Suchergebnisse

El resultado de esta investigación que se presenta como tesis para optar al grado de Doctor en Ciencias Sociales se inscribe en la tradición de reflexión sobre la identificación, entendida como proceso social constitutivo, en el campo disciplinar de la Sociología. El propósito fundamental de esta pesquisa consiste en revelar la existencia de tensiones entre distintos modos de identificación que operan de manera simultánea y concurrente en agentes sociales que conforman parte de un colectivo social más amplio. Tales resistencias no son exclusivas del referente empírico seleccionado como unidad de análisis de esta investigación (los miembros de la Organización Testigos de Jehová); tensiones similares o análogas son posibles de puntualizar en otros grupos sociales cuyos idearios no sean necesariamente "religiosos". Sin embargo, los Testigos de Jehová como grupo social se presentan como una unidad de análisis pertinente, en virtud de su condición paradigmática como actor colectivo (e individual) en el cual se expresan tensiones de máxima intensidad entre procesos de identificación concurrentes y, que a primera vista, se manifiestan como mutuamente excluyentes. Por ello, esta indagación se propone comprender, desde el paradigma constructivista de la teoría social, los modos de conformación de los procesos de identificación social de los creyentes Testigos de Jehová. Asimismo, persigue identificar y explicar las tensiones existentes entre la identidad religiosa y la identidad ciudadana como instancias de significación del mundo social objetivo entre los adherentes a esta minoría religiosa. Por último, pretende explicar las resoluciones de dichas tensiones a nivel de la subjetividad de los agentes sociales pertenecientes a esta creencia religiosa. En el ordenamiento institucional, y por medio de ciertos mecanismos y dispositivos privilegiados, se evidencian las tensiones existentes entre el Estado y las minorías religiosas por el sostenimiento del monopolio simbólico de la construcción identitaria. Los Testigos de Jehová resultan un caso paradigmático de estas resistencias. La identidad ciudadana, como resultado de los mecanismos de normalización e invisibilización de la "otredad", opera como instancia de racionalización simbólica de las diferencias socio-culturales. En este sentido, la minoría Testigo de Jehová ofrece la posibilidad de advertir el modo en el cual el ideario del "Estado Nacional" se privilegia por encima del ideario religioso, ofreciendo como resultado una configuración cultural contingente (a la vez que definida por desigualdades de poder) que legitima prácticas sociales discriminatorias. Al nivel de las prácticas sociales de los Testigos de Jehová, se presenta la disyuntiva de considerar de qué modo los creyentes de esta minoría religiosa actúan como agentes políticos que propician por medio de la praxis ciudadana el bienestar del colectivo mayor en el cual se encuentran integrados. La discriminación social opera como forma de resolución de las tensiones identitarias a nivel de la estructuración de prácticas sociales discriminatorias. Por ello, resulta de interés no sólo sociológico y político, sino también social, elaborar una reflexión teórica y empírica que problematice la identificación, entendida como proceso, en el contexto más amplio de la "interculturalidad" a la cual se encuentran sometidas las sociedades contemporáneas. Pensar sobre los modos de tales identificaciones implica, necesariamente, desnaturalizar la "identidad nacional" como modo legítimo de dador de sentido de la vida ciudadana en el seno de un Estado nacional. Al mismo tiempo, ofrece una interpelación necesaria, a la vez que no exenta de tensiones y conflictos, entre otras instancias de significación de la vida social que operan entre los agentes sociales, que exploran la búsqueda de nuevas formas de identificación sustentadas en otros idearios. De este modo, esta investigación, producto del cuestionamiento primordial sobre las tensiones existentes en los procesos de identificación, pretende, por medio de un recorte peculiar y limitado, ofrecer líneas de interpretación y comprensión de las complejidades sociales a las cuales los agentes sociales se encuentran sometidos en el contexto socio-histórico particular. The result of this research presented as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Social Sciences is inserted in the tradition of reflection on the identification, understood as a constitutive social process, in the disciplinary field of Sociology. The main purpose of this study is to reveal the existence of tensions between different modes of identification that operate simultaneously and concurrently over social agents who form part of a larger social group. Such resistance is not unique referred to the empirical referent selected as the unit of analysis of this inquiry (the members of the Jehovah's Witnesses Organization); similar tensions are possible to point to other social groups whose ideologies are not necessarily "religious". However, Jehovah's Witnesses as a social group are presented as a unit of analysis, precisely beause of its paradigmatic status as collective (and individual) actor in which maximum intensity tensions between concurrent processes are expressed, which at first glance, appear to be mutually exclusive. Therefore, this research aims to understand, from the constructivist paradigm of social theory, ways of shaping social processes identifying Jehovah's Witness believers. It also seeks to identify and explain the tensions between religious identity and civic identity as instances of social significance of the objective world between the adherents of this religious minority. Finally, it attempts to explain the resolutions of those tensions at the level of subjectivity of social actors belonging to this religious belief. In the institutional order, and by certain privileged mechanisms and devices, the tensions between the State and religious minorities sustaining the symbolic monopoly of identity construction are evident. Jehovah's Witnesses are a paradigmatic case of this resistance. Civic identity, as a result of the mechanisms of normalization and invisibility of "otherness", operates as an instance of symbolic rationalization of socio-cultural differences. In this sense, the Jehovah's Witness minority offers the possibility to notice the way in which the ideology of the "national government" is favored over religious ideology, offering a cultural configuration result quota (while defined by inequalities power) that legitimizes discriminatory social practices. At the level of social practices of Jehovah's Witnesses, consider the dilemma of how believers of this religious minority act as political agents that lead through civic praxis presents greater collective welfare in which are integrated . Social discrimination operates as a form of resolution of identity at the level of structuring tensions discriminatory social practices. It is therefore not only sociological and political but also social interests, develop a theoretical and empirical reflection able to consider identification as a scientific social problem, understood as a process in the broader context of "interculturalism" to which are subject contemporary societies. Think about the ways of such identifications necessarily imply denature the "national identity" as a legitimate way of giving sense of civic life within a nation state. At the same time, it provides a necessary questioning, while not without its tensions and conflicts, among other instances of social life significant operating between the social partners, to explore the search for new forms of identification based on other ideologies. Thus, this research, questioning primary product of the tensions in the identification process, intends, through a peculiar and limited crop, offer lines of interpretation and understanding of the social complexities to which the social partners are submitted in the particular socio-historical context.

La tesi è stata intitolata "Change the System From Within". La participatory democracy e le riforme istituzionali negli Stati Uniti degli anni Sessanta e si compone di cinque capitoli. Nel primo capitolo si riprende l'idea di participatory democracy emersa in seno alla New Left e ai movimenti sociali dei lunghi anni Sessanta. In questo contesto il concetto di participatory democracy assunse due principali accezioni: da una parte rappresentava la rivendicazione politica di un maggior coinvolgimento attivo della cittadinanza nelle politiche - locali, statali e federali - frutto della crisi di legittimità che la democrazia americana stava attraversando in quegli anni; dall'altra, il concetto venne adottato come principio organizzativo all'interno dei gruppi stessi di attivisti, con la funzione di prefigurare quelle riforme politico-istituzionali cui gli stessi militanti aspiravano. Dalla stessa temperie di contestazione sorse del resto anche la critica che alcuni studiosi mossero alla teoria liberale pluralista e alla sua esemplificazione nella coeva democrazia americana. Nel primo capitolo si mostra proprio come da quelle rielaborazioni critiche degli anni Sessanta emerse anche il primo modello di participatory democracy in seno alla teoria politica, sviluppato pienamente negli anni Settanta e Ottanta da Carole Pateman, Crawford B. Macpherson e Benjamin Barber. Questa parte del lavoro di tesi si propone quindi di accostare alle pratiche partecipative introdotte dai movimenti anche la ricostruzione dello sviluppo graduale di una teoria politica della participatory democracy. Tale riflessione è completata da un'analisi storica di ampio raggio, necessaria a meglio contestualizzare il fenomeno e ad includere le nuove richieste democratiche nell'ambito di una tradizione democratico-rappresentativa già dotata di istituti partecipativi di democrazia diretta. Chiarito il quadro storico-politico degli anni Sessanta, il secondo capitolo analizza la ricezione dell'idea di participatory democracy nelle politiche federali. A questo proposito si illustra come il principio di citizen participation fosse stato recepito già con la War on Poverty promossa da Lindon B. Johnson alla metà degli anni Sessanta e fu mantenuto, con esiti istituzionali differenti, almeno fino alla fine della presidenza Carter. Si dimostra inoltre che, malgrado il dettato legislativo federale fosse spesso approssimativo sulle modalità operative, quel principio ebbe in realtà un notevole impatto sulle relazioni intergovernative. Tale principio favorì ad esempio l'intraprendenza di molti amministratori locali nel promuovere il decentramento amministrativo e politico su base di quartiere. Nel terzo capitolo l'analisi affronta le principali trasformazioni in senso partecipativo avvenute nei sistemi di governo statali e locali negli anni Settanta, mettendole in relazione anche alle dinamiche intergovernative di più lungo periodo. Il capitolo è strutturato in modo tale da evidenziare il tendenziale recupero e rafforzamento di istituti già esistenti, come l'initiative, i public hearing e gli school district come strumenti di rivendicazione del community control in alcune città di grandi dimensioni. Mentre il secondo e terzo capitolo tendono a osservare le riforme istituzionali degli anni Settanta in senso partecipativo in seno al governo federale, statale e locale, i due successivi capitoli mirano ad osservare l'impatto della participatory democracy nel confronto tra attivismo militante e pratiche amministrative tradizionali degli anni Settanta. Il quarto capitolo è infatti dedicato all'ingresso della nuova generazione di politici progressisti nelle amministrazioni locali e statali fra la fine degli anni Sessanta e la prima metà degli anni Settanta. Per analizzarlo si è deciso di analizzare come principale caso di studio la Conference on Alternative State and Local Policy (CASLP), una organizzazione e forum nazionale che mirava proprio ad unire alle istanze dei progressisti una expertise di governo. Nell'ambito della CASLP, la cosiddetta Coalizione progressista di Berkeley, CA, fornì un caso esemplare di strategia di confronto con le istituzioni locali e per questo il capitolo le dedica una attenta disanima. La pluriennale esperienza di azione collettiva dei progressisti di Berkeley nell'arena istituzionale è infatti rilevante sia per l'innovazione nella strategia istituzionale, sia per attestare una evoluzione dell'idea di participatory democracy nel tempo. Il quinto capitolo ricostruisce ed analizza la carriera politica di Tom Hayden negli anni in cui passò dall'attivismo alla politica istituzionale, con la campagna elettorale per diventare Senatore della California in Congresso (1975-1976) e la successiva Campaign for Economic Democracy (1976-1982), confermando la spiccata propensione del leader all'innovazione istituzionale in senso partecipativo. In particolare, nella campagna elettorale per il Senato del Congresso del 1976 Hayden riuscì a implementare forme di decision-making partecipato in seno allo staff. Nella gestione del personale cercò inoltre di favorire l'empowerment di volontari e cittadini senza perdere di vista i requisiti essenziali per la sopravvivenza della campagna: fundraising e propaganda. In linea con la sua battaglia contro le distorsioni economiche del big business, scelse di non accettare fondi da corporation e banche e riuscì nell'intento di essere sostenuto per gran parte da small donors. Hayden dunque introdusse pratiche di participatory democracy in seno alla campagna elettorale e continuò a rivendicare la sua fiducia nella forza dei movimenti grass-roots. L'analisi storica, ad ogni modo, evidenzia anche le criticità che derivavano dall'uso di pratiche partecipative nella governance della campagna elettorale. Atttraverso l'analisi teorica e politico-istituzionale della democrazia partecipativa americana fra gli anni Sessanta e Settanta su vari livelli istituzionali (federale, statale e locale), questo progetto di ricerca tenta quindi di colmare un vuoto storiografico e, al tempo stesso intende contribuire alla definizione storico-istituzionale della participatory democracy in seno alla democrazia rappresentativa degli Stati Uniti. Infine, la presente ricerca mira a inserirsi nel dibattito pubblico contemporaneo sulla participatory democracy, offrendo una visione storico-istituzionale importante per meglio comprendere il fenomeno e che, finora, non ha ricevuto l'attenzione che meriterebbe. ; Chapter 1 retrieves the idea of participatory democracy stemmed from the Long 1960s New Left and the following social movements. Indeed, the concept of participatory democracy mainly acquired two slightly different shapes in that historical framework. From one hand, it meant the broad political call for common citizens' greater involvement in the policy-making - at the local, state and federal level. That request was in fact a reply to the ongoing crisis of the American democracy, in terms of political legitimacy and social representation of minorities and poor people. In the other hand, participatory democracy represented the organizing principle adopted by most of the grass-roots groups of that period, with a clear prefigurative function. Indeed, making the activist groups' inner decision-making participatory was a way for the collectives to anticipate the institutional changes they aspired to. In the meantime, because of the same disaffection against the raising social and political inequalities, some political science scholars elaborated a critique to the pluralist version of the liberal democracy - then the most praised one, as well as credited as it was embodied in the American democracy. Those 1960s critiques were eventually used to conceive the first political theory of participatory democracy in the 1970s and 1980s, as Chapter 1 shows. The participatory democracy's canon was in fact mostly developed by Carole Pateman, Crawford B. Macpherson and Benjamin Barber. Beside the intellectual history of participatory democracy from 1960s to 1980s, Chapter 1 allows to contextualize ideas and practices of common citizens' participation into the wider history of the American Political Development. According to that, chapter 1 also provides a detailed analysis of the participatory political institutions that were traditionally part of the United States representative democracy. Chapter 2 verifies whether the 1960s idea of participatory democracy actually affected the federal public policies of the late 1960s and 1970s. Indeed the principle of "citizen participation" was introduced in some of the War on Poverty legislations, promoted by Lyndon B. Johnson since the mid-1960s. Although the heterogeneous institutional effects, that principle was maintained in some grant-in-aid projects until the end of the Carter administration, through the Nixon and Ford administrations. Therefore, the political meanings assumed by the idea of "citizen participation" and its institutional consequences from 1964 to 1980 are carefully analyzed in chapter 2. Moreover, chapter 2 shows that the principle of citizen participation had such a strong impact on the intergovernmental relations. It thus brought forward, for instance, the local public officers' entrepreneurship towards the local devolution, shifting the administrative and political power base from the center to the neighborhood. Chapter 3 deals with the 1970s main institutional reforms aimed at introducing the common citizens' participation in the government decision-making at the state and local levels. Those reforms are deeply related to some long-lasting intergovernmental dynamics and this relationship is also argued. The same chapter's lay-out is vowed to underline the 1970s general trend of retrieval and enhancing of traditional institutions, such as the initiative (direct democracy), the public hearings and the school districts. The school board was indeed reevaluated and reshaped as a means of community control in the biggest cities. As chapters 2 and 3 aim at exploring the implementation of participatory reforms in the federal, state and local level of government, chapters 4 and 5 aim at inquiring the participatory democracy's impact on the 1970s boundary of polity - the space where activism meets political institutions. Chapter 4 inquires the new generations of progressive politicians entering the local and state administrations from the late 1960s to the mid-1970s. To frame that national phenomenon, the historical analysis use the Conference of Alternative States and Local Policies (CASLP) as a case study. CASLP was indeed a national organization born in 1975 to give voice to the progressive public officers around the country and allowed them sharing their government experiences for a more effective institutional impact. Inside CASLP, the progressive coalition of Berkeley, CA (called Berkeley Citizens' Action, BCA) was especially spotted for its exemplary strategy to confront local political institutions. The 1970s BCA's political actions are thus specifically analyzed. In fact, the institutional approach of the Berkeley progressive coalition resulted to be innovative in terms of strategy as well as successful in introducing new forms of participatory democracy into the local government, assessing the 1970s evolution of the participatory democracy political theory and practices. Chapter 5 retraces the political career of the former New Left leader Tom Hayden during the years of turning from activism to institutional politics. Especially, the analysis focuses on the 1975-1976 U.S. Senate Campaign and the following Campaign for Economic Democracy (CED), a coalition project and organization led by Hayden with the goal of mobilizing activists and public officers around the issues of economic justice, environmental and economic public policies (1976-1982). That period - just before Hayden was elected representative at the California Legislature in 1982 - is thus analyzed as a testing ground to verify his long-lasting commitment towards participatory democracy. The historical and political analysis, based on original archival findings, confirms Hayden's inclination for institutional innovation in the participatory realm. In particular, during the 1975-1976 electoral campaign for the U.S. Senate in California Hayden introduced participatory forms of decision-making involving staff people, volunteers and supporting grass-roots groups. Moreover, that campaign's staff and people management was conceived in order to directly empower citizens and volunteers, without losing track of the campaigning basic requirements (e. g. fundraising and propaganda). As he stood against big business and economic inequalities, he chose to reject fundings from corporations and banks. Therefore his electoral campaign was mostly sustained by small donors. Hayden successfully made the campaigning more open, accountable and participatory and kept on sponsoring his trust in community organizing and grass-roots social movements even in his following political endeavour, CED. Eventually, the investigation casts lights on the strengths, as well as the critical issues, produced by the Hayden's participatory governance of campaigning. By the means of analysing the intellectual history and the institutional implementation of participatory democracy during late 1960s-1970s United States, this research project firstly aims at making up the lack of historiography about the topic. In the second stance, grounding the institutional and political history of participatory democracy in the United States representative democracy - where the concept was born - this research project intends to provide a first genealogy of the participatory democracy's institutional implementation. In this sense, the research projects wants also to contribute to the contemporary debate on the participatory democracy. It is indeed a compelling and popular issue in many worldwide political arenas, but it is still rarely defined by its historical and institutional terms.

The virulent strain of nativist, anti-establishment, anti-corporatist and anti-immigrant sentiment is rocking the foundations of traditional party systems in all industrialized democracies. Its causes are many, but in broad terms it is safe to say they surfaced right after the 2008-09 economic collapse, an era that was characterized by intense polarization and confrontational approaches against governments, corporations and financial institutions which crossed party lines and traditional political cleavages. The sweeping changes brought about by globalized capital and corporate interests, and the blurring of national borders that accompanied them, have alienated big swathes of the population and given rise to new forms of strident populism everywhere.In the United States the main manifestation of this phenomenon is taking the form of a populist revolt, a singular form of class warfare inside the Republican Party, between the established party hierarchy and the Tea Party movement.As the next legislative election approaches, the internecine feud within the Republican Party continues to create challenges for its top candidates who must veer more right-wing to secure the nomination and then turn back to the center of American politics to win the general election. Before 2012, the GOP tried to co-opt the extreme right and used their rhetoric, but after the 2012 election losses, the party took uncertain steps to distance itself from the movement. Today, the movement rather than the establishment seems to be dictating the party line, so there is paralysis in Washington once again. The leadership will still have to govern and legislate on some central issues-increase the debt limit, fund the government, and renew the authorization charter of the Export-Import Bank, among other things, and in so doing, further alienate Tea Party voters. The Republican-dominated House will no doubt stay away from the avoidable taboos, such as considering immigration reform (for which the Senate already passed its own bill one year ago!) and in consequence, one more time unintentionally secure the Latino vote for the Democratic Party. They will continue blocking the minimum wage raise and the Fair Paycheck Act, thereby losing the minorities and women's vote. In this context, the 2016 presidential horizon looks brilliantly promising for Democrats and their two presidential hopefuls, Hillary Clinton and Elizabeth Warren.The defeat of Virginia Representative and House Majority Leader Eric Cantor in the June 10th Republican primary for the seventh Congressional district is symptomatic of deep divisions not only within the Republican Partybut in the electorate at large. Eric Cantor, a Republican with impeccable conservative credentials who had been re-elected seven times and who was first in line for House Speaker,lost by ten solid points to a little known college professor who ran against him by portraying him as the pro-Wall Street, pro-K Street typical Washington insider, indifferent from Main Street needs and demands. This race is very significant for several reasons. For starters, the anti-Washington, anti "corporate welfare" and anti-Wall Street sentiment is widespread among independent voters and those GOP legislators that have been "pro-bailout, pro-Obama stimulus spending and pro-immigration," as articulated by Tea Party leaders, live in fear of being chastened by voters.That is why this week Republicans in Congress who were holding their breath, are exhaling with a sense of relief as Senator Thad Cochran wins the primary runoff against Tea Party challenger ChrisMcDaniels who ran on a promise to voters that he would add his voice to the fight against Obamacare and big government spending. It appears then that the anti-incumbent sentiment has not been strong enoughto become a sustained trend: so far, only two sitting representatives have not won re-nomination in the House and all 18 Senate races have been won by those holding the seats, including Lindsay Graham of South Carolina, who was a leader in favor of Immigration Reform in the Senate, but has been vocal in confronting Obama with his dismal record in foreign policy, from Benghazi to Syria to Ukraine, and now all the way back to Iraq. But even pollsters have been taken by surprise in most cases, whether as to the narrowness of results (such as the one is Mississippi, which required a runoff election) or to the unfathomable upsets (Cantor's represents a historical defeat: no Majority leader had been voted out in a primary election since the nineteenth century). There are many reasons why nobody saw this coming, first among them the constant problem of voter turnout, especially in primaries, followed by new strategies by candidates (David Bratt, the college professor that beat Cantor, did door -to -door canvassing, taking time to speak to prospective voters, and he beat a competitor who had outspent him 40 to 1) and by the strong commitment of a small group of activists that mobilized the grassroots against Cantor's pro-business stance. The outcome of these races is further complicated by the fact that many Democrats are taking part in open primaries, which makes them even more unpredictable. Democrats participated in both races, voting against the incumbent, Cantor, in Virginia (he was perceived as the main obstacle for bringing to the floor a vote on immigration bills that apparently would have had the votes to pass) and in favor of incumbent, veteranSenator Thad Cochran in Mississippi (he courted the African American vote, pointing out the amount of federal funds he had brought to the state in his 36 years as Senator, and they acquiesced, fearing Mc Daniels would be a worse choice for their interests in such a red state as Mississippi).These idiosyncratic variations and distortions should not distract us from the fact that the defeat of ultra-conservative House Majority leader from a white, affluent Richmond suburb is extremely significant and will have many ramifications in the near future. First and foremost, it has led to an immediate reshuffle of the party internal House leadership, as Cantorresigned his post as Majority leader. The first in line to fill his post, House whip Kevin McCarthy from California, used his insider skills to mobilize his contacts and call in his favors fast enough to pre-empt a challenge by a Tea Party congressman from Idaho, Raul Labrador, in a secret, internal party ballot. He has thus become Majority leader only eight years after he was first elected to Congress for California 23rd district. If re-elected in November, he will be first in line for House Speaker when Rep. Boehner gives up his post. This coveted position would have been Cantor's crowning achievement after a solid career of 14 years in Congress: he had hoped to become the first Jewish Speaker of the House.In spite of McCarthy's success in pre-empting challenges from outside the party leadership, the next one in line to move into McCarthy's whip position, deputy whip Peter Roskam from Illinois, lost the ballot to Tea Party challenger Steve Scalise from Louisiana, who mobilized the vote of Southern legislators and won, thereby establishing a presence for the movement inside the GOP hierarchy. Scalise, who was elected to Congress in 2008, has also risen rapidly through the ranks, as chairman of the ultra-conservative Republican Study Group and as a vocal advocate against big government.Party Whips in Congress are in charge of counting votes for and against legislation. They are enforcers, offering incentives and doling out punishments for votes among their caucus members. Their role becomes particularly important in close votes. The whip is also the main liaison between the party leadership and the rank and file.Primaries are proving to be much more dangerous for establishment Republicans than a prospective national election at the end of this year, in which they are poised to win both some Senate and House seats, mainly due to slow economic growth and low support for Obama, but more pointedly due to the opportunity created by the retirement of a significant number of long-serving senior legislators. Rather than the November election challenge against Democrats, primaries have become the main obstacle to surmount and the main focus of funding for incumbents and party establishment candidates. Memories of seats lost due to Tea party primary winners in the national 2010 and 2012 election still loom heavily in GOP minds. Karl Rove's words of advice to both the Tea Party activists and the GOP leadershipin February of 2010 still resonate in the halls of Congress:"If Tea party groups are to maximize their influence on policy, they must now begin the difficult task of disassociating themselves from cranks and conspiracy nuts. This includes 9/11 deniers, "birthers" who insist Barack Obama was not born in the U.S., and militia supporters espousing something vaguely close to armed rebellion.""The GOP is also better off if it foregoes any attempt to merge with the tea party movement. The GOP cannot possibly hope to control the dynamics of the highly decentralized galaxy of groups that make up the tea party movement. There will be troubling excesses and these will hurt Republicans if the party is formally associated with tea party groups" (Wall Street Journal, Feb. 18 2010).Because they are extremely vocal as well as media favorites (whether to disparage or to endorse them) and have made some undeniable inroads into the halls of power, the Tea Partiers have indeed made a splash in US politics, and they have re-shaped the agenda on issues of taxes and spending (with mixed success). But so far this term, 273 of 275 House incumbents and 18 out of 18 Senators have won re-nomination, even if in most House cases these contests were won by small margins. This is evidence that there is still somediscipline in party ranks, and newcomers are forced to follow the party leadership. For example in Kentucky, Sen. Rand Paul, largely recognized as the presidential candidate for Tea-Partiers and libertarians alike, did not campaign in favor of the Tea Party candidate who was running against Senate Minority leader Mitch McConnell, and gave the former only lukewarm support. Senator McConnell, a tough, seasoned veteran, was reported to have had a private, one-on-one, closed-doors conversation with Rand Paul before the primary campaign started…It then becomes clear that membership still has its privileges, and the Tea Partiers' disdain for insider politicking and the compromises required by politics in general won't take them very far. That is the stuff of politics, so now these political neophytes are getting into the fray, they will have to learn a few organizational lessons from the savvy insiders they are trying to replace. Nonetheless, one of the first comments made by Kevin McCarthy Fox News as he moved into Cantor's position was that "Yes, he would let the Export-Import Bank (reauthorization) to expire because it is something the private sector can do better". This represents a reversal from his 2012 position, and one that distances him from the business community and the party establishment, who want the Bank to remain. (Tea Partiers want to do away with the Ex-Im, the IRS and the Department of Education, among other institutions they find superfluous). In another interview, McCarthy asserted that the GOP had more to gain (politically) if it moved closer to libertarian ideas. So it has become apparent then, that the Tea Party as a movement and as a faction of the Republican Party is here to stay, at least for the near future. Its strength will depend on how they can accommodate their desires to the realities of governing the United States of America in the XXI century.María Fornella-Oehninger - Comparative Politics Professor, Old Dominion University in Norfolk, Virginia.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sonath-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 445 ha in Sonath -1 microwatershed in Gulbarga taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 740 mm, of which about 540 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 126 mm during north-east and the remaining 74 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, four per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 3rd week of May to 1rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 19 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 80 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 16 per cent is not suitable for agriculture.  About 65 per cent area has very shallow (150 cm) soils.  About 72 per cent of the area has clayey soils and about 24 % loamy soils at the surface.  About 55 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 12 per cent gravelly to very gravelly soils (15-60 % gravel) and 29 per cent extremely gravelly soils (60-80%).  About 65 per cent of the area has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 67 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3%), about 13 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5%) and about 16 per cent area has moderately sloping (5-10%) lands.  An area of about 34 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 33 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and 29 per cent severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 23 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), about 37 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), about 15 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 22 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Major area of 47 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 7 per cent low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 82 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 140 (31) - Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Red gram - 140 (31) Jamun - 107 (24) Sunflower 140 (31) - Musambi 107 (24) 33 (7) Cotton 107 (24) 33 (7) Lime 107 (24) 33 (7) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 140 (31) - Custard apple 140 (31) - Bengal gram 140 (31) 75 (17) Amla 140 (31) - Guava - - Tamarind - 107 (24) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in sustained production and also maintaining in the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provides fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining an ecological balance and also contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Sonath-1 micro-watershed (Sonath-1 sub-watershed, Gulbarga taluk and district) is located in between 17035'–17037' North latitudes and 7705'–7707' East longitudes, covering an area of about 445 ha, bounded by Mormanchi, Malsapur, Kinhi, Chengta and Margatti villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Sonath-1 micro-watershed (Sonath subwatershed, Gulbarga taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 60.5 to 39.5 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 62.8 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 72.1 per cent.  Social groups belong to general caste is around 50 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 50 per cent.  About 10 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 60 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 30 per cent of sample household.  Women participation in decisions making is among all the households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding 1.6 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belonging to marginal and small and large farmers. The rain fed land is the total cultivated land area among all the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 72.1 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation around 11.6 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.75901 per household. Mobile and television are popular mass media communication.  The average farm assets value is around Rs. 181375 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers having bullock cart, plough, sprayer and tractor.  The average livestock value is around Rs. 71250 per household; among the all sample household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 823 grams (1811.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 60 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 55519 per household. About 80 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs. 2428. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 628 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 345861 per year for the total area of 444.65 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 8286/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in redgram (Rs. 19003) followed by black gram (Rs. 3970) and green gram (Rs. 1886).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in redgram (Rs. 57451) followed by green gram (Rs. 48847) and black gram (Rs. 45488). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (86.0 %) followed by black gram (8.2 %) and green gram (5.7 %).  Sonath-1 micro-watershed, major soil is Marguti (DDT) series having very shallow soil depth cover around 44.9 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram, Novinihala (DGR) are having shallow soil depth cover around 3 16.9 % of area, the crops are red gram and Mannur soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 24.0 % of area; major crops are black gram, red gram and green gram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs. 23799 ha in MAR soil (with BCR of 1.46) and Rs.19508 /ha in NHA soil (with BCR of 2.53).  In green gram the cost of cultivation Rs 38785ha in MAR soil (with BCR of 1.06) and black gram the cost of cultivation in MAR soil Rs.22377/ha (with BCR of 1.18).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (0 to 21.2 %), green gram (18.5 %) and black gram (32.5 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Babulgaon-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 404 ha in Babulgaon-2 microwatershed in Humnabad taluk of Bidar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 811 mm, of which about 609 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 93 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and three per cent is covered by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 34 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 2nd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  About 87 per cent of the soils are moderately deep to deep and very deep (75- >150 cm) and 10 per cent are shallow (25-50 cm) soils.  An area of 75 per cent has clayey soils at the surface and 22 per cent soils are loamy at the surface.  About 80 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 17 per cent gravelly to very gravelly (15-60% gravel) soils.  About 18 per cent of the area are very high (>200mm/m), 32 per cent medium (100- 150 mm/m) and 47 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) to very low (0.75%) in organic carbon and 5 per cent medium (0.5-0.75%) in organic carbon.  Major area of 85 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in about 2 per cent area.  About 30 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 4 per cent is deficient in available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 27 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71 (18) 185 (46) Sapota 23 (6) 212(53) Maize - 185 (46) Jackfruit 97 (24) 151 (38) Red gram - 256 (64) Jamun 97 (24) 222 (55) Sunflower 71 (18) 185 (46) Musambi 23 (6) 296 (74) Cotton 65 (16) 187 (46) Lime 23 (6) 296 (74) Sugarcane - 185 (46) Cashew 103 (25) 136 (34) Soybean 71 (18) 200(50) Custard apple 181 (45) 144 (36) Bengalgram 71 (18) 185 (46) Amla 178 (44) 147 (36) Guava 23 (6) 212(52) Tamarind 97(24) 89 (22) Mango - 100 (25) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining an ecological balance and also helps in mitigating the climate change.Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Babulgaon-2 micro-watershed (Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) is located in between 17040' – 17042' North latitudes and 77014' – 77016' East longitudes, covering an area of about 404 ha, bounded by Mustari, Udbal, Bannahalli and Bilkhera villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Babulgaon-2 micro-watershed in Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk and Bidar district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 68.1 to 31.9 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group of 18 to 30 populations is around 57.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 85.1 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 50 per cent.  Fire wood and liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking among 70 per cent.  About 40 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 30 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system are among all households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities, among all these study area household are not having toilet facilities.  Women participation in decisions making are around 90 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.63 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belonging to marginal and small farmers. The total cultivated area by dry land condition of among all sample households. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 19.1per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 42.6 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 20229 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.42667 per household; about 66.9 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 827grams (1879 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 82.9 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.31803 per household. Among all farm households are comes under the below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 2039. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 1406 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 548361 per year for the total area of 403 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 22424/ ha/year. Per hector food grain production services is maximum in redgram (Rs. 35746) followed by sugarcane (Rs. 26202) and maize (Rs. 5324).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in sugarcane (Rs. 146532) followed by redgram (Rs.63166) and maize (Rs. 25152). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (17.3 %) followed by redgram (53.8%) sugarcane (25.5 %).  In Babulgaon-2 micro watershed, major soils of Babulgoan (BGN) series are having very soil depth cover around 17.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram. Mudhanal (MNL) are also having deep soil depth cover around 3.7 % of area, major crops are redgram. Muthangi (MTN) soil series having moderately soil depth cover around 19.7 % of areas, crops are sugarcane. Mustarwadi (MWD) and soil series having very deep soil depth cover 24.7 % of areas crops are maize (29 %) and redgram (71%). 3  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for redgram ranges between Rs. 66484/ha in MNL soil (with of BCR of 0.83) and Rs. 41914/ha in MWD soil (with of BCR 1.15).  In sugarcane the cost of cultivation in MTN soil is Rs. 123820/ha (with of BCR 1.21).  In maize the cost of cultivation Rs. 23492/ha in MWD soil (with BCR of 1.23)  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (2.7 to 48%) followed by sugarcane (10.7%) and maize (75.2%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gudigeri-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 378 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils, three per cent by waterbodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 33 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 47 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 17 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 25 per cent area has low (51-100 mm/m), 16 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 56 per cent area very high (>200mm/m) available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  About 9 per cent area is slightly eroded and about 88 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  Entire area is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) to very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 337 kg/ha) in available potassium and a small area of about 2 per cent has medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 65 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 32 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in about 90 per cent area and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in about 7 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in major area of about 96 per cent and sufficient in very minor area of <1 per cent.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 45 (12) 267 (71) Guava - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun - 210 (56) Groundnut - 36 (9) Musambi 35 (9) 237 (63) Sunflower 35 (9) 237 (62) Lime 35 (9) 237 (63) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 45(12) 267 (71) Drumstick - 272 (72) Amla - 312 (82) Mulberry - 312 (82) Tamarind - 210 (56) Mango - 81 (21) Marigold - 312 (82) Sapota - - Chrysanthemum - 312 (82) Pomegranate - 272 (72) Jasmine - 40 (11) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Gudigeri-3 micro-watershed is located in between 15018' – 15020' North latitudes and 75054' – 75056' East longitudes, covering an area of about 378.15 and bounded by Kavalura and Gudigeri villages in Koppal taluk and district. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 65 to 35 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age groups of population is around 55 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 70 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 80 per cent.  Majority of farm households (100 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 80 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 80 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 10 per cent of sample households.  Women participation is decision making is 20 % of sample households. Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 3.06 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation only among 31 per cent and agricultural labours is predominant subsidiary occupation for 59 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 15911 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media. 2  The average farm assets values is around 1.6 lakhs, about 40 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors.  The average livestock value is around Rs 12695 per livestock, around 60 per cent of households having live stocks.  The average milk produced is 245 litters per animal per year and about 1417 kg of average fodder is available per season for the livestock feeding.  The average per capita food consumption is around 736 grams (1701 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 75 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 9353 per household. About 100 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 823 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 14565 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 5303798 per year for the total area of 378.15 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 1602/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in sunflower (Rs 3055 /ha) followed by red gram (Rs 3926/ha), green gram (Rs 2115), ground nut (Rs 823), bengal gram (Rs 275).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 1405/ ha/year. Per ha fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs 3705 /ha) followed by sorghum (Rs 1482 /ha), bajra (Rs 889 /ha) and groundnut (Rs 659/ha).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in green gram (Rs 34116) followed by bengal gram (Rs 29851), bajra (Rs 25705), red gram (Rs 21515), maize (Rs 15092), sorghum (Rs 15057) and ground nut (Rs 11453). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is bajra (27%) followed by green gram (19 %), sorghum (15 %), red gram (15 %), bengal gram (12%, groundnut (9 %)) and maize (3 %).  In Gudigeri-3 micro watershed, major soils are Muttal (MTL) series are having shallow soil deep covers around 14 per cent of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing bajra (50 %), green gram (22 %) and red gram (28 %). Ravanki (RNK) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 11 per cent of area; major crops grown are bengal gram (56 %) and sorghum (44 %). Gatarediahal (GRH) soil series are having deep soil depth covers around 18 % of area, the major crop grown is bengal gram and Murlapur (MLR) soil series are very deep soil deep cover 3 around 7 % of area, the crops grown are green gram (43 %), groundnut (43 %) and maize (14 %).  The total cost of cultivation in the study area for green gram ranges between Rs.14919/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.36) and Rs.13215/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.16).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 30525/ha in GRH soil (with BCR is 1.08) and Rs.15329/ha in RNK soil (with BCR of 1.18).  In maize the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs.10439/ha (with BCR of 1.07).  In red gram the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs.11354/ha (with BCR of 1.39).  In sorghum cost of cultivation in RNK soil is Rs.10624/ha (with BCR of 1.07) and ground nut cost of cultivation in MLR soil is Rs.19760/ha (with BCR of 1.07). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bajra (13.3 %), bengal gram (9.0 %), green gram (6.3 %), groundnut (9.0 %), maize (57.5 %), red gram (13.8 %) and sorghum (18.8 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Balched microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 613 ha in Balched microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soils, 7 per cent by habitation and water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 25 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm), 19 per cent are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 8 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and about 41 per cent soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils.  About 24 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 30 per cent loamy soils and 38 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  An area of about 79 per cent has non-gravelly and 14 per cent are gravelly.  About 17 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 24 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 19 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) and about 33 per cent very low (9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 32 per cent has soils that are medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 61 per cent high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 25 per cent has low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 8 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 9 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 4 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Balched microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 367 (60) Sapota 1 (<1) 193 (31) Maize 1 (<1) 264 (43) Guava 1 (<1) 146 (24) Red gram - 249 (41) Pomegranate 1 (<1) 248 (40) Bajra 1 (<1) 413 (67) Jackfruit 1 (<1) 146 (24) Ground nut 1 (<1) 311 (51) Jamun 1 (<1) 248 (40) Sunflower 1 (<1) 248 (40) Musambi 1 (<1) 248 (40) Cotton - 366 (60) Lime 1 (<1) 248 (40) Bengalgram - 366 (60) Cashew 1 (<1) - Chilli 1 (<1) 366 (60) Custard apple 1 (<1) 413 (67) Tomato 1 (<1) 264 (43) Amla 1 (<1) 413 (67) Drumstick 1 (<1) 295 (48) Tamarind 1 (<1) 248 (40) Mulberry 1 (<1) 193 (31) Marigold 1 (<1) 366 (60) Mango 1 (<1) 146 (24) Chrysanthemum 1 (<1) 366 (60) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Balched micro-watershed (Yadgiri taluk and district) is located in between 16033' – 16035' North latitudes and 77018' – 77020' East longitudes, covering an area of about 613.39 ha, bounded by Sambara, Baddepalli, Kanikal, Balacheda & Sowrashtralli village with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Balched micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 65.9 to 34.1 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 64.4 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 58.3 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 66.7 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households.  About 20.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 43.3 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 33.3 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 83 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.22 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium farmers and semi-medium farmers. The account for dry land of 55.54 ha among the total cultivated land among the sample households.  Agriculture is the main occupation is only 19.7 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 40.2 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12950 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.6625 per household, about 16.7 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.27769 per household; about 67.50 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1134.7 grams (2639.8 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 92 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 22630 per household. About 100 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.4456. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. Rs.3629/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs.9046) followed by cotton (Rs.8643), redgram (Rs.4232) and paddy is a negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.2367/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in paddy (Rs. 3705) followed by groundnut (Rs.1029).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in paddy (Rs.82646) followed by cotton (Rs. 43455), redgram (Rs. 37986) and groundnut (Rs. 32617). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (66.2 %) followed by groundnut (19.8 %), cotton (13.1 %) and paddy (1.0 %).  The total cost of cultivation in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.47784/ha in semi-medium farmers (with BCR of 1.31) and Rs.31036/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.13).  In groundnut the costs of cultivation range between Rs.63123/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.13) and Rs.35112/ha in semi-medium farmers (with BCR of 1.23).  In red gram the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.36918/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.02) and Rs.19824/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.28). 3  The cost of cultivation of paddy is Rs.130903/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.03).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthening institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthening agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (38.4 to 46.9 %), cotton (10.8 to 54.2 %), groundnut (7.5 to 42.2 %), and paddy (15.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The land resource inventory of Gopalagiri Colony-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 119 ha out of total area of 576 ha in Gundlupet Taluk, Chamarajanagar District Karnataka. The remaining area of about 456 ha is under Forest. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during the south – west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 21 per cent is covered by soils, 79 per cent by forests and 150 cm) soils.  About 2 per cent area has loamy soils and 19 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 3 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 1 per cent has nearly level (0-1%), 20 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 0.75%).  About 11 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and a small area of about one per cent has medium (145-337 kg/ha)  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in all the soils.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 4 per cent and sufficient in 17 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 72 (12) 47(9) Guava 96(16) 10(2) Maize 100 (17) 3 (1) Banana 94(16) 25(5) Red gram 94(16) 25(5) Jackfruit 94(16) 10(2) Horsegram 94(16) 25(5) Jamun 94(16) 26(5) Fieldbean 94(16) 25(5) Musambi 94(16) 26(5) Groundnut - 103 (18) Lime 94(16) 26(5) Sunflower 56(10) 61(11) Cashew 94(16) 10(2) Cotton 72(12) 3(1) Custard apple 94(16) 26(5) Onion 94(16) 25(5) Amla 94(16) 26(5) Potato 94(16) 9(2) Tamarind 94(16) 26(5) Beans 94(16) 25(5) Marigold 94(16) 25(5) Beetroot 94(16) 9(2) Chrysanthemum 94(16) 25(5) Mango 96(16) 10(2) Turmeric 94(16) 9(2) Sapota 96(16) 10(2) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Gopalagiri Colony-2 micro-watershed (Basavapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11042' – 11044' North latitudes and 76034' – 76036' East longitudes, covering an area of about 576 ha, bounded by Kannagal, Honnegaudanahalli, Hangala and Hosalhalli villages with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Gopalagiri Colony-2 micro-watershed (Basavapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 49 to 51 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 59.1 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 75.6 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) among the all sample households.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among all households.  About 90 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 20.0 percent of farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities among the all sample households.  Institutional participation is only 10.2 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 60 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 0.6 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 63.9 % and irrigated land is 36.1 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 73.4 per cent followed by the agriculture is the main and government service is subsidiary occupation of 2.1 percent of the sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.59791 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 129479 per household, about 60 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 19749 per household; all sample household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 731.6 grams (1574.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 70.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 43153 per household. About 70 per cent of farm households are above poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1199. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 642 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 76428 per year for the total area of 576.5 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 26640/ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 68252) followed by turmeric (Rs. 52922), maize (Rs. 33910), beans (Rs. 30467), ragi (Rs. 13282), horse gram (Rs. 12725) and groundnut is negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 3474/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs. 5592) followed by maize (Rs. 2608) and ragi (Rs. 2223).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in beans (Rs.416385) followed by maize (Rs. 57387), turmeric (Rs. 35812), sunflower (Rs. 30236), horse gram (Rs. 22808), onion (Rs. 20155), groundnut (Rs. 19448) and ragi (Rs. 15092). 3 Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is maize (27.7 %) followed by sunflower (25.4 %), turmeric (14.8 %), horse gram (11.4 %), ragi (10.3 %), groundnut (5.1 %) and onion (5.0 %),  In Gopalagiri colony-2 micro-watershed, major soil are soil of Annurkeri (ARK) soils are very deep and well drained soil depth covered around 9.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing maize. Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) soils are very deep and well drained soil depth cover around 7.7 % of area; the crops are maize (32.6%), ragi (32.6 %) and sunflower (34.6 %). Beemanabeedu (BMB) soils are very deep and moderately well drained, soil depth covered 2.7 % of areas, crop are beans (8.2 %), groundnut (6.7%), horse gram (6.3%), maize (20.9%), onion (6.3%), ragi (6.3%), sunflower (25.8 %) and turmeric (19.0%).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize ranges between Rs. 39630/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 2.02) and Rs.27088/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 2.36).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.38023/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.08) and Rs.30398/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.32).  In ragi the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.21275/ha (with BCR of 1.87), and Rs.20086/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.84).  In beans the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs 25108/ha (with BCR of 2.40).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in BMB soil Rs. 39793/ha (with BCR of 1.02).  In horse gram cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.16915/ha (with BCR of 1.75).  In onion the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs 79948/ha (with BCR of 1.85) and turmeric the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.106172/ha (with BCR of 1.51).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. 4  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (38.0 to 55.3 %), groundnut (59.1 %), horse gram (24.1 %), onion (69.6 %), ragi (59.5 %), sunflower (45.5 %) and turmeric (7.2 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sheshgiriwadi microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 429 ha in Sheshgiriwadi microwatershed in Afzalpur taluk of Kalaburgi district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 680 mm, of which about 482 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 119 mm during north-east and the remaining 79 mm during the rest of the year. 89 per cent area is covered by soils and remaining 11 per cent is by habitation and waterbodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 6 soil phases (mapping units) and 2 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 18 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  Entire area has deep to very deep (100- >150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area has non-gravelly soils in the microwatershed.  Major area of about 341 ha (79%) has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity and a small area of about 44 ha (10%) has soils that are medium (101-150 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 78 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 11 per cent area is gently (3-5% slope) sloping lands.  An area of about 54 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 31 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and a small area of about 4 per cent has severely eroded.  Entire area has strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 -9.0) soils. xvi  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 50 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5ppm) in iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Entire area has soils that are deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 18 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, farm price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 429 Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Red gram - 429 Jamun - 340 (79) Sunflower - 429 Musambi 232 (54) 108 (25) Cotton - 429 Lime 232 (54) 108 (25) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean - 429 Custard apple 316 (74) 24 (6) Guava - - Amla 232 (54) 108 (25) Mango - - Tamarind - (3409) xvii Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 2 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass, which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and help in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Sheshgiriwadi micro-watershed (Hosur sub-watershed, Afzalpur taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 17018' – 17020' North latitudes and 7603' – 7605' East longitudes, covering an area of about 429 ha, bounded by Karajgi, Chikkamanur, Agarkhed villages and Maharashtra State; with an length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Sheshgiriwadi Microwatershed (Hosur sub watershed, Afzalpur taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 50 to 50 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 63 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 83 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 67 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 50 per cent.  About 50 per cent of households have a Yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (20 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system of all farm households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 30 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 2 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production all among sample households was found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.9 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 80 % and irrigated land 20 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 40 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 54 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 18578 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 8600 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers having plough and sprayer (20 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 28000 per household; about 92 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 917.2 grams (2156.7 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 70 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 93400 per household. About 30 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1754. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 895 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 343807 per year for the total area of 429.38 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 23569/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in sugarcane (Rs. 53127) followed by red gram (Rs. 20614), bengal gram (Rs. 17254) and sorghum (Rs. 3282).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 159/ha/year is sorghum.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in sugarcane (Rs. 150590) followed by red gram (Rs. 65433), bengal gram (Rs. 63505) and sorghum (Rs. 37643). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is by red gram (49.8%) followed by bengal gram (21.1 %), sorghum (15.4%) and sugarcane (13.7 %)  In sheshgiriwadi micro-watershed, major soils are soil of Dimal (DIM) series is having deep soil depth cover around 5.74 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing sugarcane. Mannur (MAR) are also having very deep soil depth cover around 73.57 % of area, the crops grown are red gram (53.4 %) followed by bengal gram (22.7 %), sorghum (16.5 %) and sugarcane (7.3 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sugarcane ranges between Rs. 152862/ha in DIM soil (with BCR of 1.24) and Rs. 118078/ha in MAR soil (with BCR of 1.52).  In redgram the cost of cultivation in MAR soil is Rs 29667/ha (with BCR of 1.81).  In bengalgram the cost of cultivation in MAR soil Rs. 23667/ha (with BCR of 1.79) and sorghum cost of cultivation in MAR soil is Rs. Rs. 22653/ha (with BCR of 1.14).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in sugarcane (55.5 to 56 %), bengal gram (37.7 %), red gram (37.7 %) and sorghum (1.5 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kotanpalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 622 ha in Sedam taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 839 mm, of which about 639 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 91 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 597 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 16 ha (3%) by quarry and about 9 ha (1%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 2 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 96 percent of area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 26 per cent soils of the microwatershed has soils that are shallow (25-50 cm) to moderately shallow (50-75 cm) in depth and 70 per cent area are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) in soil depth.  About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 96 per cent area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 17 per cent area is low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 1 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) sloping lands and 95 per cent area is very gently (1-3% slope) sloping lands.  An area of about 64 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 32 per cent area is moderately (e2) erode.  An area of about 96 per cent soils are slightly (pH 7.3-7.8) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in 6 per cent area is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 99 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 7 per cent of soils in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 433(70) 59(9) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 492(79) Jamun - 433(70) Sunflower 433(70) 59(9) Musambi 433(70) - Cotton 433(70) 59(9) Lime 433(70) - Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 433(70) 59(9) Custard apple 433(70) 59(9) Bengal gram 491(79) 106(17) Amla 433(70) 59(9) Guava - - Tamarind - 433(70) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also help in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kotanpalli micro-watershed (Adki sub-watershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 1706' – 1708' North latitudes and 76020' – 76022' East longitudes, covering an area of about 622.47 ha, bounded by Adki, Jawaharnagara and Kotanpalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for The Kotanpalli micro-watershed (Adki subwatershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 57.9 to 42.1 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 47.3 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population among the all sample households.  Social groups belong to general castes is around 90.0 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 60.0 per cent.  About 70 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 20.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50.0 per cent.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production was found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.99 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The total cultivated area by dry land condition of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 26.3 per cent and Agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 68.4 per cent of the sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 16675 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs 4363 per household; about 30 per cent of sample farmers are having weeder.  The average livestock value is around Rs 47750 per household; about 66.7 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 866.8 grams (1856.7 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 30 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 20615 per household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs 2412 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 679 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 405098 per year for the total area of 622.47 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs11806 / ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in sugarcane (Rs 39239) followed by redgram (Rs. 15957), bengalgram (Rs. 9383), groundnut (Rs. 7848) sorghum and greengram are negative return.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 2898/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs 4314) and groundnut (Rs 1482).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in sugarcane (Rs 123500) followed by redgram (Rs. 62678), bengalgram (Rs. 55862), greengram (Rs. 32909), sorghum (Rs. 26301) and groundnut (Rs. 24050). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (47.4 %) followed by bengalgram (16.1 %), sugarcane (15.9 %), greengram (11.8 %) and sorghum (8.7 %).  In Kotanpalli Microwatershed, major soils are Dhandothi (DDT) series are having very deep soil depth cover around 35.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing groundnut (12.5 %) bengalgram (19.8 %), redgram (27.1 %), 3 sorghum (14.3) and sugarcane (26.3 %). Adki (ADK) soil series are having shallow soil depth cover around 71.0 % of areas; crops are bengalgram (13.0 %) and greengram (37.2 %) and redgram (49.8%).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for bengal gram ranges between Rs. 35231/ha in ADK soil (with BCR of 1.06) and Rs.22849/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.64).  In red gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 29704/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.43) and Rs. 27609/ha in ADK soil (with BCR of 1.76).  In green gram the cost of cultivation in ADK soil Rs 25409/ha (with BCR of 0.94).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in DDT soil is Rs.31054/ha (with BCR of 1.30).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in DDT soil is Rs 21582/ha (with BCR of 1.20) and sugarcane the cost of cultivation in DDT soil is Rs 90142/ha (with BCR of 1.44).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (35.9 to 53.6 %), greengram (44.2 %), redgram (14.2 %), groundnut (49.4 %), sorghum (69.3 %) and sugarcane (56.2 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Raipalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 847 ha in Raipalli-2 microwatershed in Humnabad taluk of Bidar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 811 mm of which about 609 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 93 mm during the rest of the year. About 97 per cent area is covered by soils and 3 per cent by rock lands. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 2nd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 19 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 80 per cent area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and 20 per cent is not suitable for agriculture.  About 31 per cent of the soils are moderately deep to very deep (75- 150 cm), 54 per cent are shallow to very shallow (25-50 cm) and 12 per cent moderately shallow (50-75 cm) soils.  Entire area of the microwatershed is clayey at the surface.  About 92 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 5 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel).  About 17 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 4 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and about 76 per cent low (50- 100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%) in the entire microwatershed area.  Major area of 83 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in about 3 per cent area in available phosphorus.  About 17 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  An entire area is low (1.0 ppm) in available boron  Entire area is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 35 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 146(17) 179 (21) Sapota - 80(9) Maize - 179 (21) Jackfruit 32 (4) 39 (5) Red gram - 325 (38) Jamun 32 (4) 185(22) Sunflower 146(17) 179 (21) Musambi - 218 (35) Cotton 146(17) 179 (21) Lime - 218 (35) Sugarcane - 179 (21) Cashew - 179 (21) Soybean 146(17) 218(26) Custard apple 80 (9) 284 (34) Bengalgram 146(17) 180 (21) Amla 80 (9) 284 (34) Guava - 80 (9) Tamarind 32(4) 185 (22) Mango - 32 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the six identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Raipalli-2 micro-watershed (Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) is located in between 17037' – 17040' North latitudes and 77011' – 77014' East longitudes, covering an area of about 404 ha, bounded by Mustari, Ainapur, Kodambal and Chitgoppa villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Raipalli-2 micro-watershed (Raipalli subwatershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 56.3 to 43.8 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group of 18 to 30 populations is around 56.2 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 81.3 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste is around 80.0 per cent.  Fire wood and liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking among 60.0 per cent.  About 20.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system among all the sample households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 30 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to urban centre for employment is preventing among 6.3 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production are among all the households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.9 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The accounted of rainfed land is 77.8 per cent and irrigated land is 22.2 per cent of sample households. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 27.1 per cent and agriculture is the main occupation agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 29.2 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 18680 per households. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 400000 per household, around 10 per cent of sample farmers having tractor.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 24583 per household; about 67 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 917.7 grams (2142.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 40.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.26412 per household. Among all sample farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.2148. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 2558 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 2097167 per year for the total area of 846.77 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 6636/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum red gram (Rs. 3480) followed by paddy (Rs. 3430) and sugarcane (Rs.1954).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 880/ ha/year in paddy.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 47115), paddy (Rs. 33058) and sugarcane (Rs. 2394). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (78.0 %) followed by sugarcane (11.2 %) and paddy (10.8 %).  In Raipalli 2 micro watershed, major soils are Madargi (MDG) series is having shallow soil depth covers around 3.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram. Babulgoan (BGN) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 17.3 % of area; the crops are redgram (14.8 %) and sugarcane (85.2 3 %). Bhadrapur (BDP) series is having very shallow soil depth covers around 16.4 % of area; Kadambal series is having shallow soil depth cover around 30.6 % and Mustari series is having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 11.7 % of area; the crop is redgram. Udwah series is having moderately deep soil depth cover around 5.6% of area major crop are paddy.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for redgram range between is Rs. 34389/ha in MST soil (with BCR of 1.31) and Rs. 24214/ha in KDM soil (with BCR of 1.12).  In paddy cost of cultivation in DGR soil is Rs. 32138/ha (with BCR of 1.14) and sugarcane cost of cultivation in BGN soil is Rs. 7166/ha (with BCR of 1.27).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (9.1 to 46.4 %), sugarcane (99.2 %) and paddy (69.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gudigeri-5 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 355 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, four per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 25 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 53 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 19 per cent very gravelly to extremely gravelly (35- 80% gravel) soils.  About 50per cent of the area has very low (200mm/m) available water capacity.  An area of about 5 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) slopes and maximum area of about 92 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 11 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 83 per cent has moderately eroded (e2) lands and an area of about 2 per cent has severely eroded (e3)lands.  An area of about 4 per cent has soils that are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4),38 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 54 per cent soils very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (10 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 53 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 44 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 88 per cent and sufficient in 8 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 26(7) 226(64) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun - 80 (23) Groundnut - 85 (24) Musambi 14 (4) 152 (43) Sunflower 14(4) 152(43) Lime 14 (4) 152 (43) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 26 (7) 225 (64) Drumstick - 166(47) Amla 252(71) Mulbery 252 (71) Tamarind - 80 (23) Pomegranate - 166 (46) Marigold - 252 (71) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 252 (71) Mango - 34 (9) Jasmine - 85 (24) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the six identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Gudigeri-5 micro-watershed is located in between 15017' – 15018' North latitudes and 75055' – 75057' East longitudes, covering an area of about 355.37 ha and bounded by Kavalura, and Gudigeri villages in Koppal taluk and district. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 50 to 50 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age groups of population is around 48 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 77 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 67 per cent.  About 17 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (75 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 67 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 58 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 6.3 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevent among 42 per cent of farm households.  Women participation is decisions making are around 12 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 3.7 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 95 per cent and Diary farming is predominant subsidiary occupation for 2.7 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 21479 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs 90330 per household, about 21 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors.  The average livestock value is around Rs 30967 per livestock; about 33 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 799 grams (1921 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 56 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 38608 per household. About 50 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 1069 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 12946 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 4414535 per year for the total area of 355.57 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 3139/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in green gram (Rs 7992/ha) followed by wheat (Rs 5270/ha), bengal gram (Rs 4275/ha), groundnut (Rs 2964/ha), sorghum (Rs 2936/ha), Bajra (Rs 2881/ha), onion (Rs 1473/ha) and sunflower (Rs 1786/ha).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 533/ ha/year. Per ha fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs 1263 /ha) followed by maize (Rs 1235 /ha), groundnut (Rs 419/ha) and green gram (Rs 14/ha).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bajra (Rs 52814) followed by green gram (Rs 40870), sorghum (Rs 20034), bengal gram (Rs 17058), sunflower (Rs 14268), ground nut (Rs 10482), maize (Rs 7546) and onion (Rs 6718). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is sunflower (41.1%) followed by green gram (25.2%), sorghum (16.9 %), onion (5.8 %), bengal gram (5 %), groundnut (4.3 %) and maize (1.7 %). 3  In Gudigeri-5 micro watershed, major soils are Ravanaki (RNK) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 29.4 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing sunflower (41.9 %) sorghum (20.9%), green gram (19 %) and Bengal gram (17.9 %). Narasapura (NSP) and Dambarahalli (DRL) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 3.13 % and 20.98 per cent of area, respectively. The major crops grown are green gram (33.7 %), onion (10.7 %), sorghum (33.7 %) and sunflower (21.7 %). Muttal (MTL) soil series are having very shallow soil depth covers around 19.7 % of area, the major crop grown is maize. Kavalur (KVR) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 9.45 % of area, crops are green gram (6.84 %), groundnut (2016 %) and sunflower (73 %) and Belagatti (BLT) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 0.46 % of area, crops are wheat.  The total cost of cultivation in study area for green gram ranges between Rs.36247/ha in KVR soil (with BCR of 1.42) and Rs.12773/ha in RNK soil (with BCR of 1.15).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs 12768/ha in RNK soil (with of 0.93) and Rs.6890/ha in DRL soil (With BCR of 1.64).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 13032/ha in RNK soil (with BCR of 1.20) and Rs. 10194/ha in NSP soil (with BCR of 1.09).  In maize the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs.13677/ha (with BCR of 0.99).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in RNK soil is Rs.4370/ha (with BCR of 1.98).  In onion the cost of cultivation in NSP soil is Rs 12112/ha (with BCR of 1.26) and wheat cultivation in BGT soil is Rs 72994/ha (with BCR of 0.89). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in improving institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthen agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (72.2 %), green gram (16.7 to 43.3) groundnut (57.6%), maize (89.1%), onion (88.9 %), sorghum (68.9 to 77.1 %), sunflower (54.9 to 68.7 %) and wheat (50 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ketanapura microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 599 ha in Ketanapura microwatershed in Chamarajnagar taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 769 mm, of which about 316 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 252 mm during north-east and the remaining 201 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, 150 cm) soils, an area of 32 per cent has moderately deep to deep (75-150 cm) soils. An area of about 36 per cent is under moderately shallow (50-75 cm) soils and shallow (25-50 cm) soils occupy 27 per cent area in the microwatershed.  An area of about 5 per cent has clayey soils at the surface, 38 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and an area of about 53 per cent has sandy at the surface.  An area of about 3 per cent has non-gravelly (9.0) soils in the microwatershed.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in 85 per cent area in available phosphorus.  An area of about 12 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 26 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 15 per cent area and high (>1.0 ppm) in 81 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 55 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5ppm) in the available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 31 per cent has soils that are deficient (<0.6 ppm) and 65 per cent has soils are sufficient in available zinc.  The land suitability for 9 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crops Suitability area in ha (%) Highly Suitable (S1) Moderately Suitable (S2) Sorghum 59(10) 346(58) Maize 59(10) 346(58) Finger millet 59(10) 346(58) Red gram - 91(15) Groundnut 59(10) 346(58) Cotton - 371(62) Chilli 59(10) 346(58) Mango - 32(5) Sapota - 150(25)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass, which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kethanapura micro-watershed (Chamarajanagara taluk and district) is located in between 15018' – 15020' North latitudes and 7603' – 7605' East longitudes, covering an area of about 599.11 ha, bounded by Harave, Mukkadhalli, Govindawadi and Maliyur villages with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kethanapura Microwatershed in Chamarajanagara taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 53.8 to 46.2 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 56.4 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 71.8 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 40.0 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 36.4 per cent.  About 60.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (30.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system among the all sample households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 80 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 5.1 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 10 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 9.9 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.97 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 37.8 % and irrigated land 62.2 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 60 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 5.7 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 15838 per household. Mobile and television are popular most mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.2022 per household, about 30.0 per cent of sample farmers own plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.40625 per household; about 54.5 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 749 grams (1939 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827.7 gram. Around 70 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.74659 per household. About 80 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1119. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.360 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.149262 per year for the total area of 599.11 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 51293/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in coconut (Rs. 71534) followed by maize (Rs. 15241), horse gram (Rs. 4084), sorghum (Rs. 254) and cowpea (Rs. 24400), sunflower is negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1572/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in horse gram (Rs. 2099) followed by maize (Rs. 1650) and sorghum (Rs. 968).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. Per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 126417) followed by sorghum (Rs. 43928), maize (Rs. 35648), horse gram (Rs. 23639), sunflower (Rs. 16628) and cowpea (Rs. 9797). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is horse gram (41.9 %) followed by maize (29.3 %), sorghum (18.6 %), coconut (7.5 %), sunflower (1.4 %) and cowpea (1.4 %).  In Ketanapura micro-watershed, major soils are alluvial landscape of Harve (HRV) soil series is having shallow soil depth cover around 25.99 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cowpea (50 %) and sunflower (50 %). Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Lakkur (LKR) are also having moderately shallow soil depth cover 22.25 % of area; crops are coconut (13.9 %), horse gram and maize (43.1 %) each. Hooradahalli (HDH) soil series having moderately deep soil depth cover around 9.66 % of area. Crops are horse gram (48 %), maize (18.4 %) and sorghum (33.5). Kengaki (KGK) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 1.16 % of area, crops are horse gram and sorghum.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sunflower ranges between Rs. 48471 /ha in HRV soil (with BCR of 1.16).  In cowpea the cost of cultivation Rs. 64960 /ha in HRV soil (with BCR of 0.62).  In coconut the cost of cultivation Rs. 13152 /ha in HRV soil (with BCR of 6.48).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 26637/ha in HDH soil (with BCR of 1.85) and Rs. 12160/ha in KGK soil (with BCR of 1.40).  In maize the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 68431/ha in HDH soil (with BCR of 1.84) and Rs. 33997/ha in LKR soil (with BCR of 1.32).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 28048/ha in HDH soil (with BCR of 1.48) and Rs. 26732/ha in KGK soil (with BCR of 1.20).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. 4  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in horse gram (30.4 to 16.2 %), coconut (74.2 %), maize (57.3 to 72.7 %), sorghum (47.2 to 51.6 %), sunflower (69.6 %) and cowpea (36.1%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Totlur-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 579 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 559 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 3 ha (1%) by rock outcrops and 16 ha (3%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 41 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 to >150 cm), 11 per cent moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 46 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 70 per cent are moderately (e2) eroded and 27 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 2 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 5 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 24 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 17 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 22 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8- 8.4) and 26 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 43 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 33 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 11 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 9 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 88 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is deficient (0.2 ppm) in 92 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 285(50) Sapota - - Maize - 50 (9) Pomegranate - 235(41) Bajra - 347(61) Musambi - 235(41) Groundnut - 64(11) Lime - 235(41) Sunflower - 235(41) Amla - 347(61) Redgram - 207(36) Cashew - - Bengal gram 28(5) 257(45) Jackfruit - - Cotton 28(5) 257(45) Jamun - 235(41) Chilli - 285(50) Custard apple - 347(61) Tomato - 50(9) Tamarind - 235(41) Drumstick - 297(52) Mulberry - 62(11) Mango - - Marigold - 285(50) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 285(50)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMU's by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Totlur-2 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16041' – 16043' North latitudes and 77017' – 77020' East longitudes, covering an area of about 579.18 ha, bounded by Yaleri and Thotalura villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Totlur-2 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 39.3 to 60.7 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 52.6 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 52.6 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 72.7 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households.  About 9.09 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 9.09 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system among all sample farm households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 36.4 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production among all sample households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.30 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to semi medium and medium farmers. The account for dry land of 69.0 ha among the total cultivated land among the sample households.  Agriculture is the main occupation is only 7.0 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 59.6 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12097 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.99748 per household, about 23.3 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.36792 per household; about 82.6 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 904.7 grams (1955.7 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 63.6 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 55143 per household. About 72.7 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.2660. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. Rs.29866/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in paddy (Rs.57159) followed by cotton (Rs.47943), red gram (Rs. 12009) and groundnut (Rs. 2353).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.2367/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum paddy (Rs. 3705) and groundnut (Rs.1029).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in cotton (Rs.55729) followed by red gram (Rs.53451), paddy (Rs.49588) and groundnut (Rs. 20615). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (72.7 %) followed by groundnut (17.7 %), cotton (8.0 %) and paddy (1.6 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for redgram ranges between Rs.41218/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.26) and Rs.8431/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 3.96).  In paddy the cost of cultivation is Rs.76221/ha in semi medium farmers (with BCR of 1.75).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation is Rs.23582/ha in Medium farmers (with BCR of 1.10).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher 3 wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (5 to 39.3 %), paddy (49.4 %), cotton (19.0 %) and groundnut (56.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

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