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Volume 3 examines how research tools affect theory advances in culture and tourism research. Using visual narrative art to explicate unconscious thinking that shapes trip plans and visits, building tree diagrams of streams of antecedent conditions associating with extreme behavior (e.g., road rage, chronic casino gambling), and research methods that go beyond quantitative/qualitative taxonomies are examples of the unique themes covered in this volume. The papers focus on how to gain meaning from data to thus look at how streams of antecedent conditions result in tourism behavior

This study investigates service breakdowns and describes interventions, including simulations of learner-created service interactions. Constructing and enacting these interactions help in enabling agile, effective server responses. The research investigated the effectiveness of training using live role-playing in dealing with negative turns and solving ad hoc dilemmas in real client-server encounters, thus advancing service excellence and service recovery theory and practice. Seven tertiary institutions cross five nations engaged in training students in client-service performance in simulated contexts. Findings support the positive impact of the proposed iterative competency development plan on impromptu responses, higher-order thinking and situational memory in trainees/servers. The development of Rich Service Enactment Theory (RiSET) extends three perspectives. First, most service training focuses restrictively on what-to-do, excluding necessary training on what-not-to-do. Second, practicing in stimulating contexts with peer feedback helps to prevent repeated mistakes and disastrous service failures. Third, the RiSET model provides a new framework for educators/trainers to develop models that prepare trainees for dealing with unknown, possibly high-risk encounters. The study focuses on surfacing server knowledge and implementing server training to prevent or reduce dramatic turns during client-server encounters, rather than empirically testing a well-formed theory. The study offers empirical researchers' configurations of conditions for contextual experimentation.

This study provides a theory of the influences of alternative national cultures (as complex wholes) on customers' tipping behaviors following receiving of services in restaurants and taxis. Based on complexity theory tenets, the study constructs and tests models asymmetrically—offers separate models for explaining and forecasting high tipping versus low tipping national cultures. The study uses multiple sources of secondary data for 30 nations including Hofstede's first four culture values, religiosity, Gini index, and GDP_PPP. Model construction includes computing-with-words (CWW) screens that prior theory forecasts to be accurate in identifying high (low) tipping behavior. Analysis includes using fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) and somewhat precise outcome testing (SPOT) of the consistency (degree of accuracy) and coverage for each model. Model testing includes predictive as well as fit validation. The findings support core tenets of complexity theory (e.g., equifinality of different recipes for the same outcome, both negative and positive associations of individual ingredients in different recipes contribute to the same outcome, and causal asymmetry). Because national cultures are complex wholes, hospitality researchers need to embrace the complexity theory tenets and asymmetric tools to achieve deep understanding and for accurately forecasting of customer responses to hospitality services. This study provides new theory and methodological tools for recognizing the complexities and forecasting customers' behavior in their responses following receiving hospitality services.

AbstractLinkage‐advertising is the literature and related materials given to customers who respond to advertisers' offers of these materials. Most print and much broadcast advertising in the United States and Canada includes direct‐response linkage‐advertising offers. However, the impact of linkage‐advertising on customers' cognitions, affections, purchases, and consumption behaviours is not well known. In this article we describe how quasi‐experiments can provide a more valid approach to learning the impacts of advertising than the more widely used single‐group case‐study approach. A destination‐marketing tourism strategy, its research method and results are described. This approach can be applied easily to other industry settings. A quasi‐experimental design was used on data from a field study to test the central hypotheses of linkage‐advertising effects. The results from the study are used to estimate the net return on investment of the total linkage‐advertising marketing program. We conclude with suggestions for additional advertising research using quasi‐experimental designs.RésuméLe "linkage advertising" (L.A.) est l'ensemble de l'information et des documents distribués aux consomma‐teurs ayant remarqué et répondu aux offres qui leur ont été faites de recevoir ces documents. La plupart des imprimés et des émissions publicitaires aux états‐Unis et au Canada comprennent des offres de réponse directe et de L.A. Cependant, l'impact du L.A. sur la cognition, l'affect et les achats des consommateurs reste peu connu. Dans le présent article, nous décrivons de quelle manière les quasi‐expérimentations nous permettent, mieux que l'étude habituelle d'un seul groupe, de saisir l'impact de la publicité sur les consommatuers. Les détails de la méthode et des résultats exposés sont ceux d'une stratégie de marketing d'une destination touris‐tique, stratégie facilement applicable à d'autres industries. Un design quasi‐expérimental a été utilisé pour recueillir des données permettant de tester l'hypothèse centrale des effets du L.A. Les résultats de la présente étude sont utilisés pour estimer le rendement net sur les investissements du programme de marketing total de L.A. Des suggestions de recherche future avec design quasi‐expérimental sont proposées.

Purpose
This paper aims to apply complexity theory tenets to deepen understanding, explanation and prediction of how configurations of national cultures and need motivations influence national entrepreneurial and innovation behavior and nations' quality-of-life (QOL). Also, the study examines whether or not high national ethical behavior is sufficient for indicating nations high in quality-of-life.


Design/methodology/approach
Applying core tenets of complexity theory, the study constructs asymmetric, case-based (nations), explanations and predictive models of cultures' consequences (via Schwartz's seven value dimensions) and implicit need motivations (via McClelland's three need motivations) indicating national entrepreneur and innovation activities and subsequent national quality-of-life and ethical behavior. The study includes testing configurational models empirically for predictive accuracy. The empirical examination is for a set of data for 24 nations in Asia, Europe, North and South America and the South Pacific.


Findings
The findings confirm the usefulness of applying complexity theory to learn how culture and motivation configurations support versus have negative consequences on nations' entrepreneurship, innovation and human well-being. Nurturing of entrepreneur activities supports the nurturing of enterprise innovation activity and their joint occurrence indicates nations achieving high quality-of-life. The findings advance the perspective that different sets of cultural value configurations indicate nations high versus low in entrepreneur and innovation activities.


Practical implications
High entrepreneur activities without high innovation activity are insufficient for achieving high national quality-of-life. Achieving high ethical behavior supports high quality-of-life.


Originality/value
This study is one of the first to apply complexity theory tenets in the field of entrepreneurship research. The study here advances the perspective that case-based asymmetric modeling of recipes is necessary to explain and predict entrepreneur activities and outcomes rather than examining whether variable relationships are statistically significant from zero.

PurposeTo develop and propose a conceptual model that explains why downstream channel members (e.g. retailers) are likely to adopt or resist the implementation of emerging partner relationship management (PRM) technologies by their channel counterparts (i.e. suppliers).Design/methodology/approachThe conceptual model is grounded in organizational innovation theory and utilizes select case examples to support posited relationships.FindingsResellers' level of commitment to new PRM tools deployed by suppliers is likely to be driven by their perception of the technology's impact on the equity (i.e. fairness) and efficiency (i.e. cost) of existing channel relationships. In turn, resellers' perceptions about the equity and efficiency implications of PRM technology adoption are expected to be influenced by several factors, including: environmental factors, suppliers' choice of influence strategies and the characteristics of the exchange relationship.Research limitations/implicationsAside from offering several testable propositions, the paper also raises various questions that are worthy of investigation, such as: To what extent (if at all) do boundary‐spanning technologies alter the basic nature of channel relationships? Can the deployment of PRM tools simultaneously lead to both greater channel conflict and coordination? Do differences in reseller commitment result when different implementation partners (i.e. third‐party software firms) handle the deployment of the technology across geographic regions?Originality/valueThe paper builds on the inter‐organizational concepts of equity and efficiency to offer a new perspective on the adoption of boundary‐spanning technologies in a channel setting.

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to help interfirm-collaborating cluster (ICC) executives examine the relevance of alternative decision rules in practical business contexts. Multi-party-implemented strategies and establishing multi-lateral collaborations are necessary actions for achieving success in new product development by small and medium enterprises (SMEs). This study explores interfirm decision-making heuristics relating to industrial ICCs.Design/methodology/approach– The study examines the relevancy to decision making in ICCs of heurstics such as "fast-and-frugal decision trees" (FFDTs) and "take-the-best" (TTB) to processing possibly influential decision-making cues. The study also examines simple heuristics versus the value of a "fully rational" approach to making decisions – calculating cue values, importance weights, multiplying values by weights, summing and selecting the option having the highest summed score. This study included interviewing executives of the pivotal firm in an ICC.Findings– This study reveals a decision-making solution for shortening the time and processes required in seeking new business collaboration partners in an ICC. This study not only develops a FFDT for six decision-making modules to quickly identify potential collaboration partners, but it also constructs a decision systems analysis (DSA) flowchart to effectively shorten the decision-making process.Research limitations/implications– This study is in accordance with the general type of industrial interfirm collaboration in Taiwan. The industrial interfirm collaboration could be further divided into the types of formal, semi-formal and informal industrial interfirm collaborations.Practical implications– This study argues that firms usually find it difficult to develop their own technology because of the high costs of research and development for SMEs. Therefore, firms need to collaborate with partners to maintain their competitive advantage. However, to collaborate, firms must learn to trust their collaboration partners, and the degree of collaboration also strongly depends on the degree to which they trust their collaboration partners.Originality/value– This study provides the efficient models of FFDT and DSA to quickly identify potential collaboration partners and to effectively shorten decision-making processes.