Suchergebnisse

Third World policy making is distinguished from policy making in Western countries by: (1) questionable legitimacy of Third World regimes; (2) different policy concerns; (3) powerful state structure relative to society; (4) greater imperfections in the making & implementation of policy; (5) less public participation; (6) less defined & prescribed channels of participation; & (7) scarcity of information. These differences are attributed to differential social patterns, economic development, & resource accessibility. Commonalities of the policy process are also examined, including constraints, conditions for innovation, & unintended consequences. These similarities derive from the exigencies of human problem solving in structured contexts & the irregular cadences of the policy process. 45 References. D. Generoli

Europe and America : a Comparative Analysis of Ethnicity.
Donald L. HOROWITZ
Societies and polities differ in the extent to which they divide ethnic groups into natives and immigrants. In some states, indigenousness creates strong claims to priority, whereas in others yesterday's immigrants can become today's natives. In the United States, despite massive immigration, the category of « immigrant » is shrinking. Citizenship is liberally available by naturalization and by jus soli. In Germany, by contrast, citizenship is acquired on a jus sanguinis basis ; naturalization is rare ; even third generation Turks are often considered « immigrants ». Whereas to be American has little to do with blood, to be German means to be a Germon citizen and a member ofthe German ethnic group. On all of these dimensions, France and Britain are in-between. There is some genetic content to being French or British, but immigrants can, to some extent, become French or British. Although France, unlike Britain, is traditionally a country of immigration, both have had difficulty absorbing migrants from Asia and Africa.
Education and housing policies affecting minorities vary from country to country. In Germany and America, both federal states, education is less uniform and more subject to local control than in France and Britain. In France and America, the schools have been traditional facilitators of immigrant acculturation and social mobility. In parts of Germany, schools have emphasized preparation of immigrant children for a return to the home country that seems unlikely. Germany has no housing policy targeted at minorities, who tend to live in poorer conditions than Germans do. Despite the absence of a policy in Britain, minority housing conditions have improved steadily. American policies have improved the access of middle-class minority group members to good housing but have done little for members of the lower class. Overall, there is no clear relation between ethnic policies and the conditions in which the minorities find themselves.

In the analysis of ethnic separatism and secession, two approaches can be distinguished. One is to ask what forces are responsbile for the general upsurge in secessionist movements, from Burma te-Biafra and Bangladesh, from Corsica to Quebec, and from Eritrea to the Southern Philippines. Another approach is to ask what moves certain territorially discrete ethnic groups to attempt to leave the states of which they are a part (or at least to secure substantial territorial autonomy), whereas other groups, also regionally concentrated, make no such attempts. The first question calls for a general explanation of aggregate trends; it aims to compare the present with some period in the past. The second calls for an explanation that can discriminate among classes of cases; it entails comparison not across time, but across space.

There is a new emphasis on change emerging in writings on ethnicity. Some of the most important changes involve group boundaries and conflict relationships. Ethnic groups often assimilate with other groups or differentiate themselves from groups of which they were formerly a part. As changes of this kind occur, cultural movements com monly emerge to foster or retard them. These movements range from literary; religious, and historical revivals to full- scale "crisis cults." The form they take is related to the boundary change underway. If group members fear the drift ing apart of subgroups, emphasis is often placed on myths of common origin. If, however, an ethnic group is being ab sorbed by another group, a common reaction is to stress the distinctiveness of group history and culture. Movements of the latter kind often result in political separatism and secessionist violence. Still other cultural revivals have had their origins in anti-colonial sentiment. Since the cultural content and the functionaries needed to propel such move ments are to be found at the ethnic-group level, these move ments also end by asserting ethnic distinctiveness. Anti- colonial revival movements, as well as cultural movements that aim to rectify ethnic boundaries, thus contribute to con flict between ethnic groups.

Recent writings on ethnicity emphasize changes involving group boundaries & conflict relationships. Ethnic groups often assimilate with other groups or differentiate themselves from groups of which they were formerly a part. As changes of this kind occur, cultural movements commonly emerge to foster or retard them. These movements range from literary, religious, & historical revivals to full scale "crisis cults." The form they take is related to the boundary change underway. If group members fear the drifting apart of subgroups, emphasis is often placed on myths of common origin. If, however, an ethnic group is being absorbed by another group, a common reaction is to stress the distinctiveness of group history & culture. Movements of the latter kind often result in political separatism & secessionist violence. Still other cultural revivals have their origins in anticolonial sentiment. Since the cultural content & the functionaries needed to propel such movements are to be found at the ethnic-group level, these movements also end by asserting ethnic distinctiveness. Anticolonial revival movements, as well as cultural movements that aim to rectify ethnic boundaries, thus contribute to conflict between ethnic groups. Modified HA.

The growing recognition of the importance of ethnic, racial, and religious groups in the politics of the new states has given rise to an urgent need for theory. Although this need extends to all aspects of group relations, the first priority is for systematic classification to reduce the bewildering array of descent-groups in the developing world to manageable proportions and comparable cases. With a view to facilitating comparative analysis, the aim of this paper is to make a modest beginning in the formulation of meaningful categories.