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Part one of an interview with Joseph Addante. Topics include: Joseph's family history. His parents were separated during WWI and reunited in Fitchburg, MA. The birth of Joseph's siblings and Joseph (he was the youngest). Catholic education. Americanization classes taught by Margaret Kelty. Speaking English and Italian. His father's experience trying to bring his mother (Joseph's grandmother) to the United States. Visiting relatives in Italy. How his father came to the United States. Family political differences in Italy. The villages in Italy where his parents grew up. The work his father did as a shoemaker in Italy and in Fitchburg. ; 1 SPEAKER 1: The Center for Italian Culture at Fitchburg State College, the [unintelligible - 00:00:06] project. It's Tuesday September 4th 9:30, 9:45 am. Our first interviewee is Joe Addante at his home at 535 South Street Number 22-2. Thanks Joe for taking time again to talk with me. I was hoping that you could give me some biographical information, specifically when you were born. What your birth name is. I was wondering is it Joseph or is it Giuseppe? JOE ADDANTE: I was born on the 25th of August in 1926 at 2:00 a.m. in the morning, by my father's little log that I found. They named me Joseph Bartholomew Addante; Bartholomew because the 24th of August is the big feast day in my father's village. There's a church that was built in 1100 or 1200 and it's a historical site in that area. And that's how I got the name: Joseph from my father, and Bartholomew from the feast day. SPEAKER 1: Mm-hmm. JOE ADDANTE: Uh, I was born in Fitchburg. I was the fourth child that my parents had. They had one in Italy that my father never saw again, that died when he was three or four years old. My mother and father were separated for 10 years because of World War I. My mother rejoined my father in 1920 in Fitchburg, and in 1922 my sister Mary was born, '23 my sister Rose was born. And three years later a son was born, which was a source of joy to my dad. And we grew up together. Uh, also living with us were my two uncles for a number of years, because they had come also from Italy. And I jokingly say I grew up with three fathers, my uncle Rocco and my uncle Dominic. Rocco has a son Rocco Jr., and Uncle Dominic remained a bachelor and was never married. Um, from there we lived on the Water Street lane, which was part of what was called "The Patch" in those days. I attended St. Bernard Grammar school, which was a Catholic parochial school for St. Bernard Parish. However, since my father's brother was a Franciscan priest, he was anxious for us to have a Roman 2 Catholic education. And being acquainted with Monsignor Donnelly, who was pastor of St. Bernard at that time, we were given the privilege of attending the quote unquote Irish parochial school. I graduated grammar school there, then I attended St. Bernard, which then became the Central Catholic High School, graduating in 1944. SPEAKER 1: Okay. I was hoping that you could go back a little bit. Last week when I was here… JOE ADDANTE: Yes. SPEAKER 1: You mentioned something about your mom and dad; your father had to wait nearly 10 years to bring your mother over. Is… did I hear that correctly? JOE ADDANTE: Yes, well, when my mother arrived of course the family started. And as I said, my sisters were born and so was I. My recollection of my early childhood goes back to about 1931 or '30 when I was probably five or six years old. My recollection is going to Americanization classes with my mother. Uh, these were held at what was the Registry of Motor Vehicles building, and the upstairs was sort of a classroom hall kind of arrangement where classes were given in English for immigrants, and also Americanization, which in today's terminology would be called Instructions for Assimilation. Very interesting, because the woman that taught this was Margaret [Kelty]. Margaret [Kelty] was a legend in her own time. Probably one of the most foremost people in adult education in the United States by the time she died. I remember fondly her talking about the 500 Basic English words – which I wonder why they can't be used today – done by some professor from England that came over here. She adopted that technique, and with the use of these 500 words apparently one could communicate and get along. 3 But above and beyond that, Margaret was a genuinely helpful person. She was the daughter of a pharmacist who had a drugstore in the area and in his time had learned to speak Italian to better serve his Italian-American clientele. Margaret has sort of been a legend in the memory of most of us in that particular period of history. She and her sister were always a helpful part of the community and probably helped bridge the differences between the Italian community, if you will, and the Irish community at a time when some saw the Italian movement as a quote unquote Latin invasion. Also at that time there were other people who were quite helpful to the Italian community. Miss [Courtney] and her sister, they were schoolteachers, and of course in those days they were unmarried. And also there was a Mary [Bartley] who was the principal of the Nolan School. These people all had a meaningful role and a large role in helping the Italo-Americans, or the newly arrived Italian immigrants, to get adjusted to the American way of life, learning the language and the expressions, and also sort of acted as a bridge in many cases between them and their Irish neighbors. SPEAKER 1: So how old were you when you remember going to these Americanization classes? JOE ADDANTE: Probably between five years old, six years old. Just prior to the first grade, and then also sometimes even after the first grade because some of them were conducted in the evening. SPEAKER 1: Was that your introduction to English, or did you hear it from friends? JOE ADDANTE: Well, we grew up speaking both languages without actually recognizing there was a difference. We spoke Italian at home; spoke English with our friends without even giving it a thought, frankly. Some of our friends who were attending the Immaculate Conception School had to learn French because the classes were conducted in French in those days. And some of 4 them grew up speaking English, Italian from home, and French from school, which became an advantage to them. SPEAKER 1: But prior to school you were probably living in an Italian neighborhood where there was… JOE ADDANTE: There was English spoken. My father, bear in mind my father had been 10 years before my mother had arrived. He had already become, I believe, a citizen. And he ran a checkbook, ran a business and spoke English in a very passable way, so that he did speak quite a bit of English at home in addition to Italian, hopefully encouraging my mother in her English, which she picked up very readily and read almost all the novels of those days, the classics. I remember her reading to me from Les Misérables in English, which I had forgotten until I saw the play in London and it all came back to me. Yeah. So my father was a very – and mother both, they were very literate people and they loved…they had read many of the classics in Italian and were sort of rediscovering them in English. SPEAKER 1: So tell me more. I tried to ask you this just a few minutes ago but your father, how he tried to get your mother to America and he had some sort of resistance or some… JOE ADDANTE: No. No. That was his mother. My father had no problem in those days getting his wife over here. But at the end of World War II my father had a love for bringing back his mother to this country, because he and both my uncles could have taken care of her very easily. But in going through the immigration papers it became complicated, and it dragged out. And my grandmother died in Italy without ever having seen her son again, and I never got to know her. And my father lost interest and decided never to return to Italy. It was a sad thing, because I had kind of hoped to go with him. In fact the first thing I did, meaningful thing, after his death was to go to Italy and to find out where his sister was, and my uncles, and the village and the home where he, the house where 5 he was born. And I have visited several times since. And I managed to bring my Franciscan uncle to this country for two visits, and so I began to bridge the communications between the cousins and uncles and aunts and that sort of thing. SPEAKER 1: So did Dominic or Rocco ever go back to Italy? JOE ADDANTE: Yes, my uncle Rocco went back in 1937, was married, and he had the same sad experience my father had. He was separated from his wife for 10 years until the end of World War II. When she came here then his son was born, Rocco. My uncle Dominic managed to go back a couple of times because he wanted to visit his sister, who was alive then, and his brother, which he did; then that was his last visit. SPEAKER 1: Okay. Now your father, how may siblings did he have? He had three brothers and… JOE ADDANTE: My father was from a family of 10 children. I think there were seven survivors: my father and his sister and three brothers that I knew, and another sister that I never knew but I met her children, and another sister that I never knew that survived to adulthood, if you will, you know. SPEAKER 1: And their names? JOE ADDANTE: Oh. SPEAKER 1 Do you remember them? JOE ADDANTE: My father's name was Joseph, his sister's name was Agatha, who was an extremely lucky woman in the very early days survived a double mastectomy and lived to be 85 or 86 years of age. SPEAKER 1: In the old country? JOE ADDANTE: In the old country, so it was done back in the days when surgery was primitive by today's standards. Then there was my uncle Rocco, was next. And I think there are a couple of sisters in between. One was [Anina]. To go down the list there was my father, Agatha, I think [Anina], Rocco, and then there was another sister whose name I don't remember, then my uncle 6 Dominic, and then my uncle Francesco who became the Franciscan. That I recall in the names and a couple others. SPEAKER 1: So I read somewhere that in the old days that a lot of marriages were arranged, but your father wished to choose his own wife? JOE ADDANTE: My father was a very independent person. He chose his own wife in a very romantic way and courted her with poetry. My father had a poetic flair. And I think he passed it on to his children, because we all love poetry. But the one problem was that they were of opposite political parties in their families. And my father's main reason for leaving Italy was not so much the opportunity, because he was a craftsman. He made handmade shoes and there was always a lot of work for him. So rather than stay home and get involved in squabbles, he left. He wrote to a friend of his who was in Maine. And the friend never answered but just sent him a ticket. I think it was a $35 steerage ticket in those days. My dad arrived in this country in 1910 and never went back. He landed in Boston, not Ellis Island. And then from there he went to Connecticut and got work with the railroad, because there were some Italian men that would take care of him as far as the language was concerned, while he was trying to learn English. And he stayed there for about three months. And they had an Italian daily newspaper in those days published in Italian for the immigrants. There were many such newspapers just like the Finnish [Raivaaja Press] here. There was an ad in the paper by a shoemaker in Fitchburg by the name of [Sisino], who was looking for a shoemaker. So my dad came to Fitchburg and he was here till he died. He worked for about four months with this man and because he could not arrange to have his evenings off to go to night school to learn English, he quit the job because his primary interest was in learning English. He got another job working at one of the 7 mills; I think the [Beuline] Mill was the name of it. And he worked there for a short period of time, finally saved enough to get a little shop started. And by 1912 he was able to send for his brother to help him in the business. And by 1915 he had bought a building of his own. Tried to send for my mother, World War I broke out and that became an impossibility until the 1920s when my mother and my other Uncle Dominic came together from Italy. SPEAKER 1: Mm-hmm. Now, what about the political party? Can you tell me more about – he didn't want to become involved in any squabbles in Italy and that his wife… JOE ADDANTE: Yeah, my father was not much of a political animal. He saw politics for what it was, in many ways, but not a very… in his mind a very constructive thing anyway. More than that I never heard. I guess he did like my uncle. My mother's brother was a very political person and very active. And I think the… if there was any antagonism it was between my mother's brother and my father's family, if you will, being opposing political persuasions. Whether it was conservative or liberal in those days I don't know. I never really got a handle on it. But my uncle Luigi, my mother's brother, was mayor of three villages at the same time. Because, you know, you had to be a property owner in order to run for political office and you had to be a property owner before you could vote. It was a democracy, but it was a selective democracy in those days. But he was very active, and his wife had died with only one surviving child after having gone through many pregnancies. So it was he and his daughter who actually grew up with my mother as a sister, although she was a niece, because my uncle was the oldest and my mother was the youngest of a large family; but they were the only two survivors. In those day that was not uncommon. And Giovannina, who was my mother's cousin, was almost like her sister and they grew up together 8 and they used to communicate a lot. But then my mother joined my dad here in 1920. But the political thing was not something that my father was interested in and he just got away from it. I think that is the best thing he did because he thoroughly enjoyed this country. SPEAKER 1: Now his wife, your mother, was from the same small village? JOE ADDANTE: Oh yes, they were practically across-the-street neighbors. I mean, the village today has only a population of about 1000. And in those days it was probably a little bigger because they had larger families, and it was mainly an agricultural village to begin with. It is now still slightly agricultural but more on a hobby basis and it has become the weekend place for those that grew up in the village and sought work in the cities nearby. And they go back there on weekends and they fixed up the maternal and paternal homes into the weekend places to rest and enjoy. It's very interesting what they've done with the village, because it has become a very pretty, enjoyable place, because there is very little work being done there except a few tomato plants here and there, and olive trees and that sort of thing. SPEAKER 1: Tell us the name of the village. JOE ADDANTE: The name of the village is [Carpineto Sulla Nora] because it's on the [Nora] River and it's in the province of [Piscada], which is on the Adriatic side of Italy and it is basically central Italy; almost directly East of Rome. SPEAKER 1: Okay. And what region would that be? JOE ADDANTE: That would be [Abruzzi], is the province. The [regione] is province. It is [Piscada]. They refer to their states as regions and then what we call counties they call provinces. SPEAKER 1: Right, so the region is… JOE ADDANTE: And what we call counties they call parishes. [La Paroche de]… SPEAKER 1: Okay.9 JOE ADDANTE: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: So your father, he learned the craft from his father? JOE ADDANTE: From his father, who had learned it from his father. No, but my father was actually apprenticed out, and he had to serve a three-year apprentice in order to be a master craftsman in those days. And he had to live and became almost like an indentured servant when you were an apprentice. You lived away from home, you lived with the master, and after the three years you came back home and you were considered a guild member kind of thing. SPEAKER 1: Where was he sent? Do you know? JOE ADDANTE: Probably 20 miles away. And I never got the name of the town. The only thing I ever heard was he did not enjoy the meals because they weren't like his mothers. [Laughter] SPEAKER 1: They never are. Now, why would your father not have learned from his father? JOE ADDANTE: It just wasn't done. It wasn't done in terms of you wouldn't be recognized as a true craftsman if you learned from your father. Although my father did teach his brothers, but that's the way it was done, and it cost money. He had to pay for it, and it was sort of a tuition, if you will. And that was done mainly for shoemakers, tailors, cabinetmakers, bearing in mind in those days you could not go out and buy finished furniture that easily, or even caskets for the dead. You know, these people had the cabinetmakers. My mother would tell me that they would have coffins half finished and they would just finish them for the day of the funeral. SPEAKER 1: Okay. JOE ADDANTE: Shoes had to be made, my father would actually go out to these large estates where they had tenant farmers and that sort of thing and they would make shoes for everybody there. They would stay probably a week. They would make 10 or 15 pairs of shoes and repair their saddles and all leatherwork. It was a whole kind of activity. And they would do that for 50 or 60 10 miles around. Very interesting kind of… they would go, they'd pack their tools, pack a mule, go off and get this work done and come back. SPEAKER 1: Did they work on the leather itself? JOE ADDANTE: Oh yes. They didn't tan it; they bought tanned leather. But then they would start from scratch. They made their own patterns, their own lasts, they did their own measurements. It was incredible. My father could look at a foot and with a piece of tape he would make a last to make a shoe. But that's the way they were trained, you know. SPEAKER 1: Now, did he continue doing that when he came here? Did it change much? JOE ADDANTE: When he came here the polio was a very prevalent problem, and he made a lot of shoes for polio victims, or he modified a lot of shoes. Then he got into the actual shoe repairing. In fact I, much of that influence rubbed off of me and I got interested in being a podiatrist because of that. I could see him put lifts on shoes. I remember I made my first pair of shoes with my dad when I was about nine or 10 years old, helping him out and learning how to do it. I sort of grew up with it. And my uncles worked with him and then we had three shoe repair shops going at one time. My dad also wholesaled leather and heels, and nails, and stitching material for the shoes. He became a finder. So he covered the whole gamut of the shoe thing. SPEAKER 1: Just so we can record this, tell me what the process was that you remember. For example, when someone wanted a pair of shoes they would come and see your father or his brothers and…? JOE ADDANTE: The first thing they would do is have them stand up on a piece of paper and they would outline the foot. And then – and my dad did this without half the education I had in terms of this. But he says, "You know, when you put the weight on the foot that is the real size." And he would measure this out. Then he would measure the girth of the foot, just like the waist of a11 body, around the foot. Then he'd also measure around the ankle and he got these measurements. Then if he had a ready-made last, he could use that. If he didn't he'd have to make one or modify one, because he had certain basic ones that had been pre-made, because manufactured lasts began to come out. They were made in [Lynn], Mass. In fact [Lynn] was apparently the foundation of the shoe trade in the United States. Then he would modify that. Then he would proceed to make a pattern of the leather and the lining. Now this was done in our living room, if you called it that. My father had this sewing machine, and this is where we could cut the patterns out and then assemble the upper of the shoe, and then he'd put it on the last. Now, putting that on the last, you cut off an insole that you put on the bottom of the last which would be the sole, the bottom of the foot. Then the leather was drawn over that. Then it was stitched and a welt was put on, called a Goodyear welt because that was an American process. And it was stitched by hand, and then to that was fastened the sole. And that was the intriguing part, because when you had a polio victim one foot usually was, or one leg would be shorter than the other, or sometimes you had to put a weight because as a shriveled-up limb, as a result of the polio, would not grow unless it was pulled on. So by adding weight to the shoe, as the youngsters would try to run it would pull on that leg and encourage a little extra growth. And I remember weighing those things and they were half a pound, or a pound or three pounds, whatever it was, to try to bring that leg to its fullest capacity, even though it had been affected by the polio.12 So there were a lot of interesting little details involved, but that is basically it. And then though we put the eyelets on, there was a machine that put the eyelets and laces and sometimes we had to cut laces and cut a special tip on, because on some of these patients they had a higher type of shoe: sort of a semi-boot like a trucker boot effect to hold it on a shriveled limb. SPEAKER 1: Were there different styles that people could choose from? JOE ADDANTE: Not as it is today. Far from it. Far from it. In fact, I remember the transitional period when shoes went from being nailed to being stitched. Because they would use little tacks, the old tacking shoemaker. When the machines came in, I think my dad was one of the first ones to have an electric stitching machine in New England. And other people who did shoes in the area would bring them to him. They'd do everything else but stitch them, and he would stitch them on the machine and he got a fee for stitching these shoes for them. SPEAKER 1: Where did he buy that machine? JOE ADDANTE: He couldn't buy it. SPEAKER 1: Oh, he had to… JOE ADDANTE: He couldn't buy it. He had to get it from the Goodyear stitching company and there was a royalty, there was actually a stitch meter. And you paid by the stitch. They would come and read the meter. And in fact his company, the Goodyear stitching company, not the rubber company, they actually were sued after World War II. It went that long before people were allowed to buy them because it was considered a monopoly and they were cracked. But the insidious part of it all, which was very unfair, following World War I they started making these machines. They were on royalty in this country, but they were being sold overseas, so that the overseas shoemakers began to compete with ours in a very unfair way, because the foreign laws did not protect the copyright, the patent laws that we have here. That was an interesting… SPEAKER 1: Must be. So how was it that your father was given this? 13 JOE ADDANTE: Well, he read about it and decided he needed one. He was sort of an avant-garde kind of person anyway. He got it. He had to pay for it. He couldn't own it outright. You had to buy it but then you have to pay the royalty on it, so it was a two-way hook-up, you know [laughter]. SPEAKER 1: So was he…did he follow…did he do each step of the shoe or did he do some of it and then handed it over to his brothers, or…? JOE ADDANTE: Well, they all did. They worked together. SPEAKER 1: They worked together? JOE ADDANTE: They worked independently, and they worked together. And sometimes it would be like a little mass production line on a small scale. One would do one and one would do the other, depending what they were doing that day. And of course to run these machines, you had to heat them up. They were gas fired because rosin was in there and rosin had to be… you had to melt the rosin till it was soft, because when the thread went through there to give it strength, it was dipped in and out of the rosin. So they didn't run that stitcher every day. They would run it like three times a week. So the other days would be in preparation for that. Much like the old tailors did when they had the steam presses. They would get all their work done, and they would press on Tuesdays and Thursdays, or Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. I used to see that in the neighboring tailor's shop. That was an interesting experience, too./AT/ca/sg

Collected data and research material presented in the monograph are a result of financing of the Polish science budget in the years 2011−14; the research project was financed by the National Science Centre according to decision no. DEC-2011/01/B/HS4/04744. The project that resulted in this monograph was financed from public funds for education for 2011 − 2014, the National Science Center under Contract No. DEC-2011/01/B/HS4/04744. ; Value-Based Working Capital Management analyzes the causes and effects of improper cash flow management between entrepreneurial organizations with varying levels of risk. This work looks at the motives and criteria for decision-making by entrepreneurs in their efforts to protect the financial security of their businesses and manage financial liquidity. Michalski argues that businesses exposed to greater risk need a different approach to managing liquidity levels. The scientific aim of this monograph is to present the essence of financial liquidity management under specific conditions faced by enterprises with risk and uncertainty. Enterprises differ from one another in risk sensitivity. This difference affects the area of taking decisions by the managers of those enterprises. The result of interactions between levels of liquidity and sensitivity to risk affects the managers of such enterprises (Altman 1984; Tobin 1958; Back 2001; Tobin 1969). In this monograph the research hypothesis is the claim that enterprises with a higher sensitivity to risk are very different from enterprises with a lower sensitivity to risk, resulting in a different approach to managing their working capital. Enterprise managing teams react to risk, and this reaction is adjusted by an enterprise's sensitivity to risk. Because of its subject area, the book will address the issues of corporate finance. The monograph discusses the behavior of enterprises and the relationships between them and other factors in the market occurring in the management process under the conditions of limited resources. As a result of these interactions with the market and the environment in which individuals who manage enterprises operate, there is an interaction between money and real processes that in the end are the cornerstone of wealth building. This chapter discusses the objectives and nature of enterprises in the context of their risk sensitivity, as well as the relationships between the objectives of enterprises and the characteristic features of their businesses. Enterprises operate in various business environments, but generally speaking, they all have one main aim: wealth creation for their owners. The realization of that aim depends on an idea of business in which the enterprise is an instrument to collect money from clients of the enterprise's services and products. Business environment is crucial not only for future enterprise cash inflows from the market but also for risk and uncertainty (Asch, and Kaye 1997; Copeland, and Weston 1988; Fazzari, and Petersen 1993). According to the author, it is necessary to include an understanding of that risk and uncertainty of future in the rate that reduces the net size of free cash flows for the enterprise owners, beneficiaries, or more generally stakeholders. Enterprise value creation is the main financial aim of the firm in relation to working capital components (Graber 1948; Jensen, and Meckling 1976; Lazaridis, and Trifonidis 2006). Working capital management is a part of a general enterprise strategy to its value maximization (Laffer 1970; Kieschnick, Laplante, and Moussawi 2009; Lyland, and Pyle 1977). This chapter presents a definition of financial liquidity and liquidity-level measurements. This chapter contains four subchapters that address the specific role of short-term financial decisions, a classification of definitions of financial liquidity, sources of information about liquidity level, and liquidity-level measurements (Lazaridis and Tryfonidis 2006; Long, Malitz, and Ravid 1993; Kieschnick, Laplante, and Moussawi 2009). Financial liquidity definition and liquidity-level measurements Here we have an opportunity to present the author's opinion on what assets should be financed with short-term funds and what the level of liquidity is in an enterprise (Michalski 2012a). The discussion also pertains to the issue of the dividing line between long-term and short-term decisions, with greater emphasis on the durability of their effects, rather than the decision-making speed. This section also attempts to answer the question: What are the short-term effects of operations under conditions of uncertainty and risk? The reason for the considerations in this section is the need to characterize the decisions that affect the level of enterprise liquidity. The research hypothesis of this monograph assumes that differences between more risk sensitive and less risk sensitive enterprises are seen in liquidity management. Simply because the enterprises, during financial liquidity management, take into account the differences in their risk sensitivity. This chapter discusses the relationship between firm value and business risk sensitivity. The chapter starts with a presentation of intrinsic liquidity value and firm reactions to market liquidity value. This is the basis for target liquidity level in the enterprise. Liquid assets are the main part of working capital assets, so the next part of the chapter focuses on working capital investment strategies and strategies of financing such investments in working capital in the context of firm value creation. The chapter concludes that, from a firm-value-creation point of view, more risk-sensitive entities should use flexible-conservative strategies, while less risk-sensitive entities have the freedom to use restrictive-aggressive strategies. In the context of a crisis, this is the clear answer and explanation for higher levels of working capital investments observed empirically during and after a crisis. The determinants of intrinsic value of liquidity are attributed to liquidity by enterprise management. Enterprises in which financial liquidity has a high internal value will have a tendency to maintain reasonable liquid resource assets at a higher level. The levels of stocks of funds maintained by enterprises are also the result of the relationship between the liquidity market value and the intrinsic value of liquidity. It demonstrates how to approach the estimation of liquidity and presents the market value of liquidity. Having connected this information with the knowledge of manifestations of the internal liquidity, we can offer an explanation as to why the target (and also probably the optimal) level of liquidity for enterprises with higher-than-average risk sensitivity is at a higher level than the corresponding target (optimal) level for enterprises with a lower level of risk sensitivity. Working capital value-based management models In this part of the monograph we discuss the items contained within the cost of maintaining inventory. Using this approach, a model of managing inventories is presented. Theoretically, the value-maximizing optimal level of inventory is determined to be the modified EOQ model, presented as VBEOQ model. We also present an outline of issues associated with the risk of inventory management and its impact on the value of the enterprise for its owner. We also discuss the principle of the optimal batch production model and how the size of the production batch affects the value of the enterprise for its owner. Here also is demonstrated a modification of the POQ model: VBPOQ. The proposed modification takes into account the rate of the cost of capital financing and the measures involved in inventory when determining the optimal batch production. When managing the commitment of the inventory, it is crucial to take into account the impact of such decisions on the long-term effectiveness of the enterprise. This chapter also discusses the relationships between the management of accounts receivables and the value of a business. A modified (considering the value of a business) model of incremental analysis of receivables is presented, as is a discussion of the importance of capacity utilization by an enterprise for making management decisions pertaining to accounts receivables. Issues related to the management of working capital and enterprise liquidity are and will be an area of research. The analysis in this study focused primarily on working capital and liquidity management; understanding its specifics will facilitate the management of liquidity in any type of organization. Working capital as a specific buffer against risk has its special role during a crisis and can serve as a good forecasting indicator about future economic problems in the economy if a whole business environment notices higher levels of working capital and its components, like cash, inventories, and accounts receivables. The scientific value of the issues discussed in the book is associated with the issue of working capital and liquidity management in enterprises. It is also a result of the exploration and definition of the main financial objective of businesses and the relationship between the objective and the management of working capital and enterprise liquidity. The choice of topic and the contents of research resulted also from empirical observation. Empirical data on enterprises that operate in countries touched by the last crisis document higher-than-average levels of working capital before, during, and after the crisis in these enterprises. These conditions provided the means for a "natural experiment" of sorts. From that point, working capital management theory faced a necessity of even wider development. ; Collected data and research material presented in the monograph are a result of financing of the Polish science budget in the years 2011−14; the research project was financed by the National Science Centre according to decision no. DEC-2011/01/B/HS4/04744. The project that resulted in this monograph was financed from public funds for education for 2011 − 2014, the National Science Center under Contract No. DEC-2011/01/B/HS4/04744. ; How to Cite this Book Harvard Grzegorz Michalski . (April 2014). Value-Based Working Capital Management . [Online] Available at: http://www.palgraveconnect.com/pc/doifinder/10.1057/9781137391834. (Accessed: 28 May 2014). APA Grzegorz Michalski . (April 2014). Value-Based Working Capital Management . Retrieved from http://www.palgraveconnect.com/pc/doifinder/10.1057/9781137391834 MLA Grzegorz Michalski . Value-Based Working Capital Management . (April 2014) Palgrave Macmillan. 28 May 2014. Vancouver Grzegorz Michalski . Value-Based Working Capital Management [internet]. New York: Palgrave Macmillan; April 2014. [cited 2014 May 28]. Available from: http://www.palgraveconnect.com/pc/doifinder/10.1057/9781137391834 OSCOLA Grzegorz Michalski , Value-Based Working Capital Management , Palgrave Macmillan April 2014 ; Author Biography Grzegorz Michalski is Assistant Professor of Corporate Finance at the Wroclaw University of Economics, Poland. His main areas of research are Business Finance and Financial Liquidity Management. He is currently studying the liquidity decisions made by organizations. He is the author or co-author of over 80 papers and 10 books, and sits on the editorial board of international conferences and journals. Reviews 'Due to the recent financial crisis, interest in the topic of working capital has grown significantly to both theory and practice. The research results presented by Grzegorz Michalski contribute to the development of a comprehensive theory of liquidity management and the creation of an integrated working capital and liquidity for different types of business model. The job is processed on a high quality level." -Marek Panfil, Ph.D, Director of Business Valuation Department Warsaw School of Economics 'The book of Grzegorz Michalski is a very good publication that has found the right balance between theory and practical aspects of financial liquidity management. 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Industrial agriculture delivers cheap food at high cost in terms of degraded land, water resources, biodiversity and rural societies. It exacerbates floods and droughts, and creates enormous greenhouse gas emissions. There is an alternative: regenerative agriculture that mimics natural ecosystems, holding to four rules: no bare soil, no tillage, a diverse crop rotation and a rough landscape that includes woods and wetlands. Subsidising regenerative farming is politically feasible whereas, probably, taxing land degradation is not. Farmers may be encouraged to adopt regenerative farming through small changes to the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) whereby farmers could form Landcare Groups which would develop a regenerative farming brand – analogous to a protected name such as Chianti Classico. They could then sell their brand to a regional Sustainable Farming Panel and, if authenticated, it could receive a subsidy under the CAP.The cost of food Food prices and food security are existential issues for governments as well as consumers. Since the early 19th century, governments have had to grapple with the competing claims of farmers, manufacturing and popular interests. In the UK, the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was a victory for popular interests. Since then, most governments, most of the time, have left the food system to the market and food prices have been driven down – notwithstanding wartime spikes and oil-price shocks. Society has been comfortingly deluded that the food system works. It delivers cheap food to consumers but stresses farmers and degrades the land. Governments nurture the delusion, hide the harm by buying off the farmers and ignore the erosion of natural capital. But the system doesn't deliver cheap food: it delivers underpriced food. The real price is being paid by underpaid labour, the taxpayer and degradation of soil, water, biodiversity and climate stability. None of these is accounted for in the price of food. Governments subsidise farmers to support livelihoods, maintain rural economies, guarantee a degree of food self-sufficiency and protect landscapes and ecosystem services. This last intent is reinforced by compliance conditions, but the bar has never been set very high; this is an area of policy making where the state is learning on the hoof (Allan and Dent, 2021: 3-20). The subsidy model has two tracks. Payment by results was an early policy of the European Union (EU) Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Farmers responded to the incentive and the outcomes included the butter mountain and the wine lake; cheap credit for big machinery and grants for ripping out hedgerows created more environmental damage. Nowadays, subsidies are shifting to activities: areas reserved for birds and bees receive a subsidy whether or not they are endorsed by the birds and the bees – the activity, not the result, entitles the farmer to financial support. Our proposal to support regenerative farming – exemplified here by the Chianti Classico model – is also based on activities because the results are too complex to assess and don't provide a tangible target for farmers. The need to relearn the last 70 years For decades after the end of the Second World War, farming was flooded with cheap fertilisers and miraculous agrochemicals. Fossil fuels were cheap; the military-industrial complex sidestepped adroitly from explosives to fertilisers, from poisons to pesticides; plant breeders developed responsive new varieties. Together, these gifts of technology created the much-trumpeted "Green Revolution" that, in favourable situations, tripled the yields of staple crops. Favourable situations are unequally distributed so, simultaneously, we saw globalisation of the food system and relocation within individual countries. One of the authors of this essay, Brian Chatterton, lives on an abandoned farm in Umbria (Italy) where sharecroppers, the contadini, deserted a life of labour and poverty for paid work in the prosperous north; and livestock were abandoned because there were no herdsmen. A century earlier, in one of the aurhors' country of origin, in Australia, when farm labour joined the gold rush, farmers introduced fences to control their livestock. Fences were not introduced in Italy; instead, the livestock moved to feedlots – not just a move away from grazing but, also, to make use of the great global grain surplus. In the process, manure was converted from a fertiliser to a pollutant. The gifts of technology came with other calamitous consequences – climatic, ecological and social – and the industrial inputs are now expensive and likely to remain so. As a result, an unsustainable situation has been created. There is an alternative to this nonviable process. Over the last 70 years, regenerative agriculture has emerged as a farmers' movement, without fanfare, and has been adopted across 15% of the world's cropland, in particular in North America and Europe.What is regenerative agriculture? Regenerative agriculture is the antithesis of the "Green Revolution". It emerged under the banner of "Conservation Agriculture" (Kassam, 2020), but the aim is not preservation of what remains of soil, water and biodiversity but building back better by mimicking natural ecosystems. Here are its four rules: First Rule: "Ban Bare Soil". Bare soil invites invasion by weeds. Every year, they must be rooted out, the soil turned and we start again – with bare soil. Bare soil bakes in the sun; so do earthworms and myriad smaller creatures that should be maintaining soil permeability. Rain splash turns bare soil into mud – mud that clogs the pores so that rainwater ponds or runs off the surface, carrying the soil with it. When the rain stops, the pulverised surface sets as a crust that yields immediate runoff from the next rainstorm. And bare soil is carried off by the wind: three-quarters of the topsoil and three and a half million people left the Dust Bowl of the American Plains states in the 1930s. The rule is: don't fallow and, between crops, keep the soil covered with a mulch of crop residues. This keeps it cool, arrests soil erosion, and allows all the rain and snowmelt to infiltrate. Second Rule: "Don't Plough".The purpose of ploughing is to control weeds. Weeds can be controlled by crop rotation without resort to poisonous chemicals. Ploughing uses 60-70% of the energy (labour and diesel fuel) consumed in agriculture – and stimulates germination of more weeds. Worse still, it perturbs the soil's physical and biological structure and promotes the breakdown of soil organic matter – the fuel of life in the soil, the glue that binds soil structure, and which holds more carbon than the atmosphere and all standing vegetation put together. Centuries under the plough have drastically depleted soil organic matter. Stop ploughing, and a net loss of soil organic carbon is transformed to a net gain that draws down the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere; and direct drilling leaves the soil surface protected by crop residues. Third Rule: "Adopt a diverse crop rotation".Natural vegetation is diverse and mostly perennial. Recent advances in crop breeding have brought the yields of perennial cereals and oilseeds within touching distance of established annual varieties (Crews, et al., 2018) but, until they are truly commercial, the next best thing is to follow a diverse crop rotation that includes perennial grasses and legumes – both as crops and pastures. Under this rotation, yields of cash crops are greater than any alternative monoculture; integration of crops and livestock makes good use of the additional biomass; and the costs of fertiliser, herbicides and pesticides are cut if not completely eliminated. Fourth rule: "Create a rough landscape".Restore wetlands and woodlands. Plant windbreaks. Windbreaks are shirts for fields; allocation of 4% of the land area to windbreaks brings a benefit-cost dividend of 10% through lower air temperature, greater humidity, cutting wind speed, retaining snow and runoff, arresting erosion and increasing biodiversity. Moreover, the increased surface roughness creates convectional rainfall; and the transpiration of trees and other perennial vegetation, drawing on deep water reserves, promotes the local water cycle and a more habitable landscape. Regenerative farming is commercial: It is a good livelihood, not the fantasy of a wealthy philanthropist. Regenerative farming is profitable but not obsessed with crop yields because greatly reduced costs and risk contribute to profits as well. Rather, it is possessed by sustainability: meeting the needs of the present without compromising the future. For instance, for several generations, the Chatterton farm in South Australia grew two wheat crops in succession after two or three years of poor pasture grounded on ephemeral grasses. Changing the poor pasture to a protein-rich sward of annual medick immediately improved soil fertility – though not wheat yields because weeds benefitted as well. Costs were much lower, because nitrogen fertiliser was eliminated, and sheep numbers increased from 500 to 1,200 (and the sheep were better fed). The whole system was more productive, more profitable. Regenerative farming can also be intensive as the Chinese, Koreans and Japanese demonstrated for millennia (King, 2004); intensive production requires intensive regeneration and that is what they did. Regenerative agriculture is not anti-science: It doesn't reject all the progress made in the last 70 years. It doesn't reject disease-resistant crops and thousands of other scientific advances. It does reject the view we learned at university, half a century ago, that the soil is merely a neutral growth medium and everything else the plant needs can be supplied by the chemical industry. Regenerative agriculture is not nostalgic:We are not advocating ox-drawn ploughs or the return of poor sharecroppers. Some farmers will adopt old crop varieties provided that there is a market for them, but the concept is not to turn our back on scientific advances. If they really are advances, adopt them. Brian Chatterton, for instance, inherited a farming system that burnt any remaining stubble before drilling the next cereal crop and, so, further reducing what was already a low soil organic matter content. We have no wish to return to this destructive practice. Is regenerative farming the same as organic farming? No. They are not the same although they are moving in the same direction. They cater for different markets. Organic farming eschews industrial chemicals like artificial fertilisers, pesticides and weedkillers so as to satisfy the concerns of the affluent who are anxious about chemical residues in their food and are prepared to pay a premium to avoid them. From the farmers' point of view, organic farming requires a great deal more capital, both monetary and human, and the market premium depends on organically grown food being a niche product. Both organic farming and regenerative farming replace chemicals with knowledge, but organic farmers have to make this investment for several years before they attain organic status and qualify for the price premium. Those years without the price premium, nominally to rid the system of industrial residues, are also needed to master the alternative organic farming practices – for instance, controlling pests without industrial pesticides. In the EU, wider uptake of regenerative agriculture will depend on subsidy from the CAP, which we would call payment for environmental services – services that include arresting soil erosion, delivery of fresh water, moderation of floods and droughts, and cutting emissions of greenhouse gases. We assume that the market will not reward farmers who provide these services, so a CAP subsidy will be invaluable during the years of adoption and adaptation to acquire the necessary skills and the equipment. Why should regenerative farming be adopted? To arrest soil erosion: Archaeological evidence shows, for instance, that soil erosion in central Italy during the last 70 years has been greater than the previous 2,000 years of recorded farming history. The erosion map of Europe (Panagos et al., 2020) confirms that Italy has more soil erosion than any other European country. It has hills and mountains but so do other European countries; and if erosion continues at this rate, we can no longer count the future of fields in decades. But soil erosion is arrested by a complete vegetation cover, as practised by regenerative agriculture. Stopping soil erosion is the main reason given by farmers, worldwide, for adopting regenerative farming: they want to stay in business and pass on a productive farm to their children. Direct cost of current system: The war in Ukraine has pushed up fuel prices and, in turn, the price of fertilisers. For farmers, these costs been offset to some degree by an increase in farm gate prices – which have fed through to higher costs for animal feed – but farm gate prices have fallen away again. Prices depend very much on what the international commodity traders decide is in their best interests: the farmers will have no say. Farmers must pay on the nail for their inputs, but their outputs are at risk from world prices and the weather. No-till farming obviously makes a big saving, not just in fuel, fertiliser and pesticides but in wear and tear and tractor power requirements. Carbon footprint of fertilisers and their further pollution:Manufacture of nitrogenous fertiliser requires a lot of energy and its nitrogen-use efficiency is commonly less than 33%. These fertilisers are readily leached, contaminating streams, groundwater and drinking water; and their breakdown in the soil releases nitrogen oxides – with 300 times the greenhouse effect of the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide. As temperatures rise and droughts intensify, emissions will increase. To regulate water supply, control floods and droughts:Continuing with the case of Italy, this country faces several water crises but they all stem from the state of the soil. The first requirement is to catch the rain and snowmelt. Under nearly all circumstances, a well-protected, well-structured soil will infiltrate all the precipitation it receives. If there is no runoff, there is no flooding and no sedimentation of streams and reservoirs; the soil stays in place, where we all need it to be. Vegetation or, failing that, a mulch of crop residues protects the soil surface from sun, wind and rain; and enhances soil structure – that is to say, the architecture of the pore space that holds and transmits water. To increase soil organic matter: Soil structure is held together by soil organic matter; the more organic matter, the more resilient the structure. Soil organic matter is also the primary source of plant nutrients, which are steadily released by microbial decomposition under the very same conditions that growing plants need – not in a rush as with artificial fertilisers, so losses by leaching are minimal. Soil organic matter increases under regenerative agriculture because there is more biomass and less decomposition under more equable soil temperatures, the absence of intensive soil disturbance, and without periodic erosion of the topsoil. Cultivate less: Cultivation accelerates the breakdown of soil organic matter which releases the nutrients it holds, so the ploughing of virgin soils provided bumper yields. But yields crashed when the humus was not replaced. Under the current conventional farming system in large parts of Europe, the land is ploughed deeply using powerful tractors that burn a lot of fuel. Ploughing buries the weeds and stubble left from the previous crop but, at the same time, destroys soil structure and permeability and creates a pan at the plough sole that needs even deeper cultivation to break it up. Having used a lot of energy to upend the soil, the farmers have created fields of hard clay bricks that require yet more power to smash them down into a reasonable seed bed. Farmers need to acquire different machinery and use it differently. As a first step, they shouldn't turn everything upside down. Leaving crop residues on the surface protects the soil from the elements and supplements soil organic matter; but increasing soil organic matter also means retaining all crop residues rather than selling bales of straw to livestock farmers. As soil organic matter increases, soil structure improves; the clods will crumble and require less force to create a seedbed. It follows that tractors do not need to be so big and heavy; sowing can be undertaken at the optimum time; autumn rains will be more effective; and undisturbed soil enables mycorrhizal fungi – old friends of higher plants – to proliferate their slow-growing hyphae throughout the soil profile, absorbing and passing on otherwise hard to get nutrients like phosphate. Grow legumes: Sustainable farming also needs legumes that fix their own nitrogen fertiliser from the air and, in turn, release the nutrients for intercrops or other crops in rotation. Bring back grazing: There is little interest in improved pastures in mainland Italy, although there are such legume pastures in Sardinia. A similar situation prevails in much of Europe. Perennial lucerne, erba medica in Italy, is very productive but hard to incorporate into a cereal rotation. The advantage of legumes in grazed pastures or leys is that more of the nitrogen fixed by the plants is retained and the biomass, returned as manure, is spread for free. Animals on feedlots are fed on imported soya and grains grown using chemical fertiliser, and their manure is not conveniently recycled.Retain stubble: A decline in feedlots will also cut the market for straw. Leaving the straw in the field will increase soil organic matter but cereal straw is poor in nitrogen. Microorganisms breaking down the straw take up nitrogen from the soil, in competition with growing crops, so it can pay to add some pump-priming nitrogen fertiliser or a commercial stubble bio-decomposer. Once the straw has rotted, the nitrogen is available again. How to encourage regenerative farming in Europe? Society needs regenerative farming as much as the farmers do – but the market will not pay for it. If we follow the subsidy track, payment by results might be attractive but practical and ethical issues immediately arise. What should those results be? How can they be proven? For instance, we might pay according to improvement in ground cover, soil bulk density and soil organic carbon (easy-to-measure proxies for soil health) (Dent, 2019). But the starting point has to be determined; in the case of soil organic matter, it varies from very low in sandy soils to very high in swamps, and may vary by an order of magnitude within any field. This means a lot of tests. The feasible rate of increase is similarly variable and depends as much on the weather as the farmer; and the gain declines as the soil attains a new equilibrium. When the effective ceiling is reached, is the farmer to be paid simply to maintain it? And is reimbursement to be enforced if it is not maintained, for instance following a change of ownership? We are proposing an alternative, socially well-proven and familiar model based on farmers' actions, not outcomes. It builds upon voluntary associations of farmers that have been the bedrock of regenerative agriculture as a farmers' movement across six continents, such as the Clubs Amigos da Terra in Brazil and the Landcare movement in Australia. The Chianti Classico model The Chianti Classico model is The Chianti Classico model is an alternative, a socially well-proven and familiar model based on farmers' actions, not outcomes. It builds upon voluntary associations of farmers. Chianti Classico is just one among thousands of similar protected names for wine, cheese, ham, etc. throughout Europe that follow similar rules. Essentially, a group of winemakers cooperate, not to make the best wine – that is a matter of fierce individual competition – but to eliminate substandard wine in the expectation that the market will reward them with a higher price. We are proposing local Landcare Groups on similar lines but, since the market will not reward them for farming more sustainably, the new groups will pitch for CAP subsidies. Each group will propose a plan for sustainable farming; a combination of the elements described above appropriate to their circumstances – a plan for the eroded hills of the Val d'Orcia will be different from one for the floodplains of the Chiana, just as Orvieto Classico Superiore is different from Chianti Classico. The group will then add a timetable for implementation and submit the plan to the competent authority for disbursing public funds to support regenerative agriculture. We propose the establishment of a Sustainable Farming Panel for each regional funding body to evaluate these plans. The panel can score the plan on, say, a five-point scale. If the plan is accepted and according to the score awarded, the farmers will receive an annual payment for a period of up to three years to implement it. Payment will be in advance because the costs of change are immediate while the returns and cost savings take time. Most of the payment will be to individual farmers within the group, according to the area proposed for regenerative farming, but 20% may be paid to the group as a whole for education and training, perhaps outside assistance, or as a bonus to members who already have experience of regenerative practices and can serve as mentors. Regenerative farming brand: implementation plan What is a Landcare Group? Like Chianti Classico, it is a legal entity. This is important because the group will be handling public funds. The group is also making promises as a group to the Sustainable Farming Panel. While it is not the same as Chianti Classico and other protected names it should not be difficult to draw up an appropriate legal framework on similar lines. The Landcare Group is not a cooperative, as each farmer farms and sells produce separately. Cooperatives may be formed within the group, particularly for farm machinery, but they are quite separate organisations. The Landcare Group is defined by its objective, which is to maintain a certain standard of regenerative farming. The standard that the group must meet is the standard they put forward in their proposal to the Sustainable Farming Panel, accepted by the panel as sufficient to entitle them to a certain level of subsidy, and subject to review by the panel. For example, a level 1 subsidy may require a 25% reduction in nitrogen fertiliser application and tractor fuel use. Maintaining this standard will entitle the group to the subsidy and this standard will be maintained, firstly, by group action. That is, the group will tell the individual farmer that certain farm practices must change, and they will help to make those changes. Anyone who consistently fails can be expelled but, usually, help from within the group will enable a member to reach the standard. How is a group formed? It may be through existing local farmers' groups, through the encouragement of an accountant or farming adviser, and other ways. Obviously, it needs a commitment to a certain level of sustainable farming. The group is also a source of knowledge that can help other farmers but, if the foundation group is diluted, the core group may be held back as it tries to move up the sustainable farming scale. Guidance on proposals: The Sustainable Farming Panel needs to issue guidance on its priorities for a certain region. For example, the Val d'Orcia in Tuscany is a crisis area for soil erosion, so the guidance will say that proposals must tackle soil erosion as their first priority. It might also suggest measures to improve soil structure such as increasing soil cover and soil organic matter and selective tree planting. This guidance will help groups to formulate their proposals, but it is important to emphasise that the concept is not rigid: guidance is only guidance, not a set of rules. Judging proposals: Over several decades, funding authorities have adopted the competitive approach of the marketplace. If a group of people, or a commune, applies for a subsidy for a new road, a community centre or a theatre group, they will compete for the available funds in the knowledge that funds are limited and not all projects will be funded. The funding authority will receive a suite of well-presented proposals, but the system imposes high costs and risks on those seeking funds: in our case groups of farmers. Farmers need a high level of optimism to be farmers, but they often have a high level of pessimism when it comes to dealing with government agencies. Farmers seeking to become Landcare Groups should not be burdened with extra presentation costs and risks. Moreover, we, the community, want to reduce the climate impact of farming, need to combat floods and drought, need farmers to change. We don't have unlimited funds but must not make the system too expensive and too complicated for farmers. Facing a similar problem in South Australia after three years of severe drought, many famers lacked the cash or credit to sow another crop. The government wanted them to sow the crop because agricultural output was important for the state's economy. So, it provided low-cost loans, but it had to be prudent. Farmers had to provide information to prove the legitimacy of their needs but, as minister of agriculture, Brian Chatterton developed a simpler system to provide a first-step or provisional approval that gave the farmer a strong incentive to provide all the additional information needed to complete the approval. Not one approval was rejected in the second round because the farmer had made the initial application with false information. With this experience, we suggest that a Landcare Group should put forward a proposal in general terms which can be discussed with an Assessment Officer employed by the Sustainable Farming Panel. The officer can then give advice and point out how the proposal needs to be framed to gain approval. From that point, the Landcare Group can be reasonably assured their proposal will be accepted and will have a strong incentive to go ahead and work up the detailed proposal, which would still need to be endorsed by the Sustainable Farming Panel to maintain consistency between the Assessment Officers and to allow proposals that are outside the guidance to be considered. Of course, the bureaucracy would prefer fully complete proposals that can be approved or rejected at one meeting, but the more cooperative approach reduces the risk for the Landcare Groups and, thereby, will bring more of them on board. Monitoring Landcare Groups: Countering land degradation and climate change is imperative so we need to get funding to farmers urgently; the necessary farming changes will take several years to be fully effective. At the same time, we cannot afford to expose millions of euros to fraud. The first and principal means of enforcement is self-assessment. Our experience of self-assessment of the quality of named wines1 suggests that producers are willing and able to make tough decisions to maintain standards. Voluntary systems policed by consent have always proved to be more popular and more effective than command and control. Official checks are, of course, practicable using satellite imagery and, in detail, using UAVs. For example, farmers may promise to tackle bald patches or gullies that can easily be seen and measured on satellite imagery. For examination of actual crop species, an inspector can make a reasonably detailed examination of the cropping pattern of a whole farm in less than an hour using a UAV, and a complete Landcare Group could be checked in a couple of days; but self-policing will be the norm. Cost savings – to the administration: Assessing thousands of individual applications for a regenerative farming subsidy would require a considerable administration, which will be much reduced if farmers apply in Landcare Groups. The groups will be subject to periodic review, not as individual farmers but as groups. Over time, the group might move up the scale or, if they fail to meet their promises, move down; but policing of any individual's adherence to the conditions of the payment can be left to the other members of the group. Members of the Landcare Group cannot avoid assessing their neighbours, but the impact is not so drastic as with the exclusion of a wine from the Chianti Classico label. Cost savings – to the farmers: It is important to consider the cost and risk to farmers in making an application especially if a paid intermediary is employed. The Chianti Classico group approach cuts the cost per hectare and shares these costs among several farmers. Over time, costs are reduced further as farmers join existing Landcare Groups.In the 1960s, European farmers demonstrated that they could change their farming system and produce more food by responding to incentives provided under the CAP. At the same time, these changes also harmed the environment. The farmers will change again if they are offered the appropriate incentives to adopt regenerative farming. The Chianti Classico model is a practical means to do so. References Allan, Toni and Dent, David. "The cost of food: consequences of not valuing soil and water and the people who manage them", in: Dent, David. and Boincean, Boris (ed.) Regenerative agriculture. What's missing? What else do we still need to know? (22 June, 2021). Kassam, Amir. (ed.). Advances in conservation agriculture. Vol. 1-3.Cambridge: Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, 2020. Crews, Timothy E.; Carton, Wim and Olsson, Lennart. "Is the future of agriculture perennial?Imperatives and opportunities to reinvent agriculture by shifting from annual monocultures toperennial polycultures". Global Sustainability, vol. 1 (2018), p. 1-18. Chatterton, Lynne and Chatterton, Brian. Sustainable Dryland Farming. Cambridge University Press, 2005. King, F H. Farmers of Forty Centuries: Organic Farming in China, Korea and Japan. Mineola NY: Dover Publications, 2004. Panagos, Panos; Ballabo, Cristiano; Poesna, Jean; Lugato, Emmanuel; Scarpa, Simone; Montanarella, Luca and Borrelli, Pasquale. "A soil erosion indicator for supporting agricultural, environment and climate policies in the European Union". Remote Sensing. vol. 12, no. 9 (2020) Dent, David. "A standard for soil health". International Journal of Environmental Studies. vol. 77, no. 4, (November 2019), p. 613-618.Note:1- In the case of appellation d'origin contrôlée (AOC)/denominazione di origin controllata (DOC), nearly all the winemakers in the district, as well as some officials, conduct tastings to establish if they are good enough to bear the all-important name. The wines are awarded a class 1 or 2 which is advisory and has no legal standing. Wines that fail class 2 are graded as Unacceptable. Examination of the voting figures reveals that many wines graded 1 or 2 receive votes of, perhaps, 55% in favour and 45% against but, when it came to the Unacceptable grade, there is not a single wine with less than 90% vote to reject. So, producers are quite capable of making the tough decisions needed to maintain standards. Authors:Brian Chatterton, former Minister of Agriculture in South Australia and farmer in Umbria (Italy)David Dent, former head of the World Soil Association;Martin Keulertz, Lecturer in Environmental Management, University of the West of England, BristolAll the publications express the opinions of their individual authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of CIDOB as an institution.

ANALISIS PENERAPAN AKUNTANSI ASET TETAP BERDASARKAN PERNYATAAN STANDAR AKUNTANSI PEMERINTAHAN NOMOR 07 PADA KANTOR DINAS SOSIAL PROVINSI KALIMANTAN BARAT Kholil Mustafa Jurusan S1 Akuntansi Fakultas Ekonomi dan Bisnis Universitas Tanjungpura Abstrak :Pada saat ini pemerintah dituntut dalam sistem pengelolaan pemerintahan yang baik. Pemerintah terus berusaha mengikuti perkembangan zaman dengan berusaha memperbaiki standar terhadap akuntansi pemerintahan agar menghasilkan laporan keuangan yang semakin baik dalam menyajikan informasi laporan keuangan sebagai bagian dari akuntabilitas dan transparansi.Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode deskriptif komparatif dan metode deskriptif kualitatif dengan mengambil populasi data aset tetap pada tahun 2013 dan 2014. Total sampel penelitian sebanyak 6 orang. Teknik pengumpulan data pada penelitian ini menggunakan kuesioner,observasi, dan dokumentasi.Dan untuk pengolahan data dengan urutan penyusunan, klasifikasi, pengolahan, dan interprestasi hasil pengolahan data.Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa Kantor Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat telah melaksanakan proses pengklasifikasian, pengakuan dan pencatatan sesuai dengan Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan Nomor 07 dari Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 71 tahun 2010, akan tetapi belum dicantumkan nilai akumulasi penyusutan, sehingga nilai yang tercatat di neraca dan laporan inventaris hanyalah nilai pertama kali aset tetap diperoleh. Faktor – faktor belum diterapkannya akuntansi penyusutan di Kantor Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat adalah karena dianggap rumit, kurangnya SDM, serta kurangnya sosialisasi dari pemerintah. Kata kunci: Aset Tetap, Akuntabilitas dan Transparansi, Good Goverment Governance, Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintah (PSAP) No. 07. Abstract :At this time the government is expected in the system of good governance. Government will continue to keep abreast of the times to try to improve the standards of government accounting in order to generate financial reports are getting better in presenting financial information as part of the accountability and transparency. The method used in this research is a comparative descriptive method and qualitative descriptive method by taking the data population of fixed assets in 2013 and 2014. Total sample as many as six people. Data collection techniques in this study using questionnaires, observation, and documentation. And for processing the data with the preparation of the order, classification, processing, and interpretation of the data processing. The results of this study indicate that the Social Service Office of West Kalimantan Province has carried out the process of classification, recognition and registration in accordance with the Statement of Government Accounting Standard No. 07 of the Government Regulation No. 71 of 2010, but has not specified the value of accumulated depreciation, so that the value recorded in the balance sheet and inventory report is just the first time the value of fixed assets acquired. Factors - factors not applying accounting depreciation in the Social Service Office in West Kalimantan Province is because it is complicated, lack of human resources, and lack of socialization by the government. Keywords: Fixed Assets, Accountability and Transparency, Good Governance Government, the Government Accounting Standard (PSAP) No. 07. Latar BelakangPerkembangan akuntansi sektor publik, khususnya di Indonesia semakin berkembang.Perubahan sistem politik, sosial dan kemasyarakatan serta ekonomi yang dibawa oleh arus reformasi menimbulkan beragam tuntutan terhadap sistem pengelolaan pemerintah yang baik.Tuntutan ini perlu dipenuhi dan disadari oleh para manager pemerintah daerah yang diminta untuk mempertanggungjawabkan dalam bentuk laporan keuangan oleh kepada daerah.Pemerintahan yang baik ditandai dengan adanya dua elemen yaitu transparansi dan akuntabilitas.Transparansi diciptakan sebagai dasar kebebasan untuk memperoleh informasi.Dan akuntabilitas ialah pertanggungjawaban kepada publik atas setiap aktivitas yang dilakukan.Perlu kita sadari dan pahami bahwa pentingnya suatu penyajian laporan keuangan Pemerintah sebagai bagian dari akuntabilitas dan transparansi. Hal ini terbukti dengan dapat dilihat dari penetapan Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 24 Tahun 2005 tentang Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan, yaitu basis kas untuk pendapatan, belanja, dan pembiayaan serta basis akrual untuk aset, kewajiban dan ekuitas, atau secara keseluruhan dikenal sebagai basis cash toward accrual.Kemudian pemerintah menggantinya dengan Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 71 Tahun 2010 tentang Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan (SAP). Lingkup pengaturan Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 71 Tahun 2010 ini meliputi SAP Berbasis Akrual dan SAP Berbasis Kas Menuju Akrual. SAP Berbasis Kas Menuju Akrual berlaku selama masa transisi bagi entitas yang belum siap untuk menerapkan SAP Berbasis Akrual yaitu maksimal empat tahun sejak tanggal ditetapkan. Dengan demikian, paling lambat tahun 2015, pemerintah pusat maupun pemerintah daerah wajib melaksanakan SAP Berbasis Akrual. Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan Nomor 07 mendefinisikan penyusutan sebagai penyesuaian nilai sehubungan dengan penurunan kapasitas dan manfaat dari suatu aset.Pencatatan penyusutan ini merupakan salah satu tanda berlakunya basis akrual dalam SAP.PSAP nomor 07 mengatur penyusutan pada bagian pengukuran berikutnya terhadap pengakuan awal.Aset tetap disajikan berdasarkan biaya perolehan aset tetap tersebut dikurangi akumulasi penyusutan. Hal ini akan sangat berpengaruh pada neraca yang mana perlakuan akuntansi penyusutannya kurang tepat sehingga dapat memberikan informasi yang kurang tepat karena tidak menunjukkan nilai yang seharusnya. Terdapat alasan mengapa penelitian mengenai penerapan akuntansi akrual pada pemerintah ini perlu dilakukan, terutama karena konsep akuntansi akrual di lingkungan pemerintah masih sangat baru, dan juga amanat undang-undang agar pemerintah segera menggunakan standar akuntansi pemerintahan berbasis akrual. Tabel 1.1 Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat Rincian Aset Per Tahun (dalam rupiah) No Uraian Tahun 2013 2014 Aktiva Aset 1 Aset Lancar 4.140.000,00 17.617.650,00 2 Investasi Jangka Panjang - - 3 Aset Tetap 4.389.662.350,00 4.885.973.850,00 4 Dana Cadangan - - 5 Aset Lainnya 59.659.400,00 59.659.400,00 Total 4.453.462.750,00 4.963.250.900,00 Sumber : Laporan Inventaris Dinas SosialProvinsi Kalimantan Barat Tabel 1.2 Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat Rincian Aset Tetap Per Tahun (dalam rupiah) No Aset Tetap 2013 2014 1 Tanah 7.696.000,00 7.696.000,00 2 Peralatan dan Mesin 2.017.006.750,00 2.284.419.250,00 3 Gedung dan Bangunan 2.195.467.000,00 2.581.295.000,00 4 Jalan, Jaringan dan Instalasi 48.330.000,00 - 5 Aset Tetap Lainnya 12.563.600,00 12.563.600,00 6 Konstruksi dalam Pengerjaan 108.599.000,00 - Total Aset Tetap 4.389.662.350,00 4.885.973.850,00 Sumber : Laporan Inventaris Dinas SosialProvinsi Kalimantan Barat Berdasarkan Tabel di atas Aset Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat pada tahun 2013 dan 2014 memiliki aset tetap yang terdiri dari : tanah; peralatan dan mesin; gedung dan bangunan; jalan, irigasi, dan instalasi; aset tetap lainnya; dan konstruksi dalam pengerjaan. Pada Tabel 1.1 menunjukkan bahwa aset tetap memiliki nilai yang cukup besar, pada tahun 2013 aset tetap Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat mencakup 4.389.662.350,00 dari total keseluruhan aktiva yang dimiliki, sedangkan pada tahun 2014 aset tetap Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat mencakup 4.885.973.850,00 dari total keseluruhan aktiva Pemerintah Provinsi Kalimantan Barat. Peningkatan jumlah Aset yang terjadi dari tahun 2013 ke tahun 2014 sebesar 496.311.500,00 menunjukkan bahwa tidak adanya penyusutan yang menunjukkan barang tersebut mulai usang atau rusak karena telah dimanfaatkan. Seharusnya penyusutan berguna sebagai pengurang aset tetap sebagai konsekuensi dari pemanfaatan aset tetap, hal ini tidak sesuai dengan Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 71 tahun 2010 dan PSAP No. 07 tentang aset tetap. Uraian di atas menunjukkan arti penting perlakuan akuntansi khususnya terhadap aset tetap berupa peralatan dan mesin yang berpengaruh pada penyajian laporan keuangan khususnya neraca yang menunjukkan posisi keuangan instansi pemerintahan. Atas dasar latar belakang tersebut, penyusunan usulan penelitian ini yang berjudul :"ANALISIS PENERAPAN AKUNTANSI ASET TETAP BERDASARKAN PERNYATAAN STANDAR AKUNTANSI PEMERINTAHAN NOMOR 07 PADA KANTOR DINAS SOSIAL PROVINSI KALIMANTAN BARAT." LANDASAN TEORI DAN KAJIAN EMPIRISSatuan Kerja Perangkat Daerah (SKPD) Dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah, Gubernur dan Wakil Gubernur dibantu oleh Perangkat Daerah yang meliputi Sekretariat Daerah, Sekretariat DPRD, Dinas Daerah, dan Satuan Kerja Perangkat Daerah. Secara umum perangkat daerah atau sering disebut dengan Satuan Kerja Perangkat Daerah (SKPD) bertugas membantu penyusunan kebijakan, koordinasi, dan pelaksanaan kebijakan yang menjadi urusan daerah.Daerah dapat berarti kabupaten, provinsi, atau kota. Untuk daerah provinsi dipimpin oleh seorang kepala gubernur, untuk daerah kabupaten dipimpin oleh seorang bupati, dan untuk daerah kota dipimpin oleh seorang walikota. Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat Pada umumnya setiap provinsi atau daerah mempunyai Satuan Kerja Perangkat Daerah (SKPD) dan salah satunya yaitu Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat yang memiliki peranan melaksanakan hal-hal teknis dan pelaksanaan kebijakan daerah masing-masing. Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat langsung dibawahi oleh kepala daerah karena semua hal-hal teknis dan kebijakan berasal dari kepala daerah langsung yang berhubungan dengan tugas pokok dan tugas lainnya yang dalam pelaksanaan dan pertanggungjawabannya harus dilaksanakan dan dilaporkan sesuai peraturan perundang-undangan pusat/daerah, Standar Akuntasi Pemerintah (SAP), dan kebijakan yang berlaku ke kepala daerah masing-masing. Definisi Aset Menurut Peraturan Menteri keuangan RI No. 238/PMK.05/2011 tentang pedoman umum Sistem Akuntansi keuangan : Aset adalah sumber daya ekonomi yang dikuasai dan/atau dimiliki oleh pemerintah sebagai akibat dari peristiwa masa lalu dan dari mana manfaat ekonomi dan/atau sosial di masa depan diharapkan dapat diperoleh, baik oleh pemerintah maupun masyarakat, serta dapat diukur dalam satuan uang, termasuk sumberdaya non keuangan yang diperlukan untuk penyediaan jasa bagi masyarakat umum dan sumber daya yang di pelihara karena alasan sejarah dan budaya. Aset adalah sumber daya yang diharapkan memberikan manfaat bagi perusahaan dimasa depan (Horngen & Harrison,2007:11). Pengertian Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan (PSAP) Menurut Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 71 Tahun 2010 pasal 1 ayat 3 menyatakan Standar Akuntasi Pemerintah, yang selanjutnya disingkat SAP, adalah prinsip-prinsip akuntasi yang diterapkan dalam menyusun dan menyajikan laporan keuangan pemerintah serta didalam Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 71 Tahun 2010 pasal 1 ayat 4 menyatakan Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan, yang selanjutnya disingkat PSAP, adalah Standar Akuntansi Pemerintah (SAP) yang diberi judul, nomor, dan tanggal efektif. Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan (PSAP) No. 07 atau biasa disingkat PSAP No. 07 adalah mengenai aset tetap.Tujuannya adalah mengatur perlakuan akuntansi untuk aset tetap, yang meliputi pengakuan, penentuan nilai tercatat, serta penentuan dan perlakuan akuntansi atas penilaian kembali dan penurunan nilai tercatat aset tetap dan lainnya.PSAP No. 07 ini diterapkan keseluruh lembaga atau organisasi pemerintah dalam menyajikan laporan keuangan untuk tujuan umum dan perlakuan akuntansinya diantaranya pengakuan, penilaian, penyajian, dan pengungkapan yang diperlukan. Pengertian Dasar Aset Tetap PSAP No.07 Aset tetap merupakan salah satu pos di neraca di samping aset lancar, investasi jangka panjang, dana cadangan, dan aset lainnya. Secara umum pengertian aset tetap pemerintah adalah aset berwujud yang mempunyai masa manfaat lebih dari 12 (dua belas) bulan untuk digunakan dalam kegiatan pemerintahan atau dimanfaatkan oleh masyarakat umum.Menurut PSAP No. 07 paragraf 5 mengartikan aset bahwa aset sebagai sumber daya ekonomi yang dikuasai dan dimiliki oleh pemerintah sebagai akibat dari peristiwa masa lalu dan darimana manfaat ekonomi dan sosial di masa depan diharapkan dapat diperoleh, baik oleh pemerintah maupun masyarakat, serta dapat diukur dalam satuan uang, termasuk sumber daya nonkeuangan yang diperlukan untuk penyediaan jasa bagi masyarakat umum dan sumber-sumber daya yang dipelihara karena alasan sejarah dan budaya. Klasifikasi Aset Tetap Menurut Standar Akuntansi Pemerintah No 07 tentang Akuntansi Aset Tetap menyatakan bahwa aset tetap diklasifikasi berdasarkan kesamaan dalam sifat atau fungsinya dalam aktivitas operasi entitas. Klasifikasi aset tetap sebagai berikut : Tanah;Peralatan dan Mesin;Gedung dan Bangunan;Jalan, Irigasi, dan Jaringan;Aset Tetap Lainnya, dan;Konstruksi Dalam Pengerjaan. Perlakuan Akuntansi Aset TetapPengakuan Aset Tetap Sesuai dengan SAP Nomor 07 Aset Tetap, suatu aset dapat diakui sebagai aset tetap apabila berwujud dan memenuhi kriteria : Mempunyai masa manfaat lebih dari 12 (dua belas) bulan,Biaya perolehan aset dapat diukur secara andal,Tidak dimaksudkan untuk dijual dalam operasi normal entitas dan,Diperoleh atau dibangun dengan maksud untuk digunakan. Pengukuran Aset Tetap Aset tetap dinilai dengan biaya perolehan.Apabila penilaian aset tetap dengan menggunakan biaya perolehan tidak memungkinkan maka nilai aset tetap didasarkan pada nilai wajar pada saat perolehan. Penilaian Awal Aset Tetap Barang berwujud yang memenuhi kualifikasi sebagai suatu aset tetap pada awalnya harus diukur beradsarkan biaya perolehan. Komponen Biaya Bahwa biaya perolehan aset tetap adalah biaya perolehan yang meliputi harga beli dan biaya lainnya yang relevan. Harga perolehan, termasuk bea impor dan pajak pembelian yang tidak dapat dikreditkan setelah dikurangi diskon pembelian dan potongan lain. Biaya-biaya yang dapat diatribusikan secara langsung untuk membawa aset ke lokasi dan kondisi yang diinginkan agar aset siap digunakan sesuai dengan keinginan dan maksud manajemen. Konstruksi Dalam Pengerjaan Jika penyelesaian pengerjaan suatu aset tetap melebihi atau melewati satu periode tahun anggaran, maka aset tetap yang belum selesai tersebut digolongkan dan dilaporkan sebagai konstruksi dalam pengerjaan sampai dengan aset tersebut selesai dan siap dipakai. Perolehan Secara Gabungan Biaya perolehan dari masing-masing aset teap yang diperoleh secara gabungan ditentukan mengalokasikan harga gabungan tersebut berdasarkan perbandingan nilai wajar masing-masing aset tetap yang bersangkutan. Pertukaran Aset (Exchanges of Assets) Berdasarkan PSAP No. 07 paragraf 43-45 bahwa pertukaran aset yang tidak serupa diukur berdasarkan nilai wajar aset yang diperoleh yaitu nilai ekuivalen atas nilai tercatat aset yang dilepas setelah disesuaikan dengan jumlah setiap kas atau setara kas yang ditransfer/diserahkan.Pertukaran aset yang diukur sesuai nilai tercatatnya (carrying amount) atas aset tetap yang dilepas.Pertukaran aset ini tidak mengakui adanya keuntungan dan kerugian. Aset Donasi Menurut PSAP No. 07 paragraf 46-49 bahwa aset tetap yang diperoleh dari donasi, sumbangan, dan hibah harus dicatat menggunakan nilai wajar saat perolehan.Dan jika memenuhi kriteria perolehan aset donasi, sumbangan, dan hibah maka bisa diakui sebagai pendapatan pemerintah daerah dan untuk pengeluarannya diakui sebagai belanja pendapatan dan belanja modal aset tetap. Pengeluaran Setelah Perolehan (Subsequenet Expenditure) Pengeluaran setelah perolehan awal suatu aset tetap yang memperpanjang masa manfaat atau yang kemungkinan besar memberi manfaat ekonomi di masa yang akan datang dalam bentuk kapasitas, mutu produksi, atau peningkatan standar kinerja, harus ditambahkan pada nilai tercatat aset yang bersangkutan. Pengukuran Berikutnya (Subsequent measurement) Terhadap Pengakuan Awal Disimpulkan PSAP No. 07 paragraf 53-59 bahwa aset tetap disajikan berdasarkan biaya perolehan aset tetap tersebut dikurangi akumulasi penyusutan. Apabila terjadi suatu kondisi yang memungkinkan penilaian kembali, maka aset tetap akan disajikan dengan penyusutan pada masing-masing akun aset tetap dan akun diinvestasikan dalam aset tetap. Penyusutan Aset Tetap Arti Penting Penyusutan Memungkinkan pemerintah untuk setiap tahun memperkirakan sisa manfaat suatu aset tetap.memungkinkan pemerintah mendapat suatu informasi tentang keadaan potensi aset yang dimilikinya.Memberi informasi kepada pemerintah suatu pendekatan yang lebih sistematis dan logis dalam menganggarkan Berdasarkan PSAP No. 07 paragraf 57 menyatakan metode penyusutan yang dapat dipergunakan oleh pemerintah sebagai berikut : Metode Garis Lurus (Straight Line Method); Depresiasi=Harga Perolehan – Nilai Sisa Masa Manfaat Metode Saldo Menurun Ganda (Double Declining Balance Method); Depresiasi= 1 x 100% x 2 Umur Ekonomis Metode Unit Produksi (Unit of Production Method). Depresiasi =Harga Perolehan – Nilai Sisa Tafsian Hasil Produksi (unit) Penilaian Kembali Aset Tetap (Revaluation) Berdasarkan PSAP No. 07 paragraf 59 bahwa Penilaian kembali aset tetap pada umumnya tidak diperkenankan karena pada Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan (SAP) menganut penilaian aset tetap berdasarkan biaya perolehan.Penyimpangan dari ketentuan ini mungkin dilakukan berdasarkan ketentuan-ketentuan pemerintah yang berlaku secara nasional. Penghentian dan Pelepasan (Retirement and Disposal) Sesuai PSAP No. 07 paragraf 76-78 bahwa suatu aset tetap dieleminasi dari neraca apabila dilepaskan atau bila aset secara permanen dihentikan penggunaannya dan tidak ada manfaat ekonomik masa yang akan datang. Pelepasan aset tetap dilingkungan pemerintah biasa disebut sebagai pemindahtanganan. Kerangka Berpikir Gambar 2.1 Skema Kerangka Pemikiran Sumber: Skripsi Andy Sanjaya Putra Fakultas Ekonomi, 2014:19 Jenis PenelitianJenis penelitian yang akan di gunakan dalam menganalisis penerapan akuntansi aset tetap adalah metode deskriptif komparatif. Sumber Data Data primer adalah data yang didapat atau dikumpulkan oleh peneliti secara langsung dari sumber datanya.Data Sekunder adalah data yang didapat atau dikumpulkan oleh peneliti dari berbagai sumber yang telah ada. 3.2.1. Cara Pengumpulan Data Penelitian Kepustakaan (Library Reasearch)Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk memperoleh data sekunder dan untuk mengetahui indikator-indikator dari variabel yang diukur.Penelitian Lapangan (Field Research)Yaitu cara pengumpulan data dengan mengadakan penelitian langsung pada objek yang diteliti untuk kemudian dipelajari, diolah dan dianalisis. 3.2.2. Lokasi Penelitian Lokasi penelitian sendiri berada di kantor Dinas Sosial Provinsi KalBar, Jalan Alianyang No. 7C, Pontianak Kota, Kota Pontianak, Provinsi Kalimantan Barat. Tahapan Penelitian Tahapan-tahapan analisis data dalam penelitian ini sesuai dengan analisis data kualitatif model Miles dan Huberman dalam Sugiyono (2010:91), yaitu sebagai berikut:1. Pengumpulan data, yaitu peneliti mencatat semua data secara objektif dan apa adanya sesuai dengan data yang diperoleh dari pihak yang terkait.2. Reduksi data, yaitu memilih hal-hal pokok yang sesuai dengan fokus penelitian.3. Penyajian data, yaitu sekumpulan informasi yang tersusun yang memungkinkan adanya penarikan kesimpulan dan pengambilan tindakan.4. Pengambilan keputusan atau verifikasi, berarti bahwa setelah data disajikan, maka dilakukan penarikan kesimpulan atau verifikasi.Alat Analisis Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 71 tahun 2010.Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan Nomor 07 tentang Akuntansi Aset Tetap.Bulletin Teknis Standar Akuntansi Pemerintah Nomor 05 tentang Akuntansi Penyusutan.Kuesioner Implementasi Akuntansi Penyusutan Berdasarkan PSAP No. 07 dan PP No. 71 tahun 2010Aset Tetap Pemerintah Daerah Sejak terbitnya Peraturan Pemerintah nomor 24 tahun 2005, setiap unit pelaporan pada instansi pemerintah wajib untuk menyusun neraca sebagai salah satu bagian dari laporan keuangan pemerintah, dimana didalam neraca menyajikan pos akun aset tetap yang merupakan nilai terbesar yang dimiliki oleh Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat. Kemudian terbit Peraturan pemerintah nomor 71 tahun 2010 yang berbasis akrual menggantikan PP no. 24 tahun 2005 yang berbasis kas menuju akrual, sejak berlakunya PP no. 71 tahun 2010, berarti Standar Akuntansi Pemerintah telah mulai menggunakan basis akrual, tetapi pemerintah memberi kerenggangan berupa 5 tahun masa transisi sebagai penyesuaian dan pembelajaran pemerintah untuk beralih ke basis akrual. Jadi, setelah 5 tahun maka semua entitas pemerintahan harus bisa menggunakan basis akrual secara penuh pada laporan keuangannya, sehingga pemerintah sudah harus memulai belajar bagaimana menerapkan akuntansi penyusutan aset tetap pada laporan keuangannya. Analisis Terhadap Laporan Inventaris Dan Neraca Tahun 2013 Dan 2014 Laporan inventaris kantor Dinas Sosial provinsi Kalimantan barat, sesuai dengan fokus utama dari penelitian ini adalah mengenai penyusutan aset tetap, berdasarkan PSAP no. 07 dan Buletin teknis no. 05 mengatur tentang akuntansi penyusutan aset tetap, tetapi berdasarkan laporan inventaris tahun anggaran 2013 dan 2014 yang dibuat oleh kantor Dinas Sosial provinsi dapat dilihat bahwa aset tetapnya tidak disusutkan dan sehingga jumlah nilai dari aset tetapnya selalu meningkat tiap tahunnya. Seharusnya aset tetap yang digunakan secara berkala akan mengalami penyusutan yang pada setiap periode dicatat pada akun akumulasi penyusutan dengan lawan akun diinvestasikan pada aset tetap dan disajikan sebagai pengurang aset tetap. Penerapan Aset Tetap PSAP No.07 Kantor Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat. Pengklasifikasian dan perlakuan akuntansi aset tetap berdasarkan PSAP no. 07 tentang aset tetap termuat didalam paragraf – paragraf sebagai berikut : Klasifikasi aset tetap Berikut adalah klasifikasi aset tetap yang digunakan: Tanah;Peralatan dan Mesin;Gedung dan Bangunan;Jalan, Irigasi, dan Jaringan;Aset Tetap Lainnya; danKonstruksi dalam Pengerjaan. Perlakuan Akuntansi Aset TetapPengakuan aset tetap Mempunyai masa manfaat lebih dari 12 (dua belas) bulan,Biaya perolehan aset dapat diukur secara andal,Tidak dimaksudkan untuk dijual dalam operasi normal entitas dan,Diperoleh atau dibangun dengan maksud untuk digunakan. Pengukuran Aset TetapAset tetap dinilai dengan biaya perolehan.Apabila penilaian aset tetap dengan menggunakan biaya perolehan tidak memungkinkan maka nilai aset tetap didasarkan pada nilai wajar pada saat perolehan.Seperti yang disampaikan dalam PSAP no. 07 paragraf 22. Penilaian Awal Aset Tetap Untuk di Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat yang sudah diklasifikasikan sebagai tanah, peralatan dan mesin, gedung dan bangunan, jalan, irigasi, dan instalasi, aset tetap lainnya, dan konstruksi dalam pengerjaan saat pengakuan yang diandalkan sebagai suatu aset harus disertai dengan memiliki masa manfaat ekonomis di masa yang akan datang lebih dari 12 (dua belas) bulan yang dalam kondisi siap dipakai. Komponen Biaya Komponen biaya untuk aset tetap diantaranya : TanahPeralatan dan MesinGedung dan BangunanJalan, Irigasi, dan JaringanAset Tetap Lainnya Konstruksi Dalam Pengerjaan Merupakan termasuk ke dalam klasifikasi aset tetap yang dibangun dan dibiayai untuk kegiatan operasional badan/instansi dan kepentingan masyarakat umum yang memerlukan waktu jangka panjang atau melebihi 1 (satu) tahun anggaran pengerjaannya yang masih dalam proses konstruksi. Perolehan Secara Gabungan Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat belum menerapkan perolehan secara gabungan ini. Pertukaran Aset (Exchanges of Assets) Dalam hal ini Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat tidak menerapkan pertukaran aset (exchanges of assets) karena tidak ada kejadian atau pencatatan yang berhubungan dengan pertukaran aset (exchanges of assets) sebelum dan pada saat tahun tersebut. Aset DonasiDalam hal ini Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat tidak menerapkan aset donasi karena tidak ada kejadian atau pencatatan yang berhubungan dengan aset donasi sebelum dan pada saat tahun tersebut. Pengeluaran Setelah Perolehan (Subsequent Expenditures) Setelah aset tetap diperoleh maka akan ada biaya atau pengeluaran yang harus dikeluarkan oleh Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat untuk menjalankan dan mengoperasikan aset tetap tersebut. Pengukuran Berikutnya (Subsequent Measurement) Terhadap Pengakuan Awal Adapun pedoman dasar bagi Dinas Sosial provinsi dalam dalam melakukan pengukuran berikutnya terhadap pengakuan awal, yang sesuai dengan PSAP no 07 paragraf 54, Penyesuaian nilai aset tetap dilakukan dengan berbagai metode yang sistematis sesuai dengan masa manfaat aset tetap tersebut. Penyusutan A. Metode garis lurus Metode saldo menurun berganda Tarif Penyusutan diperoleh dengan rumus : Metode unit produksi Tarif Penyusutan diperoleh dengan rumus : Penilaian Kembali Aset Tetap (Revaluation) Berdasarkan PSAP No. 07 paragraf 59 bahwa Penilaian kembali aset tetap pada umumnya tidak diperkenankan. Penghentian dan Pelepasan (Retirement and Disposal) Sesuai PSAP No. 07 paragraf 76-78 bahwa suatu aset tetap dieleminasi dari neraca apabila dilepaskan atau bila aset secara permanen dihentikan penggunaannya dan tidak ada manfaat ekonomik masa yang akan datang. Prosedur Penyusutan Dan Contoh Jurnal Berdasarkan Buletin Teknis Nomor 05 Tentang Akuntansi PenyusutanIdentifikasi Aset Tetap yang Dapat DisusutkanLangkah ini untuk meyakinkan bahwa kantor Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat yang akan melaksanakan pencatatan penyusutan tidak akan memasukkan aset tetap berupa tanah dan konstruksi dalam pengerjaan sebagai aset tetap yang akan disusutkan. Pengelompokan Aset Aset Berkelompokb. Aset Individual Penetapan Nilai Aset Tetap yang WajarAset tetap harus menyajikan nilai perolehanatau nilai wajar yang memiliki bukti seperti akte sertifikat tanah, bukti kwitansi pembelian, surat kuasa atau hibah. Penetapan Nilai yang Dapat DisusutkanOleh karena aset tetap milik pemerintah diperoleh bukan untuk tujuan dijual, melainkan untuk sepenuhnya digunakan sesuai tugas dan fungsi instansi pemerintah, maka nilai sisa/residu tidak diakui. Penetapan Metode PenyusutanSesuai dengan Bultek no. 5 tentang akuntansi penyusutan, dalam penetapan metode penyusutan, metode garis lurus adalah metode yang paling populer karena dirasakan paling sederhana. Yang paling dirasa rumit, adalah metode saldo menurun berganda.Jika unit manfaat bersifat spesifik dan terkuantifikasi, maka perhitungan penyusutan yang lebih logis dan proporsional dapat dilakukan dengan memakai metode unit produksi.Jika intensitas pemanfaatan bersifat menurun dalam artian pemanfaatan di masa awal pengabdian aset tetap lebih intensif daripada diakhir, maka perhitungan penyusutan yang lebih logis dan proporsional dapat dilakukan dengan memakai metode saldo menurun berganda.Akan tetapi jika unit masa manfaat kurang spesifik dan tidak terkuantifikasi, atau kalaupun spesifik dan terkuantifikasi tetapi perhitungan hendak dilakukan semudah mungkin, maka perhitungan penyusutan yang lebih logis dan proporsional dapat dilakukan dengan memakai metode garis lurus. Pengungkapkan Penyusutan di dalam Catatan Atas Laporan Keuangan Paragraf 79 PSAP 07 menyatakan bahwa informasi penyusutan yang harus diungkapkan dalam laporan keuangan adalah : Nilai penyusutanMetode penyusutan yang digunakanMasa manfaat atau tarif penyusutan yang digunakan Perhitungan Dan Jurnal Penyusutan Kendaraan roda 4, Nissan X-Trail 2000 cc Tahun Perolehan 2010 Harga perolehan Rp. 322.200.000,- Umur manfaat 7 tahun Metode garis lurus Penyusutan = = Rp 46.028.571 Tabel 4.1 Perhitungan penyusutan kendaraan dinas roda empat Nissan X-Trail Menggunakan metode garis lurus Tahun Nilai Buku Sisa Masa Manfaat (tahun) Penyusutan Pertahun Akumulasi Penyusutan 2010 Rp 322.200.000 7 - - 2011 Rp 276.171.429 6 Rp 46.028.571 Rp 46.028.571 2012 Rp 230.142.857 5 Rp 46.028.571 Rp 92.057.143 2013 Rp 184.114.286 4 Rp 46.028.571 Rp 138.085.714 2014 Rp 138.085.714 3 Rp 46.028.571 Rp 184.114.286 2015 Rp 92.057.143 2 Rp 46.028.571 Rp 230.142.857 2016 Rp 46.028.571 1 Rp 46.028.571 Rp 276.171.429 2017 0 0 Rp 46.028.571 Rp 322.200.000 sumber : laporan inventaris Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat (data diolah) Berdasarkan pada Tabel 4.1 dapat dilihat bahwa dengan penyusutan tiap tahunnya sebesar Rp. 46.028.571, yang didapat dari harga perolehan Honda CRV, yaitu Rp. 322.200.000 dibagi masa manfaat yaitu 7 tahun, maka nilai bukunya akan habis pada tahun 2017. Jurnal untuk mencatat penyusutan Kendaraan dinas roda empat Nissan X-Trail tahun pertama sampai tahun kelima adalah : D K Diinvestasikan dalam aset tetap Rp 46.028.571 Akumulasi penyusutan - kendaraan Nissan X-Trail Rp 46.028.571 Metode Saldo Menurun Ganda Tarif penyusutan = 1/7 × 2 = 0.28 Tabel 4.2 Perhitungan penyusutan kendaraan dinas roda empat Nissan X-Trail Menggunakan metode saldo menurun ganda Tahun Nilai Buku Sisa Masa Manfaat (tahun) Tarif Penyusutan Penyusutan Pertahun Akumulasi Penyusutan 2010 Rp 322.200.000 7 - - - 2011 Rp 322.200.000 6 0,28 Rp 92.057.143 Rp 92.057.143 2012 Rp 230.142.857 5 0,28 Rp 65.755.102 Rp 157.812.245 2013 Rp 164.387.755 4 0,28 Rp 46.967.930 Rp 204.780.175 2014 Rp 117.419.825 3 0,28 Rp 33.548.521 Rp 238.328.696 2015 Rp 83.871.304 2 0,28 Rp 23.963.230 Rp 262.291.926 2016 Rp 59.908.074 1 0,28 Rp 17.116.593 Rp 279.408.519 2017 Rp 42.791.481 0 Pembulatan/penyesuaian Rp 42.791.481 Rp 322.200.000 sumber : laporan inventaris Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat (data diolah) Jurnal untuk penyusutannya adalah sebagai berikut : Penyusutan tahun 2010 D K Diinvestasikan dalam aset tetap Rp 92.057.143 Akumulasi penyusutan - kendaraan Nissan X-Trail Rp 92.057.143 Penyusutan tahun 2011 D K Diinvestasikan dalam aset tetap Rp 65.755.102 Akumulasi penyusutan - kendaraan Nissan X-Trail Rp 65.755.102 Penyusutan tahun 2012 D K Diinvestasikan dalam aset tetap Rp 46.967.930 Akumulasi penyusutan - kendaraan Nissan X-Trail Rp 46.967.930 penyusutan tahun 2013 D K Diinvestasikan dalam aset tetap Rp 33.548.521 Akumulasi penyusutan - kendaraan Nissan X-Trail Rp 33.548.521 penyusutan tahun 2014 D K Diinvestasikan dalam aset tetap Rp 23.963.230 Akumulasi penyusutan - kendaraan Nissan X-Trail Rp 23.963.230 penyusutan tahun 2015 D K Diinvestasikan dalam aset tetap Rp 17.116.593 Akumulasi penyusutan - kendaraan Nissan X-Trail Rp 17.116.593 penyusutan tahun 2016, disesuaikan hingga menghasilkan nilai akumulasi penyusutan yang sama dengan nilai awal/nilai yang dapat disusutkan. D K Diinvestasikan dalam aset tetap Rp 42.791.481 Akumulasi penyusutan - kendaraan Nissan X-Trail Rp 42.791.481 Berdasarkan dari dua metode yang digunakan, maka metode yang lebih baik di gunakan untuk di masukan ke aktiva adalah metode saldo menurun berganda, hal ini di karenakan mesin mobil harus memiliki lebih banyak perawatan, dan kondisi mesin sering kali berpengaruh tehadap kondisi jalan yang digunakan, jadi metode saldo menurun berganda sangat lah cocok digunakan sebagai penyusutan sebuah mesin mobil. Manfaat Diterapkannya Penyusutan Aset Tetap Terhadap Penyajian Laporan Keuangan Kantor Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat Jika kantor Dinas Sosial provinsi Kalimantan barat dalam laporan keuangannya menerapkan penyusutan dan menyajikan akumulasi penyusutan sekaligus nilai perolehan aset tetap akan berdampak nilai buku aset tetap sebagai gambaran dari potensi manfaat yang masih dapat diharapkan dari aset yang bersangkutan dapat diketahui. Karena neraca tidak overstate, dimana lebih besar daripada yang seharusnya. Kendala–Kendala Belum Diterapkannya Akuntansi Penyusutan Aset Tetap Di Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat Untuk mengetahui hal ini maka dibutuhkannya sebuah media kuesionersebagai alat penelitian, kemudian disebarkan kepada 6 (enam) anggota/pegawai Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat sebagai subjek penelitian yang sudah mewakili seluruh pengelola dan penanggungjawab atas pelaporan aset tetap.Cara mengeatahui sejauh mana tingkat sistem pengendalian internal dan tingkat pemahaman tersebut dengan menghitung berapa persen banyaknya jawaban yang menjawab "YA" dan jawaban yang menjawab "TIDAK" sehingga dapat ditarik suatu kesimpulan bahwa apakah akuntansi aset tetap tidak sesuai, akuntansi aset tetap kurang sesuai, akuntansi aset tetap cukup sesuai, dan akuntansi aset tetap sangat sesuai. Dari setiap pertanyaan yang ada di kuesioner yang sudah disebarkan kepada 6 (enam) anggota/pegawai hasilnya sebagai berikut : Tabel 4.7 Hasil Rekapitulasi Kuesioner Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat No Daftar Pertanyaan Total 1 Apakah ada bagian yang bertanggung jawab dalam kepengurusan Aset tetap di kantor Dinas Sosial provinsi Kalimantan Barat? 5 1 6 2 Apakah anda mengetahui Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan no. 07 tentang aset tetap? 1 5 6 3 Apakah anda mengetahui Buletin Teknis no. 05 tentang akuntansi penyusutan? 1 5 6 4 Apakah pengklasifikasian aset tetap telah berdasarkan pada kesamaan dalam sifat atau fungsinya dalam aktivitas operasi entitas? 5 1 6 5 Apakah dalam pengakuan aset tetap menggunakan dan meyakini bahwa semua aset tetap telah diakui memiliki masa manfaat lebih dari 12 (dua belas) bulan? 1 5 6 6 Apakah setiap aset tetap yang diperoleh tidak dimaksudkan untuk dijual dalam operasi normal entitas? 2 4 6 7 Apakah setiap aset tetap yang diperoleh mempunyai tujuan dan maksud tertentu untuk kepentingan operasional entitas? 5 1 6 8 Apakah pengadaan aset tetap telah dilakukan pejabat yang berwenang? 5 1 6 9 Apakah pejabat pengelola aset dan keuangan telah mendapatkan pelatihan mengenai penerapan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan no. 07 sebelumnya? 1 5 6 10 Apakah aset tetap yang dimiliki telah dimanfaatkaan sesuai dengan peruntukkannya? 5 1 6 11 Apakah pada pengeluaran pendapatan (revenue expenditure) yang sering dilakukan bertujuan untuk menjaga dan memelihara nilai suatu aset tetap tersebut dan menetapkan batas pengeluaran yang harus dikeluarkan atau tidak ? 1 5 6 12 Apakah pada pengeluaran modal (capital expenditure) bertujuan untuk menambah umur ekonomis yang sudah ada, kapasitas produksi, dan kemampuan aset tetap dan menetapkan batas pengeluaran yang harus dikeluarkan atau tidak ? 1 5 6 13 Apakah setiap saat aset tetap diperoleh yang tidak diketahui harga perolehannya bisa menggunakan nilai wajar yang daftar nilainya sudah ditetapkan oleh Biro Pengelolaan Aset? 4 2 6 14 Apakah untuk penilaian awal aset tetap yang diterima menggunakan biaya perolehan jika tidak memungkinkan maka menggunakan biaya historis? 4 2 6 15 Apakah pada suatu konstruksi pembangunan aset tetap masih dalam pengerjaan belum bisa diakui sebagai aset tetap sampai aset tetap tersebut siap dipakai dan dicatat sebesar harga perolehan? 5 1 6 16 Apakah dalam memperoleh suatu aset tetap gabungan ditentukan dengan memperincikan dan mengalokasikan harga gabungan tersebut berdasarkan nilai wajar masing-masing aset yang bersangkutan? 5 1 6 17 Apakah memperoleh aset tetap secara pertukaran yang serupa dan tidak serupa, biaya diukur berdasarkan nilai wajar yaitu ekuivalen atas nilai tercatat aset setelah disesuaikan dengan setara kas yang ditransfer? - 6 6 18 Apakah pada saat menerima aset yang berbentuk donasi, hibah atau bantuan biaya diukur berdasarkan nilai wajar? - 6 6 19 Apakah pelaporan aset tetap pada akhir tahun diikuti dengan nilai penyusutan? 1 5 6 20 Apakah penilaian kembali (Revaluation) aset tetap tidak diterapkan sesuai pada ketentuan pemerintah secara nasional? 1 5 6 21 Apakah aset tetap yang rusak dan rusak berat telah dicatat pada buku inventaris barang, pelaporan rincian penghapusan, aset lainnya dan setelah penghapusan di catat pada CALK? 5 1 6 22 Apakah pada pengungkapan atau penyajian laporan keuangan aset tetap sudah telah sesuai dengan SAP? 3 3 6 Total 61 71 132 (Sumber Data : Olahan) Maka perhitungannya persentase jawaban "YA" : 61 x 100% = 46,3% 6 x 22 Sedangkan untuk perhitungan persentase jawaban "TIDAK" : 71 x 100% = 53,8 % 6 x 22 Dari hasil evaluasi atas penerapan Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintah (PSAP) No. 07 mengenai aset tetap serta tingkat sistem pengendalian internal dan tingkat pemahaman dengan menggunakan kuesioner menunjukkan persentase jawaban "YA" sebesar 46,3 % dan jawaban "TIDAK" sebesar 53,8 %. Sedangkan untuk tingkat pemahaman dan penerapan PSAP no. 07 dengan melihat perbandingan jumlah jawaban dan perbedaan jawaban dengan hasil penelitian bisa dikatakan kurang sesuai. Kendala yang membuat Kantor Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat belum dimenerapkan akuntansi penyusutan aset tetap sesuai dengan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan Nomor 07 tentang aset tetap : Karena menganggap belum wajib menggunakan basis akrual Akuntansi Penyusutan dipandang sebagai hal yang rumitSumber Daya ManusiaKurangnya sosialisasi dari pemerintah Kesimpulan Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan dapat disimpulkan bahwa: Penerapan perlakuan Akuntansi penyusutan aset tetap Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat, adalah sebagai berikut : Belum sepenuhnya sesuai dengan yang telah disampaikan dalam Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan No. 07 tentang Aset Tetap dan Peraturan Pemerintah No. 71 tahun 2010 tentang standar akuntansi pemerintahan Kantor Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat belum menerapkan akuntansi penyusutan aset tetap baik pada laporan inventaris maupun neracanya. Pengakuan dan pengklasifikasian aset tetap sudah sesuai dengan Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan Nomor 07. Kendala yang menyebabkan belum diterapkannya akuntansi penyusutan aset tetap oleh Dinas Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Barat adalah sebagai berikut :a. Karena menganggap belum wajib menggunak

This is introduction, acknowledgements and dedication part from Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes. Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes is a collection of select peer-reviewed scholarly articles developed from concepts and positions presented and generated at the First International Symposium on Languages for Specific Purposes (ISLSP) celebrated on April 13–14, 2012 at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (United States). The symposium gathered 31 speakers and over 80 participants from all over the nation and other parts of the world. Each speaker brought a unique perspective of Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP), which was essential to pave the way to enlightening, fruitful and engaging discussions throughout the 2–day symposium. ; To cite the digital version, add its Reference URL (found by following the link in the header above the digital file). ; Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes Lourdes Sánchez-López Editor UAB Digital Collections Birmingham, Alabama, March 2013 Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes ISBN 978-0-9860107-0-5 UAB Digital Collections Mervyn H. Sterne Library University of Alabama at Birmingham March 2013 Editor Lourdes Sánchez-López University of Alabama at Birmingham Production Manager Jennifer Brady University of Denver Editorial Board Julia S. Austin University of Alabama at Birmingham William C. Carter University of Alabama at Birmingham Alicia Cipria University of Alabama Sheri Spaine Long United States Air Force Academy / University of Alabama at Birmingham Jesús López-Peláez Casellas University of Jaén Clara Mojica Díaz Tennessee State University Malinda Blair O'Leary University of Alabama at Birmingham Susan Spezzini University of Alabama at Birmingham Rebekah Ranew Trinh University of Alabama at Birmingham Lamia Ben Youssef Zayzafoon University of Alabama at Birmingham Table of Contents INTRODUCTION, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS & DEDICATION Lourdes Sánchez-López . x ON LSP THEORETICAL MODELS Continuing Theoretical Cartography in the LSP Era Michael S. Doyle . 2 ON THE CURRENT STATE OF LSP Language for Specific Purposes Job Announcements from the Modern Language Association Job List: A Multiyear Analysis Mary K. Long . 15 ON LSP PROGRAMS AND PRACTICES Spanish for the Professions: Program Design and Assessment Carmen King de Ramírez and Barbara A. Lafford . 31 Spanish for Professional Purposes: An Overview of the Curriculum in the Tri-state Region Leticia Barajas . 42 The Spanish for Specific Purposes Certificate (SSPC) Program: Meeting the Professional Needs of Students and Community Lourdes Sánchez López . 62 French for International Conference at The University of the West Indies, Mona: Total Simulation in the Teaching of Languages for Specific Purposes Marie-José Nzengou-Tayo and Gilles Lubeth . 73 ON THE UNEXPECTED LSP PARTICIPANT The Unexpected Spanish for Specific Purposes Professor: A Tale of Two Institutions Sheri Spaine Long . 88 A Doctoral Student's Shift from Modified AAVE to Academic English: Evidence for Establishing a Language for Specific Purposes Focus Susan Spezzini, Lisa A. La Cross, and Julia Austin . 99 ON METHODOLOGY Teaching Business Chinese: The Importance and Methodology of Building Pragmatic Competence and the Case of Buhaoyisi Yahui Anita Huang . 110 Enhancing Language for Specific Purposes through Interactive Peer-to-Peer Oral Techniques Susan Seay, Susan Spezzini, and Julia S. Austin . 121 Orchestrating a Job Search Clinic for International Scholars and Students Kristi Shaw-Saleh, Susan Olmstead-Wang, Helen Dolive, and Kent D. Hamilton . 129 iii Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) Contributors Julia S. Austin, PhD is Director of Educational Services for the University of Alabama at Birmingham Graduate School and has been a university administrator and a teacher educator for 25 years. She has been continuously funded since 2000 by the US Department of Education National Professional Development grant program to prepare teachers to effectively serve English learners. Dr. Austin has published and presented on effective teaching practices, academic writing, authorship ethics, and collaborative mentoring. Leticia Barajas, MA is a doctoral student in the Second Language Studies program at the University of Cincinnati where she also teaches academic ESL. Her areas of expertise are Language for Specific Purposes, Spanish for professional purposes and Academic English. Prior to this position, she worked for the Spanish department at the University of Kentucky and developed curriculum for Business Spanish and Spanish for Law Enforcement courses in Mexico and Spain. Leticia Barajas is currently writing her dissertation on Spanish for professionals and working on teacher training for professional development. Jennifer Brady, PhD is the Assistant Managing Editor of Hispania and Lecturer of Spanish at the University of Denver where she teaches all levels of Spanish language and Iberian Culture and Civilization. Her research interests include masculinities in contemporary Spain, doubling and repetition in contemporary Spanish fiction, and modification and illness in physical bodies in Spanish fiction. William C. Carter, PhD is Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. His biography Marcel Proust: A Life was selected as a ―Notable Book of 2000‖ by The New York Times, a ―Best Book of 2000‖ by the Los Angeles Times, and a ―Best Biography of 2000‖ by the Sunday Times of London. Harold Bloom has written that Carter's book, Proust in Love is ―a marvelous study of the comic splendor of the great novelist's of human eros and its discontents.‖ He co-produced the award-winning documentary Marcel Proust: A Writer's Life. His website is http://www.proust-ink.com. Alicia Cipria, PhD is Associate Professor of Spanish Linguistics at the University of Alabama. Her research interests include theoretical and applied issues of tense, aspect and aktionsart (Spanish and English), teaching methodology, Spanish/English contrasts, translation, and contact of Spanish with other non-indigenous languages. Helen Dolive, MA is the International Student Advisor at Birmingham-Southern College. She previously worked as an Immigration Advisor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB). She holds Master's degrees in English from Xavier University (Cincinnati, Ohio) and in teaching English as a Second Language from UAB. A British citizen, Helen completed her undergraduate studies in English at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, during which she lived for a year in Belgium. Her research interests include ESL for adult learners, English for Specific Purposes, intercultural communication, sociolinguistics, and orienting new international students. iv Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) Michael S. Doyle, PhD is Professor of Spanish and Latin American Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, where he chaired the Department of Foreign Languages from 1993–1999. He has also served as Graduate Coordinator (1999–2003 and 2005–2009), Director of the Certificate in Business Spanish (1998–) and Director of the undergraduate and graduate Certificates in Translating and Translation Studies (2000–2012). He received his PhD in Spanish from the University of Virginia in 1981. His specialties are Spanish for Business and International Trade, Business Language Studies (BLS), Translating and Translation Studies (TTS: language, discourse, and transcultural studies, literary and non-literary), and 20th-century Spanish literature. Kent D. Hamilton, MA Ed is a graduate of the University of Alabama at Birmingham Master of Education in ESL/EFL and is currently working southern Thailand at The Prince of Songkla University, Trang Campus as a lecturer in the Department of Languages. His teaching responsibilities include classes in listening, speaking, grammar, and assisting with professional and staff development classes to improve their English language proficiency. Before entering the field of education he had successful careers as a firefighter/paramedic and as an attorney Yahui Anita Huang, PhD is Assistant Professor in the Modern Foreign Languages Department at Birmingham-Southern College. Her principal academic specializations include Chinese linguistics, Semantics, Pragmatics, and language pedagogy. Her research includes the form and meaning of Chinese conditionals with a focus on quantification, presupposition, modal implications, pronoun occurrence as compared to English ―whatever‖ and ―whoever‖ sentences, and teaching Chinese for specific purposes with an emphasis on building students' pragmatic competence. She teaches Chinese language, culture, and linguistics courses and works as an interpreter and translator. Carmen King de Ramírez, PhD is Clinical Assistant Professor and coordinator for the Spanish for the Professions Program at Arizona State University. She teaches Latin American Culture for the Professions, Spanish in US Communities, Introduction to Interpretation, and Spanish for Health Care. Dr. King de Ramírez specializes in community based learning and professional internship placements for undergraduate students. Her current research interests include LSP programs, heritage learners, digital pedagogy, and service learning/community engagement. Lisa A. La Cross, MA is currently in a doctoral program in Linguistics at the University of Georgia. Her recent research has examined the sociolinguistic implications of the use of the schwa in French and the syntactical structure of African American Vernacular English (AAVE). Her future projects include investigating the role of the social variety of French and AAVE within education. Before moving to Georgia, she taught English as a Second Language (ESL) in an urban, public, high school in Birmingham, Alabama. Barbara A. Lafford, PhD is Professor of Spanish linguistics and heads the Faculty of Languages and Cultures for the School of Letters and Sciences at Arizona State University (ASU). Since arriving at ASU she has published in the areas of Spanish sociolinguistics, second language acquisition, Spanish applied linguistics, computer assisted language learning, v Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) and Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP), including the 2012 focus issue on LSP that she edited for the Modern Language Journal. In her administrative role, she has overseen the creation of a Spanish for the professions minor/certificate focused on programs offered on the ASU Downtown Phoenix campus (e.g., education, healthcare, criminology, social work, journalism). Mary K. Long, PhD is Senior Instructor and Director of the International Spanish for the Professions major in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Her publications in this area focus on cross-cultural communication and cultural sustainability in the global setting as well as LSP program development. She has also published about the role of artists and writers in the nation-building projects of 20th- and 21st-century Mexico and is co-editor of the volume Mexico Reading the United States (Vanderbilt UP, 2009), which explores the dialogue between the two countries from the Mexican point of view. Sheri Spaine Long, PhD is Professor of Spanish at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and is serving as Distinguished Visiting Professor at the US Air Force Academy (2011–2013). At the US Air Force Academy, she is engaged in research focused on the integration of foreign languages and leadership development. From 2006–2009, Long served as Editor-in-Chief of Foreign Language Annals, the journal of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). In 2010, she began serving as Editor of the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese's (AATSP) Hispania, where she is in her second term as Editor. Long's publications include eight coauthored college textbooks as well as over 40 scholarly articles, notes and reviews on literature, culture, and language education. Jesús López-Peláez Casellas, PhD is Professor of English and Comparative literatures at the Universidad de Jaén (Spain). Currently Research Project Manager, he coordinates an international team of scholars studying the construction of English early modern identities. He has published internationally on early modern English and Spanish literature, popular culture, Joyce, and comparative literature, and he has been visiting fellow at Michigan State University, Arizona State University, and Penn State University, and at the Folger Shakespeare Library. Between 1999 and 2006 he was Vice-rector for International Relations at his university. He is a Corresponding Member of the North American Academy of the Spanish Language (ANLE). Gilles Lubeth, MA is a native of Guadeloupe and a graduate from the Université Antilles-Guyane (UAG). He worked at The University of the West Indies, Mona as Assistant Lecturer from 2005–2010 where he taught French language from beginners to advanced level. At the advanced level, he taught the Translation into French module and French for International Conferences. He was the advisor for exchange students going to the UAG and International Relations students participating in the joint-degree program with University of Bordeaux IV-IEP/UWI/UAG. He is currently based in New York. Clara Mojica-Díaz, PhD is Professor of Spanish at Tennessee State University. She has taught elementary through advanced Spanish, foreign language teaching methods, culture and civilization, and studies in linguistics. She has presented papers on discourse analysis, cultural vi Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) issues, second language acquisition, and language teaching at national and international conferences. She is co-author of the Pueblos Activities Manual (Cengage) and various professional articles. Marie-José Nzengou-Tayo, PhD is Associate Professor of French at The University of the West Indies, Mona and the former Chair of the Department of Modern Languages and Literatures (2005–2011). She is specialized in the Teaching of French as a Foreign Language and a researcher in the literature and culture of the French-speaking Caribbean. In 2004, she received the French order of the Palmes académiques (Chevalier). She is a past President of the Haitian Studies Association (2005–2006), and the recipient of the 2013 Principal's Award for Research for her article ―The Haitian Short-Story: An Overview‖ (Journal of Caribbean Literatures, 6[3]). Malinda Blair O'Leary, PhD is Assistant Professor of Spanish. At UAB, Dr. O'Leary teaches introductory, intermediate and advanced courses on Spanish language and cultures as well as Spanish for the professions and business. In addition to teaching, Dr. O'Leary serves as the foreign language student teacher supervisor in the UAB School of Education. Susan Olmstead-Wang, PhD an applied linguist, focuses on teaching English as an International Language and developing curriculum for English for Specific Purposes at the School of Education, University of Alabama, Birmingham. She is also adjunct instructor at the Paul J. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Washington, DC, where she teaches advanced graduate writing. Research interests include Mandarin-English code-switching and English for Medical Purposes especially in Chinese-speaking environments. Rebekah Ranew Trinh, MA is the Director of the English Language Institute at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, where she is responsible for development and oversight of the Intensive English Program and English for occupational purposes programs, advocacy for issues related to second language learners at the university, and management of ESOL teachers. She holds an MA-TESOL from the University of Alabama. Lourdes Sánchez-López, PhD is Associate Professor of Spanish and founding director of the Spanish for Specific Purposes Certificate program at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. She directed the First International Symposium on Languages for Specific Purposes (UAB, 2012). Her scholarship/teaching areas include: Spanish for specific purposes; second language acquisition; applied linguistics; cultural studies and foreign language pedagogy. She is co-author of a Spanish intermediate textbook and student activity manual and has published articles in various scholarly national and international journals. She is the editor of Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013). Susan Seay, PhD is Assistant Professor in the School of Education, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. Her main research interests are reading instruction and English as a Second Language. She has been a classroom teacher, a reading program director, an ESL Resource teacher, and a family literacy teacher, and she has been involved in the field of education for over 25 years. vii Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) Kristi L. Shaw-Saleh, PhD is Assistant Professor in the Master's Program for Teaching English as a Second Language at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. Her current research interests include identity, gender, and hybridity among distinct immigrant populations in Alabama in an effort to develop best practices for teaching English to these diverse groups of adult language learners. She is especially interested in the effectiveness of interactive teaching strategies and in addressing the need to identify and meet the goals of adult English language learners through job clinics and community-based programs. Susan Spezzini, PhD is Associate Professor of English Language Learner Education in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the School of Education, University of Alabama at Birmingham. She is also program director of Secondary Education and the principal investigator on two federal grants for training classroom teachers in the effective instruction of English learners. Her main research interest is promoting the scholarship of teaching and learning through collaborative mentoring, visual analogies, and oral interactive techniques. Before coming to UAB, Dr. Spezzini had been a teacher educator in Paraguay for over 20 years. Lamia Ben Youssef Zayzafoon, PhD is Assistant Professor in the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. She holds a BA in English from L'École Normale Supérieure of Sousse in Tunisia and an MA and a PhD in English from Michigan State University. Her areas of specialization are post-coloniality, feminist theory and African literature with a specific emphasis on the Maghreb. Her current research projects are: the Holocaust in North African Literature and Tunisian women during WWII. She is author of The Production of the Muslim Woman: Negotiating Text, History and Ideology (Lexington Press, 2005). viii Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) INTRODUCTION, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, AND DEDICATION ix Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) Introduction Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes is a collection of select peer-reviewed scholarly articles developed from concepts and positions presented and generated at the First International Symposium on Languages for Specific Purposes (ISLSP) celebrated on April 13–14, 2012 at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (United States). The symposium gathered 31 speakers and over 80 participants from all over the nation and other parts of the world. Each speaker brought a unique perspective of Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP), which was essential to pave the way to enlightening, fruitful and engaging discussions throughout the 2–day symposium. The keynote address was given by Business Language Studies and Translation Studies renowned scholar Dr. Michael S. Doyle (Theory and Method in Translation Studies (TS) and Business Language Studies (BLS): Illustrative Considerations for LSP in American Higher Education and Beyond). He accurately approached the need for a stronger research agenda in LSP studies (particularly in non-English LSP) while strengthening pedagogies and resources. Because of the discussions that occurred during and after the symposium, participants concluded the first ISLSP may have prepared a solid ground for something larger, collaborative and long-lasting, with strong national and international repercussions. To contextualize the current state of LSP it is helpful to briefly examine its history. The teaching of LSP originated in the 1960s in the United Kingdom and was established as a discipline as English for Specific Purposes (ESP). A landmark publication, The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching (Halliday, McIntosh & Strevens, 1964), called for linguists to carry out research based on samples of language in specific contexts to develop appropriate pedagogical materials. Moreover, the focus of the teaching of LSP has as its primary goal to fulfill the communicative needs of a specific group of people (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Since the 1960s, slow but steady global attention has been given to LSP in both research and the development of pedagogical materials for the classroom for the professions, such as medicine, law, sciences, social work, business, translation and interpretation, among others. However, the specificity of these types of programs does not root in the teaching of a specific language, neither it is determined by the specific professional context. The specificity of LSP depends largely on the students themselves. Courses vary depending on the students taking them, that is, a needs assessment analysis prior to the course development is paramount. Generally, these courses were—and today still are—geared towards adult learners (both traditional or regular/degree seeking and non-traditional or non-regular/non-degree seeking learners) preferably with a basic language background, who clearly necessitate the language in specific professional or academic contexts. Courses are usually developed according to: 1) the student level of communicative competence, 2) the urgency to use the language in a professional context, 3) the specific characteristics of such context, and 4) the design of a program that promotes the learning process (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). For all these reasons, LSP represents the teaching of languages according to learners' characteristics, and its teaching is closely determined by these elements. Typically, the offering of LSP programs is mostly limited to adult or college students for two reasons: 1) the students must have a basic general target language background, and 2) the university system allows for more flexibility or experimentation in course offerings than elementary and secondary education (Almagro, 1997). Therefore, LSP is not considered a discipline separate from the teaching and learning of languages for general purposes, but x Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) rather, it is as an extension (Sánchez-López, 2006). Most researchers agree that LSP pedagogy has been consistently learner-centered, long before the term became main-streamed in pedagogy. By definition, LSP ―attempts to give learners access to the language they want and need to accomplish their own academic or occupational goals.‖ (Belcher, 2004, p. 166) Overall, LSP has a number of weaknesses in terms of institutional recognition and teacher training (Swales, 2000). There are still few professorial positions worldwide in LSP. The majority of the instruction is delivered by adjunct instructors. However, this situation is slowly changing, and, most likely, will continue to change, as the demand for languages for the professions increases in light of recent data (―Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World,‖ 2007; ―Report to the Teagle Foundation on the Undergraduate Major in Language and Literature,‖ 2009). Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes is divided into five sections. In the first section, On LSP Theoretical Models, Michael S. Doyle expands on his previous work of constructing a theoretical framework in Translation Studies (TS) and Business Language Studies (BLS). He calls for the development of non-English LSP theory development working groups to further develop theoretical cartographies and narratives, which the gathering era of global LSP will require in American higher education. He urges non-English LSP scholars and educators to expand on their work in theory and methodology to devise a general non-English Language for Specific Purposes theoretical model, essential to the maturation of the field. The second section, On the Current State of LSP, Mary K. Long presents findings on a recent study of the LSP job announcements posted in the MLA Foreign Language Job Information List. Her study seeks to find answers to the new state of the foreign language profession in light of above mentioned MLA report ―Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World‖ (2007), which recommended that the language disciplines decenter away from literature and design programs that are more directly related to everyday life and applied contexts. Long's article sheds new light on foreign language professions by presenting a multiyear analysis of LSP MLA job announcements. The third section, On LSP Programs and Practices, includes four chapters, each depicting an LSP program or curriculum currently offered in higher education. Carmen King de Ramírez and Barbara Lafford provide an overview of the Spanish for the Professions minor/certificate (SPMC) program at Arizona State University (ASU) and discuss student-learning outcomes. Leticia Barajas's study investigates whether the field of LSP has been influential in conceptualizing the design of the college-level Spanish curriculum in her region of Kentucky, Indiana and Ohio. Her findings shed light on the principal factors that affect the development of Spanish for Specific Purposes in the overall Spanish curriculum. Lourdes Sánchez-López describes the history, design, implementation and outcomes of the Spanish for Specific Purposes Certificate (SSPC) program at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. The goal of the SSPC is to fulfill the needs of its dynamic millennial students and of the increasingly diversified community. In the last chapter of this section, Marie-José Nzengou-Tayo and Gilles Lubeth present a general overview of the LSP context in the Caribbean region—as well as recent additions to the French for Specific Purposes courses offered at the University of The West Indies, Mona—the methodological choices made, and their implication for assessment. Section four, On the Unexpected LSP Participant, explores two different cases of unexpected LSP participants. Sheri Spaine Long chronicles her transition from professor of xi Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) Spanish for general purposes (SGP) at the University of Alabama at Birmingham to professor of Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP, with a military emphasis) at the United States Air Force Academy. Her reflection documents two transitions that mirror current curricular changes in undergraduate language programs in the United States. She urges foreign language educators to find common ground between SSP and SGP as they design hybrid programs to respond to multiple demands of today's Spanish learners. Susan Spezzini, Lisa A. La Cross and Julia S. Austin explore how a Language for Specific Purposes focus in a presentation skills course helped a doctoral student from a disadvantaged urban background shift from modified African-American Vernacular English to Academic English when giving course presentations. Their study suggests establishing an LSP focus when teaching, assessing, and researching speakers of social varieties who are learning to use an oral academic variety in a professional context. Finally, section five, On Methodology, presents three different methodological aspects of LSP. Yahui Anita Huang discusses issues in teaching Chinese to American college students for professional purposes while focusing on building students' pragmatic competence. Using the multivalent buhaoyisi as an example, Huang argues that in order to use and understand the language appropriately in a business context, pragmatic classroom-based methodology must be woven into the curriculum. Susan Seay, Susan Spezzini and Julia S. Austin propose Peer-to-peer, Oral Techniques (IPOTs) as a methodological tool to help learners understand and use language specific to a certain field or occupation. In their article, these authors describe several IPOTs that can help instructors implement effective strategies to promote interaction in the LSP classroom. And finally, Kristi Shaw-Saleh, Susan Olmstead-Wang, Helen Dolive and Kent D. Hamilton explore how a job search clinic for international scholars and students was conceptualized and implemented at their university. The goal was to help international students in negotiating a job search process in the context of the United States. Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes intends be an important contribution to the LSP field. It is our wish to follow the path of previous, well-respected collections in the disciple (Lafford, 2012; Long, 2010). Collaboration, integration and unity are key elements for the success of our growing field. If this volume helps generate debate, thoughts, new ideas and fresh energy in the LSP profession, it will have achieved its purpose. Lourdes Sánchez-López Editor xii Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) References Almagro, A. (1997). La relación entre el inglés para fines específicos y su proceso instructivo en la etapa de estudios universitarios. The Grove: Working Papers on English Studies, 4, 39–52. Belcher, D. (2004). Trends in teaching English for specific purposes. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 165–186. Doyle, Michael S. (2012). Theory and method in Translation Studies (TS) and Business Language Studies (BLS): Illustrative considerations for LSP in American higher education and beyond. Keynote address given at the First International Symposium on Languages for Specific Purposes (April 13–14, University of Alabama at Birmingham). First International Symposium on Languages for Specific Purposes. Retrieved from http://www.uab.edu/languages/symposium Foreign languages and higher education: New structures for a changed world. (2007) MLA ad hoc committee on foreign languages. Profession published by the Modern Language Association. (May). Retrieved from http://www.mla.org/flreport Halliday, M., McIntosh, A. & Strevens P. O. (1964). The linguistic sciences and language teaching. London: Longman. Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning centered approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lafford, B., ed. (2012). Languages for specific purposes in the United States in a global context: Update on Grosse and Voght (1991) [Special Issue]. The Modern Language Journal, 96, 1–226. Long, S. S., ed. (2010). Curricular changes for Spanish and Portuguese in a new era. Hispania, 93(1), 66–143. Report to the Teagle Foundation on the Undergraduate Major in Language and Literature. (2009). MLA ad hoc committee on foreign languages. Profession published by the Modern Language Association (February). Retrieved from http://www.mla.org/pdf/2008_mla_whitepaper.pdf Sánchez-López, L. (2006). ―La implementación de nuevos programas de español para fines específicos en la universidad estadounidense‖. Revista ALDEEU (Asociación de Licenciados y Doctores en Estados Unidos), 11, University of Jaén Publications. Swales, J. M. (2000). Languages for Specific Purposes. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 20, 59–76. Acknowledgments First, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to all the colleagues who participated in the First International Symposium on Languages for Specific Purposes and who contributed to its success. I am deeply grateful to the UAB Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, and to the following individuals for their critical role in the planning and implementation of the symposium: Sheri Spaine Long, John K. Moore, Brock Cochran, Malinda O'Leary, Yahui Anita Huang, Rebekah Ranew Trinh, Susan Spezzini, Mike Perez, Niki Cochran and Karl McClure. I am also indebted to the symposium sponsors: UAB xiii Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, College of Arts and Sciences; UAB Office for Research and Economic Development; UAB School of Medicine; Cengage Learning; and Pearson. I would also like to thank the colleagues who conducted the peer anonymous reviews of the proposals and to the colleagues who served as session chairs. Last but not least, I will always be indebted to Michael S. Doyle for promptly accepting my invitation to give the keynote address and for honoring us with his presence, expertise and leadership. I have no doubt that he was the perfect keynote speaker for the inaugural ISLSP. I am profoundly grateful to the Editorial Board of Scholarship and Learning on Languages for Specific Purposes who served as anonymous readers and offered invaluable feedback: Julia S. Austin, William C. Carter, Alicia Cipria, Jesús López-Peláez Casellas, Clara Mojica Díaz, Malinda Blair O'Leary, Sheri Spaine Long, Susan Spezzini, Rebekah Ranew Trinh, and Lamia Ben Youssef Zayzafoon. I would like to offer my sincere appreciation to Jennifer Brady for her exceptional and upmost professional work as production manager of this anthology. I would like to thank the UAB Mervyn H. Sterne Library for publishing this volume and to Heather Martin, who facilitated the process. And finally, I am most appreciative of my family, who is the source of my energy and motivation every day. Dedication This book is dedicated to all Languages for Specific Purposes educators and researchers around the world. xiv Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013)

Loet Leydesdorff on the Triple Helix: How Synergies in University-Industry-Government Relations can Shape Innovation Systems





This is the sixth and last in a series of Talks dedicated to the technopolitics of International Relations, linked to the forthcoming double volume 'The Global Politics of Science and Technology' edited by Maximilian Mayer, Mariana Carpes, and Ruth Knoblich 







The relationship between technological innovation
processes and the nation state remains a challenge for the discipline of
International Relations. Non-linear and multi-directional
characteristics of knowledge production, and the diffusive nature of knowledge
itself, limit the general ability of governments to influence and steer
innovation processes. Loet Leydesdorff advances the framework of the "Triple
Helix" that disaggregates national innovation systems into
evolving university-industry-government eco-systems. In this Talk, amongst others, he shows that these eco-systems can be
expected to generate niches with synergy at all scales, and emphasizes that, though
politics are always involved, synergies develop unintentionally.




Print version of this Talk (pdf)




What is the most relevant aspect
of the dynamics of innovation for the discipline of International Relations?



The
main challenge is to endogenize the notions of technological progress and
technological development into theorizing about political economies and nation states.
The endogenization of technological innovation and technological development
was first placed on the research agenda of economics by evolutionary economists
like Nelson and Winter in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In this context, the
question was how to endogenize the dynamics of knowledge, organized knowledge,
science and technology into economic theorizing. However, one can equally well
formulate the problem of how to reflect on the global (sub)dynamics of
organized knowledge production in political theory and International Relations.



From
a longer-term perspective, one can consider that the nation states – the
national or political economies in Europe – were shaped in the 19th
century, somewhat later for Germany (after 1871), but for most countries it was
during the first half of the 19th century. This was after the French
and American Revolutions and in relation to industrialization. These nation
states were able to develop an institutional framework for organizing the
market as a wealth-generating mechanism, while the institutional framework
permitted them to retain wealth, to regulate market forces, and also to steer
them to a certain extent. However, the market is not only a local dynamics; it
is also a global phenomenon.



Nowadays,
another global dynamics is involved: science and technology add a dynamics different
from that of the market. The market is an equilibrium-seeking mechanism at each
moment of time. The evolutionary dynamics of science and technology nowadays
adds a non-equilibrium-seeking dynamics over time on top of that, and this puts
the nation state in a very different position. Combining an equilibrium-seeking
dynamics at each moment of time with a non-equilibrium seeking one over time
results in a complex adaptive dynamics, or an eco-dynamics, or however you want
to call it – these are different words for approximately the same thing.



For
the nation state, the question arises of how it relates to the global market
dynamics on the one side, and the global dynamics of knowledge and innovation on
the other. Thus, the nation state has to combine two tasks. I illustrated this
model of three subdynamics with a figure in my 2006 book entitled The Knowledge-Based Economy: Modeled,
measured, simulated (see image). The figure shows that first-order interactions
generate a knowledge-based economy as a next-order or global regime on top of
the localized trajectories of nation states and innovative firms. These complex
dynamics have first to be specified and then to be analyzed empirically.



For
example, the knowledge-based dynamics change the relation between government
and the economy; and they consequently change the position of the state in
relation to wealth-retaining mechanisms. How can the nation state be organized
in such a way as to retain wealth from knowledge locally, while knowledge (like
capital) tends to travel beyond boundaries? One can envisage the complex system
dynamics as a kind of cloud – a cloud
that touches the ground at certain places, as Harald Bathelt, for example,
formulated.



How
can national governments shape conditions for the cloud to touch and to remain
on the ground? The Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations can
be considered as an eco-system of bi- and tri-lateral relations. The three
institutions and their interrelations can be expected to form a system carrying
the three functions of (i) novelty production, (ii) wealth generation, and
(iii) normative control. One tends to think of university-industry-government
relations first as neo-corporatist arrangements between these institutional
partners. However, I am interested in the ecosystem shaped through the tri- and
bilateral relationships.



This
ecosystem can be shaped at different levels. It can be a regional ecosystem or
a national ecosystem, for instance. One can ask whether there is a surplus of synergy
between the three (sub-)dynamics of university-industry-government relations
and where that synergy can generate wealth, knowledge, and control; in which
places, and along trajectories for which periods of time – that is, the same
synergy as meant by "a cloud touching the ground".



For
example, when studying Piedmont as a region in Northern Italy, it is
questionable whether the synergy in university-industry-government relations is
optimal at this regional level or should better be examined from a larger perspective
that includes Lombardy. On the one
hand, the administrative borders of nations and regions result from the
construction of political economies in the 19th century; but on the
other hand, the niches of synergy that can be expected in a knowledge-based
economy are bordered also; for example, in terms of metropolitan regions (e.g.,
Milan–Turin–Genoa).



Since
political dynamics are always involved, this has implications for International
Relations as a field of study. But the dynamic analysis is different from
comparative statics (that is, measurement at different moments of time). The
knowledge dynamics can travel and be "footloose" to use the words of Raymond
Vernon, although it leaves footprints behind. Grasping "wealth from knowledge"
(locally or regionally) requires taking a systems perspective. However, the
system is not "given"; the system remains under reconstruction and can thus be
articulated only as a theoretically informed hypothesis.



In
the social sciences, one can use the concept of a hypothesized system
heuristically. For example, when
analyzing the knowledge-based economy in Germany, one can ask whether more synergy
can be explained when looking at the level of the whole country (e.g., in terms
of the East-West or North-South divide) or at the level of Germany's Federal
States? What is the surplus of the nation or at the European level? How can one
provide political decision-making with the required variety to operate as a
control mechanism on the complex dynamics of these eco-systems?



A
complex system can be expected to generate niches with synergy at all scales,
but as unintended consequences. To what extent and for which time span can
these effects be anticipated and then perhaps be facilitated? At this point,
Luhmann's theory comes in because he has this notion of different codifications
of communication, which then, at a next-order level, begin to self-organize
when symbolically generalized.



Codes
are constructed bottom-up, but what is constructed bottom-up may thereafter
begin to control top-down. Thus, one should articulate reflexively the
selection mechanisms that are constructed from the bottom-up variation by
specifying the why as an hypothesis.
What are the selection mechanisms? Observable relations (such as
university-industry relations) are not neutral, but mean different things for
the economy and for the state; and this meaning of the observable relations can
be evaluated in terms of the codes of communication.



Against
Niklas Luhmann's model, I would argue that codes of communication can be
translated into one another since interhuman communications are not
operationally closed, as in the biological model of autopoiesis. One also needs a social-scientific perspective on the
fluidities ("overflows") and translations among functions, as emphasized, for
example, by French scholars such as Michel Callon and Bruno Latour. In
evolutionary economics, one distinguishes between market and non-market
selection environments, but not among selection environments that are
differently codified. Here, Luhmann's theory offers us a heuristic: The complex
system of communications tends to differentiate in terms of the symbolic
generalizations of codes of communication because this differentiation is
functional in allowing the system to process more complexity and thus to be
more innovative. The more orthogonal the codes, the more options for
translations among them. The synergy indicator measures these options as
redundancy. The selection environments, however, have to be specified historically
because these redundancies—other possibilities—are not given but rather constructed
over long periods of time.





How did you arrive where
you currently work on?


I
became interested in the relations between science, technology, and society as
an undergraduate (in biochemistry) which coincided with the time of the student
movement of the late 1960s. We began to study Jürgen Habermas in the framework
of the "critical university," and I decided to continue with a second degree in
philosophy. After the discussions between Luhmann and Habermas (1971), I
recognized the advantages of Luhmann's more empirically oriented systems approach
and I pursued my Ph.D. in the sociology of organization and labour.



In
the meantime, we got the opportunity to organize an interfaculty department for
Science and Technology Dynamics at the University of Amsterdam after a
competition for a large government grant. In the context of this department, I
became interested in methodology: how can one compare across case studies and
make inferences? Actually, my 1995 book The
Challenge of Scientometrics
had a kind of Triple-Helix model on the cover: How do cognitions, texts, and
authors exhibit different dynamics that influence one another?



For
example, when an author publishes a paper in a scholarly journal, this may add
to his reputation as an author, but the knowledge claimed in the text enters a
process of validation which can be much more global and anonymous. These
processes are mediated since they are based on communication. Thus, one can add
to the context of discovery (of authors) and the context of justification (of
knowledge contents) a context of mediation (in texts). The status of a journal,
for example, matters for the communication of the knowledge content in the article.
The contexts operate as selection environments upon one another.



In
evolutionary economics, one is used to distinguishing between market and
non-market selection environments, but not among more selection environments
that are differently codified. At this point, Luhmann's theory offers a new
perspective: The complex system of communications tends to differentiate in
terms of the symbolic generalization of codes of communication because this differentiation
among the codes of communication allows the system to process more complexity
and to be more innovative in terms of possible translations. The different
selection environments for communications, however, are not given but constructed
historically over long periods of time. The modern (standardized) format of the
citation, for example, was constructed at the end of the 19th
century, but it took until the 1950s before the idea of a citation index was
formulated (by Eugene Garfield). The use of citations in evaluative
bibliometrics is even more recent.



In
evolutionary economics, one distinguishes furthermore between (technological)
trajectories and regimes. Trajectories can result from "mutual shaping" between
two selection environments, for example, markets and technologies. Nations and
firms follow trajectories in a landscape. Regimes are global and require the
specification of three (or more) selection environments. When three (or more)
dynamics interact, symmetry can be broken and one can expect feed-forward and
feedback loops. Such a system can begin to flourish auto-catalytically when the
configuration is optimal.



From
such considerations, that is, a confluence of the neo-institutional program of
Henry Etzkowitz and my neo-evolutionary view, our Triple Helix model emerged in
1994: how do institutions and functions interrelate and change one another or,
in other words, provide options for innovation? Under what conditions
can university-industry-government relations lead to wealth generation and
organized knowledge production? The starting point was a workshop about Evolutionary Economics and Chaos Theory: New
directions for technology studies held in Amsterdam in 1993. Henry
suggested thereafter that we could collaborate further on university-industry
relations. I answered that I needed at least three (sub)dynamics from the
perspective of my research program, and then we agreed about "A Triple Helix of
University-Industry-Government Relations". Years later, however, we took our
two lines of research apart again, and in 2002 I began developing a
Triple-Helix indicator of synergy in a series of studies of national systems of
innovation.





What would you give as
advice to students who would like to get into the field of innovation and
global politics?



In
general, I would advise them to be both a specialist and broader than that.
Innovation involves crossing established borders. Learn at least two languages.
If your background is political science, then take a minor in science &
technology studies or in economics. One needs both the specialist profile and
the potential to reach out to other audiences by being aware of the need to
make translations between different frameworks. Learn to be reflexive about the
status of what one can say in one or the other framework.



For
example, I learned to avoid the formulation of grandiose statements such as
"modern economies are knowledge-based economies," and to say instead: "modern
economies can increasingly be considered as knowledge-based economies." The
latter formulation provides room for asking "to what extent," and thus one can
ask for further information, indicators, and results of the measurement.



In
the sociology of science, specialisms and paradigms are sometimes considered as
belief systems. It seems to me that by considering scholarly discourses as
systems of rationalized expectations one can make the distinction between
normative and cognitive learning. Normative learning (that is, in belief
systems) is slower than cognitive learning (in terms of theorized expectations)
because the cognitive mode provides us with more room for experimentation: One
can afford to make mistakes, since one's communication and knowledge claims
remain under discussion, and not one's status as a communicator. The cognitive
mode has advantages; it can be considered as the surplus that is further
developed during higher education. Normative learning is slower; it dominates
in the political sphere.





What
does the "Triple Helix" reveal about the fragmentation of "national innovation
systems"?



In
2003, colleagues from the Department of Economics and Management Studies at the
Erasmus University in Rotterdam offered me firm data from the Netherlands containing
these three dimensions: the economic, the geographical, and the technological dimensions
in data of more than a million Dutch firms. I presented the results at the
Schumpeter Society in Turin in 2004, and asked whether someone in the audience
had similar data for other countries. I expected Swedish or Israeli colleagues
to have this type of statistics, but someone from Germany stepped in, Michael
Fritsch, and so we did the analysis for Germany. These studies were first
published in Research Policy.
Thereafter, we did studies on Hungary, Norway, Sweden, and recently also China
and Russia.



Several
conclusions arise from these studies. Using entropy statistics, the data can be
decomposed along the three different dimensions. One can decompose national
systems geographically into regions, but one can also decompose them in terms
of the technologies involved (e.g., high-tech versus medium-tech). We were
mainly relying on national data. And of course, there are limitations to the
data collections. Actually, we now have international data, but this is
commercial data and therefore more difficult to use reliably than governmental
statistics.



For
the Netherlands, we obtained the picture that would more or less be expected:
Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Eindhoven are the most knowledge-intensive and
knowledge-based regions. This is not surprising, although there was one surprise:
We know that in terms of knowledge bases, Amsterdam is connected to Utrecht and
then the geography goes a bit to the east in the direction of Wageningen. What
we did not know was that the niche also spreads to the north in the direction
of Zwolle. The highways to Amsterdam Airport (Schiphol) are probably the most
important.



In
the case of Germany, when we first analyzed the data at the level of the
"Laender" (Federal States), we could see the East-West divide still prevailing,
but when we repeated the analysis at the lower level of the "Regierungsbezirke"
we no longer found the East-West divide as dominant (using 2004 data). So, the
environment of Dresden for example was more synergetic in Triple-Helix terms
than that of Saarbruecken. And this was nice to see considering my idea that
the knowledge-based economy increasingly prevails since the fall of the Berlin
Wall and the demise of the Soviet Union. The discussion about two different
models for organizing the political economy—communism or liberal democracy—had
become obsolete after 1990.



After
studying Germany, I worked with Balázs Lengyel on Hungarian data. Originally,
we could not find any regularity in the Hungarian data, but then the idea arose
to analyze the Hungarian data as three different innovation systems: one around
Budapest, which is a metropolitan innovation system; one in the west of the
country, which has been incorporated into Western Europe; and one in the east
of the country, which has remained the old innovation system that is state-led
and dependent on subsidies. For the western part, one could say that Hungary
has been "europeanized" by Austria and Germany; it has become part of a
European system.



When
Hungary came into the position to create a national
innovation system, free from Russia and the Comecon, it was too late, as
Europeanization had already stepped in and national boundaries were no longer
as dominant. Accordingly, and this was a very nice result, assessing this
synergy indicator on Hungary as a nation, we did not find additional synergy at
the national (that is, above-regional) level. While we clearly found synergy at
the national level for the Netherlands and also found it in Germany, but at the
level of the Federal States, we could not find synergy at a national level for
Hungary. Hungary has probably developed too late to develop a nationally
controlled system of innovations.



A
similar phenomenon appeared when we studied Norway: my Norwegian colleague
(Øivind Strand) did most of our analysis there. To our surprise, the
knowledge-based economy was not generated where the universities are located (Oslo
and Trondheim), but on the West Coast, where the off-shore, marine and maritime
industries are most dominant. FDI (foreign direct investment) in the marine and
maritime industries leads to knowledge-based synergy in the regions on the West
Shore of Norway. Norway is still a national system, but the Norwegian
universities like Trondheim or Oslo are not so much involved in entrepreneurial
networks. These are traditional universities, which tend to keep their hands
off the economy.



Actually,
when we had discussions about these two cases, Norway and Hungary, which both
show that internationalization had become a major factor, either in the form of
Europeanization in the Hungarian case, or in the form of foreign-driven
investments (off-shore industry and oil companies) in the Norwegian case, I
became uncertain and asked myself whether we did not believe too much in our
indicators? Therefore, I proposed to Øivind to study Sweden, given the availability
of well-organized data of this national system.



We
expected to find synergy concentrated in the three regional systems of
Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Malmö/Lund. Indeed, 48.5 percent of the Swedish
synergy is created in these three regions. This is more than one would expect
on the basis of the literature. Some colleagues were upset, because they had
already started trying to work on new developments of the Triple Helix, for
example, in Linköping. But the Swedish economy is organized and centralized in
this geographical dimension. Perhaps that is why one talks so much about
"regionalization" in policy documents. Sweden is very much a national
innovation system, with additional synergy between the regions.





Can governments alter
historical trajectories of national, regional or local innovation systems?



Let
me mention the empirical results for China in order to illustrate the
implications of empirical conclusions for policy options. We had no Chinese
data set, but we obtained access to the database Orbis of the Bureau van Dijk
(an international company, which is Wall Street oriented, assembling data about
companies) that contains industry indicators such as names, addresses,
NACE-codes, types of technology, the sizes of each enterprise, etc. However,
this data can be very incomplete. Using this incomplete data for China, we said
that we were just going to show how one could do the analysis  if one had full data. We guess that the
National Bureau of Statistics of China has complete data.
I did the analysis with Ping Zhou, Professor at Zhejiang University.



We
analyzed China first at the provincial level, and as expected, the East Coast
emerged as much more knowledge intense than the rest of the country. After
that, we also looked at the next-lower level of the 339 prefectures of China.
From this analysis, four of them popped up as far more synergetic than the
others. These four municipalities were: Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and
Chongqing.



These
four municipalities became clearly visible as an order of magnitude more
synergetic than other regions. The special characteristic about them is that –as
against the others – these four municipalities are administered by the central
government. Actually, it came out of my data and I did not understand it; but
my Chinese colleague said that this result was very nice and specified this
relationship.



The
Chinese case thus illustrates that government control can make a difference. It
shows – and that is not surprising, as China runs on a different model – that
the government is able to organize the four municipalities in such a way as to
increase synergy. Of course, I do not know what is happening on the ground. We
know that the Chinese system is more complex than these three dimensions
suggest. I guess the government agencies may wish to consider the option of
extending the success of this development model, to Guangdong for example or to
other parts of China. Isn't it worrisome that all the other and less controlled
districts have not been as successful in generating synergy?



Referring
more generally to innovation policies, I would advise as a heuristics that
political discourse is able to signal a problem, but policy questions do not
enable us to analyze the issues. Regional development, for example, is an issue
in Sweden because the system is very centralized, more than in Norway, for
example. But there is nothing in our data that supports the claim that the
Swedish government is successful in decentralizing the knowledge-based economy
beyond the three metropolitan regions. We may be able to reach conclusions like
these serving as policy advice. One develops policies on the basis of intuitive
assumptions which a researcher is sometimes able to test.



As
noted, one can expect a complex system continuously to produce unintended
consequences, and thus it needs monitoring. The dynamics of the system are
different from the sum of the sub-dynamics because of the interaction effects
and feedback loops. Metaphors such as a Triple Helix, Mode-2, or the Risk
Society can be stimulating for the discourse, but these metaphors tend to develop
their own dynamics of proliferating discourses.



The
Triple Helix, for example, can first be considered as a call for collaboration
in networks of institutions. However, in an ecosystem of bi-lateral and
tri-lateral relations, one has a trade-off between local integration
(collaboration) and global differentiation (competition). The markets and the
sciences develop at the global level, above the level of specific relations. A
principal agent such as government may be locked into a suboptimum. Institutional
reform that frees the other two dynamics (markets and sciences) requires
translation of political legitimation into other codes of communication. Translations
among codes of communication provide the innovation engine.





Is there a connection
between infrastructures and the success of innovation processes?



One
of the conclusions, which pervades throughout all advanced economies, is that
knowledge intensive services (KIS) are
not synergetic locally because they can be disconnected – uncoupled – from the
location. For example, if one offers a knowledge-intensive service in Munich
and receives a phone call from Hamburg, the next step is to take a plane to
Hamburg, or to catch a train inside Germany perhaps. Thus, it does not matter
whether one is located in Munich or Hamburg as knowledge-intensive services
uncouple from the local economy. The main point is proximity to an airport or
train station.



This
is also the case for high-tech knowledge-based manufacturing. But it is
different for medium-tech manufacturing, because in this case the dynamics are
more embedded in the other parts of the economy. If one looks at Russia, the
knowledge-intensive services operate differently from the Western European
model, where the phenomenon of uncoupling takes place. In Russia, KIS
contribute to coupling, as knowledge-intensive services are related to state
apparatuses.



In
the Russian case, the knowledge-based economy is heavily concentrated in Moscow
and St. Petersburg. So, if one aims –as the Russian government proclaims – to create
not "wealth from knowledge" but "knowledge from wealth" – that is, oil revenues
–it might be wise to uncouple the knowledge-intensive services from the state
apparatuses. Of course, this is not easy to do in the Russian model because
traditionally, the center (Moscow) has never done this. Uncoupling
knowledge-intensive services, however, might give them a degree of freedom to
move around, from Tomsk to Minsk or vice
versa, steered by economic forces more than they currently are (via institutions
in Moscow).





Final question. What does path-dependency mean in the context of
innovation dynamics?



In
The Challenge of Scientometrics. The development, measurement, and
self-organization of scientific communications (1995), I used Shannon-type information theory to study
scientometric problems, as this methodology combines both static and dynamic
analyses. Connected to this theory I developed a measurement method for
path-dependency and critical transitions.



In
the case of a radio transmission, for example, you have a sender and a
receiver, and in between you may have an auxiliary station. For instance, the
sender is in New York and the receiver is in Bonn and the auxiliary station is
in Iceland. The signal emerges in New York and travels to Bonn, but it may be possible
to improve the reception by assuming the signal is from Iceland instead of
listening to New York. When Iceland provides a better signal, it is possible to
forget the history of the signal before it arrived in Island. It no longer
matters whether Iceland obtained the signal originally from New York or Boston.
One takes the signal from Iceland and the pre-history of the signal does not
matter anymore for a receiver.



Such
a configuration provides a path-dependency (on Iceland) in
information-theoretical terms, measurable in terms of bits of information. In a
certain sense you get negative bits of information, since the shortest path in
the normal triangle would be from New York to Bonn, and in this case the
shortest path is from New York via Iceland to Bonn. I called this at the time a
critical transition. In a scientific text for instance, a new terminology can
come up and if it overwrites the old terminology to the extent that one does
not have to listen to the old terminology anymore, one has a critical
transition that frees one from the path-dependencies at a previous moment of
time.



Thus,
my example is about radical and knowledge-based changes. As long as one has to
listen to the past, one does not make a critical transition. The knowledge-based
approach is always about creative destruction and about moving ahead,
incorporating possible new options in the future. The hypothesized future
states become more important than the past. The challenge, in my opinion, is to
make the notion of options operational and to bring these ideas into
measurement. The Triple-Helix indicator measures the number of possible options
as additional redundancy. This measurement has the additional advantage that one
becomes sensitive to uncertainty in the prediction.





Loet Leydesdorff is Professor Emeritus at the Amsterdam School of Communications Research (ASCoR) of the University of Amsterdam. He is Honorary Professor of the Science and Technology Policy Research Unit (SPRU) of the University of Sussex, Visiting Professor at the School of Management, Birkbeck, University of London, Visiting Professor of the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China (ISTIC) in Beijing, and Guest Professor at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou. He has published extensively in systems theory, social network analysis, scientometrics, and the sociology of innovation (see at http://www.leydesdorff.net/list.htm). With Henry Etzkowitz, he initiated a series of workshops, conferences, and special issues about the Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations. He received the Derek de Solla Price Award for Scientometrics and Informetrics in 2003 and held "The City of Lausanne" Honor Chair at the School of Economics, Université de Lausanne, in 2005. In 2007, he was Vice-President of the 8th International Conference on Computing Anticipatory Systems (CASYS'07, Liège). In 2014, he was listed as a highly-cited author by Thomson Reuters. 





Literature and Related
links:



Science & Technology Dynamics,
University of Amsterdam / Amsterdam School of Communications
Research (ASCoR) 


Leydesdorff,
L. (2006). The Knowledge-Based Economy: Modeled, Measured, Simulated. Universal Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.


Leydesdorff, L. (2001). A Sociological Theory of Communication: The Self-Organization of the
Knowledge-Based Society. Universal Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.


Leydesdorff,
L. (1995). The Challenge of Scientometrics . The development, measurement, and
self-organization of scientific communications. Leiden, DSWO Press, Leiden University.


http://www.leydesdorff.net/





Print version of this Talk (pdf)



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, ri^iiifitiisiiriTrrirraxTTjfxxitrrrTf j,t. '■ ' I* ' i ixxiixu - mj.Jumin-Unxjt-' 'if'.' IJsH/iA ■ j.1 .1H Ml- £1 ri= * -:- THE ~:~ Gettysburg mERGURY. FEBRUARY—MARCH, 1898. CONTENTS: [ Biographical Sketch of Dr. S. S. Schmucker,(continued), P. Austadt, D. D 103 The Kalevala, E. M. Stahl, '94, 108 The Ocean of Sleep, 115 Parasites,. 116 Education Among the General Synod Lutherans in the East, Grayson Z- Stup, A- B., '96 nS American Humor,. 123 A Modern Bellerophon, 129 Look Before You Leap 130 , Winter Crystal, [31 Blossoms, 132 [Sifted from Our Exchanges, 132 Editors' Desk, 135 I Sheer Nonsense, '. : 13S ■ : • ■ ' &: m I. M LLHR, PRINTER GETTYSBURQ. Imjig IIII ! IV Q'BURG C. LIB. I yiii&ai ■i ■^■■H I FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. J. R. STINE & SON, Qepts' ••• pdrpis^er, CHAMBERSBURG ST. C. B. KITZMILLER, --DEALER IN— flats, fopg, Boots and jSjoeg, GETTYSBURG, PA. Ready for Fall ant Winter. Suits to Order—Prices $12.00 to $35.00; Trousers, #2.50 to $9.00 ALL KINDS OF REPAIRING DONE. All the new effects in Check and i iv.'i- Plaids you will 11 ml at THE LEADING TAILOR, CLOTHIER AND GENTS' FURNISHER, J. H- JVl/ers, 11 Balto. St., Gettysburg, Pa. S. B. ALCOTT, —AGENT l'UR— Browning King & Co., iiiTi-iiiiiii Tailor, New York. Suits #12.00 up, Overcoats #12.00 up, Pants #4.00. Fit and workmanship guaranteed. ■ ~R. A. WONDERS'" Corner Cigar Parlors. A FULL LINE OF Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, &c. Scott's Cor. Opp. Eagle Hotel, Gettysburg EPH. H, MINNIGH, Manufacturer, Wholesale and Retail Dealer in Confectionery and Ice Cream, Oysters in Season. News Depot & Subscription Agency, MAIN ST. GETTYSBURG, PA. Sole Mauuf r of Dr. Tyler's Congh Drops SAMUEL FABER. FINE CIGARS .AND. SMOKER'S mm. Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG JOJW Jfl. TO(G)i CONFECTIONERY AND ICE CREAM, OYSTERS STEWED AND FRIED. No: 17, BALTIMORE STREET. COLLEGE OK P^-sldans § Surgeons, BAI.TIMORK.MI>. The College of Physicians ami Surgeons of Baltimore, Maryland, is a well equipped school. Four ses-sions are required for graduation. For full information send for the annual catalogue, or write to THOMAS OPIE, M. D., Dean. Cor. Calvert and Sarato u r~ ■ •f \ \ \3 I S. S. S. SCHMUCKER, D. D. The [jeiifojglHtfij ^eiwij, Entered at the Post Office at Gettysburg as secoud-class matter. VOL. V. GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1898. No. 10. STAFF: EDITOR-IN-CHIEF, AI.UMNI EDITOR, IV. H. Bruce Carney. ' should take more time to think before we act and not rush on as if there were no future. We must not permit our humor to satisfy our religion nor supersede it. The motto "be temperate in all things" applies here as elsewhere. Humor, the necessary product of our fundamental princi-ples of government, stands to us as an emblem of prosper-ity, wealth, happiness, pleasure, contentment and freedom. It is a wonderful national platform and if not carried to excess we can proudly boast as the most humorous of all people. w. E. B., '99. A MODERN BELLEROPHON. The boy was in a lonely mood, The common fate he shared ; Examination day was nigh And he was unprepared. He pondered long upon the thought How best he might proceed ; For willing though the spirit seemed The flesh was weak indeed. At length o'ercome by doubts and fears, He fell into a dream In which a Senior came to him And told him of a scheme. Said he, "Young man, arise at once, The bridle's by thy side ; Go quickly catch the winged steed And on thy foray ride." Up leaped the lad at break of day, Free from his grave despair ; To fou7itain Pen he sped in haste And caught Pegassus there. He bridled him and mounted him, And rode off with a zest; Assured that some day on his brow The ivy vine would rest. But sad indeed 'tis to relate, This verdant Freshman boy, Unlike Bellerophon of old, No triumphs could enjoy. 130 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The Prof's, keen eyes in rolling round Soon saw the horse awing; And sending out a gad-fly stare Surprised him by its sting. The jade burst forth iu accents grave, And made a fearful balk ; He threw the lad ; but since I've heard It taught him how to walk. —J. 13. BAKER, 1900. LOOK BEFORE YOU LEAP." When we come to examine the different professions of life, we see many who do not and in fact can not, do honor to themselves nor to the profession in which they are. It is a fact and one much to he lamented that there are men at present in the Christian ministry and other respon-sible positions, whose proper positions would be on the farm or on the road. There is no one profession from the lowest to the high-est, but that is disgraced by men who are not able to fill honestly the positions which they occupy. If there are any who would inquire why this is so, they can themselves find by observation that many of the young of the present day, as it has been in the past, do not look rightly before they enter a profession. Many desiring to become rich as soon as possible, enter any profession whatever, providing it promises riches in the future. They rush forward and do not take into consideration their own qualifications nor the real nature of the vocation. Thus urged on not by reason and judgment, but by the golden fruit of riches, they behold in the distance the tree laden with glittering fruit, and may finally be able to grasp some of the golden apples, but alas ! they find them to be ashes. Either in an unpropitious moment the whole fortune may be taken away, or if it even remains in their hands it will be their eternal ruin. The weary traveler upon the desert journeys along hirsty and fainting, when all at once he beholds in the distant horizon, water glittering in the sun. He is urged THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 131 on by this glorious sight. Yet to his surprise, when he ar-rives at the spot the water is not there, but in some other position; thus as he advances the water recedes, and after some fruitless efforts he finds that he has been de-ceived by the mirage of the desert. Thus it is with these seekers after fame. They may even attain to their object in view but when they have fame it will give them about as much pleasure as the burning sands of the desert give to the weary traveler. The idea that one can enter any profession he desires is false, although we are free agents we must always con-sider before we choose a calling for life. We are not at liberty to do anything carelessly and with indifference. But it is our duty in all matters to act honestly and thoughtfully. It is our duty to examine ourselves truth-fully to see whether we have the real qualifications for the position we are about to assume. We often hear men say they can do as much good in one profession as in another. Perhaps they can, providing they enter with proper motives and with the conscious-ness that they are truly performing their duty. But how frequently men just enter upon a course the very oppo-site of what reason and their own consciences tell them to do. In consequence of the object of our creation we must choose such a course of life as will enable us to do most good in the world. We must not take our own selfish mo-tives into consideration, but the honor and glory of God and the welfare of humanity. c. s. B., 1900. WINTER CRYSTAL Sweet, in silent winter night, The little church stands out Against the landscape crisp and white, So pure aud so devout. The mellow light shines soft aud kind Upon the ice-bound stream, And o'er the traveler's weary mind Sheds peace and joy serene. "TiJSS.' MML 182 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. BLOSSOMS. The violet 'long the traveler's way, Its sweetness gives to cheer his weary heart; The rarest rose on royal breast Though worn by queens plays not a nobler part. No wild rose e'er has bloomed in vain, Though but a beggar stoop to offer praise, Who reads its message pure and sweet, And bows before the thoughts of better days. But sweeter far than lowly flower, The life, a true and loving heart unfolds; Its sweetest fragrance, purity, Inspires the soul, and noble action moulds. j. N. K H., 99- SIFTED FROM OUR EXCHANGES. Is the literary or debating society less worthy than in the days of our fathers, or do we, in the great wisdom of our age, have less need of the training they offer ? There is cause for concern and the "problem" should receive earnest consideration by every college man. Rival inter-ests are said to be the chief cause of decline. Athletics, fraternities, clubs, etc., are generally cited as being the means of diverting interest from the literary society. But why does the student allow himself to be diverted ? Temp-tation is almost as old as the race. None of these things are comparable in value to the good old literary society, and it is the mark of honor to stand by that which is best. Students in earlier times were no doubt tempted to give their time to other interests as much as we, but they made their literary society of first importance. The modern col-lege debater or essayist would feel justly ashamed were he to be transported for an evening back to the old literary society of Longfellow and Hawthorne. If the proper lit-erary zeal existed to-day, rival interests would not inter-fere. The problem must be solved in the individual. His honor as a student should direct him to active participa-tion in literary work.—Ursinus College Bulletin. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 133 I write, not in criticism of any deficiency in library facilities in any college, but in earnest desire to further your good purpose, and to increase interest among your fellow students in the use of libraries. First, books must be AVAILABLE. The college library must cease to depend upon the occasional donation of out-worn private libraries, or the whim of some special friend for special literary or other fads. The income for new books should be as steady and as reliable as for the endow-ment of any chair. This income should be wisely appor-tioned to the needs of all departments of instruction main-tained by the institution, without partiality or undue dis-crimination. It goes without saying that it should be ad-equate to actual needs. Second, the existing treasures on the shelves, and the new ones to be secured must be ACCESSIBLE, (a) There should be a general library with the reading room in close proximity, and also (b) special departmental collection in the several buildings devoted to their respective uses. The general library should be open for the consultation and drawing of books from 8 A. M. to 10 p. M., in winter, and 7 A. M. to 10 p. M., in spring and summer. It should be open on all holidays and on Sunday afternoons. The departmental libraries should be in charge of a student librarian for each, and be open as occasion may warrant. Free access to the shelves should be given to all users of the books. The seeing, the handling, the examining of books by young people is a very helpful part of their edu-cation. To be accessible is also to be arranged systematically, to be classified, scientifically, to be catalogued, and, in a degree, to be indexed.—Prof. William E. Martin, Librarian Bucknell University, in The Lafayette. T t t In my opinion the Ideal College Life embraces the fol-lowing elements : 1. The student should keep in constant view the ob- 134 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ject for which he is sent to college and apply himself closely to his studies so as to maintain a good, honorable standing in his class for scholarship. 2. He should be careful to take the proper exercise to develop along with his intellectual attainments a sound, healthy body, and not weaken or enervate it. 3. He should cheerfully comply with all the rules and regulations of the college, so as to carry with him when he graduates the recollection that he was a loyal, faithful student, and did all in his power to maintain the honor and good name of his alma mater. 4. He should in all his intercourse with the Faculty and his fellow-students be manly and gentlemanly, so as to have the respect and esteem of all. 5. He should, along with his physical, intellectual and social culture, so develop his moral and religious na-ture as to blend them all in such delightful harmony as to attain the life of a Christian, the highest and noblest type of manhood.—Geo. W. Williard, D. D., L. L. D.,in College Student. ttt Two things may justly be expected of college students more than any uther class of men ; one may be a more difficult accomplishment than the other, yet both may be acquired and go hand in hand with one another. The first is the ability to read ; the second, the ability to think. —The Wittenberger. t t t It is no small part of a College education to form habits of observation, acquisition and application. What a man is when he leaves College he will be for life. Among the most subtle temptations that will come to the student is that of wasting what is most common and yet most precious—time. Small pieces of time are like small coins, they disappear very readily without leaving any trace. The man who can conserve the minutes will not waste the hours, and yet how much can be accomplished THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 135 in a few stray minutes if we but seize the opportunities and make them count. It is so easy to sit down in one's chair and chat for five or ten minutes, or drop in on a neighbor, wasting his as well as our own time. It is not the minutes themselves that are so valuable ; it is the habit of wasting them that proves destructive. Formed while in college, it clings through after life, and its victim becomes one of those people who are always behind.—Vox Wesleyuna. EDITORS' DESK. We believe that books and articles which are not worth a second reading are scarcely worth the first. With this conviction in mind we endeavor to publish some real literature, something which will awaken thought and arouse sentiment, something which will be helpful to our varied class of readers. We are conscious that it is almost impossible to publish matters of value and interest alike to undergraduate whose life is young, spirits buoyant whose mind is centered upon the literature and questions of the past, and to our alumni sobered by the trials of life and occupied with the questions of the living present. However hard the task, we have relied upon your love for Alma Mater's interests to blind you to our short comings and to assist us in getting into the current of popular ap-proval. We have received many appreciated comments in the columns of our exchanges, clippings have been frequently made from our articles. Kind words and substantial evi-dence come in private letters, for all of which we are thankful; but we are grieved at the number who have asked for discontinuance and the tardiness of many de-linquents. We are passing through a crisis period in the history of our institution and especially is this true in re-gard to our publications. Although not in thick darkness* we will be lost if we do not go hand in hand as students and alumni, keeping cool heads and stout hearts, laboring not for selfish ends but for the common good of Gettys- 13(5 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. burg. Have you done your duty ? Let us in this day of patriotic awakening, rise also to a full measure of the de-votion due to Gettysburg and her interests. We are sorry that for causes which need not here be explained, the Feb. number of THE MEKCURY could not be issued. We have tried to make this number worthy your careful reading. Read everything, and the best things twice, not forgetting the advertisements. * * * "The Morning Watch." This subject was ably hand-led and forcefully presented at the last State convention. Every one prestnt could not help but realize the wonder-ful blessings, which came to all who faithfully observe it. If there is a class of people to whom the morning watch is more especially adapted than any other, it is the student. By the morning watch is meant the setting apart of a certain period of the early morn, say a half hour, to get alone with God, to meet Hira in some secret place, where silence reigns and the cares of this world are barred out. Where nothing interrupts the study of His Word, deep meditation, and sweet communion. Surely this ideal way of beginning the day cannot help but appeal to every reader. Do you want to develop character ? Do you want to be uplifted to higher planes of living ? Do you want to become more and more like the Master ? In short, do you want power ? Then observe the morning watch. Yours shall be the reward. Not infrequently does it happen that a student or stu-dents at a college or university have original ideas and plans by which the best interests of the institution might be advanced. It may be that these plans, if carried out. would meet a need which the particular institution has for a long time felt. It is, however, often the case that such plans and "schemes" are never put into execution for the simple reason that there exists no student organization of a kind to which such matters could be suggested, and THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. i:)7 which would be competent to carry through, in a syste-matic way, any student undertaking arising in this manner. The originator of the ideas so far from taking steps to bring his plans to a successful issue, sometimes does not even mention them to his companions. In this way much valuable activity on the part of the stu-dents is often lost to an institution of learning. At Gettysburg the advantage of an organization of the kind indicated above, was recognized by an alumnus. He lost no time in making known to the students his views as to the good, he felt sure, would accrue to our college through such an organization. The student body heartily favored the movement; and the Society of Pen and Sword was organized. The scope of activity of this Society, prac-tically includes every field in which the college has inter-est. In athletics and the college publications the Society is particularly interested. The only conditions of election to membership in the Society are a manifestation on the part of the student of sincere and active interest in all matters which concern the good of the college, and unmistakable evidence of loy-alty t^> alma mater. It is hardly necessary to add that already, at the end of the first year of its existence, the Society has accom-plished a half dozen very important undertakings in be-half of Gettysburg. Let us all join in our hearty wishes for another successful year. * * * IT is most gratifying to every lover of Old Gettysburg to note the greatly increased spirit of activity which now prevails throughout our entire institution. This spirit is particularly manifest among the boys who are musically inclined, and, as a result, the College has musical organi-zations of which she may well be proud. Moreover the recent organization of a good second Glee Club makes the prospect for the future very bright. We heartily com-mend the zeal of the Clubs and predict for them great suc-cess in their coming trip. They deserve it. 138 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THERE has been an unusual number of lectures and entertainments in Brua Chapel this year. In general they have been quite well patronized by the students and the citizens of the town. This is a commendable way of rais-ing money for worthy objects, but we fear that too many entertainments will have a bad effect on the regular Y. M. 0. A. course which is provided every year. Might it not be better to have less in number and then aim to secure only the best ? SHEER NONSENSE. "Genius is a diffikult thing to hide. I hav even seen it revealed in blowing the noze or handling a toothpick. "It iz a pleasant thing to kno that cunning men, sooner or later, git kaught in the traps they set for others. "There is now and then a man who can make a cir-kumstanse, but as a general thing, cirkumstanses make men."—Josh Billings. It seems the wittiest things e'er heard By him who hears them told, Are those which he himself relates No matter if they're old. Thus you see 'tis verified The sayiug old and true, I know not who it's author was "Laugh, the world laughs with you." -Ex. FOOT-BALL TERMS. First down—Chawlie's moustache. Half-back—$2.50 paid on a borrowed $5. -Ex. Breathes there a man with soul so dead, Who never to himself (?) has said, As he stubbed his toe against the bed: « i it in ? -Ex. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 139 Some student, in searching through classic (?) literature, has come across the following fragment: "Darkibus uightibus, No lightiorum, Strikibus postibus, Breechibus torum."—Ex. Do you think she loves you? I don't know. I'm all in the dark. Well, if she entertains you that way, I think it's pretty good proof. There are two reasons why some people don't mind their own business. One is that they haven't any niiud, the other, that they haven't any business. —Han ard Lampoon. David Ward, the lucky gold miner, who brought back the news of a rich find of gold on the American side of Alaska, and who says that the rush next spring will be far down the Yukon on the American side, spent three years prospecting in Alaska, and in that time only received seven letters from home. Since his return he has had more than that many thousands of letters from would-be argonauts in three mouths. He is now in Philadel-phia, Pa., and tries to answer every inquiry concerning the Far North, its perils, rigors of climate and wonderful riches. His practical experience makes his advice highly valuable, and anyone interested in Alaska should avail themselves of his knowledge by writing to him. War Pictures. in beautiful colors. " ", u. "MAINE" and Battle-sfups .1NDIANAf" (Latter cleared for action) each i2xiS. North Atlantic Squadron, All ships of the line (in ac-tion) 12x36. Drawn from life by Reuterdahl. Finest pictures ever published. Mew York Bombarded. Transporting Troops to the Front. Artillery in Action. Storming Morro Castle. All the above beautiful colored pictures will appear in TRUTH. $1.00 will bring TRUTH for six mouths, in-cluding all the above and the follow-ing pictures on heavy plate paper for framing, will be given free as a premium. 1. Battle-ship "Maine," - 12x18. 2. " " "Indiana," 12x18. 3. Storming Morro Castle. Address, TRUTH, No. 40 Litho. Bldg. NEW YORK. WE RECOMMEND THESE BUSINESS MEN. TlQCJPriPr'Q lrt/HntPn Desiring position iu public or private I CO.L/IICI O VI CM I IX>U schools, Colleges or Universities, iu any slate in the Union, to apply through us. We charge no Commission on Salary for Se;uring Positions, Our facilities are the best. 5,000 vacancies last year. Life Membership and duplicate registration for one fee. 500 teachers wanted immediately to fill emergency vacancies on short notice. Graduate students iu great demand. H. H. HOPKINS SCO, Han:o?.'c, Maryland. You will find a full line of Pure Drugs & Fine Stationery PEOPLES' DRUG STORE. Prescriptions a Specialty. J. A. Sawney is ready to furnish clubs and board-ing houses with Bread, Rolls, &c, at short notice and reasonable rates. Washington and Middle Sta., Gettysburg David Troxel, DEALER IN FINE GROCERIES AND NOTIONS. . lias*. D. It., Manager. Pittsburg, Pa., Toronto, Can., New Or-leans, La., New York, N. Y., Wash-ington, D. C, San Francisco, Cat., Chicago, III., St Louis, Mo., Denver, Col, There are thousands of positions to be filled. We had over 8,000 vacancies last season. Unsurpassed facilities for plac-ing teachers in any part of the U.S. or Canada. One fee registers in 9 office. More vacancies than teachers Address all Applications to Pittsburg, Pa. MUMPER & BENDER, Fnrniture, Cabinet Making. Picture Frames. Baltimore St., - GETTYSBURG, PA. Go T/y iifr- ^HOTEL GETTYSBURG^? BARBER SHOP. Centre Square. B. M. SEFTON. SIMON J. CODORI, —DEALER IN— BEEF, PORK. LAMB, VEAL, SAUSAGE, York Street, Gettysburg, |3ilf*'Special rates to clubs. ^,Go To^ ^TIPTON & BARBEHEO^ BARBERS, In the Eagle Hotel, Gor. Main and Washington 8ta, Subscribe for > The MeflcuflJ. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. ACCUlVIUliATEDWEflliTH. Laying up of riches isn't the only thing in life, for frequently a sour disposition is Ihe result. You want to take comfort in life as you Lr" along, one of the best ways to lane comfort is to buy well-fitting clothing. My Pall Slyles are now here and the selection is large and varied Suits made to your order from 812 up. Pressing and Repairing done at short notice. J. I). I.IPPT, Merchant Tailor. 45 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg. G. E. SPANGLER, (Successr to J. VV. Eicholtz & Co.) DEALER IN PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, STRINGS, Etc. YORK S TREET, ist Square, Gettysburg. 1108 « HESTXI T STttliET, PHILADELPHIA. Wright's Engraving House, HAS hecome the recognized leader in unique styles of COLLEQ E and FRA-TERNITY ENGRAVINGS and STATION-ERY, College and Class-Day Invitations, engraved and printed from steel plates ; Programmes, Menus, Wedding and Re-ception Invitations, Announcements, etc. etc., Examine prices and styles before ordering elsewhere. 50 Visiting Cards from New Engraved Plates $1.00. ERNESTA. WRIGHT, uo8 ChestnutSt., Philadelphia. JOHN L. SHEADS, NEW CIGAR STORE Next door to W. M. Depot, Gettysburg, Pa. P. F. HENNIG7 —DEALER IN— Bread, Rolls, Pretzels Crackers, YORK STREET, GETTYSBURG. t3F"Reasonable Rates to Clubs. L. D. MILLER, /p Main St., Gettysburg. Grocer, Confectioner and Fruiterer. IGE CREAM and OYSTERS in SEASON. GETTYSBURG, PA., Main St. Free 'Bus to and from all trains. Rates $1.50 ta $2.00 per day. Thirty seconds'walk from either depot. DINNER WITH DRIVE OVER FIELD WITH 4 OR MORE $1.35. JOHN E. HUGHES, Prop'r Go TA C. A. BLOCHER'S Jewelry Store .FOR. Souvenir Spoons, Sword Pins, &c. All Kinds of Jewelry. Repairing a Specialty. Post Office Corner, Centre Square. PHOTOGRAPHER, NO. 3 MAIN STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA. Our new Enameled Aristo Por-traits are equal to Photos made anywhere, and atany price. FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. BASE BALL SUPPLIES, Spaldings League Ball, ^ Mits, Masks, etc., and Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for Tennis, Golf, Cricket, Track and Field Gymnasium Equipments and Outfits, c 'omplete Catalogue Spring Summer Sports Free. "THE NAME THE GUARANTEE" A. G. SPkLDING, & BROS., New York, Philadelphia, Chicago. S. G. Spangler, & Co. Fine Groceries,, Telephone 39, 102 E. Middle St. s. J. cooor^i, jf., DRUGGIST. DEALER IN D rugs, Medicines, oilet Ar-ticles, Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE STREET. R. H. CULP, J7 cllJt£I, A .* ''■-^.' Second Square, - York Street. College Emblems, EJVIILi ZOTHE, Engraver, Designer and Mauufact'g Jeweler. 19 SOUTH NINTH STREET; PHILADELPHIA, PA. SPECIALTIES : Masonic Marks. Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pius, Stick Pins and Athletic All goods ordered through C.H.Tilp. BOKRDINC-By Day, Week or Month. Rates reasonable. House equipped with all modern improvements. GROCERY STORE in same building. Full line of goods kept and sold at small profits. House and Store located on Cor. of College Campus, opposite Brua Chapel. J3F"Public Patronage Solicited SIIIIIIII>1 II. TauuJiiiibaimli. Prop. MENEELY BELL~G0. Troy, N. Y. Manufacturers of SUPERIOR BELLS. The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania College was manufactured at this foundry. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. AM0£ EGBERT —DEALER IN— Hats, Shirts, Shoes, Ties, Umbrellas, Gloves, Satchels, Hose, Pocket Books. Trunks, Telescopes, Rubbers, Etc., Etc., AMOS ECKERT. Ff.Q Jol}nJ. Thomson's Sons IMPORTERS AND JOBBERS OF + DRUGS, + NOB. 16 and IS \V. German sti t. BALTIMORE, Ml). Offer to the trade their large and well-selected stock of DRUGS, MEDICINES, CHEMICALS and PERFUMERY. Make a specialty to have on hand everything required by Pharmacists. A complete stock can at any time be selected or wants supplied. Job printer1 j WEAVER BUILDTJVG, Centre Square, ALONZO L. THOMPSEN, Manufacturing- Chemist. Race, Winder, Sharp & beadenhall Sts, P. (). Box 657. BALTIMORE, MD. I beg to call attention to the trade that I have recently added to my Plant a com-plete set of Drug Milling Machinery of the most improved pattern. J. I. MUMPER, PHOTOGRAPHER, 29 BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. Special Attention C()LLE(JE WORK. A FINE COLLECTION OF BATTLEFIFLD VIEWS. Always on hand. Mail Orders receive Prompt Attention. CALL ON F. MARK BREAM The Carlisle Street Grocer, Who always has on hand a full line of fine Groceries. ^j:xj>imM*iMms£?:mm WE RECOMMEND THESE BUSINESS MEX. HOTEL GETTYSBURG SHSPQvB .'n Centre Squarv. where McClellan Bouse formerly stood. &ETT1 slil'K'l. PA. RATES 82 PER DAY. H is ihe acknowledged Lead-ing Hotel of Gettyslrg Heat-ed fnrbugttont with steam; hoi or cold Baths; conmrodions Sample Rooms: Dlnillif-rooni E^iij capacity 20Q; lias a Cusine of ar excellence Headquarters for League American VV1 1- :ii;iii. ileadquarters commer- V cial travelers., Headquarters ^ military or civic societies, Free iins to and from all ~ "^ tl'ains II. & I>. H. Miller Prop's. EIMER & AMEND, Manufacturers and Importers of CHEMICALS an i CHEMICAL APPARATUS, 205, 207> 209 & 2I1 Third Avenue, Corner [8th Street. NEW YORK. Finest Bohemian and German Glassware, Royal Berlin and Meis-sen Porcelain, Purest Hammered Platinum, Balances and Weights. Zeiss Microscopes; and Bacteriologi-cal Apparatus, Chemical Pure Acids and Assay Goods. Established 1876 PENROSE MYERS, Watchmaker and Jeweler. Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, College Souvenir Spoons. No. 10. Balto. St. (icll.vslinrs. Pa! & "PRICES ALWAYS RIGHT" THE LUTHERAN PUBLISHING HOUSE, ^ No. 42 North nth St. PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for ANYTHING and EVERYTHING in the way of Books for Churches, Families, Col leges, and Sellouts, and Lit-erature, for Sunday Schools. Please Remember That by sending your orders f us yon help build up and ileveio) i the Church institutions, with pecun-iary advantage tO yOUTSelf. Addl't- Henry S. Boner, Snp?.t. No. i2 North 9;h siren. PHILADELPHIA 1 IARBER <:SHOP CHARLES C. SEFTON, Proprietor. BALTIMORE STREET. The place for Students to go. Only First, class Tnusorial Work \

Беневич Г. И. Логос Мелхиседека. Экзегеза и парадигма обожения у прп. Максима Исповедника В этой статье рассматривается один из сложнейших вопросов библейской экзегетики образ Мелхиседека и его связь с образом Христа. На материале ряда сочинений прп. Максима Исповедника показывается значение этого вопроса для восточного богословия VII в. Ключевые слова: Максим Исповедник, Мелхиседек, Христос, экзегетика. Benevich G. I. Logos of Melchizedek. The Учупуышы and Paradigm of Deification in the Works of Maximus the Confessor In the article, there is regarded one of the most complex matters of the Bible exegesis, i. e. image of Melchizedek and its relation to the image of Christ. The meaning of the matter for Eastern Theology of the VII century is shown through a set of writings of St. Maximus the Confessor. Key words: Maximus the Confessor, Melchizedek, Christ, exegesis. Бирюков Д. С. Николай Мефонский и его полемика с учением Прокла в контексте византийского проклренессанса Статья посвящена особенностям полемики византийского церковного писателя XII в. Николая Мефонского с учением Прокла. Указано на платонизирующих византийских авторов современной Николаю эпохи, с которыми он мог неявно полемизировать. На примере преломления Николаем платонического учения об иерархии причин сущего и учения об универсалиях показано, что Николай склонялся к номинализму и расходился в этом как с неортодоксальными, так и с некоторыми ортодоксальными авторами, а также с распространенной в Византии позицией, характерной для Александрийской школы Аммония, предполагающей троякий способ существования универсалий. Ключевые слова: византийская философия, проблема универсалий, платонизм, Александрийская школа философии, византийский проклренессанс. Birjukov D. S Nicholas of Methone and His Polemics Against Proclus in the Context of the Byzantine Proclosrenaissance The article is concerned on the features in polemics of the Byzantine Church author Nicholas of Methone with the authorities who kept the doctrine of Proclus in XII century. We have suggested the names of the authors in Nicholas' epoch, with whom he could maintain his latent dialogue in his writings. On the example of interpreting the Platonian notion concerning the hierarchy of causes of Being and the notion of Universals we show that Nicholas whose more inclined to Nominalism, fallen into divergence both with Non-orthodox and same Orthodox authors on that point. So that the analysis of his writings reveals the difference with the widespread position in Byzantium, characteristic to the Alexandrian school of Ammonius, which supported the Doctrine of Universals' existing in three modes. Key words: Byzantine philosophy, the problem of universals, Platonism, Alexandrian school, Proklosrenaissance. Бурановская Н. А. Сакрализация камня в культуре Средневековой Индии Сакрализация камня как наиболее долговечного материала, способного запечатлеть ценностные доминанты и духовные смыслы культуры, характерна для большинства цивилизаций Востока. В данной статье рассматривается космологическая символика индуистских храмов, являвшихся в своей исторической эволюции развитием идеи жертвенного алтаря. Ключевые слова: Индия, индуизм, каменное храмовое зодчество, сакрализация камня. Buranovsky N. A. Stone Sacralization in Culture of Medieval India The stone sacralization as the most durable material, capable to embody valuable dominants and spiritual senses of culture, is characteristic for the majority of civilisations of the East. In given article the cosmological symbolism of Hindu temples which were development of idea of a sacrificial altar in the historical evolution. Key words: India, Hindu, stone temple architecture, a stone sacralization. Бурмистров С. Л. Эстетика неоведантизма и принцип dhvani В статье на примере философии искусства С. Дасгупты рассматриваются некоторые особенности неоведантистской эстетики и ее связи с эстетическими представлениям древней Индии и с западной эстетической мыслью (Г. В. Ф. Гегель). Анализируется роль понятия dhvani (намек, скрытый смысл) в индийской эстетике и особенности восприятия неоведантистами гегелевского учения об искусстве как образном воплощении идеи. Ключевые слова: эстетика, прекрасное, неоведантизм, Гегель, dhvani. Burmistrov S. L. Esthetics of Neo-Vedantism and the Dhvani Principle In the paper specific features of neo-vedāntist aesthetics (S. Dasgupta's philosophy of art) are considered and its relations with aesthetic theories of ancient India and with Western aesthetic thought (G. W. F. Hegel) are examined. The main topic of the paper are the role of the concept dhvani (hint) in Indian aesthetics and specific features of neo-vedāntist reception of Hegel's theory of art as an embodiment of an idea. Keywords: Aesthetics, beauty, neo-vedāntism, Hegel, dhvani. Гольцев Д. В. Образ Храма в истории и современной культуре евреев Единство языка, традиций, культуры, которые еврейский народ сохраняет на протяжении более четырех тысяч лет покоятся на религиозном фундаменте иудаизма. Желание иудеев жить в чистом и святом мире, который был утерян прародителями после грехопадения, воплотилось в Храме. Идея Храма укоренена в самих истоках истории еврейского народа. И вся история евреев по сей день неразрывно связана с Храмом. Ключевые слова: культура, религиозное сознание, Храм, синагога. Goltsev D. V. Image of the Temple in the History and Contemporary Culrure of Jews The unity of language, traditions, and culture preserving by the Jewish people throughout more than four thousands years base on the religious foundation of Judaism. The desire of Jews to live in the clear and holy world lost by progenitors after the Fall had been embodied in Temple. The idea of the Temple is grounded in the very origins of Jewish history. And the whole history of Jews is intimately connected with the Temple to the present time. Key words: culture, religious consciousness, the Temple, synagogue. Воробьева-Десятовская М. И. Мечников Л. И. и русская цивилизация XIX в. Статья посвящена страницам биографии Л. И. Мечникова. Автор анализирует его жизненный путь, чтобы выяснить, когда ученый задался вопросом о причинах зарождения цивилизаций. Он считал ошибочным усматривать причину зарождения древних цивилизаций в благоприятных климатических условиях, поскольку климатические условия, в которых зарождались цивилизации, не были идентичны. Л. И. Мечников первым в русской науке сделал шаг к выявлению роли географического фактора в историко-цивилизационном процессе. Ключевые слова: первобытная культура, географический фактор, изменения климатических условий Vorob'yova-Desyatovskaya M. I. L. I. Mechnikov and the Russian Civilization of the XIX Century. This article is devoted to crucial points of L. I. Mechnikov's biography. The author analyzed his life story in order to explain how he conceived the idea of civilizations' origin. Mechnikov rejected auspicious climatic conditions as the main cause of the ancient civilizations' arising. He proved the exceptional role of geographical factor of historical-civilizational process. Mechnikov was the first Russian scientist who represented this mode of thinking. Key words: primitive culture, the geographical factor, changes of environmental conditions. Джибраев А. Ю. Судан-2011: грядущая религиозно-иделогическая реструктуризация До референдума 2011 г. о разделении Судана на южное и северное государства осталось менее года. В контексте столкновения западного, американского образца, и исламского проектов глобализации актуальным представляется и обсуждение, и прогнозирование геополитических последствий референдума. Cтатья посвящена анализу суданского узла пересечения интересов Запада и стран исламского мира: социально-политической и экономической ангажированность Судана, внутрисуданских политических противоречий, позиций Евросоюза и США в разделении Республики Судан. Ключевые слова: геополитика, суданский референдум, исламистские национальные движения Dzhibraev A. Y. Sudan-2011: Сoming Religious & Ideological Restructurization Less than one year has been left prior to the Referendum-2011, targeted to divide Sudan on the South and North states. In the context of clash of the Western, American and Islamic Globalization Projects, to discuss and forecast the geopolitical implication of the Referendum seem to be actual. This article is designated for analyzing the Sudanese intersection node of the Western and Islamic countries' interests and meaning the social & political involvement and commitment of Sudan, internal Sudanese political contradictions, and the EU & EC positions on division matters of the Republic of Sudan. The attention is focused to discussing the forthcoming reaction to the Referendum results in the conditions of a potential local East Africa's conflict transplantation into the ideological fields of challenge for various Globalization Projects and with the view of preventing the negative consequences for the neighboring regions regarding formation of two independent states. Key words: geopolitics, Sudanese Referendum, islamist national movements. Ермакова Т. В. Вклад монголоведа А. М. Позднеева в исследование буддийской культуры Статья посвящена анализу вклада монголоведа А. М. Позднеева в исследование буддийской культуры. Проанализированы результаты двух его поездок в Монголию (1876, 1892): описание буддийских монастырей в аспекте управления, религиозных практик, архитектуры и повседневной жизни, восстановлена его концепция историко-культурной уникальности центральноазиатской региональной формы буддийской культуры. Ключевые слова: буддизм, Монголия, российские экспедиции. Ermakova T. V. Personal contribution of mongolist A. M. Pozdneev into Buddhist culture research This article is devoted to the evaluation of the personal contribution of the Russian mongolist A. M. Pozdneev into Buddhist culture research. Notable results of his two expeditions into Mongolian region were analyzed: complex description of the Mongol Buddhist monasteries in various aspects: management, religious practices, architecture and everyday life. Pozdneev's conceptualization of Mongol regional form of Buddhist culture was analyzed. Key words: Buddhism, Mongolia, the Russian expeditions. Касаткина З. А. Дирижерско-хоровая педагогика и образование в России на современном этапе Статья посвящена проблемам теории хорового дирижирования, методике преподавания дирижирования, а также вопросам полифункциональности данной профессии. Рассматривается проблема качественной подготовки и воспитания хорового дирижера высокой квалификации, выявление специфических дирижерских способностей, раскрытие понятия дирижерско-хоровая школа, определение основных методологических и теоретических аспектов основ системы хорового образования и исполнительства. Ключевые слова: теория хорового дирижирования, дирижерско-хоровое образование, педагог, музыкант, дирижерско-хоровая школа. Kasatkina Z. A. Choir Conducting Pedagogy and Education in Russia at Present Days The article is dedicated to theoretical questions of choir conducting, choir conducting teaching methodology as well as to questions related to multifunction of this profession. The author contemplates such issues as: education of highly qualified choir conductor, revelation of specific conductor skills, academic detailing of meaning for choir conducting school, determination of basic methodological and theoretical aspects of choir and performance educational system and its basis. Key words: theory of choir conducting, choir conducting education, pedagogue, musician, choir conducting school. Климов В. Ю. Светские власти, Рэннё, восьмой иерарх буддийской школы истинной веры Чистой Земли, и ее адепты в средневековой Японии В XVI в. крупные феодалы сэнгоку-даймё законодательными мерами стремились запретить деятельность адептов буддийской школы дзёдо синсю. Школа была основана Святым Синраном (1173-1263). Рэннё (1415-1499) в XV в. сумел создать мощную религиозную организацию. Он отстаивал основные положения Учения школы, борясь с искажениями и ересями. Ключевые слова: религиозное движение икко-икки, буддистская школа дзёдо синсю, Синран, Рэннё, буддистский храм Хонгандзи. Klimov V. J. In the XVI-th century feudal lords sengoku daimyo tried to prohibit the activities of religious followers of Buddhist school jodo shinshu by law The Buddhist school was founded by Saint Shinran (1173-1263). In the XV-th century Rennyo (1415-1499) managed to create a powerful religious organization. He was supporting main statements of the religious doctrine, and was fighting against its misinterpretations and heresies. Key words: Religious movement ikko-ikki, Buddhist school jodo shinshu, Shinran, Rennyo, Buddhist temple Honganji. Ларионова Д. Г. Лингвокультурные предпосылки формирования концепта родина Статья посвящена формированию концепта родина на фоне американской лингвокультуры. Анализируются типологические особенности русской и американской культур, обусловившие различия в значимости концепта для языкового сознания русских и американцев. Исследуются лингвокультурные предпосылки формирования концепта родина как базового концепта русской культуры. Сопоставляются переводные соответствия концепта в русском языке и американском варианте английского языка. Ключевые слова: родина, концепт, русская культура, американская культура, лингвокультура, Larionov D. G. Lingual-Cultural Premises of Formation of the Motherland Concept The article is dedicated to the formation of the motherland concept against the background of the American lingual culture. The typological features of the Russian and American cultures that cause different meaning of the concept in the lingual consciousness of the Russian and American people are analyzed. The lingual cultural premises of formation of the motherland concept as a basic concept of the Russian culture are considered. The translated equivalents of the concept in the Russian and American English are compared. Key words: motherland, concept, Russian culture, American culture, lingual culture. Марахонова С. И. Выдающийся исследователь японской художественной культуры Сергей Елисеев и его петроградское окружение Статья посвящена деятельности С. Елисеева в области искусств, которое было его центральным интересом, что дает повод историкам считать его, прежде всего, специалистом в области дальневосточной культуры и искусств. Елисеев начал свои исследовательские изыскания, обучаясь в Японии. Позже, в 1915-1920 в Петрограде он подготовил лекции по дальневосточному искусству для Государственного университета и других институтов. Елисеев прожил первое десятилетие в эмиграции в Париже, где он работал как хранитель японской коллекции в музее Гиме. Парижский период был самым плодотворным для научной деятельности. С 1934 по 1958 С. Елисеев профессор Гарвардского университета США и директор Института Гарварда. Ключевые слова: востоковедение, Сергей Елисеев, дальневосточное искусство, культура Японии и Китая. Marakhonova S. I. The Outstanding Far Easten Fine Arts'scholar Serge Elisseeff and His Petrograd Environment The article deals with Serge Elisseeff 's activities in the field of fine arts. This was one of his most great interests and he is considered by some people the history of Far Eastern culture and fine arts scholar first of all. Elisseeff began his fine arts studies when a student in Japan. Later in 1915-1920 in Petrograd he prepared a lot of lectures on Far Eastern fine arts at the state university and some other institutes. Elisseeff spent the first decade of his emigration from Russia in Paris where he worked as the Japanese collection keeper in the Guimet museum. The Paris period was the most productive for Elisseeff 's scientific publications most part of which belonged to fine arts' problems. From 1934 to 1958 Serge Elisseeff spent in the USA as the Harvard University professor and director of the Harvard-Yenching Institute. Key words: Oriental studies, Sergey Yeliseyev, Far East arts, culture of Japan and China. Матюшкина Е. Н. Тип героя в исторических романах Б. Окуджавы В статье делается попытка создания типологии героя в исторической прозе Б. Окуджавы. Для этого рассмотрены произведения Бедный Авросимов, Похождения Шипова или Старинный водевиль, Свидание с Бонапартом, Путешествие дилетантов. В романах Окуджавы происходит трансформация героя середины XX века, наблюдается своеобразная модификация образов маленького человека (Авросимов, Шипов, Опочинин), лишнего человека (Мятлев). Ключевые слова: историческая проза, типология героя, маленький человек, лишний человек. Matyshkina E. N. Type the Hero in Historical Novels B. Okudzhava The seeks to make a typology of the hero in historical prose B. Okudzhava. To do this, consider the product Poor Avrosimov, The Adventures Shipova or old vaudeville, Rendezvous with Bonaparte, Journey dilettantes. In the novels there is a transformation of the hero Okudzhava mid XX century, there has been a kind of modification of images of the little man (Avrosimov, Shipov, Opochinin), superfluous man (Myatlev). Key words: historical prose, the typology of the hero, little man, superfluous man. Махлина С. Т. Значение Эдварда Саида в современной культуре и культурологи Доминантным аспектом современной культуры является глобализация. Конечно, это явление имеет черты двойственности. Основные особенности глобализации очень ярко воплотились в судьбе и творчестве Эдварда Вади Саида (1 ноября 1935 г. 25 сентября 2003 г.). И жизнь, и творчество, и политическая, и общественная деятельность его настолько двойственны, что отражают все противоречия глобализации. Фигура Эдварда Саида весьма 320 показательна для современной эпохи и, несомненно, значима для современной культуры и культурологии. Ключевые слова: глобализация, культура, культурология, Запад, Восток, ислам. Mahlina S. T. Edward Said's Value in Modern Culture and Cultural Science Globalisation is a dominant aspect of modern culture. This phenomenon is surely of dual nature. Main features of globalization are embodied in the art and life of Edward Wadie Said (1.11.1935-25.09.2003). His art and life, his political and social activity, are so ambiguous that reflect all controversies of globalization. Edward Said is a representative figure of the modern times and is definitely significant for the modern culture and culture studies. Key words: globalization, culture, culture studies, West, East, Islam. Микитюк Ю. М. Категории органической теории в идеологии почвенников В статье рассматриваются основные положения органической теории, раскрывается ее место в идеологии почвенничества. Анализ таких понятий, как народность, нация позволяет раскрыть решение почвенниками проблемы соотношения национального и общечеловеческого. Ключевые слова: органическая теория, нация, народ, почва, Григорьев, Страхов, Достоевский. Mikityuk Y. M. The Organic Theory in Ideology of Pochvenniks This article discusses the basic statements of the ''organic theory', it also reveals its place in the ideology of Pochvennichestvo. The analysis of such concepts as nation, nationality, nation may allow to solve the problem of the relationship between national and universal by representatives of this ideology. Key words: the organic theory, nation, people, national, soil, Grigoriev, Strahov, Dostoevsky. Михайлова М. В. Классический текст как личное бытие Классический текст рассматривается с позиций онтологической эстетики как один из видов личного бытия. Метафизическая потребность, лежащая в основе искусства, особенным образом реализуется в литературе. Благодаря совершенному тексту, гармонично соединяющему стратегии значения и присутствия, становится возможным эстетическое событие встречи автора, читателя и языка, имеющее важнейшим своим следствием перенастройку личности в согласии человека и мира. Ключевые слова: классика, текст, бытие, язык, автор, читатель. Mikhailova M. V. Classical Text as a Personal Being The article deals with the problem of classical text considered from the point of view of ontological esthetics as a kind of personal existence. The metaphysical requirement underlying art, is realized in literature in a special way. Thanks to the perfect text harmoniously connecting meaning and presence strategies, an esthetic event of a meeting of the author, the reader and the language become possible. Key words: classics, text, being, language, author, reader. Муравьев К. В. Два модуса триадологии А. Ф. Лосева В статье рассматривается триадология известного русского философа Алексея Федоровича Лосева, которая соединяет в себе диалектические начала античной философии и христианское православное богословие. Ключевые слова: триадология, ипостась, онтология, неоплатонизм, диалектика. Muravyev K. V. Two Modi of A. F. Losew's Triadology In the article triadology of noted Russian philosopher Alexey Losew which unites the dialectic principles of an ancient philosophy and Christian orthodox divinity is considered. Key words: triadology, hipostasis, ontology, Neo-platonism, dialectics. Островская Е. А. Теория традиционных религиозных идеологий: методологические возможности и горизонты применимости Статья посвящена презентации принципиально нового подхода к социологическому исследованию процессов институционализации религиозных систем. Методологическое ядро разработанного автором подхода составляет теория традиционных религиозных идеологий, содержащая в себе концептуальный инструментарий для изучения религиозных идеологий Запада и Востока. Авторское рассмотрение сфокусировано на теоретико-методологическом разъяснении таких ключевых концепций этой теории, как традиционные религии, религиозная модель общества, аналитическая схема институционализации религиозных систем. Особый интерес представляет предложенная в статье демонстрация методологических возможностей теории в аспекте преодоления эпистемологической ограниченности постхристианских академических моделей изучения религий. Ключевые слова: религиозные идеологии, социология религии, эпистемологические основания научного изучения религий Ostrowskaya E. A. Theory of Traditional Religious Ideologies: Methodological Capabilities and Horizons of Applicability The article presents a new approach to sociological study of religious systems institutionalization processes. In the core of this approach there is a theory of traditional religious ideologies, as providing a methodological tool for analysis of religious ideologies in the context of Western and Asian societies. The focus is brought to the theoretical and methodological clarifications to three key concepts of the theory that are traditional religions, religious model of society and analytical scheme of religious systems institutionalization. The demonstration of their methodological applicability is of great importance for comprehending epistemological limits of post-Christian scientific models for studies of religion. Key words: religious ideologies, sociology of religion, epistemology of scientific studies of religion. Островский А. Б. Категория замирщение в нормативных документах беспоповцев XIX начала XX в. Термин замирщение, употребленный впервые в конце XVII в. федосеевцами, в течение двух столетий прошел эволюцию: первоначально он выражал противостояние христиане (федосеевцы) / (отлученные, новожены, мирские), а во второй половине XIX в. уже служил мерой для оценки степени утраты благочестия конкретным членом беспоповской общины ввиду недозволенных контактов с иноверными в трапезе, совместной помывке в бане и др. ситуациях общения. Ключевые слова: старообрядцы, межконфессиональные отношения, федосеевцы, поморцы, замирщение. Ostrovsky A. B. The Category of Zamirshenie in Bespopovtsian (a Priestless Sect of Russian Old Believers) Regulations of the 19thand Early 20th Century The evolution of the term zamirshenie first used by the Fedoseetsy in the late 17th century: originally representing the opposition between Christians (Fedoseevtsy) and excommunicates, Novojeny (unionists recognizing marriage), and laity, and in the second part of the 19th century censuring imperfect piousness of individual members of priestless community found guilty of inadmissible contacts with adherents of different creed at meals, in a bathhouse or in other communicative situations. Key words: old believers, inter-confessional relations, fedoseevtsy, pomortsy, zamirshenie. Плебанек О. В. Цивилизационная матрица как категория геополитики Современные направления научных исследований глобалистика, геополитика потребовали и нового категориального аппарата. Традиционные понятия, такие как цивилизация, наполняются новым смыслом, на их базе возникают новые категории, такие как геоцивилизация, цивилизационная матрица, алгоритмы цивилизационной динамики и др. Использование новых и относительно новых понятий в новом контексте требует научного обоснования. Нестрогое, многозначное понимание научных категорий снижает их методологическое значение. Ключевые слова: глобалистика, геополитика, цивилизация, геоцивилизация, цивилизационная матрица, алгоритмы цивилизационной динамики. Plebanek O. V. Civilizational Matrix as the category of geopolitics Modern directions of scientific researches global studies, geopolitics have demanded also new categorial the language. Traditional concepts, such as a civilization, are filled with new sense, on their base there are new categories, such as a geocivilization, civilizational a matrix, algorithms civilizational dynamics, etc. Use new and concerning new concepts of a new context demands a scientific substantiation. Not strict, multiple-valued understanding of scientific categories reduces their methodological value. Key words: global studies, geopolitics, a civilisation, a geocivilization, civilization a matrix, algorithms civilizational dynamics. Прокуденкова О. В. Роль географического фактора в культурологической концепции Л. И. Мечникова В статье рассматривается культурологическая концепция выдающегося русского ученого Л. И. Мечникова. Отмечается особое внимание к проблеме географического детерминизма и роли природных условий в генезисе и развитии цивилизаций. Показано, что Мечников обосновывал своеобразие историко-культурного развития географическим фактором, главным из которых была гидросфера водное пространство, ставшее общим объединяющим признаком классификации мировых цивилизаций: речные, морские и океанические. Ключевые слова: географический фактор, гидросфера, цивилизация, географический детерминизм, культурогенез. Prokudenkova O. V. Role of Geographical Factor in the L. I. Mechnikov's Culturological Concept In the article, the culturological concept of outstanding Russian scientist L. I. Mechnikov is considered. Special attention to the problem of geographical determinism and role of environment in genesis and development of civilizations is paid. It is shown that Mechnikov saw the reason of originality of historical and cultural development in geographical factor, mainly, in hydrosphere, as water space is general uniting sign of classification of world civilizations: those of river, sea, and ocean. Key words: geographical factor, hydrosphere, civilization, geographical determinism, genesis of culture. Регинская Н. В. Александр Невский как символ национальной идентичности в современном искусстве Повышенное внимание, уделяемое Александру Невскому сегодня, связано как с незаурядной личностью Благоверного князя, так и с потребностью восстановления национальных символов новой России. Святому Александру Невскому принадлежит роль выдающегося русского героя. Закономерно обращение современного искусства к героике Благоверного князя Александра Невского, изображение которого своеобразно своей двойственностью: сакральноиконографичным содержанием и экспериментально-светской манерой исполнения. Ключевые слова: иконография, традиция, экспериментальное искусство, духовноиконологическое течение, иконная драматургия Reginsky N. V. Alexander Nevsky as a Symbol of National Identity in the Modern Art An increased attention is paid nowadays to Alexander Nevsky owing to the remarkable individuality of the Blessed Knyazh as well as to the need of renewal of New Russia's national symbols. Saint Alexander Nevsky has a role of an outstanding Russian hero. Modern Art logically addresses the heroic stories of the Blessed Knyazh Alexander Nevsky, whose image is peculiar due to its ambivalence: its sacral-iconographic content and experimentally secular manner of fulfillment. Key words: Iconography, Tradition, Experimental Art, Spiritually-Iconological Trend, Iconic Drama. Рысаков А. С. Основные тенденции в конфуцианстве эпохи Цин Статья посвящена аналитическому рассмотрению истории конфуцианского учения в XVII-XIX вв. Рассматриваются различные аспекты трансформации конфуцианства каноноведение, психотехника, доктрина, ритуальные практики. Восстанавливается политический контекст функционирования конфуцианских школ и направлений. Исследуются доктринальные позиции наиболее значимых конфуцианских ученых цинского времени. Ключевые слова: китайская философия, история конфуцианства, история Китая Нового времени. Rysakov A. S. Major Trends in the Qing Dynasty Confucianism The article is devoted to analytical consideration of the history of Confucian teachings in XVII-XIX centuries. Various aspects of the transformation of Confucianism: canon studies, psychotechnique, doctrine, ritual practice are considered. The political context of functioning of Confucian schools and directions is analyzed, as well as the doctrinal position of the most important Qing time Confucian scholars. Key words: Chinese philosophy, the history of Confucianism, Chinese History. 324 Рысакова П. И. Социокультурная специфика женского образования в традиционном китайском обществе Настоящая статья посвящена выявлению социокультурной специфики женского образования в традиционном китайском обществе. Основное внимание уделено анализу конфуцианских доктринальных предписаний, в соответствии с которыми выстраивались ценностно-нормативные представления о социальном статусе и роли женщины в китайском обществе. Рассматривается педагогический идеал традиционного женского образования. Ключевые слова: конфуцианство, женское образование, четыре женские добродетели, талант. Rysakova P. I. Socio-Cultural Specifics of Women Education in Traditional Chinese Society The article deals with the problem of specific features of female education in Chinese traditional society. It primarily focuses on analysis of the doctrine of Confucianism which regulated the normative expectations of women's social status and role in Chinese society. The aim of women's traditional education is considered. Key words: Confucianism, female education, four women's virtues, talent. Свиридова Л. О. Олицетворение ада в Чине погребению священническому В статье изложены результаты наблюдений над постканоническими восточнохристианскими гимнографическими памятниками на церковно-славянском языке. В центре рассмотрения отличительная черта гимнографической образности: олицетворение не только ада, но и рая, космологических уровней, природных объектов и стихий. В образной системе гимнографического текста выявляются космологический и антропоморфический семиотические коды. Ключевые слова: гимнография, книги церковного обихода кирилловской печати, Потребник, семиотические коды, космологические представления. Sviridova L. O. Embodiment of Hell in theOrder of Priestly Burial The results of observation of Eastern Christian post-canonical hymnographic memorials in the Old Church Slavonic language are given in the article. The central idea of the research is the main feature of the hymnographic imagery the embodiment not only of Hell, but of Heaven, cosmological levels, natural objects and elements. In the system of hymnographic texts cosmological and antropomorphic semiotic codes are presented. Key words: hymnography, church books of Cyril print, Potrebnik, semiotic codes, cosmological views. Селивановский В. В. Сциентистские элементы вероучения Движения Веры Сциентизм в теистической религии парадоксален. Этот феномен вероучения неопятидесятнического Движения Веры побуждает обратиться к анализу его генеалогических корней, теологии и эпистемологии. Крайний фидеизм и далёкое от научной рациональности отрицание чувственного опыта позволяет говорить не о сциентистской ориентации сознания, а о квазинаучном флёре, прикрывающем магический характер практики. Ключевые слова: сциентизм, Движение Веры, метафизическое движение, Новое Мышление, закон веры. Selivanovskiy V. V. Scientistic elements of the Word-Faith Movement's doctrine A claim for scientism in theistic religion is paradoxical. This doctrinal phenomenon of the neo-Pentecostal Word-Faith Movement encourages analysis of its genealogical beginnings, theology and epistemology. Extreme forms of fideism and rejection of the sentient experience, which is foreign to the scientific rationality, do not reveal a scientistic orientation of consciousness but rather a quasi-scientific fleur, employed to disguise the magical nature of the movement's practices. Key words: scientism, Word-Faith Movement, metaphysical movement, New Thought, law of faith. Скоморох Олег А., протоиерей. История тюремного служения христианской церкви в связи с пенитенциарными реформами XVIII-XIX вв. Статья касается вопросов, относящихся к истории тюремного служения христианской Церкви в период пенитенциарных реформ США, Великобритании и России XVIII-XIX веков, когда определялась позиция государств и общества, направленная на христианизацию и гуманизацию тюремного заключения вообще и нравственного исправления заключенных, в частности. Цель статьи ознакомить миссионеров Христианской Церкви, совершающих тюремное служение, с развитием и становлением тюремной миссии, как части государственных систем исполнения наказания. Ключевые слова: тюремное служение, миссия, пенитенциарные реформы, капелланство, Церковь и общество. Skomorokh Oleg A. History of Prison Service of Christian Church in Connection with Penitential Reforms during XVIII-XIX Cent. The article touches upon some questions concerning the history of prison ministry of the Christian Church during penitential reforms in the USA, the Great Britain and Russia in the course of XVIII-XIX centuries, when humanizing and Christianizing position towards the Penal Executive System in general and moral correcting of prisoners in details was taking its shape in those states and societies. The objective of the article is to acquaint the Christian Church's missionaries, carrying out prison ministry, with the progress and development of prison mission, as parts of state Penal Executive Systems. Key words: prison ministry, mission, penitential reforms, chaplaincy, Church and society. Фадеева Т. Ф. Повседневные элементы духовной средневековой культуры. Искусство квадрвиума: Музыка В статье предполагается предварительный обзор культурологических аспектов средневековой системы образования. Автор рассматривает некоторые аспекты формирования хоральной культуры как многоступенчатой духовно-музыкальной системы. Ключевые слова: Средние века, образование, музыка, церковная культура, искусство. Fadeeva T. F. The Everyday Elements of the Spiritual Medieval Culture. Art of Quadrivium: Music The article assumes a tentative review of the culturological aspects of the medieval educational system. The author distinguishes some aspects of forming of choral culture as many-staged spiritual-music system. Key words: Middle Ages, education, music, church culture, art. Федорова М. В. Семиотика свадебных украшений бурят В статье рассматриваются украшения бурят как предметный код свадебного ритуала, на широком этнографическом материале анализируется синкретичная структура их семиотических функций. Свадебные украшения несли в себе продуцирующую, апотропейную символику, были связаны с представлениями о жизненной силе, являлись маркерами обретения невестой нового социально-возрастного статуса. В качестве основных источников использованы вещевые коллекции Российского этнографического музея, Музея антропологии и этнографии им. Петра Великого РАН, научные публикации. Ключевые слова: украшения, свадебный наряд, семиотический, символ. Fedorova M. V. Semiotics of Buryats'wedding jewelry The subject of the report is the jewelry as an objective code of the wedding ritual. The author analyses the syncretic structure of their semiotic functions on a broad ethnographic material. The wedding jewelry have productive, protective symbolism, were associated with notions of vitality, and were the markers of a bride new-age social status. As the main sources, the author used the collections of objects of the Russian Museum of Ethnography, the Peter the Great's Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (Kunstkamera), and scientific publications. Key words: jewelry, wedding dress, semiotic, symbol. Филиппова Ю. В. Мифологические аспекты в понятии сознания В статье рассматриваются мифологические аспекты сознания, их влияние на возникновение новой формы познания философии, онтологические предпосылки структур времени и памяти, а также сновидение как компонент мофопоэтического сознания и постепенный переход к рефлексии. Ключевые слова: сознание, миф, рефлексия, время, память, реальность, сновидение. Philippova J. V. Mythological Aspects of the Notion of Consciousness The article deals with mythological aspects of consciousness, their influence on genesis of a new form of cognition philosophy, also ontological suppositions of temporal and memorable structures, and dreaming as an element of mythopoetical consciousness and gradual conversion to reflection. Key words: consciousness, myth, reflection, time, memory reality, dream. Чистякова Э. Э. Скандинавское влияние в русской художественной культуре XIX-XX веков Переломная эпоха XIX-XX веков изменила представление о взаимодействии русского и западноевропейского искусства. Для преодоления изоляции русской культуры было необходимо познакомить русских художников и общество с состоянием искусства за рубежом. Выставки скандинавских художников, организованные в конце XIX века, открыли национально-романтическое искусство северных соседей России и дали пример вступления на общеевропейский путь развития без утраты национальных особенностей. Скандинавское влияние оставило заметный след на русской архитектуре рубежа веков, особенно в северной столице. Знакомство с достижениями скандинавского искусства расширило творческие возможности и позволило русским художникам оказаться причастными к наиболее значительным событиям художественной жизни рубежа веков. Ключевые слова: скандинавское влияние, русские художники, северный модерн, С. П. Дягилев, А. Галлен-Каллела, А. Эдельфельт, Мир искусства. Chistjakova E. E. Scandinavian Influence in the Russian Artistic Culture of XIX-XX Centuries The turning age of the XIX-XX centuries changed the idea about Russian and West European Art interaction. To bridge the Russian culture isolation it was necessary to introduce the status of the foreign culture to Russian artists and the society. The exhibitions of Scandinavian painters arranged at the end of the XIX century showed National Romanticism of Nordic neighbours to Russia and gave an example of entering European way of development with no national peculiarities losses. Scandinavian Influence had a visible affect on Russian architecture at the turn of the century especially in the North Capital of Russia. Making the acquaintance with Scandinavian Art achievements enhanced creative opportunities and made Russian artists participate in more significant artistic life events of the turn of the century. Key words: Scandinavian influence, Russian artists, Nordic Art Nouveau, Sergey P. Diaghilev, Akseli Gallen-Kallela, Albert G. Edelfelt, The Art World. Шомахмадов С. Х. Космография Южной Азии в письменных памятниках вишнуитской и буддийской традиций В статье дан сравнительный анализ вишнуитской и буддийской космологических систем. Отмечается, что радиально-кольцевая морфология земной поверхности характерна как для буддийской, так и для вишнуитской традиции. Числовая семантика материков, представленная в космографии Южной Азии, демонстрирует, что ойкумена осмыслялась как совершенная, идеологически отражающая непрерывность двух традиций. Общим для обеих традиций является признание человеческой формы рождения как единственно благой, дающей возможность достижения окончательного освобождения (мокша, нирвана). Ключевые слова: космография, буддизм, индуизм, Индия, сакральные центры Shomakhmadov S. H. The South Asia's Cosmography in the Texts of Vaishnavist and Buddhist Traditions The comparative analysis of the Vaishnavist and Buddhist cosmological systems is given in this article. It is noticed that the radially-ring morphology of a terrestrial surface is characteristic both for Buddhist, and for Vaishnavist traditions. The numerical semantics of continents presented in the Southern Asia's cosmography shows that ecumena was comprehended as the perfect, ideologically reflecting continuity of two traditions. The general for both traditions is the acceptance of the human birth form as a unique good, giving the chance for achievements of definitive clearing (moksha, nirvana). Key words: cosmography, Buddhism, Hinduism, India, sacral centers.

Open Peer Review reports Background Perinatal mental health problems affect up to one in five women worldwide [1, 2]. Stress, anxiety and depression in pregnancy affect not only the mother but can also have long-term adverse effects on her child via biological mechanisms in utero [3]. Along with the impact on the mother and her developing infant, antenatal depression and anxiety are the most common predictors of postnatal depression [4, 5]. Postnatal depression can reduce her ability to provide sensitive and responsive caregiving that can potentially impair child development [6]. Mental health problems in the perinatal period are a particular challenge in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where they can be at least twice as frequent as in higher-income countries [1]. Our geographical context for this work will be The Gambia, in West Africa, where mental health services are minimal, services for perinatal mental health are non-existent and high levels of stigma associated with mental health issues, as well as specific local attitudes and beliefs, impede recognition and prevent help-seeking behaviour. It is thus of high priority to develop new low-cost, low-resource, non-stigmatising and culturally appropriate approaches to reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression perinatally, for the benefit of both the mother and child. The current project will test the hypothesis that the creative arts—in particular group-singing—will show special promise in alleviating perinatal mental distress in The Gambia. In high-income countries, such as the UK and the USA, singing in groups has been shown to be a powerful modulator of mood and emotion, evoking positive effects on mental health, well-being and social affiliation [7] via mechanisms involving synchrony and entrainment [8], the saliency of relational communicative features in musical interaction [9] and significant effects on the endocrine system [10]. In addition, the mother's voice is a key channel through which meaningful, sensitive and contingent interactions between the caregiver and infant can take place [11]. Recent studies have found that music and its use specifically during the perinatal period can reduce women's stress levels and depressive symptoms and increase women's attachment to their infant [12,13,14,15]. Music-centred approaches may be particularly fruitful in The Gambia as there are already a range of musical practices that specifically engage pregnant women and new mothers [16]. For instance, infant naming ceremonies occur 7 days after birth and are musical celebrations to recognise the new mother and her family [16]. Performances by Kanyeleng groups are closely associated with pregnancy and motherhood and are important in health communication [17]. These pre-existing cultural and creative practices provide an excellent context from which to explore, co-design and ultimately evaluate culturally situated, music-centred interventions that aim to reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression perinatally and facilitate mother-infant caregiving. Study aims This is a feasibility study which aims to inform the design of a larger trial to investigate a Community Health Intervention through Musical Engagement (CHIME) to help reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression in pregnant women compared to standard care. This article describes the trial protocol (version 1.0, 11/11/18). The protocol was prepared in accordance with the Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials (SPIRIT) guidance. The trial SPIRIT checklist can be viewed in Additional file 1. Objectives Our primary objective is to test (a) the feasibility of delivering a group-singing intervention to a sample of pregnant women in The Gambia using a stepped wedge design and (b) the feasibility of using standardised tools to measure the impact of this intervention on anxiety and depression symptoms, before and after the intervention. This objective can be broken down into five specific feasibility objectives: 1) To obtain demographic information on the eligible population 2) To determine if our measurement tools, the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the Self-Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20), are useable 3) To determine if the intervention is deliverable 4) To determine if the stepped wedge trial design is deliverable and obtain information that will inform the definitive study. Specifically to: a. Assess recruitment and acceptability of randomising clinics b. Assess the recruitment rate of women to control and intervention groups c. Assess participants' adherence to the intervention group and follow-up in both arms d. Test the feasibility of data collection 5) To determine if this type of intervention is culturally appropriate and well received by the community and health workers. Methods/design We will be testing the feasibility of a stepped wedge cluster design, which differs from a parallel arm cluster design in that all clinics involved in the study receive the intervention [18]. Advantages over a parallel arm cluster trial include the requirement of a smaller sample size due to the availability of a within group comparison and prevention of potential disappointment for health clinics who are not randomised into the intervention. Study setting This multi-site study will recruit from four antenatal clinics in western Gambia. Study population All participants will be Mandinka or Wolof Gambian women who are pregnant. Inclusion criteria Pregnant (14–24 weeks gestation) Speak Wolof or Mandinka fluently Exclusion criteria At least one previous late term miscarriage Current psychosis or history of psychosis Withdrawal criteria If the participant develops any serious medical condition or the participant's mental health significantly declines (as assessed by the care team), and the care team deem it necessary, then she may be withdrawn from the study. Intervention The intervention will be delivered on the community level, meaning that it will include women with a range of anxiety and depression symptoms. Our primary aim is to reduce symptoms in those experiencing them (whether these are at a high level or a medium or low level). We anticipate this may also help to reduce their symptoms into the postnatal period. By including those with low and high levels of symptoms, rather than screening and including only those with high levels of symptoms, we will aim to avoid stigma and increase acceptability. The intervention has been developed following focus groups with various stakeholders including health professionals (midwives and community birth companions), pregnant women and musicians (griots and Kanyeleng groups). Four groups of 20 women between 14 and 24 weeks gestation will attend six 60-min group-singing sessions at their local antenatal clinic. This will take place in the morning as this is the time deemed to best suit the majority of women and clinics. Local Kanyeleng groups who specialise in musical practices to support women's health will lead the sessions. The content of the six sessions will be co-designed with the Kanyeleng groups via two extended workshops with the research team. All sessions will begin with a welcome song and end with a closing song. Some of the songs used during the main body of the session will cover topics including the (a) importance of the singing group in supporting each other, (b) importance of other positive relationships in their lives, (c) resilience to challenges and empowerment and (d) importance of being open, removing stigma to discuss challenges. One lullaby will be introduced at each session. Kanyeleng leaders will also be encouraged to ensure that all the women feel comfortable and are participating when they can. The nature of the intervention will necessarily vary somewhat across the four settings, especially as Wolof speaking groups and Mandinka groups have different and distinct cultural beliefs, practices and language. By using the Kanyeleng groups local to each of the four clinics involved, the sessions will be contextually appropriate, while the workshop with all four Kanyeleng groups before the intervention begins will ensure that the overarching goals, content and approach to session delivery are broadly standardised. Over the course of the 6-week intervention period, a research assistant will observe and video and audio record two singing sessions (the first and the fourth sessions) from each of the four clinics to ascertain, using a checklist, the extent to which the sessions conform to our articulated goals. A community health nurse at each clinic will be engaged to take attendance data and report any issues of concern to the research team. The control group will consist of four groups of 20 women between 14 and 24 weeks gestation from the same four clinics. These women will receive only standard care without any additional intervention. Randomisation and blinding As we will be testing the feasibility of delivering a stepped wedge cluster design, the four different antenatal clinics will be randomised with two sites starting first (creating the first sequence) and two starting 6 weeks later (the second sequence). Randomisation will be performed by the study statistician who will generate a randomisation list using software and apply it to the pre-concealed list of clinics. The researchers and participants will not be blinded to whether they are in the intervention or the control cohort. Outcome measurements Two local research assistants (RAs) will collect all measures orally as there is a high rate of illiteracy among the target population. All scales have been translated into Mandinka and Wolof. The translation method used was based on suggestions by the World Health Organisation, Hanlon et al. [19] and Cox, Holden and Henshaw [20]. First, the scales were translated into Mandinka and Wolof. An expert panel discussion then refined the translation before back translating it into English. The expert panel came together once more to resolve any remaining issues before finalising the translation. Two questionnaires will measure antenatal anxiety and depression symptoms. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) [21] is a ten-item scale that was developed to screen for postnatal depression. It has subsequently been validated to be used during pregnancy [22]. This measurement tool has been used and validated in other African contexts; however, there is no avaliable validated version of the EPDS in Mandinka or Wolof even though it has been used in The Gambia before [23]. The Self-report Questionnaire (SRQ-20) [24] is a 20-item scale developed by the World Health Organization to measure anxiety and depression symptoms in a variety of cultural contexts. It has been used in many different African contexts such as Ethiopia [19], South Africa [25] and Rwanda [26] and as a way to measure perinatal mental health [23]. However, the SRQ-20 has never been used in the Gambian context nor has it been translated into Wolof or Mandinka. Demographic outcomes We will collect demographic information about all participants. The data we will collect is as follows: date of birth, gestational age, time taken to get to the health centre, parity, gravida, place of birth, current place of residence, ethnic group, history of serious illness, occupation, husband's occupation, marital status, educational background and amount of regular musical engagement. Feasibility outcomes The feasibility outcomes are as follows: Recruitment rate Retention and attrition rates of participants Clinics' adherence to stepped wedge schedule Completeness of data by site and over time Video and audio recording of sessions to determine fidelity of the intervention at each site, i.e. whether key content emphasised in training workshops was being delivered at each site. Qualitative interviews with participants after the intervention to capture enjoyment and perceived benefit. Recruitment Four antenatal clinics will be chosen to take part in the study based on three criteria: (1) availability of a local Kanyeleng group to deliver the intervention, (2) the language group predominantly spoken in the area (with at least one clinic being in a predominantly Wolof speaking area) and (3) the type of community the clinic serves (with at least one within an urban area). The health professionals working at the health centre will first approach participants for the study. If they meet the criteria, they will be given information about the study and asked if they would like to be referred to the RAs. They will then be put in contact with one of the RAs who will meet them privately face to face. The information sheet will be read out in their native language verbatim to ensure participants' ability to give informed consent. Consent will be taken orally by the RAs and recorded by signature or thumbprint. If participants do not choose to take part we will record their reason, if it is given, to help understand why women might not want or be able to participate. Incentive and participant retention Participants in both groups will be offered a total of 600 Dalasi (about 12 USD) for their time, 200 Dalasi for each of the three data collection time points (baseline, post, follow-up). All participants will be reminded of the data collection and the group-singing sessions by phone call. Calls will be made by the RAs 3 days and 1 day before as well as on the day of these appointments. Where possible, a record will be kept of the reasons women give for failing to join the intervention or data collection session. Sample size As this is a feasibility study, it is not designed to assess the efficacy of the intervention, although pilot data on this will be collected. We will evaluate the feasibility of study design, data collection and whether the intervention is deliverable and acceptable to the participants. In the study, we will gather information to be used in the design of the future definitive study including an estimate of the standard deviation of potential primary outcomes to inform the sample size. We aim to collect data from a total of 120 pregnant women, 60 in the control condition and 60 in the intervention condition [27]. This number will be sufficient to provide estimates of binary feasibility outcomes with precision of at least ± 9 percentage points for the 95% confidence interval. Trial schedule This trial design involves a sequential crossover of clusters whereby each cluster (antenatal clinic) receives the control condition followed by the intervention condition. The four chosen clinics will be randomised to two sequences of a 12-week phase. A separate cohort of participants will be recruited to the control group and the intervention (singing) group. Each cohort will be recruited around 4–6 months into their pregnancy. The 12-week phase for both the control and intervention cohort will include data collection at week 1 ("baseline") and week 7 ("post") after either group-singing (intervention) or standard care (control) as well as at week 11 ("follow-up"), 4 weeks after the intervention finished. Contamination will be avoided by having data for the control group collected before the intervention groups start at each clinic. See Fig. 1 for a schematic for the study. Fig. 1 figure1 Schematic of the study Full size image Assessment and management of risk There are no high risks within our study compared to standard care. We have identified three areas of ethical concern and have outlined how each of these issues will be managed. 1. Mothers may experience an adverse effect such as a miscarriage, difficult birth, still birth, a sudden drastic change in physical or mental health, infant health problems or even a serious adverse effect such as death during the intervention. It is possible that a participant experiencing such an adverse event may attribute a causal link between the adverse event and their involvement in the study. We will mitigate this association being made, firstly, by clearly explaining the nature of the intervention and any possible risks to the women when they are recruited into the study. If, despite this, an association of this nature was still made, we would enlist the help of the Ministry of Health & Social Welfare (our partner on the project) to disseminate information to the women and the community concerning the incidence of such events occurring in the general population in an attempt to reassure those concerned that such adverse events should not be attributed to involvement in the study. 2. It is possible that some of the themes involved in questionnaires could lead to the women revealing episodes of self-harm. If this is the case, the woman will receive in the moment front-line counselling to talk through these issues with the RAs who are trained psychiatric nurses. Then, if needed, she will be referred on to the community mental health team (CMHT) for further management. If the CMHT deems it appropriate, they may then refer her on to the psychiatric team. 3. It is possible that some of the themes involved in questionnaires may also lead the women to reveal domestic abuse. If this is the case, the woman will receive in the moment front-line counselling to talk through these issues with the RAs. For emergencies and cases that require immediate intervention, the RAs will connect with the Gender-Based Violence focal person. For other cases, the RAs will refer the woman to the One Stop Center at Serekunda General Hospital or Edward Francis Small Teaching Hospital. 4. Women throughout the study will be monitored by the RAs, both trained psychiatric nurses. If the RAs feel that at any point a woman's score indicates a high level of symptoms and/or the women reveal that they are particularly struggling, the RAs will refer the woman on to the Community Mental Health Team (CMHT) for further management. If the CMHT deems it appropriate, they may then refer her on to the psychiatric team. Data management All consent forms will be stored in a master file, which will be kept in a locked drawer where only members of the research team have access. All case report forms will not be linked to names, just a participant number, and kept in a separate locked cabinet where only the research team has access. All data, including video and audio recordings, will be held on an encrypted hard drive only members of the research team can access. Data will be stored for 5 years after the study and will then be deleted or destroyed. Analysis All data will be entered into a database by an RA and verified by the second RA using double data entry to ensure data quality. As this is a feasibility study, we will examine missing data as an outcome. Descriptive statistics will be summarised to understand the demographic variables relating to the recruited population. Descriptive statistics and plots will be used to assess the distribution of the measurement tools, repeated at baseline and follow-up and by each arm. We will also examine the distributions of scores in the different language groups to see to what extent item scores and overall distributions differ or are similar. Correlations between our two measurement tools will be calculated. To determine if the intervention is deliverable, we will record the number of sessions that the Kanyeleng groups delivered, aiming to deliver two thirds of the sessions, and the duration of each session, aiming to last between 45 and 75 min. We will also perform a qualitative evaluation, using the video and audio recordings, to determine intervention fidelity at the four sites. Both RAs will watch the video and audio recordings of the first and fourth group-singing sessions at each clinic and complete a checklist to determine if all the necessary elements—as outlined in the training workshops—were included in the intervention. Reliability of the fidelity measure will be ascertained by measuring inter-rater consistency. We will also calculate the proportion of clinics approached that consented, aiming to reach over 50% recruitment rate, and record any scheduling problems in keeping with the stepped wedge timeline. Recruitment, adherence and completeness of data will be calculated for both groups. We aim to achieve a 60% recruitment rate and no more than 30% attrition in both arms. To determine if the intervention was culturally appropriate and well received by the community and health workers, we will collect qualitative data from post-intervention interviews and perform a thematic analysis. Discussion The absence of mental health services in The Gambia, coupled with the stigma associated with mental illness in general, results in high levels of unmet need for pregnant women dealing with mental distress in The Gambia. The development of a low-cost, low-resource intervention, which is rooted in local health and cultural practices, is of high priority, and the feasibility study we intend to carry out will inform a full-scale trial to investigate efficacy of such an approach. By employing local research assistants and creating a partnership with governmental agencies, such as The Ministry of Health & Social Welfare and The National Centre for Arts and Culture, this study brings the understanding of existing health services and access to a network of primary healthcare workers throughout the country as well as the diversity of local musical practices and the meanings attached to them. This valuable knowledge will help us cope with the practical and operational issues that may arise. We hope to disseminate our findings within various scientific publications, during field days in various areas in The Gambia, and during a meeting in London which will bring together the researchers as well community members, academic colleagues and health professionals interested in hearing about this work. Trial status This article describes the protocol for a Community Health Intervention through Musical Engagement (CHIME) for perinatal mental health in The Gambia (version 1.0, 11/11/18). The sponsor for this trial is Goldsmiths, University of London. The project is funded by the MRC and the AHRC. Ethical approval was obtained from the Goldsmiths University Ethics Committee, the Research and Publication Committee (RePubliC) from the University of The Gambia and the Australian National University ethics committee. Availability of data and materials All of the data will be held by the principal investigator, and the research team has exclusive use of the data until the publication of the results. Abbreviations AHRC: Arts and Humanities Research Council CMHT: Community mental health team EPDS: Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale LMICs: Low- and middle-income countries MRC: Medical Research Council PACTR: Pan African Clinical Trial Registry RAs: Research assistants SRQ-20: Self-Reporting Questionnaire References 1. Fisher J, de Mello MC, Patel V, Rahman A, Tran T, Holton S, et al. Prevalence and determinants of common perinatal mental disorders in women in low- and lower-middle-income countries : a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ. 2011;(90):139–49 Available from: https://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0042-96862012000200014. [cited 2019 Jan 22]. 2. O'Hara MW, Wisner KL. Perinatal mental illness: definition, description and aetiology. 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Psychometric properties and longitudinal validation of the self-reporting questionnaire (SRQ-20) in a Rwandan community setting: a validation study. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2011;11(1):116 Available from: https://bmcmedresmethodol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2288-11-116. [cited 2019 Jan 23]. Article Google Scholar 27. Sim J, Lewis M. The size of a pilot study for a clinical trial should be calculated in relation to considerations of precision and efficiency. J Clin Epidemiol. 2012;65(3):301–8 Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0895435611002642. [cited 2019 Jan 24]. Article Google Scholar Download references Acknowledgements We would like to thank Jane Offerman for her work in organising the budget and the travel plans for all the researchers. We would also like to thank Charlotte Hanlon for her advice in the development of this study. We would also like to thank all individuals who took part in our focus groups. Funding The funders (MRC and AHRC) and sponsor (Goldsmiths) have no roles or responsibilities in the design, conduct, data analysis and interpretation, manuscript writing and dissemination of results. Author information Author notes Katie Rose M. Sanfilippo and Bonnie McConnell are joint first authors. Affiliations Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK Katie Rose M. Sanfilippo & Lauren Stewart The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia Bonnie McConnell Imperial College London, London, UK Victoria Cornelius & Vivette Glover The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Banjul, The Gambia Buba Darboe, Hajara B. Huma & Malick Gaye The National Centre for Arts and Culture, Banjul, The Gambia Hajara B. Huma, Malick Gaye & Hassoum Ceesay University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Paul Ramchandani & Ian Cross Contributions LS is the principal investigator and obtained grant funding and conceived of the study. KRMS wrote the first draft of this publication manuscript, helped with the ethics and grant application, the intervention design, and the data monitoring and data collection plan. BM helped with the ethics and grant applications, translations of questionnaires, administration of focus groups and design of the intervention. VC obtained study funding, designed the study and statistical analysis plan, contributed to writing the manuscript. BD helped with the grant and ethics application, translations of questionnaires, administration of focus groups and design of the intervention. HBH and MG helped with the translation of the questionnaires, administration of the focus groups and design of the intervention. HC helped with planning the logistics for running the study as well as with the translation of the questionnaires. IC, VG and PR all helped with the grant application and advised on research and intervention design. All authors reviewed and had input into the final submission. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Corresponding author Correspondence to Katie Rose M. Sanfilippo. Ethics declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Ethical approval was obtained from the Goldsmiths University Ethics Committee, the Research and Publication Committee (RePubliC) from the University of The Gambia and the Australian National University ethics committee. Members of the research team will carry out the consenting and conduct of this study orally. It will be emphasised that any participant is able to withdraw from the study at any point without any consequences. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Additional information Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Supplementary information Additional file 1. SPIRIT Checklist. Rights and permissions Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Reprints and Permissions About this article Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark Cite this article Sanfilippo, K.R.M., McConnell, B., Cornelius, V. et al. A study protocol for testing the feasibility of a randomised stepped wedge cluster design to investigate a Community Health Intervention through Musical Engagement (CHIME) for perinatal mental health in The Gambia. Pilot Feasibility Stud 5, 124 (2019) doi:10.1186/s40814-019-0515-5 Download citation Received 22 February 2019 Accepted 15 October 2019 Published 07 November 2019 DOI https://doi.org/10.1186/s40814-019-0515-5 Share this article Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Get shareable link Keywords Perinatal mental health Feasibility trial The Gambia Music Singing group Kanyeleng Comments By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. Please note that comments may be removed without notice if they are flagged by another user or do not comply with our community guidelines.

Jordan Branch on Google
Maps, State Formation, and the International Politics of Cartography







The territorial
underpinnings of international politics are as familiar as they are contested
within the discipline of International Relations. While the presumed 'territorial
trap' of the discipline has been attacked from many sides (see, for instance, Theory Talk #4),
Jordan Branch is more interested in turning the question around. 

His work has
carefully addressed the historical constitutive effects of mapping practices
and technologies on the subsequent transformation of practices of, and ideas about,
rule and the international system. In this fascinating Talk, Branch,
amongst others, discusses the significance of cartography for international
politics, explores the effects that contemporary digital mapping might have on political
spaces, and illustrates how innovations in mapping impacted on rule with the historical
example of France.





Print version of this Talk (pdf)





What is according to your view the most
important challenge facing global politics and what is/should be the central
debate in the discipline of International Relations (IR)?



While
there are many different debates going on at the same time within the discipline,
the one that has interested me most is the relationship between ideas and
practical or material factors. There is a very simplistic version of this
dichotomy that has been debated to death in the constructivist versus
rationalists debates, particularly in the American field of IR—an over-drawn
distinction, as many have pointed out. I am more interested in actual
explanations for the process, outcome, or phenomenon we're looking at. Rather
than separating them out, I am interested in how the ideational and material
relate to one another, how they fit together.



This
relationship poses questions for my specific interest in technological change. We
are experiencing fast-paced technological changes—for example, the information
technology revolution—which can yield a natural yet incorrect assumption, namely,
that this change will inevitably have some kind of major effect on, or
interaction with, politics and, specifically, with international relations.
This may be true, but it is too often assumed. Indeed, this raises another
problem. Even if there is such an effect, is it something we'll be able to
observe, let alone predict or explain, as it is happening? From my historical
work on the role of maps in state formation, for example, it is quite evident that
for people at the time, there was no way to see the impact maps had on the
political/spatial/ideational constitution of the state.



The information
technology (IT) revolution is the most obvious current example of dramatic technological
change. Although it has been playing out for the last 20 or 30 years, it only
continues to accelerate. Over the past couple of years, a lot of discussion has
focused on 'big data' and what it implies for business, financial analysis, and
the like. Of course, it also presents possibilities as a new tool for social
science. But there is a danger here. There is a tendency of seeing new
technological phenomena only in their material contexts, specifically focusing
on possibilities for measurement, for example, thereby neglecting to think
about the ideational. How do ideas about collecting and using data actually
play into the collection and analysis itself? So while they are in practice
always entangled, analytically, I find the distinction between the ideational
and the material a very fruitful one, not so much as a debate between opposing
fields, but as way to think about technological change.





How
did you arrive where you currently are in your thinking about these issues?



It is
funny—people often ask this sort of question, and I did not necessarily see a
natural trajectory for my thinking or work until I began to look and think
back. This interest in connecting technological and political change goes as
far back as my undergraduate time at Stanford University, where I initially
majored in mechanical engineering, and later switched to International
Relations. While technology remained an important preoccupation, I became more
interested in politics, history, and theory. So the interest formed into
questions about the political implications of phenomena like technology. But
this didn't happen instantly. Just before beginning my PhD at the University of
California, Berkeley, I was planning to do comparative work on regime change
and democratization. Then my older brother (Adam Branch), who is also a
political scientist, gave me a copy of Hendrik Spruyt's The Sovereign State and its Competitors (1994), and he said: 'Hey
you might like this!' So, I literally read that on a beach the summer before
starting grad school—which may sound funny, but I sat down, read it, and found
it fascinating. Yet I didn't immediately start thinking about these questions
then. It took a year or two, when I started really thinking about what I wanted
to work on. I came back to this work and realised these were the kind of
questions I was interested in: the origins of the territorial state and its
characteristics.



The
interest in the state as a concept had been with me for slightly longer. As an
undergrad my first introductory course to IR was taught by Stephen Krasner (Theory Talk #21).
Krasner has strong views, and the class was very rigorous. A lot of his work
focuses on the state and I think his framings influenced me early on. I don't entirely
agree with some of Krasner's arguments about sovereignty, but these
disagreements are more about the specifics of salient time periods or cases.
Other work which influenced me early on was that of John Ruggie on
territoriality. Indeed his approach became central as I was developing these
questions myself. I also discovered a host of literature in political geography
that turned out to be very interesting and useful. 



So,
one could say that my trajectory was really more focused on understanding the
historical outcome of the territorial state than on what role technology,
specifically maps, played in this process. The focus on technology, while
existent from my engineering days, really began to materialize as a link missing
from existing explanations of state formation. I was thinking about how we might
be able to find some additional traction on these questions by including
technology more prominently. It has certainly been part of some scholarship on
state formation, as in Charles Tilly's work or William McNeill's on
technological change and warfare. Surely, technology has always been in there,
but the discussion has been centered on war fighting technology and maybe on
transport, and only to a lesser degree on communication technology in the
broader sense.



Another
piece of work which triggered my focus on the relationship between the
ideational and the material was Ron Deibert's book Parchment, Printing and Hypermedia (1997, read the 1995 PhD thesis
that became the book here, pdf). He talks about internet
communication technology but also about the printing press and the impact it
has on the global distribution of power. Yet, only when I read this book for
the second or third time just as I was finishing up my dissertation did I realize
how much his framing had shaped how I formulated my thesis. He does touch on
the role of mapping, but it is his elaboration on the way in which media
informs how people think about the world which was spot on for me. For me, maps
as a medium very importantly framed how people thought about and imagined the
world in the past—but of course these questions about technology and its role
in constituting the international political system, states, territorial
boundaries, and so on are still relevant today.





What would a student need to become a
specialist in global studies or understand the world in a global way?



I
think it is important to be really excited and interested in your topic and
what you want to do. The key thing is to enter a grad program that fits you in
terms of your interests and to be willing to do whatever methodological training
ends up being needed for your research project.



I
think there's a tendency to look for a 'one size fits all' graduate training
model, which does make sense at the initial level. Everyone should get a
certain amount of background in a variety of methods, whether they'll end up
using those or not. For example, I have not used quantitative methods in my own
research, but I'm glad that I had to take classes on those methods in grad school.
They give you the ability to understand work which may connect to your own but
comes at it from a different angle. And you should always be open to a variety
of methods. The key is to be able to understand a broad array of approaches, otherwise
you won't be able to engage in broad conversations.



I
also feel I gained a lot from exploring, and reading widely, from other
disciplines such as history and sociology. I already mentioned political
geography, which is really not too distant but, nonetheless, in the U.S. it
sits in a different department. You might think that some work is 'on the other
side of the fence' but it is important to be able to bring that work into your
thinking.



The
final thing is to be open and ready to change your mind, whether it is about
the answer you're expecting to get to your question, or even changing the
question itself. Obviously there is a certain point when you're almost done
with a project where that might not be a good idea…. but if it is early on and
it works and you can do it logistically, I think it is important to be willing
to do that. Five years later you're going to be a lot better off.





So far, your work has been mainly
historical. Can you explain the importance of 'looking back' for understanding
contemporary international relations?



I
think it is extraordinarily important and useful. A lot of us in this and other
fields do see strong connections between today's politics and past events,
institutions, and ideas. There is an important notion that we cannot engage
meaningfully with the present if we do not understand its genealogy. That is
certainly a driver for me in thinking about the origins of the state and
territorial boundaries. It may help us to observe patterns we might see
replicated or appear in some kind of altered yet recognizable form today.
Indeed, it can help us think about where were might be headed.



Although
I also hesitate here slightly: always looking to the past for the answers can
be problematic. History can help us to observe patterns, dynamics, and maybe
relationships that might tell us something about other periods or about contemporary
international relations. But we should never do so thinking that the patterns
are definitely going to be the same or are deterministic. I think one can look
for patterns or relationships without automatically assuming that they have to
apply everywhere.



Historical
analysis can be problematic in its own right, because there is no way to
discover or absorb the past 'as it really was.' All history is some kind of
construction, whether it is based on contemporary or historical sources. Additionally,
in the social sciences we often have to rely on secondary sources. That is not
inherently a problem; this fact just introduces more variables to think about.
Pure narrative purporting to capture 'what really happened' can be very
problematic.



Given these disclaimers, it is useful to consider
the past. I think what should be emphasized is that, specifically at the grad
school level, students should be encouraged to dig a little deeper
historically. They shouldn't hesitate to do that excavation work.





IR, it has been argued, rests firmly on
a spatial or territorial understanding of politics. What constitutive role does
territorial space play in IR and is that role based on historical fact or is it
myth?



I
like that question. I think it is actually both—sort of a myth and sort of a
fact.  In one sense, territory informs at
least the state ideal (i.e., states as we think of them): it informs what the
state is, the interests of states, and of course how we distinguish one state
from another. And yet, while this is all inherently territorial, we also know
that this is far from an accurate description of a lot of regions and places in
the world. There are many different spatial ideas, practices, and organizations
with political agency that are non-state or non-territorial.



But
regarding the myth of state territoriality: I think it is important to point
out there is a lot of detail in the 'conventional narrative' of the state, such
as timing of when territoriality came about as pinpointed in Westphalia, that
has been quite effectively debunked by a number of scholars in the last 10 or
20 years (scholars like Andreas Osiander or Benno Teschke, from different
theoretical perspectives). This is a strongly supported finding. But it really
hasn't penetrated the mainstream narrative very well. While we can gradually see
a little more nuanced discussion in IR textbooks in the U.S., they more often
than not will still start with 1648 and Westphalia.



We
can now confidently say that states—states as we think of them now—did not
appear in 1648, let alone earlier. This is especially true if we look at the
specifically territorial or spatial aspects of statehood, which again are so
central to how we think about the state internationally. The focus on defending
cleanly demarcated linear boundaries and the idea of asserting absolute
sovereign authority within those lines; this is really not consolidated until at
least the 19th century. So, part of the myth is the timing and the
how and why we have states.



But
there still is a factual quality to territoriality in this story we tell
ourselves about the foundation of the international system and the supposed
creation of sovereign states. In a certain setting and for a certain period I
think this describes the ideas and practices of international politics quite
well. The most obvious example of this is 19th century Europe. While
there are still ways in which it diverges from the ideals of the typical state system,
in a lot of ways it actually did fit that. This happened at the same time as
the development of modern Western historiography, and it was the setting for some
of the traditional foundation of political science and IR. So we can see how
one shaped the other: history-making and state-making. The singular territorial
ideal of statehood from the 19th century has subsequently been
applied to other issues, actors, and areas. Even if it does not fit exactly, it
is applied today still and it is made to fit retrospectively much earlier
periods, where it applied less well.



Ultimately,
it is a powerful myth which has informed how we think about international
relations to such a degree that we shouldn't just throw it out. Instead, we
should think about exactly how it actually informs the way that international
relations is understood and practiced.
Practitioners and officials don't exactly read IR journals and base their
decision-making on our knowledge production, but the basic ideas of states, boundaries,
and territory which inform the practice of international relations—as well as
the study of it—should be our concern.





You have looked specifically at how
mapping has contributed to imagining and formation of the modern state system. Could
you elaborate more on how something as technical as cartography matters for
international politics?



I've
argued in my recent work that early modern mapping technologies were really
essential to the consolidation of the territorial state, particularly the
specific territorial features of states today. Maps, which have been a popular
medium over the past few centuries, really do shape how people understand the
world and their place in it. This gets us back to the connection between the
material and the ideational.



In early
modern Europe a revolution took place, first in mapmaking technologies and,
slightly later, in the ideas and practices of political rule, especially as it
relates to territory. I argue this was really not a coincidence. How rulers and
subjects conceived of rule and how rulers conceived of their realms was really
altered as they increasingly used maps that depicted the world in this one
particular way. The key characteristics of modern statehood – at least of the
ideal of modern statehood – such as linear boundaries between homogenous territorial
claims, really appeared first in maps and only subsequently in political practices
on the ground. Of course, there were existing authority structures, but these were
not particularly spatial or were not spatial in this linear demarcated way. Subsequently,
however, these authority structures were ignored or sometimes even actively
renounced in favor of the kind of authority which could be literally shown and
drawn on a map.



It is
interesting because initially, maps were not predominantly produced by rulers, states,
or officials. They were certainly involved in sponsoring some mapping projects,
buying maps, and using them, but mapmaking was more of a commercial private
scientific enterprise, if we can apply the label 'scientific' in the 16th
and 17th centuries. These map-makers certainly didn't have any articulated
goal of changing politics, at least not on this broad level. They were really
concerned with making money, maybe creating art, and advancing what they
thought was a growing science of cartography.



We
can however see that the map, as a technological artifact—maps as actual things—had
an impact on the practices of rule both between rulers and between rulers and
their subjects. I argue that this process occurred quite broadly across the
European development of the international system at that time. And you can see
this sequence really clearly in a case like France.



Let
me illustrate that. Here are three maps of 'France' ranging from the 1400s to
the 1700s—the quotation marks are necessary because the notion of there being
one entity called France across this whole period is more a matter of us labeling
it as such rather than it being one recognizable entity.









The
first map is from a 15th century manuscript about royal and noble
genealogy in France. The image is purported to represent 'all the realm of
France' and shows the country as a collection of what I would call places
rather than a single linearly demarcated space. You do have the notion of spatial
boundaries here, in terms of rivers as means for demarcation. Yet, very
clearly, the visual language of this map focuses on towns. And this is how rule
was practiced and operationalized as well: negotiations would be over places, or
maybe collections of people based on identity, jurisdiction, or where they were
allowed to reside, but not in term of linear demarcations between claims.









Now
look at the second map, which is just from about 150 years later, from the
1590s. It is from an atlas by a follower of Mercator, and its label Gallia is
the Roman designation for France. From our modern perspective we can recognize
something that looks a lot like a modern map of France. Maybe even a state, although
the boundaries are not exactly like we would expect them to be. But this is the
visual language of mapping that we are familiar with: longitude, latitude,
spatial expanses colored in, homogenous territorial claims—there is something
about the space depicted that argues that it is all the same, that is all
France.



And
despite this familiarity, it was actually far from an accurate depiction of
French rule. Not just in the actual placement of the boundaries, which are
contestable, but in the discrete nature of the boundaries themselves. Along
these frontiers, so clearly demarcated on this image, the claims of the French
king were often unclear and overlapped with those of other rulers. This was
even true for the interior of France during this period.









The
third map is another 150 years later, from the 1740s. This is from a map
showing the triangulation of the realm, undertaken by a group of geographers, known
as the Cassini survey, as several generations of the Cassini family headed up
this effort. The realm is being mapped explicitly using geometric tools with
the important emphasis that the image is actually meant to represent reality.
It is understood that way: it's supposed to measure reality, in order to enable
the French king to better understand what he rules. Moreover, this mapping took
place at the same time that rule was being implemented in practice on the
ground in terms of spatial expanses as we think of them, in the form of
demarcating boundaries with neighbors which had previously been unclear,
overlapping jurisdictions.



Although
maps of the second generation (i.e., the map from the 1590s) were 'inaccurate,'
they were extremely influential. They were widely distributed and purchased by
the elite, both inside and outside of government. Using these maps provided
rulers with this particularly new territorial meaning to their centralizing and
bureaucratizing efforts. As a consequence, the use of these maps as material
tools of governing and negotiation really changed the language of rule. Rule becomes
cartographic, at least in part. When two opposing sides come to the negotiation
table, for example, they at the very least have already agreed, implicitly, that
the division should be a linear boundary—it is just a question of where.



By
the time the third map is produced, the government is much more directly
involved in map production using accurate geometrical measurement. Yet the very
desire for this mapping was shaped by the earlier use of those commercial maps
that built up the visual grammar of geometric space. The French case is useful
because it is very well documented, but we do see the same sort of process
repeated either simultaneously or later throughout Europe and also elsewhere. In
fact, there is a lot of interesting scholarship on the introduction of mapping
and modern geographic thinking into regions outside the West. Siam Mapped (1994), a book by Thongchai Winichakul,
is a fantastic study that I found really useful for my thinking about Europe,
even though it deals with Siam (Thailand) in the late 19th and early
20th centuries.



This
is my story about mapping and territory, but I think there is a broader frame
to your question: do we want to bring in these sort of technical factors into explanations
in International Relations? And while we don't want to be technologically
determinist, there is some useful thinking around technology and its effects we
should consider. The impact of maps has been so strong, and yet they are such
common artifacts that they are largely conceived of as 'unremarkable' outside
of geographic-oriented disciplines.





So can we juxtapose this insight that mapping practices precede the
practice of rule and state formation to the anthropological present, that is,
what do the contemporary, some say radical, shifts in mapping techniques entail
for international politics?



Absolutely.
When I initially present my work, there is often an assumption that I use GIS
in my study. Instead, my work focuses on analyzing mapping itself—maps as
historical artifacts, their effects and their interaction with political
identities, interests, and organizations. But I think the ways in which methodology
and the subject of study overlap on subjects like technology could potentially
contribute to stretching the boundaries of IR. The big data question is both a
question of studying what big data means for politics but also how we can use
big data to study politics. The way in which new technologies can simultaneously
play into our methods and into our answers or questions is a pressing and
fascinating issue.



For
instance, there has been a lot of back and forth on the question of whether
more open-access mapping techniques entail some sort of democratization. While
I think we have seen that more participatory forms of mapping are possible, we
shouldn't think that this type of mapping is completely open, as no
technological system is completely open to anyone and everyone at all times.
But, indeed, there is a democratization of mapping under way. Authorship in a
whole host of domains, including mapping, is opening up where there used to be
a single authoritative voice or at least a single type of authoritative voice. So
maps are an example of this opening up and collective authorship. At the same
time, accommodating more voices also means that a lot of information is being
shared without authority or attribution or what we think of as a legitimate
source… When you open a map from Rand McNally or National Geographic, you know
that specific cartographers thought this was accurate and you can blame or
praise them. But when you open up a layer of Google Earth that has been
crowd-sourced you don't know who put that pin there, and you don't know why.



It's
really interesting to explore a bit further how this is different from the
recent past. In the 19th and first half of the 20th
century, mapmaking was essentially state-led. The U.S. geological survey, the
Ordnance Survey in Britain, or large mapmaking geographical institutions such
as National Geographic represented the owners and producers. Mapping was so
technical, so obviously technical that the everyday person would not be able to
make a map to Rand McNally's standards. This has changed, and quite importantly
so. Not only do we have the technology to do this, people are aware that they
can use it as easily as opening a smartphone app, thereby incorporating more
points of view. This is not necessarily good or bad. Politically, it does open
up new possibilities. Maps have always been political, both implicitly and
explicitly. It certainly opens up the possibility of some kind of broader shift
in ideas about territory. Let me illustrate with an example. I haven't
necessarily come across specific maps that present some completely novel visual
grammar potentially reshaping the way we think about the world. But, an
interesting example I like to bring to my students: there was a September 2011blog post on Google's Lat-Long blog (which is the company's blog about Google Maps and Google Earth). Its headline
read: 'South Sudan is now official on Google Maps,' and it displayed a
screenshot of the new boundary. 







They changed their base layer by adding a boundary between South Sudan and
Sudan. This of course followed the referendum and the UN's recognition, and all
the traditional precursors to official statehood. South
Sudan became a recognizable entity on that blog. Google Earth, a
non-governmental actor, indeed a huge corporate actor—and thus not necessarily
democratizing—becomes part of the discourse of declaring South Sudan's official
existence.



This
is an example of how things might be going. Interestingly, the whole enterprise
of mapping today actually resembles more closely that of the 16th
and early 17th centuries then that of the 19th or early
20th century, not technologically but organizationally. The
state-centric view of the world was enforced by the state-authored mappings of
the 19th and 20th centuries. Now, by contrast, there is a
kind of shared or unclear authorship, there is crowdsourcing, there are multiple
sources of conflicting and quite openly unreliable or uncertain information.
This environment of rapidly increasing distribution and use also describes the
creation of the early atlases in the late 16th century and early 17th
centuries, which involved the collation of all kinds of information from multiple
sources.



And
of course it was in the 16th and 17th century when this
sort of non-state-controlled mapping presented innovative images of the world—those
images that ended up shaping and consolidating the state form of territory. And
so it was these new tools for understanding and acting on the world which gave
the state its territorial shape. As key information-producing activities are
being opened up, some forms of power are being redistributed. This certainly
means that we need to widen our scope in terms of whom we consider to be a
stakeholder or what sort of actors we want to study. We know that the dichotomy
of state versus non-state is not sufficient. We need to be subtler in our
inquiries. In IR, of course, the stereotypical over-emphasis on states is being
questioned, and this is really just one more sign that a piece of the power of
the state, in this case map-production and distribution, is shifting elsewhere.




I
recently had a conversation with students in my undergrad seminar on technology
and international politics. I went into it saying: 'Hey, all this mobile
mapping and GPS and Google Earth is totally revolutionary. This may change how
we think about the world.' And they were all completely unconvinced, since they
use these technologies all the time—to a bunch of twenty-year-olds these tools seem
unremarkable. And maybe that is actually a more accurate analysis. But it is
interesting how it is such a different analysis from that of my generation and anyone
older, all of us who have spent a lot of time, for example, driving around
without GPS. It is partly this perception and the 'unthinking usage' which make
the relationship between technologies and social and political outcomes so difficult
to observe. Our ideas may be changed, and especially the ideas of younger
generations may be changed, without anyone particularly noticing how dramatic
the changes might be. This also means that the connections, because they are
'unthinking,' can be quite foundational to people's ideas of social identities
or political practices. They are tacit and embodied. That makes it both hard to
observe but also an interesting puzzle. But it is worthwhile mentioning that
the images presented by Google Maps and other digital mapping tools,
particularly satellite imagery, might carry a greater legitimacy in terms of
depicting 'the truth'. It looks like a picture of the world and therefore
whatever is on it, even layered on data (like a new international boundary),
must be true. It represents another apex of the scientific trajectory of
mapping.





If it is just about adding a data layer on a base map that remains the
same, does that then mean that ontologically this kind of mapping technology
actually doesn't challenge territoriality?



That
gets to an interesting point, which entangles with a lot of the more careful
discussions of globalization and the state. One version of that is that the
state is not dying, is not being destroyed. It is just that other things are
being layered on top of it, and the state and its boundaries still remain and
still matter for certain things. In this case, maps are perfectly capable of
showing state boundaries—they look very fixed, very strong—but one can layer on
top other types of information, maybe transactional flows or particular places
that are connected in different ways.



I
think that could be an interesting argument: these new mapping tools can really
show so much, and it is matter of selecting what you want to show and
unselecting things you don't want to show. Thus they don't do anything to
undermine one particular view of the world. Now that is not necessarily a good
or bad thing. If we look at the history of mapping and the origins of state
territoriality, a key part of that was that it was really hard to depict
medieval jurisdictional and personal notions of rule on early modern maps. Printing
technology and mapping tools prescribed depiction in a certain way—drawing
lines and coloring in spaces. Maps made it harder to show and thus think about
the other forms of rule. If digital maps are still perfectly capable of showing
states and their boundaries, they may do very little to undermine that notion
of territory.





Finally, if we are interested in the politics of maps, to what extent do
we need to study not only the maps as political artifacts but the mapmakers as
political actors as well?



I
think it is extremely useful to do both, and obviously if we study mapping
today, we can do both. In terms of
historical work, we can only rely on very limited sources, such as what mapmakers
themselves wrote about what they were doing. We don't know a lot about their
goals or ideas about politics. I would have loved to have been able to read
exhaustive memoirs by mapmakers such as Ortelius and Mercator. Of course, they might
not have said anything about the questions we are interested in. On the other
hand, a lot of map-makers today are involved in mapping for explicit political
reasons: for example, Ushahidi-type collaborative mapping (www.ushahidi.com), or humanitarian and
relief mapping. Here we can dig into the question of how the maps produced relate
to specific objectives. That is a great way to get more analytical leverage on
a lot of these questions.



Jordan Branch joined the Political Science
department at Brown as an Assistant Professor in summer 2012. He received his
PhD in Political Science at UC-Berkeley in 2011, and spent 2011-2012 as the
Hayward R. Alker Postdoctoral Fellow at the Center for International Studies at
the University of Southern California. His interests include international
relations theory, the history of the sovereign state system, contemporary
challenges to statehood, and the intersection of technological and political
change. In 2014, Cambridge University Press published his book, The
Cartographic State: Maps, Territory, and the Origins of Sovereignty. His
research has also appeared in International Organization and
the European Journal of International Relations.







Related links





Faculty profile at Brown University
Read
Branch's Mapping the Sovereign State:
Technology, Authority, and Systemic Change (International Organization 2011) here (pdf) 
Read
Branch's Colonial Reflection' and
Territoriality: The Peripheral Origins of Sovereign Statehood (European Journal of International Relations,
2012) here (pdf) 








Print version of this Talk (pdf)




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ABSTRAKSI Pemekaran Wilayah kecamatan Tombariri Timur menjadi sebuah kecamatan sangat berdampak pada pelayanan public di wilayah tersebut. Hal itu terlihat khususnya dalam hal administrasi pengurusan Kartu Keluarga yang menjadi objek penelitian tulisan ini. Metode dalam penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif yang akan menggambarkan proses administrasi pembuatan Kartu Keluarga di kecamatan Tombariri Timur serta memperbandingkannya dengan proses yang sama pada saat sebelum di mekarkan. Untuk menganalisa tulisan ini akan menggunakan konsep pemerintah tentang pelayanan public yang tertuang dalam Kepmenpan No. 63 Tahun 2003. Kata Kunci : Pemekaran Wilayah, Dampak dan Pelayanan Publik PENDAHULUAN Memasuki era reformasi pemekaran wilayah atau pembentukan daerah otonomi baru semakin marak sejak disahkanya UU No. 22 Tahun 1999 tentang Otonomi Daerah yang kemudian direvisi menjadi UU No. 32 Tahun 2004. Satu hal yang tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa pemekaran wilayah ini jelas mempunyai dampak pada pelayanan public. Tuntutan dari pemekaran wilayah yang terjadi selama ini pada umumnya didasari oleh ketidakterjangkauan pemerintah dalam menjalankan fungsi pelayanan yang maksimal sebagai akibat dari luasnya wilayah dan perkembangan jumlah penduduk disamping sarana dan prasarana penunjang lainnya. Hal itu mengakibatkan terjadinya kesenjangan dalam masyarakat, dimana masyarakat yang posisinya relative dekat dengan pusat pemerintahan dengan masyarakat yang relative jauh dari pusat pemerintahan. Seiring dengan era reformasi tersebut pelayanan public juga perlu dilakukan reformasi, baik dari segi paradigma, visi, misi, kebijakan/strategi, hingga konsep pelayanan publik yang prima dan implementasinya. Di beberapa daerah memang hal itu sudah dilakukan walaupun dalam kenyataannya masih berupa langkah awal yang masih memerlukan tindak lanjut dan kerja keras untuk mewujudkannya secara nyata. Fungsi utama pemerintah daerah menurut Undang Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2004 tentang Pemerintah Daerah yakni sebagai pelayan masyarakat. Berdasarkan peradigma tersebut aparat pemerintah daerah termasuk aparat pemerintah kecamatan dituntut untuk dapat memberikan pelayanan optimal kepada masyarakat. Sebagai konsekuensi dari ditetapkannya Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2004, dimana Pemerintah Daerah diberikan kewenangan yang demikian luas oleh Pemerintah Pusat untuk mengatur rumah tangga daerahnya sendiri, termasuk didalamnya adalah pemberian pelayanan kepada masyarakat di daerahnya. Namun berbagai isu yang muncul di kalangan masyarakat, ternyata hak pelayanan yang diterima oleh masyarakat atau perorangan terasa belum memenuhi harapan semua pihak baik dari kalangan masyarakat umum maupun dari kalangan pemerintah sendiri. Pelayanan masyarakat yang diberikan oleh aparatur pemerintah seringkali cenderung rumit dan memiliki masalah seperti : Tata cara pelayanan, rendahnya pendidikan aparat, kurangnya sarana dan prasarana, dan disiplin kerja. Hal tersebut jelas sangat berpengaruh terhadap kualitas pelayanan umum di daerah termasuk di kecamatan Tombariri Timur. Kecamatan Tombariri Timur ini merupakan wilayah yang baru dimekarkan pada tahun 2012 dari wilayah induk yaitu kecamatan Tombariri. Pemekaran wilayah ini diperkuat dengan Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Minahasa No. 3 Tahun 2012, tentang Pembentukan Kecamatan Tombariri Timur. Seperti yang terjadi pada wilayah-wilayah yang baru dimekarkan, pelayanan public yang sebenarnya menjadi alasan untuk dilakukan pemekaran tersebut justru menjadi masalah yang krusial. Demikian halnya yang terjadi di wilayah kecamatan Tombariri Timur. Hal ini bagi penulis cukup menarik untuk dielaborasi lebih lanjut untuk mengetahui kenapa itu bisa terjadi. Sehingga penulis tertarik melakukan penelitian tentang dampak dari pemekaran wilayah Kecamatan Tombariri Timur terhadap pelayanan public di wilayah ini, khususnya dalam hal pelayanan administrasi pengurusan Kartu Keluarga. Perumusan Masalah Melihat latarbelakang yang sudah diuraikan diatas maka penulis merumuskan masalah yang akan diteliti adalah sebagai berikut : "Bagaimanakah Dampak Pemekaran Terhadap Pelayanan Publik di Kecamatan Tombariri Timur Khususnya Dalam Pelayanan Administrasi Pengurusan Kartu Keluarga? Tujuan Penelitian Untuk mengetahui bagaimanakah dampak dari pemekaran Wilayah Tombariri Timur terhadap pelayanan aparatur pemerintahan Kecamatan Tombariri Timur, khususnya dalam hal proses pelayanan administrasi pengurusan Kartu Keluarga (KK) kepada Masyarakat. Manfaat Penelitian Hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memiliki manfaat : 1. Manfaat Praktis: Diharapkan hasil penelitian ini dapat memberikan kontribusi, masukan/ sumbangan bagi Aparatur Pemerintah Kecamatan dalam memberikan pelayanan yang berkualitas kepada masyarakat. 2. Manfaat Teoritis: Diharapkan hasil penelitian ini akan menambah referensi bagi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan dibidang sosial politik khususnya menyangkut dampak pemekaran wilayah khususnya pemekaran wilayah kecamatan terhadap pelayanan public. TINJAUAN PUSTAKA A. Dampak Secara etimologis pengertian dampak adalah pengaruh kuat yang mendatangkan akibat baik negative maupun positif. Dampak negative adalah pengaruh kuat yang mendatangkan akibat yang negative, sedangkan dampak positif merupakan sebaliknya yaitu pengaruh kuat yang mendatangkan akibat positif. ( W.J.S Poerwadarminta, Kamus besar Bahasa Indonesia, 2005). B. Pemekaran Pemekaran adalah sesuatu bagian yang utuh atau suatu kesatuan yang dibagi atau dipisahkan menjadi beberapa bagian yang berdiri sendiri. (Poerwadarminta, 2005). Jadi dengan demikian daerah/wilayah pemekaran adalah suatu daerah/wilayah yang sebelumnya satu kesatuan yang utuh yang kemudian di bagi atau dimekarkan menjadi beberapa bagian untuk mengatur dan mengurus urusan pemerintahannya sendiri. Undang-undang No. 32 tahun 2004 tentang pemerintahan daerah mengisyaratkan perlunya pembentukan daerah baru yang dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan pelayanan kepada masyarakat guna mewujudkan kesejahteraan masyarakat. Pamudji (2000) mengatakan bahwa dalam rangka pembentukan suatu daerah atau wilayah pemekaran diperlukan adanya suatu ukuran sebagai dasar penetapan. Pembentukan dan pemekaran wilayah yang baru harus didasarkan atas pembagian-pembagian yang bersifat objektif dengan memperhatikan segi pembiayaan sumber daya manusia serta sarana penunjang lainnya. Gie (2002) menyebutkan lima factor yang harus diperhatikan dalam pembentukan / pemekaran suatu wilayah yaitu : Luas daerah suatu wilayah sedapat mungkin merupakan suatu kesatuan dalam perhubungan, pengairan dan dari segi perekonomian dan juga harus diperhatikan keinginan penduduk setempat, persamaan adat istiadat serta kebiasaan hidupnya.Pembagian kekuasaan pemerintahan dalam pembentukan/pemekaran hendaknya diusahakan agar tidak ada tugas dan pertanggungjawaban kembar dan harus ada keseimbangan antara beratnya kewajiban yang diserahkan dengan struktur di daerah.Jumlah penduduk tidak boleh terlampau kecil.Pegawai daerah sebaiknya mempunyai tenaga-tenaga professional dan ahli.Keuangan daerah yang berarti terdapat sumber-sumber kemakmuran yang dimilikki oleh daerah itu sendiri. Menurut Peraturan Pemerintah No 78 Tahun 2007, pemekaran daerah/wilayah adalah pemecahan suatu pemerintah baik propinsi, Kabupaten/Kota, Kecamatan, Desa / Kelurahan menjadi dua daerah atau lebih. Menurut Peraturan Pemerintah No. 129 Tahun 2000, tentang persyaratan pembentukan dan kriteria pemekaran, penghapusan dan pengabungan daerah, pada pasal 2 menyebutkan pemekaran daerah/wilayah bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat melalui : Percepatan pelayanan kepada masyarakatPercepatan pertumbuhan kehidupan demokrasiPercepatan pertumbuhan pembangunan ekonomi daerahPercepatan pengelolaan potensi daerahPeningkatan keamanan dan ketertibanPeningkatan hubungan yang serasi antara pusat dan daerah. Maarif (2003) merumuskan tujuan dan manfaat kebijakan pemekaran wilayah sebagai berikut : Secara Politis adalah untuk menjaga tetap tegak dan utuhnya Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia berdasarkan Pancasila dan UUD 1945 yang dikonstruksikan dalam system pemerintahan pusat dan daerah yang memberi peluang turut sertanya rakyat dalam mekanisme penyelenggaraan pemerintahan dan pembangunan.Secara Formal/Konstitusional adalah untuk meningkatkan daya guna dan hasil guna penyelenggaraan pemerintah di daerah terutama dalam pelaksanaan pembangunan dan pelayanan pemerintahan didaerah terutama dalam peningkatan pelaksanaan pelayanan terhadap masyarakat serta meningkatkan kestabilan politik dan kesatuan bangsa.Secara Administratif Pemerintahan, adalah untuk memperlancar dan menertibkan pelaksanaan tata pemerintahan sehingga dapat terselenggara secara efektif, efisien dan produktif. T Liang Gie (2003), mengemukakan beberapa alasan mengapa kebijakan pemekaran wilayah harus diberlakukan, yaitu : Dilihat dari sudut politik, pembentukan suatu daerah/wilayah yang baru dimaksudkan untuk mencegah penumpukan kekuasaan pada satu pihak saja yang bisa menimbulkan tirani.Dalam bidang politik sebagai tindakan pendemokrasian untuk menarik rakyat ikut serta dalam pemerintahan dan melatih diri dalam mempergunakan hak-hak demokrasi. Dari sudut teknik organisasi pemekaran daerah/wilayah adalah untuk mencapai suatu pemerintahan yang efisien.Dari sudut kultur diharapkan perhatian dapat sepenuhnya dilimpahkan pada kekhususan suatu daerah seperti geografi, keadaan penduduk, kegiatan ekonomi, watak kebudayaan atau latar belakan sejarahnya.Dari sudut kepentingan pembangunan ekonomi diperlukan karena pemerintah daerah dapat lebih bnyak dan secara langsung membantu pembangunan. C. Kecamatan Menurut Peraturan Pemerintah No. 19 Tahun 2008, tentang Kecamatan, pada Bab 1, pasal 1 ayat 5 dikatakan bahwa yang dimaksud dengan kecamatan adalah wilayah kerja camat sebagai perangkat daerah kabupaten kota. Pembentukan sebuah kecamatan menurut Peraturan ini, dapat berupa pemekaran 1 (satu) kecamatan menjadi 2 (dua) kecamatan atau lebih, dan/atau penyatuan wilayah desa dan/atau kelurahan dari beberapa kecamatan. Selain itu pembentukan sebuah Kecamatan harus memenuhi beberapa persyaratan yaitu : syarat Administratif, syarat Teknis dan syarat Fisik Kewilayahan. Yang dimaksud dengan syarat administrative, seperti yang diisyaratkan dalam Peraturan Pemerintah No. 19 Tahun 2008, tentang Kecamatan, pada Bab II dipasal 4 dinyatakan bahwa : Batas usia penyelenggaraan pemerintahan minimal 5 (lima) tahun;Batas usia penyelenggaraan pemerintah desa dan atau kelurahan yang akan dibentuk menjadi kecamatan minimal 5 (lima) tahun;Keputusan BAdan Permusyawaratan Desa (BPD) atau nama lain untuk Desa dan Forum Komunikasi Kelurahan atau nama lain untuk Kelurahan diseluruh wilayah kecamatan baik yang menjadi calon cakupan wilayah kecamatan baru maupun kecamatan induk tentang persetujuan pembentukan kecamatan.Keputusan Kepala Desa atau nama lain untuk Desa dan Keputusan Lurah atau nama lain untuk kelurahan di seluruh wilayah kecamatan baik yang menjadi calon cakupan wilayah kecamatan baru maupun kecamatan induk tentang persetujuan pembentukan kecamatanRekomendasi Gubernur. Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan syarat fisik kewilayahan, seperti yang diisyaratkan dalam Peraturan Pemerintah No. 19 Tahun 2008, tentang Kecamatan, pada Bab II dipasal 5, dinyatakan bahwa : syarat fisik kewilayahan meliputi cakupan wilayah, lokasi calon ibukota, sarana dan prasarana pemerintahan. Cakupan wilayah dimaksud adalah jumlah desa dan kelurahan yang ada diwilayah yang akan dimekarkan, sementara menyangkut lokasi calon ibukota harus diperhatikan aspek tata ruang, ketersediaan fasilitas, aksesbilitas, kondisi dan letak geografis, kependudukan, social ekonomi, social politik, dan social budaya. Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan sarana dan prasarana disini meliputi bangunan dan lahan untuk kantor camat yang dapat digunakan untuk memberikan pelayanan kepada masyarakat. Disamping 2 persyaratan yang sudah dijelaskan tersebut maka terdapat satu syarat lagi yaitu syarat teknis, yang meliputi jumlah penduduk, luas wilayah, rentang kendali penyelenggaraan pelayanan pemerintahan, aktifitas perekonomian dan ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana. Persyaratan teknis tersebut harus berdasarkan hasil kajian yang sudah dilakukan pemerintah kabupaten/kota sesuai indicator yang sudah ditetapkan. D. Pelayanan Publik Pelayanan publik dapat diartikan sebagai pemberian layanan (melayani) keperluan orang atau masyarakat yang mempunyai kepentingan sesuai dengan aturan pokok dan tata cara yang telah ditetapkan. Menurut Lay, sebagaimana dikemukakan oleh Ratminto dan Atik Septi Winarsih (2005 : 56), dalam ilmu politik dan administrasi publik, pelayanan publik atau pelayanan umum merupakan istilah yang mengambarkan bentuk dan jenis pelayanan pemerintah kepada masyarakat atas dasar kepentingan umum. Pengertian pelayanan umum menurut Keputusan Menteri Pendayagunaan Aparatur Negara Nomor 63/KEP/M.PAN/&/2003 adalah segala kegiatan pelayanan yang dimaksudkan oleh penyelenggara pelayanan publik sebagai upaya pemenuhan kebutuhan penerima pelayanan maupun pelaksanaan ketentuan perundang-undangan. Adapun yang dimaksud penyelenggaraan pelayanan publik adalah Instansi Pemerintah. Pada hakekatnya Pemerintahan adalah pelayanan kepada masyarakat, oleh karenanya birokrasi publik berkewajiban dan bertanggung jawab untuk memberikan layanan baik dan profesional. Pelayanan publik (public services) oleh birokrasi public adalah merupakan salah satu perwujudan dari fungsi aparatur negara sebagai abdi masyarakat di samping sebagai abdi negara dengan maksud untuk mensejahterakan masyarakat. Menurut Kamus Bahasa Indonesia dinyatakan bahwa pelayanan ialah suatu usaha untuk membantu menyiapkan atau mengurus apa yang diperlukan orang lain. Dalam pelayanan yang disebut konsumen (customer) adalah masyarakat yang mendapat manfaat dari aktifitas yang dilakukan oleh organisasi atau petugas organisasi pemberi pelayanan. Selanjutnya, pelayanan publik berdasarkan SK MenPan No.81/1993 adalah segala bentuk kegiatan pelayanan umum yang dilaksanakan oleh instansi pemerintah dan BUMN/D dalam bentuk barang dan jasa, baik kebutuhan masyarakat, maupun pelaksanaan ketentuan peraturan perundang-undangan. E. Administrasi Kependudukan Berdasarkan Undang-undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2006, Administrasi Kependudukan adalah rangkaian kegiatan penataan dan penertiban dalam penerbitan dokumen dan data kependudukan melalui pendaftaran penduduk, pencatatan sipil dan pengelolaan informasi serta pendayagunaan hasilnya untuk pelayanan publik dan pembangunan. Dimana pendaftaran penduduk adalah pencatatan biodata penduduk, pencatatan atas pelaporan peristiwa kependudukan. Dokumen kependudukan dapat berupa kartu indentitas atau surat keterangan kependudukan. Dokumen kependudukan merupakan dokumen resmi yang diterbitkan oleh instansi pelaksana yang mempunyai kekuatan hukum sebagai alat bukti autentik yang dihasilkan dari pelayanan pendaftaran penduduk dan pencatatan sipil. Peristiwa kependudukan meliputi pindah datang, perubahan alamat, serta status tinggal terbatas menjadi tinggal tetap yang dialami penduduk harus dilaporkan karena membawa akibat terhadap penerbitan atau perubahan kartu keluarga, kartu tanda penduduk dan/atau surat keterangan kependudukan lainnya. Pendaftaran penduduk dilakukan pada instansi pelaksana yang daerah tugasnya meliputi domisili atau tempat tinggal penduduk. Pendaftaran penduduk melayani Penerbitan Kartu Keluarga (KK), melayani penerbitan Kartu Tanda Penduduk (KTP) dan melayani peristiwa kependudukan/mutasi penduduk. F. Kartu Keluarga Berdasarkan Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2006, tentang Administrasi Kependudukan serta Peraturan Presiden No. 25 Tahun 2008, tentang persyaratan tata cara pendaftaran penduduk dan pencatatan sipil, dikatakan Kartu Keluarga adalah Kartu Identitas Keluarga yang memuat data tentang susunan hubungan dan jumlah anggota keluarga. Kartu Keluarga wajib dimiliki oleh setiap keluarga. Kartu ini berisi data lengkap tentang identitas Kepala Keluarga dan anggota keluarganya. Kartu keluarga dicetak rangkap 3 yang masing-masing dipegang oleh Kepala Keluarga, Ketua RT dan Kantor Kelurahan. Kartu Keluarga (KK) adalah Dokumen milik Pemda Propinsi setempat dan karena itu tidak boleh mencoret, mengubah, mengganti, menambah isi data yang tercantum dalam Kartu Keluarga. Setiap terjadi perubahan karena mutasi data dan mutasi biodata, wajib dilaporkan kepada Lurah dan akan diterbitkan Kartu Keluarga (KK) yang baru. Pendatang baru yang belum mendaftarkan diri atau belum berstatus penduduk setempat, nama dan identitasnya tidak boleh dicantumkan dalan Kartu Keluarga. METODOLOGI PENELITIAN A. Metode Penelitian Penelitian ini disusun berdasarkan metode kualitatif yang lebih bersifat deskriptif. Metode kualitatif digunakan untuk meneliti kondisi objek alamiah yang yang didasarkan pada fakta-fakta yang ada (Sugioyono,2006). Sebagaimana suatu penelitian dibidang pengetahuan sosial maka model penelitian ini dinyatakan dalam ciri-ciri sebagai berikut : Memusatkan perhatian pada masalah yang ada saat penelitian dilakukan atau masalah-masalah aktual.Menggambarkan tentang masalah yang diselidiki sebagaimana adanya diiringi dengan interpretasi rasional yang cermat dan teliti (Nawawi,1995). B. Fokus Penelitian Dalam penelitian kualitatif terdapat fokus penelitian yang membatasi masalah untuk diteliti. Pada penelitian ini fokus yang ditetapkan adalah melihat dampak pemekaran wilayah kecamatan Tombariri Timur terhadap pelayanan public khususnya pelayanan administrasi pengurusan Kartu Keluarga di kantor kecamatan Tombariri Timur. C. Instrumen Penelitian Dalam penelitian ini, yang menjadi instrumen penelitian adalah peneliti itu sendiri. Menurut Sugioyono (2006), pada penelitian kualitatif peneliti sebagai human instrumen berfungsi menetapkan fokus penelitian, memilih informan sebagai sumber data, melakukan pengumpulan data, menilai kualitas data, analisis data, menafsirkan dan membuat kesimpulan atas temuannya. D. Teknik Pengumpulan Data Data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini diperoleh dengan observasi, wawancara langsung dengan informan kunci dan triangulasi. Pendekatan yang diajukan dalam wawancara yakni menggunakan petunjuk umum wawancara dengan membuat kerangka dan garis-garis besar pokok-pokok yang ditanyakan dalam proses wawancara yang terfokus pada permasalahan penelitian (Patton dalam Moleong, 2001). Disamping kedua tehnik ini digunakan juga studi kepustakaan untuk memperoleh data sekunder yang berasal dari berbagai laporan, terbitan, buletin dan sebagainya yang dianggap relevan dengan penelitian ini. F. Teknik Analisis Data Data yang berhasil dikumpulkan diolah dan dianalisis dengan tahapan-tahapan sebagai berikut : Mengedit data, pada tahapan ini seluruh data sudah terkumpul baik melalui wawancara maupun pengamatan, langsung diadakan pengeditan. Pengeditan dilakukan pada akhir-akhir proses pengamatan dan wawancara.Reduksi data, dilakukan setelah data dibaca, dipelihara dan diteliti kembali dengan cara membuat abstraksi. Abstraksi merupakan usaha membuat rangkuman inti penelitian.Mengkategorikan dalam satuan-satuan, pengkategorian ini berdasarkan sumber-sumber data, teristimewa data yang diperoleh dari hasil wawancara dan pengamatan. Selanjutnya data tersebut disusun dalam bentuk satuan-satuan yang menyangkut sumber, jenis informan, lokasi da memilah-milah menjadi kategori tertentu atas dasar pemikiran, intuisi dan pendapat berdasarkan fokus penelitian kemudian diberikan kode untuk menjaga kerahasiaan informan.Penafsiran data, dilakukan sepanjang penelitian, dimana setiap data yang terkumpul langsung dilakukan penafsiran. Data kegiatan ini dilakukan setelah proses wawancara dan pengamatan diklasifikasikan untuk memperjelas data agar setiap data yang diperoleh dianggap bermakna.Menguji keabsahan data, ini dilakukan dengan cara membaca kembali dokumen-dokumen tertulis yang dikumpulkan kemudian dibandingkan dengan data yag diperoleh dari hasil wawancara dan pengamatan.Penarikan kesimpulan, diawali dengan menetapkan pola hubungan lain dan lain-lain yang terfokus pada jawaban atas permasalahan yang telah dirumuskan sebelumnya sekaligus menjawab tujuan penelitian. HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN A. HASIL PENELITIAN A.1. Pemekaran Wilayah Dan Pelayanan Publik Pemekaran wilayah pada dasarnya bertujuan untuk lebih mendekatkan jarak antara pemerintah sebagai pelaksana pelayanan public dengan masyarakat sebagai penerima pelayanan. Pemekaran wilayah juga bertujuan untuk menjadikan pelayanan public bisa menjadi lebih efektif dan efisien. Namun yang sebenarnya yang menjadi tujuan utama dari pemekaran wilayah adalah meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat di wilayah yang dimekarkan. Ironisnya, tidak sedikit yang terjadi pada wilayah yang baru dimekarkan justru beberapa fungsi pelayanan public tidak berjalan sebagaimana yang diharapkan. Hal tersebut disebabkan oleh beberapa hal diantaranya kesiapan dari aparatur yang ditempatkan diwilayah yang baru dimekarkan itu. Salah satu masalah utama yang sering ditemui di wilayah-wilayah yang baru dimekarkan biasanya adalah kendala dalam mengisi struktur-struktur pemerintahan yang berfungsi melakukan pelayanan public. Hal ini jelas berdampak pada penyelenggaraan pelayanan public bagi masyarakat. Masyarakat sebagai pihak yang dilayani tentunya mengharapkan bisa mendapatkan pelayanan yang maksimal dari pihak-pihak yang sudah diberikan wewenang untuk itu. Pihak-pihak dimaksud adalah aparat pemerintah khususnya dalam hal ini yaitu aparatur pemerintah kecamatan termasuk di Kecamatan Tombariri Timur. Pemekaran wilayah selayaknya sudah melalui pertimbangan-pertimbangan disamping memperhatikan persyaratan yang sudah diatur pemerintah dalam PP No. 129 tahun 2000 yang telah disempurnakan dengan PP No. 17 Tahun 2008 tentang pembentukan suatu daerah otonom. Dalam peraturan pemerintah tersebut sudah diatur bahwa pembentukan daerah otonom yang baru dimungkinkan dan harus memenuhi faktor-faktor antara lain : kemampuan ekonomi, potensi daerah, sosial budaya, sosial politik, jumlah penduduk, luas daerah disamping factor lain yaitu keamanan dan ketertiban, sarana dan prasarana, rentang kendali yang memungkinkan terselenggaranya otonomi daerah seperti yang diharapkan. Dalam melakukan penelitian tentang dampak pemekaran wilayah Tombariri Timur terhadap pelayanan public, penulis melakukan wawancara mendalam (deep interview) dengan beberapa pihak yang penulis anggap bisa memberikan data tentang objek yang diteliti. Pihak-pihak yang dimaksud selain dari pemerintah kecamatan sebagai penyedia pelayanan di kecamatan Tombariri Timur, juga beberapa pihak yang merupakan penerima layanan di kecamatan yang dalam hal ini anggota masyarakat. Dari hasil wawancara yang dilakukan diperoleh kesimpulan : - Informan FT. (42 tahun), tingkat pendidikan S1, selaku Camat Kecamatan Tombariri Timur Berdasarkan hasil wawancara untuk mengetahui bagaimanakah dampak pemekaran wilayah Kecamatan Tombariri Timur terhadap pelayanan public khususnya pelayanan administrasi kependudukan yang dalam penelitian ini di fokuskan pada pembuatan Kartu Keluarga yang dilakukan aparat pemerintah kecamatan Tombariri Timur kepada masyarakat, FT mengatakan : " Setelah ditetapkan menjadi kecamatan, warga Tombariri Timur jelas terbantu, karena jarak menuju kantor untuk mereka mengurus administrasi kependudukan termasuk Kartu Keluarga menjadi lebih dekat. Sebagai pemerintah yang diamanatkan rakyat, kami berusaha menjalankan tugas kami dengan semaksimal mungkin sesuai dengan peraturan yang ada. Dalam melayani masyarakat khususnya dalam setiap pengurusan hal-hal yang menyangkut administrasi kependudukan, kami berusaha memenuhi akan setiap kebutuhan masyarakat tentunya dengan mekanisme dan ketentuan yang ada. Dalam proses pembuatan Kartu Keluarga, sebagai pelayan masyarakat kami selalu mengsosialisasikan pada pada masyarakat akan persyaratan yang dibutuhkan dan ini juga berlaku untuk setiap pengurusan administrasi kependudukan yang lain, agar supaya dalam proses pembuatannya tidak mengalami hambatan-hambatan yang ada. Selaku aparatur pemerintah yang salah satu tugasnya melayani masyarakat, kami berusaha untuk melayani masyarakat semaksimal mungkin, dan saya selalu menginstruksikan pada seluruh staf saya, untuk menjadi pelayan masyarakat yang baik, agar proses penyelenggaraan pemerintahan yang baik dapat dicapai. Mengenai biaya dan waktu penyelesaian, hanya berupa biaya partisipasi pembuatan sebesar Rp 10.000 dan waktu penyelesaian dapat dilakukan secepat mungkin". - Informan VL, (48 tahun), tingkat pendidikan S1, salah seorang staf kecamatan Tombariri Timur. Berdasarkan hasil wawancara untuk mengetahui bagaimanakah dampak pemekaran wilayah Kecamatan Tombariri Timur terhadap pelayanan public khususnya pelayanan administrasi kependudukan yang dalam penelitian ini di fokuskan pada pembuatan Kartu Keluarga yang dilakukan aparat pemerintah kecamatan Tombariri Timur kepada masyarakat, VL mengatakan : " Dalam proses pembuatan kartu keluarga tidaklah memiliki banyak persyaratan, adapun persyaratan-persyaratan yang harus disediakan masyarakat hanyalah surat keterangan dari kepala desa/lurah, akte perkawinan, dan mengisi formulir permohonan pembuatan kartu keluarga yang disediakan oleh pemerintah kecamatan, selanjutnya pemerintah kecamatan meneruskan permohonan pembuatan kartu keluarga, dalam hal ini di dinas capil. Dalam proses pembuatan kartu keluarga sampai selesai memakan waktu 3hari, namun agar proses pembuatan dapat dengan cepat, masyarakat dapat membuatnya langsung di dinas capil. Dan untuk biaya administrasi dalam proses pembuatan kartu keluarga yaitu Rp 10.000. didalam menjawab akan setiap kebutuhan masyarakat, tentunya kami sebagai pemerintah berusaha semaksimal mungkin sesuai dengan peraturan yang ada untuk melayani akan setiap kebutuhan masyarakat dengan sebaik-baiknya". - Informan SY, (30 tahun), tingkat pendidikan S1, salah seorang warga Tombariri Timur. "Memang setelah sudah ada kantor kecamatan yang lebih dekat seperti sekarang jelas sudah lebih enak untuk mengurus surat-surat di kecamatan. Cuma kalau menyangkut aspek-aspek dalam pelayanan itu masih relative. Karena yang berubah cuma jarak dari rumah dengan kantor kecamatan saja". A.2. Aspek-Aspek Dalam Pelayanan Publik. Kepuasan dan kenyamanan atas sebuah layanan publik tentunya tidak mutlak hanya milik segelintir orang saja selayaknya hal itu menjadi milik semua pihak. Penyelenggaraan pelayanan publik yang berkeadilan sudah menjadi dambaan dan harapan serta dinantikan oleh warga masyarakat sebagai pengguna layanan. Sudah menjadi sebuah keharusan bagi para elit birokrasi dan aparatur pemerintah untuk terus menapaki proses belajar sosial yang mengarah pada kualitas layanan publik sesuai dengan apa yang telah diamanatkan dalam UU No. 25 Tahun 2009 Tentang Pelayanan Publik. Pelayanan publik yang dilakukan juga harus berdasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip penyelenggaran pelayanan publik di Indonesia yang diatur dalam Kepmenpan No. 63/KEP/M.PAN/7/2003 Tentang Pedoman Umum Penyelenggaraan Pelayanan Publik yakni prinsip kesederhanaan, kejelasan, kepastian waktu, akurasi, keamanan, tanggung jawab, kelengkapan sarana dan prasarana kerja, kemudahan akses, K3 (kedisiplinan, kesopanan, dan keramahan), dan kenyamanan. Kecamatan Tombariri Timur sebagai salah satu wilayah yang baru dimekarkan, dalam menjalankan fungsi pelayanan publiknya juga dituntut agar dapat memperhatikan aspek-aspek tersebut karena hal itu menyangkut efektif dan efisiennya sebuah pelayanan public. Untuk mengetahui hal ini penulis melakukan wawancara dengan beberapa pihak yang dianggap memiliki kapasitas dalam pemberian data yang diteliti. Dari hasil wawancara yang dilakukan, untuk apakah prinsip-prinsip pelayanan seperti yang disyaratkan oleh Kepmenpan No. 63 Tahun 2003, tentang Pedoman Umum Penyelenggaraan Pelayanan Publik, sudah dijalankan sebagaimana dengan seharusnya, diperoleh kesimpulan yang dapat dijabarkan sebagai berikut: a. Aspek Kesederhanaan, Aspek kesederhanaan yang dimaksud disini adalah apakah tatacara pelayanan yang dilakukan bersifat mudah, lancar, tepat, tidak berbelit-belit serta mudah dipahami oleh masyarakat. Dari aspek ini setelah dianalisa berdasarkan hasil wawancara yang dilakukan, bahwa pelayanan yang dilakukan oleh aparatur pemerintah Kecamatan Tombariri Timur dalam proses pembuatan Kartu Keluarga sudah dilakukan dengan baik, dengan memberikan pelayanan dengan baik sesuai dengan ketentuan yang ada, dan tidak mempersulit warga masyarakat. Hal ini dibuktikan lewat wawancara yang dilakukan pada Informan VR (45 tahun), salah satu staf kantor kecamatan Tombariri Timur, dimana hasil yang didapatkan : "Dalam memberikan pelayanan pada masyarakat kami selalu melakukannya dengan sebaik mungkin dengan tidak mempersulit setiap masyarakat yang membutukan pelayanan kami, dalam proses pelayanan yang menyangkut administasi kependudukan, menyangkut Kartu Keluarga misalnya masyarakat hanya perlu menyediakan syarat-syarat yait:, surat keterangan dari kepala desa, akte nikah, dan mengisi formulir permohonan pembuatan kartu keluarga yang disediakan oleh kecamatan, dan didalam pelayanan yang ada kami tidak melakukan pungutan selain biaya adminitrasi yang ada". Pernyatan salah satu staf tersebut kembali dibuktikan lewat wawancara yang dilakukan pada informan TP (47 tahun) salah seorang warga Tombariri Timur, yang mengatakan : "Pelayanan yang diberikan pada saya oleh petugas kecamatan menurut saya sudah baik, dimana pada saat saya menyediakan syarat-syarat administrasi untuk membuat Kartu Keluarga, secara lengkap, petugas pun dengan sigap melayani saya dengan segera memberikan formulir untuk di isi dan memberikan arahan-arahan bagaimana mengisi formulir dengan baik agar tidak terjadi kesalahan dalam pengisian". Dengan demikian dapat dikatakan pelayanan yang diberikan dilihat dari aspek kesederhanaan sudah baik, dimana pelayanan mudah, yang tidak melalui proses yang rumit serta lancar tanpa adanya sikap yang berbelit-belit, sehingga masyarakat pun merasa nyaman dan puas terhadap pelayanan yang diberikan. b. Aspek Kecakapan Dan Kehandalan Petugas Pelayanan Suatu pelayanan agar bisa maksimal tentunya dipengaruhi oleh bagaimana kecakapan dan kehandalan petugas yang menjalankan pelayanan. Artinya petugas yang berfungsi melakukan pelayanan hendaknya menguasai keterampilan serta pengetahuan pelayanan yang dibutuhkan, sesuai dengan jenis pelayanan yang diberikan. Dari hasil wawancara yang dilakukan pada informan ER (37 tahun), salah satu petugas kecamatan Tombariri Timur : "Pada saat masyarakat akan melakukan pembuatan kartu keluarga, aparat/petugas segera memberitahu persyaratan yang ada dan proses yang akan dilalui oleh masyarakat, dengan demikian masyarakat pun mengetahui dan mengerti mengenai layanan yang dia butuhkan, disamping itu juga bagaimana aparat/petugas selalu memberi tahu masyarakat mengenai jenis pelayanan dan apa saja yang harus disediakan masyarakat misalnya didalam pembuatan kartu keluarga, masyarakat harus menyediakan surat keterangan dari kepala desa, akte nikah, dan nantinya akan mengisi formulir permohonan kartu keluarga". Dari aspek ini, dapat dikatakan bahwa keterampilan dan keahlian aparat/petugas Kecamatan dalam memberikan pelayanan pada masyarakat sudah baik, hal ini dibuktikan dengan keterampilan dan pelayanan sesuai dengan yang dibutuhkan, dimana dalam proses pembuatan Kartu Keluarga aparat mengetahui segala jenis persyaratan yang dibutuhkan dan juga semua persyaratan yang lain sesuai dengan jenis pelayanan. c. Aspek Keramahan Suatu aspek penting yang juga menentukan apakah pelayanan yang diberikan sudah berkualitas adalah sikap yang ditunjukan atau bagaimana perlakuan petugas pelayanan didalam memberikan pelayanan kepada masyarakat, baik dari kesabaran menghadapi masyarakat, penuh perhatian, empati dan persahabatan, sehingga pelayanan yang bersifat ramah terhadap masyarakat dapat terwujud. Dari hasil wawancara yang dilakukan pada informan RM ( 32 tahun), salah seorang warga masyarakat, pada saat akan mengurus proses administrasi untuk membuat Kartu Keluarga, di kantor kecamatan Tombariri Timur, mengatakan : "Sikap yang ditunjukan oleh petugas yang ada, dengan memberikan salam yang menandakan sikap persahabatan, dan juga bagaimana tutur kata saat melakukan komunikasi dengan masyarakat, dan juga cara pelayanan yang dilakukan pada saat masyarakat belum jelas dan mengerti mengenai persyaratan yang dibutuhkan, dengan sikap yang sopan dengan tutur kata yang baik, petugas pun memberikan penjelasan dengan baik dan masyarakat pun merasa nyaman merasa bahwa dirinya dihargai dan dihormati lewat sikap yang ditunjukan." Dari aspek ini, dapat disimpulkan bahwa, pelayanan yang dilakukan oleh aparatur Pemerintah Kecamatan Tombariri Timur dalam proses pembuatan Kartu Keluarga sudah baik dengan menunjukan sikap yang ramah dalam memberikan pelayanan kepada masyarakat. d. Aspek Kejelasan Dan Kepastian Pelayanan Aspek kejelasan dan kepastian dalam pelayanan khususnya yang menyangkut biaya atau ongkos dalam memperoleh pelayanan merupakan hal yang penting dalam sebuah proses pelayanan. Di kecamatan Tombariri Timur, dari aspek ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa kejelasan mengenai biaya pelayanan dalam mengurus Kartu Keluarga masih pada taraf yang wajar tanpa ada pungutan atau apapun itu yang harus dibayarkan oleh masyarakat. Kesimpulan tersebut diperoleh penulis setelah melakukan wawancara dengan informan FR (43 tahun), salah satu petugas kecamatan dimana ia mengatakan: "Biaya administrasi yang dikenakan pada masyarakat masih pada taraf yang wajar yaitu Rp10.000 dan tidak ada pungutan lain selain biaya administasi tersebut. Pendapat yang sama juga dikatakan oleh informan KM (27 tahun) salah seorang warga masyarakat yang ketika penulis melakukan penelitian kebetulan sedang mengurus Kartu Keluarga di Kecamatan Tombariri Timur, menurutnya pengakuannya : " Biaya yang saya bayar pada saat proses administrasi untuk pembuatan Kartu Keluarga sebesar Rp 10.000 dan aparat atau petugas kecamatan tidak melakukan pungutan-pungutan lain selain biaya administrasi tersebut." Hal yang sama juga dikatakan oleh beberapa warga masyarakat yang sempat ditemui penulis saat melakukan penelitian. Namun mengenai waktu selesai dalam proses pembuatan Kartu Keluarga perlu mendapat perhatian oleh pemerintah. Hal itu terkait dari hasil penelitian yang dilakukan, belum ditemukannya kejelasan dan kepastian pelayanan mengenai waktu selesai. Dari wawancara yang dilakukan pada beberapa warga masyarakat diperoleh waktu yang bervariasi. Menurut pengakuan informan NU (45 tahun), salah seorang warga yang mengurus Kartu Keluarga ketika di wawancara penulis, mengatakan : " waktu yang yang dibutuhkan ada yang 1 jam, 45 menit, bahkan ada yang sampai 2 jam". Padahal dari wawancara yang dilakukan pada petugas kecamatan, mereka mengatakan bahwa waktu yang dibutuhkan dalam proses administrasi pembuatan Kartu Keluarga yaitu hanya 15 sampai 20 menit saja. Terdapat variasai waktu yang ditemukan, namun menurut mereka hal itu masih pada taraf yang wajar karena tidak sampai berhari-hari. e. Aspek Ekonomis Aspek ekonomis di sini yang dimaksud adalah berapa biaya dan tenaga yang dibutuhkan dalam pengurusan administrasi Kartu Keluarga. Biaya menyangkut ongkos yang diperlukan dalam mengurus administrasi Kartu Keluarga. Tenaga di sini dimaksudkan adalah berapa pihak yang harus dilalui dalam pengurusan adminstrasi Kartu Keluarga tersebut. Dapat dikatakan bahwa pelayanan yang diberikan oleh aparatur Pemerintah Kecamatan Tombariri Timur dalam proses pembuatan Kartu Keluarga sudah sesuai dengan ketentuan yang ada dan pengenaan biaya pada taraf yang wajar dan sesuai dengan ketentuan yang ada, namun tidak bisa dipungkiri bahwa, dalam proses pelayanan yang ada, masyarakat masih ada yang memberikan uang kepada petugas dengan harapan petugas bisa memberikan layanan ekstra. Padahal menyangkut biaya sebagaimana yang sudah dijelaskan dari aspek kejelasan mengenai biaya administrasi yang dikenakan berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan pada masyarakat dan petugas kecamatan yaitu sebesar Rp 10.000 (sepuluh ribu rupiah), tanpa ada pungutan lain atau biaya lain diluar biaya administrasi tersebut. Hal ini seperti yang dijelaskan oleh AR : "Sebenarnya menyangkut prosedur dan biaya pengurusan sudah jelas diatur bahkan sudah ditempel di dinding, namun terkadang masih ada saja masyarakat yang mencoba untuk menyogok petugas agar mendapat pelayanan ekstra". f. Kelengkapan sarana dan prasarana kerja Berdasarkan observasi yang dilakukan penulis terlihat bahwa sarana dan prasarana pendukung kantor sudah cukup tersedia. Ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana seperti alat tulis kantor, meja, kursi, telepon, komputer, dan printer yang berada pada kantor dirasakan sudah cukup untuk membantu penyelesaian pekerjaan sehingga tidak ada pekerjaan yang terbengkalai akibat tidak adanya peralatan yang dibutuhkan segera. Hal ini seperti pengakuan dari salah seorang petugas DT kepada peneliti : "Kalau sarana prasarana yang tersedia di kantor sudah cukup sehingga tidak ada alasan untuk menghambat proses pelayanan". g. Kemudahan Akses - Ketersediaan Angkutan Umum Menuju Lokasi Kantor Pengguna pelayanan umumnya mengatakan ketersediaan angkutan umum sudah cukup, dikarenakan untuk perjalanan dari tempat tinggalnya umumnya sudah ada. Hal ini seperti yang diakui oleh JR : "Jika dibandingkan dengan sebelum dimekarkan untuk mencapai lokasi kantor tempat pengurusan relatif lebih dekat dan kendaraan umum yang lewat dikantor ini banyak". - Kondisi Jalan Menuju Kantor Masyarakat pengguna pelayanan menyatakan bahwa kondisi jalan menuju kantor sudah cukup baik, walaupun pada beberapa koridor jalan masih ada jalan yang rusak. Namun perbaikan jalan menuju lokasi banyak dijalankan seperti penambalan lubang, penambahan lebar jalan, atau pengaspalan walaupun belum menjangkau seluruh koridor jalan yang ada. Hal ini juga sesuai dengan hasil observasi yang penulis lakukan. Selain itu hal ini sejalan dengan pengakuan dari RM : "Walaupun kondisi jalan ini belum dapat dikatakan baik, namun terlihat berbagai usaha pemerintah untuk melakukan perbaikan sudah dilakukan, seperti pelabaran dan penambalan lubang-lubang yang ada". h. Kenyamanan Keyamanan merupakan salah satu syarat yang harus dipenuhi dalam suatu proses pelayanan public. Hal itu bisa tercermin diantaranya dari : - Kondisi kantor yang berkaitan dengan kebersihan dan keindahan. Pengguna pelayanan menyatakan bahwa kondisi kantor seperti kebersihan dan keindahan, secara keseluruhan sudah baik, hal ini dikarenakan kondisi bangunan kantor yang masih baru dibangun dan digunakan. Akan tetapi, pemeliharaan kondisi kantor sangat diperlukan lebih lanjut dikarenakan pada kantor sudah mulai terlihat kotoran tinta dan kertas, dinding sudah mulai ada yang retak, dan kaca yang berdebu. Mengenai kondisi kantor yang terkait dengan kebersihan juga diakui oleh beberapa masyarakat yang sempat ditemui oleh peneliti, seperti JK yang mengatakan : " Kebersihan kantor sangat baik walaupun dibeberapa dinding sudah terlihat agak kotor. Ini kan masih kantor baru, jadi masih kelihatan bersih" - Ketersediaan fasilitas pendukung seperti ruang tunggu, parkir, toilet. Pengguna pelayanan beranggapan bahwa ketersediaan fasilitas pendukung seperti ruang tunggu, parkir, toilet, dan tempat ibadah dirasakan oleh pengguna sudah cukup. Akan tetapi, pengguna banyak yang complain/mengeluh terhadap ruang tunggu yang minim atau tempat duduk yang dirasakan masih kurang banyak untuk memfasilitasi pengguna pelayanan yang datang. Pengakuan terkait dengan hal tersebut seperti yang diungkapkan oleh beberapa anggota masyarakat yang sempat ditemui oleh peneliti, diantaranya FR, yang mengatakan : " Ini kantor so bagus cuma kwa de pe ruang tunggu kacili deng de pe kursi masih kurangcaba lia banya orang yang dating baurus so nyanda dapa tampa dudu for batunggu. Seharusnya rupa itu kursi harus tamba supaya masyarakat yang datang ba urus bisa antri sesuai dengan de no antrian deng supaya tertib nyanda kaluar maso seperti sekarang". B. PEMBAHASAN Seperti yang diungkapkan oleh Maarif (2003) bahwasanya Pemekaran wilayah secara Formal/Konstitusional adalah untuk meningkatkan daya guna dan hasil guna penyelenggaraan pemerintah di daerah terutama dalam pelaksanaan pembangunan dan pelayanan pemerintahan didaerah terutama dalam peningkatan pelaksanaan pelayanan terhadap masyarakat serta meningkatkan kestabilan politik dan kesatuan bangsa. Dari hasil temuan di lapangan yang diperoleh, dampak dari pemekaran wilayah kecamatan Tombariri Timur terhadap pelayanan public sudah dapat dikatakan tidak ada masalah walaupun dibeberapa aspek pelayanan masih belum sesuai dengan yang diharapkan oleh masyarakat, apalagi sesuai dengan konsep pelayanan public yang ideal. Namun begitu berbagai usaha pemerintah daerah dalam upaya peningkatan kaulitas pelayanan sudah terlihat dan dilakukan dengan bersungguh-sungguh walaupun masih jauh dari sempurna. Hal tersebut juga diakui oleh beberapa informan yang sempat ditemui oleh peneliti mereka pada dasarnya dapat memaklumi hal tersebut karena pemekaran wilayah ini masih baru dilakukan ketika peneliti melakukan penelitian. Hal itu seperti yang diungkapkan oleh MT (45) ketika ditanya oleh peneliti mengenai pelayanan yang masih belum sesuai dengan yang diharapkan. Menurut MT : Kalo dilihat dari pelayanan yang diberikan oleh petugas saat pengurusan Kartu Keluarga memang masih jauh dari sempurna, karena seringkali waktu menjadi masalah terbesar yang sering dialami oleh masyarakat. Namun hal itu dapat dipahami oleh masyarakat karena jumlah petugas yang ada juga terkait dengan pengalaman dari petugas yang melayani. Selain MT sebagian besar informan yang ditemui peneliti mempunyai pendapat serupa mengenai dampak pemekaran wilayah mereka menjadi kecamatan sendiri terhadap pelayanan public yang tersedia sekarang. Sebagian besar mengatakan bahwa pelayanan public sudah lebih baik dari sebelum wilayah mereka di mekarkan. Walaupun demikian, menurut mereka masih ada beberapa aspek pelayanan yang memerlukan perbaikan seperti dari aspek kesederhanaan, kejelasan, kepastian waktu, dan kemudahan akses dalam proses pelayanan public khususnya dalam pengurusan administrasi pembuatan Kartu Keluarga. Penilaian masyarakat terhadap kualitas penyelenggaraan pelayanan public yang menurut mereka sudah baik tersebut, didasarkan pada penilainan mereka terhadap prosedur pelayanan yang mudah dipahami dan dilaksanakan, pengetahuan petugas bagian yang akan mengurusi, pegawai berkompeten terhadap tugas dan fungsinya, pegawai mudah ditemui, urusan sesuai dengan yang dikehendaki, adanya bukti tanda terima yang diberikan, pegawai bertanggung jawab terhadap penyelesaiaan urusan, keluhan mengenai proses pelaksanaan urusan diterima dan diproses lebih lanjut, ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana pendukung kantor yang cukup, ketersediaan angkutan umum menuju lokasi kantor cukup, kondisi jalan menuju lokasi kantor cukup, penampilan pegawai kantor bersih dan rapih, perilaku pegawai ramah dan sopan, kondisi kantor seperti kebersihan, keindahan, dan kenyamanan yang baik, dan ketersediaan fasilitas pendukung yang cukup. PENUTUP A. Kesimpulan Dampak dari pemekaran wilayah Tombariri Timur terhadap pelayanan public sudah dapat dikatakan baik walaupun masih jauh dari ideal.Berbagai usaha untuk meningkatkan pelayanan public oleh pemerintah daerah sudah dapat dikatakan berjalan baik namun masih diperlukan berbagai usaha maksimal untuk lebih mendekatkan tujuan pemekaran wilayah ini dengan pelayanan public.B. Saran 1. Perlu adanya kejelasan prosedur pelayanan publik sehingga tidak ada kesan kalau pegawai berusaha untuk mempersulit prosedur pelayanan. 2. Adanya transparansi biaya yang dikeluarkan sehingga pada akhir pelayanan tidak ada pungutan liar yang tidak sesuai dengan kesepakatan yang telah disetujui sebelumnya. 3. Adanya kepastian waktu penyelesaiaan urusan sesuai waktu yang telah dijanjikan jangan melewati waktu yang dijanjikan atau bahkan lebih cepat dari waktu yang dijanjikan. 4. Adanya kejelasan dalam hal persyaratan teknis dan administratif yang diberikan oleh pegawai sehingga masyarakat pengguna menjadi jelas dan mengerti. 5. Pegawai sebaiknya berkomitmen dan berkompeten dalam menyelesaikan urusan sesuai dengan yang dikehendaki pengguna pelayanan. DAFTAR PUSTAKA A. Buku Dan Artikel G T Liang (2003), Pertumbuhan Pemerintahan Daerah Negara RI, Liberti Yogyakarta. Maarif, S, (2003), Strategi Peningkatan Kompetensi Aparatur Guna Mengantisipasi Kebutuhan Sektor Pelayanan Publik, STIA LAN, Bandung. Moleong. L.T, (2001), Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. PT. Rineka Rosda Karya Bandung. Nawawi. H, (1995), Metodologi Penelitian Bidang Sosial. Gadjah Mada University Press, Yokyakarta. Pamudji (2000), Kepemimpinan Pemerintahan di Indonesia, Balai Pustaka Indonesia, Jakarta. Ratminto dan Atik Septi Winarsih. (2005), Manajemen Pelayanan, Yogyakarta: Pustaka Belajar. Sugioyono, (2006), Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Dan Kualitatif R&D Pitabeta, Bandung. W.J.S Poerwadarminta, (2005), Kamus besar Bahasa Indonesia. B. Peraturan Perundangan : UU No. 22 Tahun 1999, Tentang Pemerintahan Daerah Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2006, Tentang Administrasi Kependudukan UU No. 32 Tahun 2004, Tentang Pemerintahan Daerah. Peraturan Pemerintah No. 17 Tahun 2008 tentang pembentukan suatu daerah otonom Peraturan Pemerintah No. 19 Tahun 2008, tentang Kecamatan Peraturan Pemerintah No 78 Tahun 2007, pemekaran daerah/wilayah Peraturan Pemerintah No. 129 Tahun 2000, tentang persyaratan pembentukan dan kriteria pemekaran, penghapusan dan pengabungan daerah Peraturan Presiden No. 25 Tahun 2008, tentang persyaratan tata cara pendaftaran penduduk dan pencatatan sipil Keputusan Menteri Pendayagunaan Aparatur Negara Nomor 63/KEP/M.PAN/&/2003 Tentang Pengertian Pelayanan Umum Surat Keputusan Menteri Pendayaan Aparatur Negara No.81 Tahun 1993, Tentang Pelayanan Publik Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Minahasa No. 3 Tahun 2012, tentang Pembentukan Kecamatan Tombariri Timur.

ABSTRACTApplying of governance good to represent absolute requirement of people majority for the shake of creation an political system more standing up for governance importance of people as according to principles democratize universally. This matter earn also become factor impeller of its form governance political wanting that various process governance of that goodness from facet process formulation of policy of public, management of development, execution of public bureaucracy of governance to be walking transparently, efficient and effective to increase kesejahtraan of people. Writer conduct research about principal applying of Governance Good in execution of service of Public in District Of Girian Town of Bitung (study about service of Akte Sales). This research will use method qualitative, that is a[n research of kontekstual making human being as instrument, and adapted for by fair situation that in its bearing with data collecting which is on generally have the character of qualitative. Approach qualitative distinguished by target of research coping to comprehend symptoms which in such a manner which do not need kuantifikasi, because symptom do not enable to be measured precisely. Focus in this research : 1) governmental Principle Participation government officer in giving service of public; 2) Rule / definitive order in service of Sale Act Buy; 3) Principle Transparency in service of making of Sale act Buy; and 4) Principal and Responsive Principle of Akuntabilitas.Keywords : Principles Applying, Good Governance, Public ServicePENDAHULUANPenerapan good governance adalah merupakan kebutuhan mutlak mayoritas rakyat demi terciptanya suatu sistem politik pemerintahan yang lebih berpihak kepada kepentingan rakyat sesuai dengan prinsip-prinsip demokrasi secara universal. Hal ini dapat pula menjadi faktor pendorong terwujudnya political governance yang menghendaki bahwa berbagai proses pemerintahan baik itu dari segi proses perumusan kebijakan publik, penyelenggaraan pembangunan, pelaksanaan birokrasi publik pemerintahan agar berjalan secara transparan, efektif dan efisien untuk meningkatkan kesejahtraan rakyat. Era globalisasi yang ditandai dengan semakin terbukanya arus informasi, komunikasi dan transportasi, komunikasi dan transportasi antar Negara di dunia, menuntut suatu Negara untuk memprakondisikan dirinya dengan melakukan upaya pemberdayaan (empowering) dan reformasi total atas kehidupan politik dan pemerintahan, hukum, ekonomi, sosial, budaya, dan pertanahan serta keamanan nasional. Dalam kondisi persaingan bebas di era globalisasi, peran pemerintah mengalami pergeseran, dalam arti bahwa pemerintah sudah tidak lagi menjalankan peran secara dominan dalam berbagai aktivitas Negara melainkan hanya sebagai fasilitator bagi kelancaran arus perdagangan dan persaingan bebas. Ini menuntut kondisi Negara (pemerintah) dangan pernerintah yang bersih dan bebas dari korupsi, kolusi dan nepotisme (KKN) agar memperoleh kepercayaan yang besar dari masyarakat serta agar terciptanya iklim usaha yang kondusif bagi peningkatan arus investasi guna mendorong laju pertumbuhan dan perkembangan ekonomi maupun mikro ekonomi.2Penerapan good governance dapat dijadikan sebagai bagian dari upaya untuk melaksanakan asas-asas demokrasi dan demokratisasi, yang merefleksikan dijunjung tingginya aspek pemenuhan hak-hak rakyat oleh penguasa, ditegakannya nilai-nilai keadilan dan solidaritas sosial, serta adanya penegakan HAM dalam berbagai aspek kehidupan Negara, misalnya dengan menegakan prinsip Rule Of Law atau supremasi hukum dalam berbagai aspek kehiduapn Negara. Good governance j uga dapat dipandang sebagai suatu konsep ideology politik yang memuat kaidah-kaidah pokok atau prinsip-prinsip umum pemerintahan yang harus dijadikan pedoman dalam menyelenggarakan kehidupan Negara. Dalam perspektif Otonomi Daerah, khususnya di Indonesia, penerapan Good governance merupakan suatu urgensitas dalam upaya mewujudkan pemerintahan daerah atau local governance yang efektif, efisien, mandiri serta bebas korupsi, kolusi dan nepotisme (KKN). Hal ini didukung pula dengan diberlakunya UU Nomor 32 Tahun 2004 Tentang pemerintahan Daerah yang akan memberikan peluang lebih besar bagi terlaksananya asas desentralisasi, dekonsentrasi dan tugas pembantuan; serta prinsip-prinsip Otonomi Daerah sehingga pemerintah daerah mampu menyelenggarakan tugas-tugas pemerintahan, pembangunan dan pelayanan kepada masyarakat (publik services) secara optimal dan tidak terlalu bergantung lagi kepada pemerintah pusat (sentralistik) sebagaimana era pemerintahan sebelumnya. Kenyataan yang dapat dilihat sekarang bahwa sampai saat ini pun pelaksanaan kehidupan Negara, khususnya dalam konteks pemerintahan daerah di era globalisasi, reformasi, demokratisasi, dan otonomi daerah, justru masih menghadapi berbagai masalah dalam melaksanakan tugas dan kewenangarmya guna mewujudkan good governance secara utuh. Di Kota Bitung penerapan good governance dihadapkan pada berbagai kendala seperti masih banyaknya praktik penyelenggaraan birokrasi pemerintahan yang diliputi oleh berbagai tindak pidana korupsi, kolusi dan nepotisme (KKN) yang dilakukan oleh oknum pejabat teras pemerintah. Ditambah lagi perilaku para penyelenggara negara di daerah ini (baik itu penyelenggara pemerintah maupun legislatif) yang seringkali tidak sesuai dengan nilai-nilai etis (etika pemerintahan) dalam menjalankan tugas dan perannya sebagai pemerintah. Suarasuara rakyat yang menghendaki sosok pemerintah daerah yang dekat dengan rakyat, dan mengutamakan kepentingan rakyat dibandingkan kepentingan pribadi terbentur oleh arogansasi dan sikap acuh dari kalangan pejabat penyelenggara pemerintah. Kondisi ini menurut pengamatan penulis juga terjadi di salah satu Kecamatan di Kota Bitung, yaitu Kecamatan Girian. Di era pemerintahan modern dewasa ini, fungsi pokok birokrasi dalam Negara adalah menjamin terselenggaranya kehidupan Negara dan menjadi alat rakyat/masyarakat dalam mencapai tujuan ideal suatu Negara (Budi Setiono, 2002:72). Dalam konteks tersebut birokrasi pemerintah setidaknya memiliki tiga tugas pokok (Dwipayana 2003:65) yakni: pertama, fungsi pelayanan publik (publik services) yang bersifat rutin kepada masyarakat, seperti memberikan pelayanan perijinan, pembuatan document, perlindungan, pemeliharaan fasilitas umum, pemeliharaan kesehatan, dan jaminan keamanan bagi penduduk. Kenyataan fungsi birokrasi pemerintah didaerah ini belum berjalan sebagaimana mestinya. Masyarakat pada umumnya mengidentikan birokrasi sebagai proses berbelit, belit, waktu yang lama, biaya yang banyak, dan pada akhirnya menimbulkan keluh kesah bahwasanya birokrasi sangat tidak adil dan tidak efisien. Sikap mental yang arogan dan etos kerja rendah dikalangan birokrat sering menjadi sumber masalah bagi peningkatan kualitas pelayanan publik selama ini. Masalah pelayanan publik atau publik services di kantor Kecamatan Girian untuk masa sekarang ini masih jadi persoalan yang perlu memperoleh perhatian dan penyelesaian yang komperhensif hal ini dibuktikan ketika timbul berbagai tuntunan pelayanan publik sebagai tanda ketidakpuasan masyarakat. Kecenderungan seperti ini terjadi karena masyarakat masih diposisikan sebagai pihak yang "melayani" bukan yang dilayani. Pelayanan yang seharusnya ditujukan pada masyarakat umum kadang dibalik menjadi pelayanan masyarakat kepada Pejabat Negara. Kurang transparan pengambil keputusan yang dilakukan pemerintah, control lembaga control yang kuran berfungsi dengan baik sehingga pelayanan kepada masyarakat di kantor Kecamatan Girian kurang maksimal, masih terdapat penyalahgunaan kekuasaan oleh oknum-oknum pejabat tertentu.3Kondisi ini membuat penulis tertarik untuk melakukan penelitian tentang penerapan prinsip-prinsip Good governance dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan Publik di Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung (studi tentang pelayanan Akte Jual Beli). Perumusan Masalah Bertitik tolak dari latar belakang tersebut di atas maka masalah yang dibahas dalam penulisan skripsi ini dapat dirumusakan sebagai berikut :1. Bagaimana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance yang dijalankan oleh Camat sebagai PPAT dalam pelayanan Pembuatan Akta Jual Beli di kantor Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung?2. Apa saja faktor-faktor yang mendorong terselenggaranya prinsip-prinsip good governance dalam pelayanan publik?Tujuan Dan Manfaat Penelitian Adapun yang menjadi tujuan dan manfaat dari penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut :1. Tujuan Penelitiana. Untuk mengetahui penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance yang dijalankan oleh Camat sebagai PPAT dalam pelayanan pembuatan AJB di kantor Kecamatan Girian.b. Untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mendorong terseleggaranya prinsip prinsip good governance.2. Manfaat Penelitian :a. Manfaat praktis, yaitu :Hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan masukan (input) bagi aparat Pemerintah Daerah dalam menjalankan tugas dan perannya secara efektif dan efisien demi terwujudnya bentuk pemerintahan yang lebih baik lagi di masa mendatang serta dapat memberikan infolniasi akurat berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan pelayanan publik yang sesuai dengan prinsip-prinsip good governance di Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung.b. Manfaat ilmiah yaitu;Hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memperkaya khasanah pemikiran secara intelektualitas dibidang ilmu pemerintahan, serta dapat meningkatkan kemampuan analisa ilmiah dalam mencermati fenomena-fenomena penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan publikTINJAUAN PUSTAKAKonsep Penerapan Menurut Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI), pengertian penerapan adalah perbuatan menerapkan. Sedangkan menurut beberapa ahli berpendapat bahwa, penerapan adalah suatu perbuatan mempraktekkan suatu teori, metode, dan hal lain untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu dan untuk suatu kepentingan yang diinginkan oleh suatu kelompok atau golongan yang telah terencana dan tersusun sebelumnya. Penerapan dapat berarti sebagai suatu pemakaian atau aplikasi suatu cara atau metode suatu yang akan diaplikasikannya. Arti kata penerapan adalah bisa berarti pemakaian suatu cara atau metode atau suatu teori atau sistem. Untuk mempermudah pemahaman bisa dicontohkan dalam kalimat berikut: sebelum dilakukan penerapan sistem yang baru harus diawali dengan sosialisasi agar masyarakat tidak kaget. (kamus besar bahasa Indonesia). Good governanceGood governance merupakan suatu kesepakatan menyangkut pengaturan Negara yang diciptakan bersama oleh pemerintah, masyarakat madani dan sektor swasta dimana kesepakatan tersebut mencakup pembentukan selunih mekanisme, proses, dan lembaga-lembaga dimana warga4dan kelompok-kelompok masyarakat mengutarakan kepentingan rriereka, menggunakan hak hukum, memenuhi kewajiban dan menjembatani perbedaan-perbedaan di antara mereka. (Masyarakat Transparansi Indonesia : 2002:9) Disisi lain istilah Good governance menurut Dwi Payana (2003:45) merupakan sesuatu yang sulit didefinisikan karena didalamnya terkandung makna etis. Dalam artian bahwa sesuatu yang dipandang baik dalam suatu masyarakat, namun bagi masyarakat lainnya belum tentu mendapat penilaian yang sama. Berbagai definisi Good governance (Dwi Payana, 2003:47) lainnya adalah sebagai berikut: "Good Govenance" sering di artikan sebagai "kepemerintahan yang baik". Adapula yang mengartikannya sebagai "tata pemerintahan yang baik" dan ada pula yan mengartikannya sebagai "sistem pemerintahan yang baik". Selanjutnya dijelaskan pula bahwa istilah "governance" sebagai proses penyelenggaraaan kekuasaan Negara dalam melaksanakan publik good and services. Sedangkan arti "good' dalam "good gevernace" mengandung dua pengertian, pertama, nilai-nilai yang menjujung tinggi keinginan/kehendak rakyat, dan nilai-nilai yang dapat meningkatkan kemampuan rakyat dalam pencapaian tujuan (nasional) kemandirian, pembngunan, berkelanjutan dan keadilan sosial; kedua , aspek-aspek fungsional dari pemerintah yang efektif dan efisien dalam melaksanakan tugasnya untuk mencapai tujuan-tujuan tersebut. Praktek terbaiknya di sebut "good governance" atau kepemerintahan yang baik. Sehingga dengan demikian "good governance" didefinisikan sebagai "penyelenggaraan pemerintah yang solid dan bertangung jawab, serta efektif dan efisien dengan menjaga kesinergian interaksi yng konsrtuktif di antara domain-domain Negara, sektor swasta dan masyarakat". Menurut Riswanda Imawan (2002:32) "good governance" diartikan sebagai cara kekuasaan Negara digunakan dalam mengatur sumber-sumber ekonomi dan sosial bagi pembangunan masyarakat (the way state power is used in managing economic and social resources for development of society). Menurut Sedarmayati (2003:76) good governance adalah suatu bentuk manajemen pembangunan, yang juga disebut administrasi pembangunan. Dengan demikian ia berpendapat bahwa pemerintah berada pada posisi sentral (agent of chance) dari suatu masyarakat dalam suatu masyarakat berkembang. Dalam good governance tidak hanya pemerintah, tetapi juga citizen, masyarakat yang dimaksud adalah masyarakat yang terorganisir, seperti LSM, asosiasi-asosiasi kerja, bahkan paguyuban. Menurut Zulkarnain (2002:21) good governance merupakan sesuatu yang baru bagi masyarakat Indonesia, dimana aplikasi daripada konsep ini seringkali tergantung pada kerjasama pemerintah dan masyarakat untuk mencapai dua tujuan yaitu pemerintah yang bersih dan demokratis. Dijelaskan pula bahwa terjadinya krisis disebabkan banyaknya penyimpangan dan penyalahguanaan kekuasaan yang telah merusak sendi-sendi penyelenggaraan Negara dan berbagai sendi kehidupan nasional. Sejak reformasi dimulai maka konsep good governance masuk dalam khasanah pemulihan ekonomi Indonesia. Untuk mengetahui gagasan dan praktek good governance, maka inti good governance adalah seni pemerintah yang berpijak pada rule of law dengan elemen transparansi, akuntanbilitas, fairness, dan responsibility. Elemen-elemen tersebut menyadarkan kita bahwa good governance adalah seperangkat tindakan yang memberikan pagar yang lebih jelas dari proses pemerintahan dengan fungsi dan wewenangnya. Dari sudut pendekatan sistem menurut Pulukadang (2002:34), good governance menyangkut pelaksanaan kekuasaan pemerintah dalam hal decisison making dan dalam hal menjalankan fungsinya secara utuh, dan menyeluruh sebagai suatu kesatuan tindakan yang terarah dan teratur, baik itu meliputi bidang ekonomi (economic governance), politik (political governance), dan administrasi (administrativ governance). Kepemerintahan ekonomi fungsinya melalui proses-proses pembuatan keputusan yang memfasilitasi kegaitan dibidang ekonomi mdidalam negeri dan interaksi diantara pelaku ekonomi. Kepemerintahan politik fungsinya menyangkut proses-proses pembuatan keputusan untuk formulasi kebijakan. Kepemerintahan administrasi adalah system pelakanaan proses kebijakan.Beberapa aspek yang biasa menunjukan dijalankannya good governance atau pemerintahan5yang baik menurut Suhardono (2001:115), yaitu pertama, pengakuan atas pluaraliatas politik; kedua, keadilan sosial; ketiga, akuntanbilitas penyelenggaraan pemerintahan; dan keempat, kebebasan. Kasus-kasus yang berkembang di dunia ketiga dan upaya pembauran sistem kapitalisme dunia, telah memunculkan ide perubahan yang cukup penting, dalam, proses penyelenggaraan pemerintahan. Good governance dalam konteks ini dapat dipandang sebagi langkah untuk menciptakan mekanisme baru yang memungkinkan Negara kembali berfungsi untuk mengatasi masalah-masalah yang justru di akibatkan oleh kerja mekanisme pasar. Good governance sering diartikan sebagi tata pemerintahan yang baik. Konsep good governance padas suatu gagasan adanya saling (interdependence) dan interaksi dari bermacam-macam aktor kelembagaan disemua level di dalam Negara (Legislatif, Eksekutif, yudikatif, militer) dan sektor swasta (Perusahaan, lembaga keuangan). Tidak boleh ada aktor kelembagaan didalam good governance yang mempunyai kontrol yang absolute. Dengan kata lain, didalam good governance hubungan antar Negara, masyarakat madani, dan sektor swasta harus dilandasi prinsip-prinsip transparansi, akuntanbilitas publik dan pertisipasi, yaitu suatu prasyarat kondisional yang dibutuhkan dalam proses pengambilan dan keberhasilan pelaksanaan kebijakan publik dan akseptibilitas masyarakat terhadap suatu kebijakan yang dibuat bukan ditentukan oleh kekuasaan yang dimiliki, tetapi sangat tergantung dari sejauh keterlibatan actor-aktor didalamnya. Prinsip-Prinsip Good Governance Menurut kamus besar bahas Indonesia dalam KoAk (2002:55) dikatakan bahwa prinsip mengandung pengertian "asas" (kebenaran yang menjadi pokok dasr berpikir dan bertindak, dan sebagainya). Secara harafiah, prinsip dapat diartikan sebagai dasar yang mnejadi pedoman yang dijunjung tinggi oleh seseorang atau kelompok karena diyakini kebenarannya. Dalam kaitannya dengan judul skripsi ini, maka faktor yang ditekankan disini adalah bagaimana suatu "Prinsip" dapat diterapkan secara nyata dalam kehidupan sehari-hari sebagai suatu kebenaran umum bukan sekedar mengetahui atau memahami saja hakikat dari pada prinsip itu sendiri. Selain itu juga berbicara mengenai bagaimana suatu prinsip diterapkan secara seimbang dan selaras sehingga tidak menimbulkan kekacauan dan ketimpangan (overlapping) dalam kehiduapan masyrakat, bangsa dan Negara. Lembaga Administrasi Negara memberikan pengertian Good governance yaitu penyelenggaraan pemerintah negara yang solid dan bertanggung jawab, serta efesien dan efektif, dengan menjaga kesinergian interaksi yang konstruktif diantara domain-domain negara, sektor swasta, dan masyarakat. Dalam Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 101 Tahun 2000 prinsip-prinsip kepemerintahan yang baik terdiri dari :1. Profesionalitas, meningkatkan kemampuan dan moral penyelenggara pemerintahan agar mampu memberi pelayanan yang mudah, cepat, tepat dengan biaya yang terjangkau.2. Akuntabilitas, meningkatkan akuntabilitas para pengambil keputusan dalam segala bidang yang menyangkut kepentingan masyarakat.3. Transparansi, menciptakan kepercayaan timbal batik antara pemerintah dan masyarakat melalui penyediaan informasi dan menjamin kemudahan di dalam memperoleh informasi yang akurat dan memadai.4. Pelayanan prima, penyelenggaraan pelayanan publik yang mencakup prosedur yang baik, kejelasan tarif, kepastian waktu, kemudahan akses, kelengkapan sarana dan prasarana serta pelayanan yang ramah dan disiplin.5. Demokrasi dan Partisipasi, mendorong setiap warga untuk mempergunakan hak dalam menyampaikan pendapat dalam proses pengambilan keputusan, yang menyangkut kepentingan masyarakat baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung6. Efisiensi dan Efektifitas, menjamin terselenggaranya pelayanan kepada masyarakat dengan menggunakan sumber daya yang tersedia secara optimal dan bertanggung jawab.7. Supremasi hukum dan dapat diterima oleh seluruh masyarakat, mewujudkan adanya6penegakkan hukum yang adil bagi semua pihak tanpa pengecualian, menjunjung tinggi HAM dan memperhatikan nilai-nilai yang hidup dalam masyarakat.METODOLOGI PENELITIANJenis Penelitian Penelitian ini akan menggunakan metode kualitatif, yaitu suatu penelitian kontekstual yang menjadikan manusia sebagai instrumen, dan disesuaikan dengan situasi yang wajar dalam kaitannya dengan pengumpulan data yang pada umumnya bersifat kualitatif. Menurut Bogdan dan Tylor (dalam Moleong, 2001:31) merupakan prosedur meneliti yang menghasilkan data deskriptif berupa kata-kata tertulis atau lisan dari orang-orang dan perilaku yang dapat diamati. Pendekatan kualitatif dicirikan oleh tujuan penelitian yang berupaya memahami gejala-gejala yang sedemikian rupa yang tidak memerlukan kuantifikasi, karena gejala tidak memungkinkan untuk diukur secara tepat (Grana, 2009:32). Fokus Penelitian Pembatasan fokus penelitian sangat penting dan berkaitan erat dengan masalah maupun data yang dikumpulkan, dimana fokus merupakan pecahan dari masalah. Agar penelitian ini lebih terarah dan mudah dalam pencarian data, maka lebih dahulu ditetapkan focus penelitiannya. Hal ini sesuai dengan yang diungkapka oleh Lexy J. Moleong (2001:45) bahwa : "Penelitian kualitatif menghendaki ditetapkannya batas dalam penelitian atas dasar fokus yang timbul sebagai masalah dalam penelitian. Hal tersebut disebabkan oleh beberapa hal, pertama, batasan menentukan kenyataan ganda yang mempertajam fokus. Kedua, penetapan fokus lebih dekat dihubungkan oleh interaksi peneliti dan fokus. Dengan kata lain, bagaimanapun penetapan fokus sebagai masalah penelitian penting artinya dalam menentukan batas penelitian. Dengan hal itu peneliti menemukan lokasi peneliti". Adapun yang menjadi fokus dalam penelitian ini adalah:1. Prinsip Partisipasi aparat pemerintah dalam memberikan pelayanan publik.2. Ketentuan/aturan yang pasti dalam pelayanan Akta Jual Beli.3. Prinsip Transparansi dalam pelayanan pembuatan Akta Jual Belie4. Prinsip Responsif dan Prinsip AkuntabilitasSerta hal-hal lain yang kan berkembang dalam pelaksanaan penelitian nanti.GAMBARAN UMUM KECAMATAN GIRIANKeadaan Penduduk1. Jumlah PendudukJumlah Penduduk Kecamatan Girian menurut data yang diperoleh melalui penelitian pada Kantor Kecamatan Girian adalah 27.219 j iwa. Untuk mendapat gambaran mengenai potensi penduduk yang berada di Kecamatan Girian berdasarkan kelurahan yang ada seperti Nampak pada tabel 1 berikut ini : Tabel 1 Penduduk Kecamatan GirianNoKelurahanJumlah Penduduk1Girian Atas33452Girian Bawah49903Girian Weru Satu28764Girian Weru Dua39845Girian Indah62416Girian Permai35867Girian Wengurer2197Total27219Sumber : Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 201272. Penduduk Menurut Mata PencaharianGambaran mengenai keadaan penduduk menurut jenis mata pencaharian di Kecamatan Girian, penduduknya memiliki profesi yang berbeda-beda. Ada yang bekerja sebagai petani, perkebunan, nelayan, pengusaha, pedagang, peternak, pegawai negeri sipil dan TNI. Untuk mengetahui keadaan penduduk dan jumlahnya menurut mata pencahariannya, maka dapat dilihat pada tabel2 berikut : Tabel 2 Keadaan Penduduk Menurut Mata Pencaharian Di Kecamatan GirianNoJenis Mata PencaharianJumlah1Petani3802Perkebunan983Peternak2404Nelayan45Industri Besar / Kecil1286Pedagang357Pegawai Negeri Sipil / TNI1278Pensiun PNS / TNI1219Lainnya546Jumlah1679Sumber: Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 2012 Dari tabel diatas terlihat bahwa sebagian besar penduduknya berprofesi sebagai PNS dan Petani kemudian disusul pedangang. Untuk sisa penduduk lainnya adalah mereka yang belum bekerja atau masih dibawah umur dan anak sekolahan.A. Prasarana Sosial1. AgamaKehidupan antar umat beragama di Kecamatan Girian tetap berjalan dengan baik. Dalam kehidupan masyarakat, hubungan antar sesama pemeluk agama terjalin dengan harmonis dan tidak terjadi pertentangan antara pemeluk agama lain. Untuk mengetahui gambaran tentang agama dan pemeluknya diwilayah Kecamatan Girian, maka dapat dilihat pada tabel 3 sebagai berikut : Tabe1 3 Keberadaan Agama Dan Penganutnya Di Kecamatan GirianNoGolongan AgamaJumlah PenganutProsentase1Kristen Protestan216070,892Islam32616,233Kriste Katolik30412,464Budha--5Hindu--Jumlah27219100Sumber: Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 2012 Dari tabel 3 diatas terlihat bahwa penduduk Kecamatan Girian sebagian besar adalah penganut Agama Kristen Protestan, kemudian disusul penganut agama Islam, dan seterusnya. Untuk kegiatan peribadatan telah tersedia sarana peribadatan bagi masing-masing agama dan penganut aliran kepercayaan. Jenis kepercayaan yang dimaksud dapat dilihat pada tebel berikut:8Tabe1 4 Sarana Peribadatan di Kecamatan GirianNoSarana IbadahJumlah1Geraja202Mesjid13Wihara-4Pura-Jumlah21Sumber : Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 20122. PendidikanDalam rangka mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa serta meningkatkan sumber daya manusia di Kecamatan Girian, keadaan pendidikan masyarakat sudah jauh lebih baik dari keadaan sebelumnya. Sarana dan Prasarana pendidikan mulai dari Taman Kanak-kanak sampai Perguruan Tinggi sudah memadai untuk menampung Kebutuhan akan pendidikan masyarakat, keadaan gedung dan fasilitas lainnya pada umumnya sudah lebih baik. Untuk mengetahui gambaran yang lebih jelas mengenai tingkat pendidikan masyarakat, maka dapat dilihat pada tabel 5 berikut : Tabe1 5 Keadaan Tingkat Pendidikan Masyarakat Di Kecamatan GirianNoTingkat PendidikanJumlahProsentase1Belum Sekolah75813,192Tidak Tamat Sekolah308,263Tamat SD / Sederajat12017,354Tamat SMP / Sederajat13322,215Tamat SMU / Sederajat169814,856Tamat Akademik / Universitas / Perguruan Tinggi13515,287Buta Akrasa188,058Lainnya--Jumlah22219100Sumber : Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 2012 Dari tabel diatas Nampak penduduk Keeamatan Girian sebagian besar sudah mewakili, pendidikan baik pendidikan dasar maupun pendidikan tingkat atasnya. Maju tidaknya pendidikan tidak terlepas dari tersedianya saranalfasilita$. Untuk melihat sarana pendidikan tersebut di Kecamatan Girian maka dapat dilihat pada tabel 6 berikut ini : Tabe16 Keadaan Sarana Pendidikan Di Kecamatan (iirianNoTingkat PendidikanJumlah1TK192SD193SMP84SMU75Uiversitas / Perguruan Tinggi / Akademik9Jumlah62Sumber: Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 201293. KesehatanPelayanan Kesehatan di Kecamatan Girian sudah sangat baik. Sarana dan fasilitas kesehatan serta tenaga medis telah tersedia. Adapun jenis sarana kesehatan yang ada diwilayah kecamatan Girian dapat dilihat pada tabel 7 berikut : Tabel 7 Keadaan Sarana Kesehatan Di Kecamtan GirianNoTingkat PendidikanJumlahTenaga Medis1Apotek6242Posyandu993Puskesmas1584Puskesmas Pembantu335Dokter Praktek2121Jumlah40115Sumber: Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 2012HASIL DAN PEMBAHASANPenelitian merupakan analisa tentang penerapan prinsip-prinsip Good Governance dalam pelayanan publik di Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung, menyangkut pelayanan pembuatan Akta Jual Beli Tanah yang dilakukan oleh camat sebagai PPAT, informan dalam penelitian ini adalah: Camat, dan masyarakat yang melakukan pengurusan Akta Jual Beli Tanah, yang tercatat oleh peneliti sebanyak 3 orang, dengan klasifikasi 2 orang sebagai masyarakat biasa, dan 1 orang sebagai wiraswasta, dimana pengurusan Akta Jual Beli tanah digunakan untuk tempat usaha/toko bangunan. Berikut ini akan disampaikan hasil wawancara dari beberapa informan: ST selaku camat mengatakan : dalam memberikan pelayanan pembuatan akta tanah di kecamatan girian saya selalu mengedapankan aturan, dalam arti bagi yang telah memenuhi syarat untuk diurus dan dikeluarkan AJB, segera saya buatkan AJBnya. AW sebagai warga yang pernah mengurus AJB mengatakan : selama pengurusan AJB saya tidak pernah mengalami kesulitan atau dipersulit, karena bapak camat sebagai Pejabat Pembuat Akta tanah sangat partisipatif, hal ini juga didukung oleh persyaratan yang telah saya lengkapi terlebih dahulu. Berbeda dengan RT salah seorang warga mengatakan : selama saya mengurus AJB dikantor kecarnatan ada sedikit kendala yang saya temui, dimana untuk biaya pengurusannya saya rasa diminta agak mahal, pada saal itu saya tidak terlalu paham mekanisme pembualan AJB, sehingga saya hanya mengiyakan saja apa yang diminta untuk biaya pengurusan ini, tetapi karena pada saat itu dana yang ada pada saya belum mencukupi, hingga pengurusan AJB agak tertunda. SE selaku warga yang mengurus AJB mengatakan : dalam pengurusan AJB ini saya mengalami sedikit kendala, dimana status tanah yang saya beli masih dalam sengketa pihak keluarga, walaupun pada akhirnya dapat diselesaikan, tetapi saya harus mengeluarkan biaya yang cukup banyak, karena pada saat itu bapak camat tidak bersedia membuat AJB. ST selaku camat mengatakan : selama pengurusan AJB yang saya layani, semua biaya dan ketentuan yang harus dipenuhi selalu disampaikan kepada pemohon, sehingga tidak ada kong kalingkong dalam pengurusan AJB ini, dan setiap warga yang bermaksud membuat AJB mengerti dan paham akan ketentuan serta biaya yang dibutuhkan.1. Prinsip Partisipasi (Participation)Partisipasi sebagai salah satu prinsip good governance dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintah daerah, dimaksud adalah semua warga Negara mempunyai suara dalam pengambilan keputusan, baik secara langsung maupun melalui lembaga-lembaga perwakilan yang sah yang mewakili kepentingan mereka. Partisipasi menyeluruh tersebut dibangun berdasarkan kebebasan berkumpul10dan mengungkapkan pendapat, serta kapasitas untuk berpartisipasi secara konstruktif. Secara konkrit (operasional) ini dapat diamati melalui beberapa komponen sebagai berikut :1. Adanya ruang partisipasi dari lembaga-lembaga politik dan sosial kemasyarakatan dalam pelaksanaan pemerintahan serta penentuan keputusan publik;2. Adanya upaya-upaya konkrit untuk memperjuangkan aspirasi masyarakat secara menyeluruh dan kontinyu3. Melakukan pemberdayaan masyarakat, khususnya pemberdayaan terhadap perempuan dalam pelaksanaan pemrintahan serta dalam kehidupan masyarakat;4. Menciptakan iklim yang kondusif dalam mengembangakan kebebasan pers dan dalam hal mengemukakan pendapat bagi seluruh komponen masyarakat, sepanjang dilakukan dengan penuh kesadaran akan nilai-nilai etika dan profesionalisme kerja yang tingi.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara terhadap informan dari tiga unsur utama penyelenggara pemerintahan di Kecamatan Girian, diperoleh gambaran tentang bagaimana pelaksanaan publik service dalam penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance, khususnya prinsip partisipasi sebagaimana dapat dilihat dari wawancara kepada informan aparat pemerintah kecamatan Bapak R.K, baliau mengatakan "selaku aparat pemerintah kami selalu berpartisipasi dalam penyelenggaraan dimana selaku penyelenggara pemerintah kami dituntut untuk selalu melakukan pekerjaan kami dengan baik. peherapan prinsip partisipasi berarti bahwa baik dalam proses perumusan kebijakan, pelaksanaan maupun implementasinya telah secara langsung maupun tidak langsung melibatkan berbagai unsur/kelompok dalam masyarakat. Untuk nrengetahui tanggapan mengenai partisipasi masyarakat dalam penerapan prinsip partisipasi demi tercapainya pelayanan publik yang berkualitas, penulis mewawancarai informan dari masyarakat Ibu. AT, beliau mengatakan "partisipasi masyarakat dalam penerapan good governance di kecamatan girian dapat dikatakan baik, dimana kami selaku masyarakat selalu menunjang demi terselenggdranya pelayanan publik yang baik". Hal sebaliknya dikatakan oleh bapak T.K. partisipasi masyarakat saya rasa masih rendah hal ini karena kurangnya pelibalan oleh pemerintahan dalam perumusan kebijakan Contohnya : penentuan tarif yang bersentuhan langsung dengan kepentingan masyarakat, seperti retribusi dan lainrlain. Berdasarkan hasil wawancara dengan IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum dan ML sebagai tokoh masyarakat mengemukakan bahwa; kondisi ini dimungkinkan karena mengingat magnitude dan intensitas kegiatan dan tanggung jawab di masing-masing derah nantinya akan sedemikian besar, terutama dihadapkan pada kemampuan sumber daya yang dimiliki oleh masing-masing pemerintah daerah, maka mau tidak man harus ada perpaduan antara upaya pemerintah daerah dengan masyarakat. Dengan kata lain, pemerintah daerah harus mampu mendorong prakarsa, kreativitas dan peran serta masyarakat didaerahnya untuk ikut serta dalam setiap upaya yang dilaksanakan oleh pemerintah daerah dalam rangka memajukan kesejahtaraan masyarakat.2. Prinsip Supremasi Hukum (Rule of Law)Yang dimaksud dengan penerapan prinsip supremasi hukum dalam penelitian ini ialah kerangka hukum harus adil dan diberlakukan tanpa pandang bulu, termasuk didalamnya hukum-hukum yang menyangkut hak asasi manusia. Kepastian dan penegakan hukum jelas merupakan salah satu prasyarat keberhasilan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah. Secara konkrit (operasional) dimensi/domain ini dapat diamati melelui bebrapa komponen sebagai berikut :1. Adanya penegakan hukum secara utuh dalam berbagai aspek pemerintahan daerah.2. Adanya peraturan hukum serta perundang-undangan yang jelas dan tegas serta yang mengikat seluruh aparat pemerintahan daerah tanpa terkecuali.3. Adanya lembaga peradilan dan hukum yang kredibel dan bebas KKN.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara informan dari tiga unsur utama penyelenggara pemerintah di Kecamatan Girian, diperoleh gambaran tentang sejaumana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance, khususnya prinsip supremasi hukum dalam pembuatan akte jual beli sebagaiman11dilihat dari hasil wawancaran dengan seorang warga pengguna jasa publik di kecamatan Bapak P.Y yang pernah mengurus AJB beliau mengatakan penegakan supremasi hukum dalam pelayanan publik di kecamatan saya rasa sudah berjalan dengan baik sesuai dengan peraturan yang berlaku, walaupun tidak ada yang sempurna namun saya rasa secara keseluruhan sudah berjalan dengan baik Dalam mengurus AJB prinsip ini berjalan dengan baik. Hal yang tidak jauh berbeda dikatakan oleh informan warga lainnya Ibu. J.L. beliau mengatakan mengenai penegakan supremasi hukum dalam pembuatan AJB dikecamatan saya rasa tidak ada masalah, semua berjalan dengan baik. Dari hasil wawancara daiatas, menurut pendapat informan adalah bahwa hukum telah ditegakan secara utuh dalam berbagai aspek pemerintahan daerah dan didukung oleh peraturan-peraturan hukum dan perundang-undangan yang mengikat seluruh aparat pemerintah daerah tanpa terkecuali. Hal ini dapat ditunjang oleh fakta bahwa lembaga peradilan dan hukum dapat memainkan peran yang signifikan dalam menyelesaikan kasus-kasus pelenggaran hukum/tindak pidana korupsi. Berdasarkan hasil analisa data tersebut dapat di kemukakan bahwa penerapan prinsip supremasi hukum di Kecamatan Girian telah mencapai tingkat rata-rata atau cukup baik. Realitas ini sesuai dengan hasil waancara terhadap informan kunci IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum mengemukakan bahwa yang menyatakan bahwa sejak dilakukannya reformasi, penerapan prinsip supremasi hukum telah diupayakan antara lain dengan dilakukannya upaya penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh oknum tertentu dan pelayanan kepada masyarakat selalu dilaksanakan berdasarkan aturan yang berlaku. Sesuai dengan hasil wawancara dengan IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum mengemukakan bahwa faktor-faktor yang mendukung penerapan prinsip supremasi hukum di Kecamatan Girian antara lain :o Adanya dukungan dari pemerintah penyelenggara pemerintahan maupun legislativeo Adanya koordinasi intensif antara instansi terkait meliputi lembaga hukum dan peradilan, poIri, serat kalangan organisasi,LSM, dan unsur masyarakat lainnya.o Adanya peraturan hukum serta sanksi yang diterapkan secara tegas dan tidak mernihak.3. Prinsip Transparansi (Transparancy)Secara konseptual, transparansi dibangun atas dasar arus informasi yang bebas. Seluruh proses pemerintahan, lembaga-lembaga dan informasi perlu dapat di akses oleh pihak-pihak yang berkepentingan,dan informasi yang tersedia harus memadai agar dapat dimengerti dan dipantau. Dengan prinsip transparansi yang benar-benar diimplementasikan pada setiap aspek dan fungsi pemerintahan di daerah, apalagi bila di lengkapi dengan penerapan prinsip merit system dan reward and punishment dan keberhasilan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan didaerah. Secara konkrit, penerapan prinsip transparansi dapat dijabarkan sebagai berikut :a. Adanya arus informasi dan komunikasi yang akurat bagi masyarakat umum dalam kaitannya dengan program-program pemerintahan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah Kecamatanb. Adanya keterbukaan dalam hal pengambil keputusan publik dan dalam proses implementasi atau pelaksanaannya.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara beberpa informan bagaimana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance dalam pengunisan Akte Jual Beli, khususnya prinsip transparansi didapati bahwa prinsi transparansi di kecamatan girian telah berjalan dengan baik, hal ini berdasarkan yang dikatakan oleh infonnan tokoh masyarakat Bapak T.G beliau berpendapat bahwa penerapan prinsip keterbukaan (transparansi) dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan di Kecamatan Girian khususnya dalam pengurusan A.JB telah dilakukan secara optimal atau berada pada kategori baik, pegawai selalu menjelaskan apa, bagaimana dan berapa yang harus dikeluarkan untuk mengurus sesuatu di kecamatan. Hal ini membuat masyarakat tidak perlu bertanya-tanya dan merasa nyaman.Hal berbeda dikatakan oleh ibu. UR yang pernah mengurus akte jual bell di kecamatan, beliau mengatakan, dalam hal transparansi saya rasa perlu ada beberapa pembenahan, terkadang dalam beberapa kondisi pegawai kecamatan tidak terbuka dalam hal biaya, mungkin karena tidak12ada pimpinan atau bagaimana. Hal ini pernah terjadi waktu saya mengurus AJB, dimana ada pegawai yang meminta lebih dari biasanya. Namun setelah saya bertanya kepada teman saya yang pernah mengurus, tidak seperti itu. Untuk mengklarifikasi hal tersebut penulis mewawancarai informan kunci yakni bapak camat girian, beliau mengatakan, sebelum melaksanakan pelayanan kepada masyarakat, saya selaku pimpinan di kecamatan selalu menginstruksikan untuk selalu bersikap terbuka dan profesional dalam pekojaan, dan apabila didapati melanggar aturan, akan dikenakan sanksi, baik itu tertulis maupun tidak. Penerapan prinsip transparansi adalah mereka yang merasakan bahwa berbagai proses penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah telah berjalan secara transparan/terbuka dan dapat diakses oleh berbagai pihak, termasuk elemen masyarakat yang membutuhkan informasi. Realitas hasil penelitian ini senada dengan pendapat yang dikemukakan oleh informan IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum bahwa salah satu bentuk penerapan prinsip transparansi yang diterapkan oleh pemerintah Kecamatan Uirian antara lain dengan melakukan fungsi pelayanan komunikasi kepada masyarakat, unsur pers; serta fungsi koordinasi dengan instansi terkait berkaitan dengan tugas-tugas pemerintahan yang hasilnya kemudian di sosialisasikan secara langsung kepada masyarakat dan swasta. Adapun jenis informasi yang disampaikan kepada masyarakat ada yang bersifat vital dan fatal (dari sudut akibat yang ditimbulkan); ada pula informasi yang sifatnya biasa, atau tidak member dampak buruk bagi persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa (contoh:informasi tentang isu/konflik SARA, dan sebagainya). Sebagai bentuk transparansi birokrasi . pemerintahan, selalu diupayakan suatu laporan mengenai hasil capaian kerja birokrasi pemerintahan dan disosialisasikan kepada masyarakat luas sesuai dengan prosedur yang berlaku. Namun , sejauh ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa upaya penerapan prinsip transparansi pemerintah Kecamatan kepada masyarakat belum dilakukan secara maksimal. Menurut ML sebagai tokoh masyarakat mengemukakan bahwa faktor yang menyebabkan antara lain, :1. Adanya berbagai kepentingan politik dari berbagai kelompok elit politik yang ada di lingkungan elit pemerintahan.2. Selain itu, faktor dana operasional yang kurang mencukupi3. Faktor kurangnya kesadaran dari sebagian masyarakat tentang pentingnya sebuah informasi4. Belum tersedianya perangkat operasional seperti berbagai sarana dan prasarana yang memadai.4. Prinsip ResponsivenessPrinsip responsivitas (peduli pada stakeholder) dimaksudkan adalah lembaga-lembaga dan seluruh proses pemerintahan harus berusaha melayani semua pihak yang berkepentingan. Domain ini diamati melalui beberapa komponen antara lain :a. Mampu menciptakan sistem pelayanan kepada masyarakat yang efektif dan efisien, tidak bersifat birokratis dan feodalismeb. Memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat serta menyelesaikan segala permasalahan yang ada dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bemegara secara menyeluruh.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara terhadap informan, diperoleh gambaran bagaimana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance, khususnya prinsip responsiveness. Informan dari unsur penyelenggara pemerintahan yang di wawancarai tentang bagaimana penerapan prinsip responsiveness dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan di Kecamatan Girian, yakni bapak G.H berpendapat bahwa prinsip tersebut telah diterapkan dengan baik, hal ini karena pemerintah kecamatan selalu berusaha melakukan yang terbaik baik masykarakat begiut juga dikatakan oleh Kasie Pemerintahan Kecamatan Girian, beliau setuju dengan apa yang dikatakan oleh informan sebelumnya yakni pemerintah sejauh ini telah melakukan yang terbaik. Hasil ini memberikan indikasi bahwa dari kalangan pemerintah (birokrasi) mempunyai suatu keyakinan bahwa prinsip responsivitas dalam rnemberikan peleyanan publik telah dipupayakan secara optimal. Dari beberapa wawancara diatas dapat disilmpulkan :131. Pemerintah Keeamatan telah menunujukan kemampuan dalam menciptakan sistem pelayanan yang efektif dan efisien kepada masyarakat;2. Setiap upaya peningkatan pelayanan kepada masyarakat tidak bersifat birokratis dan feodalisme;3. Telah mampu memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat, serta menyelesaikan segala peramsalahan yang ada dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara secara menyeluruh.Dari unsur masyarakat bependapat hampir bertolak belakang dengan pendapat unsur pemerintahn, hal ini sesuai wawancara dengan bapak K.L beliau mengatakan sampai sekarang ini saya belum melihat adanya keseriusan pemerintah daerah, khususnya pemerintah Kecamatan menerapkan prinsip responsivitas dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan publik, hal ini terlihat masih lambanya kerja yang dilakukan oleh pegawai kecamatan dan terkadang mahalnya pembiayaan dalam pengurusan. Seperti pengurusan AJB. Penulis juga mewawancarai beberapa informan masyarakat, dan ada 2 hal pokok yang penulis simpulkan yakni : (1) pemerintah Kecarrlatan, belum mampu menciptakan sistem pelayanan yang efektif dan efisien kepada masyarakat. Artinya bahwa pelayanan yang dilakukan masih bemuansa ekonomi biaya tinggi, terlalu birokratis dan penuh dengan tiuansa KKN; (2) belum mampu memenuhi kebutuhan dan tuntutan masyarsakat serta belum secara optimal dapat menyelesaikan permasalah yang ada dalam kehidupan masyarakat secara keseluruhan. Namun tidak seluruh informan masyarakat yang setuju dengan pendapat sebelumnya, seperti Bapak K.D, beliau mengatakan bahwa saya melihat adanya usaha yang menuju kearah yang lebih baik yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah kecamatan dibandingkan yang sebelumnya, walaupun semuanya berjalan dengan sempurna namun saya mengapresiasi usaha dari kecatnatan yang mettgusakan pelayanan yang baik kepada masyarakat. Dan hasil diatas dapat disimpulkan bahwa secara umum penerapan prinsip responsivitas dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan publik sebagai upaya mewujudkan pemerintahan yang baik, belum menarnpakan hasil yang optimal. Menurut AM dan GP masing-,masing sebagai tokoh masyarakat merigerriukakan bahwa responsivitas (cepat tanggap) pemerintah daerah terhadap tuntutan, aspirasi dan kebutuhan masyarakat sebagai salah satu prinsip good governance belum sepenuhnya dapat di terapkan oleh pemerintah Kecamatan secara maksimal.5. Prinsip Akuntanbilitas (Accountability)Penerapan prinsip akuntanbilitas akan mendorong setiap pejabat pemeiritahan daerah untuk meleksanakan setiap tugasnya dengan cara yang terbaik bagi keberhasilan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan di daerahnya; karena setiap tindakan dan keputusan yang di ambil harus dapat di pertanggunggjawabkan kehadapan publik maupun dari kacamata hukum. Secara operasional, domain ini dijabarkan melalui beberap komponen antara lain :1. Mengefektitkan proses pengawasan intensif dan terintegral terhadap keseluruhan proses pemerintahan oleh berbagai komponen, baik pemerintah maupun masyarakat;2. Menerapkan mekenisme pertariggungjawab yang proporsional sesuai dengan tugas dan wewenang masing-masing dalam kerangka pelaksanaan peineriritaliari;3. Menyediakan informasi yang relevan, nyata dan actual mengenai penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah kepada berbagai pihak yang berkepentingan sebagai wujud pertanggungjawab pemerintah daerah.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara terhadap informan penyelenggara petlieriritahan di Kecamatan Girian diperoleh gambaran tentang bagaimana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance, khususnya prinsip akuntanbilitas didapati bahwa penerapan prinsip akuntanbilitas dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan publik maka perlu dijelaskan lebih lanjut hal-hal sebagai berikut :1. Informan dari unsur penyelenggara pemerintahaii kecamatan yang berhasil diwawancarai, berpendapat bahwa penerapan prinsip akuntabilitas telah dapat di laksanakan sudah optimal, hal ini berdasarkan hasil wawancara dengan seorng pegawai kecamatan Ibu. L.S. beliau mengatakan penerapan prinsip akuntabilitas di kecamatan sudah berjalan secara optimal yakni dengan adanya LAKIP kecamatan dengan adanya hal tersebut kecamalan telah melaksanakan prinsip akuntabilitas, hal ini juga ditegaskan oleh Sekcam Kecamatan Girian beliau14mengatakan penerapan prinsip akuntabilitas di kecamatan girian telah berjalan dengan baik dimana kami selalu mempertanggung jawabkan dan melaporkan perkembangan kecamalan baik itu kepada pimpinan maupun masyarakat.2. Pendapat diatas senada jug dengan pendapat dari unsur masyarakat, dimana hasil wawancara dengan masyarakat girian yang pernah menggunakan jasa dikecamatan yakni ibu O.P. mengatakan prinsip akuntabilitas di kecamatan saya sudah berjalan dengan baik, walaupun harus ada beberapa perubahan dan perbaikan.Hal ini sejalan derigan pendapat IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum dan KT sebagai tokoh masyarakat yang beihasil di wawancarai, bahwa secara garis besar dapat dikatakan prinsip akutanbilitas di lingkungan pemerintah kecamatan sudah cukup bagus. Salah satu wujud nyata adanya pembuatan LAKIP atau laporan Akuntabilitas Kinerja Instansi Pemerintah oleh setiap instansi pemerintah yang ada yang di laporkan kepada stakeholder. Stakeholder yang utama adalah atasan (pimpinan) instansi pemerintah yang bersangkutan. LAKIP ini telah di buat secara berkala sebagai pertangung jawaban pemerintah kepada publik.PENUTUPKesimpulan Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dalam bab sebelumnya, dan apa yang menjadi perumusan masalah, maka penelitian ini dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut :1. Dalam penerapan prinsip-prinsip Good Governance dalam pelayanan publik, terutama prinsip Partisipasi, ketentuan dan aturan-aturan yang berlaku, prinsip transparansi, dan prinsip responsif camat telah memberikan yang terbaik, walaupun ada beberapa warga menurut hasil wawancara mengatakan camat selaku PPAT cenderung pilih kasih terhadap warga yang berkemampuan secara finansial dan warga yang kurang berkemampuan.2. Secara umum pelayanan publik yang mengedepankan prinsip-prinsip Good Governance yang ada di Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung telah dilaksanakan dengan baik, walaupun belum sepenuhnya maksimal.3. Faktor-faktor yang mendorong terselenggaranya prinsip-prinsip Good Governance dalam pelayanan publik adalah prinsip Partisipasi, ketentuan dan aturan-aturan yang berlaku, prinsip transparansi, dan prinsip responsif.Saran Hal-hal yang perlu disarankan dalam penelitian ini adalah :1. Perlunya prinsip pemerataan kualitas pelayanan yang dilakukan oleh camat, agar dalam pemberian pelayanan pembuatan AJB, lebih mengedepankan pemerataan, kepada semua warga, tidak memandang yang berkemampuan secara finansial maupun warga yang tidak berkemampuan.2. Lebih ditingkatkan dan dimaksimalkan pelayanan publik kepada setiap warga, yang akan mengurus surat-surat kependudukan dan Akta Jual Bell Tanah, agar nantinya dapat tercipta pelayanan prima kepada masyarakat melalui prinsip-prinsip Good Governance.3. Perlunya ditambahkan faktor pemerataan dalam penyelenggaran pemerintah kecamatan girian, demi terciptanya pelayanan publik yang baik, berdasarkan penerapan dari prinsip Good Governance.15DAFTAR PUSTAKADwipayana, AAGN. Ari. 2003. Membangun Good Governance. Raja Grafindo Pustaka, Jakarta Grana, Judistira K. 2009. Metode penelitian kualitatif. Edisi ketiga. Bandung: Primaco Akademika Garna Foundation. Komite Anti Korupsi (KoKAK), 2002, "Panduan Rakyat Memberantas Korupsi ; Cetakan Pertama, Penerbit Komite Anti Korupsi (KoAk), Bandar Lampung. Masyarakat Transparansi Indonesia Indonesia, 2002, "Supermasi Hukum", Modul, Jakarta ________,2002, "Good governance Ian Penguatan Instansi Daerah ", Cetakan Pertama, Penerbit Masyarakat Transparansi Indonesia. Bekerjasama Dengan AusAID, Jakarta. ________,2002, "Gerakan Anti Korupsi Pilar Tegaknya Good governanceLeadership for Goopenerbitd Governance "Modul. Moleong, Lexy, J. 2001. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Penerbit Remaja Rosdakarya. Pulukadang. Ishak, 2002, "Evaluasi dan Revitalisasi Program Pembangunan Kota Manado dibidang Kepemerintahan Yang Baik ; Makalah, FISIP Unsrat. Manada. Sedarmayati, 2003. Good Govermance: Kepemerintahan Yang Baik Dalam Rangka Otonomi Daerah Upaya Membangun Organisasi Efektif dan Efisien Melalui Restrukturisasi dan Pemberdayaan. Bandung : Mandar Maju Suhardono, Edi dkk, 2001, "Good governance Untuk Daulat Siapa?" Forum LSM DIY, Yogyakarta. Zullcarnain, happy Bone, 2002, "Kendala Terwujudnya Good governance", Artikel. Sumber-Sumber Lain : - Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2004 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah, Penerbit Sinar Grafika, Jakarta 2007. - Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 101 Tahun 2000 Tentang pendidikan, pelatihan jabatan pegawai negeri sipil - Peraturan Pemerintah (PP) Nomor 19 tahun 2008 tentang kecamatan. - Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. 2002 - Kepmenpan No. 63 tahun 2003 Tentang Pedoman Umum Penyelenggaraan Pelayanan Publik- www.lan.go.id

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WAS WIR VOM WELTKRIEG NICHT WISSEN Was wir vom Weltkrieg nicht wissen ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([III]) Geleitwort ([V]) Einführung ([VII]) Vorwort ([VIII]) [Inhalt]: ([X]) [Abb.]: Nr. 1. Unsere braven Feldgrauen an der Westfront. Vorgehende Reserven passieren einen Sprengtrichter zwischen St. Quentin und Laon ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 2. Vorgehende deutsche Sturmtruppen im Westen ( - ) Vom unbekannten deutschen Soldaten ([1]) Aus der namenlosen Masse geboren ([1]) Wandlungen des Soldaten von 1914 bis 1918 (2) Die Tugenden des Soldaten (4) [Abb.]: Nr. 3. Typisches versumpftes Trichtergelände an der Westfront ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 4. Trichterfeld in Flandern Völlig unpassierbar, nur der Bohlenweg ist eben benutzbar, aber die Feldgrauen hielten aus (Fliegeraufnahme aus 200 m Höhe) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 5. Besetzter Trichter im Sumpfgelände an der Westfront In diesem Gelände hielten unsere Feldgrauen heldenmütig aus ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 6. Sturmangriff unserer Feldgrauen nach erfolgreichen Sprengungen an der Somme ( - ) Einordnung in das Schicksal der Gemeinschaft (7) Die fortzeugende Kraft des Opfers (8) [Abb.]: Nr. 7. Von der großen Schlacht im Westen Deutsche Reserven auf dem Vormarsch von St. Quentin. März 1918 ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 8. Truppentransport nach der Somme-Front (2)Nr. 9. Infanterie verläßt die Stellung zum Sturm bei Montdidier. 1918 ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 10. Die Leib-Batterie des 1. Garde-Feld-Art.-Regiments fährt bei Tarnopol zur Beschießung der fliehenden Russen auf (2)Nr. 11. Alarmierung einer Sturmabteilung ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 12. Vom östlichen Kriegsschauplatz: Vorgehende Reserven in Wolhynien ( - ) Der unbekannte Soldat lebt! (9) Gab es Schicksalsstunden im Weltkrieg und wann? ([12]) [Gedicht]: ([12]) Der Kaiser will den Krieg mit Frankreich vermeiden ([12]) [Abb.]: Nr. 13. Deutscher Vormarsch in Rumänien Unsere Truppen auf den schneedurchweichten Straßen während des Marsches gegen Braila ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 14. Die italienische Isonzofront kommt ins Wanken: Österreichische Trommelfeuer am Isonzo auf die Italiener 1917 ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 15. Verkündung des Kriegszustandes vor dem Zeughaus in Berlin am 31. Juli 1914 Unter den Linden sind Hunderttausende auf den Beinen ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 16. General Rennenkampf mit seinem Stabe im September 1914 beim Diner im Dessauer Hof in Insterburg (General Rennenkampf: der zweite links neben dem Offizier in weißer Uniform) ( - ) Zwei Fahrten (14) [Gedicht]: (16) [Abb.]: (1)Nr. 17. Englische Werbeplakate (2)Nr. 18. Englische Werbeplakate ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 19. Die große Schlacht im Westen. März 1918 Schwerer Mörser wird auf dem Kampfgelände vor Ham in Stellung gebracht ( - ) Die Schicksalsstunde der deutschen Marine (17) Die Proklamierung der Unabhängigkeit Polens am 5. November 1916 (19) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 20. Der französische General Fayolle, Kommandant einer Armee, läßt sich die französischen Truppen, die an den Kämpfen um Artois beteiligt waren, vorführen und hält eine Ansprache. 1915 (2)Nr. 21. Besuch des Generals Joffre im Hauptquartier der Generäle Mangin und Nivelle bei Verdun. 1916. (Nach französischer Darstellung) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 22. Das sterbende St. Quentin Der Brand der Kathedrale von St. Quentin, die Folge der französischen Artilleriewirkung. Blick auf die abgebrannte Kathedrale. Rechts durch französische Granaten hervorgerufener Brand. 19. August 1917 ( - ) Verdun (22) Janbo (23) Uneingeschränkter U-Boot-Handelskrieg (24) Wir werden siegen! (27) Die Stunde des Generals Foch am 26. März 1918 (28) [Abb.]: Nr. 23. Abzug der Engländer von Gallipoli. 1915 (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 24. Von der 12. Isonzoschlacht Der siegreiche Durchbruch der italienischen Front durch die Deutschen und Österreicher Ein italienisches Riesengeschütz an der Isonzofront, ein Ungeheuer, wie es sich auch unter der gewaltigen Geschützbeute der Sieger befindet ( - ) Sofortiger Waffenstillstand! (29) Krisen und Katastrophen im Feindlager ([32]) Die erste Enttäuschung unserer Feinde: Der völlige Zusammenbruch des französischen Feldzugsplanes ([32]) [Abb.]: Nr. 25. Einzug unserer Feldgrauen in Bapaume ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 26. Von den französischen Angriffen in der Champagne. Juni 1917 Überreste einer französischen Sturmwelle vor unseren Gräben ( - ) Die Katastrophe von Gallipoli 1915 (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 27. Siegreiche Offensive gegen Italien. November 1917 Im eroberten Udine. Gefangene Italiener auf dem Marktplatz (2)Nr. 28. Durchbruch westlich St. Quentin. Frühjahr 1918 Aus den Kämpfen kommende englische Gefangene ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 29. Blick in das Kampfgelände am Kemmel. Frühjahr 1918 Im Hintergrunde vorgehende deutsche Sturmwellen ( - ) Die Katastrophe 1915 im Osten (38) Das gleiche Jahr brachte die Auflösung des serbischen Heeres (39) Den Zusammenbruch des rumänischen Heeres (40) Der innere Zusammenbruch des französischen Heeres im Mai 1917 (40) Die italienische Katastrophe 1917 (42) Englische Krisis und Rußlands Ende (43) "unbeschränkten" U-Boot-Krieg (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 30. Typen der ersten nach Lemberg eingebrachten russischen Gefangenen aus den Durchbruchskämpfen 1917 (2)Nr. 31. Einige Typen der "Kulturträger" der Entente aus den Kämpfen in der Champagne ( - ) [2 Abb.]: Nr. 32. Sibirische Truppen im Kampfe um den Dzike-Lani, einen befestigten Gipfel südwestlich von Tarnopol. Die zweite Linie erwartet einen Angriff. Oben steht der Führer, Leutnant Glouschkoff, der eine Stunde später gefallen ist. (Nach englischer Darstellung) (2)Nr. 33. Tote Rumänenkompanie am Eisenbahndamm bei Kronstadt ( - ) So nahe das schicksalentscheidende Jahr 1918 (48) [2 Abb.]: (1) Nr. 34 Gefangene Schotten (2)Nr. 35. Einige Typen gefangener Amerikaner Verhör eines amerikanischen Soldaten ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 36. Die große Schlacht im Westen. März 1918 In den gestürmten englischen Linien zwischen Bapaume und Arras. Ein Transport von 4000 englischen Gefangenen in einer Sammelstelle vor Arras ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 37. Die Friedensrede des deutschen Reichskanzlers im Reichstag. Dezember 1916 ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 38. Prinz Leopold von Bayern, der Oberbefehlshaber Ost, unterzeichnet den Waffenstillstand von Brest-Litowsk 1. Kameneff, Rußland; 2. Joffe, Vorsitzender der russ. Delegation; 3. Frau U. U. Biecenko, Mitglied der russ. Delegation; 4. Kontre-Admiral Altvater, Rußland; 5. Lipsth, Hauptmann im russ. Generalstab; 6. Karachan, Sekretär der russ. Delegation; 7. Frokke, Oberstleutnant im russ. Generalstab; 8. Jeki Pascha Erz., der Bevollmächtigte der Türkei; 9. v. Merth, Botschafter, Österreich-Ungarn; 10. Prinz Leopold von Bayern, Oberbefehlshaber Ost; 11. Hoffmann, Generalmajor, Chef des Stabes; 12. Gantschew, Oberst, der bulg. Bevollmächtigte; 13. Horn, Kapitän zur See; 14. Hen, Hauptmann im Generalstab; 15. Brinkmann, Major im Generalstab; 16. v. Kameke, Major; 17. v. Rosenberg, Rittmeister; 18. v. Mirbach, Major; 19. Armeeintendant Ob.-Ost Kessel; der zweite rechts von Nr. 16, links von Nr. 7; Oberstleutnant Tillmanns, Feldeisenbahnchef Ob.-Ost; links dahinter Oberst Lehmann. ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 39. Ein schicksalsvolles Zusammentreffen: Im Wald von Compiégne Rechts der Zug der deutschen Bevollmächtigten zum Abschluß des Waffenstillstandes Links der Zug Marschall Fochs ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 40. Die deutschen Delegierten während der Übergabe des Friedensvertrages im Trianon-Palast zu Versailles (Englische Darstellung) ( - ) Aus den Hintergründen der politischen Geschichte der Kriegsjahre: Geheimaufträge, Friedensfühler, begrabene Hoffnungen ([53]) Ein unehrlicher Makler ([53]) Und Rußland? (59) [Abb.]: Nr. 41 Das verhängnisvollste Dokument des Weltkrieges: Der Diktat-Vertrag von Versailles Die letzten Zeilen des Vertrages und die Unterschriften und Siegel der Abgeordneten der Vereinigten Staaten und Großbritanniens ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 42. Zur Unterzeichnung des Diktat-Vertrages von Versailles Die Seite des Vertrages mit den Unterschriften und Siegeln der Delegierten Kanadas, Australiens, Südafrikas, Neuseeland, Indiens und der französischen Delegation (Clemenceau, Pichon, Klotz, Tardieu, Cambon) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 43. Zur Unterzeichnung des Diktat-Vertrages von Versailles Die Seite des Vertrages mit den Unterschriften und Siegeln der Delegierten Italiens, Japans, Belgiens, Boliviens, Brasiliens. (Herr Paul Fernadès, dessen Siegel aufgedrückt und dessen Name mit Bleistift geschrieben wurde, war bei der Unterzeichnung abwesend.) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 44. Zur Unterzeichnung des Diktat-Vertrages von Versailles Die Seite des Vertrages mit den Unterschriften und Siegeln der deutschen Delegierten (Hermann Müller, Dr. Bell) ( - ) Ein bourbonischer Thronprätendent (62) Der französische Generalstab auf den Pfaden der Diplomatie (65) Intermezzi (66) Papst Benedikt XV. (68) Unterlassungssünden in der militärischen Rüstung Deutschlands vor dem Kriege ([72]) Nichtausnutzung der Volkskraft ([72]) [Tabelle]: Stärke der Feld-, Reserve- und Ersatztruppen Landwehrtruppen einschl. Ersatzformationen (74) [Abb.]: Zahl der im Jahre 1910 zum Dienst im Heer ausgehobenen Mannschaften (75) [Tabelle]: Die Heeresstärken der großen europäischen Kontinentalmächte, Ende 1911, sind aus folgender Tabelle ersichtlich (75) [Abb.]: Friedenspräsenzstärke im Jahre 1911. Unteroffiziere und Mannschaften (75) [Tabelle]: Wie unser Generalstab für den Fall eines Krieges Ende 1912 die Kräfte der voraussichtlichen Gegner beurteilte, ergibt sich aus nachfolgender Übersicht, die er dem Reichskanzler vorlegte: (77) [3 Tabelle]: (1)Die jährlichen Ausgaben betrugen für das Heer (ohne Marine) auf den Kopf der Bevölkerung: (2)Die geplanten Kriegsstärken des Feld- und Besatzungsheeres wurden in unserem Generalstabe berechnet (3)Wollten wir die Masse unseres Heeres im Westen einsetzen und im Osten mit geringen Kräften auskommen, so müßte Österreich-Ungarn die Hauptlast des russischen Angriffs tragen. Ein Vergleich der Kräfte für 1914 gab aber folgendes erschütternde Bild: (79) Nichtaufstellung der 3 Korps (80) [Abb.]: Nr. 45. Bilder aus dem englischen Frontleben: Geschäftige Szene von englischen Truppen, Lazarett-Autos usw., auf einer Straße, die nach Pilkem führt (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 46. Schwere Batteriestellung in offener Feldschlacht im Westen (2)Nr. 47. Gegen Fliegersicht gedeckte (getarnte) englische Mörserbatterie vor Peronne ( - ) Nicht genügendes Zusammenwirken verantwortlicher Dienststellen (81) Nicht genügende Fühlung mit den Bundesgenossen (82) Nicht-Berücksichtigung einer langen Kriegsdauer (84) Nicht genügende Bewertung der Technik (87) [Abb.]: Nr. 48. Von der mazedonischen Front Englischer Kriegsmaterialtransport zur Front, der von kanadischen Truppen geführt wird (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 49. Straße Tergnier-Channy-Condre-Vonel. März 1917 Gesprengtes Straßenkreuz im Rückzugsgebiet (2)Nr. 50. Erstellung einer leichten Eisenbahnlinie durch die englischen Truppen für den Nachschub von Kriegsmaterial (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 51. Wechselndes Kriegsglück auf dem westlichen Kriegsschauplatz Von der französischen Offensive im Westen: Säuberung und Ausbesserung der von den Deutschen gesprengten und mit Hindernissen aller Art belegten Straßen durch die Franzosen (Nach französischer Darstellung) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 52. Zwischen Reims und Laon. Langrohrgeschütz in gedeckter Stellung ( - ) Interessante Fälle aus der Arbeit der Geheimen Feldpolizei ([89]) Wer blieb Sieger? ([89]) Von Redl bis Mata Hari (91) Agent 203 Ein Abenteuer auf der Grenzstation (93) Spionage in Zahlen (96) [Abb.]: Nr. 53. Die wuchtige deutsche Offensive gegen Rumänien: Eine verlassene rumänische Deckung vor Brasso-Kronstadt. Die tote rumänische Schwarmlinie, die durch Flankierung mit einem Maschinengewehr weggefegt wurde ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 54. Aus der Offensive gegen Rumänien: Im eroberten Constanza Einige in Brand geschossene Öltanks (2)Nr. 55. Vom Balkan-Kriegsschauplatz Franzosen beim Steineklopfen zur Herstellung von Kunststraßen für den Proviant-Automobil-Verkehr ( - ) Wie Miß Cavell erschossen wurde Bericht eines Augenzeugen über die Hinrichtung der englischen Krankenschwester ([98]) War das Urteil des Kriegsgerichts gerechtfertigt? ([98]) die Ausführung des Cavell-Films ([98]) Miß Cavell steigt aus, (99) Der politische Hintergrund (99) Frauen hatten gehandelt, Frauen angeblich die Pläne ersonnen, die Taten vollbracht (100) es wurde zugestanden (101) Wie ist die Erschießung von Miß Cavell zu beurteilen? Formell ist sie zu Recht erfolgt. Sie hatte als Mann gehandelt und wurde von uns als Mann bestraft (101) Einblicke in den Nachrichtendienst während des Weltkrieges ([103]) Verkümmerung des deutschen Nachrichtendienstes vor dem Krieg ([103]) Reorganisation des deutschen Nachrichtendienstes von 1906 ab (104) Es wurden nur unzulängliche Mittel für den deutschen Nachrichtendienst bewilligt (104) [Abb.]: Nr. 56. Ein Spionagefall in Frankreich nach dem Kriege: Sensationelle Hinrichtung von vier Spionen, darunter eine Frau(!), bei Vincennes am 15. Mai 1920. Der Moment vor dem Befehl zum Feuern. Die Verurteilten waren beschuldigt, mehrere ihrer Landsleute an die Deutschen verraten zu haben. Man beachte, daß diese traurige Exekution in Frankreich mehr als eineinhalb Jahr nach Kriegsende stattfand und daß sich die öffentliche Meinung nicht dagegen auflehnte. Ein interessantes Gegenbeispiel zum deutschen Fall der Erschießung der Miß Cavell ( - ) Der Vorsprung des feindlichen Nachrichtendienstes (105) Statistik aus der Spionage (105) die Ziele und Wege des Nachrichtendienstes der Feindbundstaaten (106) Interessante Fälle aus dem Abwehrdienst des Generalstabs aus der Vorkriegszeit (107) Der Nachrichtendienst ist zum Mittel des ewig währenden politischen und wirtschaftlichen Kampfes der Völker geworden (108) Mangelnde Einheitlichkeit im deutschen Nachrichtendienst (108) Vom russischen Nachrichtendienst (109) Viele Beziehungen des feindlichen Nachrichtendienstes in Deutschland blieben unentdeckt (110) Die schwierige Arbeit der geheimen deutschen Feldpolizei (110) Die Verhältnisse im Westen, Bevölkerung unterstützt den feindlichen Nachrichtendienst (111) Zentralen des feindlichen Nachrichtendienstes in Holland (112) Der feindliche Nachrichtendienst erfuhr nie die Absichten der deutschen Heerführung (112) Der Charakter der Spionage im Osten (113) Die Barriere im Osten gegen die Feindpropaganda (114) Die Neutralen im Nachrichtendienst (115) Eine ganz besondere Rolle im Nachrichtendienst spielt die Gewinnung eines Urteils über die Führer auf der Gegenseite (115) Propaganda des feindlichen Nachrichtendienstes gegen die deutsche Führung (116) Was wir vom Zukunftskrieg nicht wissen (116) [Abb.]: Nr. 57. Rastende feldgraue Kolonnen auf dem Wege zur Front ( - ) [2 Abb.]: Nr. 58. (1)Durchbruch westlich St. Quentin, vor Ham. März 1918 Durch gestürmte englische Stellungen vorgehende Artillerie (2)Nr. 59. Artillerie mit gemischter Bespannung beim Überwinden eines Trichterfeldes. Bei Raucourt, Februar 1918 ( - ) Hinter den Kulissen Ein paar Scherenschnitte aus der Finsternis ([118]) Aus dem deutschen Nachrichtendienst ([124]) Ein Fall von Kritiklosigkeit in der deutschen Presse ([124]) [Abb.]: Nr. 60. Ein Ort heißen Ringens: Häusertrümmer am Eingang vom Chaulnes. Mai 1918 ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 61. Von der englischen Front im Westen Die Ruinen eines von den Deutschen verlassenen Dorfes. Der Krater im Vordergrunde rührt von einer gewaltigen Minensprengung her (2)Nr. 62. Die Schlacht bei Armentières Im Straßenkampf gefallene Engländer. Estaires, April 1918 ( - ) Abenteuerliche Vorstellungen des breiten Publikums über den Nachrichtendienst. Späte Aufklärung über "Mademoiselle Docteur" Ein Bild der geheimsten Werkstatt des deutschen Generalstabes (125) Herkommen, Studien, Arbeiten der Vorkriegszeit (125) Im Dienste des Vaterlandes in Feindesland (127) Von den Schwierigkeiten, die sich mir entgegenstellten (127) Wie ich in Brüssel meinen ersten Posten im militärischen Sicherheitsdienst fand (128) [Abb.]: Nr. 63. Ein französischer besetzter Graben zwischen Reims und Laon Französischer Sturmtrupp vor dem Vorgehen ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 64. Bau einer Feldbahn für Munitionstransport bei Sedan. März 1918 ( - ) In der Kriegsnachrichtenstelle Brüssel "Leutnant" Schragmüller entpuppt sich als Dame (129) Meine Arbeit an der neuen Dienststelle Ihre Zugehörigkeit zur Obersten Heeresleitung (129) Wie ich den Chef der Abteilung IIIB des Großen Generalstabes kennenlernte (130) Ich werde Leiterin der Sektion Frankreich der Kriegsnachrichtenstelle Antwerpen (131) Über das eigentliche Wesen des Nachrichtendienstes (132) Warum sich nicht nur Berufsoffiziere für den Nachrichtendienst eignen (132) Wie sich der Mitarbeiterstab im Nachrichtendienst so interessant und vielseitig zusammensetzte (133) Das Arbeitsgebiet der Abteilung IIIB und ihre Leitung (133) Einblicke in den komplizierten Organismus des "geheimen" Nachrichtendienstes (134) Das Feld der Kriegsnachrichtenstellen (135) Von den irrigen Vorstellungen über den deutschen Nachrichtendienst (135) Interessante Vorfälle, Geheimnisse um die Nachrichtenstelle in Antwerpen (136) Vom verhängnisvollen Einfluß der Sabotageakte auf die Kriegführung ([139]) Die Sabotage als furchtbare feindliche Waffe gegen Deutschland ([139]) Sabotage betraf ausschließlich die rückwärtigen Verbindungen (140) Rückblick auf die Wandlung des Begriffes "Kriegführung" (140) Praktiken des feindlichen Sabotagedienstes (141) Feindliche Sabotage in der Kriegsindustrie (142) Pulver, Munitions- und sonstige Fabriken: Explosionen und Brände (143) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 65. Von der Explosion der Sprengstoffabrik Nitro in Chapel bei Döberitz (2)Nr. 66. Überreste der durch Explosion am 7. Januar 1918 zerstörten Hauptanlagen der Sprengstoffabrik Nitro in Chapel bei Döberitz Die Bilder Nr. 65 und Nr. 66 zeigen die furchtbare Wirkung am Hauptgebäude, die Bilder Nr. 67 und 68 die an den vollkommen vom Erdboden verschwundenen Nebengebäuden (vgl. Text S. 145) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 67. Von der Explosion der Sprengstoffabrik Nitro in Chapel bei Döberitz (2)Nr. 68. Von der Explosion der Sprengstoffabrik Nitro in Chapel bei Döberitz ( - ) Anschläge auf: (146) Flugzeug- und Luftschiffindustrie (146) Großkraftwerke und Funkstationen (147) Eisenbahnen und ihre Kunstbauten (147) Vernichtungspläne gegen unsere Lebensmittelvorräte (149) Feindliche Sabotagestellen (149) Feindliche Direktiven in der Kriegsgefangenensabotage (150) Anweisung für Schädigungen und Zerstörungen (150) Instruction pour le Sabotage des Pommes de terre Anweisung für die Kartoffelvernichtung (151) Die vielseitige Betätigung der feindlichen Sabotage (152) [Abb.]: Nr. 69 Überreste des durch Brand am 13. April 1918 zerstörten Flugzeugbaues Manzell am Bodensee (vgl. Text S. 146). Fast die ganze Anlage war zerstört. Völliger Neuaufbau notwendig. Schwerer Schaden für den Bau von Wasserflugzeugen ( - ) [3 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 70. Konstruktionszeichnung der für den Anschlag auf die Kraftwerke Rheinfelden (vgl. Text S. 147) verwendeten Sprengkörper. Ihr Durchmesser war so berechnet, daß die Zwischenräume der vor den Turbinen angebrachten Schutzgitter durchschwimmen konnten (2)Nr. 71. Form einer Sprengvorrichtung zur Zerstörung von Gleisanlagen, die russischen Sabotageagenten abgenommen wurde. Die Kästen enthielten die Sprengladung (vgl. Text S. 147/148) (3)Nr. 72. Form der in Zigaretten übersandten Glastuben, deren Inhalt zwecks Vernichtung von Hornvieh und Schweinen in das Futter eingemengt werden sollte und wurde (vgl. Text S. 150 und 152) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Darstellung eines aufgeschnittenen Kuchens mit eingebackenen Sabotagemitteln (Glasröhrchen und Tuben mit Bazillen oder sonst schädlich wirkendem Inhalt, Extirpateure usw.); im Februar 1917 durch die Postüberwachungsstelle des Lagers Heuberg entdeckt (vgl. Text S. 150). Übersendung der schriftlichen Zerstörungsanweisungen (vgl. Text S. 150/151) erfolgte ebenso (2)Nr. 74. Beschlagnahmte Kartoffeln mit ausgestochenen Augen (vgl. Text S. 150) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 75. Verschiedene Formen der für das Ausstechen der Keime und Augen von Saatkartoffeln in Kuchen übersandten Extirpateure (vgl. Text S. 151) Rechts unten: Huf- und andere Nägel; sie wurden von den Gefangenen unter das Pferde- und Rindviehfutter gemischt und dort sowie in den Eingeweiden verendeter Tiere gefunden (vgl. Text S. 152) (2) Nr. 76. Kartoffel, in der eine Metalltube, ähnlich wie in dem Kuchen auf Bild Nr. 73, enthalten war (vgl. Text S. 150) ( - ) Wie groß waren die Schäden durch Kriegsgefangenensabotge? Der feindliche Sabotagedienst beeinflußte die deutsche Kriegsführung erheblich, aber nicht entscheidend (153) Auch die planmäßige Feindpropaganda war in ihren Auswirkungen Kriegssabotage (153) Unbekanntes von Luftschiffen, ihrer Kriegführung und ihren Verlusten ([155]) Der deutsche Vorsprung im Luftschiffbau ([155]) Falsche Vorstellungen von der Leistungsfähigkeit der Luftschiffe. Die Armee gab die Luftschiffahrt 1917 auf (156) Von den Aufgaben der Luftschiffer im Kriegsfall (156) Eine Fahrt in den Wald (157) Der Verlust des "L 12" (162) Nr. 77. Zeppelin über England. (Die weißen Punkte sind platzende Geschosse.) ( - ) Nr. 78. Zeppelin über Paris. Durch Bomben zerstörte Fabrik in Courbevoie bei Paris ( - ) Verlust von fünf Luftschiffen bei einer Englandfahrt (165) Die Katastrophe von Ahlhorn (166) Englischer Fliegerangriff auf den Luftschiffplatz Tondern (167) [Tabelle]: (169) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 79. "L 7" wurde in der Nordsee von leichten englischen Kreuzern abgeschossen (2)Nr. 80. Zum Untergang von "L 19" Am 2. Februar 1916 trieb "L 19", Kapitänleutnant Löwe, sinkend in der Nordsee (Die schiffbrüchige Besatzung hat sich auf den Rücken des Luftschiffes geflüchtet!) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 81. Ins Meer gestürzt! Die Mannschaft von Zeppelin "L 15", der auf einem Streifzug über den Osten Englands von einer Granate hinten getroffen wurde und auf die Mündung der Themse herabstürzte, ergibt sich dem englischen Küstenwachtschiff "Olivine" in der Nacht vom 31. März auf 1. April 1916. (Nach einer französischen Darstellung) ( - ) [Tabelle]: (173) Aus der Geschichte der Fliegertruppe ([181]) [2 Tabellen ]: (1)a) Flugzeugfertigung (2)b) Die in den einzelnen Jahren gebauten Flugmotoren (183) [Tabelle]: c) Vergleichende Flugleistungen (184) Gefechtsgemeinschaft der Flieger mit anderen Waffen (184) In der Schlacht von Tannenberg 1914 (184) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 82. Das bei Rhetel abgeschossene Luftschiff "Alsace", die Hoffnung Frankreichs (2)Nr. 83. Von der englischen Fliegertätigkeit im Westen Vorbereitung zu einem großen englischen Nachtangriff auf deutsche Städte (Nach einer englischen Darstellung) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 84. Bei einem deutschen Bombengeschwader Aufhängen der Bomben unter das Flugzeug (2)Nr. 85. Deutsches Wasserflugzeug übernimmt auf hoher See wichtige erbeutete Papiere von einem deutschen U-Boot ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 86. Aus der deutschen Luftbeute Englisches Großflugzeug (Typ Handley-Page), das unversehrt in unsere Hände fiel. Das Flugzeug ist 30 m breit, 20 m lang und 6 1/2 m hoch, hat zwei Motoren zu je 260 PS, die zwei vierflüglige Propeller treiben. Bewaffnung: 3 Maschinengewehre. Besatzung: 5 Mann ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 87. Die Schlacht gesehen von einem Flugzeug in 200 m Höhe Die 10. Armee hat am 17. September 1916 angegriffen. Um 3 Uhr nachmittags im Verlauf des Sturmes von Vermandovillers kommen die Verstärkungen durch die bereits eroberten deutschen Gräben an. Am Abend waren Vermandovillers und Berny in der Hand der Franzosen (Nach französischer Darstellung) ( - ) [Karte]: (185) In der Sommeschlacht 1916 (186) In der großen Schlacht von Frankreich 1918 (187) Eigene Kampftätigkeit in der Luft (188) Über der Belforter Pforte 1915 (188) Die Luftschlacht von Le Câteau (189) Die deutschen Flieger am 8. August 1918, dem "schwarzen Tag des deutschen Heeres" (190) Kampftätigkeit gegen Erdziele (191) Gegen die Munitionslager von Audruicq und Cérify 1916 (191) Die Bombenangriffe auf das Rüstungsarsenal London und die Festung Paris (192) [Abb.]: Nr. 88. Eine Glanzleistung deutscher Luftaufklärung Der Hafen von Le Havre, aus 6000m Höhe von einem deutschen Aufklärungsflugzeug aufgenommen 1. Ein feindliches Lenkluftschiff, das über Le Havre kreiste und von dem deutschen Flugzeug mit Maschinengewehrfeuer angegriffen wurde. Der Schatten des Luftschiffes links daneben. - 2. Der Luftschiffhafen mit der (3). Luftschiffhalle. -4. Bahnhof. - 5. Materiallager ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 89. Ein deutscher Flieger bewirft einen französischen Munitionszug mit Bomben (2)Nr.90. Ein völlig zerstörter Munitionspark mit den Resten eines Munitionszuges; Die Munition wurde durch Fliegerbomben zur Entzündung gebracht ( - ) [Tabelle]: Churchill, der Munitionsminister, berichtet 3. B. über den Leistungsausfall in der Angriffsnacht vom 24. zum 25. September 1917 bei einer Patronenfabrik: (193) "Allgemeiner Befehl für den Flug nach Paris (193) Denkwürdige Begebenheiten aus dem Seekrieg ([195]) die Seefront, ([195]) Freie Meer, ([195]) die Überführung eines englischen Expeditionskorps (196) Englandfeindschaft (196) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 91. S. M. S "Baden" und S. M. S. "Karlsruhe" mit Zerstörersicherung (2)Nr. 92. Großkampfschiffe auf Zickzackkurs mit Torpedoboot-Zerstörern zur U-Boot-Sicherung ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 93. Das Kreuzergeschwader, S. M.S.S. "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau", "Leipzig", "Nürnberg", "Dresden" an der chilenischen Küste in den Tagen vom 26.-29. November 1914 ( - ) [Abb.]: Ein Stärkevergleich der Nordseestreitkräfte ergibt für Kriegsausbruch folgendes Bild: (197) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Ein Stärkevergleich der Nordseestreitkräfte ergibt für Kriegsausbruch folgendes Bild: (2)Der Zuwachs an Großkampfschiffen, den beide Flotten im ersten Halbjahr des Krieges erhielten, stellt sich wie folgt dar: (197) das am meisten zu beanstandende Kapitel der deutschen Seekriegführung. (198) auf diesen Tag (199) das Unheil der Flottenlähmung; Coronel (200) am Falklandtage, (200) Auslandkreuzerkrieg. Vertrauensmänner. heimliche Schlupfwinkeln (201) fliegenden Stützpunkten (201) tragisches Ende, (202) sämtliche Räume des noch schwimmenden Achterschiffs (202) "Der Kaiser hat mich zum Kommandanten dieses Schiffes gemacht, also gehe ich nicht eher über Bord, als bis es unter Wasser ist!" "Während die "Nürnberg" sank, wehte inmitten einer Gruppe von Mannschaften, hochgehalten an einer Stange, die deutsche Kriegsflagge." "Wir sind erfreut, daß der Kreuzer "Emden" jetzt endlich vernichtet worden ist, aber wir begrüßen Kapitän v. Müller als einen tapferen und ritterlichen Gegner. Sollte er nach London kommen, so würden wir ihm ein hochherziges Willkommen bereiten. Unsere seemännische Rasse weiß einen wagemutigen und erfolgreichen Seemann zu bewundern, und es gibt nur wenige Vorfälle in der neueren Seekriegsgeschichte, die bemerkenswerter wären, als die glänzende Laufbahn der kleinen "Emden". (203) "Die Haltung der Besatzung war hervorragend; es herrschten allgemein Kampfesfreude und Begeisterung. Heizer und Funktionäre drängten sich zur Bedienung der Geschütze bei Ausfällen, zu Tode Verwundete sangen beim Transport nach dem Verbandplatz das Flaggenlied." (203) "Rache für die "Gneisenau"!" (204) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 94. Das englische Kriegsschiff "Audacious" während des Sinkens Trotz dieser photographischen Aufnahme eines Passagiers der "Olympic" leugneten die Engländer den Verlust des Schiffes, das auf eine deutsche, vom Hilfskreuzer "Berlin" gelegte Mine gelaufen war (2)Nr. 95. S. M.S. "Emden" vernichtet im Hafen von Pulo Pinang den russischen Kreuzer "Schemtschug" (Gemälde von C. Saltzmann) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 96. Minentreffer am Heck eines Torpedobootes ( - ) Marinekorps; Flottenstützpunkt für den Kleinkrieg auf See; an den Brennpunkten des feindlichen Truppentransportes wurde von uns die neutrale Flagge geachtet! (205) Lazarettschiffs "Ophelia". (205) Die Rührigkeit unserer Hochseeflotte; Rattenlöchern in Scapa Flow; Schlacht an der Doggerbank. ein Meinungsstreit im britischen Seeoffizierkorps (206) Skagerraktage; Schwärme von Torpedobootsverbänden. (207) Admiral Scheer gebot. (207) [Tabelle]: (208) Oeselunternehmen (208) [Abb.]: Nr. 97. Torpedotreffer gegen S. M. Torpedoboot "V 1", 9. September 1915 Trotz der ungeheuerlichen Beschädigung gelangte "V 1" in den Hafen, ein Beweis für die überlegene deutsche Konstruktion und das Können der Führer ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 98. S. M.S. "Blücher" am 24. Januar 1915 kurz vor dem Kentern ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 99. S. M.S. "Seydlitz" in der Wilhelmshavener Schleuse nach der Skagerrakschlacht ( - ) [Abb.): Nr. 100. Torpedotreffer gegen den großen Kreuzer S. M.S. "Molke" Der Kreuzer erreichte trotz der schweren Beschädigung mit eigener Kraft den hafen ( - ) die Minensuchflottillen; über 50 000 Minen (209) Zum letztenmal (209) Der Kampf um Ostende und Seebrügge ([211]) [Abb.]: Nr. 101. Die Schlacht an der Doggerbank (Auch hier zeigt sich die Leere des Schlachtfeldes) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 102. Der Hafen von Seebrügge Links oben die durch Sprengung entstandene Öffnung in der Mole, vor dem Kanal die versenkte "Thetis", tiefer im Kanal "Intrepid" und "Iphigenia", außerdem deutsche Fahrzeuge bei Aufräumungsarbeiten ( - ) Aus den Geheimnissen des U-Boot-Krieges ([215]) Entwicklung des U-Boot-Krieges ([215]) Vergrößerter Aktionsradius ([215]) Operationsmethode gegen feindliche Kriegsschiffe (216) Zusammenarbeit mit der Flotte (216) Verwendung der U-Boote im Handelskrieg (217) Beginn der U-Boot-Blockade - Februar bis Oktober 1915 (218) Beginn und Durchführung der U-Boots-Tätigkeit im Mittelmeer (219) [Abb.]: Nr. 103. Die Sprengstelle an der Seebrügger Mole ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 104. Die versenkten Kreuzer "Intrepid" und "Iphigenia" ( - ) Weitere Schilderung der U-Boot-Blockade um England (221) Versenkung der "Lusitania" (222) Einstellung des U-Boot-Handelskriegs (223) Minenunternehmungen (224) [Abb.]: Nr. 105. Übernahme von Torpedos ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 106 Ein unter Wasser fahrendes U-Boot vom Flugzeug aus gesehen ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 107. Der Maschinenraum eines im Bau befindlichen U-Bootes ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 108- Patrouillierendes U-Boot (2)Nr. 109. Das französische U-Boot "Curie", das im Hafen von Pola von den österreichischen Strandbatterien in den Grund gebohrt wurde ( - ) Ablehnung des unbeschränkten U-Boot-Krieges durch den Kaiser; Tirpitz geht (225) U-Boots-Bestand März 1916 (226) Der neue Handelskrieg (227) Die U-Boot-Arbeit vor und während der Skagerrakschlacht (228) Der Angriffsplan gegen die englische Küste (228) Die U-Boote gelangen nicht zum Angriff (230) Vom Minenkrieg (231) U-Boot-Verwendung bei einem weiteren Vorstoß gegen die englische Küste (232) Wiederaufnahme des U-Boot-Krieges an der flandrischen Küste und in der Nordsee (233) Der verschärfte U-Boot-Krieg wird erklärt (235) Steigende Erfolge durch den verschärften U-Boot-Krieg (236) Englische Abwehrmaßnahmen (236) Bedenklicher Rückgang in den Versenkungserfolgen (237) Ausbau der Stützpunkte (238) U-Boot-Kreuzoperationen (239) U-Boot-Verluste (240) [Abb.]: Nr. 110. Das deutsche Unterseeboot "U 14" im Kampf gegen fünf bewaffnete englische Trawler ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 111. "U-Deutschland" in Baltimore ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 112. "U-Deutschland" vor der Wesermündung ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 113. Ein weltgeschichtliches Ereignis: Die ersten Waren (Farbstoffe der deutschen Farbwerke), die auf dem Unter-Wasser-Weg von Europa nach Amerika gelangten (2)Nr. 114. Auf der Fahrt In der Zentralkommandostelle ( - ) Einstellung des U-Boot-Handelskrieges (241) [3 Tabellen]: (1)Zusammenstellung der Gesamtbauten an U-Booten (2)Zusammenstellung der Gesamtverluste an U-Booten (3)Nach Kriegsschauplätzen verteilen sich die Verluste wie folgt: (241) [Tabelle]: Zusammenstellung der Versenkungen von Handels- und Hilfsschiffen durch U-Boote während des Weltkrieges auf den einzelnen Kriegsschauplätzen (242) [2Tabellen]: (1)Endergebnis der Versenkungen durch U-Boote während des Weltkrieges (2)Gegenüberstellung der nachgewiesenen versenkungen mit den Zusammenstellungen nach Lloyds Register (243) "U-Deutschland" ([244]) Weshalb der schonungslose U-Boot-Krieg geführt wurde und weshalb er nicht zum Ziele führte ([253]) [Abb.]: Nr. 115. Nach dem Waffenstillstand: Übergabe der U-Boote an England. Drei der U-Boote mit ihren Mannschaften an Bord (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 116. Der Kreuzer S. M.S. "Königsberg" im Rufidji Der Kreuzer "Königsberg" hatte sich nach seiner ersten Kreuzerfahrt notgedrungen in den Rufidji-Fluß (Deutsch-Ostafrika) zurückgezogen, wo er monatelang von den Engländern blockiert wurde. Juli 1915 fiel er nach tapferem Kampf einer englischen Übermacht von 21 Schiffen zum Opfer ( - ) Scapa Flow 21. Juni 1919 ([257]) Interessante Fälle aus dem unbekannten Kolonialkrieg ([260]) Der Krieg in den deutschen Kolonien ([260]) Der Übergang der Portugiesen über den Rowuma (262) Die "Repatriierung" der portugiesischen Helden (264) Im Zeppelin nach Deutsch-Ostafrika (267) Die Portugiesen gegen Südwestafrika (270) [Abb.]: Nr. 117. Im Felde unbesiegt: General v. Lettow-Vorbeck bei der Begrüßung auf dem Pariser Platz in Berlin ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1) Nr. 118. Maschinengewehrstellung der Schutztruppe (Deutsch-Ostafrika) (2)Nr. 119. Vom Feldzug in Ostafrika Ein Kriegsmaterial-Transport der englischen Truppen unter General Smuts passiert eine wiederhergestellte Brücke (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) Ein Seegefecht der Kameruner (275) Die Leiden der Kolonialdeutschen (277) Wie sich der Gaskrieg entwickelte ([281]) Die Anfänge und das Völkerrecht ([281]) Der Gaskrieg ein Kind des Weltkrieges ([281]) Die drei Verbote vom Haag ([281]) Warum der Feindbund die Propaganda gegen das Gas so sehr betonte (282) Frankreich beginnt den Gaskrieg (283) Die erste deutsche Antwort (283) Das militärische Bedürfnis nach dem neuen Kampfmittel (284) Die Entwicklung des Gaskrieges war unvermeidlich (284) Der Stellungskrieg begünstigte die Entwicklung (284) Das militärische Problem (285) Die Vielseitigkeit der Arbeit, ihre Gefahren und ihre Schwierigkeiten (285) Populäre Gasphantastik (286) Das Blasverfahren (287) Die Grundgedanken des Blasverfahrens (287) Die Ausführung (287) Die Schwierigkeiten und Verschiedenheiten (288) [Abb.]: Nr. 120. Eine historische Aufnahme aus dem Gaskrieg: Der erste deutsche Gasangriff bei Langenmarck ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 121. Ein Gasangriff an der Ostfront nach einer russischen Fliegeraufnahme ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 122. Gasangriff des Marinekorps in den flandrischen Dünen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 123. Ein Gasangriff (2)Nr. 124. Englischer Gasangriff auf deutsche Schützengräben (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) Der erste deutsche Erfolg und die weitere deutsche Entwicklung (289) Die Nachahmung und das Abflauen (290) Gasschutz und Gasdisziplin (290) Späte Erkenntnis der Notwendigkeit eines allgemeinen Gasschutzes (290) Umfangreiche Organisation. Gasdienst und Gasalarm (291) Der Gasschutz der Tiere, der Lebensmittel und der Ausrüstung (292) Die artilleristische Entwicklung auf dem Höhepuntk (292) Die Franzosen bringen als erste "reine Gasgeschosse" an die Front (292) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 125. Französische Granatwerfer mit Gasmasken in Erwartung eines deutschen Angriffs. (Nach französischer Darstellung) (2)Nr. 126. Erbeuteter englischer Tank aus der für die Engländer verlorenen Tankschlacht bei Cambrai Dieser weibliche Tank führt auf seinem Dach den Kletterbaum mit sich. Mittels dieser Vorrichtung kann der Tank auch größere Grabentiefe überwinden ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 127. Deutscher Tank, bei Villers-Bretonneux von den Franzosen erbeutet (2)Nr. 128. Englische Aufnahme eines männlichen Tanks im Trichtergelände. Man sieht, wie der Tank spielend die Unebenheiten des Geländes überwindet ( - ) Die deutsche Antwort; Die deutsche artilleristische Organisation (293) Die drei deutschen Hauptgasarten (293) Die Höhezeit des deutschen artilleristischen Gasschießens (295) Das Artilleriegas bei den anderen Kriegführenden (296) Die Gaswerfer (297) Das Suchen nach anderen Wegen; Die englischen Gaswerfer (297) Die deutsche Antwort (298) Der Ausgang (298) Tankschlacht ([300]) Das erste überraschende Auftauchen der Tanks ([300]) [Abb.]: Nr. 129. Bisher unbekannte Aufnahme eines französischen Spezialtanks französischer Sturmwagen, mit einer Schnellfeuerkanone bestückt, der im Gelände von Moronvilliers verwendet wurde. Der ausgesprochene Spezialtank, ein sogenannter Durchbruchstank, ist bestimmt, ein größeres Geschütz und Maschinengewehrnester nahe an den Feind heranzubringen. Die Type hat sich jedoch nicht sonderlich bewährt ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 130. Abwehr englischer Tankangriffe im Westen Englische Tanks in deutschem Artillerie-, Flak- und Minenwerfer-Feuer ( - ) Die zwei Tank-Typen (301) Die "Hush-Operation"; Frankreichs Tankwaffe (302) Die Tanks der Amerikaner (303) Die "große Tankschlacht" (303) Der deutsche Kampfwagen in Front (304) Immer mehr Tanks, immer mehr Verluste (304) [Abb.]: Nr. 131. Deutsche Panzerwagen (Tanks) in Bereitschaft. Juni 1918 Man erkennt deutlich die eigenartige deutsche Konstruktionsart. Das Prinzip des sich fortbewegenden, gepanzerten Maschinengewehrnestes kommt in der Form zum Ausdruck ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 132. Eine seltene Aufnahme Zerschossener englischer Tank, hinter dem englische Infanteristen vor einem deutschen Flugzeug Deckung suchen. Das Bild wurde von einem deutschen Flieger aus 80 m Höhe aufgenommen. In dem Gelände erkennen wir Granattrichter neben Granattrichter ( - ) 630 Chars légers und 24 Chars Schneider (305) In den Zangen der Siegfriedstellung (305) Die "Siegeswagen" (308) [Abb.]: Nr. 133. 38-cm-Schnellade-Kanone (Eisenbahn-Bettungsgeschütz), gegen Sicht gedeckt (getarnt) Mannschaften nehmen die Matten und Zweige vom Geschütz ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 134. Französischer Panzerzug mit schwerster Artillerie ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 135. Von Engländern ausgeführter Flammenwerferangriff (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 136. Großer Flammenwerfer mit Schlauchleitung in Tätigkeit (2)Nr. 137. Abbrennen von Nebeltöpfen, um den Abschuß schwerer Artillerie unsichtbar zu machen ( - ) Aus den Geheimnissen der Technik der Kriegszeit ([309]) Die Feuerspritzen von Verdun ([309]) Wo sie erscheinen, bringen sie den Sieg (311) Das Geheimnis der "Dicken Berta" (312) "Nehmen Sie bitte eine Schußweite von 120 km" (314) Die Materialschlacht (315) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 138. Zerschossene Panzerkuppel in der eroberten französischen Sperrfeste Manonvillers (2)Nr. 139. Zerschossene Panzerkuppel in der eroberten französischen Sperrfeste Manonvillers ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 140. Große Flammenwerfer in Tätigkeit ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1) Nr. 141. Ein durch einen Rohrzerspringer aufgerissenes Geschützrohr; ein Geschoß ist beim Abschuß im Rohr zersprungen (2)Nr. 142. Eine in der Abwehrschlacht beim Reims 1917 durch feindliches Artilleriefeuer zerschossene 15-cm-Haubitze, die in der Instandsetzungswerkstatt der Front wiederhergestellt werden soll ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 143. Mitarbeit der Frau bei der Munitionsherstellung Handgranaten werden zur Füllung angebohrt (2)Nr. 144. Aus einer deutschen Munitionsfabrik: Frauen beim Lackieren von Kartusch-Hülsen ( - ) Die "Landpanzerkreuzer" (317) [Abb.]: Der erste Kampfwagen Ein vom österreichischen Oberleutnant Burstyn 1912 erfundenes gepanzertes Kraftfahrgeschütz für Raupen- und Räderbewegung (Vorder- und Seitenansicht). Darunter zum Vergleich der englische Kampfwagen "Medium Mark" (Vorder- und Seitenansicht) (318) Eine wenig gekannte Waffe (319) Eine Leitung 130 mal um den Aquator (320) Mithören beim Feinde (321) Ein "Bombenerfolg" (323) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 145. Beim Marinekorps in Flandern: Granatwerfer bei der Arbeit in den Dünen. Juli 1917 (2)Nr. 146. 38-cm-Schnellade-Kanone (Eisenbahn-Rettungsgeschütz) Heranfahren der schweren Granate ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 147. Behelfsmäßig hergestellter russischer Panzerzug, bei Tarnopol 1918 erbeutet (von links nach rechts: Geschützwagen, Tender, Lokomotive, Geschützwagen) (2) Nr. 148. Bei Udine erbeuteter italienischer Panzerwagen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 149. Fahrbarer Brieftaubenschlag (2)Nr. 150. Abschießen einer Flügelmine mittels einer Wurfvorrichtung. (Nach französischer Darstellung) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: Nr. 151. (1) Der Meldehund beim Legen einer Fernsprechleitung (2)Nr. 152. Bei Udine erbeutetes Horchgerät französischer Art, das den Abwehr-Batterien zur Feststellung der Annäherung von Fliegern dient ( - ) Schießtag beim Parisgeschütz ([326]) Wie kam es zur Konstruktion des Parisgeschützes? ([326]) Die Pläne der Obersten Heeresleitung mit den Parisgeschützen (327) Geheime Vorbereitungen zum ersten Schießtag (327) Rätselraten der Feinde (328) Die geheimen Stellungen der Parisgeschütze (329) Ankunft bei den Riesengeschützen, erster Eindruck (329) Bei den Munitionsbeständen der Parisgeschütze (330) Vorbereitung am Schießtag (330) Das Schießen beginnt (331) Feuer! (332) Wir betrachten das Riesengeschütz von nahem (332) [Abb.]: Nr. 153. Überraschende Wirkung der 21-cm-Mörser in der Festung Longwy. August 1914 Ausfallstraße vom Burgunder Tor über Ravelin 13 nach außen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: [1)Nr. 154. Riesentrichter in einer eroberten französischen Ortschaft, verursacht durch eine schwere deutsche Fliegerbombe (2)Nr. 155. Eine Panzerkuppel der italienischen Panzerfeste Monte Verena mit einem Volltreffer ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 156. Das "sagenhafte" Parisgeschütz in Feuerstellung ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 157. Französische Zeichnung, die die mutmaßliche Aufstellung eines Ferngeschützes zeigt ( - ) [Karte]: Nr. 158. Karte von Paris, die die Einschläge der Ferngeschosse zeigt ( - ) Aus der Statistik der Parisgeschütze; Stellungswechsel der Parisgeschütze; Der Verbleib der Geschütze (333) Auch die früheren Gegener haben nun ihre weittragenden Geschütze; Rückblick (334) Waffen und Munition - Erzeugung und Verbrauch Kleine Bilder aus dem weltweiten Gebiet der Rüstungsindustrie ([335]) Die französischen und deutschen Heere 1870 nicht kriegsbereit; Die Erfahrungen von 1870 bis 1914 maßgebend ([335]) Maßgebende Faktoren für den Ausbau der Wehrmacht; Ungenügende Rüstung der Mittelmächte bei Kriegsausbruch (336) Man glaubte nur an eine ganz kurzen Krieg (336) [Abb.]: Nr. 159. Dreherei für schwere Granaten ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 160. Bekämpfung von Tanks durch deutsche Flammenwerfer (Im Westen im Augenblick des Angriffs aufgenommen) (2) Nr. 161. Geschützbeförderung mit Drahtseilbahn an der mazedonischen Front ( - ) Vorhandene Munitionsmengen für den Ernstfall ungenügend (337) Optimismus verhinderte wirtschaftliche Mobilmachung (337) Nur die "planmäßigen" Truppenverbände waren genügend ausgerüstet (338) Rathenaus Eingreifen. Zwangsbewirtschaftung der Rohstoffe (339) Für die Kriegsfreiwilligenfehlen Waffen und Munition (339) Das Wunder der 42-cm-Mörser. Munitionsvergeudung (340) Bald setzte ernster Munitionsmangel ein (341) Plötzlicher Rohstoffmangel in der Munitionserzeugung (341) Wie man über die Krise wegkam Auch beim Feinde Munitionsmangel (342) Zahlen aus der deutschen Geschützproduktion Enorme Steigerung der Leistungen (342) Schwerstes Flachfeuer (343) Flaks; Wandel in der Munitionserzeugung (344) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 162. Deutsches 38-cm-Eisenbahngeschütz (2)Nr. 163. Deutsches 38-cm-Eisenbahngeschütz beim Abschuß ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 164. Zu der trotz ungeheuerer artilleristischer Anstrengungen unserer Feinde gescheiterten Offensive an der Somme: Eines der schweren englischen Eisenbahngeschütze im Somme-Abschnitt ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 165. Erbeutetes englisches Munitionslager bei Aubigny vor Ham. März 1918 ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 166. Schwere englische Geschütze an der Westfront (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) Gewaltige Steigerung der Munitionsproduktion. Die Wunder der deutschen Technik (345) Das Geschütz- und Munitionsproblem in Frankreich (346) Waffen- und Munitionserzeugung in England (349) Die Leistungen der Vereinigten Staaten (352) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 167. Erbeutete russische schwere Küstengeschütze bei Dünamünde September 1917 (2)Nr. 168. Schwerer österreichischer 30,5-cm-Mörser ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 169. Französisches 16,4-cm-Flachbahngeschütz bei Hameredferme südwestlich Pargny. Mai 1918 ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 170. Ein Riesengeschütz an der englischen Front in Frankreich in Tätigkeit (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 171. Englischer Werbefeldzug für Munitionsfabrikation Munitionsarbeiterinnen mit Granathülsen auf einem Propagandazuge durch die Straßen Londons (2)Nr. 172. Große Frauenkriegsprozession in England Weibliche Munitionsabeiterinnen in der Prozession passieren Whitehall in London ( - ) Gesamtleistungen auf der Feindseite nach April 1917 (353) Ungeheure Steigerung des Verbrauchs in den Materialschlachten (355) Rückblick (355) [Abb.]: Nr. 173. Krieg und Kriegswirtschaft bedingen Geld! Englische Reklame zur Zeichnung der Kriegsanleihe Besuch der Tanks in London. Szene auf dem Trafalgarplatz zur Zeit dieser Tankbesuche, die gleichzeitig zur Zeichnung auf die Kriegsanleihe benützt werden. Des weiteren sind zur Kriegsanleihezeichnung noch eine Anzahl anderer Attraktionen aufgestellt, so Brieftaubenpost usw. Luftschiffe werfen von oben Flugblätter herunter. (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) Wehr und Wirtschaft im großen Kriege ([357]) Die Friedenswirtschaft ([357]) Die Friedensschlagworte werden wertlos (358) Es fehlte die wirtschaftspolitische Führung (359) Die ersten Umrisse der Wirtschaft der Zukunft werden sichtbar (363) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 174. Kriegsversorgungsamt, Schneiderei (2)Nr. 175. Brave deutsche Frauen treten an die Stellen der eingerückten Männer Weibliche Kraftwagenführerin an der Post in Dresden ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 176. Englische Frauenarbeit im Kriege . Englische Frauenabteilung zur Bearbeitung der Landwirtschaft des Buckingham-Palasts. Die Königin von England durchschreitet die aufgestellten Linien. (Nach englischer Darstellung) (2)Nr. 177. Kriegsfrauenarbeit in England. Auch in England ist in den letzten Kriegsjahren katastrophaler Männermangel. Drei Damen aus der Londoner Aristokratie, die auf dem königlichen Landgut in Sandringham beschäftigt sind ( - ) Von der unbekannten Materialnot Was im Kriege alles gesammelt wurde ([366]) Weshalb sammelte man? ([366]) Die Träger der Sammeltätigkeit (368) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 178. Glocken unzähliger Kirchen wurden an die Metallsammelstelle abgeliefert und eingeschmolzen (2)Nr. 179. Von der Reichswollwoche in Berlin Schüler höherer Lehranstalten helfen eifrig mit, die Wollsachen nach der Zentrallstelle zu schaffen ( - ) (2 Abb.): (1)Nr. 180. Obstkernsammlung des Vaterländischen Frauenvereins in Berlin (Man beachte die beträchtlichen Ergebnisse dieser Sammlung!) (2)Nr. 181. Ein lager von Lumpen und Altpapier ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 182. Fabrikate aus Papiergewebe: Herrenwäsche (2)Nr. 183. Seile und Bindfaden aus Papiergewebe ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 184. Erbeutete russische Munition wird für die eroberten russischen Maschinengewehre in Gurte gefüllt (2) Nr. 185. Ostpreußische Landsturmleute beim Sortieren russischen Artilleriematerials ( - ) Geldspenden (369) Gold und Schmucksachen (369) Die Ernährung der Menschen (371) Die Fütterung der Tiere (372) Bekleidung (374) Altmaterialien (376) Neue Stoffe für die Industrie (377) Liebesgaben (380) Der arme Krieg ([384]) [Abb.]: Nr. 186. Kriegsspeisung in einer deutschen Großstadt. Allerorten wurden sogenannte "Kriegsküchen" errichtet ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 187. Ernährung in den Kriegsjahren. Selbstversorger holen sich ihren Kartoffelvorrat in die Großstadt (2)Nr. 188. Wie man in den ersten Kriegsjahren den englischen Aushungerungsplan von der heiteren Seite nahm und als eine Unmöglichkeit abtat ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 189. Einblicke in die Waffenindustrie unserer Bundesgenossen: Österreichische Geschützherstellung (Die Skoda-Werke in Pilsen) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 190. Eines der vielgenannten österreichischen Motorgeschütze in Brüssel, mit welchen so glänzende Schießergebnisse erzielt wurden (2)Nr. 191. Mühseliger Transport schwerer italienischer Geschütze im Hochgebirge ( - ) Was wir vom Ernährungswesen des Weltkrieges nicht wissen ([386]) August 1914 - Hamsterpsychose ([386]) Interessante Vorgeschichte ([386]) Unsere Lebensmittelversorgung vor dem Kriege in Zahlen (388) Das Fleisch im Inland, die Futtermittel im Ausland (388) Unsere Fehler und die positiven Maßnahmen Englands (389) Trugschlüsse und amtliche Unmöglichkeiten (390) Höchstpreise-Fütterungsverbot-Getreidemonopol (392) Der berühmt gewordene "Schweinemord" (392) Beispiele der Fehlorganisation (395) Verteilung statt Erzeugungssteigerung (396) Das Jahr 1917 beginnt mit Versuchen (397) Das Ende und die Lehre daraus (397) Ärzte und Sanitäter an der Front ([399]) Seelisches Erleben in den ersten Kriegstagen ([399]) Stilles Heldentum (400) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 192. Eine lange italienische Auto-Transport-Kolonne mit Kriegsmaterial für die erste Linie (2)Nr. 193. Eine Verteidigungsstellung der Italiener bei Ledro Kleine vorgeschobene Abteilung in Erwartung eines feindlichen Angriffs ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 194. Verladen von Verwundeten in einen Lazarettzug in Cambrai ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 195. Transport eines Schwerverwundeten im Tragsack nach dem Feldlazarett (2) Nr. 196. Transport von Verwundeten mit der Feldbahn ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 197. Während der englischen Offensive im Westen nehmen englische Automobilambulanzen die massenhaft herbeigetragenen Schwerverwundeten in Empfang, um Sie nach den Lazaretten zu befördern (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) Bei den Olga-Grenadieren III/123 in der Sommeschlacht (401) Die Katastrophe am Cornilletberg (Champagne) Aus einem Bericht des Bataillonsarztes, Oberarzt Dr. Nagel II/476 (404) Sanitätsdienst im Osten (408) An der türkischen Front Aus einem Bericht von Prof. Dr. Viktor Schilling (411) Der Seekrieg (412) Ausblick (413) Frühjahr 1918 in einem Feldlazarett ([414]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 198. Die Wirkung feindlichen Artilleriefeuers auf deutsche Lazarette und Krankenwagen am Kemmel (2) Nr. 199. Verwundete englische Soldaten werden auf leichten Bahnen nach dem Lazarett befördert (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 200. Von der englischen Front: Verwundete werden während des Kampfes vom Schlachtfeld getragen (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 201. Ein deutsches Schiffslazarett (2)Nr. 202. In einer Kirche eingerichtetes deutsche Feldlazarett ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 203. Deutsche Gefangene arbeiten im Militärdepot in Bordeaux ( - ) Vom unbekannten Heldentum deutscher Gefangener in Feindesland ([421]) Auch unter den Gefangenen gab es Helden! ([421]) Die ersten Stunden der Gefangenschaft ([421]) Nur wahres soll hier erzählt werden (422) Haßpsychose der Feinde und Gefangenenbehandlung (422) Es gab wenig Feindhaß in Deutschland Wie bei uns feindliche Gefangene behandelt wurden (423) Gefangenenbehandlung bei den Italienern und Amerikanern (424) Gefangenenberaubung, Plünderungen (425) Unwürdige Behandlung, Demütigungen und Qualen der Gefangenen (426) [Abb.]: Nr. 204. Gefangenenlager Lüderitzbucht Die Häuser sind von den deutschen Gefangenen aus zusammengesuchten, herrenlos umherliegenden Abfällen erbaut, da von den Engländern nur Zelte geliefert waren ( - ) [Abb.]: (1)Nr. 205. Turnfest im Gefangenenlager (2) Nr. 206. Eine Straße in der von deutschen Gefangenen erbauten Stadt ( - ) Die Leiden des Transports (429) [Abb.]: Nr. 207. Neugierige Engländer vor dem Gefangenenlager, das ihnen Bewunderung abnötigte ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 208. Die deutsche Stadt, ein Zeuge deutscher Tüchtigkeit Die Gefangenen schaffen sich selbst ein Heim (2)Nr. 209. Die Spitzzelte der englischen Bewachungsmannschaft, der vergebens die Deutschen als Vorbild gezeigt wurden; sie war zu faul, das Beispiel der Deutschen nachzuahmen. Niemand außer dem Kommandanten und dessen Adjutanten durfte das Lager betreten; als Zeichen der Achtung, die der Kommandant den deutschen Gefangenen zollte ( - ) Flucht und Fluchtversuche (434) Was deutsche Gefangene leisteten (436) Frontpropaganda bei Feind und Freund ([440]) Psychologische Voraussetzungen für die Frontpropaganda ([440]) Hilflose Anfängerleistungen ([440]) Von den merkwürdigen Vertriebsmitteln der Frontpropaganda (442) Vertrieb durch Fliegerabwurf (442) Vertrieb durch Hand- und Gewehrgranaten und Schützengrabenmörser (443) Die endgültige Lösung: der Ballonabwurf (443) Übersicht über die Propagandavertriebsmethoden von 1916 bis Sommer 1918 (444) Statistisches von der Frontpropaganda (444) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Gesamtvertrieb von englischen Propagandaschriften (2)Statistische Ergebnisse der englischen Frontpropaganda im deutschen Heere (445) Leistungen der feindlichen Frontpropaganda (446) Aus dem Inhalt der englischen Frontpropaganda (446) Aus dem Inhalt der französischen Frontpropaganda (447) Die deutschen Hintermänner der französischen Frontpropaganda (447) Aus dem Inhalt der französischen Frontpropaganda (448) 1. Fliegerzettel mit Text. (448) 2. Illustrierte Fliegerzettel. (448) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 210. Von den Wundern des Schützengrabenkrieges: Zugang zum vordersten Graben. Ein 1 km langer bombensicherer Tunnellaufgraben, der bis zu den vordersten Schützengräben führt (2) Nr. 211. Ein Beispiel der raffinierten englischen Frontpropaganda: eine abstoßende Abbildung von einem englischen Fliegerzettel, die unseren Feldgrauen Furcht einjagen sollte ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 212. Flugblatt französischer Flieger Charakeristischer französischer Fliegerzettel mit verschiedenen Druckfehlern (z.B. war-wahr!), der sich u.a. auch an deutschpolnische Soldaten im deutschen Heer wendet ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 213. Englischer Ballonabwurf an die französisch sprechende Bevölkerung der besetzten Gebiete Nordfrankreichs und Belgiens: eine Serie Flugblätter, die zum Durchhalten auffordern ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 214. Französischer Papierballon mit Zeitschriften, die die deutschen Soldaten zum Überlaufen auffordern, in der deutschen Stellung gelandet. (Solche, vervollkommnete Ballons flogen zuletzt 600 km weit!) (2) Nr. 215. Französische Kriegspsychose: Die Bedienungsmannschaften einer französischen Batterie brachten im Halbkreis vor ihrer Stellung mit Kalkbewurf die ungeheuer große Inschrift an: "Mort aux Boches" (Tod den Deutschen). (Fliegeraufnahme aus 3800m Höhe) ( - ) 3. Fliegerzeitungen. (449) Zeitungsfälschungen. (449) Von der belgischen Frontptopaganda; Charakter der belgischen Frontpropaganda; Belgische Fliegerzettel (451) Belgische Geheimzeitungen (451) Von der amerikanischen Frontpropaganda (452) Inhalt und Charakter der amerikanischen Frontpropaganda (452) Von der italienischen Frontpropaganda (453) Von der russischen Frontpropaganda (454) Die Ententepropaganda unter einheitlichem Oberbefehl (455) Leistungen der deutschen Frontpropaganda (455) Deutsche Beeinflussung der englischen Truppen (455) Deutsche Frontpropaganda für amerikanische Soldaten (456) Aus deutschen Fliegerzetteln für französische Truppen (456) Propaganda der Mittelmächte an der italienischen Front (457) Deutsche Propaganda für die russischen Soldaten (458) Über die Wirkung der feindlichen Frontpropaganda auf die deutschen Truppen (458) Vom Geist der deutschen Kriegsmarine ([460]) [Abb.]: Nr. 216. Torpedoboot-Durchbruch ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 217. "U-Deutschland" auf der Heimreise ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 218. S. M.S. "Emden" nach dem letzten Kampf Fregattenkapitän v. Müller setzte das Schiff nach Erschöpfung aller Kampfmittel gegen den australischen Kreuzer "Sydney" auf ein Korallenriff, um seine Mannschaft zu retten ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 219. Torpedoboot-Flottille ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 220. Schlachtkreuzer in der Skagerrak-Schlacht ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 221. S. M. Torpedoboot "S 131" bei 32,5 Seemeilen Fahrt (2)Nr. 222. S. M. Torpedoboot "S 5" in schwerer See ( - ) Was wir von der Zermürbung der Zivilbevölkerung durch die kriegsfeindliche Propaganda nicht wissen ([473]) Die marxistische Internationale bricht im Juli 1914 zusammen ([473]) Liebknecht entfacht die Kriegsopposition in Deutschland (474) Unter russischer Führung entsteht eine neue kriegsfeindliche Internationale (476) Der radikal-revolutionäre Kampf gegen die nationale Front dehnt sich aus (476) Liebknecht als "Märtyrer" (477) Die radikal-revolutionäre Opposition findet Stärkung durch pazifistische Strömungen (478) Vom Kriegspazifismus der USPD (478) Der Zermürbungskampf erreicht seinen Höhepunkt (479) Die Unabhängigen und Radikalen rüsten zur Revolution (481) Das Ende (482) Von Chauvinismus, Kriegsschuld und deutscher Regierungspolitik ([484]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nr. 223. Abbildung vom Dum-Dum-Geschossen (engl. Ursprungs) (2)Nr. 224. Abbildungen von Franktireurs-Kugeln, die schreckliche Verwundungen hervorrufen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1) Nr. 225. Der hinterlistige" Deutsche Man ergibt sich scheinbar, während man den ahnungslos herankommenden Feind mit Maschinengewehrfeuer aus dem Hinterhalt niedermäht. (Nach englischer Darstellung) (2)Nr. 226. Wie der Welt draußen das Haßbild des Deutschen als Unhold, als Brandstifter, Frauen- und Kindermörder systematisch eingehämmert wurde (Nach englischer Darstellung) ( - ) [Gedicht]: "wie das Winseln eines Kindleins in der wutentbrannten Schlacht, wie ein linder Nebeltropfen in dem flammenden Gebäude, wie ein Licht, vom Borde taumelnd in den dunklen Ozean!" (Droste-Hülshoff) (486) [Artikel]: Der Feindbund hat in seiner Antwort auf die deutschen Gegenvorschläge zum Versailler Diktat und in seiner Mantelnote vom 16. Juni 1919 ausführlich begründet, was er eigentlich meint mit der Verantwortlichkeit Deutschlands für den Weltkrieg, von der Artikel 231 des Versailler Diktats spricht: (488) [Abb.]: Nr. 227. Systematischer Deutschenhaß: Eine der ersten französischen Zeitschriften wagte zu behaupten, die deutschen Feldgrauen sähen so aus! Man beachte das raffinierte System in dieser Verleumdungsmethode, der französische Zeichner stellt diesen erdichteten Vorfall, aus Haß geboren, so naturwahr dar, als ob es sich um eine photographische Aufnahme handle ( - ) Bei den Zentralmächten (489) [Abb.]: Nr. 228. Dinant - I see father. Dinant - Ich sehe Vater (Deutsche Soldaten ermorden in Dinant die Männer vor den Augen der Frauen und Kinder.) (Aus der Greuelpropaganda der Entente.) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1) Nr. 229 Christendom after twenty centuries Die Menscheit nach 20 Jahrhunderten Christentum (2) Nr. 230. Thrown to the swine. The martyred Nurse Vor die Schweine geworfen. Die gemordete Krankenpflegerin (Zur Erschießung der englischen Spionin Cavell. Die deutschen Schweine - man achte auf das E.K.! - beschnüffeln die Leiche.) ( - ) [2Abb.]: (1)Nr. 231. Plünderung bei dem Deutschen A. Schoenfeld in London Momentphotographie, veröffentlicht in der Londoner Zeitschrift "The Graphic" 1914. Vier Polizisten sehen gemütlich zu (2)Nr. 232. Bernhardiismus. "It`s all right. If I hadn`t done it some one else migth." Bernhardiismus. "Recht so. Wenn ich`s nicht getan hätte, hätte es vielleicht jemand anders getan." ( - ) Kulturkuriosa aus den Kriegsjahren ([507]) Spionistis in Frankreich ([507]) Eine verhängnisvolle Kriegsmedaille (508) La danza macabra (509) Ein Grenzfall von französischem Chauvinismus (510) Wie die Tommys in Frankreich französisch sprechen lernten (510) Wie russische Gefangene auf phonetischer Grundlage deutsch lernten (511) Eine "wahre Zeppelinnacht" in Paris (512) Episode aus dem Russeneinbruch in Ostpreußen (512) [Abb.]: Nr. 233 Deutsche Husaren-Eskadron setzt über die Drina in Mazedonien. November 1915 ( - ) [Abb.]: Nr. 234. Der Krieg im Orient. Kolonne von Transport-Kamelen an der Palästina-Front. Rückkehr von der Tränke ( - ) Deutsche Propaganda für den heiligen Krieg im Orient; Farbige Zeitungsnummern als Belege der Papiernot (513) Die deutsche Briefmarke in der französischen Propaganda (514) [Karte]: Karte der Mächtegruppierung (515) Der Weltkrieg in Zahlen Verluste an Blut und Boden ([516]) Wie viele dem Ruf zu den Waffen folgten! ([516]) Auf dem Felde der Ehre blieben: ([516]) [4 Abb.]: (1)13 250 000 deutsche Männer zogen 1914-18 ins Feld (2)8 000 000 Mann kehrten 1918 zurück (3)Die Zahl der Mobilisierten in Europa betrug 68 000 000 mann (4)30 000 000 Mann standen insgesamt Ende des krieges unter Waffen (517) Was wir von unseren toten Soldaten noch wissen! (517) [2 Tabellen]: (1)An den 2 000 000 Toten sind beteiligt: (2) Von den Toten sind (517) [5 Abb.]: Es fielen von: (1)Preußen 1 500 000 Mann (2)Bayern 250 000 (3)Sachsen 140 000 Mann (4)Württemberg 75 000 Mann (5)Schutztruppen 35 000 Mann (518) Blutige Verluste außer den Gefallenen: (518) Gesamtübersicht über die Zahl der Kämpfer und Verluste der kriegsführenden Mächte im Weltkrieg. (518) [Tabelle]: Mittelmächte: (518) [10 Abb.]: Gesamtübersicht über die Kämpfer- und Verlustzahlen der Mittelmächte (1)Kämpfer 21 200 000 (2)Tote u. Vermißte 3 540 000 (3)Verwundete 7 300 000 (4)Gefangene u. 2/3 d. Vermißten 3 250 000 (5)Gesamtsumme der Verluste 14 090 000 Gesamtübersicht über die Kämpfer- und Verlustzahlen der Ententemächte (6)Kämpfer 39 000 000 (7)Tote u. Vermißte 5 723 000 (8)Verwundete 13 768 000 (9)Gefangene u. 2/3 d. Vermißten 4 286 000 (10)Gesamtsumme der Verluste 23 777 000 (519) [Tabelle]: Ententemächte (520) [Tabelle]: Bevölkjerungs- und Gebietsverluste in Mitteleuropa (521) [Karte]: (521) [Tabelle]: Durch den Raub unserer Kolonien - als Rechtfertigung hiefür diente die abgefeimte koloniale Schuldlüge - verloren wir: (522) [Abb.]: Unsere hauptsächlichen Verluste im Schaubild: in prozent des Ganzen: (522) [Tabelle]: Leistungen aus vorhandenen Beständen: (522) [Tabelle]: Leistungen aus der laufenden Produktion: (523) "Reparationsverhandlungen" (523) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

466 p., illustrated, 30 cm. ; Emilia Serrano, the Baroness of Wilson (1834?-1922) was a Spanish writer who produced historical and sociological works, as well as novels, literary translations, and guides to conduct for young women. The book this excerpt was taken from is considered her most ambitious work. In it she displays an encyclopedic range of interests, including history, ethnology, climatology, and botany, and it clearly reflects her three overriding passions: literature, traveling, and a fascination with the Americas. In this Introduction, she provides autobiographical information about her personal life, how she became fascinated with the Americas, and her controversial decision to travel to the Americas alone. ; This document is an English translation of the Introduction from "América y sus mujeres." Translated by Lorena Gauthereau-Bryson. The language of the original document is Spanish.