children as well as they can, but these in-structions are feeble compared to those which are given to the youth of the poorest class in Europe. Their children will therefore grow up less zealous and more indif-ferent in matters of religion than their parents. The foolish vanity, or rather the fury of making Proselytes, is unknown here; they have no time, the seasons call for all their attention, and thus in a few years, this mixed neighborhood will exhibit a strange religious medley, that will be neither pure Catholicism nor pure Calvinism. A very perceptible indifference even in the first generation will become apparent." 8 A good deal of Alcoholics Anonymous literature deals with prayer and spiritual-ity. The eleventh step explicitly encourages the practice of prayer and meditation ("We sought through prayer and meditation to improve our conscious contact with God as we understood him, praying only for knowledge of God's will for us, and the power to carry that out.") But the program can have even broader implications for the spiritual life. See "Origins of A.A. Spirituality" by Dr. Ernie Kurtz, The Blue Book, Vol. XXXVIII, Proceedings from the 38th Annual Symposium-June 16- 20, 1986 (January, 1987). Catholic writers and lecturers are beginning to discuss the spiritual potential of the program. See, for example, the recently released confer-ences of Father Richard Rohr, "Breathing under Water: Spirituality and the 12 Steps" (Saint Anthony Messenger Press Audiocassettes, 1989). 9 See B, Pennington, O.C.S.O., O Holy Mountain.t (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1984), p. 92. The Emptiness Within Barbara Dent Barbara Dent, mother and grandmother, has been for eighteen years a Secular Carmelite. One of her most recent books has been The Gifts of Lay Ministry (Ave Maria Press, 1989). Her address is Postinia: 7A Cromwell Place; Pukekohe, New Zealand. Ours is an age of space-consciousness and space exploration. These have induced an awareness of a limitless beyond that can be terrifying. We know that in space universe extends beyond universe in an infinitude of expanding galaxies. The immensity is beyond our comprehension. Ours is also an age of inner exploration of our own human psyche. Depth psychology probes level on level of inner awareness, submerged awareness, and non-awareness. These probings link up with that aspect of spirituality which mystically intuits the indwelling of the Trinity, the homeliness of God in us that Jesus spoke of and promised to his faithful followers the night before he died. Just as there is endless mystery in the outer universe, so there is also in the inner one. God dwells in us--if we long for him and prepare our spiritual house to receive him. Not only that, but he permeates our inner being further and further as we open ourselves to receive him. "How rich are the depths of God!" exclaimed St. Paul. And it is these very depths that merge with our own through the divine penetra-tion and the graces it brings. This is by no means always a consoling experience. On the contrary it can seem to hurl us into an abyss of unmeaning which is caused by our incapacity to understand divine meaning and purpose in all their in-finite inclusiveness. Only faith can cope with the apparent absurdity, and too often in this state we experience ourselves as lamentably lacking in faith. 674 The Emptiness Within / 675 In this article I examine and comment on this negative aspect of di-vine and human intermingling by using the concept of "the inner Void." Normally, we human beings fill our days and nights with the busi-ness of living, working, playing, and social interchange. This is the way it has to be if society is to continue and be dynamic. For committed Chris-tians this day-to-day living and doing is permeated with another dimen-sion- that of being-in-Christ. The more fully they relate mundane ac-tivities to loving and serving the Lord, the more Christocentric their lives become. The more they cleave to him, the more the Trinity enters into their inner selves through the purity of their intentions, so that they truly become temples of the Holy Spirit. A pure intention is one that is centered on what Jesus stressed must be our fundamental option--"God's will, not mine, because I love him with my whole being." Strangely, the intensity of such a single-minded love can lead not to a blissful sense of fulfillment, but to its opposite-- an experience of crucifying inner emptiness, a void of unappeasable long-ing crying out for a God who appears not to care or even answer. How much longer will you forget me, Yahweh? Forever? How much longer will you hide your face from me? How much longer must I en-dure grief in my soul, and sorrow in my heart by day and by night? (Ps 13:1-2). The ache for God, disguised as it may be in a multitude of ways, yet seems to be endemic to the human heart. In Christ's followers it can be-come so insistent that it rules their lives. After many years of loving, faith-ful service to this object of their desire, a paradoxical inner state is likely to develop. The searcher for the pearl of great price and the glorious lib-erty of the sons and daughters of God, though consumed with an intol-erable yearning for God, now experiences him as absent just when he is loved and longed for most. This is usually a sign of the call to a much deeper relationship with him, one that has a different quality from any that preceded it. We are drawn by the Spirit into this state of being when all created things have lost their power to compel or fulfill us. We have learned, often in bitterness and pain, that none of them can supply anything but a temporary and partial satisfaction. Behind and through them we have kept glimpsing their Creator, and now he fills our vision and summons us to come closer. We have begun floating in our inner Void, sure at last that only his love can fill it. 676 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 Aware that he is calling and drawing us, we want with all our will to respond, yet we remain thwarted. Yearn and strive as we may, we can neither reach nor receive him. Empty and grieving, we experience him as the absentee God, yet we have never in our lives been more free of sin and fuller of love than we now are. Why has this Void opened at the very time when we are possessed by love-longing for God? To anyone familiar with the inner depth reality of the subconscious and unconscious, the answer will make sense. The roots of our attachments to what God has created, and the causes of our persistence in letting them come between us and him, are still bur-ied deep within us. They fasten us down to where we are so that we are unable to soar in freedom to him. Though we have done all in our power, with the help of grace, to love and serve him, and though deliberate sin of any kind has long been eliminated from our living, the roots of sinful tendencies remain there hidden away, so that we are not even conscious of them. We cannot locate or name them, let alone wrench them out or dissolve them away. In our impotence and humiliation we gradually re-alize only God can do this through his own mighty love and the grace he pours into us through his Spirit. Only his action can gradually dilate our hearts so that they are able to receive more and more of what he offers. Only his grace can pene-trate into our subconscious to reveal what is concealed there. Only it can in various ways impel upwards into consciousness what is hidden. Only his Spirit of Wisdom knows and can reveal to us in ways we can accept what must be made conscious and purified if we are to enter into full un-ion with the Trinity. By invading our depths, the Spirit is not violating our free will, for God knows our longing for him is such that at last we are prepared to let him have his way with us, no matter how much it hurts. "Oh God, my God, for you my heart yearns, like a dry, weary land without water" (Ps 63:1 ). God's answer to our yearnings is to fill our Void with himself. This process is purgatorial. After death we pass outside time and space into eternity and infinity. If at this transition we are not already filled with God, our Void goes with us. No one has returned to tell us how God deals with it then, but traditionally the Church has taught the doctrines of purgatory (a cleansing process through which grace fits us to receive and behold God), and hell, where our Void remains just that forever. All those, known and unknown, who have become saints before they died, The Emptiness Within / 677 have had their Voids filled with God in this life. Some have left records of what their experience was like, and these indicate something at least of what they endured under the Spirit's ruthless but perfectly loving ac-tion. St. John of the Cross's testimony is probably the most authoritative, instructive, and detailed, After stressing that this state of purification is one of darkness and pure faith, he elaborates as below. "The Divine assails the soul in order to renew it and thus to make it Divine; and, stripping it of the habitual affections and attachments of the old man, to which it is very closely united, knit together and con-formed, destroys and consumes its spiritual substance, and absorbs it in deep and profound darkness. As a result of this, the soul feels itself to be perishing and melting away, in the presence and sight of its miseries, in a cruel spiritual death, even as if it had been swallowed by a beast (as Jonas was). (and) in this sepulcher of dark death it must needs abide until the spiritual resurrection which it hopes for. ". But what the sorrowful soul feels most in this condition is its clear perception, as it thinks, that God has abandoned it, and, in his ab-horrence of it, has flung it into darkness. It is a grave and piteous grief for it to believe that God has forsaken it . For indeed when this pur-gative contemplation is most severe, the soul feels very keenly the shadow of death and the lamentations of death and the pains of hell, which consist in its feeling itself to be without God, and chastised and cast out, and unworthy of him; and it feels that he is wroth with it" (Dark Night II, Ch. VI, 1 & 2). The intensity and pain of this inner experience of the Void will vary according to the strength and depths of our sin-roots, the greatness of our love and longing for God, our perseverance and abandonment during the process, the degree of holiness (or wedding garment splendor and soar-ing freedom) God intends for each sufferer. This purpose of his is, of course, hidden in the mystery of his endless love, of which the Void it-self is but one aspect. If the Void is endured until the process of cleansing and freeing is completed, we have been through and emerged from our own personal purgatory. We are united with the Trinity in what has been called "trans-forming union" ("I live, now not I, but Christ lives in me") or "the spiritual marriage." "Alleluia! The reign of the Lord our God the Almighty has begun. Let us be glad and joyful and give praise to God, because this is the time for the marriage of the Lamb. His bride is ready, and she has been able Review for Religious, September-October 1990 to dress herself in dazzling white linen, because her linen is made of the good deeds of the saints" (Rv 19:7-8). Our Void has been emptied of self and filled with Christ. What are some of the hallmarks of this emptying and filling of the Void, in the here and now? Here is a commentary on a few of the main ones. 1. Helpless Waiting In the Void we have no alternative but to wait. I think of Mary be-tween the annunciation and the birth of Jesus. She knew she had con-ceived and that the Christ of God was growing and developing within her, but the process was and had to remain hidden and secret. What she did not know was exactly what and who the child would prove to be. God was at work in her, and she was co-operating pas-sively, through her fiat, by letting it happen and trusting him about the outcome of his labors. She was "full of grace" and so the whole pro-cess was under the Spirit's complete control. Her personal contribution was to stay still and see what eventuated. Once the Void opens in us, we too, must wait while Christ is formed in us in his fullness. We continue to live and love as Christians, to serve God and neighbor in our work, personal relationships, duties and offer-ings, all aimed at renewing the temporal order and purifying our lives from self-love and self-seeking. We have been doing these things for a long time and had assumed we would be persevering in them in much the same way till death. We do persevere, but not "in the same way." For now the Void is there, and we begin to enter a new dimension and level of being. Gradually grace enlightens us so that we understand something of what still needs to be done in our inner depths to open us to God so he can penetrate further. At the same time we are shown how it is beyond our own capacity and resources to bring about such a self-exposure. A chasm of helplessness and poverty gapes within us. We realize that in our frozen immobility we are still able to act in one specific way. We can let God act, and stay passive ourselves. We can let him do the un-veiling and the choosing, for us and in us in his own way and time. Our role is to surrender and wait. And wait. And wait . Waiting is a difficult art to learn and practice in our frenetically ac-tive and materialistic age. Neither our environment, education nor life aims and circumstances have prepared us for it. Though we try, we go The Emptiness Within on failing, because we cannot help interfering with God in spite of our best intentions. Humbled, we learn that only grace can enable us to learn this painful art. Under its influence, we slowly begin to relax and be still, and our Void gently opens wider in faith, trust, and hope. We realize how im-portant patience is, how lost we are if God does not help us, how he does not and cannot do so unless we deliberately exercise our free will and let him. Here the active and the passive merge. As we go on waiting, our helplessness deepens into a sense of im-potence. We are rather like quadriplegics who must depend on others for most of their needs. If they are not to be consumed with self-pity and rage, they must turn the necessary waiting that forms an indelible part of their lives into an art. We ourselves are not waiting for other people to help us, but for God. "I waited and waited for Yahweh. Now at last he has stooped to me and heard my cry for help" (Ps 40:1). 2. Longing for God Thirst for God consumes us in this state. "As a doe longs for run-ning streams, so longs my soul for you, my God. My soul thirsts for God, the God of my life" (Ps 42:1-2). We are like "a dry, weary land without water" (Ps 63:1). When two lovers are parted, they long ardently and painfully for each other's presence. In the Void we experience God as an absentee God, even as one who spurns us. We are hopelessly in love with him-- we would not have been invited by the Spirit into this level of being were it not so--yet he seems to be denying himself to us, to be teasing us cru-elly on purpose. We know he is there, believethis is so, and in some indescribable, formless way even experience him as indeed with us, enfolding us, and yet we never seem to reach or catch sight of him. In his absence we have faith he is present, but this is no comfort. It is like being alone in a completely dark room, yet having an intui-tive awareness of another Presence with us in the same enclosed space. We cannot see or touch him or even hear his breathing. Yet, shiveringly, we are completely certain Someone is with us. Perhaps because of this strange certainty, our longing that is never appeased intensifies until it possesses us. This absentee yet ever-present God and Lover we experience as capricious, so that our longing is a form of bitter suffering, and often we have to struggle against feelings of re- Review for Religious, September-October 1990 sentment and hopelessness. We challenge him, "It is you, God, who are my shelter. Why do you abandon me?" (Ps 43:2). There is no answer, no comfort. The silence is absolute, our hunger unappeased. In the end, we become dumb. Our patience in waiting has deepened as our longing intensified. We understand the time for consum-mation is not. yet, for we are not ready. We see that our longing is a grace, given to us so we will more readily submit to an even more radi-cal emptying out. We have not yet reached that total nakedness o.f un-selfed love which will indicate our readiness to be clothed in Christ. We have yet to long for this for his sake, his honor and glory, the fulfilling of his incarnational aims, instead of for our own self-gratifica-tion, and our pleasure in our own "holiness." At last we understand that our motives need radical purification, for they are laced together every-where by tenuous, yet tough strands of self-love and self-will. All holiness is God's. Of ourselves we have none until we have put on Christ and can glory in his glory, and love with his love. Our longing is being purified till this is what we truly want above all else. 3. Loss of Meaning and Purpose Whether it is a cause or a result of the Void is hard to say, but one of the hallmarks of this state is loss of meaning and purpose on one level, and final regaining of it on another. The loss shows itself in our life situ-ation in doubts and disillusionments about our personal relationships, and our aims, activities, and ambitions to do with worldly matters. What preoccupied us and fed our drive in our work now seems taw-dry and not worth all this effort. We question its reality and its right to absorb so much of our energy, to demand and receive our concentrated attention. Has it the right to fasten us so securely to the daily grind when God's insistent call to another level of being is there in the background all the time, distracting us? Of what use is "getting to the top"? Winning that big increase in salary? Being treated with respect and deference as the one who "has it all at her fingertips," the indispensable manager and organizer? There are times when we ardently want to "throw it all away" be-cause it seems so fatuous. Yet we know we cannot opt out, for we have a spouse to be faithful to, offspring to put through university, the mort-gage to pay off, obligations to associates to fulfill, our own lifelong am-bition to bring to its triumphant peak, a whole life pattern to round off harmoniously. Somehow we have to learn to live with our growing awareness of it all as a mindless treadmill "full of sound and fury, signifying nothing." The Emptiness Within In the face of the Void, it lacks reality, but, nonetheless, must be at-tended to. The true reality is an indefinable something located in our inner emp-tiness. It is drawing us till we want to let go of everything else and reck-lessly jump into that abyss to meet its embrace. At this point some people have a breakdown so that circumstances force them to take a long rest from their life-in-the world obligations and ambitions. Others keep on mechanically, but their heart is no longer in it, and they feel nothing but relief when someone else replaces them or the time comes for them to retire. This disillusionment and lack of drive registers as a humiliating disaster, yet it may well be a special grace open-ing the way for us to concentrate on "the one thing necessary." Alarmingly, the problem increases, rather than diminishes, once we free ourselves enough for such concentration. It is like a slap in the face to discover that we cannot find "mean-ing" in the things of God either, though we dumbly and idiotically know the meaning is there somewhere, expressed in ancient Babylonian hiero-glyphics no doubt! (And no one taught us at school or in the boardroom how to interpret these!) Faced with the Void and its implications, we find ourselves unable to understand God's meaning and purpose in our own lives or those of others. His actions seem arbitrary and often absurd. In fact, a general senselessness defying the rational mind pervades the whole Void. We slither aimlessly about, till we remember the lesson about staying still and waiting. When we apply this perseveringly, we are able to accept that it is no wonder we cannot understand the divine meaning and purpose when it is infinite and eternal while we ourselves remain time and space im-prisoned. It is also perfect love and omniscient wisdom, while we are full of "lacklove" and distorted vision. During the years spent in the Void we slowly learn to rest in peace in God's incomprehensible will, to trust its apparent irrationality, to have faith in its aim to express his beneficent care of us in and through our life circumstances even when they appear to be nothing but "a tale told by an idiot," to hope doggedly in a future blessed by fulfillment in bliss-ful union with him. Our concept of life's meaning and purpose has changed radically as grace permeated those levels where our basic semi- and unconscious re-bellion and misapplied self-will lay hidden but potent. 4. The Darkness of Entombment Review for Religious, September-October 1990 In the Void we are in the process of dying with Christ and being bur-ied with him so that our life may be his life and we be hidden with him in God, our glory part of his (see Col 2:12, 3:2-4). When Jesus hung upon the cross, he was in a kind of void between earth and heaven: the vacant space left by total immolation for the sake of others; the blank of utmost loneliness and dereliction expressed through his cry of abandonment and desolation; the kenosis of the God- Man brought about by the complete surrender of his awareness of his God-ness, coupled with his immersion in his representative Man-ness--his slav-ery as sin-taker for us when he himself was sinless. In various degrees and ways we, his lovers and beloveds, are invited by him to enter into his crucifixion and kenosis with him so we may even-tually share his resurrection glory. We have to die to self by hanging there with and in him through the sufferings--physical, mental, psycho-logical, emotional, and spiritual that God permits to come to us, and that our own and others' sins and sinfulness bring upon us. After the crucifixion comes the interlude of the entombment before the resurrection can occur. The sense of entombment is an essential as-pect of the Void. If we think of Jesus' corpse lying still,, cold, and alone on the stone slab, we shall understand some of the basic elements of the spiritual state of those called to die with him in order to rise with him. There is the darkness of this stone cavern behind its stone door. No chink of light anywhere. It makes us feel our intellect has been blinded and we shall never understand anything about God again. Though we carry on with our daily lives more or less satisfactorily, we suffer a kind of sense-deprivation of the spirit, (Only those who have experienced this state of being will find meaning in this paradox.) One form of torture of prisoners is to lock them into a pitch dark cell where there is complete sense deprivation so that time ceases to have meaning, as does everything else. Entombed with Jesus, we are in a similar state because all the satis-factions and enjoyments that come to a human being through his senses of hearing, sight, smell, touch, and taste no longer have power either to distract or fulfill us. We have become one-purposed in our longing for God, and the senses cannot tempt us away from it with their promise of surface, ephemeral delights. Since we have renounced the lesser good for the greater, the Spirit obliges by paradoxically taking away their irrelevant enticements--in a spiritual sense. To express it otherwise, our senses and our bodies and The Emptiness Within/ all our material being continue to function adequately for the purposes of everyday life. However, in relation to the spiritual life, we have be-come numb and dumb to their joys, attractions and any urge to seek deep meaning and fulfillment through them. We have been brought to that State where we float in the Void of blind faith that none of our senses can affirm as a reality. We gaze upon God without seeing him. We hear his Word without understanding it. We taste his supportive love without any sweetness or consolation--as if our taste buds had been anesthetized. He is weaning us from all such reassurances by imprisoning us in this Void of sense deprivation. He means us to learn how to enter, unencum-bered, into the central mystery of his Being, spirit to Spirit. He has led us into the depths of the Night of Faith. In it, usually for years after painful years, we learn to lie down with the dead Jesus in the tomb. We learn to lie there patiently and wait in our nakedness. We learn what being still really means as we contemplate the Savior's unbreathing body--not with bodily eyes, but with spiritual ones of unquestioning faith and a love stripped of self-seeking. We are seeds fallen into the ground and undergoing the hidden meta-morphosis from which we shall at last emerge, essentially changed per-sons, into spiritual resurrection. 5. Loneliness The inner Void is a crucifyingly lonely space of nothingness. We shall probably find there is no one who can understand our state, except one who is also in it, or one who has endured it and emerged. The one in it may be able to offer sympathy and sharing. The one emerged can give reassurance, understanding, encouragement, guidance, support, and hope for the future. This is so only if she or he has some understanding of what the lonely one is passing through or has emerged from. Such un-derstanding is rare. The Void can have many guises, including those of mental, emo-tional, or physical breakdown. It is often mingled with factors associ-ated with these. It adapts itself to whatever needs to be purified in the particular sufferer, since it is always under the control of the Spirit. It is not easy, and almost impossible, to discover a fellow sufferer who is enduring the same searching trial in the same ways. A qualified, learned, compassionate spiritual guide who has had both personal experience of the Void and of supporting others immersed in it is a very special blessing from God--one that is seldom given. An es-sential part of learning to live at peace in the Void's faith dimension is Review for Religious, September-October 1990 that of being able to trust oneself blindly to the hidden guidance and con-trol of the Spirit coming directly instead of through an intermediary. The purification process includes enduring it alone with God--and an absen-tee God at that. The only sure and never-failing companion is Jesus in his passion, especially in Gethsemane and in his cry of dereliction on the cross. We can find here, in union with him, the strength and purpose to endure, to hang helpless and in agony in absurdity, giving oneself up out of love for his redemptive work, staying with, and in him gladly, for love of him, sharing his loneliness and comforting his desolation. This is anything but mere sentimentality, as anyone who has really done it knows. It is a genuine, self-obliterating response of "Yes" to his questions, "Will you drink of the cup I must drink of? . . . Will you watch one hour with me? . . . Will you take up your cross and follow ¯ me? . . . Will you give yourself with me for others? . . . Will you love my Father's will wholeheartedly as I do to the end? . . . Will you fol-low me wherever I lead? . . . Will you go down into the darkness and die with me and then wait with me in my tomb till resurrection morning comes? . . . Will you dare Sheol with me? o . ." If we agree to share his loneliness, we shall indeed be lonely, and in that desolation share the essential loneliness of all abandoned, help-less, despised, outcast, comfortless human beings whom he represented on the cross, as well as those lost in the black loneliness of habitual, sev-ering sin, or those immured in purgatory in this life or the next. We may have friends who love and try to comfort us, but this will do little to ease what is a loneliness of our very essence crying out for God. Only if they have been through it themselves will they be able to apply balm. In the ultimate there is only one who can fill the Void of loneliness with genuine fulfillment and it is God himself. He is busy preparing in us a place fit to receive him. All we can do is wait in faith, hope, and love that feel like unbelief, despair, and a numb indifference that will never be able to love again. "Out of the depths have I cried unto thee, O Lord. Lord, hear my voice!" 6. Awareness of Sin The Void strips away inessentials, leaving the emptiness of nothing to cling to but God--and in.bare, stubborn faith. Because the motes in our own eyes (our absorption in the secondar-ies of created things instead of the one primary necessity of God) have The Emptiness Within now been removed, at least partly, by grace, we see much better. One of the things we see with our new sight and in startling clarity is the re-ality of sin. Not so much actual sins--these are fairly obvious to discern and we have long ago trained ourselves to watch and guard against them in our own lives. No--what we now see with the eyes of our spirit enlightened by the Spirit is innate sinfulness. We become aware of its substratum in ourselves (those tangled "roots" I mentioned earlier), and in other hu-man beings we have to do with. We helplessly observe it issuing from us and them in all kinds of meannesses, envies, prevarications, self-delusions, self-loves, rationalizations. Squirming and humiliated, we face, with the help of grace, that, "This is me . . . that is the person I loved and revered so much . " If we do not take care, this pitiless insight will cause discouragement and fear in ourselves, and a judg-mental, condemnatory, disillusioned attitude towards others--even cyni-cism. The taste of this racial and personal basic sinfulness is bitter indeed. We want to spit it out and rush to grab something, sweet to gourmandize on and hide that vile flavor. We have been living all the time with a des-picable traitor within us, and till now we have never even glimpsed him. His cronies are present in all other members of the human race, and from them emanate the sorrows, sins, evils and disasters of living on this planet that has been tipped off its axis. Some of the penitential psalms now have for us as never before a co-gent, humbling, and intensely personal message. Paraphrasing a little, we cry with St. Paul, "Who will rescue me from this enemy within?" and reply with him, "Nothing else but the grace of God, through Jesus Christ, our Lord." We know now that we really do need a personal Savior, that we would be lost without Jesus, that an essential part of our Void experi-ence is acknowledging our personal, basic sinfulness for which the only cure is the grace that Jesus gives. We cry, "Lord, you came to save me-- because I needed you so much. I need you even more now you have shown me the truth about myself. Only show me what you want of me, and I will do it. I will do anything at all for you, my Lord and my Sav-ior, because you have rescued me in my great need." This time we really mean it, because we are so much closer to Truth itself. We have been given the grace of a genuine horror of sin because of what it did to Jesus, and still does to him suffering in his members. We long to help heal the wound of sin in his Body. We offer our per- Review for Religious, September-October 1990 sonal wound of sin to him, humbly pleading for the grace of healing. As never before we understand the cleansing power and action of grace, sac-ramentally and otherwise. We hunger for it, seek it, open ourselves wide to receive it. We become beggars for it. We learn what spiritual poverty really means, and again lie down with Jesus in the tomb, content to be naked, trusting in his Body and Blood to heal us of our grievous wound. We are learning what it means to be dead to self and alive to Christ and his members. In the inner Void the self becomes so tiny in the Allness of God. We do not lose our individuality, but we long for it to be absorbed in Christ, so that we become exactly that aspect of his extended incarnation and continuous passion destined for us by the Father. We pray for deliverance from all evil--for ourselves, and for every other human being. We pray fervently, for at last we have "seen" what naked sin and evil are, and what they bring about--the death of the Loved One. 7. We enter a state of Heroic Abandonment and Endurance. Our Void has opened up enough for us to receive the grace we must have to enable us to lie down in the Lord in a state of advanced inner stillness, trust, and hope. The Void's darkness begins to take on the faint glow of incipient dawn, the intense silence is broken by the first tenta-tive twitterings of birds as something soundlessly rolls away our tomb's stone door. The sense of being stifled eases and we draw deep breaths of sweet, cold, dew-drenched air. There is deep within us an awareness of wounds having been healed, of a terrifying emptiness having been filled with Someone, of Love himself annihilating loneliness forever, of a still, si-lent, crystalline joy, and blessedness welling up from deep, deep down, crying in exultation, "Abba! Alleluia! Amen!" Then we see a Person is walking like a king towards the light grow-ing and glowing every second in the tomb's open doorway. It is as if the light emanates from him, as if he is The Light. Wondering and worship-ping, we rise from our stone slab, gather about us the new white gar-ment we find there and follow the Light into the new day. There is no void of inner emptiness anymore. Christ risen and triumphant fills it with himself. Shame: A Barometer of Faith Clyde A. Bonar Father Clyde A. Bonar is a priest of the diocese of Orlando, Florida. He holds ad-vanced degrees in formative spirituality from Duquesne University and in political science from George Washington University. He has served as parochial vicar and administrator of various parishes. His address is St. Joseph of the Forest Catholic Church; 1764 S.E. 169th Avenue Road; Silver Springs, Florida 32688. Aristotle called shame "a feeling or emotion . a kind of fear of dis-grace."~ Interestingly, what one values and what one distains can pro-vide a source for these feelings of disgrace. This allows shame to become a barometer of faith. For the faithfilled person, lapses in living one's faith, for example, can be causes for shame. Conversely, one who scorns religion may find shameful any personal exhibition of faith in an Eter-nal Being. In this paper I shall examine the generic core of "shame" and re-late the experiences of shame in the life of Francis of Assisi (ca. 1182- 1226). Francis' well-known incidents with the lepers caused that saint feelings of shame. Notably, why Francis felt shame about the lepers dif-fered in the earlier and the later parts of his life. Because of that, Fran-cis becomes illustrative of how shame can be a barometer of one's faith. On Shame The Generic Core The core of the shame experience is a sense of exposure and visibil-ity. 2 First, shame is intimately linked to the need to cover that which might unwantedly be exposed. Experiences of shame involve the expo-sure of the peculiarly sensitive, intimate, and vulnerable aspects of the self.3 Something is to be hidden, dodged, or covered up; even, or per- 687 61~1~ / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 haps especially, from oneself. Feelings of shame included "I am weak" and "I am inadequate." The particularities of what must be covered to prevent exposure may vary widely and are individually determinate. For example, while a physical deformity caused Philip in Of Human Bondage4 to feel shame when his clubfoot was exposed, a deeper shame burned "in secret" as Dimmes-dale in Scarlet Letter saw Hester Prynne bear in public the blame for their joint carnal indiscretion .5 Socrates warns of the disgraceful shame of ap-pearing inept in the presence "of some really wise man.' ,6 Personally, for example, I have felt shame for the way I treated a traveling compan-ion during a three-day trip. Second, there is an intimate connection between shame and visibil-ity. 7 When Yahweh called to Adam after he and Eve had eaten the for-bidden fruit, Adam said: "Because I was naked . . . I hid" (Gn 3:11). In his phenomenology of shame, Jean-Paul Sartre claims that shame arises from the look of the Other. "Shame. is the recognition of the fact that I am indeed that object which the Other is looking at and judg-ing." 8 When another looks at him, Sartre comments: What I apprehend immediately., is that I am vulnerable, that I have a body which can be hurt, that I occupy a place and that I cannot in any case escape from the space in which I am without defense--in short, that I am seen.9 Everyday expressions repeat this connection between visibility and shame. We speak of being "shamefaced" or "hiding my face in shame" when others know our failures, inadequacies, or losses of con-trol. A Happy Blush Two other aspects of shame need to be kept in mind as we proceed: that the feeling of shame comes unexpected. That first and physiologi-cal manifestation of shame, the blush, highlights the involuntary and sud-den characteristic of shame. Helen Lynd is perceptive on this aspect of shame: Shame interrupts any unquestioning, unaware sense of oneself . More than other emotions, shame involves a quality of the unexpected: if in any way we feel it coming we are powerless to avert it . What-ever part voluntary action may have in the experience of shame is swal-lowed up in the sense of something that overwhelms us . We are taken by surprise, caught off guard, or off base, caught unawares, made a fool of. ~0 Shame / 689 In his illustration of the voyeur at the keyhole, Jean-Paul Sartre confirms the "immediate shudder" of being unexpectedly caught: "All of a sud-den I hear footsteps in the hall. Someone is looking at me!''~ Importantly, this self-consciousness contains a revealing capacity. Again, it is Sartre who captures this: "Shame is by nature recognition. I recognize that I am as the Other sees me." ~2 Shame carries the weight of "I cannot have done this. But I have done it and cannot undo it, be-cause this is 1.''13 The thing that is exposed is what I am. To "recognize" one's self is to be open to reformation, and there is the delight. Adrian van Kaam writes that "reformation implies a re-appraisal of formative and deformative dispositions, judgments, memo-ries, imaginations, and anticipations." ~4 If experiences of shame can be fully faced, if we allow ourselves to realize their import, they can inform the self and become a revelation of one's self. The question is exactly what personal disposition is revealed by the quick reddening of the blush, the sudden feeling of shame, this which involuntarily and unexpectedly just happens. Writing back in 1839 on The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing, Thomas Burgess reported that the blush reflects "the various internal emotions of the moral feel-ings [so that one could] know whenever we transgressed or violated those rules which should be held sacred." He continued to point out that, given this "spiritual" nature of the "blush," it is "solely a moral stimulus that will excite a true blush.''15 That is~ it is our value system that is re-vealed by shame. For example, if I hold dispositions mostly congenial with the particular individual God designed me to be, a blush will reveal that there are also some uncongenial and not-reformed dispositions. Or, by contrast, if my fundamental orientation is that talk of God is mean-ingless I may blush at some scruples within my disposition constellation that would be more in agreement with faith in an Eternal Being. Among The Lepers The immediate question is what should not be exposed, what should be covered from visibility. Francis' experience with the lepers proves in-structive. In his "Testament" he wrote: The Lord granted to me, Brother Francis, to begin to do penance in this way: While I was in sin, it seemed very bitter to me to see lepers. And the Lord Himself led me among them and I had mercy upon them. And when I left them that which seemed bitter to me was changed into sweet-ness of soul and body.~6 This too brief statement includes all the elements of experiences of 690 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 shame. Fallen Nature of Humanity By his words "While I was in sin" Francis refers to his youthful years. In his parents' home he enjoyed the easy life his successful father could provide. He was a most likable lad, clever, charming, smooth-talking, and insanely generous. Francis had a gift for business and seemed born to be a merchant like his father. The son enjoyed dressing with a studied elegance and entertaining at a good inn with the best of everything. Friends flocked around Francis when he appeared and played the troubadour with his Provencal songs. 17 One would say that Francis was reflecting the fallen nature of hu-manity common since the first sin of Adam, living in ignorance of the true transcendent nature of humanity. ~8 Caught in the competitive trade of the cloth merchant, his father taught Francis to live by that competi-tion. Escape in the exigencies and the excitement of being the business-man became a way of life, with questions of transcendence relegated to minor, occasional thoughts. Responsibility for being a faithfilled Chris-tian example for others was evaded, for the other was also typically the customer, who was to be sold something even if that meant a little de-ception and an excess of charm. Immersion in the sensual joys of life was a natural corollary in a society of, according to Pope Innocent III, "obscene songs, dances, and fornications." 19 Still, why was Francis affected by the lepers as he was? Other youths, his peers in cultural refinement and the easy life, would merely hold their noses when they smelled the horrible stench of the lazaretto where the lepers were confined, and unashamedly turn their horses a dif-ferent direction. But for Francis the human misery breathing death right into his face was incredibly disagreeable. And, the young clothier would experience shame when a wretched beggar would intrude.2° A clue to Francis at this early point in his life, while he was still "in sin," lies, I opine, in the phenomenology of shame. As we saw above, shame is an experience of the whole self: in moments of shameful expo-sure it is the self that stands revealed.2~ Existentialists state this force-fully: in the consciousness of shame, there is "a shameful apprehension of something and this something is me. I am ashamed of what I am . Through shame I have discovered an aspect of my being."22 The self that was standing revealed for Francis'was, in the terms of Adrian van Kaam, his foundational life form. The image of God deep within Francis was being exposed. Thomas Burgess, cited above, might say it was the internal moral feelings of Francis which were being ex- posed. As early as twelve years old Francis was struck in some special way by the elevation of the consecrated host during Mass. In the mud-dle of being dominated by his sensual and functional dimensions and his sociohistorical situations, the inchoate thunderbolt of the transcendent was there. But within the flamboyance and egotism of the sensuous and romantic party giver he appeared to be, Francis would feel shame when his more basic faith in God would protrude. His lifestyle hid from visi-bility the transcendent, as he took greater pleasure in identifying him-self as a prince of the world and knight of Assisi. As God's chosen who would become God's anointed, the young Francis would feel shame where others had no such self-consciousness. According to our paradigm of shame, what Francis's apparent life form, or way of being in his environment, sought to cover during these early years of his life was his foundational life form. When his "vul-nerability" or "inadequacy" was exposed, that is, his sensitivity to the sufferings of lepers and beggars, he felt shame at the "flaw," which was his deeper felt love of God, becoming visible through the cover of how he presented himself to others. Attuned to His God Francis was twenty-four when he stood in front of the episcopal pal-ace at Santa Maria Maggiore and stripped off his clothes in hot haste and threw them at his father's feet. God had seized him: the sinner faded to give way to the saint. But watching his second naked birth, the crowd fell silent, for this "erstwhile dandy" was seen to be wearing a hair shirt. "It was a hideous penitential device of horsehair for killing the instinct of sensuality and chastising the flesh day and night."23 The peni-tential hair shirt was a symbol for what had been happening for some time in Francis--the transformation from dissonance to consonance with the Eternal, a change from running away from God to running toward God. For our present emphasis, we might remember the words of Francis: "Bernardone is no longer my father," but Our Father who art in heaven. The words indicated his change. For Francis, shame is no longer from having love of God exposed within a life lived as a merchant, but henceforth the shame was in having any failure to love God exposed within a life of excited faith. Now, when Francis embraced the leper, as we quoted above in the words of Francis, "that which seemed bitter to me was changed into sweetness of soul." The contrast is sharp between the experiences of shame for Francis before and after his transformation. Upon encountering the so distaste- Review for Religious, September-October 1990 ful leper, "He slipped off his horse and ran to kiss the man . Filled with wonder and joy, he began devoutly to sing God's praises." He be-gan to render humble service to the lepers and "with great compassion kissed their hands and their mouths." Further, the lover of complete humility went to the lepers and lived with them. He washed their feet, bandaged their ulcers, drew the pus from their wounds and washed out the diseased matter; he even kissed their ulcer-ous wounds out of his remarkable devotion.24 Francis took the bold step of overcoming the conventional perception of what is attractive and what is repulsive by reaching out to love what re-pelled him. And the change in the source of shame was seen in other aspects of his life. When his pre-transformation apparent life form had dominated, Francis's selfish pride would tell him to feel deep humiliat

The Welcome Trust Case Control Consortium project was funded by the Wellcome Trust (awards 076113 and 085475). The New Zealand project was funded by the Health Research Council of New Zealand (08–75, 14–155). Recruitment of abdominal aortic aneurysm patients and controls in Belgium, Canada, and Pittsburgh, USA, was funded in part by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health (HL064310 and HL044682). The Geisinger sample collection was funded in part by the Pennsylvania Commonwealth Universal Research Enhancement program, the Geisinger Clinical Research Fund, the American Heart Association, and the Ben Franklin Technology Development Fund of Pennsylvania. The Barts and the Leicester Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Units are funded by the National Institute for Health Research. The eMERGE (electronic Medical Records and Genomics) Network is funded by the National Human Genome Research Institute, with additional funding from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences through the following grants: U01HG004438 to Johns Hopkins University; U01HG004424 to The Broad Institute; U01HG004438 to CIDR; U01HG004610 and U01HG006375 to Group Health Cooperative; U01HG004608 to Marshfield Clinic; U01HG006389 to Essentia Institute of Rural Health; U01HG04599 and U01HG006379 to Mayo Clinic; U01HG004609 and U01HG006388 to Northwestern University; U01HG04603 and U01HG006378 to Vanderbilt University; U01HG006385 to the Coordinating Center; U01HG006382 to Geisinger Health System; U01HG006380 to Icahn School of Medicine Mount Sinai. The generation and management of genome-wide association study (GWAS) data for the Rotterdam Study (control samples for the Dutch GWAS) is supported by the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research (NWO) Investments (175.010.2005.011, 911-03-012). This study is funded by the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (014-93-015; RIDE2), the Netherlands Genomics Initiative/NWO project nr. 050-060-810. The Italian sample collection were funded by grants from Ente Cassa di Risparmio di Firenze to Fiorgen Foundation, Florence, Italy, and from the Italian Ministry of Health. Sample collections from Poland were funded in part by the National Science Centre in Poland (6P05A03921, NN403250440). The Mayo Vascular Disease Biorepository was funded by a Marriot Award for Individualized Medicine and an Award from the Mayo Center of Individualized Medicine. The Vanderbilt data set(s) were obtained from Vanderbilt University Medical Center's BioVU supported by institutional funding and by the National Center for Research Resources (UL1 RR024975-01, which is now at the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, UL1 TR000445-06). The ASAP study (Advanced Study of Aortic Pathology) was supported by the Swedish Research Council, the Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation, the Leducq Foundation (MIBAVA), and a donation by Fredrik Lundberg. S.E. Humphries holds a Chair funded by the British Heart Foundation, and is supported by the British Heart Foundation (BHF; PG08/008) and by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. The Cardiogenics project was supported by the European Union 6th Framework Programme (LSHM-CT-2006–037593). S.C. Harrison was funded by a BHF clinical training fellowship (FS/11/16/28696). The Stockholm-Tartu Atherosclerosis Reverse Network Engineering Task biobank and the generation of the RNASeq data set was funded by Astra-Zeneca Translational Science Centre-Karolinska Institutet, the University of Tartu (SP1GVARENG), the Estonian Research Council (ETF 8853), the Torsten and Ragnar Söderberg Foundation, the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, the American Heart Association (A14SFRN20840000) and by the National Institute of Health (R01HL71207).