Il tema della Responsabilità Sociale d'Impresa (RSI) è recentemente tornato ad essere di grande attualità. A partire dalla fine degli anni Novanta, si è assistito infatti ad un proliferare di iniziative e strumenti destinati alla sensibilizzazione delle imprese e al sostegno delle loro buone pratiche; in ambito dottrinale si è ricominciato a scrivere e a discutere sull'argomento, molto spesso anche con un approccio pragmatico, mirato in particolare alla trattazione del tema della rendicontazione sociale e della gestione aziendale della responsabilità sociale. Analizzando la letteratura di riferimento, tuttavia, si scopre come molti problemi fossero già emersi e molte riflessioni fossero già state fatte sul tema, fin dalle prime pubblicazioni degli anni Sessanta e Settanta. In particolare, da una preliminare analisi degli studi anglosassoni sulla Corporate Social Responsibility si è notata un'ampia varietà di approcci, dei quali, però, alcuni si sono rivelati più adatti a costituire l'impostazione teorica di fondo della responsabilità sociale in ottica economico-aziendale. Si allude in particolare tre filoni teorici che, pur essendo concettualmente e formalmente distinti si connotano per avere un approccio strategico e manageriale alla responsabilità sociale d'impresa. Nel primo capitolo, pertanto, si è ritenuto di dover costruire la base teorica di riferimento della RSI in ottica strategica riassumendo i tratti salienti delle seguenti teorie: la Corporate Social Responsiveness la Corporate Social Performance la Stakeholder Theory Il più profondo dibattito sulla RSI divide i sostenitori della stessa da coloro che categoricamente la rifiutano; la scelta di trattare il filone di studi strategici sulla RSI è dovuta alla convinzione di poter superare questa prima antitesi con la dimostrazione dell'attinenza del tema alle problematiche economico aziendali, ovvero dell'attinenza della responsabilità sociale agli aspetti di gestione dell'impresa. L'idea di fondo è pertanto quella di riconoscere alla RSI una valenza strategica, e di poter annoverare le strategie sociali tra le altre strategie a livello aziendale, attribuendo alla gestione delle relazioni con gli stakeholder un ruolo che pervade tutti gli aspetti dell'operatività dell'azienda; non si tratta, pertanto, di incorporare forzatamente nella gestione dell'impresa una serie di valori, di principi e di obiettivi che non le sono propri, ma di scoprire come una consapevole impostazione dei rapporti con l'ambiente di riferimento possa costituire per l'impresa un vantaggio competitivo e possa contribuire, attraverso una gestione di qualità, al raggiungimento della fondamentale finalità dell'impresa di perdurare in condizioni di equilibrio economico. A questo punto, la considerazione della rilevanza della Responsabilità Sociale d'Impresa appare, a nostro avviso, se non auspicabile quanto meno condivisibile. Il concetto che meglio si adatta a questo approccio è quello di Corporate Social Responsiveness, ovvero di "sensitività", di "rispondenza" sociale: l'impresa che vuole gestire i rapporti con il suo ambiente di riferimento deve sviluppare questa sensibilità a cogliere le istanze che da esso provengono e a mediare i suoi imprescindibili obiettivi con le aspettative degli stakeholder; per fare ciò l'impresa deve approntare al suo interno una serie di processi di gestione, di strumenti che le permettano di instaurare un proficuo dialogo con l'ambiente esterno. Come si può facilmente notare, il concetto è ben lontano dall'originario significato di responsabilità sociale come obbligazione, come dovere morale dell'impresa di rispettare valori la cui individuazione è, a questo livello - così generico - difficilmente attuabile. Se l'impresa è chiamata a rispettare dei principi di fondo, è importante che questi scaturiscano dal concreto interagire con i suoi interlocutori: ecco allora che la Stakeholder Theory costituisce in termini descrittivi, normativi e strumentali la matrice teorica di riferimento, individuando quali sono i soggetti verso cui l'impresa è responsabile. La teoria degli stakeholder ha contribuito a definire una nuova visione dell'impresa, da "scatola nera" di trasformazione di input in output a centro di molteplici relazioni con tutti coloro che, per dirla con Freeman, "influenzano o sono influenzati dal raggiungimento degli obiettivi di un'organizzazione-impresa". L'impresa necessita di risorse per lo svolgimento dell'attività, e di ottenere consenso e legittimazione al suo agire; in mancanza di ciò finisce con il compromettere la sua stessa capacità di creare valore economico. La responsabilità sociale d'impresa, pertanto, non è semplicemente un vincolo all'equilibrio economico: è un arricchimento della finalità dell'impresa che, se correttamente percepito può trasformarsi anche in vantaggio competitivo. Il passaggio successivo diviene pertanto quello di incorporare la RSI in tutta la gestione aziendale, dalle strategie fino all'attività operativa, dalla pianificazione alla misurazione e rappresentazione dei risultati raggiunti. L'incorporazione degli obiettivi sociali nell'impresa comporta necessariamente un diverso approccio alla misurazione della performance: i modelli di Corporate Social Performance si sono occupati di ciò fin dagli anni Ottanta, evidenziando innanzitutto la pervasività della responsabilità sociale, che si può rappresentare e misurare a livello di principi, di processi e di risultati concreti. Il filone della Corporate Social Performance riesce pertanto a conciliare l'approccio di responsabilità sociale basato sui valori e quello che, più pragmaticamente, mette in luce l'esigenza per l'impresa di dotarsi di processi e di strumenti per gestirla in ottica strategica. Se principi, processi e risultati sono ugualmente rilevanti, allora l'impresa deve ricorrere a diversi strumenti, di volta in volta finalizzati a: valutare la coerenza dei principi di RSI con la mission e le strategie, esplicitare le fasi dei processi e le attività da porre in essere per implementare la RSI, misurare e rendicontare la performance sociale, ovvero il grado di attuazione delle politiche sociali nell'ambito delle relazioni con gli stakeholder. Le strategie sociali comprendono pertanto gli obiettivi relazionali dell'azienda con i suoi stakeholder, e la misurazione delle performance diviene i tal senso uno dei momenti del più ampio processo di pianificazione e controllo delle strategie stesse. Ecco allora che la letteratura di riferimento nell'ambito della Corporate Social Responsibility si intreccia con gli studi che si sono occupati di dare un contenuto alle strategie sociali d'impresa e di classificarle sulla base di molteplici aspetti, quali ad esempio il diverso grado di reattività dell'impresa alle sollecitazioni del suo ambiente di riferimento, le categorie di stakeholder a cui le strategie si rivolgono e la tipologia di scambi di cui si compone la relazione con essi, la tipologia di problematiche sociali da monitorare e il tipo di organizzazione aziendale che si dimostra più adatta a ciò, o, infine, le strategie di influenza che gli stakeholder possono porre in essere per ottenere soddisfazione delle loro attese nei confronti dell'impresa. Dopo aver ribadito la rilevanza strategica della RSI e aver espresso i possibili contenuti sociali incorporabili negli obiettivi dell'impresa, si è ritenuto di dover trattare le modalità e gli strumenti di implementazione delle strategie sociali stesse. Il secondo capitolo è pertanto dedicato all'analisi di alcuni strumenti proposti nell'ambito della responsabilità sociale d'impresa, organizzati secondo l'approccio teorico della Corporate Social Performance (CSP). Partendo dall'osservazione della varietà di modelli e strumenti di riferimento, si è ritenuto infatti di procedere con una proposta di tassonomia che vede distinti: dichiarazioni di principi e di valori; standard di processo per la gestione della RSI; standard di rendicontazione, sia in termini di processi che di contenuti. La tassonomia ricalca la tripartizione principi-processi-risultati che caratterizza la CSP e inoltre corrisponde a grandi linee ad altre proposte di classificazione degli strumenti di RSI recentemente formulate in dottrina. Le dichiarazioni di principi e di valori sono quei documenti, quali ad esempio il Global Compact ONU, le linee guida OCSE per le imprese multinazionali, le convenzioni ILO, che contengono alcuni principi fondamentali sul rispetto dei diritti umani, dell'ambiente, dei diritti dei lavoratori, sulla lotta alla corruzione - per citarne solo alcuni - a cui le imprese sono chiamate ad aderire. Tali dichiarazioni di principi, oltre alla valenza intrinseca di sensibilizzazione delle imprese e di promozione delle buone prassi, possono dare utili suggerimenti sulla costruzione di strumenti interni aziendali quali la carta dei valori o il codice etico, o sull'incorporazione di obiettivi sociali nella mission. Questi strumenti interni aziendali caratterizzano quel livello di implementazione della RSI che nel capitolo 4 è stato ripreso e definito come "strategico", proprio perché di competenza del vertice aziendale e finalizzato alla creazione e diffusione nell'azienda di un'autentica cultura della responsabilità sociale. La seconda categoria di strumenti accoglie invece i cosiddetti "standard di gestione", che sostanzialmente svolgono la medesima funzione dei sistemi di gestione della qualità: trattasi infatti di una serie di norme, anche di tipo organizzativo e procedurale, il cui rispetto può comportare per l'impresa un riconoscimento esterno, una sorta di certificazione di qualità sociale. Nell'ambito di tale categoria se ne sono presentati due in particolare: la norma SA 8000 e il modello Q-RES. La norma SA 8000 è sostanzialmente uno strumento mono-stakeholder, trattando esclusivamente del rapporto con i lavoratori dipendenti; di fatto, però, assume rilevanza per il meccanismo, in essa contenuto, di ottenimento della certificazione sociale, che richiede la definizione e implementazione di un sistema di gestione. Il sistema di gestione SA 8000 sottolinea la necessità per l'impresa di dotarsi di una politica della responsabilità sociale, di sistemi di pianificazione, implementazione e controllo della stessa, e di un adeguato piano di rilevazione e comunicazione delle attività sociali poste in essere. Il modello Q-RES stimola l'azienda a gestire la responsabilità sociale come un processo, che partendo dalla visione etica e passando attraverso alcuni strumenti di attuazione e controllo, giunge alla rendicontazione sociale e alla verifica esterna. I diversi strumenti di Q-RES si ricompongono nell'unitario processo, finalizzato al raggiungimento dell'eccellenza nella gestione della RSI. La considerazione della RSI come processo porta con sé anche la positiva conseguenza di far emergere il vero ruolo della rendicontazione sociale: il bilancio sociale non viene più visto pertanto come fine in sé, ma diviene un mezzo, uno strumento informativo sulla gestione aziendale e uno strumento di comunicazione con gli stakeholder. Tra i modelli che si occupano dei processi di rendicontazione, inseriti nella terza categoria di strumenti, spiccano il modello AA 1000 e il modello della Copenhagen Charter. Il modello AA 1000 esprime le fondamentali fasi di cui si compone il processo: pianificazione, rilevazione, controllo e rendicontazione; ciascuna fase è integrata nel più ampio contesto dei processi di gestione aziendale e si caratterizza per opportune modalità di coinvolgimento degli stakeholder, in termini di fissazione degli obiettivi, di raccolta delle informazioni e di espressione di un giudizio sui risultati aziendali e sulla qualità del reporting sociale. Il modello della Copenhagen Charter, invece, sottolinea la rilevanza strategica della rendicontazione sociale; un costante dialogo con gli stakeholder permette di accorciare i circuiti di risposta dell'azienda agli eventi esterni, senza attendere che tali accadimenti siano rilevati dagli strumenti contabili tradizionali, nel momento in cui determinano conseguenze in termini di risultati economico-finanziari. In quest'ottica, pertanto, i contenuti della rendicontazione sociale devono essere rivisti, per accogliere al loro interno la misurazione delle performance sociali; il controllo delle strategie sociali, infatti, richiede parametri ad hoc, utilizzabili sia per finalità interne di gestione, che per scopi di comunicazione e relazione con gli stakeholder. Nel panorama degli standard di contenuto della rendicontazione sociale non è tuttavia molto diffuso l'utilizzo di indicatori di performance: tra i pochi esempi in tal senso si sono riscontrati il modello GRI e il Social Statement del progetto CSR-SC del Ministero del Welfare italiano; in entrambi i casi è stato analizzato il contenuto del modello, soprattutto con riferimento agli indicatori sociali proposti. Ciascuna azienda può, evidentemente, ipotizzare una propria lista di indicatori rilevanti, sulla base delle caratteristiche specifiche dell'operatività aziendale e dei propri stakeholder; tuttavia, nell'ambito della rendicontazione sociale, si ritiene di dover ribadire l'importanza di un livello minimo di standardizzazione degli indicatori. In assenza di uniformità sulle denominazioni e sui contenuti degli indicatori, il report sociale fallisce il suo fondamentale scopo di permettere agli stakeholder di esprimere un giudizio effettivo sulla responsabilità sociale dell'impresa, non rendendo possibile il confronto delle sue performance nel tempo e nello spazio. La ricerca degli indicatori sociali si è pertanto spostata dagli standard di riferimento alla prassi di rendicontazione: nel terzo capitolo della tesi si sono riportati gli esiti di una ricerca empirica effettuata sui report sociali delle società quotate italiane. La finalità della ricerca è stata quella di presentare un'elencazione di possibili indicatori di performance sociale, attraverso la raccolta e sistematizzazione di tutti quelli riscontrati nei bilanci sociali e di sostenibilità analizzati. La ricerca dei bilanci sociali è stata effettuata su internet; sono stati visitati i siti di tutte le società quotate italiane (277 società al 1 dicembre 2005), dai quali si sono riscontrati solamente 32 casi di bilanci sociali e di sostenibilità . Dalla lettura dei bilanci è stato possibile estrapolare gli indicatori sociali utilizzati da ciascuna società nel report; con il termine di indicatori sociali si sono intese, in questa sede, tutte quelle informazioni quantitative (monetarie e non, espresse in numero e in percentuale) inserite nel report a complemento delle informazioni discorsive, anche sotto forma di tabelle e grafici. Nella fase successiva, gli indicatori raccolti per ciascuna società sono stati resi uniformi, quanto a denominazioni e contenuto, e sono stati inseriti in alcune tabelle di sintesi, dalle quali è stato possibile estrapolare la frequenza con cui tali indicatori sono presenti nei diversi bilanci analizzati. Nelle tabelle di sintesi gli indicatori sono stati organizzati sulla base delle categorie, corrispondenti ai diversi stakeholder di riferimento, e all'interno delle categorie sono stati suddivisi per aspetto, ovvero per tipologia di problematica sociale (ad esempio, nella categoria delle risorse umane, gli aspetti possono essere la formazione, la salute e sicurezza, la remunerazione ecc.). L'analisi empirica ha evidenziato lo scarso livello di standardizzazione che caratterizza la prassi di rendicontazione sociale in Italia; gli indicatori utilizzati dalle società quotate italiane sono moltissimi, ma spesso dietro a denominazioni diverse si nascondono identici contenuti o misurazioni di performance analoghe, che tuttavia difficilmente esprimono tutto il loro potenziale informativo, nel momento in cui non sono chiaramente comprensibili e soprattutto confrontabili. Il processo di omogeneizzazione degli indicatori è stato pertanto piuttosto laborioso, ma ha comunque portato all'ottenimento del prodotto atteso: un elenco di indicatori di performance sociale che si prestano non solo ad essere inseriti nella rendicontazione sociale, ma anche ad essere utilizzati come strumenti di misurazione e controllo della responsabilità sociale dell'impresa. Nel quarto capitolo sono state infatti riprese le problematiche di implementazione delle strategie sociali, non più dal solo punto di vista dei modelli e degli strumenti utilizzabili in tal senso dalle imprese, ma con specifico riferimento ai processi di pianificazione e controllo. Il processo di pianificazione e controllo della RSI parte dalla mission aziendale, attraverso l'inserimento in essa del fondamentale obiettivo di equilibrio relazionale con gli stakeholder. Dalla mission discendono le strategie sociali, che si possono scomporre in politiche sociali verso le diverse categorie di stakeholder (ad esempio, politica dei dividendi verso gli azionisti, politica di pari opportunità nei confronti del personale). Le politiche sociali a loro volta si declinano in obiettivi sociali specifici, il cui raggiungimento può essere misurato e monitorato attraverso opportuni parametri, ovvero indicatori di performance sociale. L'individuazione degli specifici obiettivi, ovvero degli aspetti rilevanti nella relazione dell'impresa con le diverse categorie di stakeholder, ha permesso di effettuare una scrematura degli indicatori di performance rilevati nel terzo capitolo, selezionando quelli che appaiono più significativi rispetto agli obiettivi posti. Tali indicatori sono stati inseriti nell'ambito di un sistema di misurazione delle performance, che a sua volta è scaturito dalla fusione di alcune proposte dottrinali nell'ambito della Corporate Social Performance e degli studi di pianificazione e controllo strategico. Il set di indicatori proposto, tuttavia, non ha alcuna pretesa di esaustività, né tanto meno di risoluzione della complessa problematica della misurazione delle performance sociali, ma ci permette di fare alcune osservazioni conclusive: nel momento in cui si riconosce la rilevanza strategica per l'impresa del rapporto con gli stakeholder, nasce l'esigenza di un processo di gestione consapevole della responsabilità sociale; tale processo deve necessariamente avvalersi di strumenti ad hoc, tra i quali spiccano in particolare gli strumenti relazionali quali il bilancio sociale e il bilancio di sostenibilità; poiché non si può gestire ciò che non si conosce, anche gli strumenti di misurazione e reporting interno devono focalizzarsi sugli oggetti specifici del rapporto impresa-stakeholder; infine, la responsabilità sociale deve pervadere tutta l'organizzazione, dai vertici fino ai livelli più operativi; questo significa che anche i sistemi di valutazione e incentivazione devono essere ripensati in termini di obiettivi sociali attribuibili alle funzioni aziendali e ai singoli manager. La misurazione delle performance sociali ai diversi livelli dell'organizzazione potrebbe in particolare suggerire la costruzione di una balanced scorecard sociale; si ritiene che la proposta di un set di indicatori possa essere un primo passo in questa direzione. Infine, con riferimento alla rendicontazione agli stakeholder, e quindi verso l'esterno dell'impresa, si ritiene che gli indicatori di performance possano arricchire gli standard di contenuto esistenti, contribuendo in tal senso a diffondere una cultura del bilancio sociale come strumento di vera comunicazione, non solo di pura immagine. ; The thesis deal with the implementation of corporate social responsibility in planning and control processes. After a review of the main theories concerning the corporate social responsibility and the social strategy of the firm, the social reporting process is treated, with reference to main international and national standards of sustainability management and reporting (e.g. GRI, GBS). The empirical research presented in chapter three is aimed at showing the large variety of social and environmental indicators used in social reporting by a sample of big Italian firms: the sample is formed by all Italian listed companies with a social, environmental or sustainability report published in their website. The last chapter contains the conclusion on the empirical research, and a proposal of management process in terms of social responsibility implementation; in particular an hypothetical set of performance indicators is presented as a mean to measure, report and control the social responsibility of firms.
Dottorato di ricerca in Biotecnologie degli alimenti ; Lo smaltimento delle acque di vegetazione dei frantoi oleari costituisce, attualmente, uno dei principali problemi dal punto di vista ambientale, specialmente nei paesi del Mediterraneo dove si concentra la maggior parte della produzione mondiale di olio di oliva. Le acque di vegetazione sono tra i reflui agro-industriali a più alto tasso inquinante a causa del loro elevato carico organico, caratterizzato soprattutto da composti fenolici e polifenolici ad elevata azione antimicrobica e fitotossica. La purificazione biologica delle acque di vegetazione è particolarmente difficile poiché questo refluo presenta solidi in sospensione e un elevato carico organico, in particolare polifenoli con attività biostatica e/o biocida, che riduce fortemente le prestazione degli impianti di depurazione. Di conseguenza, l'impianto deve prevedere due o più stadi di trattamento che rendono la depurazione complessa e costosa. Attualmente, la normativa vigente consente la pratica dello spandimento delle acque di vegetazione sui terreni agrari; nonostante questa risulti, al momento, essere la soluzione migliore sia dal punto di vista pratico che economico, trova attuazione solo se si ha disponibilità di terreni sufficientemente vicini su cui spargere il refluo e comunque deve essere applicata in maniera controllata dal momento che gli eventuali effetti positivi o negativi sulla composizione, sulla carica microbica e la fertilità del terreno sono ancora oggi oggetto di studio. Inoltre, la migrazione di alcuni composti negli strati più bassi del terreno potrebbe causare la contaminazione di eventuali falde acquifere sottostanti con conseguenze per la salute dell'uomo. Negli ultimi anni sono state proposte soluzioni alternative finalizzate a sfruttare questo refluo, in quanto ricco di composti utili. La valorizzazione delle AV mediante il loro impiego per l'ottenimento di prodotti a medio o alto valore aggiunto attraverso processi fisico-chimici o fermentativi, riveste notevole interesse scientifico. Nelle AV sono presenti una grande varietà di biomolecole come acidi organici, polialcoli, zuccheri semplici e complessi e lipidi che le rendono una possibile base per i processi fermentativi. In virtù del contenuto residuo di lipidi, le AV potrebbero rappresentare un ottimo candidato come terreno liquido di crescita per la produzione di lipasi microbiche. Lo scopo della presente tesi di dottorato è stato quello di mettere a punto un processo fermentativo per la valorizzazione delle AV mediante produzione microbica di enzimi, in particolare enzimi lipolitici, ottenendo al contempo un abbattimento, o quanto meno una riduzione, del loro potere inquinante. Esiste una vasta bibliografia in cui viene presa in esame la produzione di lipasi da numerose specie microbiche tra cui Penicillium e Candida e sia il terreno che il processo fermentativo per la produzione di questo enzima è stato ampiamente ottimizzato. Nella maggior parte dei casi, una buona produzione di lipasi microbica prevede l'utilizzo di terreni sintetici piuttosto complessi che sicuramente incidono in maniera significativa sul prezzo finale del prodotto. Inoltre, negli ultimi anni anche la produzione di preparati enzimatici commerciali contenenti lipasi di origine microbica ha avuto un notevole sviluppo. Sigma, Amano, Roche, Novo Nordisk, etc., forniscono preparati lipolititici con varie composizioni e proprietà catalitiche utilizzati in diversi settori: industria alimentare, farmaceutica, dei detergenti e per la produzione di biodiesel. L'innovazione che dovrebbe introdurre questo lavoro è l'opportunità di produrre lipasi microbiche di possibile interesse industriale utilizzando un substrato costituito da un refluo agro-industriale. Con questa idea, si è cercato di mettere a punto un terreno di produzione a basso costo che permettesse di ottenere buoni livelli di attività e contemporaneamente un abbattimento del carico inquinante del refluo finale. In prima battuta, è stato effettuato uno screening di microrganismi (Geotrichum candidum, NRRL 552, 553; Rhizopus sp, ISRIM 383; Rhizopus arrhizus, NRRL 2286; Rhizopus oryzae, NRRL 6431; Aspergillus oryzae, NRRL 1988, 495; Aspergillus niger, NRRL 334; Candida cylindracea, NRRL Y-17506; Penicillium citrinum, NRRL 1841, 3754, ISRIM 118) in grado di crescere sulle acque di vegetazione producendo lipasi. Le produzioni più elevate di enzima sono state ottenute, in condizioni non-ottimizzate, dopo 168 h con Geotrichum candidum NRRL 553 (0,521 U/ml) e Candida cylindracea (0,460 U/ml). Inoltre, livelli di produzione molto interessanti sono stati raggiunti dopo 72 h con i ceppi di Penicillium citrinum (0,365, 0,320 e 0,375 U/ml per NRRL 1841, NRRL 3754 e ISRIM 118, rispettivamente). Questi ceppi sono stati selezionati per valutare, in via preliminare, l'effetto di alcuni fattori sulla produzione di lipasi quali tipologia di AV, utilizzo di vari oli come induttori di attività e impiego di diverse fonti di azoto. Per quanto riguarda la produzione di lipasi da P. citrinum NRRL 1841 su AV, l'attività è stata influenzata in maniera marcata dal tipo di fonte di azoto ma non era aumentata in maniera significativa dall'aggiunta di oli. Nel caso della produzione di lipasi da C. Cylindracea NRRL Y-17506, il cloruro di ammonio e l'olio di oliva rappresentavano rispettivamente la fonte di azoto e l'induttore più adatto; infatti questo ceppo cresciuto in condizioni parzialmente ottimizzate produceva 9,48 U/ml di attività lipolitica dopo 264 h di fermentazione. Successivamente, la produzione di lipasi da P. citrinum NRRL 1841, utilizzando il terreno a base di AV, è stata ottimizzata in beuta valutando l'effetto del pH iniziale, della concentrazione di azoto e di estratto di lievito secondo un approccio multi-fattoriale. La combinazione ottimizzata dal modello è stata la seguente: pH 6,15, 2,7 g/l NH4Cl e 1,1 g/l YE. La produzione massima raggiunta è stata di 1,242 U/ml. Con il terreno così ottimizzato, al fine di ottenere informazioni sul possibile trasferimento di scala del processo, sono stati condotti altri esperimenti in reattori da banco. Allo scopo, sono stati impiegati due tipi di sistemi, un bioreattore ad agitazione meccanica (STR) e uno ad agitazione pneumatica (Air-lift). In entrambi i casi, l'attività lipolitica extracellulare aveva raggiunto il suo picco massimo dopo 192 h di fermentazione. Tuttavia, il massimo di attività è stato significativamente più alto in STR che in Airlift (0,700 vs 0,420 U/ml, rispettivamente). Sebbene tutti i ceppi studiati sono stati in grado di crescere sulle acque di vegetazione e produrre a livelli significativi attività lipolitica, una particolare attenzione è stata riservata a C. cylindracea (noto anche come C. rugosa) per il notevole interesse applicativo della lipasi prodotta da questo lievito. Inizialmente, si è cercato di ottimizzare in beuta la composizione del terreno di produzione (concentrazione dell'olio di oliva, effetto del glucosio, aggiunta di surfactanti e di vari fattori di crescita) e di valutare in via preliminare l'effetto sulla crescita cellulare e sull'attività di alcune condizioni colturali quali velocità di agitazione e aerazione. La migliore composizione del terreno di produzione si è confermata essere quella contenente 3 g/l di olio di oliva, 2,4 g/l di NH4Cl e 0,5 g/l di estratto di lievito, senza l'aggiunta di glucosio e Tween 80. Inoltre, con lo scopo di valutare la fattibilità tecnica di un trasferimento di scala del bioprocesso e approfondire la messa a punto del processo fermentativo sono stati condotti una serie di esperimenti in bioreattore da banco ad agitazione meccanica (STR). In particolare, utilizzando il terreno a base di AV ottimizzato, si è cercato di ottimizzare alcuni parametri quali pH, velocità di agitazione e aerazione. Per quanto riguarda l'effetto della velocità di agitazione e dell'aerazione sulla produzione enzimatica, sono state prese in esame tre velocità di agitazione (300, 500 e 700 giri/min), mantenute fisse durante tutta la fermentazione, e in più è stato condotto un esperimento in cui si è cercato di mantenere la concentrazione dell'ossigeno disciolto nel mezzo superiore al 20% di saturazione facendo variare la velocità di agitazione tra 300 e 800 giri/min. Mentre per valutare l'effetto del pH, sono stati condotti degli esperimenti a pH 6,5 fisso confrontando la produzione con quella ottenuta a pH libero e a pH mantenuto inferiore a 6,5. La massima produzione di lipasi da C. cylindracea è stata ottenuta in bioreattore lavorando a pH libero e ad una velocità di agitazione costante di 500 giri/min (18,50 U/ml) o ad una velocità di agitazione variabile tra 300 e 800 giri/min in modo da assicurare un valore di ossigeno disciolto nel brodo superiore al 20% di saturazione (18,70 U/ml); in quest'ultimo caso, inoltre, la comparsa del picco massimo è stata anticipata nel tempo favorendo così la produttività oraria del bioprocesso. Per quanto riguarda i reattori a 300 e 700 giri/min, la produzione enzimatica è stata di 2,54 e 11,65 U/ml, rispettivamente. Infine, messo a punto il bioprocesso di produzione della lipasi da C. cylindracea coltivata su un terreno a base di AV, si è cercato di identificare il profilo enzimatico del campione grezzo così ottenuto, dal momento che, come è noto dalla letteratura, questo lievito è in grado di produrre fino a sette isoforme ad attività lipolitica. A tale scopo sono stati condotti degli esperimenti di isoelettrofocalizzazione (IEF) analitica. Nel gel sono stati caricati un campione di lipasi commerciale (Tipo VII, Sigma) e due campioni grezzi ottenuti da C. cylindracea coltivata sul terreno a base di AV, prelevati a due tempi fermentativi diversi e corrispondenti ai due picchi di attività lipolitica raggiunti durante le prove in STR (I° e II° picco di massima attività, 48esima e 192esima ora, rispettivamente). Dai risultati ottenuti, è stato osservato che il campione grezzo era costituito da più isoenzimi con attività lipolitica e che il profilo isoenzimatico aveva una sola banda in comune con quello della lipasi commerciale (Typo VII, Sigma) a cui è stato assegnato pI 4,7. Per quanto riguarda il campione prelevato alla 48esima ora, sono state osservate anche una banda piuttosto intensa a pI 5,1 e una tripletta di bande più deboli a pIs di 5,06, 5,0 e 4,9. Durante la fermentazione il profilo isoenzimatico del campione aveva subito delle modifiche: infatti, alla 192esima ora, le bande a pIs 5,1, 5,0 e 4,9 erano scomparse, mentre era comparsa una banda di attività intensa a cui è stato assegnato un pI di 4,5. Infine, in entrambi i campioni grezzi è stata rilevata una banda tenue a pI 3,8. In conclusione, i buoni livelli di attività enzimatica raggiunti dimostrano la fattibilità tecnica di un processo fermentativo finalizzato alla valorizzazione dei reflui oleari mediante la produzione di lipasi, che può avere promettenti utilizzi in varie applicazioni industriali. Comunque, ulteriori fasi di scale-up del processo sono ancora necessarie al fine di poter effettuare una valutazione sulla fattibilità economica del processo. ; The olive mill wastewater (OMW) disposal is, currently, one of the main environmental problems in all olive-oil producing countries, especially in the Mediterranean area. In fact, for its high organic load, phenolic fraction with phytotoxic effects and antimicrobial activity, the OMW is a highly polluted agro-industrial effluent. The biological treatment can be very difficult since solid residues, high organic load and phenols may strongly reduce the depuration efficiency. Consequently, a possible process should include several technological options, physical, chemical and biological, as well as combinations thereof, thus resulting in increased process costs. At the moment, the Italian legislation allows land spreading of untreated olive mill wastewater that is the best economical solution. Application on agriculture soils is a practice which solves partially the problem of OMW disposal. Positive and negative effects on soil composition and fertility are still under study, so that OMW application must be strictly controlled. Land spreading, in fact, may cause serious negative environmental impact regarding, for instance, groundwater contamination. In the last years, alternative solutions have been proposed in view of the use this waste as a source of valuable compounds. Several recent research studies have reported the possibility of OMW valorization to obtain products of actual or potential industrial interest. The presence in OMW of a wide range of biomolecules such as organic acids, polyalcohols, simple and complex sugars and lipids makes it a potential basis for fermentation processes. In this way, OMW could be a putative candidate as a potentially suitable liquid growth medium for the production of microbial lipases by virtue of its residual lipid content. For these reasons, the objective of the present PhD thesis was to assess the suitability of OMW as growth medium for the production of lipases and to set up a related fermentation process that might lead, at the same time, to a low polluting load final effluent. A large number of microbial strains have been screened for lipase production belonging to several fungal genera, Candida and Penicillium in particular. In literature, numerous methods for lipolytic enzyme production are published and medium composition and cultural conditions have been fully optimised. Neverthless, the most frequently used medium is a chemical defined and complex one, significantly affecting the final product costs. Besides, in the last years, a whole range of microbial lipase preparations has been developed. Sigma, Amano, Roche, Novo Nordisk, etc., provide lipolytic preparations with various compositions and catalytic proprierties employed in areas such as detergent pharmaucetic and food industries and biodiesel production. Our innovative approach consists in the trial of producing microbial lipases using an agroindustrial-waste based medium. Our basic idea, in fact, was that of developing a low cost production medium. Firstly, 12 fungal strains belonging to well-known lypolytic species (Geotrichum candidum, NRRL 552, 553; Rhizopus sp, ISRIM 383; Rhizopus arrhizus, NRRL 2286; Rhizopus oryzae, NRRL 6431; Aspergillus oryzae, NRRL 1988, 495; Aspergillus niger, NRRL 334; Candida cylindracea, NRRL Y-17506; Penicillium citrinum, NRRL 1841, 3754, ISRIM 118) were screened for their ability to grow on undiluited OMW and to produce extracellular lipase activity. The highest lipase productions were obtained under non-optimized conditions after 168 h with Geotrichum candidum NRRL 553 (0.521 U/ml) and Candida cylindracea (0.460 U/ml). Interesting production levels were also achieved after 72 h with strains of Penicillium citrinum (0.365, 0.320 and 0.375 U/ml for NRRL 1841, NRRL 3754 and ISRIM 118, respectively). These strains were then selected to study the effect of culture conditions, such as OMW typology, nitrogen sources and inducers, on the enzyme production. With regard to the lipase production by P. citrinum NRRL 1841, the enzyme activity was significantly influenced by nitrogen addition; on the other hand, the addition of oils resulted in a marked increase in biomass without affecting, however, lipase production. Lipase production by C. cylindracea NRRL Y-17506 was significatly favored by ammonium salts and oil addition. This strain growth in OMW medium containing ammonium chloride and olive oil led to an activity peak of 9.48 U/ml after 264 hours of fermentation. In order to optimise lipase production by P. citrinum in OMW-based medium, the combined effect of three variables (i.e, concentration of NH4Cl, yeast extract and initial pH) was assessed using a multi-factorial design with 'optimizer' function of 'Modde 5.0' program. The optimised combination by the model was as follows: pH 6.15, 2.7 g/l NH4Cl e 1.1 g/l extract yeast. The maximum lipase activity was 1.242 U/ml after 192 hour of fermentation. To gain information on the possible up-scaling of the process, further experiments were performed in 3-l laboratory-scale reactors. Specifically, pneumatically agitated (Airlift) and mechanically agitated (STR) reactors were employed using the optimised OMW-based medium. In both cases, the extracellular lipase peaked 192 h after inoculation. Howewer, the maximum activity was significatly higher in STR with respect to the Airlift (0.700 vs 0.420 U/ml, respectively). Of all strains, C. cylindracea appeared to be particularly interesting and was, therefore, used as the model microorganism to further investigate the feasibility of an OMW substrate. Firstly, the optimisation of medium composition was assessed in shaken cultures. In particular, the effects on the lipase production of olive oil concentration (1, 3, 5 e 10 g/l), glucose (5 g/l), Tween 80 (0,5 g/l) and several growth nutrients (yeast extract, malt extract and peptone) addition were studied. The best medium composition was as follows: diluited OMW (1:2), olive oil 3 g/l, NH4Cl 2.4 g/l and yeast extract 0.5 g/l. The glucose and Tween 80 addition negatively affected the production of lipolytic enzyme. Lipase production by C. cylindracea on OMW-optimized medium was subsequently assessed in mechanically agitated bioreactor (STR). To study the agitation influence on enzyme production, a set of experiments was carried out at three impeller speed, 300, 500 and 700 rpm; moreover, an additional experiment was carried out at dissolved oxygen DO > 20% saturation (agitation speed automatically controlled between 300 and 800 rpm). To evaluate the effect of pH, three conditions were compared: free pH; fixed pH (6.5) maintained constant by addition of HCl 4.0 M and NaOH 4.0 M; pH lower than 6.5 controlled with addition of HCl 4.0 M. The maximum lipase productions were obtained with the pH left free to vary, 500 rpm costant agitation speed (18.5 U/ml) and variable agitation speed between 300 and 800 rpm to ensure a dissolved oxygen value upper to 20% (18.7 U/ml); in the latter thesis the onset of enzyme activity was anticipated thus leading to increased bioprocess productivity. At 300 e 700 rpm agitation speed, the maximum lipase productions were 2.54 and 11.65 U/ml, respectively. Finally, to set up the bioprocess of lipase production by C. Cylindracea grown on OMW-based medium, the isoenzymatic profiles of the raw sample was evaluated. This aspect appears to be very interesting since it is known that commercial C. rugosa lipase is a mixture of 3 isoenzymes namenly Lip 1, Lip2 and Lip 3 but the yeast is able to produce up to seven different isoenzymes (Lip 1-Lip 7). Moreover isoenzymatic profiles can depend on media composition and fermentation conditions. With this aim, a set of analitycal isoelectrofocusing experiments were carried out. In the gels, a sample of commercial lipase (Type VII, Sigma) and two raw samples of lipase by C. cylindracea grown on OMW-optimized medium and corresponding to two lipolytic activity peaks (1st and 2nd peak, 48esime and 192esime hour of fermentation, respectively) obtained in STR, were loaded. The results suggest that the raw samples were constituted of more lipolytic isoenzymes with the isoenzymatic profile having only one band in common with that of the commercial lipase (assigned pI 4.7). The sample corresponding to the 1st activity peak showed a strong band at pI 5.1 and a triplette of weak bands at pIs 5.06, 5.0 e 4.9. Moreover, the isoenzymatic profiles changed during fermentation; in fact, the bands at pIs 5.1, 5.0 and 4.9 disappeared and a new strong band at pI 4.5 formed. Finally, in both raw samples a band at pI 3.8 was observed. OMWs valorisation by its use as growth medium for lipase production by C. cylindracea NRRL Y-17506 and P. citrinum NRRL 1841 appears to be possible and promising. Moreover, the investigation for further up-scaling is need to evaluate the economic fattibility of the bioprocess.
HapMap imputed genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have revealed >50 loci at which common variants with minor allele frequency >5% are associated with kidney function. GWAS using more complete reference sets for imputation, such as those from The 1000 Genomes project, promise to identify novel loci that have been missed by previous efforts. To investigate the value of such a more complete variant catalog, we conducted a GWAS meta-analysis of kidney function based on the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in 110,517 European ancestry participants using 1000 Genomes imputed data. We identified 10 novel loci with p-value < 5 × 10−8 previously missed by HapMap-based GWAS. Six of these loci (HOXD8, ARL15, PIK3R1, EYA4, ASTN2, and EPB41L3) are tagged by common SNPs unique to the 1000 Genomes reference panel. Using pathway analysis, we identified 39 significant (FDR < 0.05) genes and 127 significantly (FDR < 0.05) enriched gene sets, which were missed by our previous analyses. Among those, the 10 identified novel genes are part of pathways of kidney development, carbohydrate metabolism, cardiac septum development and glucose metabolism. These results highlight the utility of re-imputing from denser reference panels, until whole-genome sequencing becomes feasible in large samples. ; 3C. Three-City Study. The work was made possible by the participation of the control subjects, the patients, and their families. We thank Dr. Anne Boland (CNG) for her technical help in preparing the DNA samples for analyses. This work was supported by the National Foundation for Alzheimer's disease and related disorders, the Institut Pasteur de Lille and the Centre National de Génotypage. The 3C Study was performed as part of a collaboration between the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (Inserm), the Victor Segalen Bordeaux II University and Sanofi-Synthélabo. The Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale funded the preparation and initiation of the study. The 3C Study was also funded by the Caisse Nationale Maladie des Travailleurs Salariés, Direction Générale de la Santé, MGEN, Institut de la Longévité, Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire des Produits de Santé, the Aquitaine and Bourgogne Regional Councils, Fondation de France and the joint French Ministry of Research/INSERM "Cohortes et collections de données biologiques" programme. Lille Génopôle received an unconditional grant from Eisai. AGES. Age, Gene/Environment Susceptibility-Reykjavik Study. This study has been funded by NIH contract N01-AG-1-2100, the NIA Intramural Research Program, Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association), and the Althingi (the Icelandic Parliament). The study is approved by the Icelandic National Bioethics Committee, VSN: 00-063. The researchers are indebted to the participants for their willingness to participate in the study. ARIC. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. The ARIC study is carried out as a collaborative study supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute contracts (HHSN268201100005C, HHSN268201100006C, HHSN268201100007C, HHSN268201100008C, HHSN268201100009C, HHSN268201100010C, HHSN268201100011C, and HHSN268201100012C), R01HL087641, R01HL59367 and R01HL086694; National Human Genome Research Institute contract U01HG004402; and National Institutes of Health contract HHSN268200625226C. The authors thank the staff and participants of the ARIC study for their important contributions. Infrastructure was partly supported by Grant Number UL1RR025005, a component of the National Institutes of Health and NIH Roadmap for Medical Research. This work as well as YL and AK were supported by the German Research Foundation (KO 3598/2-1, KO 3598/3-1 and CRC1140 A05 to AK). ASPS. Austrian Stroke Prevention Study. The research reported in this article was funded by the Austrian Science Fond (FWF) grant number P20545-P05 and P13180. The Medical University of Graz supports the databank of the ASPS. The authors thank the staff and the participants of the ASPS for their valuable contributions. We thank Birgit Reinhart for her long-term administrative commitment and Ing Johann Semmler for the technical assistance at creating the DNA-bank. BMES. Blue Mountains Eye Study. The BMES has been supported by the Australian RADGAC grant (1992- 94) and Australian National Health & Medical Research Council, Canberra Australia (Grant Nos: 974159, 211069, 991407, 457349). The GWAS studies of Blue Mountains Eye Study population are supported by the Australian National Health & Medical Research Council (Grant Nos: 512423, 475604, 529912) and the Wellcome Trust, UK (2008). EGH and JJW are funded by the Australian National Health & Medical Research Council Fellowship Schemes. CILENTO. Italian Network on Genetic Isolates – Cilento. We thank the populations of Cilento for their participation in the study. The study was supported by the Italian Ministry of Universities and CNR 36 (PON03PE_00060_7, Interomics Flagship Project), the Assessorato Ricerca Regione Campania, the Fondazione con il SUD (2011-PDR-13), and the Istituto Banco di Napoli - Fondazione to MC. COLAUS. The CoLaus authors thank Yolande Barreau, Mathieu Firmann, Vladimir Mayor, Anne-Lise Bastian, Binasa Ramic, Martine Moranville, Martine Baumer, Marcy Sagette, Jeanne Ecoffey and Sylvie Mermoud for data collection. The CoLaus study received financial contributions from GlaxoSmithKline, the Faculty of Biology and Medicine of Lausanne, the Swiss National Science Foundation (33CSCO- 122661, 3200BO-111361/2, 3100AO-116323/1, 310000-112552). The computations for CoLaus imputation were performed in part at the Vital-IT center for high performance computing of the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. We thank Vincent Mooser for his contribution to the CoLaus study. EGCUT. Estonian Genome Center University of Tartu. EGCUT received financing from FP7 grants (278913, 306031, 313010) and targeted financing from Estonian Government (SF0180142s08). EGCUT studies were covered from Infra-structure grant no. 3.2.0304.11-0312 funded mostly by the European Regional Development Fund, Center of Excellence in Genomics (EXCEGEN) and University of Tartu (SP1GVARENG). We acknowledge EGCUT technical personnel, especially Mr V. Soo and S. Smit. Data analyses were carried out in part in the High Performance Computing Center of the University of Tartu. FamHS. Family Heart Study. The FHS work was supported in part by NIH grants 5R01HL08770003, 5R01HL08821502 (Michael A. Province) from the NHLBI and 5R01DK07568102, 5R01DK06833603 from the NIDDK (I.B.B.). The authors thank the staff and participants of the FamHS for their important contributions. FHS. Framingham Heart Study. This research was conducted in part using data and resources from the Framingham Heart Study of the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health and Boston University School of Medicine. The analyses reflect intellectual input and resource development from the Framingham Heart Study investigators participating in the SNP Health Association Resource (SHARe) project. This work was partially supported by the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study (Contract No. N01-HC-25195) and its contract with Affymetrix, Inc. for genotyping services (Contract No. N02-HL-6-4278). A portion of this research utilized the Linux Cluster for Genetic Analysis (LinGA-II) funded by the Robert Dawson Evans Endowment of the Department of Medicine at Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center. GENDIAN. GENetics of DIAbetic Nephropathy study. The support of the physicians, the patients, and the staff of the Diabetes Zentrum Mergentheim (Head: Prof. Dr. Thomas Haak), the diabetes outpatient clinic Dr Nusser - Dr Kreisel, the dialysis centers KfH Amberg, KfH Bayreuth, KfH Deggendorf, KfH Donauwörth, KfH Freising, KfH Freyung, KfH Fürth, KfH Hof, KfH Ingolstadt, KfH Kelheim, KfH München Elsenheimerstraße, KfH München-Schwabing, KfH Neumarkt, KfH Neusäß, KfH Oberschleißheim, KfH Passau, KfH Plauen, KfH Regensburg Günzstraße, KfH Regensburg Caritas-Krankenhaus, KfH Straubing, KfH Sulzbach-Rosenberg, KfH Weiden, Dialysezentrum Augsburg Dr. Kirschner, Dialysezentrum Bad Alexandersbad, KfH Bamberg, Dialysezentrum Emmering, Dialysezentrum Klinikum Landshut, Dialysezentrum Landshut, Dialysezentrum Pfarrkirchen, Dialysezentrum Schwandorf, Dr. Angela Götz, the medical doctoral student Johanna Christ and the Study Nurse Ingrid Lugauer. The expert technical assistance of Claudia Strohmeier is acknowledged. Phenotyping was funded by the Dr. Robert PflegerStiftung (Dr Carsten A. Böger), the MSD Stipend Diabetes (Dr Carsten A. Böger) and the University Hospital of Regensburg (intramural grant ReForM A to Dr. A. Götz, ReForM C to Dr. Carsten Böger). Genome-wide genotyping was funded by the KfH Stiftung Präventivmedizin e.V. (Dr. Carsten A. Böger, Dr. Jens Brüning), the Else Kröner-Fresenius-Stiftung (2012_A147 to Dr Carsten A. Böger and Dr Iris M. Heid) and the University Hospital Regensburg (Dr Carsten A. Böger). Data analysis was funded by the Else 37 Kröner-Fresenius Stiftung (Dr. Iris M. Heid and Dr. Carsten A. Böger: 2012_A147; Dr. Carsten A. Böger and Dr. Bernhard K. Krämer: P48/08//A11/08). GENDIAN Study Group: Mathias Gorski, Iris M. Heid, Bernhard K. Krämer, Myriam Rheinberger, Michael Broll, Alexander Lammert, Jens Brüning, Matthias Olden, Klaus Stark, Claudia Strohmeier, Simone Neumeier, Sarah Hufnagel, Petra Jackermeier, Emilia Ruff, Johanna Christ, Peter Nürnberg, Thomas Haak, Carsten A. Böger. HABC. Health Aging and Body Composition Study. The HABC study was funded by the National Institutes of Aging. This research was supported by NIA contracts N01AG62101, N01AG62103, and N01AG62106. The genome-wide association study was funded by NIA grant 1R01AG032098-01A1 to Wake Forest University Health Sciences and genotyping services were provided by the Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR). CIDR is fully funded through a federal contract from the National Institutes of Health to The Johns Hopkins University, contract number HHSN268200782096C. This research was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute on Aging. HCS. Hunter Community Study. The University of Newcastle provided $300,000 from its Strategic Initiatives Fund, and $600,000 from the Gladys M Brawn Senior Research Fellowship scheme; Vincent Fairfax Family Foundation, a private philanthropic trust, provided $195,000; The Hunter Medical Research Institute provided media support during the initial recruitment of participants; and Dr Anne Crotty, Prof. Rodney Scott and Associate Prof. Levi provided financial support towards freezing costs for the long-term storage of participant blood samples. The authors would like to thank the men and women participating in the HCS as well as all the staff, investigators and collaborators who have supported or been involved in the project to date. A special thank you should go to Alison Koschel and Debbie Quain who were instrumental in setting up the pilot study and initial phase of the project. HPFS. Health Professionals Follow-Up Study. The NHS/HPFS type 2 diabetes GWAS (U01HG004399) is a component of a collaborative project that includes 13 other GWAS (U01HG004738, U01HG004422, U01HG004402, U01HG004729, U01HG004726, U01HG004735, U01HG004415, U01HG004436, U01HG004423, U01HG004728, RFAHG006033; National Institute of Dental & Craniofacial Research: U01DE018993, U01DE018903) funded as part of the Gene Environment-Association Studies (GENEVA) under the NIH Genes, Environment and Health Initiative (GEI). Assistance with phenotype harmonization and genotype cleaning, as well as with general study coordination, was provided by the GENEVA Coordinating Center (U01HG004446). Assistance with data cleaning was provided by the National Center for Biotechnology Information. Genotyping was performed at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, with funding support from the NIH GEI (U01HG04424), and Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research, with support from the NIH GEI (U01HG004438) and the NIH contract "High throughput genotyping for studying the genetic contributions to human disease"(HHSN268200782096C). Additional funding for the current research was provided by the National Cancer Institute (P01CA087969, P01CA055075), and the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK058845). We thank the staff and participants of the NHS and HPFS for their dedication and commitment. INGI-CARLANTINO. Italian Network on Genetic Isolates – Carlantino. We thank Anna Morgan and Angela D'Eustacchio for technical support. We are grateful to the municipal administrators for their collaboration on the project and for logistic support. We thank all participants to this study. INGI-FVG. Italian Network on Genetic Isolates – Friuli Venezia-Giulia. We thank Anna Morgan and Angela D'Eustacchio for technical support. We are grateful to the municipal administrators for their collaboration on the project and for logistic support. We thank all participants to this study. 38 INGI-VAL BORBERA. Italian Network on Genetic Isolates – Val Borbera. We thank the inhabitants of the Val Borbera who made this study possible, the local administrations and the ASL-Novi Ligure (Al) for support. We also thank Clara Camaschella for data collection supervision and organization of the clinical data collection, Fiammetta Vigano` for technical help and Corrado Masciullo for building the analysis platform. The research was supported by funds from Compagnia di San Paolo, Torino, Italy; Fondazione Cariplo, Italy and Ministry of Health, Ricerca Finalizzata 2008 and 2011/2012, CCM 2010, PRIN 2009 and Telethon, Italy to DT. IPM. Mount Sinai BioMe Biobank Program. The Mount Sinai BioMe Biobank Program is supported by The Andrea and Charles Bronfman Philanthropies. KORA-F3 and F4. The genetic epidemiological work was funded by the NIH subcontract from the Children's Hospital, Boston, US, (H.E.W., I.M.H, prime grant 1 R01 DK075787-01A1), the German National Genome Research Net NGFN2 and NGFNplus (H.E.W. 01GS0823; WK project A3, number 01GS0834), the Munich Center of Health Sciences (MC Health) as part of LMUinnovativ, and by the Else KrönerFresenius-Stiftung (P48/08//A11/08; C.A.B., B.K.K; 2012_A147 to CAB and IMH.). The Genetic Epidemiology at the University of Regensburg received financial contributions from the BMBF (01ER1206 and 01ER1507). The kidney parameter measurements in F3 were funded by the Else Kröner-FreseniusStiftung (C.A.B., B.K.K.) and the Regensburg University Medical Center, Germany; in F4 by the University of Ulm, Germany (W.K.). Genome wide genotyping costs in F3 and F4 were in part funded by the Else Kröner-Fresenius-Stiftung (C.A.B., B.K.K.). De novo genotyping in F3 and F4 were funded by the Else Kröner-Fresenius-Stiftung (C.A.B., B.K.K.). The KORA research platform and the MONICA Augsburg studies were initiated and financed by the Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and by the State of Bavaria. Genotyping was performed in the Genome Analysis Center (GAC) of the Helmholtz Zentrum München. The LINUX platform for computation were funded by the University of Regensburg for the Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine at the Regensburg University Medical Center. LIFELINES. The authors wish to acknowledge the services of the Lifelines Cohort Study, the contributing research centers delivering data to Lifelines, and all the study participants. Lifelines group authors: Behrooz Z Alizadeh1 , H Marike Boezen1 , Lude Franke2 , Pim van der Harst3 , Gerjan Navis4 , Marianne Rots5 , Harold Snieder1 , Morris Swertz2 , Bruce HR Wolffenbuttel6 and Cisca Wijmenga2 1. Department of Epidemiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, The Netherlands 2. Department of Genetics, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, The Netherlands 3. Department of Cardiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, The Netherlands 4. Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, The Netherlands 5. Department of Medical Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, The Netherlands 6. Department of Endocrinology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, The Netherlands MESA. Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. University of Washington (N01-HC-95159),Regents of the University of California (N01-HC-95160), Columbia University (N01-HC-95161), Johns Hopkins University 39 (N01-HC-95162, N01-HC-95168), University of Minnesota (N01-HC-95163), Northwestern University (N01-HC-95164), Wake Forest University (N01-HC-95165), University of Vermont (N01-HC-95166), New England Medical Center (N01-HC-95167), Harbor-UCLA Research and Education Institute (N01-HC- 95169), Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (R01-HL-071205), University of Virginia (subcontract to R01-HL- 071205) MICROS. Microisolates in South Tyrol study. We owe a debt of gratitude to all participants. We thank the primary care practitioners R. Stocker, S. Waldner, T. Pizzecco, J. Plangger, U. Marcadent and the personnel of the Hospital of Silandro (Department of Laboratory Medicine) for their participation and collaboration in the research project. In South Tyrol, the study was supported by the Ministry of Health and Department of Educational Assistance, University and Research of the Autonomous Province of Bolzano, the South Tyrolean Sparkasse Foundation, and the European Union framework program 6 EUROSPAN project (contract no. LSHG-CT-2006-018947). NESDA. The Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. The infrastructure for the NESDA study is funded through the Geestkracht programme of the Dutch Scientific Organization (ZON-MW, grant number 10-000-1002) and matching funds from participating universities and mental health care organizations. Genotyping in NESDA was funded by the Genetic Association Information Network (GAIN) of the Foundation for the US National Institutes of Health. NHS. Nurses' Health Study. The NHS/HPFS type 2 diabetes GWAS (U01HG004399) is a component of a collaborative project that includes 13 other GWAS (U01HG004738, U01HG004422, U01HG004402, U01HG004729, U01HG004726, U01HG004735, U01HG004415, U01HG004436, U01HG004423, U01HG004728, RFAHG006033; National Institute of Dental & Craniofacial Research: U01DE018993, U01DE018903) funded as part of the Gene Environment-Association Studies (GENEVA) under the NIH Genes, Environment and Health Initiative (GEI). Assistance with phenotype harmonization and genotype cleaning, as well as with general study coordination, was provided by the GENEVA Coordinating Center (U01HG004446). Assistance with data cleaning was provided by the National Center for Biotechnology Information. Genotyping was performed at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, with funding support from the NIH GEI (U01HG04424), and Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research, with support from the NIH GEI (U01HG004438) and the NIH contract "High throughput genotyping for studying the genetic contributions to human disease"(HHSN268200782096C). The NHS renal function and albuminuria work was supported by DK66574. Additional funding for the current research was provided by the National Cancer Institute (P01CA087969, P01CA055075), and the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK058845). We thank the staff and participants of the NHS and HPFS for their dedication and commitment. NSPHS. The Northern Swedish Population Health Study. The NSPHS was supported by grants from the Swedish Natural Sciences Research Council, the European Union through the EUROSPAN project (contract no. LSHG-CT-2006-018947), the Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) and the Linneaus Centre for Bioinformatics (LCB). We are also grateful for the contribution of samples from the Medical Biobank in Umeå and for the contribution of the district nurse Svea Hennix in the Karesuando study. RS-I. The Rotterdam Study. The GWA study was funded by the Netherlands Organisation of Scientific Research NWO Investments (nr. 175.010.2005.011, 911-03-012), the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (014-93-015; RIDE2), the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)/Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging (NCHA) project nr. 050-060-810. We thank Pascal Arp, Mila Jhamai, Dr Michael 40 Moorhouse, Marijn Verkerk, and Sander Bervoets for their help in creating the GWAS database. The Rotterdam Study is funded by Erasmus Medical Center and Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands Organization for the Health Research and Development (ZonMw), the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (RIDE), the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports, the European Commission (DG XII), and the Municipality of Rotterdam. The authors are very grateful to the participants and staff from the Rotterdam Study, the participating general practitioners and the pharmacists. We would like to thank Dr. Tobias A. Knoch, Luc V. de Zeeuw, Anis Abuseiris, and Rob de Graaf as well as their institutions the Erasmus Computing Grid, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, and especially the national German MediGRID and Services@MediGRID part of the German D-Grid, both funded by the German Bundesministerium fuer Forschung und Technology under grants #01 AK 803 A-H and # 01 IG 07015 G, for access to their grid resources. Abbas Dehghan is supported by NWO grant (vici, 918-76-619). SAPALDIA. Swiss Study on Air Pollution and Lung Diseases in Adults. The SAPALDIA Team: Study directorate: T Rochat (p), NM Probst Hensch (e/g), N Künzli (e/exp), C Schindler (s), JM Gaspoz (c) Scientific team: JC Barthélémy (c), W Berger (g), R Bettschart (p), A Bircher (a), O Brändli (p), C Brombach (n), M Brutsche (p), L Burdet (p), M Frey (p), U Frey (pd), MW Gerbase (p), D Gold (e/c/p), E de Groot (c), W Karrer (p), R Keller (p), B Martin (pa), D Miedinger (o), U Neu (exp), L Nicod (p), M Pons (p), F Roche (c), T Rothe (p), E Russi (p), P Schmid-Grendelmeyer (a), A Schmidt-Trucksäss (pa), A Turk (p), J Schwartz (e), D. Stolz (p), P Straehl (exp), JM Tschopp (p), A von Eckardstein (cc), E Zemp Stutz (e). Scientific team at coordinating centers: M Adam (e/g), C Autenrieth (pa), PO Bridevaux (p), D Carballo (c), E Corradi (exp), I Curjuric (e), J Dratva (e), A Di Pasquale (s), E Dupuis Lozeron (s), E Fischer (e), M Germond (s), L Grize (s), D Keidel (s), S Kriemler (pa), A Kumar (g), M Imboden (g), N Maire (s), A Mehta (e), H Phuleria (exp), E Schaffner (s), GA Thun (g) A Ineichen (exp), M Ragettli (e), M Ritter (exp), T Schikowski (e), M Tarantino (s), M Tsai (exp) (a) allergology, (c) cardiology, (cc) clinical chemistry, (e) epidemiology, (exp) exposure, (g) genetic and molecular biology, (m) meteorology, (n) nutrition, (o) occupational health, (p) pneumology, (pa) physical activity, (pd) pediatrics, (s) statistics. Funding: The Swiss National Science Foundation (grants no 33CSCO-134276/1, 33CSCO-108796, 3247BO-104283, 3247BO-104288, 3247BO- 104284, 3247-065896, 3100-059302, 3200-052720, 3200-042532, 4026-028099), the Federal Office for Forest, Environment and Landscape, the Federal Office of Public Health, the Federal Office of Roads and Transport, the canton's government of Aargau, Basel-Stadt, Basel-Land, Geneva, Luzern, Ticino, Valais, and Zürich, the Swiss Lung League, the canton's Lung League of Basel Stadt/ Basel Landschaft, Geneva, Ticino, Valais and Zurich, SUVA, Freiwillige Akademische Gesellschaft, UBS Wealth Foundation, Talecris Biotherapeutics GmbH, Abbott Diagnostics, European Commission 018996 (GABRIEL), Wellcome Trust WT 084703MA. The study could not have been done without the help of the study participants, technical and administrative support and the medical teams and field workers at the local study sites. Local fieldworkers : Aarau: S Brun, G Giger, M Sperisen, M Stahel, Basel: C Bürli, C Dahler, N Oertli, I Harreh, F Karrer, G Novicic, N Wyttenbacher, Davos: A Saner, P Senn, R Winzeler, Geneva: F Bonfils, B Blicharz, C Landolt, J Rochat, Lugano: S Boccia, E Gehrig, MT Mandia, G Solari, B Viscardi, Montana: AP Bieri, C Darioly, M Maire, Payerne: F Ding, P Danieli A Vonnez, Wald: D Bodmer, E Hochstrasser, R Kunz, C Meier, J Rakic, U Schafroth, A Walder. Administrative staff: C Gabriel, R Gutknecht. SHIP and SHIP-TREND. The Study of Health in Pomerania. SHIP is part of the Community Medicine Research net of the University of Greifswald, Germany, which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grants no. 01ZZ9603, 01ZZ0103, and 01ZZ0403), the Ministry of Cultural Affairs as well as the Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, and the network 41 'Greifswald Approach to Individualized Medicine (GANI_MED)' funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grant 03IS2061A). Genome-wide data have been supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grant no. 03ZIK012) and a joint grant from Siemens Healthcare, Erlangen, Germany and the Federal State of Mecklenburg- West Pomerania. The University of Greifswald is a member of the 'Center of Knowledge Interchange' program of the Siemens AG and the Caché Campus program of the InterSystems GmbH. The SHIP authors are grateful to Mario Stanke for the opportunity to use his Server Cluster for the SNP imputation as well as to Holger Prokisch and Thomas Meitinger (Helmholtz Zentrum München) for the genotyping of the SHIP-TREND cohort. TRAILS. TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives. Trails is a collaborative project involving various departments of the University Medical Center and University of Groningen, the Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, the University of Utrecht, the Radboud Medical Center Nijmegen, and the Parnassia Bavo group, all in the Netherlands. TRAILS has been financially supported by grants from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research NWO (Medical Research Council program grant GB-MW 940-38-011; ZonMW Brainpower grant 100-001-004; ZonMw Risk Behavior and Dependence grants 60- 60600-98-018 and 60-60600-97-118; ZonMw Culture and Health grant 261-98-710; Social Sciences Council medium-sized investment grants GB-MaGW 480-01-006 and GB-MaGW 480-07-001; Social Sciences Council project grants GB-MaGW 457-03-018, GB-MaGW 452-04-314, and GB-MaGW 452-06- 004; NWO large-sized investment grant 175.010.2003.005; NWO Longitudinal Survey and Panel Funding 481-08-013); the Sophia Foundation for Medical Research (projects 301 and 393), the Dutch Ministry of Justice (WODC), the European Science Foundation (EuroSTRESS project FP-006), and the participating universities. We are grateful to all adolescents, their parents and teachers who participated in this research and to everyone who worked on this project and made it possible. Statistical analyses were carried out on the Genetic Cluster Computer (http://www.geneticcluster.org), which is financially supported by the Netherlands Scientific Organization (NWO 480-05-003) along with a supplement from the Dutch Brain Foundation. WGHS. Women's Genome Health Study. The WGHS is supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL043851 and HL080467) and the National Cancer Institute (CA047988 and UM1CA182913), with collaborative scientific support and funding for genotyping provided by Amgen. YFS. Young Finns Study. The YFS has been financially supported by the Academy of Finland: grants 134309 (Eye), 126925, 121584, 124282, 129378 (Salve), 117787 (Gendi), and 41071 (Skidi), the Social Insurance Institution of Finland, Kuopio, Tampere and Turku University Hospital Medical Funds (grant 9M048 and 9N035 for TeLeht), Juho Vainio Foundation, Paavo Nurmi Foundation, Finnish Foundation of Cardiovascular Research and Finnish Cultural Foundation, Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation and Emil Aaltonen Foundation (T.L). The technical assistance in the statistical analyses by Ville Aalto and Irina Lisinen is acknowledged. ; Peer Reviewed
학위논문 (석사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 국제농업기술대학원 국제농업기술학과, 2020. 8. 서교. ; Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are considered key factors driving climate change, and electric vehicles (EVs) are proposed as a potential solutions. EVs represent eco-friendly modes of transportation that do not emit carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere. In addition, the energy sources associated with EVs would reduce GHG emissions, which have steadily increased over the last several decades. The energy sector accounts for 93% of the total national GHG emissions among five sectors, including industrial processing, agriculture, land-use change and forestry, waste, and energy. Although all of these sectors contribute to GHG emissions. the energy sector is the major source of GHG emissions. Among the numerous sub-sectors under the energy sector, GHG emissions of the road transport sub-sector accounted for 95.9% of the total emissions in the transport sector, with 94,270 Gt CO2e in 2017. The Korean government proposed the adoption of eco-friendly vehicles to achieve the GHG reduction goals in line with the Paris Climate Agreement, which goes into effect in 2021. In addition, the government have proposed promoting eco-friendly vehicles as a strategy of achieving a 37% reduction of the 851 million ton CO2e GHG emissions forecast by 2030. The Korean government has proposed various policies to increase the adoption of EVs, as eco-friendly cars, with the aim of reducing GHG emissions. The government has set a goal of 3 million EVs by 2030, and has provided various incentives such as tax exemptions, purchase subsidies, highway tolls, and discounts on parking fees in public parking facilities to promote the purchases of eco-friendly cars in Korea. Despite these favorable government policies, the rate of EV adoption in Korea has fallen short of expectations. Compared to the goal of 3 million EVs by 2030, the number of EVs registered in Korea in 2019 was only approximately 8.8t thousand which was far below the high goal set by the government. In 2019, only 0.5% of all passenger vehicles in Korea were EVs. According to a survey to evaluate the perceptions of actual buyers of EVs in Korea and the willingness of prospective buyers to purchase EVs, in general, current owners reported that they would not repurchase EV. Prospective buyers reported that they would not purchase EVs for reasons such as reduced subsidies, long charging times, and the short driving range of EVs. In terms of charging, which is a key factor for EV owners, KEPCO's detailed plan for the electricity supply include significantly increasing charging fees for EVs starting in the second half of 2020. Consequently, the charging costs that purchasers of EVs need to pay will increase further and will negatively affect intention to purchase. However, following implementation of the government's policy of propagation of EVs and according to various studies, the EV adoption is still expected to increase, and improvements in power generation could lead to an increase in EV purchases. Although no pollutants are emitted while driving EVs, policies that promote an increase in EVs do not take into account the life cycles of EVs from pre-manufacturing to the disposal, and thus, they do not adequately predict the potential environmental impacts. In the life cycle of EVs, the production of the electricity required for the operation of EVs generates the highest amount of GHG emissions during the use stage. Thus, production of EVs still has a major impact on the environment. Since such environmental impacts depend on the energy mix, environmental impact assessments should consider the national energy mix. New environmental impact assessment activities are needed and such activities should consider changes in the energy mix and changes in the propagation of EVs. These activities would impact the outcomes in two categories, global warming potential and particulate matter potential, which are both linked to automobile use and energy production. As interest in EVs has increased, numerous studies on the propagation of EVs have been conducted. As a result, various factors that influence the spread of EVs have been identified. In the majority of the studies that have examined the factors influencing the spread of EVs, panel analysis has been conducted using annual data at the national level. Subsidies, which is a major factor influencing EV uptake in Korea, are divided into the national subsidy and regional subsidies. Therefore, regional characteristics should be taken into account and analyzed at the regional level since different regions (e.g., Jeju Island) have unique operational environments for EVs. In addition, few studies have examined the balance of subsidies or the change in the number of supportable EV residuals based on monthly data rather than annual data. Several studies have also focused on the propagation of EVs using system dynamics, but, most studies have been qualitative research rather than quantitative research. In addition, numerous studies have evaluated environmental effects by applying changes in the energy mix. However, few studies have considered both the propagation of EVs and their environmental impacts. Therefore, the present study evaluates the impact of subsidy policies on the propagation of EVs by region and environmental improvement effects. First, we investigated the factors influencing the propagation of EVs using monthly panel data by region. Changes in EV uptake were then analyzed by region based on identified factors. Lastly, to analyze the environmental implications of EV propagation, the environmental improvement impacts of EV propagation were analyzed considering the national grid power supply plan based on a life cycle assessment (LCA). Our analysis of EV propagation based on monthly time series data by region aimed to quantitatively analyze the factors influencing the spread of EVs in Korea. This study confirmed the stationarity of the factors considering the influence of seasonality in the monthly time series data based on regional characteristics. In addition, an EV propagation model was designed based on panel fixed effect and panel random effect models, using the Hausman test. Analysis of the factors influencing EV propagation in 16 cities and provinces in Korea using panel fixed effect and panel random effect models, revealed that the EV propagation models had explanatory powers of 48% and 50%, respectively. The factors classified in the five categories had different effects depending on the model, and the panel fixed effect using the Hausman test was more appropriate for describing the model. However, more variables in the panel random effect model were analyzed as significant factors than in the fixed effect model. The number of newly registered diesel vehicles and the total number of newly registered passenger vehicles in the vehicle category had negative and positive effects on EV propagation, respectively, in both the panel fixed effect model and the panel random effect model. However, in the random effect model, the prices of diesel and gasoline vehicles also influenced EV propagation. In the panel fixed effect model, only the national subsidy and regional subsidies showed positive effects on the propagation of EVs. The random effect model also showed that a tax exemption, which had a positive effect on the spread of EVs, was also a factor influencing EV propagation. The population density in the census category, the number of vehicles per capita, and the PM10 concentration, representing environmental factors, were analyzed as influential factors in both models. In addition, the monthly average and minimum temperatures in the climate category, which could reveal whether weather conditions in each region influence EV spread, were found to be influential in the panel fixed effect model. However, in the panel random effect model, all factors in the climate category were not influential. The system dynamics model of EV propagation was based on factors influencing the spread of EVs. The present study used the Stella Architect software platform to analyze dynamic changes in the spread of EVs by region. system dynamics is a technique that identifies dynamic change mechanisms of targets, and shows systemic trends with a non-linear feedback system and simulates and analyzes them based on various factors. In the present study, we used system dynamics to estimate the number of EVs propagated by region. A bull's eye diagram, causal loop diagram, and stock-flow diagram were constructed, and factors such as subsidies, charging facilities, fuel prices, electricity prices, and the number of vehicles by fuel applied. The system dynamics modeling was conducted based on correlations between variables. The system dynamics model of EV propagation by region was applied using the number of new EVs registered as the dependent variable to reveal differences based on regional characteristics. The subsidy variables were divided into national and regional variables, and the number of newly registered EVs was set as the dependent variable and multiple regression analysis was conducted. In addition, four policy scenarios – Subsidy Cliff, Phase-out, Phase-in 50%, and Phase-in 350% – were adopted to verify whether the 2030 EV goal set by the government could be achieved. According to the analysis, 1.37 million EVs would be adopted in 2030 under the Subsidy Cliff scenario, 1.40 million under the Phase-out scenario, 1.87 million under the Phase-in 50% scenario, and 3.01 million under the Phase-in 350% scenario. The results from these scenarios show that three scenarios, excluding the Phase-in 350% scenario, in which subsidies would increase to 350% by 2030, would require an additional 1.63 million, 1.60 million, and 1.13 million EVs, respectively, to achieve the national EV propagation goal. Under the four scenarios, the regions where the largest number of EVs would be adopted by 2030 were Jeju, Seoul, Gyeonggi, and Daegu. However, the result of the analysis of the spread of EVs compared to the number of residents were contrary to the results of the analysis of the number of EVs based on region. Jeju, Ulsan, Gangwon, and Jeonnam would have the largest number of EVs per capita by 2030. Except for Jeju, the three other regions did not have many EVs compared to the total number of EVs, but the regions would have many EVs compared to the relatively low populations (i.e., EV per capita). Ulsan was projected to have the lowest number of EVs in Korea. However, considering the population, Ulsan would have the largest number of EVs per capita, except for Jeju, which is considered an effect similar to that observed in Ulsan, where an automobile factory is located. The results illustrate the potential propagation of EVs in regions where EVs are produced or where factories are located. The life cycle assessment (LCA) used to analyze the environmental impacts of EV propagation was based on the national power supply plan. LCA is an analysis method that quantifies the environmental impact of products or services. Prior to analyzing the propagation of EVs, the LCA of electricity production of EVs was evaluated at the goal and scope stages, and 1kWh of electricity production was set as a functional unit for the LCA. In addition, the inventory of pollutants generated during electricity production was analyzed. With regard to the environmental impact of the number of EVs propagated, the annual mileage provided by the KOSIS was applied based on an 11-year vehicle lifespan of EVs. In addition, the 8th Power Supply and Demand Plan and the additional energy transition option of coal-fired power generation to renewable energy were applied for comparative analyses. The 8th Plan was calculated based on the rated capacity presented as an environmental option, and the application of the energy transition to renewable energy. The GHG emissions of EVs were 81.7g CO2e/VKT under the 8th Plan option, and 37.2g CO2e/VKT for the energy transition option to renewable energy. The energy transition option, showed the lowest GHG emissions, with emissions that were 3.1 times lower than emission of the actual energy mix in 2016, and 4.57-fold and 4.25-fold lower compared to gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles, respectively. In addition, considering the recent rise in particulate matter-related issues, the environmental impact of particulate matter emissions from vehicles was analyzed. EVs. EVs emitted 20.7 mg PMe/VKT per 1km of driving. When the energy transition plan option was applied, PM emissions were less than those emitted by internal combustion engine vehicles. In the present study, monthly regional panel data were used to analyze factors influencing the propagation of EVs. However, panel analysis was conducted using monthly data rather than annual data. However, there were data acquisition limits that varied across regions. In particular, major factors such as the charging facilities and charging price, which affect the spread of EVs, were not included. Future studies and models should include monthly data on charging facilities for each region. In addition, in the present study, the PM10 variable was applied in the analyses, but if the monthly particulates on bad days were applied as mentioned in a previous study, more accurate results could be obtained for the environmental aspect. The second part of the three analyses conducted in the study using system dynamics was analyzed under four scenarios. The scenario that increases the current budget by 35% per year to achieve a 350% increase by 2030 could help meet the national EV propagation goal. However, given that Korea has implemented a policy of suspending EV subsidies as of 2023, it will be challenging to maintain the current budget for 35% subsidies per year for 10 years. Therefore, it is necessary to collect fees such as an environmental pollution tax from internal combustion engine vehicles to return the subsidies or give rebates for eco-friendly car such as EVs. In the future, more reliable research will promote the spread of EVs. The effects of feebate programs could also be considered. ; 기후변화와 관련하여 온실가스는 주요한 영향을 미치는 요인으로 인식되며, 꾸준히 증가하는 온실가스를 감축하고자 에너지 부문 중 수송부문에서도 탄소를 배출하지 않는 친환경 자동차로서 전기차는 해결책으로 제시되고 있다. 에너지 부문은 다섯 개 부문인 산업공정, 농업, 토지이용 변화 및 임업, 폐기물, 에너지 부문 중 국내 총 온실가스 배출량의 93%를 차지하여 온실가스 배출에 있어 크게 기여하고 있으며, 이로 인해 에너지 부문은 주요 온실가스 배출원으로 지목되었다. 그중 도로수송부문의 온실가스 배출량은 2017년 94,270 Gg ton CO2e로 전체 수송부문의 95.9%를 차지하며, 2021년부터 효력이 발생하는 파리기후협약에 따라 온실가스 감축 목표를 달성하고자 2030년 온실가스 배출전망량 851백만 ton CO2e 대비 37% 감축 달성을 위한 방안으로 친환경 자동차 보급을 제시하였다. 우리나라 정부는 온실가스 감축을 목표로 친환경 자동차 중 전기차 보급확대를 위해 다양한 정책을 제시하였다. 정부는 2030년 전기차 보급목표 대수를 3백만 대로 설정하며, 국내 친환경 자동차 보급확대를 위해 세제감면과 구매보조금 지급, 고속도로통행료, 공영주차장 주차비 할인 등의 다양한 혜택을 제공하고 있다. 하지만 이러한 정부의 다양한 정책적 노력에도 불구하고 국내 전기차 보급속도는 기대에 못 미치고 있다. 정부는 2030년까지 배출되는 온실가스를 감축하기 위해 수송부문의 경우 2030 전기차 보급목표를 300만 대로 설정하였지만, 우리나라의 2019년 전기차 등록 대수는 약 8.8만 대에 불과하며 정부가 설정한 높은 목표 대수에 한참 못 미치는 수준이다. 이는 국내 전체 승용차의 0.5% 수준이다. 우리나라 전기차 실구매자의 재구매 의사와 예비구매자의 전기차 구매 의사와 관련하여 진행된 설문조사에 따르면, 보조금 축소와 긴 충전시간, 짧은 항속거리 등과 같은 이유로 전기차 재구매 혹은 구매를 하지 않겠다는 의견을 제시하였다. 주행을 위해 꼭 필요한 요소인 충전과 관련한 사항은 민감한 사항이지만 한국전력의 전기공급 시행세칙 변경안에 따르면, 2020년 하반기부터 전기차 충전료가 대폭 인상추진 중이다. 이로 인해 전기차 실구매자가 부담해야 하는 충전비용은 더욱 늘어나며 구매의향에 영향을 미칠 것으로 조사되었다. 전기차 보급을 위한 정부의 정책 시행과 다양한 연구가 진행되는 흐름 속에서 전기차의 보급이 증가할 것으로 전망됨에 따라 전기차의 연료인 발전의 변화도 중요성이 높아지고 있다. 전기차는 주행 중에 배출되는 오염물질이 없다는 점에서 환경성이 부각되며 장려되고 있지만, 전기차의 제조 전 단계부터 폐기단계까지의 생애주기를 고려한 환경영향은 포함되지 않은 채 전기자동차는 장려되고 있다. 전기차의 생애주기 중 전기차 운행을 위한 전력 생산단계는 생애주기 중 사용단계에서 가장 많은 탄소량이 배출되며 이로 인해 전력생산은 전기차의 환경영향에 주요한 영향을 미친다. 전원믹스 구성에 따라 환경영향이 달라지기 때문에 국가 전원믹스를 고려한 환경영향평가가 이루어져야 한다. 자동차 보급과 에너지 생산과 관련된 중요한 두 카테고리인 온실가스와 미세먼지에서 상반된 결과를 보이기에 전원믹스구성의 변화와 전기차 보급 변화에 따른 환경영향평가가 필요하다. 전기차를 향한 관심의 증가하며 전기차 보급 관련 다양한 연구들이 수행되며, 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 다양한 인자들을 제시하였다. 그중 충전시설, 인구밀도, 유가, 온도, 전력가격, 보조금, 1인당 보유차량 대수 등이 전기차 보급의 주요 인자로 알려져 있다. 전기차 보급의 영향인자를 연구한 대다수의 연구에서 국가 단위의 연간자료를 사용하여 패널 분석을 진행하였다. 하지만, 우리나라는 주요 영향인자 중 보조금이 국고 보조금과 지자체 보조금으로 나뉘어 지급되고 있기에 지역적 특성이 고려되어야 하며, 제주도와 같은 전기차에 특수성을 띄고 있는 지역이 있기에 지자체 레벨에서 분석이 되어야 한다. 이와 더불어, 연간자료가 아닌 월간 자료 사용에 따라 보조금의 잔액 혹은 잔여 대수 변화를 적용한 연구는 찾아보기 어렵다. 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용한 전기차 보급 관련 다양한 연구들이 있었지만, 정량적인 연구보다는 정성적인 연구에 초점을 둔 연구들이 대부분이었다. 또한, 전기차 전원믹스 구성 변화를 적용하여 환경영향을 평가한 연구들은 많았지만, 전기차 보급량과 환경영향을 모두 고려한 연구는 찾아보기 어렵다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 지역별 전기차 보급에 대한 보조금 정책의 영향과 환경개선효과에 대해서 평가하였다. 먼저, 지역별 월간 패널자료를 이용하여 전기차의 보급 활성화에 영향을 미치는 인자를 분석하였으며, 분석된 인자들을 바탕으로 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용한 보조금 정책에 따른 지역별 전기차 보급량 변화를 분석하였다. 마지막으로 전기차 보급에 따른 환경성 분석을 위해 전과정평가를 이용하여 국가전력수급계획에 따른 전기차 보급의 환경개선효과를 보고자 하였다. 본 연구의 첫 번째 전기차 보급 분석을 통해 지역별 월별 시계열 자료를 바탕으로 우리나라의 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 요인을 정량적인 분석을 하고자 하였다. 먼저 지역적 특성을 고려한 월 단위의 시계열 자료에서 나타나는 계절성 등에 대한 영향을 고려하기 위해 인자의 정상성을 확인하였다. 또한, 하우즈만 검정을 통해 패널고정효과모형과 패널확률효과모형에 대한 전기차 보급 모형을 설계하였다. 패널고정효과모형과 패널확률효과모형으로 국내 17개 시·도를 대상으로 전기차 보급 영향인자를 분석한 결과, 각각 48%와 50%의 설명력을 갖는 전기차 보급 모형을 확인하였다. 5개의 카테고리인 차량관련과 정책, 인구조사, 기후, 환경에 분류된 인자들은 모형에 따라 각기 다른 영향을 보이는 것으로 나타났으며, 하우즈만 검정을 통해 패널고정효과가 모형을 설명하기에 더욱 적절한 것으로 분석되었으나, 고정효과 모형보다 패널확률효과모형에서 더 많은 변수가 통계적으로 유의한 영향인자로 분석되었다. 차량 관련 카테고리의 신규등록 디젤차량 대수와 전체 신규등록 차량 대수는 패널고정효과모형과 패널확률효과모형 모두에서 각각 부(-)의 영향과 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 분석되었다. 하지만 확률효과모형의 경우, 디젤의 가격과 가솔린의 가격 또한 영향인자로 분석되었다. 패널고정효과모형에서는 국고 보조금과 지자체 보조금만이 영향인자로 각각 부(-)의 영향과 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 확인되었으나 확률효과모형은 전기차 보급에 긍정적 영향을 미치는 세금감면도 영향인자로 나타났다. 인구조사 카테고리의 인구밀도와 1인당 차량보유대수, 환경적 요인을 대변하는 미세먼지지수는 두 모형 모두에서 영향인자로 분석되었다. 각 지역의 기상조건이 전기차 보급 활성에 영향을 미치는지를 볼 수 있는 기상카테고리의 인자 중 월평균 온도와 월최저온도가 패널고정효과모형에서 영향력이 있는 것으로 나타났다. 하지만 패널확률효과모형에서는 기상카테고리의 모든 인자가 영향인자가 아닌 것으로 분석되었다. 앞서 분석된 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 인자들을 바탕으로 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용하여 지역별 전기차 보급의 동태적 변화를 보기 위해 Stella 플랫폼을 이용하였다. 시스템 다이내믹스는 시스템적 거동을 보이는 대상의 역동적인 변화메커니즘을 비선형적인 피드백 시스템으로 파악하고, 이를 다양한 요인을 고려하여 시뮬레이션하여 분석하는 기법이다. 본 연구에서는 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용한 지역별 전기차 보급대수 추정을 위해 Bull's eye diagram과 causal loop diagram, stock-flow diagram을 구축하고 보조금, 충전시설, 유가, 전력가격, 연료별 차량 대수 변수로 적용하였다. 이러한 시스템 다이내믹스 모델링을 통해 변수 간의 상관관계를 수식화하였다. 지역별 전기차 보급의 시스템 다이내믹스 모델은 지역별 특성에 따른 차이를 보고자 보조금 변수를 제외한 모든 변수는 신규 전기차 등록대수를 종속변수로 pooled OLS 회귀분석을 하여 수식을 적용하였으며, 보조금 변수는 지역별로 구분하여 신규 전기차 등록대수를 종속변수로 설정하고 다중회귀분석을 진행하였다. 이와 더불어 네 가지 정책시나리오-Subsidy Cliff, Phase-out, Phase-in 50%, Phase-in 350%-를 구축하여 우리나라 2030년 전기차 보급목표인 3백만 대 달성 가능 여부를 확인하였다. 이러한 분석을 통한 결과에 따르면, 2030년 국내 전기차는 Subsidy Cliff 시나리오일 경우 1.37 백만 대와 Phase-out일 경우 1.40 백만 대, Phase-in 50%일 경우, 1.87 백만 대, Phase-in 350%일 경우 3.01 백만 대가 보급될 것으로 분석되었다. 해당 시나리오의 결과를 보면, 보조금이 2030년 350%까지 인상되는 Phase-in 350% 시나리오를 제외한 세 가지 시나리오인 Subsidy Cliff와 Phase-out, Phase-in 50%가 국가 전기차 보급목표에 각각 1.63백만 대, 1.60 백만 대, 1.13 백만 대의 전기차가 추가적으로 보급되어야 하는 것으로 나타났다. 구축된 네 가지 시나리오를 지역별 전기차 보급 대수로 보면, 2019년 가장 많은 전기차가 보급된 지역은 제주, 서울 경기 대구 순이었으며, 2030년은 제주 경기 서울 대구 순으로 분석되었다. 시간이 지나며 2019년 대비 많은 전기차가 보급되었음에도 전기차 보급이 활성화된 지역은 순서의 차이는 있었으나 동일하였다. 하지만 전기차 보급을 거주 인구수와 대비하여 분석한 결과, 지역별 전체 전기차 보급 대수를 분석한 결과와 상반된 결과가 산출되었다. 2030년에 가장 많은 1인당 전기차 대수가 나온 지역은 제주, 울산, 강원, 전남 순이었다. 제주를 제외한 세 지역은 전체 보급대수로 보았을 때는 많은 전기차가 보급된 지역이 아니었지만 적은 인구수 대비 많은 전기차가 보급된 것으로 나타났다. 울산의 경우, 전체 전기차 대수를 보면 16개 시도에서 가장 적은 전기차가 보급되는 것으로 분석되었지만 인구대비로 보았을 경우는 특수케이스인 제주를 제외한 제일 많은 1인당 전기차 대수가 보급된 곳으로 분석되었다. 이는 자동차 공장이 있는 울산이 기존연구에서 전기차의 생산지나 공장이 있는 지역의 전기차 보급이 높게 나타난 것과 같은 생산지 효과로 사료된다. 본 연구의 세 번째 전기차 보급 분석인 국가전력수급계획에 따른 전기차 보급의 환경영향을 보기 위해 사용된 전과정평가는 제품이나 서비스의 환경영향를 정량화하는 분석 방법이다. 전기차 보급에 따른 분석을 하기에 앞서 목적 및 범위설정 단계에서 전기차의 연료생산 시의 전과정평가를 실시하였으며, 전과정평가시 1kWh의 전력 생산 시를 기능단위로 설정하였다. 이와 더불어 전력생산 시에 발생하는 오염물질의 인벤토리를 분석하였으며, 본 연구에서는 전기차의 보급에 따른 환경영향을 분석하기 위해 차량의 수명인 11년과 통계청에서 제공하는 연간 주행거리, 두 번째 분석에서 산출된 정책별 전기차 보급 대수를 적용하여 보급 대수에 따른 환경영향을 분석하였다. 또한, 제8차 전력수급계획 옵션과 석탄화력발전의 신재생에너지로의 추가적 전환 옵션을 적용하여 비교 분석하였다. 환경 옵션으로 제시된 정격용량을 기준으로 산출한 제8차 계획과 신재생에너지로의 전환을 적용하여 전기차의 온실가스와 미세먼지 배출량을 보면, 온실가스는 8차 계획 옵션 시 81.7g CO2e/VKT가 배출되며, 신재생에너지로의 전환 옵션 시, 37.2g CO2e/VKT의 온실가스가 배출되는 것으로 나타났다. 온실가스 배출량이 가장 낮게 나온 신재생에너지로의 전환 옵션은 2016년의 실질 전원구성과 3.1배 차이가 나며, 내연기관차인 휘발유차와 경유차와는 각각 4.57배와 4.25배 차이가 나는 것으로 분석되었다. 또한, 최근 미세먼지 관련 이슈가 크게 대두됨에 따라 차량에서 배출되는 미세먼지 배출량의 환경영향을 분석해보았다. 휘발유와 경유, 전기차 중 가장 많은 미세먼지 배출량을 보였던 전기차는 8차수급계획 옵션을 적용 시 1km 주행 시 20.7mg PMe를 에너지 전환 옵션을 적용 시 9.4mg PMe/VKT를 배출하는 것으로 산출되어 12.4mg PMe/VKT의 배출량을 보인 내연기관차(휘발유) 보다 1.32배 적을 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구에서 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 인자분석을 위해 월간 지역패널자료를 이용하여 분석을 진행하였다. 하지만, 일반적인 연간자료를 이용한 패널분석이 아닌 월간 자료를 이용한 패널 분석을 하며 지역별 자료 구득에 있어 한계가 존재하였다. 특히, 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 충전시설이나 충전전력요금과 같은 주요 영향인자가 포함되지 않았다는 점에서 향후, 지역별 충전시설의 월간 자료의 구축이 요구된다고 판단된다. 이와 더불어 본 연구에서는 미세먼지 변수를 농도로 적용하여 분석을 진행하였지만 향후, 기존의 연구에서 언급된 바와 같이 월별 미세먼지 나쁨 일수를 적용할 경우, 환경성 부분에서보다 더 정확한 결과 도출이 가능할 것이라 사료된다. 본 연구에서 진행한 세 가지의 분석 중 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용한 두 번째 파트의 분석은 다양한 시나리오 중 현재 예산을 매해 35% 증액하여 2030년 350% 인상에 도달하는 시나리오가 적합한 것으로 분석되었다. 하지만, 2023년을 기점으로 전기차 보조금 지급을 중단하는 정책을 시행하고 있는 우리나라의 입장에서는 현재 전기차 보조금을 위한 예산을 매년 35%씩 10년 동안 지속하는 것에는 어려움이 있기에 내연기관차로부터의 환경오염세와 같은 fee를 징수하여 친환경차인 전기차의 보조금을 rebate하는 피베이트 제도 (Feebate)를 해야 할 필요가 있다고 사료된다. 향후, feebate와 전기차 보급을 연계하여 연구가 가능할 것으로 판단된다. ; Chapter Ⅰ. Introduction 1 1. Background 1 2. Research Objectives 8 Chapter Ⅱ. Literature Review 9 1. Determinant of EV Propagation 9 2. System Dynamics Modeling 15 3. Environmental Impacts of EV Propagation 17 Chapter Ⅲ. Data and Methods 19 1. Panel Analysis for Deriving Affecting Factors of EV Propagation 19 1.1. Scope of Study 19 1.2. EV Trends in Korea 20 1.3. Categories of Affecting Factors 24 1.3.1. Vehicle Sector 28 1.3.2. Policy Sector 31 1.3.3. Demographic Sector 35 1.3.4. Climate Sector 38 1.3.5. Environment Sector 39 1.4. Stationary Testing 43 1.5. Panel Analysis Model 46 1.5.1. Pooled Ordinary Least Square 46 1.5.2. Fixed Effect Model 48 1.5.3. Random Effect Model 50 2. System Dynamics on EV Propagation 51 2.1. Scope of Study 51 2.2. Data for Dynamic Analysis 52 2.2.1. Propagation and Activation Policy on EVs 52 2.2.2. Model Parameters of System Dynamics Analysis 56 2.3. System Dynamics 62 2.3.1. Introduction to System Dynamics 62 2.3.2. Characteristics of System Dynamics 64 2.3.3. Steps of Modeling System Dynamics 68 2.4. Policy Scenarios for EV Propagation 70 3. Life Cycle Assessment of EV Propagation 72 3.1. National Plan for Electricity Supply and Demand 72 3.2. Life Cycle Assessment 74 3.2.1. Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment 74 3.2.2. Goal and Scope Definition 76 3.2.3. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 79 3.2.4. Life Cycle Impact Analysis 80 3.3. Policy Scenarios and Environmental Options 82 Chapter Ⅳ. Results and Discussion 84 1. Key Drivers of EV Propagation 84 1.1. Descriptive Statistics of Factors 84 1.2. Identification of Stationarity of Factors 88 1.3. Result of Goodness of Fit Test 89 1.4. Panel Fixed Effect of EV Propagation 90 1.5. Panel Random Effect of EV Propagation 98 2. System Dynamics Modeling for EV Propagation 103 2.1. Bull's Eye Diagram of EV Propagation Model 103 2.2. Causal Loop Diagram of EV Propagation 105 2.3. Stock-Flow Diagram of EV Propagation 108 2.4. Propagation Results of EV considering Policies 115 2.4.1. Subsidy Cliff Scenario 115 2.4.2. Phase-out Subsidy Scenario 118 2.4.3. Phase-in Subsidy Scenarios 121 2.4.4. Regional EV Projection per Thousand in 2030 127 2.4.5. Policy Implications of EV Projection considering Policy Scenarios 132 3. Environmental Implications of EV Propagation 134 3.1. Environmental Performance of EVs Compared to ICEVs 134 3.2. Environmental Implications of Combination of Policy Scenarios and Environmental Options for EV Propagation 138 3.2.1. Emissions Considering Environmental Options and Policy Scenarios 138 3.2.2. Total Emissions from ICEV and EV Considering Energy Transition Option and Policy Scenario 142 Chapter Ⅴ. Conclusion 147 References 152 Abstract in Korean 172 ; Master
학위논문 (석사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 국제농업기술대학원 국제농업기술학과, 2020. 8. 서교. ; Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are considered key factors driving climate change, and electric vehicles (EVs) are proposed as a potential solutions. EVs represent eco-friendly modes of transportation that do not emit carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere. In addition, the energy sources associated with EVs would reduce GHG emissions, which have steadily increased over the last several decades. The energy sector accounts for 93% of the total national GHG emissions among five sectors, including industrial processing, agriculture, land-use change and forestry, waste, and energy. Although all of these sectors contribute to GHG emissions. the energy sector is the major source of GHG emissions. Among the numerous sub-sectors under the energy sector, GHG emissions of the road transport sub-sector accounted for 95.9% of the total emissions in the transport sector, with 94,270 Gt CO2e in 2017. The Korean government proposed the adoption of eco-friendly vehicles to achieve the GHG reduction goals in line with the Paris Climate Agreement, which goes into effect in 2021. In addition, the government have proposed promoting eco-friendly vehicles as a strategy of achieving a 37% reduction of the 851 million ton CO2e GHG emissions forecast by 2030. The Korean government has proposed various policies to increase the adoption of EVs, as eco-friendly cars, with the aim of reducing GHG emissions. The government has set a goal of 3 million EVs by 2030, and has provided various incentives such as tax exemptions, purchase subsidies, highway tolls, and discounts on parking fees in public parking facilities to promote the purchases of eco-friendly cars in Korea. Despite these favorable government policies, the rate of EV adoption in Korea has fallen short of expectations. Compared to the goal of 3 million EVs by 2030, the number of EVs registered in Korea in 2019 was only approximately 8.8t thousand which was far below the high goal set by the government. In 2019, only 0.5% of all passenger vehicles in Korea were EVs. According to a survey to evaluate the perceptions of actual buyers of EVs in Korea and the willingness of prospective buyers to purchase EVs, in general, current owners reported that they would not repurchase EV. Prospective buyers reported that they would not purchase EVs for reasons such as reduced subsidies, long charging times, and the short driving range of EVs. In terms of charging, which is a key factor for EV owners, KEPCO's detailed plan for the electricity supply include significantly increasing charging fees for EVs starting in the second half of 2020. Consequently, the charging costs that purchasers of EVs need to pay will increase further and will negatively affect intention to purchase. However, following implementation of the government's policy of propagation of EVs and according to various studies, the EV adoption is still expected to increase, and improvements in power generation could lead to an increase in EV purchases. Although no pollutants are emitted while driving EVs, policies that promote an increase in EVs do not take into account the life cycles of EVs from pre-manufacturing to the disposal, and thus, they do not adequately predict the potential environmental impacts. In the life cycle of EVs, the production of the electricity required for the operation of EVs generates the highest amount of GHG emissions during the use stage. Thus, production of EVs still has a major impact on the environment. Since such environmental impacts depend on the energy mix, environmental impact assessments should consider the national energy mix. New environmental impact assessment activities are needed and such activities should consider changes in the energy mix and changes in the propagation of EVs. These activities would impact the outcomes in two categories, global warming potential and particulate matter potential, which are both linked to automobile use and energy production. As interest in EVs has increased, numerous studies on the propagation of EVs have been conducted. As a result, various factors that influence the spread of EVs have been identified. In the majority of the studies that have examined the factors influencing the spread of EVs, panel analysis has been conducted using annual data at the national level. Subsidies, which is a major factor influencing EV uptake in Korea, are divided into the national subsidy and regional subsidies. Therefore, regional characteristics should be taken into account and analyzed at the regional level since different regions (e.g., Jeju Island) have unique operational environments for EVs. In addition, few studies have examined the balance of subsidies or the change in the number of supportable EV residuals based on monthly data rather than annual data. Several studies have also focused on the propagation of EVs using system dynamics, but, most studies have been qualitative research rather than quantitative research. In addition, numerous studies have evaluated environmental effects by applying changes in the energy mix. However, few studies have considered both the propagation of EVs and their environmental impacts. Therefore, the present study evaluates the impact of subsidy policies on the propagation of EVs by region and environmental improvement effects. First, we investigated the factors influencing the propagation of EVs using monthly panel data by region. Changes in EV uptake were then analyzed by region based on identified factors. Lastly, to analyze the environmental implications of EV propagation, the environmental improvement impacts of EV propagation were analyzed considering the national grid power supply plan based on a life cycle assessment (LCA). Our analysis of EV propagation based on monthly time series data by region aimed to quantitatively analyze the factors influencing the spread of EVs in Korea. This study confirmed the stationarity of the factors considering the influence of seasonality in the monthly time series data based on regional characteristics. In addition, an EV propagation model was designed based on panel fixed effect and panel random effect models, using the Hausman test. Analysis of the factors influencing EV propagation in 16 cities and provinces in Korea using panel fixed effect and panel random effect models, revealed that the EV propagation models had explanatory powers of 48% and 50%, respectively. The factors classified in the five categories had different effects depending on the model, and the panel fixed effect using the Hausman test was more appropriate for describing the model. However, more variables in the panel random effect model were analyzed as significant factors than in the fixed effect model. The number of newly registered diesel vehicles and the total number of newly registered passenger vehicles in the vehicle category had negative and positive effects on EV propagation, respectively, in both the panel fixed effect model and the panel random effect model. However, in the random effect model, the prices of diesel and gasoline vehicles also influenced EV propagation. In the panel fixed effect model, only the national subsidy and regional subsidies showed positive effects on the propagation of EVs. The random effect model also showed that a tax exemption, which had a positive effect on the spread of EVs, was also a factor influencing EV propagation. The population density in the census category, the number of vehicles per capita, and the PM10 concentration, representing environmental factors, were analyzed as influential factors in both models. In addition, the monthly average and minimum temperatures in the climate category, which could reveal whether weather conditions in each region influence EV spread, were found to be influential in the panel fixed effect model. However, in the panel random effect model, all factors in the climate category were not influential. The system dynamics model of EV propagation was based on factors influencing the spread of EVs. The present study used the Stella Architect software platform to analyze dynamic changes in the spread of EVs by region. system dynamics is a technique that identifies dynamic change mechanisms of targets, and shows systemic trends with a non-linear feedback system and simulates and analyzes them based on various factors. In the present study, we used system dynamics to estimate the number of EVs propagated by region. A bull's eye diagram, causal loop diagram, and stock-flow diagram were constructed, and factors such as subsidies, charging facilities, fuel prices, electricity prices, and the number of vehicles by fuel applied. The system dynamics modeling was conducted based on correlations between variables. The system dynamics model of EV propagation by region was applied using the number of new EVs registered as the dependent variable to reveal differences based on regional characteristics. The subsidy variables were divided into national and regional variables, and the number of newly registered EVs was set as the dependent variable and multiple regression analysis was conducted. In addition, four policy scenarios – Subsidy Cliff, Phase-out, Phase-in 50%, and Phase-in 350% – were adopted to verify whether the 2030 EV goal set by the government could be achieved. According to the analysis, 1.37 million EVs would be adopted in 2030 under the Subsidy Cliff scenario, 1.40 million under the Phase-out scenario, 1.87 million under the Phase-in 50% scenario, and 3.01 million under the Phase-in 350% scenario. The results from these scenarios show that three scenarios, excluding the Phase-in 350% scenario, in which subsidies would increase to 350% by 2030, would require an additional 1.63 million, 1.60 million, and 1.13 million EVs, respectively, to achieve the national EV propagation goal. Under the four scenarios, the regions where the largest number of EVs would be adopted by 2030 were Jeju, Seoul, Gyeonggi, and Daegu. However, the result of the analysis of the spread of EVs compared to the number of residents were contrary to the results of the analysis of the number of EVs based on region. Jeju, Ulsan, Gangwon, and Jeonnam would have the largest number of EVs per capita by 2030. Except for Jeju, the three other regions did not have many EVs compared to the total number of EVs, but the regions would have many EVs compared to the relatively low populations (i.e., EV per capita). Ulsan was projected to have the lowest number of EVs in Korea. However, considering the population, Ulsan would have the largest number of EVs per capita, except for Jeju, which is considered an effect similar to that observed in Ulsan, where an automobile factory is located. The results illustrate the potential propagation of EVs in regions where EVs are produced or where factories are located. The life cycle assessment (LCA) used to analyze the environmental impacts of EV propagation was based on the national power supply plan. LCA is an analysis method that quantifies the environmental impact of products or services. Prior to analyzing the propagation of EVs, the LCA of electricity production of EVs was evaluated at the goal and scope stages, and 1kWh of electricity production was set as a functional unit for the LCA. In addition, the inventory of pollutants generated during electricity production was analyzed. With regard to the environmental impact of the number of EVs propagated, the annual mileage provided by the KOSIS was applied based on an 11-year vehicle lifespan of EVs. In addition, the 8th Power Supply and Demand Plan and the additional energy transition option of coal-fired power generation to renewable energy were applied for comparative analyses. The 8th Plan was calculated based on the rated capacity presented as an environmental option, and the application of the energy transition to renewable energy. The GHG emissions of EVs were 81.7g CO2e/VKT under the 8th Plan option, and 37.2g CO2e/VKT for the energy transition option to renewable energy. The energy transition option, showed the lowest GHG emissions, with emissions that were 3.1 times lower than emission of the actual energy mix in 2016, and 4.57-fold and 4.25-fold lower compared to gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles, respectively. In addition, considering the recent rise in particulate matter-related issues, the environmental impact of particulate matter emissions from vehicles was analyzed. EVs. EVs emitted 20.7 mg PMe/VKT per 1km of driving. When the energy transition plan option was applied, PM emissions were less than those emitted by internal combustion engine vehicles. In the present study, monthly regional panel data were used to analyze factors influencing the propagation of EVs. However, panel analysis was conducted using monthly data rather than annual data. However, there were data acquisition limits that varied across regions. In particular, major factors such as the charging facilities and charging price, which affect the spread of EVs, were not included. Future studies and models should include monthly data on charging facilities for each region. In addition, in the present study, the PM10 variable was applied in the analyses, but if the monthly particulates on bad days were applied as mentioned in a previous study, more accurate results could be obtained for the environmental aspect. The second part of the three analyses conducted in the study using system dynamics was analyzed under four scenarios. The scenario that increases the current budget by 35% per year to achieve a 350% increase by 2030 could help meet the national EV propagation goal. However, given that Korea has implemented a policy of suspending EV subsidies as of 2023, it will be challenging to maintain the current budget for 35% subsidies per year for 10 years. Therefore, it is necessary to collect fees such as an environmental pollution tax from internal combustion engine vehicles to return the subsidies or give rebates for eco-friendly car such as EVs. In the future, more reliable research will promote the spread of EVs. The effects of feebate programs could also be considered. ; 기후변화와 관련하여 온실가스는 주요한 영향을 미치는 요인으로 인식되며, 꾸준히 증가하는 온실가스를 감축하고자 에너지 부문 중 수송부문에서도 탄소를 배출하지 않는 친환경 자동차로서 전기차는 해결책으로 제시되고 있다. 에너지 부문은 다섯 개 부문인 산업공정, 농업, 토지이용 변화 및 임업, 폐기물, 에너지 부문 중 국내 총 온실가스 배출량의 93%를 차지하여 온실가스 배출에 있어 크게 기여하고 있으며, 이로 인해 에너지 부문은 주요 온실가스 배출원으로 지목되었다. 그중 도로수송부문의 온실가스 배출량은 2017년 94,270 Gg ton CO2e로 전체 수송부문의 95.9%를 차지하며, 2021년부터 효력이 발생하는 파리기후협약에 따라 온실가스 감축 목표를 달성하고자 2030년 온실가스 배출전망량 851백만 ton CO2e 대비 37% 감축 달성을 위한 방안으로 친환경 자동차 보급을 제시하였다. 우리나라 정부는 온실가스 감축을 목표로 친환경 자동차 중 전기차 보급확대를 위해 다양한 정책을 제시하였다. 정부는 2030년 전기차 보급목표 대수를 3백만 대로 설정하며, 국내 친환경 자동차 보급확대를 위해 세제감면과 구매보조금 지급, 고속도로통행료, 공영주차장 주차비 할인 등의 다양한 혜택을 제공하고 있다. 하지만 이러한 정부의 다양한 정책적 노력에도 불구하고 국내 전기차 보급속도는 기대에 못 미치고 있다. 정부는 2030년까지 배출되는 온실가스를 감축하기 위해 수송부문의 경우 2030 전기차 보급목표를 300만 대로 설정하였지만, 우리나라의 2019년 전기차 등록 대수는 약 8.8만 대에 불과하며 정부가 설정한 높은 목표 대수에 한참 못 미치는 수준이다. 이는 국내 전체 승용차의 0.5% 수준이다. 우리나라 전기차 실구매자의 재구매 의사와 예비구매자의 전기차 구매 의사와 관련하여 진행된 설문조사에 따르면, 보조금 축소와 긴 충전시간, 짧은 항속거리 등과 같은 이유로 전기차 재구매 혹은 구매를 하지 않겠다는 의견을 제시하였다. 주행을 위해 꼭 필요한 요소인 충전과 관련한 사항은 민감한 사항이지만 한국전력의 전기공급 시행세칙 변경안에 따르면, 2020년 하반기부터 전기차 충전료가 대폭 인상추진 중이다. 이로 인해 전기차 실구매자가 부담해야 하는 충전비용은 더욱 늘어나며 구매의향에 영향을 미칠 것으로 조사되었다. 전기차 보급을 위한 정부의 정책 시행과 다양한 연구가 진행되는 흐름 속에서 전기차의 보급이 증가할 것으로 전망됨에 따라 전기차의 연료인 발전의 변화도 중요성이 높아지고 있다. 전기차는 주행 중에 배출되는 오염물질이 없다는 점에서 환경성이 부각되며 장려되고 있지만, 전기차의 제조 전 단계부터 폐기단계까지의 생애주기를 고려한 환경영향은 포함되지 않은 채 전기자동차는 장려되고 있다. 전기차의 생애주기 중 전기차 운행을 위한 전력 생산단계는 생애주기 중 사용단계에서 가장 많은 탄소량이 배출되며 이로 인해 전력생산은 전기차의 환경영향에 주요한 영향을 미친다. 전원믹스 구성에 따라 환경영향이 달라지기 때문에 국가 전원믹스를 고려한 환경영향평가가 이루어져야 한다. 자동차 보급과 에너지 생산과 관련된 중요한 두 카테고리인 온실가스와 미세먼지에서 상반된 결과를 보이기에 전원믹스구성의 변화와 전기차 보급 변화에 따른 환경영향평가가 필요하다. 전기차를 향한 관심의 증가하며 전기차 보급 관련 다양한 연구들이 수행되며, 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 다양한 인자들을 제시하였다. 그중 충전시설, 인구밀도, 유가, 온도, 전력가격, 보조금, 1인당 보유차량 대수 등이 전기차 보급의 주요 인자로 알려져 있다. 전기차 보급의 영향인자를 연구한 대다수의 연구에서 국가 단위의 연간자료를 사용하여 패널 분석을 진행하였다. 하지만, 우리나라는 주요 영향인자 중 보조금이 국고 보조금과 지자체 보조금으로 나뉘어 지급되고 있기에 지역적 특성이 고려되어야 하며, 제주도와 같은 전기차에 특수성을 띄고 있는 지역이 있기에 지자체 레벨에서 분석이 되어야 한다. 이와 더불어, 연간자료가 아닌 월간 자료 사용에 따라 보조금의 잔액 혹은 잔여 대수 변화를 적용한 연구는 찾아보기 어렵다. 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용한 전기차 보급 관련 다양한 연구들이 있었지만, 정량적인 연구보다는 정성적인 연구에 초점을 둔 연구들이 대부분이었다. 또한, 전기차 전원믹스 구성 변화를 적용하여 환경영향을 평가한 연구들은 많았지만, 전기차 보급량과 환경영향을 모두 고려한 연구는 찾아보기 어렵다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 지역별 전기차 보급에 대한 보조금 정책의 영향과 환경개선효과에 대해서 평가하였다. 먼저, 지역별 월간 패널자료를 이용하여 전기차의 보급 활성화에 영향을 미치는 인자를 분석하였으며, 분석된 인자들을 바탕으로 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용한 보조금 정책에 따른 지역별 전기차 보급량 변화를 분석하였다. 마지막으로 전기차 보급에 따른 환경성 분석을 위해 전과정평가를 이용하여 국가전력수급계획에 따른 전기차 보급의 환경개선효과를 보고자 하였다. 본 연구의 첫 번째 전기차 보급 분석을 통해 지역별 월별 시계열 자료를 바탕으로 우리나라의 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 요인을 정량적인 분석을 하고자 하였다. 먼저 지역적 특성을 고려한 월 단위의 시계열 자료에서 나타나는 계절성 등에 대한 영향을 고려하기 위해 인자의 정상성을 확인하였다. 또한, 하우즈만 검정을 통해 패널고정효과모형과 패널확률효과모형에 대한 전기차 보급 모형을 설계하였다. 패널고정효과모형과 패널확률효과모형으로 국내 17개 시·도를 대상으로 전기차 보급 영향인자를 분석한 결과, 각각 48%와 50%의 설명력을 갖는 전기차 보급 모형을 확인하였다. 5개의 카테고리인 차량관련과 정책, 인구조사, 기후, 환경에 분류된 인자들은 모형에 따라 각기 다른 영향을 보이는 것으로 나타났으며, 하우즈만 검정을 통해 패널고정효과가 모형을 설명하기에 더욱 적절한 것으로 분석되었으나, 고정효과 모형보다 패널확률효과모형에서 더 많은 변수가 통계적으로 유의한 영향인자로 분석되었다. 차량 관련 카테고리의 신규등록 디젤차량 대수와 전체 신규등록 차량 대수는 패널고정효과모형과 패널확률효과모형 모두에서 각각 부(-)의 영향과 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 분석되었다. 하지만 확률효과모형의 경우, 디젤의 가격과 가솔린의 가격 또한 영향인자로 분석되었다. 패널고정효과모형에서는 국고 보조금과 지자체 보조금만이 영향인자로 각각 부(-)의 영향과 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 확인되었으나 확률효과모형은 전기차 보급에 긍정적 영향을 미치는 세금감면도 영향인자로 나타났다. 인구조사 카테고리의 인구밀도와 1인당 차량보유대수, 환경적 요인을 대변하는 미세먼지지수는 두 모형 모두에서 영향인자로 분석되었다. 각 지역의 기상조건이 전기차 보급 활성에 영향을 미치는지를 볼 수 있는 기상카테고리의 인자 중 월평균 온도와 월최저온도가 패널고정효과모형에서 영향력이 있는 것으로 나타났다. 하지만 패널확률효과모형에서는 기상카테고리의 모든 인자가 영향인자가 아닌 것으로 분석되었다. 앞서 분석된 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 인자들을 바탕으로 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용하여 지역별 전기차 보급의 동태적 변화를 보기 위해 Stella 플랫폼을 이용하였다. 시스템 다이내믹스는 시스템적 거동을 보이는 대상의 역동적인 변화메커니즘을 비선형적인 피드백 시스템으로 파악하고, 이를 다양한 요인을 고려하여 시뮬레이션하여 분석하는 기법이다. 본 연구에서는 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용한 지역별 전기차 보급대수 추정을 위해 Bull's eye diagram과 causal loop diagram, stock-flow diagram을 구축하고 보조금, 충전시설, 유가, 전력가격, 연료별 차량 대수 변수로 적용하였다. 이러한 시스템 다이내믹스 모델링을 통해 변수 간의 상관관계를 수식화하였다. 지역별 전기차 보급의 시스템 다이내믹스 모델은 지역별 특성에 따른 차이를 보고자 보조금 변수를 제외한 모든 변수는 신규 전기차 등록대수를 종속변수로 pooled OLS 회귀분석을 하여 수식을 적용하였으며, 보조금 변수는 지역별로 구분하여 신규 전기차 등록대수를 종속변수로 설정하고 다중회귀분석을 진행하였다. 이와 더불어 네 가지 정책시나리오-Subsidy Cliff, Phase-out, Phase-in 50%, Phase-in 350%-를 구축하여 우리나라 2030년 전기차 보급목표인 3백만 대 달성 가능 여부를 확인하였다. 이러한 분석을 통한 결과에 따르면, 2030년 국내 전기차는 Subsidy Cliff 시나리오일 경우 1.37 백만 대와 Phase-out일 경우 1.40 백만 대, Phase-in 50%일 경우, 1.87 백만 대, Phase-in 350%일 경우 3.01 백만 대가 보급될 것으로 분석되었다. 해당 시나리오의 결과를 보면, 보조금이 2030년 350%까지 인상되는 Phase-in 350% 시나리오를 제외한 세 가지 시나리오인 Subsidy Cliff와 Phase-out, Phase-in 50%가 국가 전기차 보급목표에 각각 1.63백만 대, 1.60 백만 대, 1.13 백만 대의 전기차가 추가적으로 보급되어야 하는 것으로 나타났다. 구축된 네 가지 시나리오를 지역별 전기차 보급 대수로 보면, 2019년 가장 많은 전기차가 보급된 지역은 제주, 서울 경기 대구 순이었으며, 2030년은 제주 경기 서울 대구 순으로 분석되었다. 시간이 지나며 2019년 대비 많은 전기차가 보급되었음에도 전기차 보급이 활성화된 지역은 순서의 차이는 있었으나 동일하였다. 하지만 전기차 보급을 거주 인구수와 대비하여 분석한 결과, 지역별 전체 전기차 보급 대수를 분석한 결과와 상반된 결과가 산출되었다. 2030년에 가장 많은 1인당 전기차 대수가 나온 지역은 제주, 울산, 강원, 전남 순이었다. 제주를 제외한 세 지역은 전체 보급대수로 보았을 때는 많은 전기차가 보급된 지역이 아니었지만 적은 인구수 대비 많은 전기차가 보급된 것으로 나타났다. 울산의 경우, 전체 전기차 대수를 보면 16개 시도에서 가장 적은 전기차가 보급되는 것으로 분석되었지만 인구대비로 보았을 경우는 특수케이스인 제주를 제외한 제일 많은 1인당 전기차 대수가 보급된 곳으로 분석되었다. 이는 자동차 공장이 있는 울산이 기존연구에서 전기차의 생산지나 공장이 있는 지역의 전기차 보급이 높게 나타난 것과 같은 생산지 효과로 사료된다. 본 연구의 세 번째 전기차 보급 분석인 국가전력수급계획에 따른 전기차 보급의 환경영향을 보기 위해 사용된 전과정평가는 제품이나 서비스의 환경영향를 정량화하는 분석 방법이다. 전기차 보급에 따른 분석을 하기에 앞서 목적 및 범위설정 단계에서 전기차의 연료생산 시의 전과정평가를 실시하였으며, 전과정평가시 1kWh의 전력 생산 시를 기능단위로 설정하였다. 이와 더불어 전력생산 시에 발생하는 오염물질의 인벤토리를 분석하였으며, 본 연구에서는 전기차의 보급에 따른 환경영향을 분석하기 위해 차량의 수명인 11년과 통계청에서 제공하는 연간 주행거리, 두 번째 분석에서 산출된 정책별 전기차 보급 대수를 적용하여 보급 대수에 따른 환경영향을 분석하였다. 또한, 제8차 전력수급계획 옵션과 석탄화력발전의 신재생에너지로의 추가적 전환 옵션을 적용하여 비교 분석하였다. 환경 옵션으로 제시된 정격용량을 기준으로 산출한 제8차 계획과 신재생에너지로의 전환을 적용하여 전기차의 온실가스와 미세먼지 배출량을 보면, 온실가스는 8차 계획 옵션 시 81.7g CO2e/VKT가 배출되며, 신재생에너지로의 전환 옵션 시, 37.2g CO2e/VKT의 온실가스가 배출되는 것으로 나타났다. 온실가스 배출량이 가장 낮게 나온 신재생에너지로의 전환 옵션은 2016년의 실질 전원구성과 3.1배 차이가 나며, 내연기관차인 휘발유차와 경유차와는 각각 4.57배와 4.25배 차이가 나는 것으로 분석되었다. 또한, 최근 미세먼지 관련 이슈가 크게 대두됨에 따라 차량에서 배출되는 미세먼지 배출량의 환경영향을 분석해보았다. 휘발유와 경유, 전기차 중 가장 많은 미세먼지 배출량을 보였던 전기차는 8차수급계획 옵션을 적용 시 1km 주행 시 20.7mg PMe를 에너지 전환 옵션을 적용 시 9.4mg PMe/VKT를 배출하는 것으로 산출되어 12.4mg PMe/VKT의 배출량을 보인 내연기관차(휘발유) 보다 1.32배 적을 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구에서 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 인자분석을 위해 월간 지역패널자료를 이용하여 분석을 진행하였다. 하지만, 일반적인 연간자료를 이용한 패널분석이 아닌 월간 자료를 이용한 패널 분석을 하며 지역별 자료 구득에 있어 한계가 존재하였다. 특히, 전기차 보급에 영향을 미치는 충전시설이나 충전전력요금과 같은 주요 영향인자가 포함되지 않았다는 점에서 향후, 지역별 충전시설의 월간 자료의 구축이 요구된다고 판단된다. 이와 더불어 본 연구에서는 미세먼지 변수를 농도로 적용하여 분석을 진행하였지만 향후, 기존의 연구에서 언급된 바와 같이 월별 미세먼지 나쁨 일수를 적용할 경우, 환경성 부분에서보다 더 정확한 결과 도출이 가능할 것이라 사료된다. 본 연구에서 진행한 세 가지의 분석 중 시스템 다이내믹스를 이용한 두 번째 파트의 분석은 다양한 시나리오 중 현재 예산을 매해 35% 증액하여 2030년 350% 인상에 도달하는 시나리오가 적합한 것으로 분석되었다. 하지만, 2023년을 기점으로 전기차 보조금 지급을 중단하는 정책을 시행하고 있는 우리나라의 입장에서는 현재 전기차 보조금을 위한 예산을 매년 35%씩 10년 동안 지속하는 것에는 어려움이 있기에 내연기관차로부터의 환경오염세와 같은 fee를 징수하여 친환경차인 전기차의 보조금을 rebate하는 피베이트 제도 (Feebate)를 해야 할 필요가 있다고 사료된다. 향후, feebate와 전기차 보급을 연계하여 연구가 가능할 것으로 판단된다. ; Chapter Ⅰ. Introduction 1 1. Background 1 2. Research Objectives 8 Chapter Ⅱ. Literature Review 9 1. Determinant of EV Propagation 9 2. System Dynamics Modeling 15 3. Environmental Impacts of EV Propagation 17 Chapter Ⅲ. Data and Methods 19 1. Panel Analysis for Deriving Affecting Factors of EV Propagation 19 1.1. Scope of Study 19 1.2. EV Trends in Korea 20 1.3. Categories of Affecting Factors 24 1.3.1. Vehicle Sector 28 1.3.2. Policy Sector 31 1.3.3. Demographic Sector 35 1.3.4. Climate Sector 38 1.3.5. Environment Sector 39 1.4. Stationary Testing 43 1.5. Panel Analysis Model 46 1.5.1. Pooled Ordinary Least Square 46 1.5.2. Fixed Effect Model 48 1.5.3. Random Effect Model 50 2. System Dynamics on EV Propagation 51 2.1. Scope of Study 51 2.2. Data for Dynamic Analysis 52 2.2.1. Propagation and Activation Policy on EVs 52 2.2.2. Model Parameters of System Dynamics Analysis 56 2.3. System Dynamics 62 2.3.1. Introduction to System Dynamics 62 2.3.2. Characteristics of System Dynamics 64 2.3.3. Steps of Modeling System Dynamics 68 2.4. Policy Scenarios for EV Propagation 70 3. Life Cycle Assessment of EV Propagation 72 3.1. National Plan for Electricity Supply and Demand 72 3.2. Life Cycle Assessment 74 3.2.1. Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment 74 3.2.2. Goal and Scope Definition 76 3.2.3. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 79 3.2.4. Life Cycle Impact Analysis 80 3.3. Policy Scenarios and Environmental Options 82 Chapter Ⅳ. Results and Discussion 84 1. Key Drivers of EV Propagation 84 1.1. Descriptive Statistics of Factors 84 1.2. Identification of Stationarity of Factors 88 1.3. Result of Goodness of Fit Test 89 1.4. Panel Fixed Effect of EV Propagation 90 1.5. Panel Random Effect of EV Propagation 98 2. System Dynamics Modeling for EV Propagation 103 2.1. Bull's Eye Diagram of EV Propagation Model 103 2.2. Causal Loop Diagram of EV Propagation 105 2.3. Stock-Flow Diagram of EV Propagation 108 2.4. Propagation Results of EV considering Policies 115 2.4.1. Subsidy Cliff Scenario 115 2.4.2. Phase-out Subsidy Scenario 118 2.4.3. Phase-in Subsidy Scenarios 121 2.4.4. Regional EV Projection per Thousand in 2030 127 2.4.5. Policy Implications of EV Projection considering Policy Scenarios 132 3. Environmental Implications of EV Propagation 134 3.1. Environmental Performance of EVs Compared to ICEVs 134 3.2. Environmental Implications of Combination of Policy Scenarios and Environmental Options for EV Propagation 138 3.2.1. Emissions Considering Environmental Options and Policy Scenarios 138 3.2.2. Total Emissions from ICEV and EV Considering Energy Transition Option and Policy Scenario 142 Chapter Ⅴ. Conclusion 147 References 152 Abstract in Korean 172 ; Master
The objective of this paper is to present a proposal for a consensus of economic transformation to face the disruptive crisis that Ecuador is going through in times of Covid-19, since unfortunately this country has presented itself as one of the most vulnerable Latin American societies because of health, social, economic and environmental problems. The methodology was based both on a bibliographic review on the theory of social conflict-consensus by the governance and governability approaches from economic approach, regulationism and Latin American neo-structuralism, as well as on the socioeconomic impacts of Covid-19. The results show that there are theoretical bases that support the possibility of broad spectrum social agreements to underpin an economic policy under the approach of what is adequate, enough. For the Ecuadorian case, it is feasible to identify four major national objectives that demand a social response or collective action: inclusive productive reactivation; fiscal sustainability; extension of social protection; and sustainable environmental transition. Keywords:Economic consensus, economic policy, economic crisis. URL:https://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/1158 References: Arias, K, Torres, J y Carrillo, P. (2020). El empleo informal en Ecuador: una propuesta de cálculo. Valor Agregado. Quito. Aglietta, M. (1979). Regulación y crisis del capitalismo. México: Siglo XXI. Banco Central del Ecuador (2021). Estadísticas económicas. Información Estadística Mensual, No. 2029. Recuperado de: https://contenido.bce.fin.ec/home1/estadisticas/bolmensual/IEMensual.jsp Banco Mundial (2020). La economía en los tiempos del Covid-19. Informe semestral de la región de América Latina y el Caribe. Bowles, S. y W. Carlin (2020). VOX CEPR Policy Portal, 10 April 2020 Boyer, R. (1986). La théorie de la régulation: Un analyse critique. París: Agalma. Camino-Mogro, S. (2020). Turbulence in startups: Effect of covid-19 lockdown on creation of new firms and its capital (Working Paper). Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/104502/1/MPRA paper 104502.pdf Camino-Mogro, S., & Armijos, M. (2020). Los efectos del confinamiento por covid-19 en la inversión extranjera directa: evidencia de empresas ecuatorianas (Estudio Sectorial No. 2020). Superintendencia de Compañías, Valores y Seguros. Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL) (2020a). Reconstrucción y transformación con igualdad y sostenibilidad en América Latina y el Caribe (LC/SES.38/11), Santiago. _______ (2020b). Pactos políticos y sociales para la igualdad y el desarrollo sostenible en América Latina y el Caribe en la recuperación pos-COVID-19. Informe Especial Covid-19, 15 de octubre de 2020 _______ (2020c). Dimensionar los efectos del COVID-19 para pensar en la reactivación. Informe Especial Covid-19, 21 de abril de 2020. _______ (2020d). América Latina y el Caribe ante la pandemia del COVID-19. Efectos económicos y sociales. 3 de abril de 2020. De Sousa Santos, B. (2020). La cruel pedagogía del virus. Argentina, CLACSO Díaz-Cassou, J., Carrillo-Maldonado, P., & Moreno, K. (2020). Covid19:El impacto del choque externo sobre las economías de la región andina. (IDB Working Paper Series No. IDB-DP-00779). InterAmerican Development Bank. Di Filippo, A. (2005): La economía política estructuralista latinoamericana. Revista Encrucijada Americana, Año 2, No. 1, Santiago de Chile, Universidad Alberto Hurtado, otoño-invierno 2008, pp. 92-10 3. Donoso, JC, et al. (2018). Cultura política de la democracia en Ecuador y en las Américas 2017/2016. Un estudio comparado sobre democracia y gobernabilidad. LAPOP, Quito, UDLA y Universidad Vanderbilt. Fundación ESQUEL (2020). Pacto Social por la Vida y Ecuador. Quito. Fondo Monetario Internacional (FMI) (2020a) Ecuador: Request for an extended arrangement under the extended fund facility—press release; staff report; staff supplement; and statement by the executive director for Ecuador. IMF Country Report No. 20/286, October. https://www.finanzas.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2020/10/1ECUEA2020002.pdf (accedido 13 de octubre 2020) ________ (2020b). World Economic Outlook (WEO), abril de 2020 Fontaine, G. (2015). El Análisis de políticas públicas. Conceptos, teorías y métodos. Ecuador, Anthropos, FLACSO. Escuela Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL) (2020). El Covid y los retos de política económica del Ecuador. Guayaquil, Centro de Investigaciones Económica de ESPOL. García Álvarez, S. (2019a). Dinámica macroeconómica y déficit fiscal. Boletín de Coyuntura, No.21. Ambato - Ecuador, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, junio de 2019. Recuperado de: https://www.uta.edu.ec/v3.2/uta/observatorioeconomico/b21.pdf ________ (2019b). Inclusión financiera y economía popular y solidaria: Propuesta de agenda de políticas públicas para Ecuador. Quito, Universidad Central del Ecuador. Hayek, F. (1958). Individualism and economic order. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (obra original publicada en 1948). ________(2011). Camino de Servidumbre. Madrid, Alianza EditorialInstituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos, INEC (2020). Encuesta de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo - ENEMDU sept/2020 Jaramillo, Edmundo (2013). Historia de las doctrinas económicas. Quito, Universidad Central del Ecuador. Keynes, J.M. (1951). Teoría General de la Ocupación, el Interés y el Dinero. México DF, Fondo de Cultura Económica. México Kooiman, J. (2004) Gobernar en gobernanza. Recuperado de: https://webs.ucm.es/centros/cont/descargas/documento24211.pdf Lavoie, M. (2009). Introduction to Pos Keynesian Economics. United Kingdom, Palgrave Macmillan Marx, C. (1859). Introducción a la Crítica de la Economía Política. Argentina, Ediciones Luxemburg. Martínez Alier J. y Schlüpmann, K. (1991). La economía y la ecología. México, Fondo de Cultura Económica. Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas (MEF) (2020a). Resistencia, Reactivación y Recuperación. Ecuador frente al Covid-19. Quito. _______ (2020b). Proforma presupuestaria 2020. PUCE-IIE (2020). Crisis Económica y Pandemia COVID-19 en Ecuador 2020. Boletín de Coyuntura, No. 2020-01. Quito, Instituto de Investigaciones Económicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador. Ricardo, D. (1959). Principios de Economía Política y Tributación. México, Fondo de Cultura Serrano Gómez, E. (2002). Consenso y conflicto: Schmitt y Arendt. La definición de lo político. Editorial Universidad de Antioquia. Statista (2021). El nuevo coronavirus (COVID-19) – Datos estadísticos. Recuperado el 20 de marzo de 2021 de: https://es.statista.com/temas/5901/el-coronavirus-de-wuhan/ Universidad Central del Ecuador UCE (2020). UCE a la Asamblea Nacional. Resolución RHCU.SE.14 No. 0106-2020. Quito. Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia, UNICEF (2020). El choque COVID-19 en la pobreza, desigualdad y clases sociales en el Ecuador. Una mirada a los hogares con niñas, niños y adolescentes. Quito, octubre. Williamson, O. (1989). Las instituciones económicas del capitalismo: empresas, mercados y contratos relacionales. México: F.C.E ; El objetivo de este artículo es presentar una propuesta de consenso de transformación económica para enfrentar la crisis disruptiva por la que atraviesa Ecuador en tiempos del Covid-19, pues lamentablemente este país se ha presentado como una de las sociedades latinoamericanas más vulnerables en los ámbitos sanitario, social, económico y ambiental. La metodología se basó tanto en una revisión bibliográfica sobre las teorías del conflicto-consenso social, a partir de los enfoques de gobernanza y gobernabilidad desde la perspectiva económica, el regulacionismo y el neoestructuralismo latinoamericano, así como sobre los impactos socioeconómicos del Covid-19. Los resultados muestran que existen bases teóricas que sustentan la posibilidad de acuerdos sociales de amplio espectro para apuntalar una política económica bajo el enfoque de lo adecuado, de los suficiente. Para el caso ecuatoriano, resulta factible identificar cuatro grandes objetivos nacionales que demandan una respuesta social o acción colectiva: reactivación productiva inclusiva; sostenibilidad fiscal de mediano y largo plazo; ampliación de la protección social; y transición ambiental sostenible. Palabras clave: Consenso económico, política económica, crisis económica. URL:https://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/1158 Referencias: Arias, K, Torres, J y Carrillo, P. (2020). El empleo informal en Ecuador: una propuesta de cálculo. Valor Agregado. Quito. Aglietta, M. (1979). Regulación y crisis del capitalismo. México: Siglo XXI. Banco Central del Ecuador (2021). Estadísticas económicas. Información Estadística Mensual, No. 2029. Recuperado de: https://contenido.bce.fin.ec/home1/estadisticas/bolmensual/IEMensual.jsp Banco Mundial (2020). La economía en los tiempos del Covid-19. Informe semestral de la región de América Latina y el Caribe. Bowles, S. y W. Carlin (2020). VOX CEPR Policy Portal, 10 April 2020 Boyer, R. (1986). La théorie de la régulation: Un analyse critique. París: Agalma. Camino-Mogro, S. (2020). Turbulence in startups: Effect of covid-19 lockdown on creation of new firms and its capital (Working Paper). Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/104502/1/MPRA paper 104502.pdf Camino-Mogro, S., & Armijos, M. (2020). Los efectos del confinamiento por covid-19 en la inversión extranjera directa: evidencia de empresas ecuatorianas (Estudio Sectorial No. 2020). Superintendencia de Compañías, Valores y Seguros. Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL) (2020a). Reconstrucción y transformación con igualdad y sostenibilidad en América Latina y el Caribe (LC/SES.38/11), Santiago. _______ (2020b). Pactos políticos y sociales para la igualdad y el desarrollo sostenible en América Latina y el Caribe en la recuperación pos-COVID-19. Informe Especial Covid-19, 15 de octubre de 2020 _______ (2020c). Dimensionar los efectos del COVID-19 para pensar en la reactivación. Informe Especial Covid-19, 21 de abril de 2020. _______ (2020d). América Latina y el Caribe ante la pandemia del COVID-19. Efectos económicos y sociales. 3 de abril de 2020. De Sousa Santos, B. (2020). La cruel pedagogía del virus. Argentina, CLACSO Díaz-Cassou, J., Carrillo-Maldonado, P., & Moreno, K. (2020). Covid19:El impacto del choque externo sobre las economías de la región andina. (IDB Working Paper Series No. IDB-DP-00779). InterAmerican Development Bank. Di Filippo, A. (2005): La economía política estructuralista latinoamericana. Revista Encrucijada Americana, Año 2, No. 1, Santiago de Chile, Universidad Alberto Hurtado, otoño-invierno 2008, pp. 92-10 3. Donoso, JC, et al. (2018). Cultura política de la democracia en Ecuador y en las Américas 2017/2016. Un estudio comparado sobre democracia y gobernabilidad. LAPOP, Quito, UDLA y Universidad Vanderbilt. Fundación ESQUEL (2020). Pacto Social por la Vida y Ecuador. Quito. Fondo Monetario Internacional (FMI) (2020a) Ecuador: Request for an extended arrangement under the extended fund facility—press release; staff report; staff supplement; and statement by the executive director for Ecuador. IMF Country Report No. 20/286, October. https://www.finanzas.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2020/10/1ECUEA2020002.pdf (accedido 13 de octubre 2020) ________ (2020b). World Economic Outlook (WEO), abril de 2020 Fontaine, G. (2015). El Análisis de políticas públicas. Conceptos, teorías y métodos. Ecuador, Anthropos, FLACSO. Escuela Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL) (2020). El Covid y los retos de política económica del Ecuador. Guayaquil, Centro de Investigaciones Económica de ESPOL. García Álvarez, S. (2019a). Dinámica macroeconómica y déficit fiscal. Boletín de Coyuntura, No.21. Ambato - Ecuador, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, junio de 2019. Recuperado de: https://www.uta.edu.ec/v3.2/uta/observatorioeconomico/b21.pdf ________ (2019b). Inclusión financiera y economía popular y solidaria: Propuesta de agenda de políticas públicas para Ecuador. Quito, Universidad Central del Ecuador. Hayek, F. (1958). Individualism and economic order. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (obra original publicada en 1948). ________(2011). Camino de Servidumbre. Madrid, Alianza EditorialInstituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos, INEC (2020). Encuesta de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo - ENEMDU sept/2020 Jaramillo, Edmundo (2013). Historia de las doctrinas económicas. Quito, Universidad Central del Ecuador. Keynes, J.M. (1951). Teoría General de la Ocupación, el Interés y el Dinero. México DF, Fondo de Cultura Económica. México Kooiman, J. (2004) Gobernar en gobernanza. Recuperado de: https://webs.ucm.es/centros/cont/descargas/documento24211.pdf Lavoie, M. (2009). Introduction to Pos Keynesian Economics. United Kingdom, Palgrave Macmillan Marx, C. (1859). Introducción a la Crítica de la Economía Política. Argentina, Ediciones Luxemburg. Martínez Alier J. y Schlüpmann, K. (1991). La economía y la ecología. México, Fondo de Cultura Económica. Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas (MEF) (2020a). Resistencia, Reactivación y Recuperación. Ecuador frente al Covid-19. Quito. _______ (2020b). Proforma presupuestaria 2020. PUCE-IIE (2020). Crisis Económica y Pandemia COVID-19 en Ecuador 2020. Boletín de Coyuntura, No. 2020-01. Quito, Instituto de Investigaciones Económicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador. Ricardo, D. (1959). Principios de Economía Política y Tributación. México, Fondo de Cultura Serrano Gómez, E. (2002). Consenso y conflicto: Schmitt y Arendt. La definición de lo político. Editorial Universidad de Antioquia. Statista (2021). El nuevo coronavirus (COVID-19) – Datos estadísticos. Recuperado el 20 de marzo de 2021 de: https://es.statista.com/temas/5901/el-coronavirus-de-wuhan/ Universidad Central del Ecuador UCE (2020). UCE a la Asamblea Nacional. Resolución RHCU.SE.14 No. 0106-2020. Quito. Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia, UNICEF (2020). El choque COVID-19 en la pobreza, desigualdad y clases sociales en el Ecuador. Una mirada a los hogares con niñas, niños y adolescentes. Quito, octubre. Williamson, O. (1989). Las instituciones económicas del capitalismo: empresas, mercados y contratos relacionales. México: F.C.E
Este libro contiene la selección de los mejores trabajos de investigación y desarrollo tecnológico postulados y presentados al CIINATIC2014. El Congreso Internacional en Innovación y Apropiación de las Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones - CIINATIC es una iniciativa de la Red de Decanos y Directores de Ingeniería de Sistemas y Afines del Nororiente Colombiano, red compuesta por las siguientes universidades: Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana Seccional Bucaramanga, Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander, Universidad Autónoma de Bucaramanga y Unisangil. En la versión de este año se contó con el patrocinio de Colciencias, la Gobernación de Santander y su Secretaria de tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones. El libro ofrece una mirada a la Innovación y la Apropiación de las TIC en Colombia, desde la diversidad de los diferentes aportes incluidos. Todas las comunicaciones fueron evaluadas por pares académicos con reconocimiento y visibilidad internacional. Esperamos que este libro se constituya en un referente sobre el estado del arte de las TIC en el Oriente Colombiano. ; Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana (UPB) ; OTRI Estratégica Oriente ; Universidad del Magdalena ; Universidad de los Andes (ULA) ; Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander (UFPSC) ; Unisangil ; Universidad Industrial de Santander (UIS) ; SENA ; La identificación por radiofrecuencia en la gestión de la cadena de suministro: una mirada desde el laboratorio de logística UIS…. Capítulo 1 Análisis técnico basado en estándares internacionales para la implementación del Data Center de apoyo a la gestión tecnológica y de formación por competencias en el CEET del SENA Distrito Capital…… Capítulo 2 Voto electrónico con SSL/TLS e IPSEC…… Capítulo 3 Red abierta, libre y neutral para la ciudad de Cúcuta……. Capítulo 4 Implementación de una experiencia de usuario a través de una aplicación móvil para la personalización de productos usando realidad aumentada……. Capítulo 5 Aplicación del Webcast como estrategia de instrucción para el aprendizaje significativo en la enseñanza de Fisiología Médica…… Capítulo 6 Pruebas de seguridad en aplicaciones web como imperativo en la calidad de desarrollo del software……. Capítulo 7 Sistema de comunicación OFDM Óptico-Criptográfico…… Capítulo 8 Análisis de las principales amenazas de la base de datos utilizando MS SQL Server…… Capítulo 9 Entorno de aprendizaje para la toma de decisiones en sistemas dinámicos complejos……. Capítulo 10 Sistema de información web para la gestión investigativa de sistemas automatizados (SIGSA)…… Capítulo 11 Formación de formadores en Blended Learning…… Capítulo 12 Pensamiento ausubeliano en el paradigma constructivista articulado en las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación…… Capítulo 13 TIC y formación académica: una mirada desde los docentes de la UPB-Bucaramanga…… Capítulo 14 Estrategia digital para reducir el consumo de papel en la corporación autónoma regional del Chocó – CODECHOCO…… Capítulo 15 Algoritmos y sistemas instrumentados de seguridad y control distribuido para la automatización de los procesos en la planta piloto de la UNAB…. Capítulo 16 Detección de ataques de denegación de servicio basada en la estimación del ancho de banda disponible…… Capítulo 17 Plataforma NetFPGA para la clasificación de tráfico de red…. Capítulo 18 Educación en creatividad para la innovación y desarrollo tecnológico en ingeniería……. Capítulo 19 Lineamientos para definir estrategia para la gestión dinámico sistémica de la cooperación en proyectos de software libre…. Capítulo 20 Análisis de la teoría de la mente humana basada en el reconocimiento de patrones…… Capítulo 21 Una nueva forma de concebir la memoria: entre la filosofía de la mente y el aprendizaje automático. Capítulo 22 Aplicación de la educación formativa a las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (TIC) y seguridad de la información digital…. Capítulo 23 Orientación de la fase preliminar de TOGAF para su aplicación en proyectos de arquitectura empresarial en universidades: revisión de literatura…. Capítulo 24 "IN" Seguridad de la información y delitos informáticos en Colombia……. Capítulo 25 Propuesta de redes para la implementación del observatorio A TIC…… Capítulo 26 Sistema de gestión de proyectos integradores para la facultad de ingeniería de sistemas e informática - Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana seccional Bucaramanga…. Capítulo 27 Modelo empírico que permite evaluar el rendimiento de la red LAN basada en el estándar Homeplug AV para la transmisión de voz sobre el protocolo IP…. Capítulo 28 Optimización de una red HAN sobre PLC mediante el uso de la teoría de juegos cooperativos en un escenario realista…. Capítulo 29 Adaptación del modelo LTI de canal PLC a las condiciones de la red eléctrica colombiana…. Capítulo 30 ; This book contains the selection of the best research and technological development papers postulated and selected for CIINATIC2014. The International Congress on Innovation and Appropriation of Information and Communication Technologies - CIINATIC is an initiative of the Network of Deans and Directors of Systems Engineering and Afin of the Colombian Northeast, a network made up of the following universities: Universidad Ponti fi cia Bolivariana Seccional Bucaramanga, Francisco de Paula Santander University, Autonomous University of Bucaramanga and Unisangil. This year's version was sponsored by Colciencias, the Government of Santander and its Secretariat for information and communication technologies. The book offers a look at the Innovation and Appropriation of ICT in Colombia, from the diversity of the different contributions included. All communications were evaluated by academic peers with international recognition and visibility. We hope that this book becomes a reference on the state of the art of ICT in the Colombian East.
This study aims to perform a comparative analysis of Turkey and Indonesia's foreign policy on Palestine Issue and Syria Crisis in particular. It also reviews both countries' foreign policy toward the Middle East since their declaration of becoming Republic states in general. As foreign policy theory, neoclassical realism is applied. It then discusses changing dynamics and analyses influential factors shaping Turkey and Indonesia policies of Palestine Issue and Syria Crisis at the unit and systemic level of analysis. It summarises that the factors of leaders' perceptions upon international and regional systemic changing trends and pressures as well as state powers have become influential factors. In case of Palestine issue, during 2004-2016, Turkish domestic politics has undergone domestic transformations namely first public opinion and civil society's roles influence the foreign policy. Before the AKP party came to power, a determinant actor of Turkey's foreign policy was the military. However, the military role then decline. Instead, the role of non actor states including civil society and non-government organizations have increased. Domestic public opinion has been marked by a re-emergence of common historical and cultural senses under Ottoman heritages. This factor then results in a reactive engagement of Turkey to the Middle East. Second, the emergence of civilian leader as a new actor of foreign policy. The mechanism of foreign decision-making then shifted v following a decline of military influence. An active civilian control emerged and domestic political structure rebuilt. It resulted in multi-actor of foreign policy such as NGO, think tanks, etc. They contribute as the new tool of Turkish soft power. Third, leader factors. Leaders play roles in attracting international public opinion. Turkish leader's opinion perceives that no permanent peace of region without peace in Palestine. They also put an emphasis to a strategic importance of Muslim world. Therefore Turkey needs to re-engage into the regional issues. Fourth, an increase of Islamist factor. Re-involvement of Muslim groups into domestic politics serves a democratic equality for all parties. Turkish NGO with Islamist outlook also rises as a pressure group, thus it impacts on the concern to the Palestine issue. They put a large concern to the sensitivity of Jerusalem status and nature as a holy city for Muslims especially a concern to who will control that holy city.Fifth, a proactive foreign policy. the Israel-Palestine conflict that perceived as the heart of regional instability results in proactive foreign policy into the settlement of Palestine issue. In regional level, the main source of regional conflict is the Palestine-Israel conflict. In sum, Turkey conducts a balancing policy during the AKP administration regarding Palestine issue. Indonesia sets the aspiration of an active engagement policy in the Middle East. It could be seen such as a presence of special of the Middle East diplomatic mission, Indonesia government recognition and support to Hamas after won the parliament election for Gaza strip, the efforts to be honest broaker in Palestine-Israel conflict, and an official representation in Ramallah. Indonesia also is officially consistent to adopt a nonrecognition policy of the state of Israel. Indonesia has undergone several diplomatic efforts in regional and international level to support the recognition of the state of Palestine and proposed on humanitarian approach by providing a continuation of humantarian aids for Palestinians. In comparison with Turkey, during 2004-2016, Indonesia has undergone transition era to civil democracy era. It has turn into a democracy process and reach democratic stability in post-transition. In democratic era of Indonesia, anti-colonialism spirit of 1945 Constitution has been continued as a historical basis of Indonesia's engagement. Besides, Indonesian government accomodates Muslim aspiration through the presence of Islamist considerations into the state's foreign policy. An increase of Islamist factor in domestic politics namely Islamist-oriented aspirations in domestic public opinion. There a high level of sensitivity upon the issues including the Jerusalem issue in which Al-Aqsa mosque vi placed on as one of prominent issues, beyond Palestinian refugee issue and Israel occupation on Palestinian lands for the Indonesian Muslim groups and government. In other words, there interplay between Muslim groups and Indonesian government in regard to deal with Palestine issue. A major of Indonesian Muslims and government officially are united to struggle for Palestinians. Other Islamist factors are Muslim groups as the moral force. Muslim groups put pressure if the government behave in passive response to the Islamist issues. An example of strong and harsh pressures of all segment Muslim groups over any initiative of opening diplomatic ties with Israel by Indonesian governments, so it is often suspended by eventually cancelled. In addition, an increasingly role of Islamist parties as well as new Indonesia's international orientation and identity have affected a continuity of nonrecognition policy towards Israel and supporting Palestine in accordance with two-state solution. In the level of international, the wave of democratization policy leads to the emergence of democratised foreign policy. Indonesia's democratised foreign policy has been conducted through various diplomatic efforts creating an active involvement of nonstate actors. After the Syrian revolution in 2012 escalated, it has turned into a civil war. The emergence of various non-state actors such the ISIS, the PYD-YPG, and other militant or radical groups, as well as direct intervention of regional and international powers sparked the conflict much more escalated. These have posed direct threat to Turkey and challenged Turkey's Middle East policy, notably in Syria. Therefore, Turkey's Syria policy has changed from soft power to hard power approach. Several domestic influential factors shaping Turkish policy first a humanitarian dimension of crisis namely the influx of refugees results in an open door policy. Since 2011, Syria conflict has sparked refugee waves to Turkey. As a direct neighboring countries, it had been demanded by international community and domestic humanitarian nature to open the borders and secure the people. Second, the security threat in Turkey-Syria's borders. Assad regime's military policy against the Syrian oppositions and the development of the crisis with an engagement various non-state armed groups (the YPG-PYD, ISIS, other moderate and radical groups) that began in 2013 have made the situation more complicated. Due to their activities strived to claim the sovereignty and conducted terror attacks, hence those have posed threats to Turkish national security and territorial integrity. Another risk is the influx of foreign terrorist fighters across the border through Turkey on their way to and from Syria. vii Even, probably they reside in Turkey as a third country before returning to home countries. So, it also has to dealt with the way to send them back to countries of origin. In the international level, the most influential factors are first the international and regional actors' engagement into the conflict. Since 2015, there has increased the international interventions. Foreign countries and non state actors' involvement have created the strategic pattern of alliance and enmity among global and regional powers as well as non-state actors. Second, the rise of ISIS. This terror organization posed the threat to Turkish national security through multiple suicide bombings. Third, the emergence of the PYD threat. This group has taken benefits of Syria conflict through controlling the Syrian Kurds, self-proclaiming several cantons and establishing a sphere of influence or terror corridor in northern Syria bordering Turkey. On the other hand, Indonesian government policy towards the Syria crisis can be explained through the influencing factors as follow. First, a commitment to non-alignment with any military bloc as one of basic ideas of the principle of Independent Foreign Policy. In Syria conflict, Indonesia prevents from any engagement of the multilateral and bilateral military pact with Syria and major powers. Instead, it prefers to strengthen ties rely on peaceful coexistance. Given, Indonesia has a critical and substansial roles in the establishment of the NAM, so it positions itself to commit the basic spirit of nonalignment. Second, the leader perceptions. Indonesia stance is sided with neither the Assad regime nor the oppositions while it adopts non-interference into Syria's domestic politics. In other words, Indonesia's official stance is neutral. This stance is meant it fighting against any colonialism and violation forms caused by the regime under the world peace and security. Indonesia government not interpret the neutral stance as a neutral politic that means not to care to the crisis but conducts policy in a way of achieving its national interest. Third, the protection of Indonesian citizens in Syria as a foreign policy's priority. In order to pursue this goal, Indonesian government is still opening diplomatic representatives in Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia. This representatives has main task to protect, defend and secure them until they are repatriated to Indonesia. No matter who rules, it will cooperate in line with its strategic interests still remain there. Moreover, the influential factors in international level are first the ISIS and Indonesian foreign fighters dimension. Indonesia was also targeted by the ISIS through multiple ISIS-linked and inspired terror attacks. Besides, ISIS also is defined as a threat as the possible terror attacks conducted by Indonesia-origined foreign fighters return to home. viii The potential threats of the presence of the ISIS' supporters and recruits in Indonesia is revival of local extremist groups' sleep cells that probably conducting terror attacks, promoting inter and intra religious conflict, fulfilling the lack of local militant group's capability, recruiting the new cadres targeting youth cadres. Second, Indonesia's role within the framework of the OIC. Despite, Indonesia is the world's majority Muslim populated country and an active actor in the OIC, in fact, Indonesia has no significant role on Syria crisis. It has only played the limited role due to several factors namely a minor actor in term of regional geopolitics and the lack of experience upon the regional complex politics. It remains to manage limited bilateral ties with Syria government. In sum, it tends to conduct a passive foreign policy on Syria crisis. In conclusion, Turkey has adopted and preferred to choose humanitarian and political-oriented approach towards Syria crisis. However, after several international developments rised which put risks to its national security, Turkish foreign policy has then shifted to propose a security-oriented approach. It combines soft and hard powers in formulating process of the foreign policy. Meanwhile, Indonesian government also has put forth primarily humanitarian approach in dealing with the humanitarian crisis in Syria while suggesting such political solution stance in order to solve that crisis with optimalizing the way of diplomacy. Indonesian leaders stance is to prevent a military approach. When it is evaluated on the basic principle of Indonesian foreign policy namely independent and active principle, Indonesia is independent but not active. In this context, these basic principles determine it not enter a formal alliance, further not interferring and involving into other state's domestic problems. Instead, it should actively encourage bilateral cooperations with other countries. In addition, it demonstrates a status quo of Indonesia's independent and active foreign policy in a pragmatic way. In this situation, it might recognise that there is a gap between its aspiration and capability to play wider global roles especially in participating to the conflict resolution of the Middle East region. Indonesia government and Muslim group tend to stand in opposite in case of Syria crisis. Indonesian government tend to position in moderate stance and keep in status quo of non-interference policy upon the domestic problem of Syria. For Indonesian goverment, there several reasons why Indonesia still continue to open its diplomatic representative and develop bilateral ties in Syria while most countries closed their diplomatic office in Damascus. First, historical relations between Syria and Indonesia. Syria was the first countries which recognized Indonesia's independence. Second, Indonesia avoids to be ix perceived by Syria regime of getting involved into Syria's domestic issue especially Syria's territorial sovereignty. Third, respect to Syria as a member of the NAM. In which the NAM adopts non-interefere policy as an agreement amongst member states. While Indonesia considers the NAM was birth and insipired by the Bandung Conference with its "Dasasila Bandung" whose an important principle is to respect other state territorial sovereignty. In other words, Indonesia has been trying to play a normative international role in case of Syria crisis. In sum, Indonesian political power might not be powerful yet in affecting the conflict resolution directly compared to other international and regional actors such as Turkey might be has. ; Bu tez çalışmasında, Türkiye ve Endonezya'nın Filistin Sorunu ve Süriye Krizi'ya yönelik dış politikasını karşılaştırmalı bir analizini amaçlanmıştır. Ayrıca cumhuriyet devletleri olma ilan etmelerinden dolayı iki ülkenin Orta Doğu'ya yönelik dış politikalarını incelemiştir. Dış politika teori olarak neoklasik realizm uygulanmıştır. Daha sonra Filistin Sorunu ve Süriye Krizi'nin Türkiye ve Endonezya politikalarını birim ve sistematik analiz düzeyinde şekillendiren, değişen dinamikleri ve analiz etkenleri tartışılmıştır. Liderlerin uluslararası ve bölgesel sistemik değişen eğilimleri, baskıları ve devlet iktidarı üzerindeki algılarının etkili faktörler haline geldiğini özetlenmiştir. Filistin meselesinde, Türkiye'de 2004-2016 yılları arasında iç siyaseti, içsel dönüşüme uğramıştır. İlk olarak kamuoyu ve sivil toplumun rolleri dış politikasına etkilenmesidir; AKP partisi iktidara gelmeden önce, Türkiye'nin dış politikasında asker belirleyici aktörü olarak olmuştur. Fakat, daha sonra askerinin rolü azalmıştır. Bunun yerine sivil toplum ve sivil toplum örgütleri de dahil olmak üzere devlet dışı aktörlerinin rolü artmıştır. Osmanlı mirası altındaki ortak tarihsel ve kültürel duyuların yeniden ortaya çıkmasıyla iç kamuoyunu dikkat çekmektedir. Dolayısıyla Türkiye'nin Orta Doğu'ya yeniden aktif katılımını sonuçlanmaktadır. İkinci olarak sivil liderin yeni dış politika aktörü olarak ortaya çıkmasıdır. Askeri etkinin azalmasından sonra dış karar vermenin mekanizması değiştirilmiştir. Aktif bir sivil kontrolunu ortaya çıkmış ve iç siyasi yapını yeniden inşa edilmiştir. Dolayısıyla STK, düşünce kuruluşları, vb. gibi dış politikaları ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur. Türk yumuşak gücünün yeni aracı olarak katkıda bulunmuştur. Üçüncü olarak ise lider faktörleridir. Liderler uluslararası kamuoyunun çekme rolü oynamaktadır. Türk liderinin Filistin'de barışsız bölgenin kalıcı barışı olmadığını algılanmıştır. Onlar da Müslüman dünyasının stratejik önemine vurgulanmıştır. Bu nedenle, Türkiye'nin bölgesel meselelerine yeniden girmesi gerekmektedir. Dördüncüsü, İslamcı faktörün artışıdır. Tüm taraflar için demokratik bir eşitliğe Müslüman grupların iç politikaya yeniden dahil olmasını hizmet etmektedir. İslamcı bakış açısıyla Türk STK'sı da bir baskı grubu olarak yükselmektedir. Dolayısıyla Filistin meselesine de etkilenmektedir. Kudüs'ün statüsü ve doğasının Müslümanlara karşı kutsal bir şehir olarak hassasiyetini, özellikle de kutsal şehri kimin kontrol edeceğine yönelik kaygısını dile getirmektedir. Beşinci olarak, proaktif bir dış politikasıdır. Bölgesel düzeyde, bölgesel çatışmaların ana kaynağı Filistin-İsrail çatışmasıdır. Bölgesel istikrarsızlığın kalbi olarak algılanan İsrail-Filistin çatışması, Filistin sorununun çözümü için proaktif bir dış politikasını sonuçlanmıştır. Özetle, Türkiye'nin AKP yönetimi sırasında Filistin meselesiyle ilgili bir dengeleme politikası yürütülmüştür. Endonezya'nın Ortadoğu'da aktif bir katılım politikası arzusunu belirlenmiştir. Bunlar da, Orta Doğu diplomatik misyonunun özel bir varlığı, Endonezya hükümetinin Gazze şeridindeki parlamento seçimlerini kazandıktan sonra Hamas'a tanınması ve desteklenmesi, Filistin-İsrail çatışmasında dürüst bir aracı olma çabaları ve Ramallah'da resmi bir temsilcidir. Ayrıca, Endonezya İsrail devletinin tanınmayan bir politikasını resmi olarak tutarlı ile benimsemektedir. Endonezya'nın Filistin devletinin tanınmasını desteklemek ve Filistinlilere insancıl yaklaşımların sürdürülmesini sağlayarak insani yaklaşımı önermek için bölgesel ve uluslararası düzeyde çok sayıda diplomatik çabalarını sarf etmiştir. Türkiye ile karşılaştırıldığında, Endonezya'da 2004-2016 yılları arasında, sivil demokrasi dönemine geçiş dönemi geçirilmiştir. Geçiş dönemi sonrasında demokrasi sürecine dönüşmüş ve demokratik istikrara ulaşılmıştır. Endonezya'nın demokratik döneminde, Endonezya'nın angajmanı tarihsel temeli olarak 1945 Anayasasının antisömürgecilik ruhunu devam etmiştir. Ayrıca, devletin dış politikasında İslamcı faktör varlığının sayesinde Endonezya hükümeti Müslümanların isteklerini karşılamaktadır. İç siyasette İslamcı faktörün artması, iç kamuoyunda İslamcı odaklı hedeflenmiştir. Filistinli xii mülteci meselesinin ve Filistin toprakları üzerinde İsrail işgalinin ötesinde, Endonezya Müslüman grupları ve hükümeti için El-Aksa camisinin yer aldığı Kudüs meselesi de dahil olmak üzere ön plana çıktığı önemli konular arasında yüksek düzeyde hassasiyet vardır. Başka bir deyişle, Filistin meselesiyle ilgili olarak Müslüman gruplar ve Endonezya hükümeti arasında karşılıklı etkileşim vardır. Endonezyalı Müslümanların büyük bir kısmı ve hükümetin resmen Filistinliler için mücadele etmeyi birleşmişlerdir. Diğer İslamcı faktörlerin ahlaki güçü, Müslüman gruplarıdır. İslamcı meselelere pasif bir şekilde tepki gösterdiğinde Müslüman gruplar hükümete baskı yapmışlardır. Endonezya hükümetleri tarafından İsrail ile diplomatik ilişkilerin kurulmasına ilişkin herhangi bir girişimde, tüm müslüman gruplarının güçlü ve sert baskılarından dolayı çoğu zaman iptal edilmiştir. Buna ek olarak, yeni Endonezya'nın uluslararası yönelimi ve kimliğinin yanı sıra İslamcı partilerin giderek artan bir rolü, İsrail'e karşı tanınmayan bir politikasının sürekliliğini etkilemiştir ve Filistin'i iki devletli çözümlere uygun olarak desteklemiştir. Uluslararası düzeyde ise, demokratikleşme politikasının dalgası demokratikleşmiş dış politikanın ortaya çıkmasına yol açmaktadır. Endonezya'nın demokratik dış politikası, devlet dışı aktörlerin aktif katılımını sağlayan çeşitli diplomatik çabalarla gerçekleştirilmiştir. 2012 yılında Süriye devrimi arttıktan sonra bir iç savaşa dönüşmüştür. İlk olarak, IŞİD, PYD-YPG ve diğer militan veya radikal gruplar gibi çeşitli devlet dışı aktörlerin ortaya çıkması ve aynı zamanda bölgesel ve uluslararası güçlerin doğrudan müdahalesi, çatışmayı daha da tırmandırmıştır. Bunlar Türkiye'ye doğrudan tehdit oluşturup özellikle Süriye'deki Türkiye'nin Orta Doğu politikasına meydan okumuştur. Bu nedenle, Türkiye'nin Süriye politikası yumuşak güçten sert güç yaklaşımına dönüş olmuştur. Türk siyasetini şekillendiren birçok içi faktör, öncelikle insani bir kriz boyutu, yani mülteci akının açık kapı politikasını sonuçlanmaktadır. 2011 yılından itibaren Süriye krizinin mülteci dalgalarını Türkiye'ye ateşlemiştir. Doğrudan komşu ülkeler olarak, Türkiye'yi sınırları açmak ve halkı güvence altına almak için uluslararası toplum ve yerel insani yardımlar tarafından talep edilmiştir. İkinci olarak Türkiye-Süriye sınırlarında güvenlik tehdidi oluşmuştur. Esad rejimi'nin Süriye muhalefetlerine karşı yürüttüğü askeri politika ve krizin gelişmesiyle, 2013 yılında başlayan devlet dışı silahlı grupların (YPG-PYD, IŞİD, diğer ılımlı ve radikal gruplar) durumu daha da kriziye karmaşık hale getirmiştir. Egemenlik iddiasında bulunma ve terör saldırıları yürütme çabaları nedeniyle, Türk ulusal güvenlik ve toprak bütünlüğüne tehdit oluşturmuştur. Başka bir risk ise, Süriye'ye gidip xiii çıkarken yabancı terörist savaşçıların Türkiye üzerinden sınır ötesi girişidir. Hatta, ülkelerine muhtemelen dönmeden önce Türkiye'de üçüncü bir ülke olarak yaşamışlardır. Bu yüzden, onları menşe ülkelerine geri gönderme yolunu da ele almak zorunda kalmaktadır. Uluslararası düzeyde ise, en etkili faktörler öncellikle uluslararası ve bölgesel aktörlerin çatışmaya girmesidir. 2015 yılından beri uluslararası müdahalelerini arttırmıştır. Yabancı ülkeler ve devlet dışı aktörlerin katılımı, küresel ve bölgesel güçlerin yanı sıra devlet dışı aktörler arasındaki ittifak ve düşmanlığın stratejik modelini oluşturmuştur. İkincisi, IŞİD'in yükselişidir. Bu terör örgütü, birçok intihar saldırısı ile Türk ulusal güvenliğine tehdit oluşturmuştur. Üçüncü olarak, PYD tehdidinin ortaya çıkışıdır. Bu grup Süriyeli Kürtleri kontrol ederek, birkaç kantonu ilan ederek ve Türkiye sınırındaki kuzey Süriye'de bir etki alanı veya terör koridoru kurarak Süriye çatışmasından yararlanmıştır. Öte yandan, Endonezya'nın Süriye krizine yönelik politikası, aşağıdaki gibi etkileyen faktörler aracılığıyla açıklanabilir. Birincisi, Bağımsız Dış Politika ilkesinin temel fikirlerinden biri olarak herhangi bir askeri bloğa uyumsuzluk bir taahhüdüdür. Süriye krizinde, Endonezya, Süriye ve büyük güçler ile çok taraflı ve iki taraflı askeri paktların her türlü müdahalesini engellemiştir. Bunun yerine, barışçıl bir birlikteliğe güvenmek üzere ilişkileri güçlendirmeyi tercih edilmiştir. Dolayısıyla Endonezya'nın Bağlantısız Hareketi kurulmasında kritik ve yardımcı bir rolleri vardır. Bu yüzden uyumsuzluğun temel ruhunu yerine getirmek için kendini konumlandırmaktadır. İkincisi, lider algılarıdır. Endonezya'nın tutumu, ne Esad rejimi ne de muhalefetlerle karşı karşıya kalırken, Süriye'nin iç siyasetine müdahale etmemektedir. Başka bir deyişle, Endonezya'nın resmi duruşu tarafsızdır. Bu duruş, dünya barış ve güvenliği altındaki rejimin neden olduğu sömürgecilik ve ihlal biçimlerine karşı savaşmak anlamına gelmektedir. Endonezya hükümeti'nin tarafsız duruşu tarafsız bir siyaset olarak yorumlamamaktadır, krize dikkat etmemek değildir. Fakat, politikasını ulusal çıkarları doğrultusunda yürütmek anlamına gelmektedir. Üçüncüsü, Süriye'deki Endonezya vatandaşlarının korunmasının önceliğine bir bağlılık oluşturmasıdır. Bu hedefe ulaşmak için Endonezya hükümeti Şam, Halep ve Lazkiye'de diplomatik temsilcileri açmaya devam etmiştir. Bu temsilciler Endonezya'ya gönderilmeden önce onları korumak, savunmak ve güvenceye almak için temel görevlere sahiptir. Süriye'deki kimin hükümetleri olursa olsun, stratejik çıkarları doğrultusunda işbirliği yapmaya devam edecektir. xiv Daha sonra, uluslararası düzeyde etkili olan faktörler, ilk olarak IŞİD ve Endonezya'nın yabancı savaşçıları boyutudur. Endonezya'yı IŞİD'e bağlı ve ilham veren terör saldırılarıyla da IŞİD tarafından hedef alınmıştır. Ayrıca, Endonezya kökenli yabancı savaşçıların menşei ülkelerine dönmesiyle ilgili olası terör saldırılarından dolayı IŞİD bir tehdit olarak tanımlanmıştır. Olası terör saldırıları yürüten, iç ve dış dini çatışmaları teşvik eden, yerel militan grubun kapasitesinin eksikliğini yerine getiren, yeni kadroları işe almak genç kadroları hedefleyen yerel aşırı grupların uyku hücrelerinin yeniden canlanmasını kapsamakta Endonezya'daki IŞİD'in destekçileri ve temsilcilerinin varlığının potansiyel tehditleridir. İkincisi, Endonezya'nın İKT çerçevesinde rolüdür. Buna rağmen, Endonezya dünyanın çoğunlukta Müslüman nüfuslu ülkesi ve İKT'de aktif bir aktörüdür. Fakat, Endonezya'nın Süriye krizinde önemli bir rolü yoktur. Bölgesel jeopolitik terim olarak küçük bir aktör ve bölgesel karmaşık siyaset üzerine deneyim eksikliği gibi nedenlerden dolayı sınırlı rol oynamıştır. Süriye hükümetiyle sınırlı ikili ilişkilerin yönetiminde kalmaya devam ettiğini belirlemektedir. Özetle, Süriye krizi durumunda pasif bir dış politika yürütme eğilimindedir. Sonuç olarak, Türkiye Süriye krizine yönelik insani ve politik odaklı yaklaşımı benimsemiş ve tercih etmiştir. Fakat, ulusal güvenliğini tehlikeye sokan birçok uluslararası gelişmenin ardından, Türk dış politikası güvenlik odaklı bir yaklaşım tercih etmiştir. Dış politikanın formüle edilmesinde yumuşak ve sert güçleri birleştirmektedir. Öte yandan, Endonezya hükümeti'nin Süriye'deki insani krizle başa çıkmada insani yardım yaklaşımını ortaya koyarken, bu krizi diplomasi yolunu en uygun hale getirmiştir. Endonezyalı liderlerin duruşu askeri bir yaklaşımı engellemektir. Endonezya dış politikası'nın temel ilkesi olan bağımsız ve aktif ilkeleri olarak değerlendirildiğinde, Endonezya bağımsızdır ancak aktif değildir. Dolayısıyla bu temel ilkeler, diğer devletlerin iç sorunlarına müdahale etmemek ve bunlara müdahalede bulunmamaktan ziyade askeri bir ittifaka girmediğini belirlemektedir. Bunun yerine, diğer ülkelerle ikili ilişkilerini aktif olarak teşvik etmelidir. Ayrıca, Endonezya'nın bağımsız ve aktif statükoyu bir dış politikasını pragmatik bir şekilde göstermektedir. Bu durumda, özellikle Orta Doğu bölgesinin çatışma çözümüne katılma konusunda daha geniş küresel rol oynama isteği ve yeteneği arasında bir uçurum olduğunu fark edilmektedir. Süriye krizi durumunda Endonezya hükümeti ve Müslüman grup karşıt olarak durmaktadır. Endonezya hükümeti ılımlı duruşa yönelme ve Süriye'nin iç sorunu üzerine müdahale etmeme politikası'nın statüsünü korumaktadır. Endonezya'nın diplomatik xv temsilcisini açmaya ve Süriye'de ikili ilişkiler geliştirmeye devam ederken, çoğu ülke Şam'da diplomatik bürosunu kapatmaya devam etmesinin birkaç nedeni vardır. İlk olarak, Süriye ve Endonezya arasındaki tarihi ilişkiler olmasıdır. Süriye, Endonezya'nın bağımsızlığını tanıyan ilk ülkelerdir. İkincisi, Endonezya Süriye'nin iç meselesine özellikle Süriye'nin toprak egemenliğine dahil olma Süriye rejimi tarafından algılanmaktan kaçınmasıdır. Üçüncüsü, Bağlantısız Hareketi'nin üyesi olarak Süriye'ye saygı göstermesidir. Bağlantısız Hareketi'nin üye devletler arasında bir anlaşma olarak müdahaleci olmayan bir politikasını benimsemektedir. Endonezya, Bağlantısız Hareketi'nin önemli bir ilkesi olarak diğer devlet topraklarının egemenliğine saygı duyması gereken "Dasasila Bandung" ile Bandung Konferansı'nda doğup yaşandığını düşünmektedir. Başka bir deyişle, Endonezya'nın Süriye krizi durumunda normatif bir uluslararası rolü oynamaya denilebilmektedir. Özetle, Endonezyainın siyasi gücü Türkiye'nin sahip olabileceği gibi diğer uluslararası ve bölgesel aktörlere kıyasla çatışma çözümünü doğrudan etkilememektedir. ; Türkiye Bursları
Issue 18.4 of the Review for Religious, 1959. ; Two, Prayers John XXIII Prayer for the Church of Silence [On January 23, 1959, the Sacred Penitentiary pub|ish~d the Italian text ~f a prayer composed by the Holy Father for the. Church of Silence. The original text, a translation of which appears.below, is to be found in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 51 (1959), 112~13. A partial indulgence of three years can be gained by the faithful when they recite the prayer with contrite heart.] OJESUS, Son of God, who lovedthe Church and who gave Yourself for it to sanctify it and to make it appear before You glorious and immaculate (Eph 5:23-27), look down with mercy on the painful conditions to which Your mystical spouse is subjected in certain parts of the Catholic world and especially now in the great nation of the Chinese. ! See, O Lord, the treachery that threatens the souls of Your faithful' and consider the calumnious insinuations leveled against Your pastors, Your ministers, and Your faithful followers who long to spread the truth of the Gospel and that kingdom of Yours which is not of this world. How insistent and dangerous are the attempts to tear the seamless robe of Your spouse, the one, holy, catholic, apostolic, and Roman Church, by separating the hierarchy and the local communities from the only center of truth, authority, and salvation, the See of Peter! Before this spectacle of such grave evils, we ask first of all for pardon for the offenses which are being committed against You. In truth the words spoken by You to Saul of Tarsus on the road to Damascus, "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute Me?" (Acts 9:4), can well be repeated today, as they could be in the course of recent and past history. We trust always in the efficacy of the sublime words You addressed to Your Father from the cross, "Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing" (Lk 23:34). As Your sacrifice was the source of universal salvation, so through your grace may the martyrdom which the Church, Your spouse 193 JOHN XXIII Review [or Religious and our mother, suffers in different regions bring salvation all men. O Prince of Peace, grant that the bishops and the priests, the religious and the laity, may always and everywhere be "solici-tous to preserve the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace" (Eph 4:3). May Your omnipotent power overcome every hu-man calculation so that pastors and flocks may remain obedient to the voice of the only universal Pastor, the Roman Pontiff, who feels in his heart the responsibility of that supreme desire of love: "Holy Father, keep in Your name those whom You have given Me, that they may be one as We are" (Jn 17:11). Finally~ O Redeemer, look with satisfaction at the merits and prayers of Your and our Mother, the august Queen of the missions and of the universal Church; look at the labors, the sacrifices, and the blood of "the innumerable heralds of the faith who have always and are still giving heroic testimony to You; and, mindful above all of Your precious Blood shed for many for the remission oz sins, give Your peace to China and to the entire world, because in no other is there hope and victory .and peace, but only in You, our Lord and immortal King of the ages and of the nations. Prayer to the Eucharistic Christ [The following prayer, the orighaal text of which is given in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 51 (1959), 163-64, was composed by the Holy Father as a preparation for the coming International Eucharistic Congress to be held in Munich, Germany. His Holiness (AAS, 51 [1959], 164) has granted a partial indulgence of ten years to the faithful who devoutly recite the prayer with contrite heart; moreover once a month they may gain a plenary indulgence under the usual conditions, if they have recited the pra~,er daily for a whole month.] O Jesus, King of nations and of ages, accept the acts of adoration and of praise which we, Your brothers by adoption, humbly offer to You. You are "the living Bread come down from heaven which gives life to the world" (Jn 6:33) ; High Priest as well as Victim, You offered Yourself on the cross in a bloody sacrifice of expia-tion to the Eternal Father for the redemption of the human race; 194 July, 1959 Two PRAYS.US and now each day You offer Yourself on our altars by the hands of Your ministers so that there might be restored in each heart Your "kingdom of truth and of life, of holiness and of grace, of justice, of love, and of peace~' (Preface of the Mass of Christ the King). O "King of Glory," may Your kingdom come! Rule from Your "throne of glory" (Heb 4:16) in the hearts of children so that they may keep immaculate the shining purity of their baptismal innocence. Rule in the hearts of youth so that they may grow in wholesomeness and purity and in docility to the voice of those who represent You in the family, in school, and in the Church. Rule in the heart of the home so that parents and children may live united in the observance of Your holy law. Rule in our country so that in the harmonious ordering of the social classes all its citizens may regard themselves as children of the same heavenly Father, called to work together for the common temporal good and happy to belong to that one Mystical Body, of which Your Sacrament is both the symbol and the everlasting source. Rule, finally, O King of Kings and "Lord of Lords" (Deut 10:17) over all the nations of the earth and enlighten the rulers of each nation that, inspired by Your example, they may nourish "thoughts of peace and not of affliction" (Jer 29:11 ). O Eucharistic Jesus, grant that all people may serve You freely in the knowledge that "to serve God is to reign." May Your Sacrament, O Jesus, be a light to the mind, a strength to the will, an attraction to the heart. May it be a support to the weak, a comfort to the suffering, a viaticum of salvation to the dying, and for all may it be a "pledge of future glory." Amen. 195 The Rest:oral:ion ot: All Things in Christ: Richard Cardinal Cushing, D.D., UL.D. [The following address by the Cardinal Archbishop of Boston was delivered as the main address of the Sacred Heart Institute for Nuns conducted by American Directors of the Apostleship of Prayer and held at Roberts Center, Boston College, on April 4, 1959.] THE DEVOTION TO the Sacred Heart makes no appeal whatever to those outside the Church and to some within the Church. It is the story of a nun who had a vision of our Lord in which He showed her a wound on His side. Then He said to her: "Behold the Heart which loves so much, and is loved so little in return." What is this but sentimentalism, and a kind of senti-mentalism which does not appeal to people of our times. My dear Sisters: Is there anything more undignified than the figure of the rejected lover who cannot keep his abandon-ment to himself, but must go about exposing his wounded feel-ings for all the world to see, inviting sympathy because he unloved? Yet that is the figure under which Divine Love rep-resented itself to the apostle of the Sacred Heart--St. Margaret Mary. Why? It may help to understand the answer if we recall that all through the Old Testament this is the kind of language in which Almighty God refers to the disloyalties of His people. The covenant which He made with the Israelites when He brought them out of Egypt was like a marriage contract com-mitting both sides to fidel.ity; and when they turned to the wor-ship of idols, he appealed to that covenant. "And thou," He says through the prophet Jeremias, "and thou with many lovers have been unfaithful; come back to me, and thou shalt find welcome." This is pleading language, and it is God who pleads. When a prophet of the Old Testament speaks like that, he is using a metaphor. The Old Testament is full of metaphors. When others talk about God raising His hand, stretching out 196 I:~ESTORATION IN CHRIST His arm, keeping a watchful eye over His friends, giving a ready ear to their prayers, we'do not think that God, who is pure spirit, has hands or arms or eyes or ears like ourselves. And so it is when God describes himself as a jealous lover. He means that if He were a man, this is how the infidelity of His friends would affect Him. If He were a man? In the fullness of time, He became man; He trod our earth, and was subject, as man, to the play of emotions; He wept and rejoiced. He was indignant, and felt fear. The metaphors had come true at last: God Incarnate really saw with human eyes and stretched out a human hand to save us. And He was accessible like ourselves, to the expressions of feeling which we find so difficult to control. When an injury was done to the honor of His Father in heaven, He flared up; and we read in the New Testament: "Jesus looked upon them with anger." The success of His first missionaries gave Him the same feeling which comes to you and me when good news reaches us, and we read that "At that time, Jesus was filled with gladness." The tragedy of a friend's death was told him. The sad news drew from Him, as it would from us, a 'tribute of natural tears and we read: "Jesus wept." Our Lord did not even hide from us His disappointments: "Jerusalem, Jerusalem, still murdering the prophets, and stoning the messengers that are sent to thee, how often have I been ready to gather thy children together, and thou didst refuse it!" How often--He looks back over the sad record of Jew'ish history; the authentic accents of a Divine Person pierce through the veil of His humanity and here is God weeping with human eyes over tl~e pent-up sorrows of a human heart. Now I think we have the real meaning of the Sacred Heart devotion; it translates the Divine Nature into human terms for us. After all, we find it hard, don't we, to get God into our mind-picture? We cannot portray Him--His glory dazzles us; we are confused b~ the thought of the enormous gulf which lies between Him and creatures. We know that His Providence 197 CARDINAL CUSHING Review for Religious extends over all His works; He cares even for the sparrows, and yet. He is so great, and we are so small! Even our sins-- just an unkind word said about a neighbor, and we tell ourselves and we confess that we have offended God; think of the scale of the thing, our little lapse, and His infinite existence, put side by side! And then think of tl~e Sacred Heart, and all at once the whole thing becomes vivid, clear. Jesus Christ in heaven, taking an interest in our tiny needs, as He took an interest in many tiny needs on earth. Jesus Christ hurt by our sins, as He was hurt by so many slights and disappointments up and down the villages of Galilee. The echoes of our prayer no longer seem to die away in infinite distance; they strike a chord in the Sacred Heart, and become vocal to us, real to us. If critics object that we are too sentimental over our devo-tion in honor of the Sacred Heart, that we single out one partic-ular side of our Lord's character, represent Him too insistently in one particular attitude, one of mercy and tenderness and wel-come, let us remind them that it is these qualities in the Divine Nature which we find it most difficult to believe. Here, most of all, we need a diagram in flesh and blood to convince us. How can God, so upright a judge, be merciful? How can He, who is without passion, be tender to us? How can He, who has no need of human companionship, welcome us? It is these qualities, that we rejoice to see mirrored in the Sacred Heart. Our Sacred Heart statues and holy pictures represent our Lord in one particular attitude, as He revealed Himself to Sister Margaret Mary, an attitude of tender abasement, of mournful pleading with mankind. Again critics wonder. Is this your Christ, they ask, this weak, womanish figure, in a posture of sentimental appeal? Is your religion all sugary sweetness, all variations on a minor key? Has it stopped still with the seventeenth century; has it no mes-sage for today? And to that we answer, No, you have it all wrong. The Sacred Heart is the treasury of all those splendid qualities with which a perfect life was lived; it is the repository of 198 July, 1959 RESTORATION IN CHRIST all those noble thoughts which mankind still venerates in the Gospels'. It was the Sacred. Heart that burned with anger when the traders were driven out of the Temple; it was the Sacred Heart that loved the rich young man, yet would not spare him; it was the Sacred Heart that defied Pilate in his own judgment-hall. It is strong and stern and enduring; it hates prevarications and pretences. The perfect flowering of a human life, not on this occasion or that, but all the way, all the time, the utter sacrifice of a human will-- that is what the Sacred Heart means. There is no picture, no statue on earth that can portray its infinite beauty. The perfect flowering of our life at all times and in all ways; that should be the harvest of our devotion, dedication, and con-secration to the Sacred Heart. Religious, more than any other group of the followers of Christ, have the opportunity to reach that ideal. They have the available means and opportunity to answer the plea of the Sacred Heart for the return of human love for love divine. In the silent anonymity of your community life, you offer day by day the sacrifice of your personal independence and your natural yearning for recognition and human affection. If you live consist-ently with the ideals of your religious profession, you can truly say that you have left all things and have become so Christlike as to have produced the perfect flowering of your own life in the life of the Sacred Heart. Your vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience leave nothing for yourself. Through these vows, the essence of the religious life, you become one with God. How could you attain to a more perfect flowering of your life? Truth-fully you are called Sponsae Christi. In this capacity you can kneel each morning before the alkar on which the Sacrifice of Calvary is renewed and identify your love with the love of the Eternal Priest in humble and self-less fulfillment of the ideals of perfection which He Himself estab-lished in His earthly life. It is not without significance, therefore, that the spread of devotion to the Sacred Heart in modern times owes its origin 199 CARDINAL CUSHING Review for Religious to the apparitions of our Blessed Lord not to some renowned scholar or churchman but to a lowly nun. St." Margaret Mary was one of yourselves. Her call to the religious life, her postu-lancy and novitiate, her profession of religious vows, her long years of obedience to her rule and prayerful cooperation with the wishes of her superiors--all these circumstances of her life have their counterparts in the life of each one of you, St. Margaret Mary also found the same difficulty which you experience in following up the inspirations of God's grace which come so mysteriously to those who are closely associated with apostolic works. Neither religious themselves, nor those who cooperate with them in realizing the objectives of their various communities, can ever understand completely the divine orienta-tion of the human impulses out of which the success of any reli-gious community is drawn. As we look back over the centuries at what happened be-tween 1673 and 1675 in a little French village, we can see clearly that the judgments of psychologists and the cautious reserve of theologians and canonists have all played their part in the spread of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of which St. Margaret Mary was destined to be the modern apostle. They could not under-stand sentimentalism of this kind for they did not recall that Christ was man as well as God, human as well as divine. What stands out unmistakably in her life is her humble and charitable forbearance in the face of adverse personal criticism and her unquestioning submission to the authority of the Church. That indeed is one of many phases of the perfect flowering of human life: the total sacrifice of one's will to the will of another. Her spiritual directors understood her and guided her with sympathy and encouragement; she followed their counsel and obeyed to the last detail their suggestions of hopeful expectancy of eventual approval, A soul which is illumined by divine grace, a will that is one with the will of God, is never stubborn or un-disciplined. Margaret Mary's own certainty of the truth of the revelations made to her brought likewise the conviction that God's 200 July, 1959 RESTORATION IN CHRIST plans would be realized in God's own way and in God's own time. She knew that she was but the instrument of the power and mercy \ of Him who had afforded her unquestionable evidence of His love. She knew that the Christ, who had revealed to her the richness of His own inner life, was also the Christ who had founded His Church and who had'sent His Holy Spirit to abide within it until the end of time. In this peaceful and undisturbed awareness of her own relation to Christ our Lord, she was content to suffer the disappointment and frustration that would be in-volved in the reconditioning of men's souls which the spread of devotion to the Sacred Heart would bring about. When we look at Margaret Mary from this point of view, we see in her a great-ness of soul and a discerning penetration of divine wisdom which the humble circumstances in which she lived and died could never have revealed to those who knew her as a sister in religion and as a fellow human being. She is the messenger, the apostle of the devotion to the Sacred Heart because her heart gave all to the Heart of Christ. The beauty of her soul was the perfect flowering of life. And here, I think, is the great lesson which you, my beloved religious, can take to yourselves. In your life as religious you must share in the sorrows and sufferings which were glorified on the Cross. This is the meaning for you of the mystery of the Sacred Heart which was made known to the world by one of your number. How can that be accomplished? First of all, by self-immolation. To seek for oneself alone in religious life any measure of comfort or self-gratification is to substitute the prudence of the world for the prudence of the brides of God. As spouses of Christ, you must be faithful to your mystical espousal and marriage and accept cheerfully the burdens of community life and surrender yourselves without reservation to the demands which your respective congregations may make on you as they carry on their appointed apostolic works. Secondly, in your religious life you must resemble Christ in the mediating functions of His priesthood. The sacred humanity 201 CARDINAL CUSHING Review for Religious of Christ, symbolized in its ministrations of love by the Heart which was pierced with a lance, enable Christ to stand as a mediator between God and men. So too the religious, living in the world even while separated from it by the boundaries of her cloister, brings God into the lives of others as she carries on her varied works. The religious is thus in a very real sense a mediatrix between God and men. Those whom you serve are thereby raised from earth to heaven by the unselfish detachment with which you apply your-selves to works upon which material values may be set. Thus you are able to stand at Christ's side as His devoted helpers. Thus you are drawing men's souls to Christ as did Christ Him-self in His revelation of God's love for man in the visible form of His human nature. Thirdly, your principal objective as religious must always be to diffuse into the souls of others the love of Christ. How dismally we fail, even while we seem to be successful, if we have gained spectacular victories in ambitious undertakings at the cost oi: arousing bitterness and dissension among those with whom we live and work! In the companionship of your sisters in reli-gion, in your relations with your superiors, in the services which you render to your community, in your ministrations of charity and mercy to the faithful, you must always be a messenger of divine love and an inspiring example of the practice of Christian charity. I don't know of any othdr way in which we can respond to the appeal for love from the heart of Christ unless it would be to crystalize that response by fidelity to the spirit and letter of the Morning. Offering of the Apostleship of Prayer. This is more than a prayer formula, it is a way of life by which every act of the day becomes transformed into a prayerful tribute to the Sacred Heart. It is also the way of gpiritual child-hood for it sanctifies the ordinary things of life into extraordinary spiritual power and unites us to the sacrifice of the Mass through-out the world~ The Morning Offering is also the greatest means by which we can recognize the importance of each day in our lives. Each 202 July, 1959 RESTORATION IN CHRIST day is life in miniature. Today is unique; it has never happened before, it can never happen again. For one moment it is all-important, fills the.stage; tomorrow it will have taken its place in the unreal pageant of dead yesterdays. It has a significance, then, all its own; but this significance belongs to it because it is related to a series. We may think of it as the beginning of a series, the first day of a new departure in our lives. Or we may think of it as one day among others, with the same duties, cares, temptations as the others. Or we may think of it' as the last~ of a series; one today will be the last of all our todays, with eternity for its infinite tomorrow, and it may be this. Think of this day, for example, as the beginning of a new departure. How shall we begin? Not by any frantic efforts of our own; we will begin by listening to the voice of God: Hodie si vocem eius audieritis, nolite obdurare corda vestra. We speak to Him through ou.r spiritual exercises, and we unite ourselves with all the members of His Mystical Body throughout the world by today's offering of everything we do to Him. There is another use we may make of the magic word today. Instead of worrying about whether we shall ever commit our cus-tomary sins again, let us simply resolve not to commit them today. Dignare Dornine die isto sine peccato nos custodire; let us see if we can't cheat the devil, like some grasping creditor, by saying "Not just yet; not today." And let us ask simply for the grace which is needed to avoid those sins just in the sixteen hours that lie between bed-time and bed-time. Die isto, let us make today a holiday from our venial sins. This day without sin- we will avoid, His grace helping us, those little daily repeated irreverences by which we offend Him. This day without sin- we will especially avoid sinning against ourselves, by the wrong use of God's creatures. And we will avoid sinning against our neighbors. We know the sisters we have to live with, the little t~aults ot~ manner and behavior .which get on our nerves, all the more surely because they are repeated day by day. This day, with this gladness in our hearts, we will 203 CARDINAL CUSHING greet them with a cheerfulness which is infectious, which lightens their burden as well as our own. A smile at all times- how much difference that can make to life's tragedies! Today, sanctified and enriched by the Morning Offering, becomes like a sacrament from which we can derive not only an inspiration for the future, the future that may be so different if we will use today aright; not only a warning for the present, to make us avoid this day the temptations that every day beset us, but an attitude, also, towards the past, an attitude of abiding penitence and reparation. Let us remember our sins each day, as if we had no more space left for sinning; let us repent for them, as this were our last opportunity of contrition. And He, who re-turned to heaven with the penitent thief for His escort, will shorten our purgatory and hasten to unite us with Himself. Hodie vocem audieritis ~ it can never be too early to begin our conver-sion. Hodie eris mecum in paradiso ~ thank God, it can never be too late. Our renewed consecration today to the Sacred Heart gives evideace of our appreciation of the tremendous potential which you have at your disposal for the restoration of all things in Christ. We consecrate you anew to the Sacred Heart because you belong to Christ, because you are one with Christ, and because your efforts are so powerful and so indispensable for the realization of His divine mission. Let me become the spokesman for each one of you as I repeat the words of consecration which St. Mar-garet Mary formulated as she gave expression to her own consum-ing love ot: Christ her Lord: I consecrate to the Sacred Heart of our Lord Jesus Christ my person and my life, my actions, pains and sufferings, so that I may be unwilling to make use of any part of my being save to honor, love and glorify the Sacred Heart . Do Thou consume in me all that can displease Thee or resist Thy holy will. Let Thy pure love imprint Thee so deeply upon my heart that I shall never more be able to forget Thee or~to be separated from Thee. May I obtain the grace of having my name written in Thee, for in Thee I desire to place all my happi-ness and all my glory, living and dying in very bondage to Thee. Amen. 204 The AAariology of Pope Plus XII John A. Hardon, S.J. IT IS EASY to write on Pope Pius XII and the Blessed Virgin Mary because there is so much to say. We might recall how as a young boy in Rome he would stop every day to visit the shrine of Madonna della Strada at the Church of the Gesu where, as he told his mogher, "I pray and tell Mary everything." Or we might reflect on his life-long devotion to the rosary, his frequent sermons on our Lady, his constant reference to her in his writings or, in summary, his own testimony shortly after election to the papacy, that "our priestly life began with Mary and has always been directed under her motherly eye." In all this profusion of Marian piety, one aspect may be overlooked. Pius XII made a substantial contribution to the science of Mariology, a contribution concerning which, no doubt, volumes will be written in the years to come. We shall examine only the highlights of a large subject, whose implications have an important bearing on the whole body of Christian asceticism. The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary On November i, 1950, Pius XII answered the requests of the Catholic hierarchy with a solemn definition that, "by the authority.of our Lord Jesus Christ, of the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and by Our own authority, We pronounce, declare and define as a divinely revealed dogma: The Immaculate Mother of God, Mary ever Virgin, after her life on earth, was assumed body and soul to the glory of heaven." The spontaneous reaction of the faithful was gratitude for the exalted honor paid to the Mother of God. The Pope's own sentiments were expressed to the bishops gathered in Rome for the occasion, when he told them the joy he felt over the proclamation and the assurance it gave him that Mary would obtain the graces of which mankind stood in such dire need. On the level of piety and devotion, therefore, Mary's Assumption was only the climax in a series of definitiong 205 JOHN A. HARDON Review for Religious to honor the Blessed Virgin, beginning with the divine maternity at Ephesus and terminating in the past century with her Immaculate Conception. But dogmatically the constitution Munificentissimus Deus has a much deeper significance that de-serves to be recognized. Shortly before the actual definition but after its public an-nouncement, the Anglican bishops of England lodged a formal protest against the "new" dogma. "We profoundly regret," they said, "that the Roman Catholic Church has chosen by this action to increase dogmatic differences in Christendom and has thereby gravely injured the growth of understanding between Christians based on a common possession of the fundamental truths of the Gospel." The Anglican complaint was not a wild gesture. It exposed their radical opposition to the Church's authority over Christian doctrine, which I believe many Catholics ~do not fully appreciate. Pope Pius defined Mary's Assumption as a truth divinely revealed. Of the two sources of revelation, theologians com-monly say the Assumption was implicit in tradition, in spite of the practical absence of documentary evidence before 300 A.D. Some years before the definition, a scholarly work was published under Vatican auspices on The Silence of the Early Centuries on the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The author frankly admitted that except for apocryphal sources we have no explicit witness in the early patristic age. Yet the Pope finally declared the doctrine was in revelation. How do we know? On the answer to this question rests a new insight into Christian tradi-tion which had been gaining momentum since the eighteenth century. Briefly stated, tradition is coming to be identified more and more with the Church's magisterium or teaching office and less exclusively as the genetic source, along with Scripture, of the truths of salvation. Behind this new emphasis is a development of dogma since the Council of Trent which reveals hidden depths of power in the Mystical Body of Christ. The Church is being seen more clearly as not only the guardian of a faith once and for 206 July, 1959 MARIOLOGY OF PIUS XII all given-to the Apos.tles, but as perpetual expositor of that faith in every age to the end of time. In August of the same year that he defined the Assumption, the Pope laid down the principles~ which guided the Marian defini-tion. The Church's teaching authority, he said in Humani generis, is not confined to reflecting or consolidating the past. It is also, ~nd especially, the vital, presetit-day function of an organism animated by the Spirit of God: "Together with the sources of revelation (Scripture:and tradition) God has given to His Church a living magisterium to elucidate and explain what is contained in the deposit of faith only obscurely :and, as it were, by implication," The degree of obscurity, we may add, is irrelevant. Given this faculty by her 0~:ounder, whose" Spirit of truth abides with her at all times, the Church can infallibly discern what belongs to revela-tion no matter how cryptic the contents may be. Consequently whenl Pius XII defined the Assumption, he did more than propose the doctrine for acceptance by the faith-ful or give them a new motive for devotion to the Blessed Mother. He vindicated as never before the Church's i~ower to authorize a legitimate development in doctrine .and pii~ty that scandalizes those outside the true faith and may even surprise b~elieving Catholics. The Assumption thus becomes part Of a'larger process, along with Catholic Action, the litui:gical movement and even such practical matters as the mitigated Eucharistic fast, in which the current problems of the Church and the present needs of souls are being met by the Holy Spirit: It was no coincidence that on the day following the Assump-tion d~finition the Pope expressed, the hope that this new honor to Mary would intrbduce "a spirit of penance to replace the' prevalent love of pleasure, and a renewal of family lifE, stabilized where divorce was common and made fruitful where birth control was practiced." If there is one feature that characterizes the modern world it is 'the cult of the body. Science and ingenuity exhaust themselves in providing for bodily comforts, avoidance of pain, and the.pampering of every sensual desire. Divorce and 207 JOHN A. HARDON Review for Religious birth control, lurid reading and entertainment are only symptoms of a deeper malady for which revelation provides at least one Certain remedy: faith in the resurrection of the body, for us on the last day as for Mary on the day of her departure from this life. Since the body is made to be immortal, it is infinitely im-portant to provide for its eternal happiness by discipline and sell control--because the alternative is also bodily immortality, but in hell, as the price of earthly pleasure against the will of God. The Immaculate Conception Three years after defining the dogma of the Assumption, Pius XII Called on the Catholic world to join in the observance of a Marian Year from December, 1953, to December, 1954, to commemorate the centenary of Pius IX's definition of the Immaculate Conception. He introduced the Marian Year with the encyclical Fulgens corona, whose doctrinal content went far beyopd the immediate purpose of proclaiming a season of special prayers to the Mother of God. According to the late Pontiff,. the Assumption was a conse-quence of the Immaculate Conception, not merely in the super-ficial sense of something suitable, but in the. strict logic of supernatural merit and providence. "These two singular privi-leges bestowed upon the Mother of God stand out in most splendid light as the beginning and the end of her earthly journey. ,For the greatest possible glorification of her virgin body is the comple-ment, at once appropriate and marvelous, of the absolute inno-cence of her soul which was free from all stain. Just as she took part in the struggle of her only-begotten Son with the serpent of hell, so also she shared in His glorious triumph over sin and its sad consequences." This correlation between the two mysteries has a long and respected theological history, which other statements of Pius XII indicate that he knew very well. Addressing the National Eucha-ristic Congress of Cuba in 1947, he acknowledged the petition which the Cubans 'had sent to the Holy See relative to Mary's 208 July, 1959 MARIOLOGY OF PIUS XlI Assumption. "This mystery must certainly be true, according to the mind of him who has rightly been called the Doctor Eximius, who teaches that this privilege is most eminently congruent with the innocence and purity of the Virgin Mary." The Doctor Eximius was Francis Suarez, the sixteenth-century theologian. whose Disputations on the Blessed Mother are the most exhaustive in classic Mariology. Again in the actual document of definition, the Pope referred to Suarez's conclusion that "the mystery of the Assumption was to be believed with the same firmness of assent as that given to the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin. Thus he already held that such truths could be defined." How are the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption related in Suarez, and by implication in Pius XII? Their rela-tion arises from the subtle but necessary connection between sin and its consequences in the after-life. The souls of the just in heaven, says Suarez, still desire and seek the glorification of their bodies. To the extent to which this is lacking to them, they are deprived of the perfection of beatitude, even though only in accidentals. When the soul of Mary, therefore, was separated t~rom her body, this hunger and desire for "the perfect perfection" were not absent. Being always full of grace, she had a title to perfect glory on leaving this world. And what Mary desired, she must immediately have obtained, in virtue of her exalted position and "by a mother's right." Therefore just as during her stay on earth she had never contracted the least stain ofsin, so after this life she was freed from every corruption and sequel that are the wages of sin. Her body was not to decay, nor was she to wait until the last day, as others who are sinners, to rise with her body from the grave. In the same document, Fulgens corona, the Pope made an-other association, this time a historical one, and not between the first and final mysteries in the life of the Blessed Virgin but be-tween the Immaculate Conception and the supernatural phe-nomena at Lourdes. In his judgment, "the Virgin 1QIary herself wished to confirm by some special sign the definition which the 209 JOH~ A. HARDON Review for Religious Vicar of Christ her divine Son on earth had pronounced amid the applause of the whole Church. Four years had not yet elapsed ¯ ~hen, in the French town at the foot of the Pyrenees, the Virgin Mother showed herself to a simple and innocent girl at the grotto of Messabielle, And to this same girl, earnestly inquiring the name of her with whose vision she was favored, with eyes raised to heaven and sweetly smiling, she replied, 'I am the Immaculate Conception.' " Following the original visions, thousands of peo-ple from every country in the world have made pilgrimages'to Lourdes, where "miraculous favors were granted them, which excited the admiration of all and confirmed the Catholic religion as the only one given approval by God." This judgment is highly significant. In the last analysis, a Catholic wants to prove that no other religion than his own is from God, he must invoke some principle by which any religious system can be tested and its divine authorization verified. Such a principle is the norm of miracles, which even the unlettered primitive can understand. It says simply that when God com-municates a revelation (as claimed in some form by every organ-ized religion), He will confirm the mysteries He reveals and make them rationally acceptable by working miracles in favor of the truths that He wants believed. Or put negatively, He will not work miracles in support of a pretended revelation because, as master of the miraculous, He would be actively cooperating in a lie. In the context of the Lourdes apparitions and the constant stream of preternatural wonders there granted by God, this means that what Lourdes stands for is perennially attested as true. The Immaculate Conception is a strict mystery, not even conceivable apart from revelation. Miracles are visible signs of divine inter-vention that lead the well-disposed to believe (or strengthen their belief) in what cannot be seen, on the argument that the same agency which produces the phenomena also revealed the doc-trine in whose atmosphere the phenomena take place. 210 July, 1959 MARIOLOGY OF P~us XII Mediatrix of Graces . The !ast element in the triad of Marian privileges to which Pius XII made a lasting theological contribution is Mary's role as universal mediatrix of graces. On the fourth anniversary of the Assumption dogma and in closing the Marian Year, the Pope instituted a new feast of the Queenship of Mary, for May 31, and in the encyclical Ad caeli Reginam elaborated on the basic principles that underlay Mary's royalty, namely, her unique posi-tion as liaison between Christ and the humar~ race. An examination of the teaching of the fathers of the Church since the rime'of Origen, Ephrem, and St. Jerome shows a prac-tical unanimity in regarding the mother of Jesus as sharing with Him, albeit subordinately, a truly royal dignity~. Ephrem called her "Empress and Ruler"; Origen, "Mistress and Queen"; the seventh ecumenical council spoke of her as "the Lady ruler ~of all Christians"; and in modern times, Benedict XIV gave her the title "Queen of heaven and earth." The ancient tradition is re-flected in the liturgy of the East which poetically addresses Mary as "carried into heaven on the. chariots of the cherubim, the seraphim wait upon thee and the ranks of the heavenly host bow before thee." Familiar hymns like the Salve Regina and prayers like the Litany of Loretto confirm the sentiments of Christian art since the Council of Ephesus (431 A.D.) which "portrays Mary as Queen and Empress seated upon a royal throne, adorned with the royal insignia, crowned with the royal diadem and surrounded by the host of angels and saints in heaven and ruling not only nature and its powers but also over the machinations of Satan." However, more important than the evidence of its traditional character is the dogmatic basis for Mary's queenship which the late Pontiff traced to her divine maternity and her association with Christ in the redemption .of the world. The Pope synthesized in bold analogy the Catholic doctrine which some theo.logians con-sider definable. The Blessed Virgin has not only received the grade of excellence and perfection which is supreme after that of Christ Himself but has also received some sharing 'of that et~icacy by which her Son and our 211 JOHN A. HARDON Review for Religious Redeemer is rightly and properly said to reign over the minds and wills of men. For if the word of God performs miracles and gives graces through the humanity He has assumed, if He employs the sacra-ments and His saints as instruments for the salvation oi~ souls, why should He not use His mother's office and efforts to bring us the fruits of the Redemption? We may transmit the comparison between Mary's intercessory power and that of other saints. Certainly if they can pray in our behalf and obtain favors we should not otherwise receive, how much more the Queen of Saints and the Mother of the Author of grace. The remarkable thing is to associate the Blessed Virgin's share in our Redemption with the humanity of her divine Son and to compare its efficacy with the function of the sacramental system. Both analogies are penetrating concepts. By relating Mary's role of mediatrix to the human nature of Christ, the Pope wished to emphasize what even Catholics are liable to forget, that while God can perform by His own power all that is effected by created natures, yet in the counsels of His providence He has preferred to help men by the instrumentality of other men- whose efficacy for sanctifying others depends on their proximity to the human nature assumed by the Son of God. Viewed in this light, the potentiality of the Blessed Virgin as an instrument of grace takes on staggering proportions. As the woman whose consent mad~ the Incarnation possible, who carried in her womb and brought into the world the Word made flesh, and whose association with Christ during His life and sympathy in death were the most intimate conceivable- her efficacy at the throne of God must be, without fear of exaggeration, "almost immeasurable in power." If we compare Mary's mddiation with the sacraments of the New Law, we gain a further insight into her place in the economy' of salvation. We know that on the level of sanctification nothing is more internal than heavenly 'grace which begets holiness; and yet the ordinary and chief means of obtaining grace are external, in the form of sacraments administered by men specially chosen for that purpose and by means of external rites. In baptism 212 July, 1959 MARIOLOGY OF PIUS XII there is pouring of water; in confirmation and extreme unction, anointing with oil; in orders, the imposition of hands; in matri-mony, the expressed acceptance by the two spouses; and in pen-ance, the vocal and visible absolution by the priest. All these actions are external and their agents are all human, but condi-tioned on their performance in the spirit of faith, such trans-cendent changes occur in the spiritual world as the removal of a life[ime of sin by a sign of the cross and the conversion of a piece of bread into the Body of Christ. ' The more clearly we see ho.w the Blessed. Virgin shares in this type of sacramental effciency, the less scandalized we shall be to say that "as God is the Father and Lord of the universe, preparing all by His power, so the Blessed Mary, repairing all things by her merits, is the ruler and mother of all." While re-maining subordinate to her Son as a creature to her Creator, she was instituted by Him on the cross as the great sacrament of His mercy and the visible sign of internal grace which He promised to those who, like Plus XII, "approach with confidence to the throne of our Queen and Mother to beg help in difficulty, light in dark-ness, and solace in trouble and sorrow." 213 Practice ot: t:he Noly See ,Joseph F. ~llen, S.,.J. CANON 509, § 1, obliges all superiors to inform their sub-jects of all decrees of the ~Holy See concerning religious and to enforce such decrees. The activity and mind and will of the Holy See are also revealed, and sometimes in a more practical manner, by approved constitutions and com-munications addressed to individual religious institutes. article drawn from these sources was published in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in 1953. This article is based on the same sources concerning lay institutes ~ from January 1, 1954. The order of material followed in the article is the usual order the chapters of constitutions of lay institutes. This is the third part of a series of three. 14. Dismissal. It is canonically interesting that the con-stitutions of an order of women, who recently received permis-sion to resume solemn vows, contain the following article: "A professed of either perpetual simple vows or of solemn vows who is dismissed from the institute is by this very fact dispensed from her vows of religion.''3° 1 5. The general chapter. (a) Convocation and members. A most interesting fact canonically is the appearance of a procuratrix general to handle the affairs of a pontifical congre-gation of women with the Holy See. The article in a set of constitutions recently approved by the Holy See reads as follows: "The procuratrix general resides in Rome and transmits the affairs of the congregation to the Roman Curia according to the intentions and directions of the institute. The procuratrix general has the right to attend the general chapter and to give her suffrage.''31 (b) Invitation of non-capitulars to the general chapter. Several constitutions of recent date empower the IBM., 16-1957-282. Ibid., 16-1957-114-16. 214 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE superior general, either alone or with the advice or consent his or her council, to summon or invite the following non-capitulars to the general chapter: one or more religious ot: the same institute to .assist the secretary of the chapter as steno-graphers, other religious of the same institute to any session, and a priest or lay person to present and discuss a question of interest to the capitulars. It is evident that none of these are permitted to vote and that all such religious of the same institute are obliged to secrecy in the same manner as the capitulars. It seems prudent to add the observation that the capitulars should have sufficient time for discussion of a matter after such a consultant has left, since often they would at least hesitate to express their opinions fully before such a person, particularly if he or she is not a member of the same institute. I have seen such provisions only in recent constitutions; but some of them, for example, that on the stenographers, have been followed in fact by some institutes. Unless expressly forbidden by the particular constitutions, these ~. provisions may be followed by any institute, since they are not contrary to canon law and are entirely reasonable in themselves. In any revision of the constitutions, art institute should consider ar~ article of the following tenor: The superior general (or with the advice or consent of his or her council) may summon other religious to assist in the clerical or similar work of the chapter. He may also summon such religious and even invite an extem for consultation or to present and discuss questions with the chapter. None of these are permitted to vote, and all such religious have the same obligation as the capitulars to secrecy. (c) Delegates. i° Necessity of delegates. The Holy See de-mands a system of delegates for the general and provincial chapters and does not permit in centralized institutes what we may style a universal chapter, for example, that all the religious pf perpetual vows be members of the general or provincial chapter. This necessity was repeated in a recent reply to a quinquennial report. A system of delegates is also necessary 215 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious now for the general and regional chapters of nuns. The neces-sity of delegates was emphasized in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 10-1951-187-90. The elected delegates from a province to the general chapter are almost universally two, most rarely three or four. The Holy See has approved, eoen recently, variations of this norm, for example, "one or two delegates according as the province has less or more than a hundred members"; "one delegate for each province but two delegates for any province that exceeds three hundred." 2° Added delegates from larger houses. It has been practically universal that a larger house elected only one delegate, no matter l~ow many religious of active voice it contained. Added delegates were very rarely admitted, for example, one delegate for every twelve religious. There has been a greater willingness on the, part of the Holy See in recent years to permit such added delegates. However, one of the defects of the house system is that it puts a large and unwieldy number in the general or provincial chapter as the institute increases in size. This difficulty is evidently intensified by the system of added dele-gates. Furthermore, proportional representation is not de-manded. The business of a general chapter is not the interests or the affairs of a particular house or province but only those of the institute as a whole. The same principle is true of the provincial chapter. 3° New systems. A fundamental variation of the group system recently approved by the Holy See is as follows. A first list is made of all local superiors and a second of all the subjects with passive voice. The latter are arranged in groups according to horizontal precedence, that is, each group has a proportionate number of older and younger re-ligious~ Copies of the two lists are sent to every religious with. active voice. Each of these votes for a determined number of local superiors and a determined number of subjects from each group of the second list. Those with the next highest number of votes are the substitutes. Therefore, every such religious votes for all the local superiors and subjects who will 216 July, 1959 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE be members of the general or provincial chapter. The system may be further varied by sending out the list of superiors first and including in the second list all local SUl~eriors not elected in the first election. The following is an example of another new system, which has been approved for at least two institutes by the Holy See. The superiors of all houses of at least twelve religious are members of the general chapter in virtue of their office. The number of delegates from the houses is apparently established by the superior general with the consent of his council. Let us suppose that twenty is the established number. Each religious Who has active voice votes for twenty delegates from the entire institute. A graduated value is given to this vote: for example, if Brother Francis is the first name voted for, he receives twenty points; Brother Robert, the last name on the same ballot, receives one point. Or the relative value can be computed as one and one-twentieth. The votes are necessarily sent in to the general council, and thus a relative majority decides the elections. Those with the next highest number of votes are the substitutes. One objection to this system is the complicated computation of the votes. Some have objected also to the fact that the local superiors are members of the chapter in virtue of their office and to the power of varying the number of delegates from the houses. Another institute proposed the same system to the Holy See; but the number of delegates, twenty, was fixed by the constitutions, no local superior was a member of the chapter in virtue of his office, the delegates could be either local superiors or subjects, and the same value was given to a vote for a religious no matter in what place his name was found on the individual ballot. The Holy See approved this proposed text with two exceptions, the number of delegates was reduced to fifteen, and the local superiors of houses of at least'twenty subjects were made ex officio members of the general chapter. (d) Preliminary sessions. Some recent constitutions, as also several approved in the past, command the superior general to give the general chapter a 217 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious copy also of the last quinquennial report ~o the Holy See. (e) Postulation of superior general. The Holy See admitted the postulation of a mother gerieral for a third successivd six-year term but expressly excluded further postulation of the same religious. (f) Election of the general officials. 1° Election or appointment of the secretary general and bursar general. In a fairly recent communication to one institute, the Sacred Congregation stated that these two officials should be ex officio members of the general chapter because of their general knowledge of the institute. The validity of this reason is evident. .~It could be well appliedto some other offices, for example, the general supervisor of schools and studies. If elected, these two officials uniformly have such membership. The Holy See, also in recent years, has sometimes approved the appointment of either or both of these officials by the superior general with the consent of his council, in some cases with and in others without ex officio membership in the "general chapter. I personally doubt that a general chapter is a good judge ~f the specialized abilities demanded by these offices~32 It seems to me that the preferable policy is to appoint both of these officials with ex officio membership in the general chapter. 2° Incompatible offices. In the Former practice of the Holy See, one of the general councilors, except the first, could be elected also as secretary general; but the bursar general could not be a general councilor. Constitutions that contain this provision must evidently be observed. In constitutions more recently approved, the Sacred Congregation permits any of the councilors except the first to be also either secretary, or bursar general. One institute received an indult permitting the first councilor, or assistant general, to be also bursar general, provided that no inefficiency resulted to the first office. (g) Chapter of affairs. 1° Committees. An article of the following type is more efficient than the one usually found in constitu-tions: "At least two .weeks before the opening of the chapter, 32 Ibid., 10-1951-190-91. 218 July, 1959 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE a committee of three or more chapter delegates, appointed by the mother general in consultation with her council, shall examine and prepare for the chapter all the matters submitted by the hohses for which the decision of the chapter is necessary. This committee shall classify all questions submitted and present them to the general chapter for action." 2° Public voting. The general norm of public rather than secret voting in this chapter is also more efficient and is contained in some recent constitu-tions, for example, "The business of the chapter will be settled by the majority of votes, by secret ballot if the majority of the chapter requests it." 3° Duration of ordinances of general chapter. The following norm of a set of constitutions recently approved is more reasonable than the one commonly found in constitutions: "The decisions and enactments of the general chapter remain in effect permanently unless amended or rescinded by subsequent chapters." 4° Duration of ordinances of a ,superior. At least two recent sets of constitutions state: "Every order gi~,en by a superior ceases to. bind on the expira-tion of his term of office." This should have been qualified. As Van Hove well states: "Many ordinances enacted from dominative power continue to exist on the cessation from office of the superior who established them, because they are im-plicitly renewed by his successor, who is presumed to intend that the customary order in a community continue to be observed until he changes it.''33 16. The superior general. The quinquennial report. The only article in this chapter of the constitutions that needs com-ment is that on the quinquennial report to the Holy See. Every religious institute is now obliged to make this report, for example, independent monasteries, independent houses, and diocesan congregations of men and women are also held to the report.34 The following comments were i:ound in the replies of the Sacred Congregation to several reports. Whenever a Van Hove, .De Leglbus Ecclesiasticis, I, n. 359, note 4; cf. Jone, Commen. tarium in Codicem Iuris Canonici, I, 46. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 15-1956-156~57. 219 JOSEPH F. GALLEIq Review for Religious pontifical document is mentioned, its date and protocol number should be given, for example, March 19, 1955, Prot. N. 6097/54. Each house should have a book of chronicles in which the principal events of the house are recorded and should also have its own files and archives. The acts of the general chapter, that is, the elections made and the ordinances enacted, not the minutes, should be sent to the Sacred Congregation by pontifical institutes. The following question also caused difficulty: "How do superiors see to it that the decrees of the Holy See which concern religious be known and observed by their own subjects?" This obligation is incumbent on all superiors by the prescription of canon 509, ~ 1. The Sacred Congregation was dissatisfied with many replies to this question. It seems to me that the answer was easy with regard to knowledge, i. e., all houses subscribe to the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, in which such documents are explained, and all houses have the fol-lowing work, in which the text of such documents is given in Eng-lish, Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest, I-IV (The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee). Circular letters of higher superiors should call the attention of their subjects to such documents and insist their observance. Their enforcement should also be part of the ordi-nary government of all superiors, should be included in the reports of lower to higher superiors, and be investigated and insisted on in the canonical visitations of higher superiors. Since the Sacred Congregation insists even on local archives, it seems to me that a religious institute should always be given the original rescript from the Holy See that concerns it or at least a photographic copy of such a rescript, and not a mere summary in English of the contents of the rescript. The names of the prefects and officials of the Roman congregations who sign rescripts are often most inaccurately stated and trans-lated into English by lay religious. This is true of the name, the title, and the office. These mistakes are frequently quite public, for example, on the documents appended to the con-stitutions. Those who transmit rescripts should translate these 220 July, 1959 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE names into English for .lay religious. An indecipherable signa-ture can usually be. determined by cgnsulting the Annuario Pontificio. It would help if the signature were fully typed out on the original document below the written signature. 17. The general council. (a) Superior alone governs. Many constitutions, old and new, contain an article of the following tenor: "The congregation shall be governed by a superior general and four councilors." This is an error. The superior alone governs an institute, a province, or a house. The councilors are not associates in authority but advisers. Therefore, such an article should be more accurately phrased, as in the following recently approved constitutions: "Although the superior general must ask the opinion of the general council in matters of greater importance and must sometimes secure its consent, nevertheless, she issues all ordinances in her own name because she alone possesses the right to govern the congregation." (b) List of what a superior may do without the advice or consent of his council. Several constitutions, even some recently approved, contain such a list. This seems to me to be entirely superfluous. It is immediately evident that a superior has the right to govern completely unassisted except for the matters reserved by canon law or the constitutions to higher authorities or that from the same sources demand the con-sent or advice of his council. 18. The secretary general. Many constitutions keep repeat-ing, especially of the secretary, secondlyof the bursar, and lastly of the novice master, that he has no right to vote in a general or provincial council unless he is also a councilor. Isn't this evident? Are we vdry likely to affirm that anyone has the rights of an office that he does not possess? 19. The bursar general. Even recent constitutions continue to speak of a safe locked by three different keys in general-ates, provincialates, and local houses. One of those keys is to be kept by the superior, the second by the assistant, the third by the bursar. All three must therefore be present to open the 221 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious safe. How efficient is such a safe? How possible is it even buy such a safe? Religious institutes continue also to put determined sums in their constitutions, for example, the amount in extra-ordinary expenses for which recourse is necessary to the superior general. The changing of such an amount is a change of the constitutions and will demand the permission of the Holy See for a pontifical institute and that of all the ordinaries in whose dioceses the.institute has houses in the case of' a diocesan con-gregation. It would be sufficient and more practical to say, "according to the norms established by the general chapter." Such amdhnts may then be changed by any subsequent chap-ter. A recent set of constitutions enacts: "In the houses en-trusted with parish schools or other establishments which are responsible to ecclesiastical or lay administrations and where the sisters receive a fixed salary, the funds shall be .kept and admin-istered as indicated in article . ., except that any surplus shall be paid annually into the provincial fund." This matter was explained in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 14-1955-329. The article on alienation no longer contains the 30,000 t~rancs or lire, or $6,000, of canon 534, § 1 but is phrased, "of a value that exceeds the sum established by the Holy See." 20. Local houses and superiors. A recent set of constitu-tions states: "Though the sisters ought to be desirous of embrac-ing all human misery and of drawing the whole world to the service of God, nevertheless, the congregation shall not establish new houses if, in those already existing, there is not a sufficient number of sisters to insure that not only the works of mercy can be carried out adequately but also that religious observance can flourish." The last clause might well have been amended to: that religious observance and a normal human life can flourish. This very practical matter was commented on in the REVIEW FOR RE~LIGIOUS, 17-1958-121-22. Canon 516, § 1 demands that councilors be had in every formal house and favors or recommends councilors also in smaller houses, In several replies to quinquennial reports, the Sacred Congregation insisted on 222 July, 1959 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE the appointment of local councilors and that local council meet-ings be held with the frequency commanded by the constitu-tions. Insistence was also placed on the law that a local superior should not be the local bursar except in a case of necessity (c. 516~ § 3). A recent set of constitutions makes the prac-tical and necessary observation that everything said about local superiors applies also to the local superior of the 'mother house. The presence of a higher superior does not diminish the author-ity nor lessen the duties of this local superior. One order of nuns and two congregations of sisters have indults that dispense them from the law of canon '1306,§ 2, that is, that purificators, palls, and corporals used in the sacrifice of the Mass must be first washed by a cleric in major orders.3~ 21. The constitutions. The only thing noteworthy under this chapter in the present practice of the Holy See is a fre-quent addition to the norm on the obligation of the constitu-tions. It has always been evident that a divine or ecclesiastical law repeated in the constitutions retains the obligation it has in itself, that is, it obliges under sin according to the matter. The same obligation is equally evident of any action that falls under the vows. It has been the universal practice to declare that the other articles of the constitutions did not immediately oblige under sin but under the penalty imposed for their infraction. It was also universally stated that sin was committed in the violation of such articles by a sinful motive or by a violation that caused scandal. The following qualification is now fre-quently appended to the norm for these other articles: "The articles concerning government and the fundamental norms that determine the necessary functions or the duties and offices by which government is exercised, as also the articles that enact and consecrate the nature, spirit, and special purpose of the congr.egation oblige immediately in conscience according to the matter." This qualification is evidently taken verbatim from Ibid., 15-1956-101. 223 JOSEPH F. (~ALLEN Muzzarelli, Acta et Documenta Congressus Generalis de Statibus Perfectionis, I, 540. It does not seem to me to be too clear nor too precise. It "should be added here that a considerable number of both pontifical and diocesan congregations have made a general revision of their constitutions in recent years. 224 A Lit:e Table t:or. Religious Priest:s 1953-1957 Francis C. Madigan, S.J. THE JANUARY 1955 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS carried an article by Sister Josephina, c.s.J., on the average age at death of sisters in two communities of religious women, presumably of her own congregatmn1 . In view of the interest of religious, and particularly of religious superiors, in Sister Josephina's stat", s"tLcs, the writer believes that readers of the REVIEW will be equally interested in a life table setting forth the mortality experience of a large community of religious priests2 whose headquarters are located in New York City and whose principal field of operations embraces New York State ¯ and northeastern New Jersey.3 Some comments on life tables and their use are in order. First of all, they are based not on death records only, but on the proportion of deceased members to living members, for each age gr6up and calendar year studied. The present table gives average figures t:or the calendar years 1953-1957. Secondly, life tables are an accurate barometer of health conditions prevailing in the particular group to which they relate. They permit direct and unbiased comparisons of the mortality of this group with that of other groups through the mortality rates and expectations of life developed in the tables. Superiors of similar groups of priests should find these mortality rates and expectations of life helpful in coming to decisions about the number of men that must be prepared to keep certain lines of work adequately staffed. The table will also prove useful in determining whether health conditions in 1Sister Josephina, C.S.J., "Longevity of Religious Women," Review [or Religious, XIV, I (January, 1955), 29-30. 2Priest was defined for the purpose of the study to mean. both ordained priests, and religious seminarians ("scholastics") studying for the priesthood. 3There were 1247 priests in this community on June 30, 1955, which was the midpoint of the study. The main work engaged in by the members is education. 225 FRANCIS C. MADIGAN Review for Religious their community are satisfactory both in general and in regard to any particular age group. Some time ago through the use of such a table the superiors of a certain religious community found that the number of deaths yearly experienced in their scholasticate was entirely out of line with expectations, and upon investigation they found that certain health measures relating to diet and housing were being overlooked. Correction of the situation resulted in an immediate lowering of the death rates for the affected age groups. The table may also be of assistance to superiors, in another way. Of late a number of communities have been consider-ing or have actually bought group insurance for their members. The mortality rates and expectations of life in the table should prove helpful both to these communities and to insurance companies in determining what is a fair premium. The use of the table is simple. In the leftmost colunm one finds the age in which he is interested. Following this age across .its row, he comes first to the mortality rates. These are given for both five-year and one-year periods, and for the five-year periods, in terms of both observed and graduated rates. The observed rates are placed next to the age beginning the precise period to which they refer, as are the one-year graduated rates. The graduated five-year rates are placed in parentheses two lines below the observed rates and refer to precisely the same period of time as the observed rates. These mortality rates are probabilities of dying during the period 'specified for those priests who were alive on the birthday mark-ing the beginning of the period. In using the table to compare the probabilities of dying at any particular ages, it is better to use the graduated rather than the observed rates. This is because the latter rates con-tain fluctuations from age to age due to chance variation, whereas the former represent, as closely as can be determined by study, the general law of mortality, which seems to underlie the observed fluctuations of a particular set of rates. A priori we would expect mortality to follow a smoothly rising curve 226 July, 1959 A LIFE TABLE with the advance of age, and graduation is based on this expectation, while at the same time it attempts to keep very close to the original rates observed at each age. For example, if the age-specific mortality rates observed during the period 1953-1957 should continue in effect, we would expect an average oi~ 5.5 priests to die (on the basis of the graduated rates) before their fortieth birthday, out ot~ every thousand priests alive on their thirty-fifth birthday. However, in the general public we would expect thirteen out of every thousand to die during the same period.4 During the one-year period from their thirty-fifth to their thirty-sixth birthday, we would expect only one priest to die out of every thousand. The reference, of course, is only to priests of the community studied. How might a superior compare the experience of his own community with that of the priests described? He could do this by relating the number of deaths at any particular age in a calendar year to the number of persons in his community who had been of that precise age on their last birthday. Divid-ing the i~ormer by the latter would give the one-year probability of dying. Similarly, he could find the five-year probabilities of dying by relating members who had died within a specific five-year age bracket in the calendar year to the number of members of his community who were between these ages at the start ot~ the year. Rough approximations could be used if only ~ general picture of the mortality rates of the community is ~lesired, while more careful methods might be employed to nvestigate the records of age-groups which seem to have un- _~sually high mortality. Of course, unusually high mortality rates for a particular ~-ge-group may represent simply fluctuations due to chance. ~,ccordingly, it is well to combine the results of the observation ,f several calendar years, as these average rates will show fewer --xtremes due to mere sampling variation. It would not be 4The comparison is not perfect since the rates of the general public are "or 1954, rather than 1955 which is the mid-year of the period studied for ¯ riests. However, it is close enough to make differences inconsequential. 227 FRANCIS C. 1V[ADIGAN Review for Religious wise, however, to average more than ten years' experience be-cause of the change in medical techniques that takes place over that length of time. These affect the death rates. The column next after the white male mortality rates fifth column) shows the number of priests who survive to each quinquennial birthday out of 100,000 priests alive on, their fifteenth birthday. By mentally shifting the decimal point, can be converted into the number left alive out of 100. (Multi-plying by the proper multiple would give the number left out of 200, 300, 400, and similar numbers.) This column might prove helpt~ul to superiors in endeavoring to forecast size of a certain age group some years from the present. For example, one might get some idea from it of the number priests ordained today who would be expected to be still alive in twenty or thirty years, if we assume that these priests roughly of the same age. The following column (sixth), which gives the number of priests dying in each successive five-interval out of the original group of 100,000, might also prove helpful in this connection. The seventh column will probably not be particularly use-ful to superiors or other interested religious. It is included because of its relation to the following column. This seventh column presents the remaining total number of years of to be lived by the surviving members of the original 100,000 priests up to the time when the last survivor dies. The last column presents probably the most useful set figures in the table. These expectations of life are found dividing the total number of years to be lived (column by the number of persons surviving to start the period (column 5) at any particular age. The first expectation, at age 15, sums up the entire mortality and longevity experience of whole cohort of 100,000 priests, and is directly comparable t.h~ experience of other groups of persons at age 15. Expecta-tions of life at succeeding years sum up the entire experience t~rom that age onward to the death of the last member. 228 July, 1959 A LIF~- TABLE The expectation of life is the average remaining number of years to be lived by priests surviving to some particular specified age. For example, priests studied in this table had at 30 years of age an average remaining lifetime of 38.5 years while white males of the general public had only 36.4 years of life remaining. Care must be observed, however, in drawing conclusions from column eight. Because one has noted that the average lifetime of priests is greater than that of white males of the general population, he should not conclude that the oldest ages reached b)~ individual priests necessarily exceed those of the most long-lived members of the general population. As a matter of fact, the opposite is true because of the greater numbers in the general population and the greater resultant probability of extreme cases. The difference in average length of life is pri.ncipally due to the fact that a larger number of the general population die before reaching old age. For this reason one will notice that the expectations of life at ages above 60 do not differ as much as do the expectations at the younger years. A second caveat refers to the fact that the mortality rates and the expectations of life refer to statistical averages. We cannot be sure of any particular person or persons that their lives will be as long or short as the mathematical averages. For example, the expectation of life of priests aged 30 is 43.5 additional years of life. However, any particular priest might be killed tomorrow in an automobile accident, or on the other hand he might live considerably beyond the average expecta-tion of life. The same is true of any small group of priests, where sampling variations due to health or accident might be very large. In addition, one should bear in mind that as time goes on, health conditions continually improve. At least this has been the experience of the past hundred years. Thus one would expect that in 1958 a priest's expectation of life would be slightly better for any particular age than it was between 1953 and 1957, and that his chances of dying during any one-year or five-year interval would be correspondingly less. 229 FRANCIS C. ~V[ADIGAN Review for Religious Table 1. Life Table of Large Community of Religious Priests with Headquarters in Northeastern United States, for the Period 1953-1957, with Mortality Rates For Five-Year and One-Year Periods and Expectation of Life by Single Years of Age, Compared for Five-Year Age Groups with United States White Males, 1954. Priest Priests Total Survivors Dying Years Expectation MortaLity Beginning During Lived by of Rates Each Each Priesr~ Life Age 5-Year 1-Year 5-Year Five-Year Five-Year at Ages ¯ Priests U~S. Interval Observed~ Graduated U.S. Male Interval, Interval and Above Male 15-16 .00000 .00068a .00610b 100,000 0 5,797,816 57.98 55.0 16-17 .00068 56.98 17-18 (.00339)c .00068 55.98 18-19 .00068 54.98 19-20 .00068 53.98 20-21 .00549 .00068 .00890 I00,000 549 5,297,816 52.98 50.3 21-22 .00069 52.04 22-23 (.00349) .00070 51.09 23-24 .00070 50.15 24-25 .00071 49~20 25-26 .00578 .00073 .00800 99,451 575 4,799,069 48.26 45.7 26-27 .00074 47.31 27-28 (.00379) .00076 46.36 28-29 .00077 45.42 29-30 .00079 44.47 30-31 .00000 .00082 .00900 98,876 0 4,303,365 43.52 41.1 31-32 .00085 42.52 32-33 (.00439) .00088 41.52 33-34 .00091 40.52 34-35 .00094 39.52 35-36 .00628 .00099 .01300 98,876 621 3,808,975 38.52 36.4 36-37 .00106 37.57 37-38 (.00549) .00111 36:61 38-39 .00115 35.66 39-40 .OOll8 34.70 40-41 .00683 .00125 .02080 98,255 671 3,316,009 33.75 31.8 41-42 .00136 32.79 42-43 (.00757) .00149 31.83 43-44 .00166 30.88 44-45 .00186 29.92 45-46 .03874 .00214a .03530b 97,584 3,780 2,825,753 28.96 27.5 46-47 .00248 28.17 47-48 (.01490)e .00290 27.38 48-49 .00342 26.60 49-50 .00404 25.81 50-51 .03177 .00484 .05600 93,804 2,980 2,346,801 25.02 23.4 51-52 .00566 24.17 52-53 (.03333) .00661 23.32 53-54 .00773 22.46 54-55 .00899 21.61 July, 1959 A LIFE TABLE Mortality Age ~-Year l-Year 5-Year Interval O~serveds Graduated U.,S Male 55-56 .02900 .01058 .08380 56-57 .01231 57-58 .06765) .01374 58-59 .01545 59-60 .01727 60-61 61-62 62-63 63-64 64-65 65-66 66-67 67-68 68-69 69-70 70-71 71-72 72-73 73-74 74-75 Priest Priests Total Survivors Dying Years Beginning During Lived by Each Each ~ Priests Five-Year Five-Year at Ages x Interval Interval and Above 90,824 2,634 1,885,471 .09036 .01960 .02205 ¯ 11805) .02450 .02750 .03051 .12700 88,190 7,969 1,436,896 .28666 .03586 .03795 .19084) .04125 .04452 .04795 .13382 .05225 .05650 .273.10) .06150 .06685 .07150 ¯ 18570 80,221 22,996 1,011,626 ¯ 24920 57,225 7,658 668,076 75-76 76-77 77-78 78-79 79-80 80-81 81-82 82-83 83-84 84-85 Expectation of Life Priests U.S. Male 20.76 19.6 19.87 18.97 18.08 17.18 16.29 16.2 15.54 14.82 14.08 13.35 12.61 13.1 12.42 12.23 12.05 11.86 11.67 10.5 10.95 10.24 9.52 8.81 .45904 .07650 .35440 49,567 22,753 401,147 8.09 8.2 .08200 8.04 .35495) .08500 7.98 .08750 7.93 .08870 7.87 .36387 .09051d .48470 26,814 9,757 209,757 7.82 6.3 .O9149 7.46 .38689)e .09311 7.12 .09452 6.76 .09642 6.41 85-86 .39950 .10116 17,057 6,814 103,400 6.06 5.1 86-87 .10653 87-88 (.45904) .11340 88-89 .12299 89-90 .13367 90 and 1.00000e Above 1.0000e 10,243e 10,243e a The life table is based on the observed rates. These rates are for five-year periods. b The mortality rates for U. S. males, 1954, are for five-year periods. In the source they are given only to four places. A zero was added to each to assist the eye in comparisons. e The rates given in parentheses are five-year, graduated rates for priests. They are for the iame five-year period as the observed rate immediately above them. d The one-year graduated rates give the probabilities of dying during the next year, for persons of this exact age. ¯ o This final interval is not one if five years, but continues till the death of the last survivor. Source for the life table values of United States white males, 1954: National Office of Vital Statistics, "Abridged Life Tables. United States, 1954," Vital Sta-tistics- Special Reports, National Summaries, 44, 2 (May 15, 1956), 38. 231 Survey Roman Documents R. F. Smith, S.J. IN THE FOLLOWING survey those documents will be summarized which appeared in Acta Apostolicae Sedis through February and March, 1959. All page references throughout the survey will be to the 1959 ~AS (v. 51). Synod and Council On the Feast of the Conversion of St. Paul, January 25, 1959, His Holiness John XXIII, together with the cardinals present in Rome, participated in the closing of the Church Unity Octave at the Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls. After the ceremonies the Vicar of Christ delivered a private but solemn allocution (AAS, pp. 65-69) to the assembled cardinals. After telling them of his awareness of his duties both as Bishop of Rome and as Pastor of the universal Church, the Pontiff remarked that the diocese of Rome needs an increase of energy as well as a coordination of individual and collective efforts, if a more abundant harvest of souls is to be gathered. Moreover, he continued, the entire world has its needs; for though the grace of Christ continues to achieve its victories, still there are many who refuse to believe in Christ, immerse themselves in exclusively eartldy pursuits, and under the inspiration of the Prince of Darkness wage active opposition against what is true and good. To meet these needs, the Pope. said, there must be revived certain ancient forms of doctrinal affirmation and ecclesi-astical discipline which have in the past proved their ability to clarify thought, to increase religfous unity, and to reanimate Christian fervor. "Venerable Brothers and beloved Sons! Trembling a little from emotion but nevertheless with a humble resoluteness of purpose, We announce in your presence the name and proposal of a double celebration: that of a diocesan synod for the City and that of an ecumenical Council for the universal Church." After mentioning briefly that among other results of these two endeavors, there would be effected the hoped for revision of canon law, the Pontiff concluded his allocution by recommending his two proposals to the care of the Blessed Virgin and the saints of heaven. Previously on the same day and during the Solemn Mass that closed the Unity Octave, HIS Holiness had delivered a homily (AAS, pp. 70-74) in which he emphasized that the Church's linking of St. Paul with St. Peter should be a symbol of the unity of the bishops, 232 I~OMAN DOCUMENTS successors of the apostles, and of the faithful with the successor of St. Peter. It is from this unity, he concluded, that there will flow to the world the liberty and peace it desires. Closing of the Lourdes Centenary On February 15, 1959 (AAS, pp. 135-39), the Holy Father delivered an allocution in the Basilica of St. Mary Major to mark the end of the Lourdes centenary for the city of Rome. After reminding the Romans that the adoration of Christ is always the center of every form of devotion to Mary, HIS Holiness once more recalled to his listeners the permanent message of Lourdes: confident prayer of petition, exercise of penance, and solid piety manifested in the form of pilgrimages. These pilgrimages, he continued, whether to Lourdes or to the thousands of other shrines of our Lady, are not to be regarded as pleasure trips nor as the satisfying of some vague religious feeling; rather they should recall the eternal truths of life and- purify the soul so as to better fit it to appreciate the eucharistic banquet. In our prayer of petition, he went on, we need not fear to ask for temporal gifts; but our requests should not begin or end with these, for the goals of our life and the means thereto far exceed such things. Finally, he pointed out, because of the threefold concupiscence to be found in man, human beings need disci-pline and penance; accordingly there can be no Christian without the exercise of penance. The Holy Father concluded the entire allocution by lamenting the moral disorders that are multiplying at the present time and urged the faithful to petition heaven that good sense may return, that the faith may revive, and that perseverance never grow slack. Three days later on February 18, 1959 (AAS, pp. 144-48), the Pontiff sent a radio message to Lourdes and to the entire world for the conclusion of the centenary year, considering in it the message to be found in the life of St. Bernadette. Bernadette, he said, once more proves the statement of St. Paul (1 Cor 1:27-28) that. God chooses the weak things of this world to ~onfound the strong. Our generation, tie continued, has made admirable scientific progress, and humanity has been seized with a sense of pride at the possibilities now opening to the power of man. But, he added, St. Bernadette recalls to us our need for humility and prayer and reminds us that from Lourdes there comes a call to penance and to charity, a call to detach ourselves from riches and to teach us to share with those poorer than ourselves. Later during the same day (AAS, pp. 140-43) the Pope delivered an allocution to a group of Frenchmen in the Church of St. Louis, King of France. He recalled the long and noble history of Catholicism in France, noting that that history had culminated in the appearances of 233 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious Mary at Lourdes. Having remarked that in the plans of Divine Provi-dence each nation has its own special mission, he went on to describe the mission of France in the phrase: The country of France is the country of Mary. He concluded by reminding his listeners that the last previous Pope who bore the name of John was a Frenchman. Further Documents and Speeches Under the date of February 6, 1959 (AAS, pp. 129-35), John XXIII sent an epistle to the archbishops, bishops, and other local ordinaries of Italy in commemoration of the twentieth anniversary of the death of Pius XI and thirtieth anniversary of the Lateran Pact. In the epistle John XXIII recalled that in the last months of his life Plus XI had planned a plenary meeting of all the bishops of Italy and had in fact begun the composition of the talk he intended to give at the meeting. Sickness and death prevented the completion of the speech, but the unfinished manuscript furnishes us with sufficient knowledge of the last thoughts.of Pius XI. The first subject Pius XI had chosen to consider was that of the care that bishops should have for their seminaries. He reminded them of the need to watch over their seminaries vigilantly even in little matters; he particularly stressed the necessity of sustaining the rectors of seminaries in their severity in admitting candidates and in later promotions to orders. The next p.oint in the projected speech was a warning to the bishops that they should not be surprised if their words were often twisted and misinterpreted. (It should be remembered that Pius XI was writing when Fascism was at its height in Italy.) At this point in the manuscript, John XXIII noted, the writing becomes shaky and confused. But there was still enough strength in the dying pontiff to write a paragraph on the tenth anniversary of'the Lateran Pact. The paragraph is a moving and eloquent one, the dying Pope addressing the relics of the Princes of the Apostles, calling on them to exult because God has returned to Italy and Italy to God, imploring them to prophesy the perseverance of Italy in the faith, and ending with a desperate plea for peace for the entire world. These, remarked John XXIII in conclusion, were the last recorded thoughts of a great Pope. On January 18, 1959 (AAS, pp. 74-79), John XXIII delivered an allocution at the Gregorian University to the assembled professors and students, emphasizing how the very name of the institution recalls the glorious memory of Pope Gregory XIII, who during his pontificate from 1572 to 1585 effected the full restoration of Christian discipline in the Church. 234 July, 1959 ROMAN DOCUMENTS On January 30, 1959 (AAS, pp. 80-81), the Pope addressed members of the Christian Union of Business Executives and Managers. I-Ie regretfully reminded his audience that th~ ~rror still persists that industrial production inevitably involves the conflict of divergent interests. Actually, he said, executives, managers, and workers are not irreconcilable antagonists; rather they are cooperators in a common work which requires mutual comprehension and a sincere effort to overcome the temptation to seek only one's own profit. Under the date of January 17, 1959 (AAS, pp. 149-51), the Vicar of Christ sent a written message to the school children of the United States. His message, the Holy Father wrote, was one of love: God's love for all mankind and man's duty to love God in return and his neighbor for His sake. He urged the children to show their love for children less fortunate than themselves by praying for them and by giving them all possible material aid. Miscellaneous Matters In the issues of AAS under consideration there¯ are several docu-ments which concern Catholics of the Byzantine rite. By the apostolic constitution Singularern huius, dated May 10, 1958 (AAS, pp. 97-98), an exarchate was erected in Australia for Ruthenians of the Byzantine rite; Sydney was designated as the see of the exarchate. A later decree of the Sacred Congregation of the Oriental Church, dated December 12, 1958 (AAS, pp. 107-108), extended the jurisdiction of the exarchate to Ruthenians living in New Zealand and Oceania. A second decree of the same congregation and under the same date (AAS, p. 108) changed the see of the exarchate from Sydney to Melbourne. Byzantine Rite Catholics of Ukrainian origin living in the United States were the object of the apostolic constitution Apostolicam hanc, issued July 10, 1958 (AAS, pp. 156-57). The constitution raised the exarchate of ~Philadelphia to metropolitan status, while the exarchate of Stamford (Connecticut) was made an eparchate. The two together now form a new ecclesiastical province. AAS, pp. 112-13 and pp. 163-64, gives the original texts of two prayers composed by John XXIII for the Church of silence and in honor of the Eucharistic Christ. An English translation of the prayers is given elsewhere in this issue. The last document to be considered is a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites issued on August 11, 1958 (AAS, pp. 160-62). The decree approves the introduction of the cause of the Servant of God Clara Fey (1815-1894), foundress of the Sisters of the Poor Child Jesus. 235 Views, News, Previews FROM JULY 31 to August 7, 1960, there will be held the thirty-seventh World Eucharistic Congress, in Munich, Germany. The first four days of the Congress (Sunday, July 31, to Wednesday, August 3) will consist chiefly in conventions of Catholic organizations and g.roups, while the last four days (Thursday, August: 4, to Sunday, August 7) will emphasize liturgical and devotional services centered around the Mass and the Blessed Sac~:ament. Catholic associations who intend to hold meetings during 1960 are requested to hold the meetings in Munich during the days of the Eucharistic Congress. Inquiries about the Eucharistic Congress should be directed to the following address: Generalsekretariat des Eucharistischen Weltkongresses, Maxburgo strasse, 2, Munich, Germany. A community of sisters in New Hampshire has asked that the following communication be printed in the pages of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. "Perhaps some of the religious superiors of sisters in the eastern states would appreciate knowing of an ideal rest and nursing home for sisters desiring complete rest and an opportunity of regaining lost health. As far as we know, it is unique, in that regular medical attendance forms one of the necessary advantages of this quiet and well organized rest home . This home is well furnished and comfort-able, but not luxurious -- so that sisters would quite naturally feel right at home. Rates and information will be furnished on request from Reverend Mother Superior, St. Margaret's Convent, Rest-a-While Building, Gabriels, New York." The twentieth annual North American Liturgical Week will be held under the patronage of Most Reverend Leo A. Pursley, Bishop of Fort Wayne, at Notre Dame University, from Sunday afternoon, August 24, to Wednesday evening, August 27. The theme of the Week will be "Active Lay Participation in the Liturgy according to the Instruction of September 3, 1958." A guest of distinction, who has announced his attendance at the Week, will be James Cardinal Lercaro, Archbishop of Bologna. Room accommodations during the Week will be provided at nominal charge. F.or information regarding such accom-modations write to: Father William Leonard, S.J., Boston College, Boston 67, Massachusetts. It is a pleasure to announce a new magazine which will be of interest to religious. The title of the magazine is Lasallian Digest, a quarterly which began publication in Fall, 1958. The quarterly not only provides informative articles concerning the history, spirituality, 236 VIEWS~ NEWS, PREVIEWS and educational philosophy of the Brothers of the Christian Schools; but it also includes general articles that will be of value to all religious" engaged in educational work. The address of the magazine is: Lasallian Digest, Mont La Salle, Napa, California. The second World Sodality Congress will be held from August 20 to August 23, 1959, at Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey. All sodalists, directors, and moderators, whether members of federations that are affiliated to the World Federation of Sodalities or not, are invited to send representatives to the Congress. Youth sodalities are requested to send only members who are at least sixteen years of age. The theme of the Congress will be "The Vocation of Sodalists of Our Lady in the Crisis of the World Today." Further information concerning the Congress can be obtained by Writing: World Congress of Sodalities of Our Lady, 101 Plane Street, Newark 2, New Jersey. A special leaflet missal containing the Mass of St. Joseph the Workman and designed especially for use at Labor Day Masses is being published by the Catholic Council on Working Life (21 West Superior Street, Chicago 10, Illinois). The missal will be set in large, easy-to-read type with special drawings of men and women at work in a variety of occupations and professions. The leaflet will be ready for shipment on August 1, 1959. Single copies of the leaflet will cost fifteen cents; reduced prices on quantity orders may be obtained by writing the Council at the address given above. The Little Brothers of Jesus hope to begin a new quarterly to be called ~lesus Caritas; the title was a favorite phrase and emblem of P~re de Foucauld whose spirituality the Brothers continue and prolong. A French magazine of the same title has been in existence for some time and in the fall of 1958 a trial issue of an independent but similar English magazine under the same title was issued. The theme of the first issue was "The Gift of Friendship." The new magazine promises to enrich English spiritual reading, since it will mediate the spirituality of the famed Pbre de Foucauld. Persons interested in the magazine should contact: Brother Roger, 24 Autumn Grove, Leeds 6, England. Marquette University, 1131 West Wisconsin Avenue, Milwaukee 3, Wisconsin, announces an Everett Curriculum Workshop which will grant three semester hours of graduate credit in education. The Work-shop, under the direction of Sister Elizabeth Ann, I.H.M., of Immaculate Heart College, Los Angeles, will explore the application of the Everett Report on Sister Formation to the needs of communities of sisters. 237 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious It has been designed specifically for directresses of study and for the administration and faculty of juniorates and scholasticates (college level) of sisterhoods. The Workshop has been scheduled for the mornings and afternoons of August 6 to August' 26, 1959. It is open only to sisters; the fee is $36. Inquiries concerning the Workshop should be directed to Dean John O. Riedl of the Graduate School of the University. ( ues!: ons and Answers [The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.] --20-- The constitutions of our pontifical congregation, approved recently, state three times that a religious who is legitimately dismissed is by that fact freed of all her religious vows. This statement is found after the articles on the dismissal of a professed of temporary vows, those on the dismissal of a professed of perpetual vows, and finally after the article on the automatic dismissal of canon 646. I thought that repetition was to be avoided in constitutions. Wouldn't it be much simpler and less confusing to state once that a sister professed of perpetual or temporary vows who has been legitimately dis-missed is by that very fact freed of all her religious vows? The Code of Canon Law itself, in virtue of canon 648, frees a professed of temporary vows, as soon as the dismissal is effective, from all the vows of his religions profession. The code itself (c. 669, § 1) does not free a religious of perpetual vows from the vows of religious pro-fession by the very fact of his dismissal. Such a liberation may be effected by a provision of the particular constitutions, and constitutions approved in more recent years usually contain this provision. (REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September, 1957, 275, 282, 288) The evident reason therefore for the threefold statement is that the Sacred Congregation is opposed to the admixture of canonical with non-canonical matter in the one sentence. However, excessive repetition is to be avoided in the constitutions, and the present repetition is especially unfortunate because it occurs within the same chapter of the constitutions. In one official document, the Statutes for Extern Sisters of Monasteries of Nuns, n. 121, the Sacred Congregation of Religious itself stated this effect in the one article: "A sister legitimately dismissed according to the norm of the preceding articles is by that very fact freed of all her religious vows, whether temporary or perpetual." The Sacred Congregation of the Propagation of the Faith follows exactly the same principle in its typical constitutions for diocesan missionary congregations, n. 128. 238 July, 1959 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 21 Our pontifical constitutions state: "The written declaration of the profession, whether temporary or perpetual, signed by the professed sister, by the mother general or her delegate, in whose presence the profession was made, and by two other sisters as witnesses, must be preserved in the archives of the congregation." (Cf. c. 576, § 2.) What is the meaning of the phrase "in whose presence the profession was made"? If it means the one who received the profession, why doesn't it simply state this? The wording of your article in this respect is that of the canon. It does mean the one who received the profession, and it would have been much better if the canon had simply stated this. This meaning is clear from the nature of the act of profession, since canon law itself demands the presence only of the one professing and the one receiving the profession. Furthermore, the rest of the canon, evidently referring to the same person, speaks explicitly of the superior who receives the profession. The unwillingness to repeat a word, phrase, or clause in the same context is a frequent cause of ambiguity in canon law. We do not change the wording of the canons, even when one finds an evidently better and more accurate wording. The Sacred Congregation of Religious itself changed the wording in the Statutes for Extern Sisters of Monas-teries of Nuns, n. 48, to "who received the profession or renovation." --221 You advocate fewer trifling permissions. So do I. What about monthly permissions? We first assemble for this purpose. Each sister then kneels individually before the superior and says, "Please, may I ask my permissions?" Isn't it sufficient to ask permissions? Why must I ask to ask them? She then asks the permissions. "Please, may I rise, dress, wash, say my prayers, perform my community exercises, go to different parts of the house, do my charge, prepare my work, use books, borrow and lend, give away and keep small articles, and bathe when necessary? Please, may I have these permissions?" Don't I already have at least implicit permission for things I am directed or commanded to do, e. g., to rise, perform community exercises, do my charge, and to read at least the books neces-sary for my work? How can I go to the chapel without washing and dressing? If I have permission to wash, doesn't that include all of me? Why do I need pe~-mission to bathe? This ritual consumes from ten to forty minutes. Is it necessary or profit-able, especially when we cannot keep up with our duties? We are told that it is an occasion for increasing merit, but it seems 239 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious to me to be a very dumb one. Aren't there sensible ways arriving at perfection? This thing of becoming a fool for the sake of Christ can he taken too literally. Impatience has sharpened the style of the questioner and, I hope, has exaggerated the content of her question; but this is not a sufficient reason for de.nying her a hearing. A monthly renewal of such things as dispensations from any of the duties of common life is reasonable. It would also be reasonable to have a less frequent renewal. I have never been able to see the profit of the formalistic monthly permissions, of which the present case is a sufficiently good example. As the questioner says, she already has at least implicit permission for many of the things she is requesting in these monthly permissions. Such monthly per-missions are, in my judgment, an unnecessary, unprofitable, and formalistic detail. A woman's ability to handle details is a valuable talent, but in the religions life she often perverts it and grinds the spiritual life into a smothering dust of details. I believe it is a sound spiritual maxim that artificiality in spiritual matters is an infallible sign of error. Why should we need artificiality to follow perfectly the most reasonable and most highly integrated person who has. ever existed, Jesus Christ? It is not possible nor does obedience demand that we have the expressed will of a superior for every action. If the motive of our action is the vow of obedience (and it is presumed to be such), any action in conformity with the Rule, the constitutions, cnstoms, usages, and the tacit or presumed will of the superior has the merit of the vow. "In many cases, especially of sisters, one finds a manner of governing, a way of conceiving discipline and obedience that reduces the life and religious observance to an arid and oppressive formalism, a negation and death of the religious life itself and of zeal." Rev. J. Alberione, S.S.P., Acta et Docurnenta Congressus Generalis de Statibus Perfectio~nis, I, 270. 23 When is a vote uncertain and consequently invalid (c. 169, § 1,2°)? A vote is certain when the person voted for can be known without any fear of error from the vote itself. A vote for Brother Francis is invalid if there are two or more religious of that name. It cannot be argued that the elector intended to vote for the elder Brother Francis, who will very likely, be elected, rather than for the younger Brother Francis, for whom it is very improbable that anyone would vote. The vote itself must be certain. The family name or other identification must be included when .there is more than one religions of the same name. It is the almost universal custom always to append the family to the religions name. The vote is also uncertain when the writing cannot be deciphered or the sense understood. 240 July, 1959 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Our monastery of nuns recently resumed solemn vows. Was I, the superioress, obliged to inform the pastor of the parish of baptism of each of these nuns that she had made profession of solemn vows? Yes. Canon 576, § 2, prescribes: " . . . . and moreover, in the case of solemn profession, the superior who received the profession shall inform the pastor of the place of baptism of the solemn profession, in con-fortuity with the norm of canon 470, § 2~" The latter canon reads: "In the register of baptisms there shall'be noted also the record of the baptized person's confirmation, marriage (unless it was a marriage of conscience, as stated in canon 1107), reception of subdiaconate, or ~olemn profession; and these facts are always to be included in baptismal certificates." Canon 576, § 2, should be and usually is included in the constitutions of nuns. The evident reason for the obligation is that solemn religious profession is a diriment impediment to marriage. Therefore, the notification of the solemn profession of any religious is to be sent to the pastor of the parish of baptism. According to the canon, this duty falls on the superior who received the solemn pro-fession; but he or she may do it through another. In fact, the notification is the duty of the superioress of the monastery, even if she did not receive the profession; and this is the usual wording of the constitutions. The notification should contain the full secular and religious name, the place and date of the solemn profession, the full names of the father and mother of the religious, and at least the approximate date of the baptism. Complete and accurate data for the notification can be obtained from the baptismal certificate, if this is in the files of the house where solemn profession was made. --25-- Our general motherhouse is in France. Our constitutions underwent a general revision. Is an ~mprlm~t~tr re~iuired in France for the printing of the constitutions in French? Is another imprimatur necessary for the English translation of these constitutions from the French? The answer to both questions is yes. Prudence demands that any translation of the constitutions, also and especially of the original approved text, be submitted to the examination of a priest conversant with the canonical terms on religious. If this is not done, awkwardness, inaccuracy, and errors of translation are very likely. Canon law com-mands previous censorship by a local ordinary for determined works but only if they are published (c. 1384). Publication means that the work is made available to the general public. Therefore, works that are destined solely for the members of a religious institute are not published; 241 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious and there is no obhgation of submitting them to the previous censorship of a local ordinary. However, it is the common practice of lay institutes to submit the constitutions to this censorship of the local ordinary. According to this practice, there should be an imprimatur for the constitutions in French and another for the English translation, because canon 1392, § 1, requires another censorshilJ for a translation. The granting of an imprimatur appertains to the proper local ordinary of the author, the ordinary of the place of publication, or the ordinary of the place of printing (c. 1385, § 2). A compiler or translator is included under the term of author. Strictly speaking, the author or legislator of constitutions of lay institutes is the Holy See or the local ordinaries; the official compiler is the general chapter. Constitutions are translated and distributed (published) under the authority and direction of a higher superior. Therefore, the imprimatur for these constitutions may be requested from the ordinary of the place of the general chapter, of the residence of the higher superior, or of the place of printing. In fact it is practically always given by the ordinary of the residence of the higher superior. m26-- Brother X, professed of solemn vows, was a lay brother in our order. He became an apostate from religion. Both his local and immediate higher superior were earnestly striving to persuade him to return to the order. We learned later that he had met a woman, a Catholic and previously unmarried, two weeks after he left his religious house. A week later he got a priest to marry himself and this woman. He concealed the fact of his solemn vows. The constitutions of our order explicitly state that a professed of solemn vows who is legiti-mately dismissed is by that very fact freed of his solemn vows. Was the marriage of Brother X and this woman valid? If Brother X had been a religious cleric in sacred orders (sub-diaconate, diaconate, priesthood) or if a legitimate dismissal, in virtue of the law of the constitutions, did not free him from his solemn vows, his marriage would have been certainly and evidently invalid by reason of the diriment impediment of sacred orders (c. 1072), or solemn religions profession (c. 1073), or both. Therefore, the case of a solemnly professed described above is possible also with regard to a nun or a religious man destined for the priesthood but not yet in sacred orders. The automatic dismissal of canon 646 is a legitimate dismissal, since this canon explicitly states it to be such and it is effected according to law and by law. This dismissal therefore produces the effects of a legitimate dismissal. The code itself (c. 669, § 1) does not free a dismissed religious of perpetual vows, whether solemn or simple, from the vows 242 July, 1959 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS of religious profession by the very fact of the dismissal; but such a liberation, as in the present case, may be effected by the constitutions. We presuppose that the only possible source of invalidity in this case is the solemn religious profession. If, prior to the Catholic celebration of marriage, this religious had publicly apostatized from the Catholic faith, or had run away with a woman, or had attempted marriage outside the Church, he would have been immediately and automatically dismissed in virtue of canon 646. His own constitutions would have freed him in the same instant from all his solemn vows. Since the diriment impediment to marriage is attached to his solemn vow of chastity, which would have ceased to exist, his former solemn profession would in no way have interfered with the validity of a later Catholic celebration of marriage nor would the impediment in question have had to be dispensed. It would simply have ceased to exist. No such previous crime occurred in the present case. Brother X did not even, know the woman until two weeks after he had left the religious house. Canon 646 automatically dismisses any religious who attempts or contracts marriage. It is therefore certain that Brother X was automatically dismissed by canon 646 and freed of his solemn vows, and consequently of the diriment impediment, by the constitutions at the moment that he and the woman gave the marriage consent. There-fore, the precise question is: does a simultaneous freedom from a diriment impediment suffice or is a freedom previous in time necessary for the validity of marriage? I believe that a simultaneous freedom suffices and that the marriage was valid. Canon law does not solve this individual case nor does it explicitly state any general principle on the matter. The case should therefore be decided from analogy (c. 20). There are at least two analo-gous cases in the code, and it can also be maintained that these cases implicitly affirm the general principle of the sufficiency of si~nultaneous freedom. Canon 1126 states that the bond of a former marriage con-tracted in infidelity is dissolved by the Pauline Privilege only when the conv.erted party actually contracts a new and valid marriage. Therefore, in the Pauline Privilege the simultaneous freedom from the diriment impediment of a valid and still existing marriage suffices for the valid contracting of marriage. By the prescription of ecclesiastical law, a marriage is invalid if one of the parties is free and believes the other party to be free when in fact the latter is a slave in the strict sense of this term (c. 1083, § 2, 2°). The common interpretation of this canon is that the marriage is valid if the slave obtains freedom by marriage. Therefore, we again have a case in which simultaneous freedom from an invalidating cause suffices for the validity of marriage. It cannot be objected that this solution offends against the principle that no one should profit by his crime. This principle cannot be main- 243 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious tained against an expressed declaration of law. The code itself (c. 648) frees from his vows a religious of temporary vows who commits any of the crimes listed in canon 646, and canon 669, § 1, and positively and explicitly permits the particular constitutions to grant the same freedom to a professed of perpetual vows, whether solemn or simple. --27-- I read the constitutions of a lay congregation that has recently been made pontifical. Their definition of an ordinary and extraordinary general chapter differs from our own, which I enclose. Which of these definitions is correct? In older constitutions, an ordinary general chapter is one convoked regularly at the intervals determined in the constitutions for general elections. This interval is usually every six years, because in the modern practice of the Sacred Congregation of Religious th~ term of office of the superior general is six years. An extraordinary chapter in the same constitutions is one convoked outside of such regular intervals. The first reason for such a chapter is the vacancy of the office of superior general by reason of death, resignation, or deposition. The second is a serious matter affecting the entire institute. The latter is therefore only a chapter of affairs and only for determined matters, such as approval of a revision of the constitutions. This latter chapter in pontifical lay congregations demands a serious reason, the deliberative vote of the general council, and the permission of the Holy See. (Bastien, Directoire Canonique, n. 240, 2; Battandier, Guide Canonique, nn. 341, 346; Schaefer, De Religiosis, n. 452.) In very recent years, the Sacred Cong~'egation has changed this definition in the constitutions of lay congregations that are being made pontifical but not in revisions of constitutions of congregations that were already pontifical. The change consists in the fact that any chapter for the election of a superior general is termed ordinary, any other is extraordinary. The following article typifies this change. "A general chapter is called ordinary whenever it convenes for the election of a superior general, whether a~ the expiration of the ordinary term or when the office becomes vacant for any reason at another time. Any other chapter is said to be extraordinary and may not be convoked without special authorization of the Holy See, upon request by the superior general with the consent of his council." Both definitions are therefore correct, that is, all institutes retain the definition given in their own constitutions. 28- We have a common or public devotional renewal of vows twice a year. The renewal is made before the reception of Holy 244 July, 1959 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Communion. Do we by this renewal gain the indulgence men-tioned in the R~ccolta, n. 756? The Raccolta reads: "The religious of any order or congregation who privately renew their religious vows with at least a contrite heart, after celebrating Holy Mass or receiving Holy Communion, may gain an indulgence of three years." It can be argued that the essential condition is a devotional renewal, not necessarily a private renewal, or that an indulgence granted to a private renewal afortiori applies also to a public renewal. Therefore, the indulgence is gained by a public or private'devotional renewal of religious vows. However, the text clearly demands that the renewal be made after the reception of Holy Com-munion. Therefore, a public or priva, te renewal before Communion does not suffice. On the days of such public devotional renewals, the indul-gence may be gained by again renewing the vows privately after Com-munion. No determined formula is required; and brief formulae, such as "I renew the vows made at my profession," "I renew my vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience," would suffice. The condition that the renewal be made after Holy Communion seems strange, because in two documents, issued before the Code of Canon Law, the Sacred Congregation of Rites had prescribed that professions and public renewals were to be made before Holy Com-munion by religious of congregations who took or renewed their vows during Mass (S. R. C., 3836, 3912). This rite has been retained after the code as a prescription of their own law by at least most of the same religious institutes, and the natural tendency of a religious is to renew his vows privately at the same time during Mass that professions and public devotional renewals are made in his institute. 29 Our constitutions demand an absolute majority for the ejection of the superior general on any of the first three ballots. If such a majority has not been obtained, on the fourth and last ballot only the two religious who had the highest number of votes on the third ballot may be voted for. Of these two, the one who receives the greater number of votes on this fourth ballot is elected. In our last chapter, there was no doubt about the one elected. The constitutions also are clear on the matter; and the president of the chapter gave a brief, simple, and clear exposition of the article. However, on the fourth ballot a vote was cast for a religious who was not one of the two highest on the third ballot. We simply did not know what to do about this vote. This one vote was invalid, because it was in' favor of one who lacked passive voice absolutely, that is, one who simply could not be 245 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review [or Religious elected. The constitutions clearly restrict eligibility on the fourth ballot to the two who had the highest number of votes on the third ballot. There was also no question whatever of postulation. The constitutions of our congregation demand merely thirty years of age and ten years of profession for a regional superior. Is this correct? Is it sufficient? Any part of an institute that fulfills the canonical requisites for a province is in fact and in law a province, no matter by what name it may be designated in the particular constitutions. The essential canoni-cal requisite for a province is that. of being a distinct moral person, distinct as such from the institute and the houses. A provincial superior is necessarily a canonical higher superior. We presuppose that your regions are not in fact canonical provinces, as is at least practically always the case. The authority of a regional superior may be delegated by a superior general or provincial. If so, he is not a higher superior. The regional superior may possess ordinary authority, that is, authority given by the law of the constitutions. If so, he is a higher superior (c. 488, 8°). In the former case, your constitutions are correct. Canon law does not legislate on the matter~ and the thirty years of age and ten years of profession are prescribed entirely by your own constitutions. If, however, the regional superior is a higher superior, canon 504 must be observed, that is, for the validity of his appointment or election he must be Of legitimate birth, have been professed for at least ten years in the institute computed from his first prQfession (August 15, 1955 -- August 16, 1965), and have completed his thirtieth year (January 1, 1930 -- January 2, 1960). 31 Our pontifical congregation is very large. For many serious reasons, we hesitate to make an immediate division into provinces. We believe it would be more prudent to begin instituting several regions. Do we need the permission of the Holy See to do this? No. Obviously your regions will not be pro~vinces. Therefore, the canonical norms (c. 494) on the erection of provinces do not apply. The establishment, delimitation, change, and suppression of regions may be made by the general chapter or the superior general. Since the matter is so important, the latter ~hould at least consult and preferably have the consent of his council. The latter is practically always de-. manded for these acts when the constitutions make provision for regions. Cf. Larraona, Commentarium Pro Religiosis, 5 (1924), 263-64; Schaefer, De Religiosis, n. 325; Toso, Commentaria Minora, II, 246 July, 1959 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS De Religiosis, 17; Vromant, De Personis, n. 375; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome Iuris Canonici, I, n. 603; Coronata, Institutiones Iuris Canonici, I, n. 519. Our constitutions state only that a professed religious who commits any of the crimes listed in canon 646 is by that very fact legitimately dismissed. It seems to me that it would be only sensible for the constitutions to tell us what these crimes are. I think also that canon 646 should be given fully in the consti-tutions. It has not been the general practice to do so in lay institutes, as it has been in clerical institutes. However, some constitutions of the former type of institute do contain the complete canon. Canon 646 was given fully and explained in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 16 (1957)~ 283-89. The canon reads: § 1. The following religious are considered as automatically and legitimately dismissed: 1° Public apostates from the Catholic faith; 2° A religious man who ran away with a woman or a religious woman who ran away with a man; 3° Those who attempt or contract marriage, even the so-called civil marriage. § 2. In these cases, it is sufficient that the higher superior with his chapter or council according to the norm of the constitutions make a declaration of fact; but he must take care to preserve the collected proofs of the fact in the files of the house. 247 Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review Editor, aEVIEW FO~t RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.} PORTRAIT OF A PARISH PRIEST. By Lancelot C. Sheppard. Westminster: Newman, 1958. Pp. 183. $3.50. One hundred years ago, on August 4, 1859, died St. John Vianney, Curl of Ars. A living inspiration to laymen and religious as well as to the secular clergy, he had become almost a legendary figure in his own lifetime. Today, his name calls to our mind a student so slow that only the shortage of priests and the insistence of an influential friend made it possible for him to be ordained. We think of a preacher who spent hours of agony in composing commonplace sermons, and then would forget them once he got into the pulpit only to speak with such zeal and intensity as to move his hearers to tears. Contrasting images of Ars come before us -- the out-of-the-way village of 1818, where there was a dilapidated old church, sixty houses, four taverns, and "no great love of God"; and the place of pilgrimage of 1859, with a restored church, no tavern, but one school for girls and one for boys, and crowds of the devout and the curious. Portrait of a Parish Priest treats of a man in whose life the extraordinary seems to be the ordinary thing. Living for years on two or three potatoes a day, with but two hours sleep a night, the CurLkept up a strenuous apostolic life. He could size up the most delicate cases of conscience in a moment and even knew the problems of many penitents before they entered the con-fessional. Many a distressed sinner was singled out from the crowd by the saint's voice and called in to penance ahead of a long line. Scoffers eventually prayed. Diseases were often cured. Add to this the almost nightly rappings, voices, and even the burning of the bedclothes, which the Curl was convinced was the work of the devil, the Grappin, and we have a picture of a truly remarkable man. None of these facts ar~ new, and all have been well treated in previous biographies. The unique feature of Portrait of a Parish Priest is its interpre-tation of the facts. For besides giving us a portrait of a great saint, the author paints a picture of a man. And the life of John Vianney was not a series of interludes between one extraordinary event after another. A man capable of deep discouragement and subject to great psychological tensions, he had been tempted to give up his studies for the priesthood, to desert Napoleon's army, and to flee from the responsibility of his parish. He was convinced that he was not fit for his job and feared greatly for his own salvation. It was his heroic perseverance in the face of these obstacles that was truly remarkable. In the author's opinion, the psychological tension under which the Curl worked was responsible for the "diabolical" disturbances in the saint's life. Whether or not the reader agrees with this explanation, he will find it thought-provoking and will welcome the insistence upon the fact that it was the Cur~'s heroic virtue and not the extraordinary events (whatever their expla-nation) that made him a saint. 248 BOOK REVIEWS St. John Vianney was a man filled with the horror of sin, because he was a saint filled with a love of the living God. But he was also a man who poured out condemnations of pleasures Which can be legitimate in themselves, a man who would refuse absolution to those who would not promise to give up dancing. Fie could, it is true, appreciate the humor of a situation; but on the whole he tended to see the dark side of things. Yet this should not be surprising in a man who grew up in a France in which the Church, was being persecuted and in which clouds of Jansenistic thought still darkened the moral atmos-phere. One new fact which the author brings to light
The integration and inclusion of persons under international protection (i.e. persons granted asylum and refugees) into society proceeds through their contacts and interactions with institutions and residents in local communities where their reception and accommodation have been organised. In this process, the achievement of social, economic, cultural and all other dimensions of integration in local communities is facilitated by the activities of different national and local stakeholders in the integration system. Creating the conditions for Croatian citizens to familiarize themselves with refugees requires joint efforts by all system stakeholders and engagement to inform citizens and raise their awareness about the presence, rights and obligations of persons under protection, with a view to preventing and mitigating any negative manifestations of discrimination, exclusion and marginalisation, and to ensuring that persons under international protection become accepted and integrated members of local communities and society as a whole. With this in mind, this research has analysed capacities and challenges, and assessed the resources and needs of local and regional self-government units given their past or future experience with the reception and integration of persons under protection. Furthermore, this research has also identified the attitudes of Croatian citizens towards persons under protection and their readiness for the reception and integration of persons granted asylum in their local communities.The general purpose of the project is to support units of local (cities, towns and municipalities) and regional (counties) self-government in identifying the needs and challenges of integrating third-country nationals in need of international protection. To achieve the purpose of this research, both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies have been used. As a result, it was conducted as mixed-method research, that is, as two correlated studies. The quantitative segment of the research pertains to its first goal, which was to identify the attitudes of Croatian citizens and their readiness for the acceptance and integration of third-country nationals granted international protection in the Republic of Croatia, while its qualitative segment refers to the second research goal, to identify the needs of local and regional self-government units in the process of integrating third-country nationals granted international protection in the Republic of Croatia as well as the challenges they encounter or will encounter when it comes to the integration of persons granted asylum into Croatian society. The third research goal, to prepare checklists for assessment of needs and challenges of integration for local and regional self-government units and for persons granted international protection, has been achieved by synthesising the findings reached under the previous two goals and by preparing two checklists. One is intended for heads and staff of LSGUs and RGSUs so that they can assess the existing needs, resources and capacities of their communities in terms of planning and implementation of integration activities. The other is designed for persons granted asylum and serves for the self-assessment of their needs and the extent to which they are met. Accordingly, the starting point for tool selection and elaboration is the multidimensional concept of integration of aliens into the host society, which is focused on the processes and dimensions of integration of persons under international protection (either with full asylum or subsidiary protection status) into Croatian society as a whole, but also into individual local communities in Croatian regions covered by this research.Due to the specific character of the quantitative and qualitative methodological approaches, the report describes methodological aspects and results separately, first for the quantitative study conducted by a survey of citizen's attitudes towards the integration of persons under national protection, and then for the qualitative study of needs and challenges faced by local communities in the integration process. The target group of survey participants covered by the research was defined so as to include citizens living in selected counties (regional self-government units) and towns and municipalities (local self-government units). In order to form a sample of participants for the purposes of this research, Croatia was broken down into four regions: Eastern, Central and North-Western, Littoral and Istrian, and Dalmatian regions. In each region, the sample came to include between two and five counties (a total of 12) and between three and five towns (a total of 15). The Eastern Region encompassed the counties of Osijek-Baranja, Vukovar-Srijem and Požega-Slavonski Brod. The Central and North-Western Region included the City of Zagreb as well as the countries of Zagreb, Sisak-Moslavina, Bjelovar-Bilogora and Varaždin. The Littoral and Istrian Region covered Primorje-Gorski Kotar and Istria counties. The Region of Dalmatia consisted of Zadar and Split-Dalmatia counties.In the selected towns, the size of the sample was proportionate to the size of the town within its region, with the participants in each town selected by probability sampling. The sample of citizens aged 18 to 65 included 318 persons in each region, and probability sampling – together with the use of two levels of purposively selected clusters (region and town) – ensured that the sample structure, in terms of its socio-demographic profile, reflects the characteristics of the region's population, according to publicly available statistics. The sample formed in this manner and its size (N = 1,272) allowed inter-regional comparisons with regard to the relevant characteristics of the participants and measured constructs. Data were gathered using the CAPI (Computer Aided Personal Interviewing) method, in the period from 14 May to 10 June 2018. The response rate was 57%, which is quite high given the type of research in question.The survey questionnaire contained 67 items forming the following constructs and scales: (1) Attitude towards persons granted asylum; (2) Perception of realistic threat; (3) Perception of symbolic threat; (4) Support for the rights of persons granted asylum; (5) Perception of negative changes in the community; (6) Readiness to assist persons granted asylum; (7) Frequency of contacts with persons granted asylum; (8) Quality of contacts with persons granted asylum; (9) Sources of information about persons granted asylum; (10) Media portrayal of persons granted asylum; (11) Social proximity to persons granted asylum; (12) Attitude towards forms of acculturation; (13) Estimated number of persons granted asylum; (14) Change in the number of persons granted asylum; (15) Socio-demographic profile of participants. The scales used in this questionnaire show very good metric characteristics: a Cronbach's alpha internal reliability coefficient ranging from 0.77 to 0.93 and a clear construct validity and single-factor structure.The collected data were subject to a series of statistical analyses, including descriptive calculation of statistics (range, frequency, median measures, variability measures) at the levels of the aggregate sample and each region as well as inter-regional comparisons of the results derived from the measured constructs (variance analyses, t-tests, chi-squared tests). Also, by using regression analysis, a model was set to predict two forms of behavioural intentions among host populations: (1) readiness for social relations with asylum beneficiaries at different levels of proximity; and (2) readiness to help persons granted asylum in their integration. These two forms of behavioural intentions served as criterion variables, which were predicted on the basis of a set of predictors that included the participants' individual attributes (socio-demographic variables and regional affiliation), their religious and political orientation, their opinion about the number of asylum beneficiaries to be received by the country in future and about their social adjustment strategies (i.e. about acculturation strategies), their frequency of contacts with persons granted asylum and their perception of threats and expected changes in the community caused by the arrival of persons granted asylum (i.e. perceptions of realistic and symbolic threats, and expectations of negative changes in the community).The average results obtained on the aggregate sample show that, when it comes to attitudes towards persons granted asylum, the respondents express attitudes that are, on average, neutral. However, when assessing their perception of threat, they seem to feel a slight realistic threat, and a somewhat stronger symbolic threat. The participants also express what is, on average, a neutral attitude regarding the expected negative changes in the community. As for their readiness to help asylum beneficiaries personally, the participants are also neutral, stating they are not sure of their readiness in this regard, but showing a slight support for the rights of asylum beneficiaries. Concerning the frequency of contacts with persons granted asylum, slightly more than half of the participants (52.1%) reported that they had such contacts, describing them, on average, neutrally – as neither positive nor negative. Among those who reported such contacts, the majority stated that they were rare.The data collected clearly show that the mass media (print and online news outlets, television and radio) are the most common source of information for Croatian citizens – more than 90% of citizens receive information about persons granted asylum in this way. These are followed by social media, which are used as a source of information about asylum beneficiaries by nearly half of the participants (45.8%). It has been established that citizens deem the media portrayal of asylum beneficiaries slightly negative.As for social proximity, the participants are, on average, ready to accept persons granted asylum as their fellow workers or neighbours, where it is obvious that the citizens are, for the time being, not ready for the closest relations with asylum beneficiaries, although nearly 61% would be ready for friendly relations.The participants were also asked about acceptable acculturation strategies, that is, about how persons granted asylum should approach the Croatian culture and maintenance of their own culture. The majority of participants (70.7%) chose integration as the preferred acculturation strategy (both maintaining their own culture and accepting the culture of the host country). About one fifth of the participants champion assimilation as the preferred acculturation strategy; i.e. they expect persons granted asylum to relinquish their specific culture and accept only that of their host country. Separation, that it, the opinion that persons granted asylum should maintain only their own culture without accepting Croatian culture, is upheld by 3.7% of the participants. Looking at acculturation strategies as a continuum (from assimilation, through integration, to separation, or vice versa), the participants on average tend to support cultural integration of persons granted asylum.When it comes to estimating the number of persons granted asylum at the time of survey, only one fifth of the participants made a more or less accurate estimate. Somewhat more than a fourth of participants underestimated the actual number of asylum beneficiaries, whereas almost half of them overestimated the number of cases of granted asylum. These results are consistent with the replies regarding preferred projections of the number of asylum beneficiaries in the future. Specifically, the majority of participants (45.8%) feel that their number should remain the same, only slightly fewer are those who would reduce it (45.6%), while less than a tenth holds that the future number of asylum beneficiaries in Croatia should go up.The analysis of regional differences demonstrates that the least positive attitudes towards persons granted asylum, the highest perception of both realistic and symbolic threats, the lowest support for the rights of asylum beneficiaries, the highest expectations of negative changes, and the lowest readiness to assist are present among participants in the Dalmatian Region. It is followed by the Eastern Region, and then the Littoral and Central Regions, where these attitudes are more positive. The frequency of contacts with persons granted asylum is low in all the regions, with the lowest levels reported in the Eastern and Dalmatian regions. However, there are no regional differences in the quality of contacts, as it is everywhere seen as neutral. Readiness for close contacts is the lowest in Dalmatia, followed by the Eastern Region, with its highest levels reported in the Littoral and Central regions. The citizens of all regions choose integration as their preferred acculturation strategy, while participants in Dalmatia divided their preferences between assimilation and integration. The number of asylum beneficiaries is mistakenly estimated in all regions. Indeed, it is overestimated everywhere except the Eastern Region, where the figure is underestimated. Furthermore, while the citizens of the Central and Littoral regions would prefer to keep the future number of asylum beneficiaries at the same level, those in the Eastern and Dalmatian regions are keener to reduce it. When predicting the readiness for social proximity with asylum beneficiaries, the key predictors include the attitude towards the number of asylum beneficiaries in the future and acculturation strategies. The readiness for a higher level of proximity is demonstrated by those citizens who feel that the future number of asylum beneficiaries should be increased, as well as those who champion integration. The predictors of marginal importance include practising religion, where the participants who do not declare themselves as practicing believers tend to be ready for a higher level of proximity with persons granted asylum, as well as the perception of symbolic threat and the fear of negative changes in the community, where those who perceive a higher symbolic threat from asylum beneficiaries and expect more negative changes in the community due to the arrival of persons granted asylum tend to be ready for a lower level of proximity with them. These results generally apply to all of the four regions.When it comes to predicting the readiness to assist asylum beneficiaries personally, it can also be said that – allowing for minor regional particularities – the key factors include the participants' opinion that the number of asylum beneficiaries should increase in the future and, again, the perception of a higher symbolic and realistic threat. Those participants who feel that the future number of asylum beneficiaries should increase are readier to help, whereas those whose perception of threat from asylum beneficiaries is higher are also less prepared to assist them personally. Another highly significant predictor is the frequency of contacts with persons granted asylum. Those participants who reported more frequent contacts with asylum beneficiaries are also more prepared to assist them. Finally, the variables of marginal significance include gender and political orientation, where women and those on the left side of the political spectrum would be readier to help asylum beneficiaries.The conducted regression analyses show that the most frequent predictors for both criteria (social proximity and readiness for personal assistance) include the perception of symbolic and realistic threat, expectation of negative changes in the community due to the arrival of asylum beneficiaries, opinion that the future number of asylum beneficiaries in Croatia should be increased and the choice of integration as the preferred acculturation strategy. It follows that a more favourable attitude of Croatian citizens can be expected if they feel less threatened by persons granted asylum, that is, if they understand that their arrival does not pose a threat to the existing identity and culture nor jeopardise the resources of local communities, if they expect less negative changes in their communities due to the arrival of asylum beneficiaries, if they think that the number of asylum beneficiaries in Croatia needs to be increased in the future, and if they believe that integration is the acculturation strategy appropriate for Croatia.The second part of this research deals with the assessment of needs and challenges which are or will be encountered by LSGUs and RSGUs, and also of the capacities and resources required for integration with regard to the current or anticipated accommodation and stay of asylum beneficiaries in their local communities.This part of the research was conducted through a series of interviews and focus groups with different stakeholders in the integration system, which are in one way or another involved in or will in future be responsible for the processes of reception and integration of persons granted asylum. Stakeholders from LSGU and RSGU include representatives from county-level and town-level public authorities and various professional institutions, while the CSO stakeholders include representatives from the non-governmental sector, religious organisations and civic initiatives. The perspectives of integration processes were, whenever possible, complemented with those of asylum beneficiaries in the local communities in which they live. For sampling purposes, a list of 30 units (9 counties and 21 towns) was drawn up, taking into account the criteria of regional representation, town size, experience with the integration of asylum beneficiaries and available state-owned housing units. Along with the four regions, the City of Zagreb was taken separately as it considerably differs from other regions in terms of the number of integration stakeholders and capacities, as well as the number of asylum beneficiaries it hosts. The persons included in the sample had the attributes of schoolants based on their role and office they held, their experience and knowledge of the needs and challenges relating to the integration of asylum beneficiaries in local communities. In keeping with the principle of maximising the variability of key informants, a total of 168 interviews and four focus groups were conducted with 227 participants, including 26 interviews with persons granted asylum. Once all of the methodological requirements were met in the process of qualitative-data gathering, 158 transcripts obtained from 216 interviewees were subjected to analysis. The other transcripts did not contain any useful information because some interviewees were totally uninformed about the topic of the research. Of the total number of analysed transcripts, 143 contain data obtained from 191 representatives of municipalities, towns and counties, state-administration offices at the county-level, professional institutions and the civil sector, while 15 transcripts of interviews and focus groups contained information obtained from 26 asylum beneficiaries. The analysis made it possible to identify some specific features of statements made by representatives of the selected local communities about their needs, challenges, opportunities and expectations. A comparison has been made among the four regions and the City of Zagreb, and similarities and differences have been analysed among statements made by stakeholders from different sectors.The results for all regions (except the City of Zagreb) equally suggest that most of the integration-system stakeholders from LSGUs and RSGUs (towns, municipalities and counties) generally had no direct experience of contacts and work with persons granted asylum or, if they had, then they encountered asylum beneficiaries in rare, individual cases. On the other hand, interlocutors from Zagreb recounted and described experiences of direct and immediate encounters with persons granted asylum, mostly through participation in projects with SCOs and the OHRRNM, while CSOs in all the regions have very little direct experience with asylum beneficiaries. A large portion of LSGUs and RSGUs in each region state that they are not aware of the Action Plan for Integration, or are aware of it only partly, or since a short time ago. Stakeholders in various sectors and regions have not developed their own action plans and protocols for integration, independent of the Action Plan. Professional institutions do not have their own plans either, but many of them perform tasks relating to the integration of persons granted asylum as part of their daily work and remit, and some have their own internal prodecural protocols, most often based on their previous experience with marginalised groups or guidelines from relevant ministries. All stakeholders in all regions agree that the lack of funding poses a serious structural constraint and that allocations for integration activities should be increased. They stress that the entire budget is centralised and that they lack special resources earmarked for integration, noting, however, that budget allocations could be repurposed or activated if and when the need arises.When it comes to understanding the importance and indicators of successful integration, there are no major differences between either sectors or regions. As far as the key dimension of integration is concerned, all stakeholders across all regions highlight communication, that is, learning the Croatian language, as a crucial prerequisite for all other aspects of integration, especially for the inclusion of children in the education system, participation of adults in the labour market, addressing housing issues and, generally, enabling asylum beneficiaries to get along in local communities. In the Central Region, professional institutions claim that integration could also be facilitated by the community's experience with refugees during the Croatian War, and the history of coexistence with national minorities. In the Central Region, they feel that integration would be more successful if asylum beneficiaries were accommodated within the community rather than isolated, and if they were provided with appropriate care and inclusion in community life. All stakeholders across all regions voice some sort of concern because, when it comes to the accommodation of persons granted asylum, they expect negative reactions from the host population due to cultural and religious differences, especially in smaller communities, with the general opinion being that larger towns would be readier to accept asylum beneficiaries. Interlocutors in Zagreb are the most critical of the local community as a favourable environment for integration, with professional institutions stating that negative sentiments are the greatest problem, stemming primarily from fear of the unknown among the local population. Nonetheless, almost all of the interviewed asylum beneficiaries highlight the positive experiences they had with their acceptance in local communities, noting, however, that it took a while for them to feel accepted by their neighbours. Only three out of 26 interlocutors report having negative experiences upon their arrival in the community, consisting mainly of unpleasant verbal comments. Persons granted asylum generally do not see any major cultural barriers to their life in Croatia, but in their view the integration system is not well-organised and includes some contradictions.At the intraregional level alone, and particularly at the interregional level, the integration stakeholders from different local communities show considerable differences when estimating the integration capacity of their communities. The majority of LSGUs believe that organising language courses falls under the responsibility of the Ministry of Science and Education, expressing concerns about the duration of courses (too few lessons) and uncertainties about their funding, while RSGUs also stress their lack of human and logistic capacities to organise courses. Professional institutions shift the responsibility for organizing courses to administrative bodies – from the local, through the regional, to the national levels. Only representatives of Zagreb-based SCOs report more direct involvement in the organisation of courses – some of them offer them in a formalised manner, and others through voluntary engagement. As to the inclusion in the education system, most stakeholders stress the problem of slow-moving administration and emphasize the heavy teaching workload, suggesting that there is a need for additional teachers as well as the necessity to work additionally with asylee children. Further difficulties mentioned are related to the lack of personal documents and the issue of recognising diplomas and previously acquired qualifications. In the Littoral and Central regions, they also highlight a lack of interpreters and teaching assistants, over which they have no control, but depend on the relevant ministry.Most of stakeholders from LSGUs and RSGUs are actually unaware of the existing accommodation capacity because they do not own any housing units or have already allocated all they had to beneficiaries from certain social categories. They see a possible solution in the conversion of the existing vacant buildings or renting of private flats, where they report problems with landlords, i.e. the unwillingness of landlords to let out their flats to accommodate persons granted asylum and the high rents they impose. Persons granted asylum are mostly concerned about their initial accommodation in reception centres, with which they were partially (dis)satisfied and, in addition to prejudice by landlords, the interlocutors also stressed high prices. In their local communities, asylum beneficiaries have been recognised as a desirable workforce in sectors with labour shortfalls. The LSGU representatives stress the need for a skilled workforce in the construction and public works sectors and, in the Eastern Region, agriculture. In addition to feeling that employers should be informed of opportunities to hire asylum beneficiaries, LSGUs are somewhat keener to consider potential retraining and additional training schemes as well as efforts to overcome the language barrier, referring to professional services which should take over that task. Many see the opportunities to employ asylum beneficiaries primarily in low-skill and ancillary jobs, such as kitchen or warehouse assistants and so forth. While the asylum beneficiaries themselves are highly motivated to take part in the labour market, since they see employment as a key prerequisite to gaining independence, they are aware of the economic situation in Croatia and do not want to become a public charge, but rather an active and productive segment of the society.Almost all interlocutors attach great importance to public information and awareness-raising campaigns, and most of them also recognise the role of the media in this process and believe that it is extremely important to get the local population acquainted with good practices and examples of successful efforts to integrate asylum beneficiaries, and to inform them about their culture and customs. This would prevent the development of prejudice and discrimination, where the LSGU representatives often see their role in such efforts unlike RSGUs, among which only a few recognise it. Professional institutions also leave the role of awareness raising to the media and, for the time being, carry out awareness-raising activities in the form of workshops and cultural events mainly with support from CSOs in Zagreb. The training of staff members and professionals has also been stressed as extremely important, yet largely non-existent in most institutions, offices and organisations.Nearly all interviewees from all regions agree that asylum beneficiaries have been provided with adequate social welfare, just like all of its other beneficiaries. Some of the representatives of LSGUs and professional institutions from the Dalmatian and Eastern Regions noted that asylum beneficiaries were not supposed to be singled out, that is, afforded greater rights and priorities than domestic social-welfare beneficiaries. All local communities feel that asylum beneficiaries have been provided with adequate health-care, but the interviewees highlight a lack of physicians and the overload of the health system, as well as communications. When it comes to providing adequate social welfare and health care, a common problem stressed in all regions is the insufficient capacity of institutions, while other aggravating circumstances include slow systems, uninformed staff members, shortcomings in the monitoring of asylum beneficiaries, uncertainties about the financing of health-care services and lack of coordination between different stakeholders. The same issues are also reported by the asylum beneficiaries themselves.Professional institutions have, for the most part, already established cooperation with almost all stakeholders involved in the integration process. In this context, they most often point out line ministries, as well as significant cooperation with CSOs. Only the Central Region (including Zagreb) highlights the existing cooperation with LSGUs and the OHRRNM, or with international organisations. The LSGU and RSGU representatives are somewhat more likely to expect more significant engagement by and cooperation with CSOs, which they consider more capable of writing projects and mobilising funds for work with asylum beneficiaries or count on their human resources. Some professional institutions are also focused on inter-city and inter-county cooperation, for example, with other social-welfare centres, in order to compare their experiences and share good practices. The SCO stakeholders state national and local authorities make insufficient use of the capacity and experience of local SCOs.All stakeholders criticize administration primarily because of the lack of timely and transparent exchanges of information, given that they are perceived as responsible for the entire system. Stakeholders in local communities feel that they operate without specific guidelines and decisions, everything being left to improvisation. Professional institutions hold that the measures defined in the Action Plan are not applicable to the realities in the field, stressing that the system is not prepared to respond to current challenges and needs such as, for instance, securing accommodation and interpreters. There is also concern about the duplication of work by different institutions and organisations, and shifting responsibilities to CSOs. It has been stressed that a protocol in needed which would contain descriptions and guidelines for the implementation of steps in the integration of persons granted asylum, which should define the sequence of implementing integration measures, those in charge of their implementation, including their responsibilities, as well as the forms of their cooperation. Such a protocol and guidelines would enable LSGUs and RSGUs to rely on these documents in their work and to act in compliance therewith. All stakeholders emphasize the need to receive timely and reliable information about the number, structure and time of arrival of persons granted asylum in their areas because this information is crucial for them to be able to prepare themselves for different aspects of their integration. A distribution plan is a document cited by all self-government units as essential to launch preparations for the asylum beneficiaries, in accordance with the aforementioned protocol.All stakeholders highlight interpreters and cultural mediators as a very pressing need in all regions. It has been stressed that interpreters should be professionally trained, rather than semi-skilled individuals or family members, let alone children. All stakeholders realize that securing housing is a key prerequisite for the reception and integration of persons granted asylum, and that it falls within the remit of the central government, rather than the local community. The Eastern and Dalmatian Regions place special emphasis on the need to provide adequate accommodation for unaccompanied children under international protection. Also, all integration stakeholders feel that efforts are needed to speed up administrative procedures because there is a gap between what has been set forth in legislation and what can really be implemented due to technical barriers, including children's registration in school e-registers, medical records, access to Croatian language learning, and verification of previously acquired qualifications and job competencies which is a requirement for education or employment. To achieve all this, sound intersectorial cooperation is required.The integration stakeholders in all regions show a clear need to prepare, raise the awareness of and train the staff directly involved in the integration process for contacts with and providing services to persons granted asylum. Since professional institutions are places of direct and on-going contacts with asylum beneficiaries, there is a need for continuous training of their professional staff. The training of all integration stakeholders should include learning about the culture and customs of asylum beneficiaries and it should be based on the principles of intercultural communication. In some professional institutions whose staff are engaged in direct and intense work with families of asylum beneficiaries, such as counselling and psychosocial support, there is an increased need for continuous mental-health care and stress prevention among staff members through supervision and professional support.Given that they believe that the responsibility for integrating persons granted asylum rests primarily with the state, a number of LGSUs, professional institutions and some CSOs expect the state to bear the related costs. The LSGUs in the Central Region see the opportunity to secure funding by applying for EU projects and drawing money from EU funds. In the Dalmatian Region, the LSGUs expect the state to issue fewer instructions, and to focus more on direct care for asylum beneficiaries. At the LSGU level, help in meeting community needs in the integration process and their own efforts is expected from the Government of the RoC, primarily the OHRRNM as the central coordinating body. Some RSGUs believe that they will successfully carry out all tasks imposed by law and those received from the competent state authorities, and that they will tackle problems only once asylum beneficiaries arrive in their territory. LSGUs and RSGUs see their role in coordinating different integration process stakeholders, such as professional institutions and CSOs, at the town and county levels. Some LSGUs also see their role in supporting other stakeholders when they lack capacity in the integration process, and in networking with other institutions within the community. In this context, they stress their role in providing information to asylum beneficiaries and improving intersectorial cooperation because they "have a good overview of the activities of different services." Some LSGUs feel that a person should be assigned to each integration stakeholder as its key informant about how asylum beneficiaries can exercise their rights.The LSGUs see their key contribution to integration in their efforts to raise the awareness of and inform the public about the arrival of persons granted asylum and the process of their integration, being aware there resistance to their arrival in some communities. In the Eastern Region, they warn that greater resistance to the arrival of asylum beneficiaries may be expected in communities that are traditionally more closed and host a larger number of immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina, who were forced to leave their homes due to armed conflicts with the Muslims. In the Central and Littoral regions and the City of Zagreb, they believe that the experience they have with proven integration mechanisms for socially vulnerable groups, referring to members of the Roma national minority, will help them in the process of integrating asylum beneficiaries. The LSGUs feel they can also directly support integration efforts by providing initial financial assistance to asylum beneficiaries, helping in the process of their reception and accommodation, offering aid such as food and toiletries, facilitating children's inclusion in educational institutions, covering their kindergarten costs (Eastern and Littoral regions, Zagreb), as well as helping asylum beneficiaries to find employment. Professional institutions will address integration as part of their daily activities, by providing services for persons granted asylum as well as any other beneficiaries. The LSGUs, RSGUs and professional institutions see the important role of CSOs in complementing services provided to asylum beneficiaries by professional institutions. Most of the CSOs plan to expand their present activities to meet the specific needs of asylums beneficiaries, and represent a major integration potential for local communities, highlighting their networks of volunteers as a key asset in work with persons granted asylum. The CSOs feel that a coordination mechanism should be put in place at the LSGU level so as to bring together all the stakeholders, including the civil sector, and ensure transparent financing of services for asylum beneficiaries.Croatia has few communities with any reception and integration experience and most of the local communities covered by this research have not considered or prepared themselves for this challenge. Yet, the integration stakeholders in all units included in this research stress that they crucially need timely and reliable information about the plans for the arrival and distribution of persons granted asylum, and that information from the relevant ministries, particularly from the OHRRNM, will enable them to launch preparations for integration activities and possible reception of asylum beneficiaries. Finally, the recommendations derived from this research will facilitate improvements in policies and practices for the integration of persons under international protection, making it easier and less painful to achieve the objectives stemming from Croatia's commitments as an EU member state, as well as its legislation and action plans of the Government of the RoC.