The parallel epidemics of childhood asthma and obesity over the past few decades have spurred research into obesity as a risk factor for asthma. However, little is known regarding the role of asthma in obesity incidence. We examined whether early-onset asthma and related phenotypes are associated with the risk of developing obesity in childhood.This study includes 21 130 children born from 1990 to 2008 in Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and the UK. We followed non-obese children at 3-4 years of age for incident obesity up to 8 years of age. Physician-diagnosed asthma, wheezing and allergic rhinitis were assessed up to 3-4 years of age.Children with physician-diagnosed asthma had a higher risk for incident obesity than those without asthma (adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 1.66, 95% CI 1.18-2.33). Children with active asthma (wheeze in the last 12 months and physician-diagnosed asthma) exhibited a higher risk for obesity (aHR 1.98, 95% CI 1.31-3.00) than those without wheeze and asthma. Persistent wheezing was associated with increased risk for incident obesity compared to never wheezers (aHR 1.51, 95% CI 1.08-2.09).Early-onset asthma and wheezing may contribute to an increased risk of developing obesity in later childhood. ; This work was partially supported by the Southern California Environmental Health Sciences Center (grant # P30ES007048) funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [PI Gilliland]. Dr. Contreras was supported by a grant from the NIH T32ES013678. MEDALL and CHICOS Projects: The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Program(Health–F2-grantagreements No. 261357 and 241604). Per cohort ABCD: Data of the Amsterdam Born Children and their Development cohort study used in this research was in part supported by funds from the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw 40–00812-98–11010). The study sponsors had no role in study design, data analysis, interpretation of data, or writing of this report. BAMSE: We acknowledge all funding sources: The Swedish Research Council, The Swedish Heart and Lung Foundation, The Swedish Research Council for Working Life and Social Welfare, the Swedish Asthma and Allergy Association Research Foundation, The Swedish Research Council Formas, Stockholm County Council, and the European Commission's Seventh Framework 29 Program Me DALL under grant agreement No.261357. We thank all the children and their parents for participating in the BAMSE cohort and the nurses and other staff members working in the BAMSE project. EDEN: We acknowledge all the funding sources for the EDEN study: Foundation for medical research (FRM), National Agency for Research (ANR), National Institute for Research in Public health (IRESP: TGIR cohorte santé 2008 program), French Ministry of Health (DGS), French Ministry of Research, INSERM Bone and Joint Diseases National Research (PRO-A) and Human Nutrition National Research Programs, Paris–Sud University, Nestlé, French National Institute for Population Health Surveillance (InVS),French National Institute for Health Education (INPES), the European Union FP7programmes (FP7/2007-2013, HELIX, ESCAPE, ENRIECO, Medall projects), Diabetes National Research Program (through a collaboration with the French Association of Diabetic Patients (AFD)), French Agency for Environmental Health Safety (now ANSES), Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale a complementary health insurance (MGEN),French national agency for food security, French speaking association for the study ofdiabetes and metabolism (ALFEDIAM).We acknowledge the commitment of the EDEN mother-child cohort study group: I.Annesi-Maesano, JY. Bernard, J. Botton, M.A. Charles, P. Dargent-Molina, B. de Lauzon-Guillain, P. Ducimetière, M. de Agostini, B. Foliguet, , A. Forhan, X. Fritel, A. Germa, V.Goua, R. Hankard, B. Heude, M. Kaminski, B. Larroque†, N. Lelong, J. Lepeule, G.Magnin, L. Marchand, C. Nabet, F. Pierre, R. Slama, M.J. Saurel-Cubizolles, M.Schweitzer, O. Thiebaugeorges.The Generation R Study:The Generation R study is made possible by financial support from the Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw), the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO), the Ministry of Health, Welfareand Sport and the Ministry of Youth and Families. The project received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (LIFECYCLE project, grant agreement no 733206; 2016), the European Research Council (ERC-2014-CoG-648916) and from cofunded ERA-Net on Biomarkers for Nutrition and Health (ERAHDHL), Horizon 2020 (grant agreement no 696295; 2017), ZonMW The Netherlands (no529051014; 2017), Science Foundation Ireland (no SFI/16/ERA-HDHL/3360), and the European Union (ALPHABET project).The researchers are independent from the funders. The study sponsors had no role in study design, data analysis, interpretation of data, or writing of this report. INMA: Data used for this research was provided by the INMA-Environment and Childhood Project (www.proyectoinma.org). This study was funded by grants from Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Red INMA G03/176 and CB06/02/0041), Spanish Ministry of Health (FIS-PIO41436, PI06/0867, PI081151, and FIS-FEDER 03/1615, 04/1112,04/1931, 05/1079, 05/1052, 06/1213, 07/0314 and 09/02647), Generalitat de Catalunya-CIRIT 1999SGR00241, the Conselleria de Sanitat Generalitat Valenciana, Department of Health of the Basque Government (2005111093 and 2009111069), the ProvincialGovernment of Gipuzkoa (DFG06/004 and DFG08/001).KOALA: The collection of the data from the KOALA Birth Cohort Study used in this analysis was financially supported by Friesland Foods (now Friesland Campina),Netherlands Asthma Foundation (grant numbers 3.2.07.022 and 3.2.03.48), Netherlands Heart Foundation (grant number 2014 T037, the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (Zon Mw Prevention Program number 1.210-00-090), Triodos Foundation, Phoenix Foundation, Raphaël Foundation, Iona Foundation, Foundation forthe Advancement of Heilpedagogie, all in the Netherlands. MAS:The MAS birth cohort was funded by grants from the German Federal Ministry ofEducation and Research (BMBF; reference numbers 07015633, 07 ALE 27, 01EE9405/5,01EE9406) and the German Research Foundation (DFG; reference number KE 1462/2-1).PIAMA: The PIAMA study has been funded by The Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development; The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research; The Netherlands Asthma fund; The Netherlands Ministry of Spatial Planning Housing, and the Environment; and The Netherlands Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport. RHEA: The Rhea project was financially supported by European projects (EU FP6-003-Food-3-NewGeneris -Contract No16320, EU FP6 STREP Hiwate -Contract No36224,EU FP7 ENV.2007.1.2.2.2. Project No 211250 Escape, EU FP7-2008-ENV-1.2.1.4 Envirogenomarkers Contract No226756, EU FP7-HEALTH-2009-single stage CHICOS Contract No241604, EU FP7 ENV.2008.1.2.1.6. Proposal No 226285 ENRIECO, EU-FP7,Proposal No 264357 MeDALL, EU- FP7-HEALTH-2012 Proposal No 308333 HELIX),and the Greek Ministry of Health (Program of Prevention of obesity and neurodevelopmental disorders in preschool children, in Heraklion district, Crete, Greece:2011-2014; "Rhea Plus": Prevention Program of Environmental Risk Factors for Reproductive Health, and Child Health: 2012-2015).ROBBIC: Data of the Rome cohort was in part supported byfunds from the Italian Ministry of Health (Programma speciale ex art. 12, comma 2, lettera b) del D. Lgs. 502/92,2001, 2003). We thank all the fields workers and the families for their contribution to thestudy. SWS: We thank the members of the Southampton Women's Survey Study group and the many participants in the SWS for their contribution to the study. The Southampton Women's Survey is supported by grants from the Medical Research Council, British Heart Foundation, Food Standards Agency, British Lung Foundation, Arthritis Research UK, NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University of Southampton and University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, and the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), project Early Nutrition under grant agreement n°289346.
Article in the Arkansas Baptist about Hays' Congressional wartime visit to England and France ; A Visit to the Battle Fronts (CONTINUED FROM PAGE FIVE) "We Saw a Lot of American Soldiers in London" [photograph caption] workers, clerks, truck-drivers, nurses, and in every conveivable [sic] kind of auxiliary work. We were at Dover, observing the tunnels which had been carved out of the chalk cliffs, when we witnessed one of the last of the buzz bomb attacks. When the alarm sounded, Dr. Judd insisted that we stay above ground. We saw bright flashes across the channel, and a moment later-78 seconds, the guard said-the bombs went above us and landed a few hundred yards away. For four years now, the people of Dover have lived below ground. Army Hospitals Modern Another short trip to the coast included Southampton where we visited a Naval Hospital. I wish every mother and father of our wounded could see what we observed in these institutions. It is a beautiful site-overlooking the channel and as peaceful a spot as one could wish for. The equipment is the most complete and modern that can be procured. A doctor from America with us that day said, "I wish I could get equipment like this!" There were X-ray machines and operating tables and laboratory devices of the very latest type and every possible aid for reducing pain and discomfort, as well as hastening recovery. For entertainment there was a large library and several recreation rooms provided by the Red Cross. A splendid staff of workers has followed our men overseas and are rendering a highly important service in the war. We visited several other hospitals and in all of them there was highest praise for the work of the Red Cross. Many Churches Destroyed In Winchester, South of London, we sacrificed a tour of the gift shops to see England's oldest cathedral, the famous one which was completed in 170 A. D., and it is larger and more inspiring than any church structure I have seen in our country, though the National Cathedral at Washington, when completed, will exceed it in size. Charles Wesley was the organist at this place for 13 years, and composed some of his great hymns there. The story of England's cathedrals and church buildings is a very interesting one, especially since the blitz has damaged so many of the prominent ones. The government is prepared to bear the expense of rebuilding all wrecked church buildings, both the established and the free churches, but this aid will not extend to furnishings. When I asked some of the church leaders if help of American churches would be requested, it was indicated that aid along other lines would be lore urgently needed but that the rehabilitation of Christian churches on the continent should have priority. A gift of $15,000 which American Baptists had just sent to the denomination in Britain will be used to aid individuals who have suffered most severely from the bomb damages. Reflections at Normandy The great thrill of the trip came when General John C. H. Lee, who has distinguished himself as head of the Communications Division, sent word that General Eisenhower had said "yes' to our request to visit the Normandy battlefields and Paris, and invited us to have luncheon with the General at Allied Headquarters in France. We used air transportation and spent the busiest three days of our trip on the soil of France. The experience to be longest remembered was the view of the narrow beaches where our men held on for the first terrible hours of the invasion. After seeing that landscape and hearing eye witness accounts from the officers who guided us, I will never be lacking in appreciation of what our men accomplished on D-Day and in the bitter fighting for Normandy. Except for the precision bombing of our air forces, it would have been impossible to pierce the German defense. The Germans had held tremendous advantages in their position on hills overlooking the narrow beaches. As I surveyed that wreckage and contemplated the cost in American lives, I remembered that we in America had almost lightheartedly, though proudly, received the news of the battle last June. Now here we were-a dozen congressmen- silently looking at the place where our men had heroically begun the destruction of Fortress Europa. In clear view was the cemetery near Colleville, where thousands of those lads were buried and our own flag floated from a high pole in the center. It was hallowed soil, and everyone of us felt very reverent and we said nothing because the sentiment was so deep it defied expression. No Distincions [sic] in Rank Later in the day we visited another cemetery, at LeCande, on the road to Chebourg. Four thousand of our men were buried there, and we went inside and looked at the seemingly endless rows of white crosses, with here and there a Star of David. All of them Americans. No distinction was made as to rank. We paused a moment beside Lieutenant General McNair's grave which was marked like the others. There were flowers lying on some of the carefully tended graves and the guard told us that almost every day unknown French women walked into the cemetery and dropped the fresh bouquets. In Normandy we also visited a field hospital where we saw our doctors and nurses giving marvelous services to the wounded men under extreme conditions. We were surprised to find in the tents practically the same modern operating and laboratory equipment that we found in the base hospitals, and the staff carried on just as if they were in normal conditions. We found civilians there too-some of the French had been wounded in the fighting and they were receiving the same care and attention. Our group was greatly impressed by General Eisenhower's easy manner and obvious grasp of his tremendous responsibilities. It was an inspiring session for all of us and we reluctantly pulled ourselves away so he could go back to his work. Paris is almost gay-still displaying its joy over liberation. We saw little damage- only the leveling by the RAF of the Renault Plant, a German war factory, and slight damage to buildings where the last clashes of liberation took place. French morale is good and I have no doubt they will be able to establish a stable and democratic system. My previous fears of French deterioration proved groundless. Inflation has made the franc, once worth 25 cents, to be pegged at two cents. One of the high points of our return trip through Scotland was an evening with Sir Harry Lauder, who at 74 is in excellent health and has preserved his famed ability of entertaining with songs and stories from the last war. When Sir Harry saw me looking interestedly at a stained glass window at the stair landing inscribed "This House is God's Gift," he said, "I put it that way because it was built with the money I made from singing and acting, and you see those talents were given to me." The Trip Home We came home on the Queen Mary, which even under conditions of war travel is an indescribably beautiful and impressive vessel. Several thousand soldiers returned at the same time, and they were a happy lot. I went through the ship hospital one day- there were perhaps a thousand wounded- and one of our men who had lost an eye and still carried facial wounds said to the Colonel in charge, "Colonel, do you know why this is a good ship?" "No," said the Colonel. "Because it's taking me home," and that was speaking for all of us. The slow journey up New York harbor was interesting chiefly because of the antics of the soldiers. They made no attempt to disguise their pleasure. The band on the wharf was almost drowned out by their shouts. (Next week, Mr. Hays will tell of his visit with Baptists in England and how he was able to reestablish contact with the French Baptists who, had been stranded from others of the denomination since the fall of France.)
OÖ. LANDWIRTSCHAFTLICHER KALENDER 1906 Oö. landwirtschaftlicher Kalender (-) Oö. landwirtschaftlicher Kalender 1906 (1906) ( - ) Einband ( - ) [Abb.]: ( - ) Werbung ( - ) Titelseite ([3]) [Kalender]: 1906. (4) Das Jahr 1906. Bewegliche Feste. Die vier Quatember. Von den Finsternissen. Vom Jahresregenten. (16) [Tabelle]: Bare Einnahmen und Ausgaben. ( - ) [Tabelle]: Zusammenstellung der Bar-Einnahmen und -Ausgaben des Jahres. ( - ) [Tabelle]: Beleg- und Geburtsliste. ( - ) [Tabelle]: Probemelk-Tabelle. ( - ) [Tabelle]: Anbau- und Ernteregister. ( - ) [Tabelle]: Ausdruschregister. ( - ) Genealogie des Allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses. (17) Stempel und Gebühren. (18) [3 Tabellen]: (1)I. (2)II. (3)III. (18) IV. Für Schriften und Urkunden. (19) Das Postwesen. (20) Briefpost. (20) Fahrpost. (22) Postsparkassen. (23) Der k.k. Staatstelegraph. (23) Verzeichnis der wichtigsten Viehmärkte. (24) Oberösterreich. (24) Angrenzendes Niederösterreich. (25) Salzburg. (26) Obersteiermark. (26) Südliches Böhmen. (27) Angrenzendes Bayern. (27) Kleiner Wegweiser in Linz und Urfahr. (28) Politische Behörden. (32) K.k. Statthalterei. (32) Baudepartement. (33) Rechnungsdepartement. (33) Departementseinteilung der k.k. Statthalterei. (34) Bezirkshauptmannschaften. (34) 1. Braunau. (34) 2. Freistadt. 3. Gmunden. 4. Kirchdorf. 5. Linz. 6. Perg. 7. Ried. 8. Rohrbach. 9. Schärding. (35) 10. Steyr. (35) 11. Urfahr. 12. Vöcklabruck. 13. Wels. (36) Exponierte Bauleitung für die Traunregulierung. K.k. Strombauleitungen. Delegierte des hohen k.k. Ackerbauministeriums für die Landespferdezuchtangelegenheiten Oberösterreichs. (36) Wählerliste des oberösterreichischen großen Grundbesitzes. (36) Reichsvertretung. (38) In das Abgeordnetenhaus des Reichsrates entsendete Abgeordnete. (38) a) Großgrundbesitz. b) Städte. c) Handelskammer. (38) d) Landgemeinden. (38) e) Allgemeine Wählerklasse. (39) Landesvertretung und Landesverwaltung. (39) Landeshauptmann. Landeshauptmannstellvertreter. Virilstimme. Abgeordnete des großen Grundbesitzes. Abgeordnete der Städte und Industrialorte. (39) Abgeordnete der Handels- und Gewerbekammer. (39) Landesausschuß. (40) Oberösterreichische Landes-Hypothekenanstalt. (41) Zweigniederlassung der n.ö. Landes-Lebens- und Renten-Versicherungs- sowie der Landes-Unfall- und Haftpflicht-Versicherungsanstalt für Oberösterreich, Linz, Landhaus. (42) O.ö. Landesanstalt für Rindviehversicherung. (42) Landes-Ackerbau- und Obstbauschule Ritzlhof. (43) Stand des Lehrkörpers und Verteilung der Unterrichtsfächer. (43) Schüleraufnahme. (44) Landeskulturrat im Erzherzogtume Österreich o.d. Enns. (44) K.k. Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft in Österreich o.d. Enns. (45) Präsident. Vizepräsident. Mitglieder des Zentralausschusses. Gesellschaftskanzlei. (45) Ziele und Bedeutung der Gesellschaft. (45) Landw. Bezirksvereine. (47) Fachvereine. (48) I. oberösterreichischer Geflügelzuchtverein. Oberösterreichischer Landesbienenzüchterverein. Oberösterreichischer landesfischereiverein. Forstverein für Oberösterreich u. Salzburg. Verein zur Hebung der Landespferdezucht in Oberösterreich. Verein zur Förderung der Obstkultur in Kimpling u. Umgebung. (48) Hopfenbauverein. Vöcklabrucker Bezirksfischereiverein. I. oö. Teebutterverkaufsgenossenschaft in Schärding. Genossenschaft der Kardenbauer in Katsdorf. Landw. Kasino in Freiling. Verein zur Unterstützung oö. Landwirte bei Errichtung von Blitzableitern. (49) Verleihung der Ehrenmedaille der k.k. Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft. (49) Landwirtschaftliches. ([51]) [Abb.]: ([51]) [Gedicht]: Der Landwirt. ([51]) Landwirtschaftliche Bibliotheken. (52) Vermehrter Futterbau. (53) Eismieten, Eisgruben und Eishütten. (54) Eismiete. (55) [Abb.]: Eismiete (Durchschnitt). (55) Eisgruben. (55) [Abb.]: Eisgrube (Durchschnitt). (56) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eisgrube (Grundriß). (2)Eisgrube (Längenschnitt). (57) Eishütte. (57) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eishütte (Grundriß). (2)Eishütte (Durchschnitt). (58) Die Vorteile richtigen Melkens. (59) [Tabelle]: Resultate - Tagesmilch von zwei Melkungen - zusammengestellt: Guter Melker; Schlechter Melker. (59) [Gedicht]: (60) Zur Düngung des Rotklees. (60) [Abb.]: Kleedüngungsversuch. (61) Gegen das Aufblähen der Rinder. (62) [Gedicht]: (62) Knochenfütterung und Eierproduktion. (62) [Abb.]: Knochenstampfapparat. (63) Schorfkrankheit des Apfel- und Birnbaumes und deren Bekämpfung. (63) [5 Abb.]: (1)Fig.1. Schorfflecken an Birnfrucht und Birnblatt. (2)Fig.2. Zweigstück mit krebsartigen kleinen Schorfflecken. (3)Fig.3. Konidienträger und Konidien von Fusicladium pirinum, 400 mal vergr. (4)Fig.4. Eine von Fusicladium ergriffene Knospe. (5)Fig.5. Apfelfrucht mit Schorf. (64) Niedere Pferderaufen. (65) [Sprichwort]: Wer sein Geld verlieren will und weiß nicht wie, Der baue alte Häuser aus oder spiele Lotterie. (65) Die Befestigung der Heu- und Getreidewagen. (66) [Abb.]: Schieweks Schnellspanner. (66) [Abb.]: Mittelst Schnellspanner befestigter Heuwagen. (67) Milchverkauf und Düngerverlust. (67) [Gedicht]: (68) Herstellung von Kümmelkäse. (68) Rationelle Verwendung der Ochsenarbeitskraft. (68) [Abb.]: Geeignete Ochsenbeschirrung. (69) Leicht lösbare Viehanhängevorrichtungen. (70) [10 Abb.]: (1)-(7)Auswechselbare Anbindevorrichtung zum Einmauern, horizontal. (8)-(10)Auswechselbare Kettenhalter, Anbindevorrichtung höher am Krippenrande. (70) [5 Abb.]: (1), (2)Lösbare Viehkuppel. (3)-(5)Anbindevorrichtungen mit beweglichem Kettenringe. (71) Rostige Milchkannen. (71) Kleeseide als Futter schädlich! (72) [Gedicht]: (72) Rationelle Schweinehaltung mit Weidebetrieb. (73) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schweineweide. (2)Vorrichtung zum Scheuern. (73) [Abb.]: Dungstätte und Stallbahn. (75) [Sprichwort]: Nicht der volle Beutel drückt, der leere! Ganz entgegen dem Gesetz der Schwere. (75) Zur Vertilgung der Binsen auf Wiesen und Weiden. (76) Eine vortreffliche Hundehütte. (76) [Abb.]: Elektrischer Ausdrusch bei Bogenlampenbeleuchtung. (77) Einführung der Elektrizität in den landwirtschaftl. Betrieb. (78) [Abb.]: Dreschmaschine und Strohpresse mit elektrischem Betriebe im Feldschuppen. (78) [3 Abb.]: (1)Elektrisch betriebene Rübenschneidmaschine. (2)Elektrisch angetriebene Schrotmühle. (3)Häckselschneidmaschine mit elektrischem Betriebe. (79) [3 Abb.]: (1)Transport eines Speichermotors. (2)Elektromotor. (3)Elektrisch betriebene Putzmühle und Trieur. (80) [Abb.]: Elektrischer Antrieb einer Jauchenpumpe. (81) [3 Abb.]: (1)Knochen- und Düngermühle mit elektr. Betriebe. (2)Elektr. betriebene Pumpe. (3)Molkerei mit elektrischem Betriebe. (82) [Abb.]: Elektrisch betriebene Pumpe für eine Berieselungsanlage. (83) Welche Ferkel soll man behalten? (83) Das Rohrbeinmaß der Pferde. Zerschnittenes Streustroh. (84) [Abb.]: Neues Rohrbeinmeßband für Pferde. (84) [Gedicht]: (84) Stallmist und Kunstdünger auf Wiesen. (85) [Abb.]: Wiesendüngung mit Kainit und Thomasmehl. Ungedüngt. Stallmist. Stallmist mit Kainit und Thomasmehl. (85) Praktische Schweinestalleinrichtungen. (86) [3 Abb.]: Kipptrog (1)zum Einschütten des Futters. (2)zur Fütterung. (3)zur Reinigung gestellt. (86) [Abb.]: Schweinestalleinrichtung mit Kipptrögen mit doppelter und einfacher Abteilung. (87) Die Zugpferde im Winter. (87) Dunstdichte Stalldecken. (88) [3 Abb.]: (1)-(3)Falztafeln für dunstdichte Stalldecken. (88) Wie soll man die Wiesen mähen? (89) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Das untersuchte Heu enthielt: (2)Versuche, die über die Verdaulichkeit von Rotklee angestellt wurden, ergaben: (89) Die wichtigsten Brandkrankheiten des Getreides und ihre Bekämpfung. (90) [4 Abb.]: Brand des Getreides. (1)Stinkbrand des Weizens. (2)Staubbrand des Weizens. (3)Gerstenbrand. (4)Haferbrand. (90) [Abb.]: Formaldehyd-Saatgutbeize. (91) Wasserbeschaffung. (92) [5 Abb.]: (1)Vorrichtung zum Einrammen der Röhrenbrunnen. (2)Durchlochte Schraubenspitze. (3)Standfilter-Schraubenspitze. (4)Durchlochte Rammspitze. (5)Standfilter-Rammspitze. (92) [Abb.]: Vollständiger Röhrenbrunnen mit Ständersaugpumpe. (93) Tränken der Kälber. (94) [2 Abb.]: (1)Neuer Kälbertränker mit Schwimmkugel. (2)Kälbertränker an der Wand. (94) [Gedicht]: (94) Milchzementanstrich. (95) Pflug und Schwert. (95) "Weizen und Spreu." Für Haus, Hof und Familie. ([96]) Vermessungszirkelstock. ([96]) [3 Abb.]: (1)-(3)Vermessungszirkelstock. ([96]) Platzen der Kohlköpfe. ([96]) Spirituskocher. Stachelbeerwein. (97) [Abb.]: Neuer Spirituskocher. (97) Als Obstbaumstütze. (98) [Abb.]: Obstbaum-Asthalter "Fruktiser" im Gebrauche. (98) Eine Hauptsache beim Butten. (99) [Abb.]: Asthalter "Fruktiser". (99) Sicherheitsvorkehrungen. (99) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türüberfalle. (2)Panzervorhangschloß. (99) Neue Messerputzmaschine. (100) [Abb.]: Messerputzmaschine. (100) Der kombinierte Tabellenmaßstab. (100) [Abb.]: Tabellenmaßstab. (100) Die Fruchtpressen. (101) [2 Abb.]: Fruchtpressen. (1)Tutti Frutti Piccola. (2)Tutti Frutti Nova. (101) Der undichte Bottich. (101) Sicherung der Räder. (102) [Abb.]: Achsenvorstecknagel-Sicherung für Kapselachsen. (102) [Abb.]: Achsenvorstecknagel-Sicherung für Schraubenachsen. (103) Zehn nützliche Lebensregeln. Zehn Gebote der Hausfrau. (103) Lustige Ecke. Für den Feierabend. ([104]) Eine Wette. ([104]) Das Chamäleon. (105) Die Nachtigall und die Wurst. (109) Die Dynamitkuh. (109) Betrunkenes Rindvieh. (110) [Abb.]: (110) Antler-Marterl. Ein Gymnasiastenstreich. Stilblüte. Ein Naturfreund. Begnadigt. Auf Umwegen. Ausnahme. Zeitungspech. Ländliche Bildersprache. Im zoologischen Garten. Zu gefährlich. Ersatz. Kindermund. Hyperbel. Kleines Mißverständnis. Der galante Schaffner. Darum. (111) Neuling. Aus der Schule. Die reiche Erbin. Deplazierte Redensart. Die verliebte Zenzi. Überflüssig. Gut zitiert. Unter Kindern. (112) [Gedicht]: Verfehlter Trost. (112) Er ist ausgezogen! Ein Schlaumeier. Er kennt ihn. (112) Ein Verteidiger. Harmlose Grobheit. Vor Gericht. Eine sehr "gemischte" Warenhandlung. Ein selbstsüchtiger Vater. Eine Sachverständige. Naturgeschichte des Rindes im Volksschulaufsatze. Was ein Gedanke ist. Wofür denn? Unanfechtbare Gegensätze. Entgegenkommend. Schwere Aufgaben. Bezeichnend. Sein Beileid. (113) Bibelfest. Am Niagara. Bettlererfahrungen. Eine Errungenschaft. O, diese Weiber! Im Zweifel. Naturspiel. (114) [Gedicht]: Die 1-same Gräfin und der 3-ste Jäger. (114) Vorschlag zur Güte. Nicht zu überrumpeln. Beim Heiratsvermittler. Unanfechtbare Logik. Ein Geschäftsmann. Deutliche Erklärung. Abgeblitzt. (114) Naiv. Naiv. Kindermund. Logisch. Wie muß es heißen? (115) [Gedicht]: Wunsch. (115) Schlagender Beweis. Schlagfertig. Mißverstanden. O, diese Kinder! Ich dacht', 's wär e Vugel. Der verständnisinnige Fasanenjäger. Versöhnliche Bemerkung. Selbstkritik. (115) Wetterprognose. Der rechte Moment. Die furchtsame Tante. (116) [2 Gedichte]: (1)Hausregeln für Ehefrauen. (2)Hausregeln für Ehemänner. (116) Beweis. Unnötige Besorgnis. Realismus. Einige Monate später. Kindlich. Wörtlich aufgefaßt. (116) Schulentschuldigungszettel. Erhabenes Schauspiel. Hausfrieden. Triumph. Getroffen. Er weiß schon, was sie will. Ein Rätsel. Gefährliche Überfahrt. Ein Manöverstückchen. Trost. Treffende Antwort. Der schlaue Schotte. Abgetrumpft. (117) Aus dem Geschäftsleben. (118) "Sau-Diskurs!" ([119]) Wirtschaftstabellen und Wirtschaftsnotizen. (120) Des Landmanns monatliche Verrichtungen. (120) Januar. - Mai. (120) Juni. (120) Juli. - Oktober. (121) November. (121) Dezember. (122) [Tabelle]: Aussaat und Ernteverhältnisse. (122) [Tabelle]: Gewährsmängel und Gewährszeiten der Haustiere. (123) [Tabelle]: Paarungs-, Trächtigkeits- und Brüteverhältnisse unserer Haustiere. (123) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Brünstigkeit. (2)Zähneausbruch und -wechsel bei Pferd, Rind, Schaf. (126) Altersbeurteilung des Pferdes. (126) Verhältniszahlen für die Bienenwirtschaft. (127) Stärke und Gewicht der Schwärme. Eierlegen der Königin. (127) [4 Tabellen]: (1)Entwicklungszeit, Lebensdauer, Größe und Gewicht der Biene. (2)Jahrestracht und Honigbedarf zur Winterfütterung. (3)Stärke der Stöcke zur Schwarmzeit, Blüten- und Honigbedarf zum Wachsbau. (4)Zellenmenge, Temperatureinfluß auf Wachs und Bienen. (127) [Tabelle]: Schonzeiten des Wildes und der Fische. (128) [Tabelle]: Kubiktafel für runde Hölzer. (129) Lohnberechnung. (131) [Tabelle]: Lohnberechnungstabelle bei einer Lohnhöhe von 50 - 200 K (§ 18 des Dienstbotengesetzes). (132) Inhalt. ( - ) Werbung ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )
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Hat Deutschlands Industrie den Aufbruch in der Batterieforschung verpennt? Hat die Bundesrepublik wenigstens aufgeholt in den vergangenen Jahren? Und welche Rolle spielt die staatliche Förderung? Ein Gespräch mit Michael Krausa und Burkhard Straube vom Kompetenznetzwerk-Lithium-Ionen Batterien.
Burkhard Straube (links) ist CEO bei Vianode, einem norwegischen Hersteller von Batteriematerialien.
Michael Krausa (rechts) ist Geschäftsführer des Kompetenznetzwerk-Lithium-Ionen Batterien (KliB) e.V., Berlin. Foto Straube: Marthe Haarstad. Foto Krausa: Ernst Fesseler.
Herr Krausa, Herr Straube, im Januar hat das "Kompetenznetzwerk Lithium-Ionen-Batterien" (KLiB), das Sie repräsentieren, einen Offenen Brief an die Bundesregierung geschrieben und gewarnt: Die für den Haushalt 2024 geplanten Kürzungen führten "zum Ende der deutschen Batterieforschung, mit dramatischen Konsequenzen für den High-Tech Standort Deutschland". Es ging um maximal 155 Millionen weniger staatliche Förderung, gestreckt über mehrere Jahre wohlgemerkt. Warum der Alarmismus?
Michael Krausa: Weil die damals geplanten Einsparungen ein klares Signal gesendet haben: Die laufenden Forschungs- und Entwicklungsprojekte werden noch zu Ende geführt, aber danach ist Schluss. Statt neuer Vorhaben hätten mit dem restlichen Geld gerade noch die Heizung und das Sicherheitspersonal für die leeren Labore bezahlt werden können. Und das nach allem, was wir in den vergangenen Jahren aufgebaut haben. Darauf mussten wir als Verbund reagieren.
Im Anfang Februar beschlossenen Bundeshaushalt hat die Ampel die Kürzungen dann teilweise zurückgenommen: um 20 Millionen für 2024 und um jeweils 12,5 Millionen Euro für die Jahre 2025 bis 2028. Und diese zusammengerechnet 70 Millionen Euro mehr retten jetzt wiederum alles?
Krausa: Natürlich nicht. Aber die Folgen sind nicht mehr so gravierend wie befürchtet. Deshalb müssen wir den Dialog mit der Politik fortsetzen, sonst laufen uns die guten Forscher davon und gehen ins Ausland.
Wenn zwei- bis dreistellige Millionenbeträge staatlicher Förderung über das Wohl und Wehe der deutschen Batterieforschung entscheiden, spricht das vor allem für die enormen Versäumnisse der Industrie selbst. Wie kann es sein, dass die Unternehmen über Jahre so wenig investiert haben in diese Zukunftstechnologie – frage ich Sie, Herr Straube – einen führenden Branchenvertreter?
Burkhard Straube: Die Industrie hat zusammen mit der Wissenschaft und der Politik in den vergangenen 15 Jahren unglaublich viel erreicht. Wir sind heute international wieder auf Augenhöhe. Aber Forschung ist ein Marathon, die Industrie braucht Planungssicherheit und ein Zeichen der Politik, dass Batterietechnologie mittelfristig eine wichtige Rolle spielen soll für die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung in Deutschland und Europa. Dieses Zeichen drückt sich auch in der Höhe der Forschungsförderung aus.
Die Rolle der Batterietechnologie bestimmt die Industrie doch selbst durch ihre Investitionsentscheidungen. Sie sagen, es sei unglaublich viel erreicht worden in den vergangenen 15 Jahren. Wie passt dazu, dass etwa Bosch noch 2018 verkündet hat, sich aus der Batterieforschung zurückziehen zu wollen? Aus wirtschaftlichen Gründen, hieß es damals, habe man sich gegen den Aufbau einer Zellfertigung in Deutschland entschieden: "Die Zellfertigung ist für unseren Erfolg nicht ausschlaggebend." Batteriezellen würden sich zum standardisierten Massenprodukt entwickeln, das Bosch zukaufen könne.
Straube: Ich werde hier nicht die Entscheidung des Unternehmens Bosch kommentieren. Es gibt aber andere Unternehmen, die sich ausschließlich auf die Batterietechnologie konzentrieren, auch solche, die eigens für die Zellfertigung gegründet worden sind. Große Konzerne können die Zellen vielleicht aus dem Ausland zukaufen, aber der Standort verliert dabei. Denn die Forschung und Entwicklung in der Batterietechnologie ist aufs Engste mit der Entwicklung anderer Hochtechnologien verbunden und fördert diese. Wir sprechen also von der künftigen Wettbewerbsfähigkeit ganzer Industrien.
"Für die Großindustrie von Bosch und Volkswagen mögen die 155 Millionen staatliche Förderung nicht so entscheidend sein, aber für das Ökosystem der kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen sind sie es sehr wohl."
Bosch argumentierte 2018, als Konzern allein müsse man mindestens 20 Milliarden investieren, also hundertmal so viel, um mit der asiatischen Konkurrenz mitzuhalten. Volkswagen steckt tatsächlich in solchen Größenordnungen Geld in die Batterieforschung – allerdings zu einem großen Teil außerhalb Deutschlands. Was sind dagegen 155 staatliche Millionen?
Straube: Man sollte die 155 Millionen nicht ins Verhältnis setzen mit Investitionen der Großindustrie von Bosch oder Volkswagen. Für die mögen solche Beträge nicht so entscheidend sein, aber für das Ökosystem der kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen, all die Mittelständler, die die Batterieforschung in Deutschland mittragen, sind sie es sehr wohl.
Also die Unternehmen, die KLIB als ihren Lobbyverein gegründet haben.
Krausa: Für die kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen kann die staatliche Forschungsförderung gerade in den ersten Jahren den Unterschied machen, ob eine tolle Idee weiterverfolgt werden kann oder nicht. Gleichzeitig sind die Mittelständler darauf angewiesen, dass an den Universitäten und Forschungseinrichtungen die nötige Forschungskompetenz vorhanden ist und gestärkt wird. Dass da Forscher sind, die beurteilen können, was fehlt, um eine Produktidee technologisch zu einem Erfolg weiterzuentwickeln. Jetzt hören wir, dass sich talentierte Hochschulabsolventen verstärkt bei Unternehmen bewerben, weil sie verunsichert sind, ob es für sie noch eine Perspektive in der Wissenschaft gibt.
Das ist doch gut für die Unternehmen!
Krausa: Kurzfristig vielleicht. Aber mittelfristig beschädigt das die Wissenschaft. Womit wir wieder bei der Signalwirkung angekommen sind: Wenn der Staat engagiert die Forschung und Entwicklung unterstützt, zeigt das sein Interesse. Das wiederum nehmen auch die Großunternehmen wahr. Bosch zum Beispiel ist vermutlich auch deshalb ausgestiegen, weil ihnen das unternehmerische Risiko zu groß war in einem gesellschaftlichen und politischen Umfeld in Deutschland, das der Batterietechnologie skeptisch gegenüberstand.
Die mittelständische Wirtschaftsstruktur, die Deutschland in vielen Branchen ausmacht – ist sie nicht in der Batterieforschung ein großer Nachteil, weil nur die Großunternehmen das für die Großinvestitionen nötige Kapital haben? Verschärfend kommt hinzu, dass bei uns anders als etwa in den USA kaum eine Szene potenter Risikokapitalgeber existiert.
Straube: Nein und ja. Nein: Die mittelständische Struktur ist kein Nachteil, weil sie gerade in der Frühphase einer neuen Technologie, wenn es noch verschiedene mögliche Wege gibt, ermöglicht, eine Vielzahl kreativer Konzepte parallel zu verfolgen. Das ist in den USA nicht anders, auch da sind es nicht die Großkonzerne, sondern die kleinen Startups, die den Fortschritt treiben. Und ja: Das mit der Finanzierung ist tatsächlich eine Herausforderung, es fehlt uns an Risikokapital.
"Das Hin und Her um die Finanzierung und Ausrichtung der Forschungsfertigung Batteriezelle in Münster war und ist nicht gut."
Unter der ehemaligen Bundesforschungsministerin Anja Karliczek (CDU) entstand 2019 das sogenannte "Dachkonzept Batterieforschung". Auch dessen Ende haben Sie im Januar angesichts der drohenden Kürzungen prophezeit, Herr Krausa. Wobei die Frage erlaubt sein muss: Wäre das Ende des Dachkonzepts so schlimm? Der Bau der "Forschungsfertigung Batteriezelle" (FFB) in Münster hat sich mehrfach verzögert. Daneben enthält das Konzept ziemlich viel Geld, was als Kompensation für Münster in andere Bundesländer geflossen ist – nachdem es Vorwürfe gegeben hatte, Karliczek würde einseitig ihre Heimat NRW bedienen.
Krausa: Die FFB wird bis heute in Teilen sehr kontrovers diskutiert. Das Hin und Her um ihre Finanzierung und Ausrichtung war und ist nicht gut. Wegen ihrer Größe besteht zudem die Möglichkeit, dass die FFB mit dem Dachkonzept als Ganzes verwechselt wird. Die FFB ist aber nur ein Element darin, wenn auch ein großes.
Was genau macht die FFB aus?
Krausa: Sie erlaubt Forschung an einer sehr industrienahen Anlage. Wünschenswert wäre es aber, wenn ein stärkerer Fokus der Ausrichtung der FFB auf neuartigen Batteriesystemen läge: Festkörperbatterien und Natrium-Ionen-Batterien. Welche Motivation bestand, nach der Bewilligung der FFB kurzfristig fünf Kompetenzcluster in anderen Bundesländern einzurichten, kann ich nicht beurteilen. Auch wenn es vielleicht sinnvoll gewesen wäre, sich etwas mehr Zeit bei dem Aufbau der Cluster zu geben, ergänzen sie das Dachkonzept um wesentliche Aspekte: Recycling, Batterienutzung, Analytik, Qualitätssicherung oder auch intelligente Batterieproduktion. Die in den Clustern als Teil des Dachkonzepts laufenden Forschungsvorhaben füllen eine F&E-Pipeline, die in der FFB münden könnte.
Dass es womöglich mehr um Politik als um Forschungsförderung ging, stört sie nicht?
Krausa: Bedauerlich ist in der Tat, dass es keinen Cluster "Batteriesysteme" gibt, der Zellen direkt in einem vollständigen Batterieaufbau untersucht. Trotzdem bildet das Dachkonzept auf der Forschungsseite nahezu die gesamte Wertschöpfungskette ab und begleitet als Impulsgeber alle Industrien des Ökosystems Batterie. Sein Verlust würde viele Unternehmen, insbesondere klein- und mittelständische, hart treffen und dem sich entwickelnden Ökosystems schaden.
Herr Straube, in Ihrer Rolle als KLIB-Vorstandvorsitzender haben Sie vorhin gesagt, die Batterieforschung in Deutschland befinde sich international wieder auf Augenhöhe. Als Spitzenmanager Sie sind jedoch gerade zu einem norwegischen Unternehmen gewechselt. Das eine sind die Sprüche eines Lobbyisten, das andere die persönliche Einschätzung eines Realisten?
Straube: Mein Wechsel war eine persönliche Entscheidung und beinhaltet keine Aussage über den Standort Deutschland. Norwegen weist sehr ähnliche Stärken und Schwächen auf wie die Bundesrepublik. Die Herausforderung ist, die Forschungsergebnisse, die wir in den vergangenen zehn, 15 Jahren erreicht haben, in Wirtschaftsleistung umzusetzen. Das ist jetzt mein Schwerpunkt. Für das wirtschaftliche Umsetzen von Innovationen bietet Nordamerika zurzeit ein deutlich attraktiveres Umfeld als Europa. Das macht mir Sorgen und Gedanken.
Und zu welchen Ergebnissen kommen Sie beim Nachdenken?
Straube: Man kann den amerikanischen Vorteil mit einer Initiative beschreiben: Inflation Reduction Act. Dieser hat die Dynamik komplett verändert und eine Förderlandschaft für junge Industrien geschaffen, die ihresgleichen sucht: Mit einer staatlichen Anschubfinanzierung und mit dem Schutz dieser neuen und noch kleinen Branche vor hoch subventionierter und lange etablierter ausländischer Konkurrenz.
"Andere Wirtschaftsräume fördern, schützen und stärken ihre neuen Industrien viel wirksamer als Europa – mit dem Ergebnis, dass unsere Unternehmen in diesen Bereichen auf dem Weltmarkt kaum bestehen können."
Ihre Antwort lautet also: mehr Subventionen und Protektionismus?
Straube: Ich würde es lieber mehr Unterstützung nennen. Wir müssen der Realität Rechnung tragen, und die zeigt, dass andere Wirtschaftsräume ihre neuen Industrien viel wirksamer fördern, schützen und dadurch stärken als Europa – mit dem Ergebnis, dass unsere Unternehmen in diesen Bereichen auf dem Weltmarkt kaum bestehen können.
Ein Beispiel bitte.
Straube: Der Inflation Reduction Act knüpft zum Beispiel Kaufprämien für Elektroautos daran, dass diese mindestens zum Teil auf amerikanischer Wertschöpfung beruhen. Ohne lokale Wertschöpfung keine Förderung.
Abgesehen von der volkswirtschaftlichen Sinnhaftigkeit solcher Vorgaben: Die Bundesregierung muss sparen. Wenn schon dreistellige Millionenbeträge für die Forschungsförderung zu teuer geworden sind, wird man kaum erwarten können, dass der Staat jetzt einen neuen Elektroauto-Bonus startet oder gar in Form von Anschubfinanzierung Risikokapital zur Verfügung stellt.
Straube: Tatsächlich erwarte ich hier weniger aus Deutschland und mehr von der Europäischen Union. Die EU muss sich entscheiden, wie sie das Wachstum neuer Industrien ermöglichen und damit den Wohlstand Europas sicherstellen will. Gleichzeitig räume ich ein, dass Europa als Wirtschaftsraum anders funktioniert als die USA. Die Interessen der Mitgliedsstaaten unter einen Hut zu bekommen, ist wesentlich komplexer, und die exportorientierte europäische Industrie ist stärker auf einen offenen Welthandel angewiesen als die amerikanische.
Und von der Bundesregierung erwarten Sie jetzt gar nichts mehr, nachdem sie die Kürzungen bei der Forschungsförderung teilweise zurückgenommen hat?
Straube: Eine konkrete Erwartung habe ich sehr wohl. Wir brauchen einen zusätzlichen Forschungscluster für die Entwicklung der Natrium-Ionen-Batterien. Herr Krausa hat es erwähnt: Sie ist der nächste Schritt, die nächste Stufe in der Batterieforschung. Mit solch einem Cluster hätten wir tatsächlich die Chance, nach dem Aufholen der vergangenen zehn, 15 Jahre sogar einen Vorsprung gegenüber unseren Wettbewerbern auf dem Weltmarkt herauszuholen. Dazu gehört, dass wir wie erwähnt die Anlage in Münster auf diese neuen Technologien ausrichten.
Krausa: Dazu bräuchten wir in Deutschland und Europa aber eine Gesamtstrategie, wie wir eine wettbewerbsfähige neue Industriesparte, die Großserienfertigung großformatiger Batterien, hinbekommen wollen. Eine Strategie, die Regierung und Industrie gemeinsam tragen müssten.
Glauben Sie, die kommt noch? Das politische und gesellschaftliche Interesse an Elektromobilität und Batterieforschung ist in den vergangenen zwei Jahren dramatisch abgeflacht. Weil Sie als Lobbyisten versagt haben?
Krausa: Weil oberflächlich betrachtet kein Versorgungsproblem besteht. Es gibt genügend Batteriezellen, die aus Asien zu uns kommen. Umso wichtiger ist es, Aufklärungsarbeit zu leisten. Alle reden vom Ziel der technologischen Souveränität. Wie wollen wir die in Europa erreichen ohne starke eigene Zellfertigung, wenn plötzlich Lieferketten wegbrechen oder aus politischen Gründen nicht mehr geliefert wird? Außerdem ist den meisten Menschen gar nicht bewusst, dass es bei der Batterieforschung um viel mehr geht als die Elektromobilität. Um es ganz deutlich zu sagen: Der Umstieg auf erneuerbare Energien wird ohne Batterien, ohne stationäre Energiespeichersysteme, nicht gelingen. Das Gleiche gilt für den Umbau der Logistik, für Schiffe und LKWs bis hin zu PowerTools und Hörgeräten. Unsere Zukunft hängt an der Zelle.
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Vortrag von Sina Marie Nietz bei Festo am 24.10.2019 (verschriftlichte Form)Der Titel dieses Vortrags beinhaltet mehrere "Riesenbegriffe": Globalisierung und Digitalisierung, zwei Begriffe, die heutzutage geradezu inflationär genutzt werden und dabei ganz unterschiedliche Prozesse und Entwicklungen beschreiben. Autonomer Individualverkehr, Pflege-Roboter, softwaregesteuerte Kundenkorrespondenz und Social Media, Big-Data-Ökonomie, Clever-Bots, Industrie 4.0. Die Digitalisierung hat ökonomische, kulturelle und politische Auswirkungen auf allen gesellschaftlichen Ebenen. Die zunehmenden technischen Möglichkeiten vor allem durch KI zwingen uns auch zu einer Auseinandersetzung mit ethischen Fragen und unseren bisherigen Konzepten von Intelligenz. Was zeichnet menschliches Handeln aus? Wie unterscheidet sich menschliche, natürliche Intelligenz von Künstlicher? Die Frage, was menschliches Handeln und menschliche Intelligenz von Maschinen unterscheidet, wird aus einem Alltagsverständnis heraus häufig mit Emotionen wie Empathie, Mitgefühl, Einfühlungsvermögen, Mitmenschlichkeit beantwortet. All diese Begriffe wollen wir nun zunächst einmal unter "emotionaler Intelligenz" zusammenfassen, bevor wir uns zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt näher damit auseinandersetzen werden.Globalisierung – ein weiterer überaus komplexer Begriff, der genutzt wird, um ganz unterschiedliche Prozesse zu beschreiben. Globalisierung meint die Verflechtung von Handelsbeziehungen und Kommunikationstechnologien sowie den Anstieg von Mobilität. Globalisierung umfasst zunehmende transnationale Abhängigkeiten in Form von losen Abkommen, Verträgen und Gesetzen. Globalisierung bedeutet auch, dass Organisationen wie NGOs, transnationale Institutionen, Konzerne und Staaten über Ländergrenzen hinweg agieren und kooperieren. Globalisierung meint jedoch auch globale Herausforderungen wie internationalen Terrorismus und vor allem die Klimakatastrophe. In dieser Zeit zunehmender Verflechtungen und internationaler Abhängigkeiten lassen sich gleichzeitig nationalistische Tendenzen beobachten, die der zunehmenden Öffnung gesellschaftliche Abschottung entgegenzusetzen versuchen. Die Frage nach Öffnung oder Abschottung polarisiert und spaltet. In der Wissenschaft wird von einer neuen gesellschaftlichen Konfliktlinie, einer cleavage gesprochen. Die cleavage zwischen Öffnung und Abschottung, zwischen Kosmopoliten und Nationalisten, zwischen Rollkoffer und Rasenmäher.Die Ergebnisse der letzten Europawahlen im Mai 2019 haben jene cleavage eindeutig widergespiegelt. Die etablierten Parteien, allen voran CDU/CSU und SPD, haben erneut massiv Wählerstimmen eingebüßt. Wohingegen auf der einen Seite der neuen gesellschaftlichen Konfliktlinie die AfD mit ihrem Abschottungskurs und auf der anderen Seite die Grünen, die klare Kante für Kosmopolitismus verkörpern, Stimmenzuwächse verzeichnen konnten. Auch in anderen europäischen Ländern sahen die Wahlergebnisse programmatisch vergleichbarer Parteien ähnlich aus.Bereits seit der Wirtschafts- bzw. "Eurokrise" erhalten rechtspopulistische Parteien zunehmend Zuspruch in ganz Europa. Deutschland war mit der AfD in dieser Hinsicht ein Nachzügler. Der Begriff "Rechtspopulismus" ist dabei nicht ganz unproblematisch. Zum einen dient er als sogenannter "battle term", um gegnerische Parteien oder PolitikerInnen zu degradieren. Zum anderen findet er keine einheitliche Verwendung, sondern wird genutzt, um einen Politikstil, eine rhetorische Strategie, eine Mobilisierungsstrategie oder eine politische Ideologie zu bezeichnen. Des Weiteren bildet sich zunehmend der Konsens heraus, dass mit dem Begriff auch die Gefahr der Verharmlosung in Bezug auf Parteien oder Personen einhergeht, die ihrer politischen Gesinnung nach eigentlich als rechtsradikal bis rechtsextrem einzuordnen sind. Trotz dieser Schwierigkeiten hat sich in den vergangenen Jahren durch zahlreiche Publikationen ein wissenschaftlicher Konsens geformt. Im Folgenden soll die Definition von Rechtspopulismus nach Jan Werner Müller, einem der federführenden Populismusforscher in Deutschland, umrissen werden. Populismus leitet sich von dem lateinischen Wort "populus", zu deutsch "Volk", ab. Der Bezug auf das Volk ist für jede Form des Populismus essenziell. In der Logik des Populismus stehen "dem Volk" die "korrupten Eliten", das Establishment gegenüber ("Altparteien", "Eurokraten"…). Es ist prinzipiell variabel, wer zu den Eliten zählt. In diesem Zusammenhang wird häufig das vermeintliche Paradoxon Donald Trump angeführt. Dieser zählt aufgrund seines Vermögens definitiv zu einer finanziellen Elite, kann sich jedoch aufgrund seines Mangels an Politikerfahrung als Politikaußenseiter, als "Mann aus dem Volk" und Sprachrohr des Volkes darstellen.Jan Werner-Müller zufolge sind RechtspopulistInnen immer anti-elitär, doch nicht jeder, der Eliten kritisiert, ist auch automatisch ein Rechtspopulist. Es muss immer noch ein zweites Kriterium gegeben sein, nämlich das des Anti-Pluralismus. In einer pluralistischen Gesellschaft konkurrieren zahlreiche verschiedene Organisationen, gesellschaftliche Gruppierungen und Parteien um wirtschaftliche und politische Macht. Es herrscht außerdem Vielfalt in Form von Meinungen und unterschiedlichen Lebensentwürfen. Rechtspopulismus lehnt diese Vielfalt ab. Es findet demnach nicht nur eine Abgrenzung nach oben zu "den Eliten", sondern auch nach unten ("Sozialschmarotzer") bzw. außen ("der Fremde", "der Islam", "die Flüchtlinge", Homosexuelle) statt. Rechtspopulistische Repräsentanten behaupten, ein homogen gedachtes "wahres Volk" mit einem einheitlichen Volkswillen zu vertreten. So wird ein moralischer Alleinvertretungsanspruch postuliert. Da der homogen konstruierte Volkswille in der Logik des Rechtspopulismus a priori feststeht und RechtspopulistInnen diesen repräsentieren, bedarf es keiner anderen Parteien oder Vertreter. Daraus ergibt sich jedoch ein Logikproblem, wenn sie dann bei Wahlen nicht die Mehrheit der Stimmen auf sich vereinen können. So betrug der Stimmenanteil der AfD bei der Bundestagswahl 2017 12,6%. Um diese Differenz "erklären" zu können, werden verschwörungstheoretische Erklärungsmuster wie das einer "schweigenden Mehrheit" herangezogen. Es werden gezielt Zweifel am politischen System, an den Medien ("Lügenpresse") und der Wissenschaft gesät. Es wird auf vermeintliche Fehler im System und die angebliche Unterdrückung des "eigentlichen Volkswillens" verwiesen. So schaffen RechtspopulistInnen eine Parallelwelt der "alternativen Fakten" und tragen zur Spaltung der Gesellschaft bei.Betrachtet man die verschiedenen rechtspopulistischen Parteien und Bewegungen in Europa, stößt man auf Unterschiede in deren Inhalten und Strategien. So hat Geert Wilders in den Niederlanden beispielsweise immer eine sehr liberale Gesellschaftspolitik vertreten, etwa in Form liberaler Abtreibungsgesetze und der Befürwortung gleichgeschlechtlicher Ehen. In Polen fährt die PiS-Partei hingegen einen katholisch geprägten konservativen Kurs hinsichtlich gesellschaftspolitischer Themen, wie auch die FPÖ in Österreich. Als gemeinsame Klammer dient allen rechtspopulistischen Parteien ihre ablehnende bis feindliche Haltung gegenüber Migration und "dem Islam". Die ausgrenzende Gesinnung bildet demnach das Kernelement rechtspopulistischer Ideologien. Das bedeutet, dass es keinen Rechtspopulismus ohne Feindbilder gibt.Und damit wären wir bei der ersten These meines heutigen Vortrags: Feindbilder sind das Kernelement von Rechtspopulismus. Rechtspopulistische Parteien greifen gezielt xenophobe Vorurteile, Stereotype und Emotionen wie Angst und Hass auf, schüren diese und verbreiten sie so. Wir werden gleich noch darauf zu sprechen kommen, wie sie dies genau machen. Vorurteile sind eine effektive Strategie, um Ungleichheit oder die Entstehung von Ungleichheit zu legitimieren. Hier dockt der Populismus perfekt an die bereits vorhandene Ungleichheitsideologie unserer meritokratischen Leistungsgesellschaft an. Unsere freie Marktwirtschaft basiert auf der Annahme der Notwendigkeit von Ungleichheit und legitimiert diese durch unterschiedliche Mechanismen. Stichworte in diesem Kontext lauten: survival of the fittest, Leistungsprinzip, Konkurrenzdruck in Zeiten von Outsourcing von Arbeitsplätzen und Zeitarbeit, Selbstoptimierung, Humankapital.Ich würde Sie an dieser Stelle gerne zu einem kurzen Exkurs in die Kognitionswissenschaft einladen, um die Bedeutung von Vorurteilen und Stereotypen für das menschliche Denken und Handeln näher zu erläutern. Der menschliche Verstand benötigt Kategorien zum Denken, zum Einordnen und Verarbeiten von Sinneseindrücken und Informationen. Andernfalls würde der Prozess der Informationsverarbeitung viel zu viel Zeit beanspruchen und wir wären nicht handlungsfähig. Wir ordnen unsere Eindrücke also bestimmten, vorgefertigten Kategorien zu. Innerhalb einer Kategorie erhält nun alles dieselbe Vorstellungs- bzw. Gefühlstönung. Der Grad der Verallgemeinerung hängt mit dem Wissen über die einzuordnende Information zusammen. Auf die rechtspopulistischen Ausgrenzungsstrategien bezogen ergibt sich Folgendes: Es wird das Feindbild "Islam" konstruiert und mit Eigenschaften wie "Gewalt" und "Terror" verknüpft. Dabei wird nicht zwischen verschiedenen Strömungen und Glaubensrichtungen unterschieden, sondern alles zu einem homogenen Gebräu innerhalb derselben Kategorie umgerührt. Individuen, die aufgrund von Herkunft, Religionszugehörigkeit, Ethnie etc. dieser Gruppe zugezählt werden, werden als Teil der Feindgruppe gedacht, nicht als Individuen. Sie werden objektiviert und entmenschlicht. Das Leiden des Einzelnen geht in der Masse unter und Empathie wird verhindert. Einzelne Ausnahmen werden als solche anerkannt, um das Gesamtbild, bzw. die gebildeten Kategorien, aufrechterhalten zu können. Und damit sind wir bei der zweiten These angelangt: Die Verallgemeinerung rechtspopulistischer Ausgrenzungsstrategien verhindert Empathie.Die einfache Zweiteilung des Freund-Feind-Denkens geht mit einer enormen Reduktion von Komplexität einher - ein attraktives Angebot in Zeiten zunehmender Komplexität und Undurchschaubarkeit (Stichwort Globalisierung). Doch wie werden diese Feindbilder nun genau erzeugt und aufrechterhalten? Hierzu bedienen sich rechtspopulistische Akteure unterschiedlicher rhetorischen Strategien.Rechtspopulistische Sprache ist zumeist eine reduktionistische und sehr bildhafte Sprache. Es werden häufig Metaphern verwendet, die Träger einer Botschaft sind. So ist der im Kontext der Migrationsbewegungen ab 2015 oft verwendete Begriff "Flüchtlingswelle" kein neutraler Begriff. Die Zusammensetzung der beiden Worte "Flüchtlinge" und "Welle" impliziert eine unaufhaltsame Naturgewalt, gegenüber der es sich durch Bauen eines Dammes abzuschotten gilt. Zudem finden auch biologistische Metaphern wie "Flüchtlingsschwärme" ihren Einzug in rechtspopulistische Narrative. Die Entlehnung nationalsozialistisch geprägter Begriffe wie beispielsweise "völkisch" durch Akteure der AfD hat nicht nur einmal zu medialer Aufmerksamkeit geführt. Weitere häufig verwendete rhetorische Strategien und Stilmittel sind Wiederholungen, Wortneuschöpfungen, Tabubrüche, kalkulierte Ambivalenz und auch die eingangs erwähnten Verschwörungstheorien. Ich möchte diese Stilmittel nicht im Einzelnen näher ausführen. Aber ich möchte auf die Beziehung zwischen Rechtspopulismus und Medien aufmerksam machen. Es gab in den vergangenen Monaten zahlreiche Beispiele für Tabubrüche seitens der AfD, die nach und nach zu einer Diskursverschiebung geführt hat, die mit einer Normalisierung von Gewalt in der Sprache im öffentlichen Diskurs einhergeht.Medien und Populismus folgen ähnlichen Kommunikationsstrategien wie beispielsweise Personalisierung, Emotionalisierung, Dramatisierung und Komplexitätsreduktion. Trotz der grundlegend feindlichen Einstellung rechtspopulistischer Parteien gegenüber der "Lügenpresse" gehen Populismus und Massenmedien eine Art Symbiose ein. Die Massenmedien sind auf Schlagzeilen angewiesen und die PopulistInnen auf mediale Aufmerksamkeit. Eine besondere Rolle spielen insbesondere seit dem letzten US-Wahlkampf soziale Medien wie Twitter. Trump bezeichnete sich einmal selbst als den "Hemingway der 140 Zeichen". Durch seine kurzen Tweets in einer einfach gehaltenen Sprache vermittelt er Nahbarkeit und inszeniert sich als Sprachrohr des Volkes. Immer in Abgrenzung zu der abgehobenen, korrupten Politikelite mit ihrer "political correctness". Es scheint, als würden "gefühlte Wahrheiten" schwerer wiegen als Fakten, so wird häufig vom Anbruch des postfaktischen Zeitalters gesprochen. Das Leugnen wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse bei gleichzeitiger Fokussierung auf "alternative" und "gefühlte Wahrheiten" birgt die Gefahr einer zunehmenden Parallelwelt der Fakten.Durch Echokammern und Filterblasen verfestigen sich eigene Einstellungen und die politische Meinung. Die neue Rechte hat sich zudem die Funktionsweise von Algorithmen und Bots zunutze gemacht und wirkt dadurch in Sozialen Netzwerken wie Facebook und Twitter, aber auch in Foren und Blogs unheimlich präsent. Medien sind hier keine Einrichtungen im Sinne von Organisationseinheiten mit besonderen Rechten, Sach- und Personalmitteln, sondern Räume und Kanäle. Dialogroboter sind zugleich Werkzeug und Medium einer neuen Kommunikationswelt. In den Massenmedien kann man eine stetige Zunahme von dialogischer Kommunikation beobachten. Dialogroboter werden funktional wie Massenmedien eingesetzt, funktionieren strukturell aber nach den Prinzipien interpersoneller Kommunikation.Kehren wir zu den beiden Ausgangsthesen zurück. Erstens: Feindbilder sind ein Kernelement von Rechtspopulismus. Zweitens: Die Verallgemeinerung von Feindbildern verhindert Empathie. Nun stellt sich die Frage nach möglichen Lösungsansätzen. Wie kann der dargelegten Objektivierung von Menschen durch Feindbilder entgegengewirkt werden? Welche Gegenstrategien gibt es? Häufig werden sehr allgemeine Handlungsempfehlungen ausgesprochen oder die Ausführungen zu möglichen Lösungen sehr kurz gehalten, sodass der politikwissenschaftliche Diskurs bisweilen in Bezug auf die Gegenstrategien ungenau und schwammig bleibt.Ich möchte Ihnen heute einen spezifischen Ansatz vorstellen, der darauf abzielt, Empathie als Teil emotionaler Intelligenz zu stärken, um rechtspopulistischen Feindbildern präventiv zu begegnen. Die gezielte Schulung von Empathie als Teil emotionaler Intelligenz. Das Konzept der emotionalen Intelligenz (EQ) kam in den 1990er Jahren auf, federführend unter den Sozialpsychologen John D. Mayer und Peter Salovey. Das gleichnamige Buch veröffentlichte 1995 Daniel Goleman. Bereits damals wurde Empathie als eine "Schlüsselkompetenz" emotionaler Intelligenz gefasst. Hier wurde zum einen der Versuch unternommen, auf die Bedeutung von Gefühlen beim Erreichen beruflicher Ziele und des eigenen Lebensglücks zu verweisen, zum anderen EQ messbar zu machen, sodass bald darauf zahlreiche EQ-Tests folgten. Der Versuch, Intelligenz anhand von Testsituationen oder ähnlichen Verfahren messbar zu machen, geht jedoch mit einigen Aspekten einher, die es kritisch zu betrachten gilt. Vor allem stellt sich, wie auch bei den klassischen IQ-Tests (auf denen im Übrigen unser heutiges Verständnis von Intelligenz beruht) die Frage, ob tatsächlich das gemessen wird, was gemessen werden soll. In einer Leistungsgesellschaft, die dem Diktat der Transparenz und Messbarkeit (PISA, Evaluationen etc.) unterworfen ist, haben es schlecht messbare emotionale Kompetenzen wie Empathie schwer.Die zunehmenden Abhängigkeiten im Kontext der Globalisierung weisen eigentlich in Richtung Kooperation. Die vorherrschende Ideologie unserer Gesellschaft basiert jedoch nach wie vor auf dem Konkurrenzprinzip. Die meritokratische Leistungs- und Wettbewerbsideologie des freien Marktes hat ein empathiefeindliches Umfeld geschaffen. Zudem lässt die Hyperindividualisierung Empathie unwahrscheinlicher werden. Das Wachstum des "Ichs" als Instanz der Nicht-Ähnlichkeit führt zur Kultivierung eines Bewusstseins für Differenzen anstatt für Gemeinsamkeiten. Je mehr wir uns auf die Unterschiede konzentrieren, desto schwieriger werden empathische Empfindungen und Handlungen, da diese eine Identifikation mit dem Anderen voraussetzen. Des Weiteren hat insbesondere im Bildungsdiskurs viele Jahre lang eine einseitige Fokussierung auf Rationalität stattgefunden. Diese impliziert eine künstliche Trennung zwischen Emotionalität und Rationalität. Zusammenfassend lässt sich festhalten, dass verschiedene gesellschaftliche, politische, aber vor allem auch ökonomische Faktoren wie die neoliberale Konkurrenz- und Wettbewerbsideologie, das Diktat der Messbarkeit, die Hyperindividualisierung sowie die einseitige Fokussierung auf Rationalität der Etablierung von Empathie als Schlüsselkompetenz des 21. Jahrhunderts im Weg standen und noch immer stehen. Doch was bedeutet Empathie eigentlich konkret in einem wissenschaftlichen Verständnis? Empathie stammt von dem griechischen Wort "Pathos", zu deutsch "Leidenschaft". Umgangssprachlich ist mit Empathie die Fähigkeit des Sich-in-jemand-Einfühlens oder Hineinversetzens gemeint. Empathie hat eine kognitive (Wahrnehmung der Interessen des Anderen) und eine affektive (dabei entstehende Gefühle) Komponente. Die Entstehung von Empathie erfolgt in drei Schritten: Soziale Perspektivenübernahme, Identifikation, Empathie. Die Übernahme einer anderen Perspektive erlernen wir bereits im Kleinkindalter. Zunächst anhand der Übernahme räumlicher Perspektiven. Durch den zweiten Schritt, die Identifikation mit einer anderen Person oder einem anderen Lebewesen, entsteht das Potenzial für die empathische Einfühlung in jene Person oder jenes Lebewesen. Aus dieser empathischen Empfindung kann wiederum ein gewisses Aktionspotenzial entstehen, wenn beispielsweise eine Ungerechtigkeit Empörung auslöst und zur Aktion gegen jene Ungerechtigkeit führt.Wir kommen nun zu der dritten These meines Vortrags: Empathie kann gezielt gelehrt und gelernt werden. Jüngste wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse belegen, dass Empathie eine erlernbare Fähigkeit ist. Die deutsche Neurowissenschaftlerin und Psychologin Tania Singer hat im Rahmen einer großangelegten Untersuchung, dem "ReSource-Projekt" am Max-Planck-Institut für Kognitions- und Neurowissenschaften die Wirkung von Meditation auf das Verhalten und die damit verbundenen Veränderungen im Gehirn untersucht. Die Idee, die hinter diesem Forschungsprojekt steht, war die Suche nach einer Möglichkeit, gezielt soziale Fähigkeiten wie Mitgefühl, Empathie und die "Theory of Mind" zu fördern. Die Untersuchung ging über einen Zeitraum von elf Monaten und bestand aus unterschiedlichen Modulen. Im "Präsenzmodul" lag der Schwerpunkt vor allem auf der Achtsamkeit gegenüber geistigen und körperlichen Prozessen. Das Modul "Perspektive" konzentrierte sich auf sozio-kognitive Fähigkeiten, insbesondere die Perspektivenübernahme. Ein drittes Modul "Affekte" sollte den konstruktiven Umgang mit schwierigen Emotionen sowie die Kultivierung positiver Emotionen schulen. Die Probanden führten die entsprechenden Übungen täglich mit ihren zugeordneten Partnern durch Telefonate oder Videoanrufe aus.Das Team um Tania Singer konnte nach den drei Monaten mithilfe von Gehirnscans eine tatsächliche Verbesserung der Kompetenzen der TeilnehmerInnen feststellen, die mit struktureller Gehirnplastizität in den spezifischen neuronalen Netzwerken einhergingen. Das sozio-affektive Modul konnte so tatsächlich zur Verbesserung der Fähigkeit des Mitgefühls beitragen. Das sozio-kognitive Modul hingegen hat die Fähigkeit verbessert, sich gedanklich in die Perspektive eines anderen zu versetzen. Die Studie hat gezeigt, dass Empathie und Mitgefühl erlernbare Kompetenzen sind, die durch entsprechende Übungen gezielt gefördert werden können. Dazu bedarf es jedoch zunächst einer Anerkennung von Empathie als einer erlernbaren Kompetenz.Fassen wir zusammen: Rechtspopulismus agiert immer über Feindbilder. Diese Feindbilder basieren auf der Konstruktion einer homogenen Feindgruppe. Durch Verallgemeinerung werden den Individuen innerhalb dieser Feindgruppe Subjektivität und Individualität abgesprochen und so die Entstehung von Empathie verhindert. Die rechtspopulistische Ungleichheitslogik schließt an die Ungleichheitslogiken unserer kapitalistischen Gesellschaftsordnung an. Die Wettbewerbs- und Konkurrenzideologie hat ein empathiefeindliches Umfeld geschaffen. Zudem hat sich die Bildung zu lange einseitig auf Rationalität konzentriert. Daher gilt es, Empathie als eine soziale und emotionale Fähigkeit mit kognitiven Anteilen im bildungswissenschaftlichen Diskurs zu verankern. So können rechtspopulistische Differenzierungskategorien wie Nationalität oder Religion sowie die Verallgemeinerungen zugunsten einer Fokussierung auf Gemeinsamkeiten und Mitmenschlichkeit überwunden werden. Um in einer vernetzten, globalisierten Welt intelligent handeln zu können, nützt ein Rückzug in nationalistische Freund-Feind-Denkweisen nicht. Vielmehr gilt es, auf Kooperation und Empathie zu setzen, auch wenn diese nicht immer messbar ist. Vielen Dank.Literatur- und Quellenverzeichnis:Allport, Gordon W. (1971): Die Natur des Vorurteils. Köln: Kiepenheuer & Witsch. Bischof-Köhler, Doris (1989): Spiegelbild und Empathie. Die Anfänge der sozialen Kognition. Hans Huber: Berlin, Stuttgart, Toronto.Decker, Frank (2017): Populismus in Westeuropa. Theoretische Einordnung und vergleichende Perspektiven. In: Diendorfer, Gertraud u.a. (Hrsg.) (2017): Populismus – Gleichheit – Differenz. Herausforderungen für die politische Bildung. Schwalbach/Ts.: Wochenschau Wissenschaft, S. 11-28.Holtmann, Everhard (2018): Völkische Feindbilder, Ursprünge und Erscheinungsformen des Rechtspopulismus in Deutschland. Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung.Mudde, Cas / Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017): Populism. A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.Müller, Jan-Werner (2016): Was ist Populismus? Ein Essay. Berlin: Edition Suhrkamp.ReSource-Projekt: https://www.resource-project.org/ [10.09.2019]Wodak, Ruth (2016): Politik mit der Angst. Zur Wirkung rechtspopulistischer Diskurse. Wien/Hamburg: Edition Konturen.
Inhaltsangabe: Zusammenfassung: Die Arbeit beginnt mit der Erkenntnis, dass Deutschland längst ein Einwanderungsland geworden ist. Um das Phänomen der Einwanderung überhaupt verstehen und richtig einordnen zu können, beschäftigt sich das erste Kapitel jedoch zuerst mit der Ursache von Wanderungsbewegungen. Hierzu wird das Push-Pull-Faktoren-Modell herangezogen. Dieses Modell bietet Erklärungsversuche sowohl für erzwungene Migration (Push-Faktoren), als auch für freiwillige Migration (Pull-Faktoren). Zur letzteren Kategorie zählt vor allem der Wohlstand der westlichen Welt, als auch die freiheitlich-demokratischen Grundwerte, die in den Ländern Europas und Nordamerikas garantiert sind. Die erzwungene Migration hingegen basiert auf Faktoren wie Krieg, Armut, Hunger, aber auch und zunehmend Umweltschäden (Degradation von Ackerflächen, Wassermangel, auch der Klimawandel ganz allgemein). Fasst man alle Faktoren zusammen, kommt man unweigerlich zu dem Schluss, dass sowohl die Pull-, als auch in noch stärkerem Maße die Push-Faktoren in den kommenden Jahren und Jahrzehnten zu drastisch steigendem Migrationsdruck auf Europa führen werden. Dieser Migrationsdruck wird die Wohlstandsinsel Europa vor allem aus Afrika, aber auch in erheblichem Maße aus Osteuropa und Asien treffen. Basierend auf der Ausgangslage steigender Migrationszahlen nach Europa stellt sich in Kapitel zwei die Frage, wie man als Mehrheitsgesellschaft mit einer steigenden Zahl von Zuwanderern umgehen soll. In diesem Zusammenhang werden Begriffe wie Integration, Assimilation, Separation und Exklusion behandelt und gegeneinander abgegrenzt. Darüber hinaus werden verschiedene (nationale) Modelle vorgestellt, wie die Mehrheitsgesellschaften mit den Minderheiten umgehen und miteinander interagieren. Auch weltpolitische sowie religiöse Einflüsse auf die jeweiligen nationalen integrationspolitischen Grundkonzepte werden aufgeführt. Zum Abschluss werden die Kosten (monetär, jedoch auch politisch, moralisch und sozial) aufgeführt, die die Nicht-Integration von Zuwanderern und Eingesessenen verursachen. Nachdem die Themen Migration und Integration allgemein bzw. für Europa abgesteckt sind, wendet sich das dritte Kapitel nun der Integrationspolitik in Deutschland zu. Ausgehend von der aktiven Anwerbephase ausländischer Arbeitskräfte in der Wirtschaftswunder-Zeit der noch jungen Bundesrepublik werden verschiedene Phasen erläutert, die sich von der "Ignoranz" für das Integrationsproblem zur "Akzeptanz" in den späten 90er Jahren entwickeln. Zur Jahrtausendwende scheint es, als habe die Politik in Deutschland erkannt, dass die "Gastarbeiter" auf Dauer bei uns bleiben werden und dass es endlich an der Zeit wäre, sich aktiv mit diesem Problem zu beschäftigen. Das Kapitel vier nun beschäftigt sich mit dem Ort, an dem Integration scheitert oder gelingt: den Kommunen. Als hervorragendes Beispiel für gute Integrationsarbeit wird die Stadt Wien angeführt. Dort wird die Integrationspolitik schon seit langem ernst genommen. Seit einigen Jahren nun hat die österreichische Hauptstadt ihre Integrationspolitik weiter entwickelt und sich dem Diversity Management verschrieben. In der Zwischenbetrachtung wird der erste Teil der Dissertation nochmals zusammengefasst und die Frage aufgeworfen, welche Aufgaben es für ein Gelingen der Integration in deutschen Kommunen zu bewältigen gibt. Basierend auf der Erkenntnis, dass in Zukunft mehr Menschen einwandern werden, dass zusätzlich zu dieser "Neu-Integration" auch noch eine "nachholende Integration" für die bereits bei uns lebenden Menschen notwendig ist, angesichts der Tatsache, dass es die deutsche Politik noch immer nicht geschafft hat, sachlich mit dem Thema Einwanderung umzugehen, verlangt das Thema Integration nach einem ganzheitlichen Konzept. Dieses muss sowohl die politischen wie die zivilgesellschaftlichen Akteure im Integrationsprozess vernetzen können, als auch wirkungsorientiert und nachvollziehbar steuerbar sein. Ein solches Konzept kann aus dem betriebswirtschaftlichen Konzept des Controllings kommen und wird in den nun folgenden Kapiteln der Arbeit vorgestellt. Das fünfte Kapitel beginnt mit einer Definition des Controlling-Begriffs allgemein und des Controlling-Regelkreises im Besonderen, ehe es dann einschwenkt auf ein spezielles Controlling-Werkzeug: die Balanced Scorecard (BSC). Die BSC wurde ursprünglich von den beiden amerikanischen Professoren Robert S. Kaplan und David P. Norton erdacht, um die allzu oft klaffende Lücke zwischen strategischen Zielen einer Unternehmung und deren operative Umsetzung im Tagesgeschäft zu schließen. Hierzu ist es notwendig, nicht ausschließlich die Finanzkennzahlen einer Firma zu betrachten, sondern auch andere Dimensionen mit einzubeziehen. Kaplan und Norton schlagen Bereiche vor wie "Kunden", "Prozesse" oder "Lernen". Nur über eine ganzheitliche Betrachtung einer Unternehmung kann langfristig der Erfolg sichergestellt werden. Ist es aber möglich, einen politischen sowie sozial-gesellschaftlichen Prozess wie die Integration mit einer Methodik zu steuern, die aus der Betriebswirtschaft kommt? Ist denn die Integration überhaupt steuerbar? Mit diesen Fragen beschäftigt sich das sechste Kapitel und gibt Antworten darauf, welche Bereiche des Integrationsprozesses über Kennzahlen erfassbar und somit steuerbar sind, und welche nicht. Basierend auf dieser Abgrenzung erlaubt das Kapitel sieben Seitenblicke auf Beispiele in der Gesellschaft, bei denen das Konzept der Balanced Scorecard bereits erfolgreich außerhalb der Domäne der Wirtschaft umgesetzt wird. Das Beispiel der amerikanischen Stadt Charlotte, deren Stadtverwaltung mit der BSC steuert, wird hierbei genauer vorgestellt. Als Schlussfolgerung wird festgehalten, dass es sehr wohl möglich ist, den Integrationsprozess in Kommunen mit der BSC zu steuern, dies jedoch gewisse Anpassungen sowohl in der Terminologie als auch in der Methodik erfordert. Das Kapitel acht nun wendet sich einem konkreten Fall zu: der Stadt Ulm. Nach einer Analyse der Chancen und Risiken im Integrationsumfeld (externe Analyse) werden die Stärken und Schwächen der Integrationspolitik selbst betrachtet. Daraus wiederum ergibt sich eine Integrationsstrategie für Ulm, die sich auf die folgenden Schwerpunkte konzentriert: Sprache, Bildung, Arbeit und Sozialisation. Diese Schwerpunkte werden nun in Dimensionen der Balanced Score Card "übersetzt", die sich fortan als Balanced Integration Card (BIC) darstellt. Innerhalb jeder dieser Dimensionen werden Projekte definiert, die mithilfe von Projekt-Definitionsblättern konkrete Ziele, Verantwortlichkeiten, Maßnahmen und Budgets beinhalten. Das Erreichen der jeweiligen Ziele schließlich wird anhand extra dafür festgelegter Kennzahlen gemessen. Die "Ziel-Maßnahmen-Matrix" schließlich fasst alle Ziele innerhalb der Dimensionen auf ein Blatt zusammen und liefert somit einen komprimierten Überblick über die in Ulm laufenden Aktivitäten zur Verbesserung der Integration: transparent, nachvollziehbar und messbar. Mit Hilfe der gesammelten Informationen aus der BIC lässt sich im Schlussabschnitt der Arbeit nun endlich eine konkrete, auf Fakten basierende Aussage darüber treffen, nicht nur ob Integration in Ulm funktioniert, sondern auch in welchen Bereichen es Fort- oder Rückschritte gibt. Die Ausweitung des Zahlenmaterials auf den Zeitraum von 10 Jahren erlaubt darüber hinaus Aussagen über den längerfristigen Trend. Dadurch ist es möglich festzustellen, wo besonders schnell gehandelt werden muss. Die Ergebnisse selbst sind ernüchternd, erschreckend und verlangen schnelles Handeln seitens der Politik, um (weitere) gesellschaftliche Schäden zu verhindern. Die BIC ist hierbei von entscheidender Bedeutung, denn sie liefert Auskunft darüber, wo gehandelt werden muss und ob die Maßnahmen greifen. Es liegt jetzt an der Politik, letzten Endes aber auch an uns allen, diese Information der BIC umzusetzen und endlich mit der Integration ernst zu machen. Inhaltsverzeichnis: Inhaltsverzeichnis EINLEITUNG:ICHBINAUSLÄNDER!4 KAPITEL I.AUSGANGSLAGE:DEUTSCHLAND,EINEINWANDERUNGSLAND8 HETEROGENE BEVÖLKERUNGSSTRUKTUR IN DEUTSCHLAND8 URSACHENFORSCHUNG: MIGRATION12 Die räumliche Dimension der Migration13 Die Binnenwanderung13 Internationale Wanderung15 Die zeitliche Dimension der Migration16 Die kausale Dimension der Migration17 ERKLÄRUNGSANSATZ ZUR MIGRATION: DAS PUSH-PULL-FAKTORENMODELL20 Freiwillige Migration: die Pull-Faktoren25 Erzwungene Migration: die Push-Faktoren26 Krieg26 Armut27 Kindersterblichkeit, Hunger und medizinischer Notstand29 Umweltkatastrophen32 Umweltflüchtlinge – die vergessenen Opfer33 Ursachen der Umweltmigration34 Deposition34 Degradation34 Desaster37 Destabilisierung39 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG,FAZITUNDAUSBLICK41 KAPITEL II.FOKUS:INTEGRATION44 EXKURS.DIEKOSTENDERNICHT-INTEGRATION44 Die nicht monetären Aspekte eines Scheiterns der Integration44 Der finanzielle Aspekt der Nicht-Integration45 Begriffsbestimmung: Akkulturation48 Integration49 Assimilation50 Separation50 Exklusion50 Zusammenfassung51 Internationale Politik und interreligiöser Dialog52 Weltpolitische Einflussfaktoren auf die kommunale Integrationsarbeit52 Das Exklusionsmodell57 KAPITEL III.STATUS:INTEGRATIONSPOLITIKINDEUTSCHLAND59 VON DER NICHTAKZEPTANZGESELLSCHAFTLICHER REALITÄT.60 Die Anwerbephase60 Die Konsolidierungsphase62 Die Phase der Integrationskonzepte63 Die Phase der Begrenzungspolitik64 Die Phase der restriktiven gesetzlichen Regelungen64 ZUR ZÖGERNDEN ANERKENNUNG DER TATSACHEN66 Die Reform des Staatsangehörigkeitgesetztes66 Die Reform des Zuwanderungsgesetzes67 KAPITEL IV.ORTDERENTSCHEIDUNG:DIEKOMMUNEN70 DIEKOMMUNEALS"ROBUSTEINTEGRATIONSMASCHINE"70 Kommune als Primus inter Pares in der kommunalen Integrationspolitik71 Institutioneller Handlungsrahmen für Kommunen72 Kommunale Ressourcen für Integration73 Der Wiener Integrationsfonds: ein Bekenntnis zur Integration80 Beispielprojekt "Besiedlungsmanagement"84 Beispielprojekt "Sprachoffensive"85 Beispielprojekt "Bildungsdrehscheibe – Alles ist LERNBAR"87 DIVERSITY UND DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT88 BEURTEILUNG UND AUSBLICK95 ZWISCHENBETRACHTUNG.WELCHEAUFGABENGILTESZUBEWÄLTIGEN?97 KAPITELV.LÖSUNGSANSATZ:DIEBALANCEDSCORECARDIMCONTROLLINGREGELKREIS100 DEFINITION CONTROLLING100 Die Vision101 Die Mission102 Die Umfeld und Unternehmensanalyse: SWOT103 Die Strategiefindung104 Die operative Umsetzung: Ziele, Maßnahmen und Erfolgsmessung106 HISTORIE UND ZIELSETZUNG DER BALANCED SCORECARD107 Die Finanzperspektive109 Die Kundenperspektive109 Die interne Prozess-Perspektive110 Die Lern- und Entwicklungsperspektive110 Das Projekt-Definitionsblatt: Übersicht ist alles115 EXKURS.GRAPHISCHEDARSTELLUNGDERBALANCEDSCORECARD116 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG.VORTEILEDERBALANCEDSCORECARD117 KAPITELVI.EINWURF:ISTINTEGRATIONÜBERHAUPTSTEUERBAR?118 INTEGRATION MIT DEM HERZEN… ODER WAS MANN NICHT MESSEN KANN118 KAPITEL VII.SEITENBLICKE: CONTROLLING UND DIE BALANCED SCORECARD AUßERHALB DER FREIEN WIRTSCHAFT – EIN KONZEPT SETZT SICH DURCH128 DIE BALANCED SCORECARD FÜR NON-PROFIT-ORGANISATIONEN128 Die BSC in der öffentlichen Verwaltung129 Beispiel: Die City-Scorecard der Stadt Charlotte130 Die Gender Scorecard des Kulturwirtschaftlichen Gründerzentrums in Bochum132 WEITERE BEISPIELE UND ANREGUNGEN133 KAPITEL VIII.LÖSUNGSANSATZ: DIE BALANCED INTEGRATION CARD FÜR ULM136 Die Kontaktstelle für ausländische Bürgerschaft: Ulm bekennt sich zu seiner Heterogenität138 Ulms Vision: Vom friedlichen und gleichberechtigten Zusammenleben aller Bürger140 Die externe Analyse: Chancen und Risiken im Integrationsumfeld142 Das Migrationsumfeld142 Das wirtschaftliche Umfeld143 Das demographische Umfeld144 Das soziale Umfeld147 Das schulische und wissenschaftliche Umfeld147 Die interne Analyse: Stärken und Schwächen der Ulmer Integrationspolitik148 Stärken: Erfahrung, Kompetenz und Heterogenität148 Schwächen: Angespannte Finanzressourcen und mangelnder Sinn für die Querschnittaufgabe Integration148 Strategiefindung: Nicht kleckern, klotzen!150 Strategieausformulierung und die Dimensionen der BIC151 Vernetzung der strategischen Stoßrichtungen: die Strategy Map160 EINWURF: ABER WO BLEIBT DENN DIE RELIGION?164 DIE TERRORISTEN MISSBRAUCHEN IHREN EIGENEN GLAUBEN!165 RELIGION IST PRIVATSACHE!166 RELIGION DARF KEIN TRENNENDER FAKTOR SEIN!166 MISSBRAUCH DER RELIGION IST DAS LETZTE GLIED IN EINER KETTE VON FEHLERN!167 Ziele, Maßnahmen und Kennzahlen: Das Herzstück der BIC168 Die BIC Dimension Sprache169 Die BIC Dimension (Aus)Bildung173 Die BIC Dimension Arbeit176 Die BIC Dimension Sozialisation179 Die Interne BIC-Perspektive186 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG, FAZIT UND SCHLUSSBEMERKUNG192 ANHANG.196 WEITERFÜHRENDE GEDANKEN UND MÖGLICHE FORSCHUNGSSCHWERPUNKTE196 WENN AUSLÄNDER DEUTSCHE WERDEN: STATISTIKPROBLEME196 MANAGING BY THE NUMBER: ÜBER ZEITREIHENANALYSEN UND BENCHMARKING197 GELUNGENE INTEGRATION KANN DER STARTSCHUSS FÜR NEUE PROBLEME SEIN199 "FRÜHWARNSYSTEM" AUSLÄNDER202 DIE VERZAHNUNG VON BALANCED SCORECARDS – ODER WIE MAN INTEGRATION AUF MEHREREN EBENEN ANGEHT204 DAS PROJEKT-DEFINITIONSBLATT: EINEVORLAGE207 DANKSAGUNG208 LITERATURVERZEICHNIS209Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: Inhaltsverzeichnis EINLEITUNG:ICHBINAUSLÄNDER!4 KAPITEL I.AUSGANGSLAGE:DEUTSCHLAND,EINEINWANDERUNGSLAND8 HETEROGENE BEVÖLKERUNGSSTRUKTUR IN DEUTSCHLAND8 URSACHENFORSCHUNG: MIGRATION12 Die räumliche Dimension der Migration13 Die Binnenwanderung13 Internationale Wanderung15 Die zeitliche Dimension der Migration16 Die kausale Dimension der Migration17 ERKLÄRUNGSANSATZ ZUR MIGRATION: DAS PUSH-PULL-FAKTORENMODELL20 Freiwillige Migration: die Pull-Faktoren25 Erzwungene Migration: die Push-Faktoren26 Krieg26 Armut27 Kindersterblichkeit, Hunger und medizinischer Notstand29 Umweltkatastrophen32 Umweltflüchtlinge – die vergessenen Opfer33 Ursachen der Umweltmigration34 Deposition34 Degradation34 Desaster37 Destabilisierung39 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG,FAZITUNDAUSBLICK41 KAPITEL II.FOKUS:INTEGRATION44 EXKURS.DIEKOSTENDERNICHT-INTEGRATION44 Die nicht monetären Aspekte eines Scheiterns der Integration44 Der finanzielle Aspekt der Nicht-Integration45 Begriffsbestimmung: Akkulturation48 Integration49 Assimilation50 Separation50 Exklusion50 Zusammenfassung51 Internationale Politik und interreligiöser Dialog52 Weltpolitische Einflussfaktoren auf die kommunale Integrationsarbeit52 Das Exklusionsmodell57 KAPITEL III.STATUS:INTEGRATIONSPOLITIKINDEUTSCHLAND59 VON DER NICHTAKZEPTANZGESELLSCHAFTLICHER REALITÄT.60 Die Anwerbephase60 Die Konsolidierungsphase62 Die Phase der Integrationskonzepte63 Die Phase der Begrenzungspolitik64 Die Phase der restriktiven gesetzlichen Regelungen64 ZUR ZÖGERNDEN ANERKENNUNG DER TATSACHEN66 Die Reform des Staatsangehörigkeitgesetztes66 Die Reform des Zuwanderungsgesetzes67 KAPITEL IV.ORTDERENTSCHEIDUNG:DIEKOMMUNEN70 DIEKOMMUNEALS"ROBUSTEINTEGRATIONSMASCHINE"70 Kommune als Primus inter Pares in der kommunalen Integrationspolitik71 Institutioneller Handlungsrahmen für Kommunen72 Kommunale Ressourcen für Integration73 Der Wiener Integrationsfonds: ein Bekenntnis zur Integration80 Beispielprojekt "Besiedlungsmanagement"84 Beispielprojekt "Sprachoffensive"85 Beispielprojekt "Bildungsdrehscheibe – Alles ist LERNBAR"87 DIVERSITY UND DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT88 BEURTEILUNG UND AUSBLICK95 ZWISCHENBETRACHTUNG.WELCHEAUFGABENGILTESZUBEWÄLTIGEN?97 KAPITELV.LÖSUNGSANSATZ:DIEBALANCEDSCORECARDIMCONTROLLINGREGELKREIS100 DEFINITION CONTROLLING100 Die Vision101 Die Mission102 Die Umfeld und Unternehmensanalyse: SWOT103 Die Strategiefindung104 Die operative Umsetzung: Ziele, Maßnahmen und Erfolgsmessung106 HISTORIE UND ZIELSETZUNG DER BALANCED SCORECARD107 Die Finanzperspektive109 Die Kundenperspektive109 Die interne Prozess-Perspektive110 Die Lern- und Entwicklungsperspektive110 Das Projekt-Definitionsblatt: Übersicht ist alles115 EXKURS.GRAPHISCHEDARSTELLUNGDERBALANCEDSCORECARD116 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG.VORTEILEDERBALANCEDSCORECARD117 KAPITELVI.EINWURF:ISTINTEGRATIONÜBERHAUPTSTEUERBAR?118 INTEGRATION MIT DEM HERZEN… ODER WAS MANN NICHT MESSEN KANN118 KAPITEL VII.SEITENBLICKE: CONTROLLING UND DIE BALANCED SCORECARD AUßERHALB DER FREIEN WIRTSCHAFT – EIN KONZEPT SETZT SICH DURCH128 DIE BALANCED SCORECARD FÜR NON-PROFIT-ORGANISATIONEN128 Die BSC in der öffentlichen Verwaltung129 Beispiel: Die City-Scorecard der Stadt Charlotte130 Die Gender Scorecard des Kulturwirtschaftlichen Gründerzentrums in Bochum132 WEITERE BEISPIELE UND ANREGUNGEN133 KAPITEL VIII.LÖSUNGSANSATZ: DIE BALANCED INTEGRATION CARD FÜR ULM136 Die Kontaktstelle für ausländische Bürgerschaft: Ulm bekennt sich zu seiner Heterogenität138 Ulms Vision: Vom friedlichen und gleichberechtigten Zusammenleben aller Bürger140 Die externe Analyse: Chancen und Risiken im Integrationsumfeld142 Das Migrationsumfeld142 Das wirtschaftliche Umfeld143 Das demographische Umfeld144 Das soziale Umfeld147 Das schulische und wissenschaftliche Umfeld147 Die interne Analyse: Stärken und Schwächen der Ulmer Integrationspolitik148 Stärken: Erfahrung, Kompetenz und Heterogenität148 Schwächen: Angespannte Finanzressourcen und mangelnder Sinn für die Querschnittaufgabe Integration148 Strategiefindung: Nicht kleckern, klotzen!150 Strategieausformulierung und die Dimensionen der BIC151 Vernetzung der strategischen Stoßrichtungen: die Strategy Map.160 EINWURF: ABER WO BLEIBT DENN DIE RELIGION?164 DIE TERRORISTEN MISSBRAUCHEN IHREN EIGENEN GLAUBEN!165 RELIGION IST PRIVATSACHE!166 RELIGION DARF KEIN TRENNENDER FAKTOR SEIN!166 MISSBRAUCH DER RELIGION IST DAS LETZTE GLIED IN EINER KETTE VON FEHLERN!167 Ziele, Maßnahmen und Kennzahlen: Das Herzstück der BIC168 Die BIC Dimension Sprache169 Die BIC Dimension (Aus)Bildung173 Die BIC Dimension Arbeit176 Die BIC Dimension Sozialisation179 Die Interne BIC-Perspektive186 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG, FAZIT UND SCHLUSSBEMERKUNG192 ANHANG.196 WEITERFÜHRENDE GEDANKEN UND MÖGLICHE FORSCHUNGSSCHWERPUNKTE196 WENN AUSLÄNDER DEUTSCHE WERDEN: STATISTIKPROBLEME196 MANAGING BY THE NUMBER: ÜBER ZEITREIHENANALYSEN UND BENCHMARKING197 GELUNGENE INTEGRATION KANN DER STARTSCHUSS FÜR NEUE PROBLEME SEIN199 "FRÜHWARNSYSTEM" AUSLÄNDER202 DIE VERZAHNUNG VON BALANCED SCORECARDS – ODER WIE MAN INTEGRATION AUF MEHREREN EBENEN ANGEHT204 DAS PROJEKT-DEFINITIONSBLATT: EINEVORLAGE207 DANKSAGUNG208 LITERATURVERZEICHNIS209Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel II., Exkurs: Die Kosten der Nicht-Integration: Bevor ich mich nun näher mit der Begriffsbestimmung für Integration beschäftigen werde, möchte ich noch einen Exkurs in ein wichtiges Thema wagen: die Kosten der Nicht-Integration. Wie wir gesehen haben – und viele von uns ja in der Praxis auch wahrnehmen – ist Integration ein äußerst schwieriger und laufend andauernder Prozess. Altkanzler Helmut Schmidt spricht aufgrund dieser Schwierigkeiten mit der Integration heute sogar offen darüber, dass er "die Anwerbung von Gastarbeitern bedauert. (…). Insofern war es ein Fehler, dass wir zu Beginn der 60er Jahre Gastarbeiter aus fremden Kulturen ins Land holten." Wenn es aber nun so schwierig ist (manche meinen: unmöglich), die Einheimischen und die Migranten zu einer gemeinsamen, gleichberechtigte Gesellschaft zu integrieren, könnte man doch lapidar – und zweifelsohne wenig politisch korrekt - die Frage stellen: warum verwenden wir dann Ressourcen darauf? Warum Geld und Arbeit, Gefühle und Herzblut, warum Kopfzerbrechen und Vertrauen investieren, wenn der erfolgreiche Ausgang gar nicht sicher ist? Warum lassen wir den Dingen nicht einfach (weiterhin) ihren Lauf? Die Antwort darauf möchte ich im Folgenden versuchen zu geben. Die nicht-monetären Aspekte eines Scheiterns der Integration Der wichtigste Aspekt für das Eintreten in Sachen Integration ist der des (inneren) Friedens. Nur wenn es uns allen gelingt, in einer Gesellschaft zu leben, in der niemand aufgrund seiner Hautfarbe, seiner Herkunft oder seiner Religion diskriminiert wird, werden wir den inneren Frieden wahren können. Sobald sich eine Gruppe von Mitmenschen systematisch benachteiligt fühlt, wird sie sich abkapseln und die geltenden Normen, Rechte und Gesetzte nicht weiter beachten. Kriminalität und Gewalt, bis hin zur bewaffneten Auseinandersetzung könnten die Folge sein. Das Beispiel des Zerfalls von Jugoslawien – direkt vor Europas Haustür! – sollte uns alle daran erinnern, dass das Zusammenleben verschiedener Ethnien und Religionsgemeinschaften jeden Tag neu erarbeitet werden muss. Überspitzt formuliert, aber keinesfalls unzutreffend könnte man also sagen, wer Integrationsarbeit leistet, macht sich um den Frieden verdient. Ein weiterer Aspekt ist der der Wahrheit bzw. der Redlichkeit: es waren wir Deutschen, die die Ausländer regelrecht angeworben haben. Wir haben sie zu uns ins Land geholt, weil es bei uns Arbeitsplätze zu besetzen gab, die wir selbst nicht ausführen wollten: schmutzige, dreckige, erniedrigende Arbeit, für die ein Deutscher doch "viel zu gut" war. Diesen Menschen bzw. deren Kindern und Enkelkindern jetzt einen gleichberechtigten Zugang in die verschiedenen Bereiche unserer Gesellschaft (Bildung, Arbeit, Vereinsleben, etc.) zu ermöglichen, ist das Mindeste was wir tun können. Sich jetzt vor dem Problem der Integration zu verschließen, hieße die selbst verursachten Probleme nicht angehen zu wollen. Wer noch immer die Augen vor diesen Argumenten verschließt, ist ein egoistischer, kühl kalkulierender Mensch. Doch auch und gerade an diese Mitbürger möchte ich appellieren: Integration lohnt sich – im wahrsten Sinne des Wortes! Wie das gemeint ist, erläutere ich im nun folgenden Abschnitt. Der finanzielle Aspekt der Nicht-Integration "Eine Investition in Wissen bringt immer noch die besten Zinsen" (Benjamin Franklin, amerikanischer Politiker, Erfinder, Philosoph). Angesichts der schwierigen Probleme, die bei laufenden Integrationsbemühungen immer wieder zu konstatieren sind, stellt sich verstärkt die Frage nach den finanziellen Kosten eines Scheiterns der Integration. Natürlich darf Zuwanderung nicht allein auf monetäre Gewinne oder Verluste reduziert werden – schon gar nicht dürfen wir bei uns lebende Migranten nach ihrem wirtschaftlichen Nutzen oder Schaden beurteilen (und alle anderen Mitbürger natürlich auch nicht). Trotzdem ist eine volkswirtschaftliche Betrachtung der (Nicht) Integration in so fern zulässig, als sie uns Aufschluss über die Dringlichkeit der Aufgabe zu geben vermag. Hierzu finden sich in der Literatur verschiedene Quellen. Autoren wie Göbel oder Dr. Hans Dietrich von Loeffelholz betrachten den Bildungsstand der Migranten und die daraus resultierenden Chancen und Positionen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. Beide haben in ihren Untersuchungen lediglich Westdeutschland analysiert, was in meinen Augen die Aussagekraft des Ergebnisses für Gesamtdeutschland aufgrund der extrem niedrigen Ausländeranteile der neuen Bundesländer nicht wesentlich beeinträchtigen dürfte.
A STUDY OF CODE-SWITCHING OF TEACHER TALK ON TRAINEE TEACHER IN PPL II PROGRAM OF STATE UNIVERSITY OF SURABAYA Renata Kenanga Rinda 10020084019 English Education, Faculty of Languages and Art, State University of Surabaya email: renata.rinda195@gmail.com Dosen Pembimbing: Prof. Dr. Hj. Lies Amin Lestari, M.A, M.Pd English Education, Faculty of Languages and Art, State University of Surabaya Abstrak Terdapat perbedaan pandangan tentang penggunaan alih kode dalam bahasa guru pada pengajaran bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Di satu sisi, bahasa Inggris sangat dianjurkan untuk digunakan sebagai bahasa satu-satunya dalam mengajar, namun teori lain justru mengusulkan penggunaan beberapa bahasa sebagai alat guru dalam mengajarkan bahasa Inggris. Menanggapi masalah tersebut, penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui jenis-jenis bahasa, jenis-jenis alih kode, dan alasan penggunaannya yang dilakukan oleh calon guru pada PPL II, Universitas Negeri Surabaya. Catatan lapangan dan rekaman digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data yang diperlukan dalam penelitian deskriptif kualitatif ini. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada tiga jenis bahasa yang digunakan oleh calon guru; Bahasa Inggris, Indonesia, Jawa, dan Arab, dengan tiga jenis alih kode; tag-switching, inter-sentential switching, dan intra-sentential switching. Hasil penelitian juga mengungkapkan lima alasan penggunaan alih bahasa yaitu sebagai alat untuk mengajar, member penegasan, mengkritik, menyemangati, dan menanyakan hal kepada siswa yang membantu calon guru dalam mengelola kelas. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, dapat disimpulkan bahwa hasil penelitian ini mendukung teori kedua yang menganjurkan penggunaan beberapa bahasa dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Kata Kunci: mengajar bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua, bahasa guru, alih kode. Abstract The practice of code-switching in teacher talk for the teaching of English as second language exposed a contradictive theory about it. On the one hand, English was strongly proposed as the only language to be used while other theories allow the use of various languages as medium of instruction implemented used as the teacher's equipment in managing the classroom. Coping with the above dilemma, this research aimed at investigating the types of languages, types of code-switching, and reasons of using them in trainee teacher's teacher talk in PPL II program of State University of Surabaya. Field notes and audio recording were employed in five observations to confirm the data revealed under the descriptive qualitative research. The findings pointed out that there were four types of languages used in trainee teacher's teacher talk; English, Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese, and Arabic, with three types of code-switching; tag switching, inter-sentential switching, and intra-sentential switching. The findings also described five reasons of using code-switching; lecturing, giving directions or confirmation, criticizing or justifying authority, praising or encouraging, and asking question toward the students which helped the trainee teacher managed the class. In sum, the result of this study supported the second theory which allows the use of various languages in teaching English in second language classroom. Keywords: teaching English as a second language, teacher talk, code-switching introduction Reinforcing the Indonesia's competitiveness as a member of the developing nations, the demand to improve people's education level is enormously needed. Then, to cope with it, teachers as the foremost stakeholder in this area have the biggest role to settle on whether the improvement can be achieved or not. This fact is agreed as a general truth for the reason that the students' enhancement in the class is most impacted by the teachers (McCaffrey, Lockwood, Koretz, Louis, & Hamilton, 2004). As a result, this reality becomes a powerful foundation for the Government to construct a shifting rule in education policies. Several policies are made, then the most significant one is the lecturers and teachers regulation that is called UU No. 14/2005, short of Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 14 Tahun 2005 Tentang Guru dan Dosen. Basically, it has three major points stated; the general rules of teachers, teachers' competences and qualifications, and then the obligations and rights of the teachers. The three of them go in certain directions which make the system of education enhanced through the development of the teachers' quality. Fulfilling the above goal, the policy regulates some criteria that teachers should have; pedagogical, personality, professionalism, and social competences. Indeed, realizing the four criteria mentioned is not an effortless task to deal with. The Government will not be able to reach it without working hand in hand with other components in the education world. Under this consideration, the Government calls for shot to the education institutions to prop up the new policy. One of the umbrella institutions that gets the mandate is State University of Surabaya that has main responsibility to educate the undergraduate students who take education as their major of study. Regarding to the Government's requirements, State University of Surabaya tries to bring them into reality through a program named PPL, stands for Program Pengalaman Lapangan consisting of PPL I and PPL II. Consequently, all of the students in Education Department, State University of Surabaya, which is English Department, have to participate in both programs. In materializing those programs, in the sixth semester, the English Education Department conducts PPL I program carried in the campus to train the undergraduate students through microteaching activity. After that, the PPL II program starts on the seventh semester. This program held in the real teaching environment in several schools chosen for approximately three months long. This makes PPL II different from PPL I. Among several schools selected by the English Education Department, SMP Negeri 1 Madiun is one of them. In this school, there were four English undergraduate students who practiced teaching in the academic year of 2013. They had conscientiousness to manage the classroom in the seventh grade as real teachers. Based on the informal observation toward those trainee teachers, it was found that all of them tried to handle the class by using English. They greeted the students, delivered the material, and even responded to the questions by utilizing the same language. This special language used by the trainee teachers to address the students in English classroom is called teacher talk (Ellis, 1985). Moreover, teacher talk turns out to be a major resource of the students related to their language input (Al-Otaibi, 2004). By giving good model through their talk, it is hoped that students can get good example in practicing English. Understanding this theory, the trainee teachers in SMP Negeri 1 Madiun were in the right track to keep implementing English in their talk. By giving the proper model of applying English, the students were expected to do the same. Nonetheless, the implementation of teacher talk of trainee teachers by using English in the seventh grade of SMP Negeri 1 Madiun was not supported well. Many students' responses came up beyond the expectation. When the classroom atmosphere was packaged in all English, most students got confused and frustrated. They neither understood some words nor comprehend the teachers' instructions. As a result; some students lost their attention to the trainee teachers. In order to cope with the unforeseen condition, the trainee teachers frequently changed their teacher talk into other languages such as Bahasa Indonesia or Javanese as alternative languages. These changing languages always happened automatically. In the first minute, the trainee teachers used English then suddenly changed it into Bahasa Indonesia or Javanese then got back into English. The three languages were used in one single sentence. In another occasion, the different pattern was found; sometimes the trainee teachers' teacher talk was implemented in English while the class began, then in the middle of running the class, the use of Bahasa Indonesia was implemented then finally the trainee teachers closed their talk by reusing English. The above process of changing one language into other languages that happen in the middle of talk is called code-switching (Cook, 2000). The code-switching possibly involved in teacher talk is an unavoidable result of communication that happens among various languages circumstances. Moreover, because of code-switching in teacher talk is a special occurrence in teaching English, there are many analysis and theoretical discussions that are elicited in the previous decades (Gumperz, 1982). Several findings towards it spread out in the education world. Regarding to the above fact of code-switching language in teacher talk, it provided the underlying principle for undertaking this descriptive research, and which was initiated in a challenge to describe the types of languages, types of code-switching, and reasons of using them in trainee teacher's teacher talk. Furthermore, by identifying them, it is expected that the findings of this research will be useful to draw the map of code-switching language that might happen in five or ten years later when the trainee teachers of PPL II program of English Education Department become a part of materializing the Indonesia's education improvement as real teachers. METHODOLOGY Research Subjects Reflecting on the purposes of this research, it considered the three parameters in choosing the research subject; the status, the background language, and the achievement. The status of the subject observed was a trainee teacher. The researcher selected her rather than the real English teacher at that school since the trainee teacher observed right now would replace the position of the real teacher in conducting the second language classroom in the future. As a consequence, the research findings would be valuable information prepared for the trainee teacher before being a teacher. Then, the second reason was the language background. The trainee teacher and the students of SMP Negeri 1 Madiun, speak the same languages, it made the phenomenon of code-switching possibly appeared. Besides, the researcher considered the trainee teacher chosen for being a good model and achieving good GPA; 3, 57 within 0 – 4 scale. Instruments In this research, the field note observation and audio recording were utilized as the research instruments. By implementing the field note observation, it is possible to focus on the ongoing behaviors occur and note the most important feature in the classroom (Bailey, 1994). The model of field note was adapted from Konsep Penetian Tindakan Kelas dan Penelitianya. It consisted of four parts; identification, instruction, description material, and reflection material (Susanto, 2010). Then, the audio-recording was also employed as the second instruments to record the detail information appeared. Data Collection In collecting the data, five observations were conducted. Each observation took 2 sessions in 80 minutes. Moreover, the five observations were done in five weeks; four weeks on July and one week on August that were classified into two parts; direct informal observation and direct formal observation. Direct informal observation was conducted on the first week of August before running the formal one in order to know the basic information and condition of the subject observed in the classroom. Then, on the first, second, and third formal observations, the audio recording was placed on the nearest area of the trainee teacher in order to get the clearest sound. Then, the field note described the types of language, types of code-switching, and reasons of using them in the trainee teacher' teacher talk on the description material. Next, the reflection material column was completed with the researcher's point of view related to the case found. Last, while the fourth formal observation was completed, the researcher had to pay more attention toward the subject observed. Here, since the trainee teacher did not make any difference towards her types of languages, types code-switching used, and reasons of using them, the researcher could stop the observation. Data Analysis Types of Languages Related to the types of languages, the data found in the first observation were coded by "a", second observation coded by "b", and third observation coded by "c". Then they were identified based on the four types of languages used; English, Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese, and Arabic. Those four types of languages were reclassified by the researcher based on the language combinations made by the trainee teacher namely first, English and Bahasa Indonesia, second, English and Javanese, third, English and Arabic, fourth, Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese, and last, English, Javanese, and Bahasa Indonesia. Types of Code-switching The types of code-switching were grouped based on Sankoff & Poplack (1981) namely tag-switching, inter-sentential switching, and intra-sentential switching. Moreover, the trainee teacher reclassified them concerning on the process involved; tag-switching were divided regarding on the simple fixed word insertion at the beginning and the end of code-switching, inter-sentential switching was reclassified into code switching between sentences or sentence and clause, and intra-sentential switching reclassified into word or phrase embedded in phrase or clause from another language, word or phrase inserted between words or phrases from another language, and words or phrase stayed between two types of languages. Reasons of using code-switching in teacher talk The reasons of using the code-switching in teacher talk made by the trainee teacher were identified based on Flanders (1970). There were seven categories which are lecturing, giving directions, criticizing or justifying authority, accepting feeling, praising or encouraging, accepting or using the students' thought, and asking question towards the students. RESULTS Types of Languages After analyzing the field notes and audio recording transcriptions that were completed by the researcher on August 21st, August 28th, and September 4th, 2013, it was found that there were 211 code-switching used by the trainee teacher in her teacher talk. In those code-switching, four languages were used as the trainee teacher's tool to accomplish the process of teaching English. Then, those four types of languages were reclassified by the researcher based on the language combinations made by the trainee teacher namely first, English and Bahasa Indonesia, second, English and Javanese, third, English and Arabic, four, Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese, and last, English, Javanese, and Bahasa Indonesia. The supporting facts quoted from the trainee teacher's teacher talk related to the four languages found are provided in the following paragraphs. Firstly, the combination between English and Bahasa Indonesia languages contributed in three observations conducted. In the first observation, there were 53 code-switching composed by the two types of languages mentioned. Then, on the second observation it gained enlargement and reached 76 numbers. Last, it reduced slightly to 19 numbers on the third observation. Moreover, one of those examples was labeled by 1: (1) Student 18 :I will go to Mecca on May. Teacher :That's enough. Sekarang mana Karina? Could you please tell me what is Azar's plan on May? (1) Student 28 :He will go to Mecca. Teacher :On May, he will go to Mecca, repeat it. The code-switching marked by 1 was the example of the code-switching that used English and Bahasa Indonesia combination. At that time, the trainee teacher wanted student 18 namely Azar to tell his plan on May. After hearing Azar's plan, the trainee teacher asked another student that was student 28, Karina, by first implementing the code-switching that was stated in Bahasa Indonesia, "Sekarang mana Karina?" to call her and then followed by English sentence stated in interrogative form," Could you please tell me what is Azar's plan on May?" Then, related to the reason of using it, the trainee teacher did the code-switching for asking question toward student 28 in order to tell what student 18 planned on May. Another example of this combination was also found in the code-switching numbered by 2: (2) Student 1 :Silent. Teacher :No? Why? You still have no idea? Okay, I will play the video again and listen. (Playing the video). You all must know how to tell time. What is the importance of telling time? This is the answer. So, what do you think about it? I need to learn telling time because I need to know time to go to school for example. What else? What else? Seperti yang disebutkan di video tadi (2). Students : Silent. Teacher :I need to telling time because? Anyone? Anyone? Aga? Through the above example, the existence of English and Bahasa Indonesia were also clearly seen. Firstly, the trainee teacher asked the students about the importance of the material given. Since the students were not able to answer the trainee teacher's question, she delivered her question again. Then, she finally answered her own question in order to show the students how to deal with it On the contrary; the students were silent and gained no movement. Moreover, related to this example, the code-switching was used. English came first then followed by Bahasa Indonesia. Then, the unique thing appeared in this example was when the trainee teacher switched her talk from English to Bahasa Indonesia, there was also English word insertion "video" in the middle of Bahasa Indonesia sentence. Next, in line with its function, through this code-switching, the trainee teacher tried to give confirmation about the answer of the question mentioned before. Then, the second combination involved the two types of languages which were English and Javanese, also recorded in the three observations conducted but the combination was only found in one number for each. The trainee teacher did this second combination in 3: (3) Students :Doubt . . . climbing. (Repeating the teacher) Teacher :Yes, right. Student 13 :ndaut . . .ndaut (Speaking in Javanese) Teacher :No, it is different. Ndaut is an activity which is usually done by the farmer, right? (3) At this point, the word ndaut taken from Javanese came first then followed by English. This code switching was implemented when the trainee teacher taught the pronunciation of the word doubt. The trainee teacher lectured the students in correct way by saying /daƱt/. Otherwise, the students made fun of it and preferred to pronounce doubt as ndaut since they had already known and more familiar with this Javanese word comparing to English. For that reason, the trainee teacher commented on the students' pronunciation by criticizing them by delivering code-switching containing English and Javanese language. Then, the second example related to the same combination was stated in 4: (4) Student 15 :Raising her hand. Teacher :Okay. Student 15 :We need to know time to have breakfast. Teacher :Okay, we need to know what time to have breakfast. And then? Heh, sorry, what is your name? (4) At this point, the trainee teacher had a discussion with the students about the importance of telling time. When the students wanted to share their idea about it, they had to raise their hands then the trainee teacher gave them a score by marking their name list. The trainee teacher used the code-switching to call the student by mentioning him in Javanese word heh to replace the student's name since she did not know yet. Then, it was followed by a question formed in English. By implementing this code-switching, the trainee teacher used it as a tool for asking question to the student. Next, the third combination was comprised from English and Arabic language. This language combination was only found in the second observation in one number. It was supported by the code-switching labeled 5: (5) Student 3 :Balik ke Surabaya kapan? Teacher :Insyaalloh, I will back to Surabaya at September, 15 (5). Guys, on September 14, my friends and I will have a surprise for all of you Students : Apa? Surprise? This code-switching appeared while the students asked when the trainee teacher would back to her college in Surabaya. In answering the students' question, she implemented an Arabic word insyaallah that was commonly used in Indonesia even though most of Indonesians do not speak Arabic well. Moreover, it was used as a mark of certainty related to the future plan as cited in," "Insyaallah, I will back to Surabaya at September, 15." The Arabic word was stated first then an English sentence formed in the future tense mentioning the exact date of the trainee teacher's leaving. Through this point, it could be observed that the trainee teacher used code-switching as the teacher's tool for giving a confirmation for a certain case. The fourth combination was the only one that did not contain English in it. It was composed from Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese that appeared on three numbers in the second observation and one in the third observation. The example was labeled by 6: (6) Teacher :Kamu tahu kata kerja bentuk pertama? Student : . . . . . (silent) Teacher :Kata kerja pertama itu gak enek embel-embel e (6). Students : Ohh . . . At first, Bahasa Indonesia was implemented, and then it was switched to Javanese language in gak enek embel-embel e. Moreover, by delivering this code-switching, the trainee teacher lectured her students in defining the verb used for telling the daily activities. She said, the verb one should not be added by –ed or –ing that the students usually made mistakes on. Another example of the same language combination mentioned in 7: (7) Teacher :Begini, kita di sini dinilai sama guru pamong. Guru pamongnya siapa? Bu Pur. Student 8 :Yang bahasa Inggris itu? Teacher :He em, guru angkat yang di sini. Ibu angkat yang di sini (7) Student 32 : Brarti tinggalnya di mana? Similarly, the trainee teacher implemented Bahasa Indonesia first, and switched to Javanese then. Nevertheless, in 7, the trainee teacher used the code-switching to give confirmation toward the student 8's question by saying he em in order to express her agreement with the student's statement. The last combination happened among English, Javanese, and Bahasa Indonesia. This combination was comprised from three types of languages that did not appear on the first and second observation but finally used in one number in the third observation. It was labeled by 8: (8) Student 21 :Masih bingung, Miss Teacher :Okay. Verb one do not contain embel-embel apapun. Gak enek embel-embel apa-apanya. Hanya bentuk dasar, okay (8). Firstly, English was used to mention the case that the trainee teacher explained, then Javanese appeared in the middle of the sentence, and finally it was ended by the code-switching to Bahasa Indonesia. The trainee teacher used this code-switching to answer the students' question related to the correct form of the verb that should be used in making a sentence based on the picture given on the slide show. Since there were many students got confuse, the trainee teacher chose to explain the case by implementing Javanese and Bahasa Indonesia in order to make the students get a clear understanding. Through the above descriptions in connection with the types of languages in the three weeks observations that were conducted in row, in short, the trainee teacher did the code switching in her teacher talk by utilizing four languages by implementing five combinations. In addition, the trainee teacher preferred to use the first combination of English and Bahasa Indonesia comparing to the other four combinations namely English and Javanese, English and Arabic, Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese, and English, Javanese, and Bahasa Indonesia that only appeared in less than three numbers. Types of Code-switching In terms of the types of code-switching used, three observations that were conducted by the researcher gave the same results. Then, they were grouped based on Sankoff & Poplack (1981); tag-switching, inter-sentential switching, and intra-sentential switching. Tag-switching was the easiest type of code-switching that could be identified. Its characteristic which is the insertion of simple fixed word from one language in a sentence from another language becomes a valuable sign in marking this code-switching's type. Moreover, there were 60 tag-switching found during the observations; 18 of them used in the first observation, 26 in the second observation, and 16 in the third observation. They created two different patterns related to the simple fixed word place of insertion. The first pattern was the simple fixed word insertion embedded at the beginning of the sentence. As it was stated in 9: (9) Student 21 :Miss, saya? Teacher :Tunggu, Budi duluan. Come on Budi, kamu bisa Budi (9). Kamu bisa, ini sangat gampang. Come on as part of English simple fixed word was inserted at the beginning of code-switching then was followed by Bahasa Indonesia language. At that time, the trainee teacher wanted Budi to come forward and tell his assignment in front of his friends. On the contrary, the student did not give any response and kept silent. Dealing with it, the trainee teacher encouraged the student by saying "come on" then did automatic changing language by switching her talk to Bahasa Indonesia. As a result, Budi participated in the classroom activity and showed his ability in presenting the assignment. Another example of this pattern was also mentioned in 10: (10) Teacher :Can I borrow it? Just for showing the slide show. Just for showing the slide show. Student 23 :Giving his laptop. Teacher :Okay, thank you. Sorry, something goes wrong with the laptop. Sorry. Just be quite while waiting me to set the laptop. Just wait. Do not make any noise. Just wait. Just wait. The laptop is error. Sorry. Just wait. Just wait. We will still continue the lesson. Nah, it should be like this (10) Comparing to the previous question, in this tag-switching, the simple fixed word was formed in Bahasa Indonesia nah. Then, related to its function, the trainee teacher tried to give a confirmation related to the picture projected from the laptop. However, the code-switching that was labeled by 10 still had the same pattern with the previous one. Another tag-switching that had different pattern related to the position of the simple fixed word insertion was observed in 11: (11)Students : . . . . . . . . (making noise) Teacher :I won't start if you are still making noise. Anyone, hello boys over there back to your seat please. I won't start the lesson if you still make noise, sudah? (11) Students :Sudah. Teacher :Okay, anyone, do you remember what we did in last lesson? Do you still remember what we did last lesson? In this tag-switching, sudah was inserted in the end of the sentence. It was contradictive with the previous pattern that the simple fixed word used at the beginning of the tag-switching. In 11, sudah was spoken in Bahasa Indonesia that was embedded in the English sentence. Moreover, concerning to its function, by delivering this code-switching the trainee teacher justified her authority in controlling the classroom situation since there were many students who kept busy in their talking when the lesson started. After delivering this tag-switching, the trainee teacher started the classroom activities when the situation was not too noisy. Then, not only found in 11, the second pattern of tag-switching also observed in 12: (12)Student 4 :Great time? Teacher :Great time has the same meaning with very happy. Mereka sangat bahagia setiap kali mereka berkumpul, clear? (12) Students :Yes. In 12, the trainee teacher spoke in Bahasa Indonesia first, then, she switched her talk to English by mentioning a simple fixed word "clear". Through this example, the trainee teacher used the same pattern of tag-switching as shown in 11 but it had different reason which was asking question toward the students' understanding. Besides the above examples, other simple fixed words found were eight in English; okay, sorry, right, hello, please, now, guys, and stop, and three in Bahasa Indonesia; ya, siapa, and jangan. All of them created the same pattern with the two examples explored which were either embedded at the beginning or at the end of the tag-switching. After investigating the existence of tag-switching, the second types of it namely inter-sentential switching was also implemented by the trainee teacher. There were 92 inter-sentential switching used by the trainee teacher during her teaching; 25 found in the first, 36 in the second, and 31 in the third observation. Generally, it happened in two patterns which were first, inter-sentential switching between sentences and second, inter-sentential switching between sentence and clause. The trainee teacher did inter-sentential switching between two sentences in 13: (13)Teacher :Okay, could you please continue your plans? Student 25 :I will visit Bandung on January. Teacher: Now, Rio. What is Granta's plan on January? Gak usah tanya yang lain (13). Student 26 :He will . . . The utterances in 13 were composed by two sentences, first sentence formed in all English and then it was followed by the second sentence stated in Bahasa Indonesia. The trainee teacher changed her talk after finishing her full sentence in one language first, and then stated the sentence in different language. This reason made it classified into inter-sentential between two sentences. Next, concerning on the function of this switching, at this time, the trainee teacher wanted student 28 to answer her question about student 25's plan on January. To elicit the student, the trainee teacher directed a question to him. Another example of inter-sentential switching between two sentences also used in 14: (14)Student 5 : Ya ampun angel e. Teacher :Contohnya seperti tadi ya. Just make piece of paragraph or writing. Caranya gampang kan, seperti tadi. (417) Student 5 :Ini dikumpulkan? The example showed that the trainee teacher mentioned the sentence in Bahasa Indonesia that was switched to English then returned to Bahasa Indonesia. This inter-sentential switching turned up when the trainee teacher wanted to give confirmation to the students related to the assignment given which was about creating a simple paragraph. Showing the different pattern, inter-sentential switching used between sentence and clause was found in 15: (15)Teacher :Just say the tree is okay, but tree of hopes is also okay because your tree contains of so many hopes so you can say the tree of hopes. Student 9 :Opo? Opo? Teacher :The tree is okay. The tree of hopes is okay. Because almost of all of these contain your hopes. That is okay. I give the name "the tree" or "the tree of hopes" karena pohonnya banyak sekali mengandung harapan-harapan kalian (15). The English sentence was spoken first and then followed by clause in Bahasa Indonesia. Here, the English sentence could actually stand by itself without any clause followed. However, in this case, the clause spoken in Bahasa Indonesia was used as an extended reason for the preceding sentence. As a consequence, it made the existence of inter-sentential switching between sentence and clause clearly seen. Moreover, through this switching, the trainee teacher gave a confirmation toward the title of the assignment given that the students asked. Also, the pattern of inter-sentential switching was observed in 16: (16)Students :Discussing and continuing their tree of hopes with their friends. Student 4 :Kalau pengen lihat Sakura di Jepang? Teacher :I will visit Japan to see the beautiful Sakura. Seperti ini nanti, on January I will visit France. (16) Bahasa Indonesia clause seperti ini nanti was stated just before the English sentence. Here, the trainee teacher used it as a tool to lecture the students about how to write down their plan for each month. Last, the analysis of the third type of code-switching which is intra-sentential switching found in 59 numbers. Starting from the first to the last observation, the number of intra-sentential switching was decreasing. There were 10 numbers found in first, then 20 numbers in the second, then reached up to 12 in the last observation. Furthermore, the present of intra-sentential switching can be observed when there is an insertion of word or phrase embedded in phrase stated in another language inside the sentence boundary. There were three patterns found contributed in intra-sentential switching. First pattern of intra-sentential switching is a phrase or word that was embedded into another phrase or clause formed in different language. This pattern was mentioned in 17: (17)Teacher :Apa ini pentingnya? Kenapa harus mempelajari ini? Kenapa kita harus mempelajari telling time? (17). Student 3 :Silent. Teacher :Ada yang tahu? On the above situation, the trainee teacher implemented intra-sentential switching by using Bahasa Indonesia to ask the students about the importance of the material given, Kenapa kita harus mempelajari . . . However, she still stated the theme of the lesson by inserting English phrase "telling time" at the end of the sentence that made the existence of intra-sentential switching used. By implementing this intra-sentential switching, the trainee teacher was able to make the students answer the question she asked about. The second example of the same pattern of intra-sentential switching labeled by 18: (18)Teacher :Jadi seperti itu, kalau misalkan kalian menggunakan ekspresi I wish (18). Contohnya seperti itu. Okay? Students : Yes. In the 18, the trainee teacher lectured the students by implementing tag-switching that happened between Bahasa Indonesia clause and an English phrase. The trainee teacher put her effort in order to explain the material given to the students by using this intra-sentential switching. Then, the second pattern is a word or phrase inserted in the middle of other words or phrases from another language. This pattern was stated in 19: (19)Teacher :Do you have another question? Student 9 :Kalau merayakan ulang tahun temen itu apa, Miss? Teacher :I will celebrate my friend's birthday. My friend pake apostrophe (19). Student 32 :Miss? Miss? The word pake which was taken from Bahasa Indonesia was inserted by the trainee teacher in between English phrase and word. My friend and apostrophe enclosed it on either side, therefore, pake was placed in the middle of them. Moreover, by delivering this intra-sentential switching, the trainee teacher lectured the students related to the lesson given. She informed the students about the use of apostrophe as a possessive noun mark that the students confused. Then, the same pattern of intra-sentential switching also supported by 20: (20)Teacher :To give me a new mobile phone. HP itu mobile phone. (20) Okay? Student 3 :Miss, kalau punya banyak permintaan? Teacher : I have a lot of . . . Here, the word taken from Bahasa Indonesia also stayed in between the two English words. Here the trainee teacher used it to give a confirmation to the students that hand phone is just the same with the mobile phone. Next, the third pattern of intra-sentential switching happened among several words in three languages in one sentence. This pattern appeared only in 8: (21)Teacher :Kata kerja pertama itu gak enek embel-embel e. Student :Ohh . . . Student 21 :Masih bingung, Miss Teacher :Okay. Verb one do not contain embel embel apapun (8). This intra-sentential switching was contributed by three types of languages; English, Javanese, and Bahasa Indonesia. It made the third type different from the two previous examples that were only composed from two types of languages. Furthermore, the word embel-embel, which was stated in Javanese, was inserted by the trainee teacher in between English phrases and Bahasa Indonesia word. This intra-sentential switching was delivered by the trainee teacher when she lectured the students about present tense. At that time, the students commonly made mistakes related to the form of verb that should be used in present tense. As a consequence, the trainee teacher gave them further understanding toward the case by saying intra-sentential switching in 8. After describing the types of code-switching used in trainee teacher's teacher talk, in summary, there were three types of them used in teaching foreign language classroom. They were tag-switching marked by the existence of simple fixed at the beginning or the end of the code-switching, inter-sentential switching identified from its composition between sentences or sentence and clause, and intra-sentential switching that used through word or phrase embedded in phrase or clause from another language, word or phrase inserted between words or phrases from another language, and words or phrase stayed in between two types of languages. DISCUSSION Related to the types of languages contributed on the code-switching done by the trainee teacher in her teacher talk, the implementation of various languages in the second language classroom was proven. The results pointed out the four types of languages; English, Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese, and Arabic that were reclassified by the researcher into five combinations based on the language combinations made by the trainee teacher. They were English and Bahasa Indonesia, English and Javanese, English and Arabic, Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese, and English, Javanese, and Bahasa Indonesia. They were used by the trainee teacher in running the second language classroom of the seventh grade in SMP Negeri 1 Madiun. Since the trainee teacher used various types of languages, it can be said that teaching English as a foreign language will not be able to be separated with the practice of other languages that both trainee teacher and students acquired before. Also reflecting on the same facts, the trainee teacher mostly used the first combination which was English and Bahasa Indonesia stated on 203 numbers in three observations recorded. Then, the others combinations only contributed in few numbers; English and Javanese appeared in 3 times, English and Arabic in once, Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese in twice, and last combination, English, Javanese, and Bahasa Indonesia in once only. Regarding to this fact, among the five combinations found, the trainee teacher preferred to use the first one among the others. Having compared to the theory of teaching English in the second language classroom, the trainee teacher's decision for applying various languages but still put English as the preferable language used among the others was on the correct track. It is believed since the implementation of English provides the language input for the students when there is a very limited support from the other resources (Stern, 1983). This condition was represented by the teaching English as a second language in the seventh grade of SMPN 1 Madiun. The students were lack of resources since English was only used in the English classroom. Then, concerning on the second research question, which was the types of code-switching used, there were three types of them were used in teaching second language classroom based on Sankoff & Poplack (1981). They were tag-switching marked by the existence of simple fixed at the beginning or the end of the code-switching, inter-sentential switching identified from its composition between sentences or sentence and clause, and intra-sentential switching used through word or phrase embedded in phrase or clause from another language, word or phrase inserted between words or phrases from another language, and words or phrase stayed in between two types of languages. Among the three types of code-switching used, inter-sentential switching was most implemented. The use of it was found in 25 numbers in first observation, then it became higher in the second observation which covered 36 numbers, then it decreased slightly in the last observation, 31 numbers. Then, in the second rank was tag-switching found in 60 numbers. In the first observation, it appeared on 18 numbers then enlarged up to 26 in the second observation then finally decreased to be 16 numbers in the third observation. Last, the fewest type of code-switching used was intra-sentential switching that was found in 59 numbers. Ten of them were implemented in the first observation then increased in the second observation and reached up to 12 numbers in the last observation. Referring to the theory in teaching English as a second language, the implementation of code-switching was also allowed to do. It is believed since the use of code-switching becomes an alternative way that can be utilized in bilingual or multilingual circumstances (Auer, 1998). Since English was taught as a foreign language in Indonesia, both teacher and students acquired their first language first. In this case, Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese, and Arabic were languages they spoke before. This reason caused the code-switching made by the trainee teacher composed of the four languages. Conversely, if both teacher and students did not live under the bilingual or multilingual circumstances, they would not have been able to speak various languages then the implementation of code-switching would not be there. Also, by implementing the first language, the process of acquiring the second language which was English would be considered as a successful process since both teacher and students understood the different things about them (Faerch & Kasper, 1983). When the code-switching was implemented, the English was not the only language that was allowed to be used. Here, both first language and English were used together. Through this practice, the understanding about their differences could be clear. For example, in 3, the trainee teacher described the differences between doubt and ndaut. The first word was taken from English while the second one was from Javanese. They both did not have any correlation related to their meaning. In order to make the students understand about them, the trainee teacher used both words in English and Javanese. The third point, in line with the reasons of using the code-switching in teacher talk reflected on Flanders (1970) which are lecturing, giving directions or confirmation, criticizing or justifying authority, accepting feeling, praising or encouraging, accepting or using the students' thought, and asking question towards the students. Among the seven reasons mentioned, only five of them became the reasons why the trainee teacher used code-switching in her talk when teaching English as foreign language was done. They were lecturing the students, giving confirmation, criticizing or justifying the authority, praising and encouraging, and asking question. Based on the above discussions, related to the types of languages and code switching done by the trainee teacher in her teacher talk, both of them were not deniable to be implemented since it revealed five positive reasons of using them. However, the use of English as a foreign language should be maximized in order to give a comprehensible input for the students. CONCLUSIONS Regarding to the results revealed in this study, it exposed the four conclusions related to the research questions discussed. First, related to the types of languages used by the trainee teacher in her teacher talk, there were four types of languages English, Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese, and Arabic represented on the five combinations namely English and Bahasa Indonesia, English and Javanese, English and Arabic, Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese, and English, Javanese, and Bahasa Indonesia. Second, there were three types of code-switching which were tag-switching, inter-sentential switching, and intra-sentential switching in five combinations namely English and Bahasa Indonesia, English and Javanese, English and Arabic, Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese, and English, Javanese, and Bahasa Indonesia. Third, there were five reasons of using the code-switching in teacher talk which were lecturing, giving directions or confirmation, criticizing or justifying authority, praising or encouraging, and asking question towards the students. REFERENCES Al-Otaibi, S. S. H. (2004). The Effect of "Positive Teacher Talk" on Students' Performance, Interaction & Attitudes: A case Study of Female Students at the College of Languages & Translation at King Saud University. King Saud University, King Saud. Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Sorensen, C. (2010). Introduction to Research in Education. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Auer, P. (1998). Code-switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and Identity London: Routledge. Bailey, K. D. (1994). Methods of Social Research (4 ed.). New York: The Free Press. Cook, V. (2000). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching (2 ed.). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press. Faerch, C., & Kasper, G. (1983). 'Plans and strategies in foreign language communication', in Strategies in Interlanguage Communication. London: Longman. Flanders, N. A. (1970). Analyzing Teacher Behavior. Addison-Wesley: Reading Mass. Gumperz, J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McCaffrey, D. F., Lockwood, J. R., Koretz, D., Louis, T. A., & Hamilton, L. (2004). Models for the Value Added Modeling of Teacher Effects. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 1. Sankoff, D., & Poplack, S. (1981). A Formal Grammar for Code-switching International Journal of Human Communication 14(Papers in Linguistics), 3-45. Stern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Susanto. (2010). Konsep Penelitian Tindakan Kelas dan Penerapannya. Surabaya: Lembaga Penerbitan FBS UNESA.
ABSTRACTCharacteristics of the border region is often described as the outermost regions are isolated, backward, and so forth. With the myriad of issues concerning the welfare of society in general were below the poverty line with low levels of education. But life does not always belong to border communities in naming above, Miangas for example, the community has its own traditions how to survive in conditions of isolation and backwardness, have skills in producting seafood, farming and other skills. Long before the existence of state power, the unit from Miangas sides of residence lives bound by customs and a sense of shared identity. Results from this research show that, due to the presence of markers of the state's power infrastructure in this locations, many facilities built by the government in Miangas impressed as empty and wasteful projects that looks abandoned. As well as the presence of power by government intervention ultimately weaken the social institutions in lives of indigenous people, and tends to make people more spoiled and more pragmatic, and left the local wisdom and traditional values that have been practiced for generations by their ancestors and was bequeathed to offspring. Conclusion of this study, the Miangas known as hard working people, many skills are acted by people in meeting their needs, such as reliable in making boats, intelligent processing of marine products such as making wooden fish (smoked fish) and salted fish being traded to the island- Talaud large island in the district. But when the excessive government interference in the end there is a change in society itself and shift traditional values. Neglect of traditional values by society, increasingly indicates that the presence of state power in Miangas, indicating the government has failed in maintaining traditional values, language and traditions into local wisdom as mandated in the constitution of this country, which is poured into 1945. Should society and government both have important roles in maintaining the integrity and sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia to maintain local knowledge as part of the national defense. PENDAHULUANKarakteristik wilayah perbatasan bagi sebagian orang seringkali digambarkan sebagai wilayah terluar yang terisolir, terbelakang, halaman belakang, pagar belakang, penuh dengan segudang permasalahan menyangkut tingkat kesejahteraan masyarakat yang pada umumnya berada di bawah garis kemiskinan dengan tingkat pendidikan yang rendah.Namun dalam penamaan ini yang seringkalidilupakan oleh sebagian orang bahwa kehidupan masyarakat di wilayah perbatasan tidak selamanya tergolong apa yang disebutkan diatas, disetiap wilayah masyarakat memiliki budaya dan tradisi berbeda bagaimana bertahan hidup dalam kondisi keterisolasian dan ketebelakangan. Seperti yang di ungkapkan oleh Ralp Linton dimana kegiatan-kegiatan kebudayaan atau culture activity di bagi ke dalam trait complex, misalnya sebagai contoh masyarakat memiliki ketrampilan dalam proses pencaharian hidup dan ekonomi, dengan mengandalkan hasil alam seperti melaut, bercocok tanam dan peternakan (Ralp Linton, 1936: 397). Apabila dicermati hal ini merupakan kearifan lokal.Demikian halnya jauh sebelum adanya program pembangunan di wilayah perbatasan, masyarakat yang oleh Koentjraningrat disebut sebagaii suatu kesatuan hidup manusia yang bersifat mantap dan terikat oleh satuan adat istiadat dan rasa identitas bersama(Koentjraningrat, 2009:120). Wilayah perbatasan sebagai garis pangkal penentu kedaulatanNKRI, perlu adanya perhatian khusus baik dari segi pembangunan infrastruktur dansuprastruktur, pembangunan kualitas sumber daya manusia, sampai pada pembangunan pusat penyelenggara kekuasaan negara yang memberi pelayanan terhadap masyarakat. Namun persoalan yang dihadapi sekarang wilayah perbatasan yang diwacanakan sebagai "beranda depan" ternyata masih jauh dari harapan dan tinggallah sebuah wacana.Dengan adanya kehadiran kekuasaan negara bukan memoles wilayah perbatasan menjadi wilayah terdepan, malah cenderung membuat masyarakat untuk terus bergantung kepada pemerintah dan meninggalkan tradisi-tradisi yang dulu terpelihara, seperti nilai-nilai atau norma-norma adat-istiadat dan keterikatan oleh suatu rasa identitas komunitas (Maciver dan Page dalam Koenjtraningrat, 2009:119). Seperti yang dikatakan oleh Burhan Bugin kajian tentang masyarakat sipil atau civil society penting di kaji setelah dominasi kekuasaan negara begitu kuat. Selain menjadikan masyarakat sipil tidak berdaya, dominasi kekuasaan negara dapat menunjukan fakta bahwa seakan-akan pembangunan yang dilakukan oleh Negara ditunjukan bagi kepentingan rakyat (Burhan Bugin, 1993: 6), namun kenyataannya malah kekuasaan Negara yang pada umumnya terlalu dominan lebih cederung memberikan efek negatif terhadap kearifan lokal masyarakat adat di Miangas, di sisi lain masyarakat sendiri tidak mampu untuk mempertahankan kearifan lokal yang ada.Rumusan Masalah1. Bagaimana kekuasaan negara terhadap struktur adat masyarakat Miangas?2. Mengapa terjadi perubahan atau pergeseran nilai adat ketika pemerintah melakukan intervensi kekuasaan di Miangas?Manfaat dan Tujuan Penelitian.a. Adapun tujuan dari penelitian ini, adalah:1. Untuk mengetahui sejauh mana kekuasaan negara terhadap struktur adat masyarakat Miangas!2. Untuk mengetahui Sejauhmana terjadinya perubahan atau pergeseran nilai-nilai adat ketika pemerintah melakukan intervensi kekuasaan di Miangas!b. Manfaat Ilmiah, bahwasannya penelitian ini kiranya dapat memberikan kontribusi berarti untuk pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan bagi Jurusan Ilmu Pemerintahan terlebih khusus bagi Program Studi Ilmu politik.Manfaat praktis,diharapkan hasil penelitian ini dapat memberikan kontribusi bagi terselenggaranya program pemerintahpusat dan daerah dalam pembangunan kawasan perbatasan yang sesuai dengan karakteristik wilayah perbatasan, agar ke depan program pembangunan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah pusat dan daerah tepat dan berguna bagi masyarakat perbatasan, guna untuk menjaga tetap tegaknya keutuhan dan kesatuan NKRI.KERANGKA KONSEPTUALKonsep Kekuasaan1. Menurut Robert M. Mac Iver,kekuasaanadalah kemampuan untuk mengendalikan tingkah laku orang lain, baik secara langsung dengan jalan memberi perintah, maupun secara tidak langsung dengan mempergunakan segala alat dan cara yang tersedia (Robert M. Mac Iver, 1961:87).2. Menurut Negel, kekuasaan adalah suatu hubungan kausal nyata atau potensial antara yang disukai oleh yang berbuat sehubungan dengan hasil dan hasil itu sendiri (Negel dalam Robert Dahl "Analisis Politik Modern, 1980; 169).3. Menurut Selo Soemardjan dan Soelaeman Soemardi, kekuasaan adalah hubungan antara yang berkuasa dan yang di kuasai, atau dengan kata lain antara pihak yang memiliki kemampuan untuk melancarkan pengaruh dan pihak lain yang menerima pengaruh ini, dengan rela atau karena terpaksa (Selo Soemardjan dan Soelaeman Soemardi, 1964:337).4. Menurut Soerjono Soekanto, kekuasaan adalah suatu kemampuan memerintah (agar yang diperintah patuh) dan juga memberikan keputusan-keputusan yang secara langsung maupun tidak langsung mempengaruhi tindakan-tindakan pihak-pihak lainnya (Soerjono Soekanto, 1981:163)5. Menurut Max Weber, kukuasaan adalah kesempatan dari seseorang atau sekelompok orang-orang untuk menyadarkan masyarakat akan kemauan-kemauannya sendiri, dengan sekaligus menterapkannya terhadap tindakan-tindakan dari orang-orang atau golongan-golongan tertentu (Max Weber (Max Weber, Essay in Sociology, translated and edited by H-H Gerth and C. Wright Mills. 1946: 180).6. Gilbert W. Fairholm mendefinisikan kekuasaan sebagai "kemampuan individu untuk mencapai tujuannya saat berhubungan dengan orang lain, bahkan ketika dihadapkan pada penolakan mereka" (Gilbert W. Fairholm, Organizational Power Politics: Tactics in Organizational Leadership, 2009:5).7. Stephen P. Robbins mendefinisikan kekuasaan sebagai ". kapasitas bahwa A harus mempengaruhi perilaku B sehingga B bertindak sesuai dengan apa yang diharapkan oleh A. Definisi Robbins menyebut suatu "potensi" sehingga kekuasaan bisa jadi ada tetapi tidak dipergunakan. Sebab itu, kekuasaan disebut sebagai "kapasitas" atau "potensi" (Stephen P. Robbins, 2009:15).8. Menurut Harold D Laswell dan Abraham Kaplan mendefinisikan kekuasaan adalahsustu hubungan di mana seseorang atau kelompok orang dapat menentukan tindakanseseorang atau kelompok orang dapat menentukan tindakan seseorang ataukelompoklain agar sesuai dengan tujuan dari pihak pertama.(Harold D Laswell dan Abraham Kaplan dalam Leo Agustino, 2007:72).Unsur-Unsur dan Saluran-Saluran Kekuasaan Kekuasaan dapat di jumpai dalam hubungan sosial di antara manusia maupun antar kelompok, adapun menurut (Soerjono Soekanto 1981:164-166) membaginya sebagai berikut:1. Rasa takut2. Rasa cinta3. Kepercayaan4. PemujaanSelain dari keempat unsur diatas, di dalam masyarakat Soerjono Soekanto membagi serta membatasinya ke dalam beberapa saluran-saluran, antara lain sebagai berikut;1. Saluran Militer2. Saluran Ekonomi3. Saluran Politik4. Saluran Tradisi5. Saluran Ideologi6. Saluran-saluran lainnyaBentuk Pelapisan-pelapisan Kekuasaan Adapun menurut Soekanto sosiolog dari Indonesia, memandang bentuk kekuasaan pada satu pola umum dari sekian banyak pola dalam masyarakat.Yaitu, bahwa dalam bentuk dan sistem kekuasaan selalu menyesuaikan dirinya pada masyarakat dengan adat-istiadat perikelakuannya (Soerjono Soekanto, 1981:169).Adapun bentuk pelapisan-pelapisan kekuasaan sebagai berikut: Wewenang Menurut Soerjono Soekanto, wewenang adalah hak yang telah ditetapkan dalam suatu tata tertib untuk menetapkan kebijaksanaa, menentukan keputusan-keputusan mengenai masalah-masalah yang penting dan untuk menyelesaikan pertetangan-pertentangan ( Soerjono Soekanto, 198:172).1. Wewenang kharismatis, tradisionil dan rasionil (legal).2. Wewenang resmi dan tidak resmi3. Wewenang pribadi dan territorial4. Wewenang terbatas dan menyeluruhKonsep NegaraHakekat pengertian tentang Negara pada dasarnya merujuk pada konsep kebangsaaan, dimana dari kata dasar "Bangsa".Dalam Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia edisi kedua, Depdikbud halalam 89, bahwa bangsa adalah orang-orang yang memiliki kesamaan asal keturunan, adat, bahasa dan sejarah serta berpemerintahan sendiri(Sumarsono, dkk. "Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan", 2005:8).Menurut Parangtopo (1993) kebangsaan adalah sebagai tindak-tanduk kesadaran dan sikap yang memandang dirinya sebagai suatu kelompok bangsa yang sama dengan keterikatan Sosiokultural yang disepakati bersama untuk hidup bersama membentuk organisasi yang disebut negara (Idup Suhady dan A.M. Sinaga, 2009:4).Adapun beberapa konsep negara sebagai organisasi kekuasaan politik menurut para ahli sebagai berikut:1. George Jellinek, Negara adalah organisasi kekuasaan dari sekelompok manusia yang telah berkediaman diwilayah tertentu (George Jellenik dan Efriza, 2008:43).2. Menurut Miriam Budiardjo, negara adalah bagian dari integrasi kekuasaan politik dan merupakan oraganisasi kekuasaan politik, yang merupakan alat (agency) dari masyarakat yang mempunyai kekuasaan untuk mengatur hubungan-hubungan manusia dalam masyarakat dan menertibkan gejala-gejala kekuasaan dalam masyarakat (Miriam Budiardjo, 2006; 38).3. Menurut R. Djokosoetono, negara adalah suatu organisasi manusia atau kumpulan manusia yang berada dibawah suatu pemerintahan yang sama (R. Djokosoetono dalam Indup Suhady dan A. M. Sinaga, 2009:6).4. Menurut Harold J. Laski, negara adalah suatu masyarakat yang diintegrasikan karena mempunyai wewenang yang bersifat memaksa dan secara sah lebih agung daripada individu atau kelompok yang merupakan bagian dari masyaraka(Harold J. Laski dalam Miriam Budiardjo,2006: 39).5. Menurut Epicurus, negara adalah merupakan hasil daripada perbuatan manusia, yang diciptakan untuk menyelenggarakan kepentingan anggota-anggotanya (Epicurus dalam Soehino, 1986:31).6. Menurut Norberto Bobbio, negara adalah dimana kekuasaan public diatur oleh norma-norma umum (yang fundamental maupun konstitusional) dan ia harus dijalankan dalam pengaturan undang-undang, di mana warga Negara mempunyai hak perlindungan dari jalan-jalan lain untuk menuju kepada satu pengadilan yang mandiri dalam upaya meneggakan aturan main dan berjaga dari penyalahgunaan atau tindakan berlebihan dari kekuasaan (Norberto Bobbio dalam Ali Sugihardjanto,dkk. 2003; 154).7. Menurut Thomas Aquinas berangkat dari pemikiran klasiknya, negara adalah lembaga sosial manusia yang paling tinggi dan luas yang berfungsi menjamin manusia memenuhi kebutuhan-kebutuhan fisiknya yang melampaui kemampuan lingkungan sosial lebih kecil, seperti desa dan kota (Thomas Aquinas Efriza, 2008:43).8. C.F. Strong seorang pemikir modern, dimana dalam perumusannya negara merupakan masyarakat yang terorganisir secara politik, negara sebagai suatu masyarakat teritorial yang dibagi menjadi yang memerintah dan di perintah (C.F. Strong, 2004; 5-7).Menurut Ahli berkebangsaan Inggris L. Oppenheim, sebuah negara berdiri bila suatu bangsa telah menetap di suatu negeri dibawah pemerintahannya sendiri", defenisi ini mencakup 4 unsur yang sangat jelas, rakyat, wilayah, pemerintahan dan sifat kedaulatannya (Oppenheim dalam J. Frankel, 1991: 9-13), adapun penjelasan unsur-unsur negara menurut Oppenheim sebagai berikut:1. Rakyat2. Wilayah3. Pemerintahannya4. KedaulatanSelain apa yang disebutkan diatas, negara memiliki tujuan dan fungsi negara. Adapun tujuan negara sebagai berikut;1. Menurut Miriam Budiardjo negara dipandang sebagai asosiasi manusia yang hidup dan bekerjasama, dimana tujuan akhir negara adalah menciptakan kebahagiaan bagi rakyatnya (Miriam Budiardjo, 2006:45).2. Negara sebagai organisasi kekuasaan teori ini dianut oleh H.A.Logemann dalam bukunya Over De Theorie van Eeen Stelling Staatsrecht. Dikatakan bahwa keberadaan negara bertujuan untuk mengatur serta menyelenggarakan masyarakat yang dilengkapi dengan kekuasaan tertinggi (H. A. Logemann, 1948).3. Menurut Roger H. Soltau, tujuan negara ialah memungkinkan rakyatnya "berkembang" serta menyelenggarakan daya ciptanya sebebas mungkin" (R. H. Soltau dalam Miriam Budiardjo,2006:45).Selain daripada tujuan dan fungsi diatas, Negara yang oleh Soekanto pada umumnya memiliki kekuasaan yang secara formil negara mempunyai hak untuk melaksanakan kekuasaan tertinggi, kalau perlu dengan paksaan; juga negaralah yang membagi-bagikan kekuasaan yang lebih rendah derajatnya (Soerjono Soekanto, 1981:164). Konsep MasyarakatDalam bahasa Inggris masyarakat adalah society berasal dari bahasa latin, societas, yang berarti hubungan persahabatan dengan yang lain. Societas diturunkan dari kata socius yang berarti teman (Konjtraningrat,2009:16).1. Menurut Koentjaraningrat, pengertian masyarakat adalah kesatuan hidup manusia yang berinteraksi menurut suatu sistem adat-istiadat tertentu yang bersifat kontinu dan yang terikat oleh suatu rasa identitas tertentu (Koenjtraningrat, 2009;118).2. Menurut Mac Iver dan Page, masyarakat adalah suatu sistem dari kebiasaantata-cara, dari wewenang dan kerjasama antara berbagai kelompok dan penggolongan, dari pengawasan tingkah laku serta kebebasan-kebebasan manusia, keseluruhan yang selalu berubah ini kita namakan masyarakat. Masyarakat merupakan jalinan hubungan sosial, dan masyakat selalu berubah (R. M. Mac Iver and Charles H. Page, 1961: 5).3. Menurut S. R. Steinmetz, masyarakat adalah sebagai kelompok manusia yang tebesar dan yang meliputi pengelompokkan yang lebih kecil, yanng mempunyai hubungan erat dan teratur (S. R. Steinmetz dalam Harsojo, 1967: 145).4. Menurut Miriam Budiardjo, masyarakat adalah suatu kelompok manusia yang hidup dan bekerjasama untuk mencapai terkabulnya keinginan-keinginan mereka bersama (Miriam Budiardjo, 2006;39).5. Menurut Warner,masyarakat adalah "suatu kelompok perorangan yang berinteraksi timbal balik(Warner dalam Pokok-pokok Antropologi Budaya. Editor , T.O Ihromi, 1996;107).6. J. L.Gillin dan J. P. Gillin dalam buku mereka Cultural Sociology (1954:139), bahwa masyarakat atau society adalah "the largest grouping in which common customs, traditions, attitudes and feelings of unity are operative". (J. L. Gillin dan J.P. Gillin dalam Koenjtraningrat, 2009; 118).Organisasi Sosial atau Struktur Masyarakat Melville J. Herskovits,antropolog berkebangsaan Amerika, mengemukakan bahwa organisasi sosial atau struktur masyarakat dapat dilihat dari pranata-pranata yang menentukan kedudukan lelaki dan perempuan dalam masyarakat, dan dengan demikian menyalurkan hubungan pribadi mereka (Melville J. Herskovits dalam Ihromi, 1996;82). Melvillemembagi lagi pranata-pranata dalam dua kategori yaitu, pranata yang tumbuh dari hubungan kekerabatan dan pranata dari hasil ikatan antara individu berdasarkan keinginan sendiri.Pranata Sosial Atau Lembaga Kemasyarakatan Menurut Koenjtraningrat, pranata adalah suatu sistem norma khusus menata suatu rangkaian tindakan berpola mantap guna memenuhi suatu keperluan pola khusus dari manusia dalam kehidupan masyarakat (Koenjtraningrat, 2009:133). Dari semua hal mengenai apa yang telah dijabarkan oleh Koenjtraningrat diatas, kesemuanya itu dapat tercapai karena adanya interaksi sosial antarindividu dan kelompok dalam kehidupan masyarakat.Menurut Soerjono Soekanto, dikatakan bahwa unsur-unsur pokok dalam struktur sosial adalah interaksi sosial dan lapisan-lapisan sosial (Soerjono Soekanto, 1981:192).Adapun ciri-ciri umum lembaga kemasyarakatan atau pranata sosial menurut (Gillin and Gillin dalam Soerjono Soekanto, 1981:84), sebagai berikut:1. Suatu lembaga kemasyarakatan adalah suatu organisasi daripada pola-pola perikelakuan yang terwujud melalui aktivitas kemasyarakatan dan hasil-hasilnya.2. Suatu tingkat kekekalan tertentu merupakan ciri dari semua lembaga kemasyarakatan.3. Lembaga kemasyarakatan mempunyai satu atau beberapa tujuan tertentu.4. Lembaga kemasyarakatan mempunyai alat-alat perlengkapan yang akan digunakan untuk mencapai tujuan dari lembaga yang bersangkutan.5. Adanya lambang-lambang biasanya juga merupakan ciri khas dari lembaga kemasyarakatan.6. Suatu lembaga kemasyarakatan, mempunyai suatu tradisi yang tertulis ataupun yang tidak tertulis, yang merumuskan tujuannya, tata-tertib yang berlaku dan lain-lain.Selain daripada ciri-ciri lembaga kemasyarakatan diatas, Gillin dan Gillin mengklasifikasikan beberapa tipe lembaga kemasyarakatan dari berbagai sudut pandang, sebagai berikut:1. Crescive institutions dan enacted institutions yang merupakan klasifikasi dari sudut perkembangannya.2. Dari sudut sistem nilai-nilai yang diterima masyarakat, timbul klasifikasi atas Basic institutions dan subdiary institutions.3. Dari sudut penerimaaan masyarakat dapat dibedakan aaproved atau social sanctioned-institutions dan unsanctioned institutions.4. Perbedaan antara general istitutions dengan restricted institutions, timbul apabila klasifikasi timbul didasarkan pada faktor penyebarannya.5. Akhirnya dari sudut fungsinya, terdapat perbedaan operative institutions dan regulaitve institutions.Intervensi Politik (Negara) dalam Struktur Masyarakat Adat Di Indonesia Dalam konteks NKRI, di zaman orde baru (Soeharto) negara dijalankan dengan skema totaliter berbasis militer, hal ini telah memberikan pengaruh besar pada penciptaan tatanan kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara. Di era reformasi ada pergesaran serta adanya dekadensi terhadap nilai-nilai adat dalam komunitas masyarakat, hal ini diakibatkan adanya campur tangan (intervensi) negara yang berlebihan terhadap pranata sosial didalam masyarakat. Menurut Adumiharja Kusnaka, bahwa selama ini para perencana pembagunan nasional di Indonesia menganggap nilai budaya masyarakat sebagaisimbol keterbelakangan. Dengan adanya UU No 72 Tahun 2005 tentang perubahan atas UU No 15 Tahun 1999 "Tentang Pemerintahan Desa", adalah "puncak" dari kebijakan intervensi Negara sejak masa kolonial hingga nasional sekarang yang melumpuhkan kekuatan modal sosial, dan sekaligus merampas hak-hak komunal yang melekat pada ulayat (wilayah kehidupan) dari entitas sosial yang disebut "masyarakat hukum adat" di Negara ini (Zakaria, 2000).Menurut Imam Soetiknya, akibat pemerintah menyalahgunakan UUPA No. 5 Tahun 1960, maka yang terjadi adalah suku-suku bangsa dan masyarakat adat yang tidak mandiri lagi, tetapi sudah merupakan bagian dari satu bangsa Indonesia di wilayah Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia, yang wewenangnya berdasarkan hak rakyat yang berhubungan dengan hak-hak atas tanah, yang dahulu mutlak berada di tangan kepala suku atau masyarakat hukum adat sebagai penguasa tertinggi dalam wilayahnya, dengan sendirinya beralih kepada pemerintah pusat sebagai penguasa tertinggi, pemegang hak menguasai tanah ulayat wilayah Negara (Imam, Soetiknya, 1990; 20). Di dalam UUD 1945 Amandemen IV, pasal 28I ayat 3, pasal 32 ayat 1 dan ayat 2, serta UU Nomor 32 Tahun 2004. Dimana negara menghormati dan menghargai serta memelihara bahasa, budaya masyarakat tradisional sebagai budaya nasional yang selaras dengan perkembangan zaman. Masyarakat Adat dan Kelembagaan Adat Konsep Masyarakat Adat Istilah masyarakat adat mulai mendapat perhatian dunia setelah pada tahun 1950-an sebuah badan dunia di PBB bernama ILO (International Labour Organization) mempopulerkan isu tentang "Indigenous peoples" dimana istilah ini digunakan ILO untuk sebutan terhadap entitas "penduduk asli" (ILO dalam Keraf, 2010). Keraf menyebutkan beberapa ciri yang membedakan masyarakat adat dari kelompok lainnya (Keraf, 2010:362), adapun ciri-cirinya sebagai berikut:1. Mereka mendiami tanah-tanah milik nenek moyangnya, baik seluruhnya atau sebagian.2. Mereka mempunyai garis keturunan yang sama, berasal dari penduduk asli daerah tersebut.3. Mereka mempunyai budaya yang khas, yang menyangkut agama, sistem suku, pakaian tarian, cara hidup, peralatan hidup, termasuk untuk mencari nafkah.4. Mereka memiliki bahasa sendiri.5. Biasanya hidup terpisah dari kelompok lain dan menolak atau bersikap hati-hati terhadap hal-hal baru yang berasal dari luar komunitasnya.Masyarakat dengan pola orientasi kehidupan tradisional, yang tinggal dan hidup di desa. Menurut Suhandi ada beberapa sifat umum yang dimiliki masyarakat tradisional (Suhandi dalam Ningrat, 2004:4):1. Hubungan atau ikatan masyarakat desa dengan tanah sangat erat.2. Sikap hidup tingkah laku sangat magis religius.3. Adanya kehidupan gotong-royong.4. Memegang tradisi dengan kuat.5. Menghormati para sesepuh.6. Kepercayaan pada pemimpin loka dan tradisional.7. Organisasi yang relatif statis.8. Tingginya nilai-nilai sosial.Lembaga Adat Ratu mbanua dan Inangngu wanuaDi Zaman dahulu pemerintahan desa dilaksanakan secara adat oleh Ratumbanua dan Inangnguwanua, mereka dianggap oleh sebagian masyarakat Talaud dan Miangas khususnya sebagai kepala yang membawahi beberapa suku atau klan, dan dianggap sebagai pemimpin dari beberapa kepala suku.Istilah pemerintah desa adat tersebut disesuaikan dengan kemauan penguasa pada saat itu, dan setelah adanya perkembangan pembagian wilayah Zending, maka terjadilah keputusan Residen Manado pada tanggal 1April 1902 yang mencantumkan pengakuan terhadap wilayah ke-jogugu-andi kepulauan Talaud maka saat itu juga di mulai pemerintahan desa.1. Ratuntampa adalah seseorang yang memegang tampuk pimpinan adat yang membawahi pimpinan adat, (Ratunbanua dan Inangnguwanua dari beberapa desa/kampung).2. Inangngu tampa sama dengan ratuntampa hanya di bedakan tugas dan fungsinya.3. Ratu mbanua adalah seseorang yang memegang tampuk pimpinan adat bersama-sama Inangngu wanua di suatu desa/kampung.4. Inangngu wanua adalah seseorang yang memegang pimpinan adat bersama Ratu mbanua di kampung, dia sebagai wakilnya Ratu mbanua.5. Timade ruanga/Inangngu ruanga adalah seseorang yang memimpin rumpun keluarga yang disebut suku.Adapun istilah ruanga dalam istilah Indonesia adalah panguyuban, rukun, atau suku (Hoetagaol dkk, 2012:19). Ratu mbanua dan Inangngu wanua dalam Struktrur Pemerintahan Desa Pada era demokrartisasi sebagaimana tengah berjalan di desa, masyarakat memiliki peran cukup sentral untuk menentukan pilihan kebijakan sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan aspirasinya. Masyarakat memiliki kedaulatan yang cukup luas untuk menentukan orientasi dan arah kebijakan pembangunan yang dikehendaki (Setiawan, 2009).Desa sebagai kesatuan masyarakat hukum terkecil yang memiliki batas-batas wilayah yang berwenang untuk mengatur dan mengurus kepentingan masyarakatnya berdasarkan asal-usul dan adat istiadat setempat yang diakui dan dihormati oleh negara. Masuknya ratu mbanua sebagai pemangku adat dalam keanggotaan BPD memperjelas peranan ratumbanua dalam penetapan peraturan desa bersama Kepala desa, termasuk menampung dan menyalurkan aspirasi masyarakatnya.Selain posisi ratu mbanua dalam keanggotaan BPD, ada beberapa kelembagaan desa dimana Ratumbanua serta perangkatnya berperan di dalamnya yang sudah dikenal dalam rangka pembangunan daerah pedesaan adalah Lembaga Ketahanan Desa (LKMD) dan Koperasi Unit Desa.Hubungan ratu mbanua sebagai lembaga adat dalam lembaga kemasyarakatan secara hukum nasional Indonesia maka kedudukan tugas dan fungsi Lembaga adat ratu mbanuasebagai mitra pemerintahan desa.METODE PENELITIANJenis Penelitian Penelitian ini tergolong dalam jenis penelitian deskriptif kualitatif, yang artinya "masalah" yang dibawa dalam penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengobservasi, dan memahami suatu situasi sosial, peristiwa, peran, interaksi dalam kelompok masyarakat. Dalam penelitian ini juga masih bersifat holistik, belum jelas, kompleks, dinamis dan penuh makna serta bersifat alamiah (Sugiyono, 2011:9). Metode pendekatan yang dipakai adalah pendekatan Antropologi politik dimana kajian ini memusatkan perhatiannya pada"Hubungan antara struktur dan masyarakat dengan struktur dan tebaran kekuasaan dalam masyarakat tersebut (Koentjaraningrat " Sejarah Teori Antropologi, hal 196-226).Instrumen Penelitian Dalam penelitian kualitatif-naturalistik peneliti akan lebih banyak menjadi instrumen, karena dalam penelitian kualitatif peneliti merupakan key isnstruments (Sugiyono, 2011;92). Lokasi Penelitian Sesuai dengan judul penelitian ini dan yang mengacu pada fokus masalah yang terjadi di Miangas, maka penelitian ini berlokasi di Desa Miangas Kecamatan Khusus Miangas Kabupaten Kepulauan Talaud. Fokus Penelitian Pada penelitian ini, dengan berbagai pertimbangan antara lain, faktor jarak yang ditempuh, tenaga, waktu, dan dana, maka peneliti memfokuskan penelitian hanya di Kecamatan Khusus Miangas, Desa Miangas, Dimana fokus kajianya adalah melihat fenomena dari kekuasaan negara dalam struktur adat masyarakat Miangas dan mengapa terjadi perubahan atau pergeseran nilai adat ketika pemerintah melakukan intervensi kekuasaan di Miangas. Jenis Data Pada penelitian ini, data yang digunakan terdiri dari data primer dan data sekunder. Menurut Sugiyono di dalam pengumpulan data ada dua sumber data, pertama sumber primer adalah sumber data yang langsung memberikan data kepada pengumpul data, dan sumber sekunder merupakan sumber yang tidak langsung memberikan data kepada pengumpul data, misalnya lewat orang lain atau dokumen, hasil yang diperoleh dari hasil studi kepustakaan (Sugiyono; 224). Informan Penelitian Menurut Sugiyono (2011), dalam penelitian kualitatif tidak menggunakan populasi, karena penelitian berangkat dari kasus tertentu yang ada pada situasi sosial tertentu dan hasil kajiannya tidak akan diberlakukan ke populasi (Sugiyono, 2011:216).Mengutip juga pendapat Spradley dalam penelitian kualitatif, tidak menggunakan istilah populasi, tetapi oleh Spradley dinamakan "social situation" atau situasi sosial yang terdiri atas tiga elemen yaitu: tempat (place), pelaku (actors), dan aktivitas (activity) (Spradley dalam Sugiyono, 2011:215).Dimana penulis sendiri sebagai instrumen dalam penelitian ini, penulis turun langsung ke tempat dimana menjadi fokus penelitian, mewawancarai nara sumber, partisipan, informan yang dianggap tahu dengan situasi dan kondisi Miangas, atau yang lebih berkompeten dan memiliki pengaruh di tempat itu. Serta mengamati secara langsung aktivitas warga masyarakat yang ada di Miangas. Penentuan sumber data orang-orang yang diwawancarai yaitu dipilih dengan pertimbangan tertentu, dan masih bersifat sementara. Informan dalam hal ini kepala desa, ketua BPD, Ratumbanua dan Inangnguwanua, tokoh masyarakat dan tokoh adat. Teknik pengumpulan data Dalam penelitian ini yang digunakan dalam pengumpulan data adalah teknik observasi, wawancara dan dokumentasi.Prosedur Analisis Data Menurut Sugiyono, analisis data adalah proses mencari dan menyusun secara sistematis data yang diperoleh dari hasil wawancara, catatan lapangan dan dokumentasi. Dalam proses analisis data pada penelitian kualitatif dilakukan sejak sebelum memasuki lapangan, selama di lapangan, dan setelah selesai di lapangan. Analisis data kualitatif bersifat induktif, yaitu suatu anilisis berdasarkan data yang diperoleh (Sugiyono, 2011; 245).HASIL PENELITIAN DAN PEMBAHASANFenomena Pembangunan Di Miangas Pengalaman pahit Indonesia kalah dari Malaysia dalam memperebutkan Sipadan dan Ligitan di Mahkamah Internasional (Ulaen, dkk. 2012;164), membuat pemerintah ekstra hati-hati dalam menjaga wilayah teritorialnya.Pasca Soeharto, adanya pergeseran pencitraan atas Miangas dan pulau perbatasan lainnya, kalau dulu Miangas dianggap sebagai wilayah terluar, dan pos pintu keluar-masuk para pelintas-batas, maka sekarang dalam setiap program pembangunan diwacanakan sebagai "beranda depan" benteng Pancasila. Begitu banyak fasilitas yang dibangun oleh pemerintah di wilayah paling utara Sulawesi utara ini. Namun banyak fasilitas-fasilitas aparatur sipil yang dibangun untuk menunjang pelayanan terhadap masyarakat hanya terbengkalai dan dibiarkan kosong akibatnya rusak dan terkesan hanyalah proyek mubazir. Selain hal diatas ada beberapa bangunan yang disediakan pemerintah sebagai tempat penampungan kebutuhan pokok masyarakat seperti, depot logistik, 4 buah tangki BBM. Sejak dibangun pada tahun 2007 sampai sekarang terbengkalai dan hanya menjadi tempat penyimpanan karung semen dan menjadi tempat bagi rayap dan kepiting laut. Perhatian pemerintah terhadap pulau Miangas yang jumlah penduduknya sebanyak 209 KK, yang didalamnya berjumlah 762 jiwa, dengan disediakannya berbagai fasilitas oleh pemerintah, apabila dilihat sepintas memang terkesan negara dan orang-orang yang bernaung didalamnya begitu serius dalam menangani persoalan di wilayah perbatasan. Namun dari segi lain malah terlihat berlebihan, jika dibandingkan dengan pulau-pulau yang berdekatan dengan Miangas yang dulunnya merupakan satu kesatuan administratif dari kecamatan Nanusa, seperti pulau Marampit dan kecamatan Nanusa sendiri yang juga sebagai pulau terluar. Para Pelaut Handal Dari Utara NKRIGenerasi tua di Miangas merupakan generasi terakhir pendukung "tradisi bahari", mereka merupakan para pelaut-pelaut handal tanpa harus menggunakan layar disaat tidak berangin untuk mencapai pulau-pulau terdekat, seperti pulau-pulau yang ada di selatan daratan Filipina (Mindanao). Dimana tujuan mereka adalah menjajakan hasil olahan tangkapan mereka dilaut dan hasil lain dari masyarakat Miangas seperti tikar-pandan, kopra (Ulaen,dkk. 2012;67-68). Tradisi bahari yang sejak dulu ada dikalangan generasi tua di Miangas, sekarang mulai kehilangan identitas sebagai pelaut handal, pembuat perahu, dan ulet dalam pekerjaan khususnya sebagai seorang nelayan yang mahir dalam membaca perbintangan. Masyarakat lebih memilih menjadi buruh di pelabuhan disaat ada kapal yang masuk, dengan gaji seadanya asalkan dapat memenuhi kebutuhan hari ini, di sisi lain Miangas yang kaya akan sumberdaya kelautan tidak dimanfaatkan secara optimal. Tradisi yang dilakoni oleh generasi tua kini tidak lagi dipraktekkan oleh paragenerasi muda Miangas yang ada hanyalah kenangan manis yang tersirat dan tidak pernah tertuliskan. Tradisi Mamancari Sebagai Strategi Bertahan Hidup Masyarakat Miangas. Pada zaman dulu hingga pertengahan abad ke 20, masyarakat Miangas sama seperti halnya masyarakat yang ada di bagian bumi manapun pada umumnya, manusia memiliki strategi atau cara bagaimana harus bertahan hidup. Masyarakat Miangas pada umumnya di zaman dulu mengandalkan hasil laut, pertanian dan hasil kerajinan tangan yang dijual baik di pulau-pulau Talaud maupun di pulau-pulau daratan Mindanao, namun sekarang tradisi melaut mulai hilang sejak adanya bantuan pemerintah berupa sembilan bahan pokok di Miangas, kalaupun ada yang melaut itu hanya untuk keperluan makanan. Sedangkan hasil seperti keterampilan membuat ikan kayu (ikan asap) yang mereka dapat disaat mereka bekerja di perusahan ikan Jepang yang ada di Filipina, dan kerajinan tangan seperti tikar serta topi anyaman dari daun pandan tidak lagi ditemukan. Masyarakat lebih memilih membuka warung untuk berjualan, sementara tempat bertumbuhnya kelapa sebagai sumber mata pencaharian dan laluga atau puraha sebagai bahanmakanan yang mereka andalkan disaat kehabisan bantuan, sekarang menjadi tempat landasan pacu pesawat dimana proyek pemerintah cukup menelan biaya besar. Kelembagaan Adat (Ratu mbanua Dan Inangngu wanua) Di Miangas Politik tidak lepas dari persoalan kekuasaan, wewenang, kebijaksanaan dan pembagian yang pada umumnya berada pada negara, sejauh negara merupakan organisasi kekuasaan. Namun tidak bisa dipungkiri ada gejala-gejala kekuasaan yang sifat dan tujuannya sewaktu-waktu dapat mempengaruhi negara. Sifat dan tujuan dari gejala kekuasaan yang nonnegara dalam hal ini salah satunya adalah lembaga adat. Pranata sosial atau lembaga masyarakat inilah yang membentuk negara sebagai organisasi kekuasaan. Struktur Pemerintahan Desa Dan Struktur Kepemimpinan Adat Di Miangas Miangas di zaman keresidenan Manado, merupakan satuan wilayah adaministratif ke-jogugu-an Nanusa, semenjak adanya keputusan pemerintah pusat (Surat Menteri Dalam Negeri No. 5/1/69 tertanggal 29 April 1969), pemukiman warga Miangas dinamakan desa dan dipimpin oleh kapitelaut atau sehari-harinya disebut apitaᶅau ditemani jurutulis. Secara politis kapitenlaut ini pada umumnya dipilih berdasarkan keputusan dari 12 suku yang ada di Miangas dan tidak melalui proses dan mekanisme kerajaan yang pemimpinnya berdasarkan garis keturunan. Selain struktur kepemimpinan formal dalam hal ini pemerintah desa, ada juga struktur kepemimpinan tradisional. Kepemimpinan tradisional di Talaud pada umumnya dan Miangas khususnya di warisi secara turun-temurun dan oleh warga di sebut "kepemimpinan adat" di Miangas seperti yang telah dijelaskan diatas terdapat 12 (suku), Ratumbanua dan Inangnguwanua merupakan yang membawahi 12 suku, dan setiap kelompok suku dipimpin oleh tetua yang disapa Timaddu ruangnga/ kepala suku, atau pemangku adat. Peran Ratu mbanua dan Inangngu wanua Dalam Struktur Pemerintahan Desa di MiangasDalam struktur adat di Miangas ratu mbanua dan inangngu wanua, sebelum adanya struktur pemerintahan desa dan struktur keagamaan, sangat dihargai dan dihormati, serta memiliki perannya masing-masing. masalah pertahanan dan pemerintahan dalam wilayahitulah tugas dari ratumbanua, kalau inangguwanua tugas dan perannya adalah membantu ratumbanua dalam menjalankan roda-roda pemerintahan adat, dimana tugas dan perannya adalah menyangkut masalah kesejahtraan masyarakatnya, menjembatani konflik dalam keluarga serta mencari jalan keluar dari masalah kedua belah pihak yang berkonflik, dimana bukan pada persoalan mencari letak kesalahan atau mencari siapa yang menyebabkan konflik untuk diberikan sanksi (hukum adat). Melainkan baik ratumbanua dan inangnguwanua merupakan mediator dalam mengumpulkan tetua adat serta masyarakatnya untuk menyelesaikan persoalan diatas dengan cara kekeluargaan. Dengan adanya struktur pemerintahan desa, lembaga adat yang ada di Miangas mulai dilebur menjadi bagian dari struktur kelembagaan desa. Peran ratumbanua dan inangnguwanua hanya sekedar simbolisasi dalam mengisi acara seremonial. Seperti upacara adat, kunjungan pejabat, dan acara perkawinan. Dari amatan peneliti serta hasil wawancara dengan narasumber, bahwa kelembagaan adat serta peran ratu mbanua dan inangngu wanua sebagai primus inter pares. Tidak lagi seperti dulu, dimana peran ratumbanua dan inangnguwanua serta kelembagaan adat pada umunya menjadi lemah dengan hadirnya beberapa struktur kelembagaan kekuasaan di dalam negara, sehingga apa yang disebut sebagai "kearifan lokal" tidak terpelihara malah dari hari-kehari semakin terkikis. Didalam UUD 1945 Amandemen IV, pasal 28I ayat 3 dan pasal 32 ayat 1 dan Ayat 2. Serta UU No 32 Tahun 2004 "Tentang Pemerintah Daerah" Bab I pasal 2 ayat 9. Negara Indonesia dengan kemajemukannya memiliki kewajiban untuk mengakui, menghormati, menjamin dan memelihara serta memajukan identitas budaya dan masyarakat tradisional yang didalam terdapat nilai-nilai budaya seperti, hukum adat, bahasa daerah yang selaras dengan perkembangan zaman, sejauh nilai-nilai budaya itu hidup dan sesuai dengan prinsip NKRI. Di Miangas Misalnya, dalam penamaan ratu mbanua dan inangngu wanua mereka alih bahasakan kedalam istilah jawa yaitu, mangkubumi I dan Mangkubumi II, sepintas istilah mangkubumi terkesan enak di dengar, namun apabila peneliti meninjau kembali baik dari UUD 1945 dan UU No. 32 Tahun 2004, penamaan mangkubumi yang dipakai oleh para pejabat yang berkunjung atau para penyelenggara kekuasaan negara di Miangas dalam menyapa ratu mbanua dan inangnguwanua, tentunya menyalahi apa yang menjadi aturan perundang-undangan Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia diatas.PENUTUPKesimpulan1. Sebagai "beranda depan" ataupun penamaan lain yang teralamatkan, seperti "benteng Pancasila", "garda terdepan", sampai didirikannya 4 buah tugu sebagai penanda supremasi pertahanan bangsa oleh pemerintah, hanyalah sebatas membangkitkan phobia nasionalisme semata, dan sekedar wacana dari pemerintah untuk mengisi lembar halaman dalam media cetak maupun online.2. Program pembangunan yang telah diagendakan oleh pemerintah baik pusat maupun daerah, secara kasat mata memberi kemudahan bagi masyarakat di Miangas. Fasilitas yang telah disediakan oleh pemerintah, hanya fasilitas yang menunjang kerjasama antar kedua negaralah yang sampai sekarang selalu siap ditempat. Sedangkan fasilitas-fasilitas yang dibangun untuk pelayanan akan kebutuhan masyarakat hanyalah proyek mubazir, kosong dan hanya menjadi tempat rayap dan kepiting laut,selain itu Keterbatasan akan kebutuhan pendidikan dengan minimnya tenaga pengajar tidak menjadi perhatian serius dari pemerintah.3. Dengan adanya penempatan beberapa personil aparatur sipil dan aparatur pertahanan keamanan di Miangas dari luar daerah, mempengaruhi struktur sosial masyarakat Miangas, contohnya penamaan Ratu mbanua dan Inangngu wanua dialih bahaskan ke dalam istilah Jawa "Mangkubumi I dan Mangkubumi II semakin mengambarkan adanya dominasi kekusaan negara. dimana wilayah yang kecil tidak berimbang dengan adanya penempatan beberapa personil aparatur negara. Hal ini merupakan pelemaham terhadap nilai-nilai bahasa daerah sebagai budaya nasional.4. Pengabaian terhadap nilai-nilai adat oleh masyarakat, menandakan pemerintah gagal didalam memelihara nilai-nilai adat, bahasa dan tradisi yang menjadi kearifan lokal seperti yang diamanatkan di dalam konstitusi negara ini, yang dituangkan ke dalam UUD 1945. Seyogyanya masyarakat dan pemerintah sama-sama mempunyai peran penting dalam menjaga keutuhan dan kedaulatan NKRI dengan memelihara kearifan lokal sebagai bagian dari ketahanan nasional.5. Masyarakat cenderung pragmatis dan bersikap selalu bergantung dan berharap kepada pemerintah, sehingga terjadi pergeseran nilai-nila kearifan lokal yang dulu dilakoni oleh para generasi sebelumnya tidak ditemukan lagi.6. Dengan adanya pembangunan infrastruktur dan struktur kelembagaan desa, peran lembaga adat (ratu mbanua dan inangngu wanua) mulai direduksi dalam struktur kekuasaan negara dan terkesan hanyalah simbolisasi dalam mengisi acara-acara seremonial.7. Dengan hadirnya kekuasaan negara di Miangas, bukan memudahkan pelayanan kepada masyarakat. Malah oknum-oknum penyelenggara kekuasaan negara dengan mengatasnamakan negara untuk kepentingan pribadi dan golongan.8. Ditengah-tengah keterisolasian dan keterbelakangan dengan faktor ekonomi yang rendah dan minimnya sumberdaya manusia, serta jauh dari pusat perekonomian yang tidak ditunjang dengan sarana transportasi yang memadai, tidak adanya ketersediaan BBM untuk melaut, serta ketidaktersediaanya infrastruktur yang memadai membuat perekonomian masyarakat terlihat stagnan. Sehingga dengan adanya pengaruh budaya materialisme dan pemanjaan oleh pemerintah pusat dan daerah mengakibatkan terjadi pergeseran nilai-nilai kearifan lokal masyarakat Miangas.Saran1. bahwa dengan harapan ke depan hasil karya ilmiah ini dapat menjadi referensi, serta panduan bagi para peneliti yang akan mengembangkan studi tentang wilayah perbatasan.2. Pemerintah seharusnya lebih mengutamakan pembangunan sumber daya manusia dengan melaksanakan program-program yang tepat guna, membekali masyarakat dengan berbagai keterampilan sesuai dengan karakteristik wilayah, sehingga masyarakat lebih diorientasikan pada pembangunan ekonominya.3. Lebih memperhatikan masalah yang menyangkut kebutuhan dasar masyarakat, seperti penyediaan BBM bagi para nelayan agar mereka dapat melaut, menyediakan tempat penampungan sementara dari hasil tangkapan, seperti gudang es (cool store). Menyediakan fasilitas air bersih bagi masyarakat, memperlancar sistem komunikasi dan transportasi ke Miangas, agar kedepan masyarakat semakin diberdayakan.4. Pemerintah seharusnya menggali kembali keterampilan yang ada di dalam masyarakat berupa hasil-hasil kerajinan tangan, seperti topi dan tikar anyaman dari pandan. Hasil-hasil ini kemudian menjadi tambahan pendapatan bagimasyarakat dan menjadikan masyarakat lebih mandiri, dan tidak selamanya bergantung pada pemerintah.5. Pemerintah seyogyanya menjaga dan menghormati lembaga adat sebagai mitra pemerintah sesuai dengan yang diatur oleh perundangan-undangan. Menghargai nilai-nilai budaya serta memelihara kearifan lokal yang tumbuh berkembang di dalam masyarakat, perlu adanya penguatan kembali terhadap pranata sosial serta membangkitkan kembali identitas sosial untuk menjaga keutuhan dan kedaulatan NKRI.6. Diharapkan masyarakat lebih menjaga tradisi yang ada, seperti upacara adat, hukum adat, dan bahkan tradisi mancari atau mamancari untuk bertahan hidup. Agar tidak selamanya harus bergantung kepada pemerintah.7. Harapan terakhir peneliti agar para penyelenggara kekuasaan negara di Miangas, diharapkan menjalankan tugas sesuai dengan peraturan yang sudah dibuat dan tidak memanfaatkan atau mengatasnamakan negara hanya untuk sekedar kepentingan pribadi dan golongan.DAFTAR PUSTAKAAbubakar, Mustafa Menata Pulau-pulau Kecil di Perbatasan. Belajar dari Kasus Sipadan, Ligitan dan Sebatik. Penerbit Buku Kompas, 2006 Agustino, Leo. 2007. Perihal Memahami Ilmu Politik. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu Asosiasi Ilmu Politik Indonesia, Jurnal Politik 16. Penerbit, PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta:1996. Bara, Gusti Andre "Miangas: Cerita, Fakta dan Harap dari Utara" dalam Cyber Sulut (www.cybersulut.com/PeopleExpertColumn/8991246) Budiardjo, Miriam 2006. Dasar- Dasar Ilmu Politik. Penerbit, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta: 2006. ________________, 1984. Aneka Pemikiran Tentang Kuasa dan Wibawa.Jakarta : Sinar Harapan. Bugin, Burhan. Bangsa Diantara Nasionalisme dan Primordialisme, Harian Surya, 21 Desember 1993, hlm. 6 Collins, T. James, 2005. Bahasa Melayu Bahasa Dunia, Sejarah Singkat. KITLV-Jakarta, Yayasan Obor Indonesia, Jakarta Dahl, Robert, A. Analisis Politik Modern. Diterjemahkan oleh Bayu Suryaningrat., (Dewaruci Press, Jakarta: 1980). ______________, Modern Political Analysis. Fifth printing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1965. Denis Lombard, Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya. Batas‐batas Pembaratan.1996, Penerbit PT GramediaPustaka Utama, Jakarta. Efriza, Ilmu Politik, Dari Ilmu Politik Sampai Sistem Pemerintahan (Bandung, Alfabeta:2008). Frankel Joseph, Hubungan Internasional. Diterjemahkan oleh Laila. H. Hasyim, Cetakan kedua. Penerbit. Bumi Aksara, Anggota IKAPI, Jakarta, 1991. Gilbert W. Fairholm, Organizational Power Politics: Tactics in Organizational Leadership, 2nd Edition (Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2009)Harsono, Andreas "Miangas, nationalism and isolation". Dalam Tempo, No. 13/V/November 30- December 06, 2004; Asia Views, Edition: 47/1/December/2004.6 ps.Hoetagaol, M. Sophia, Nono S.A Sumampouw, Julianto Parauba, Rony Tuage , Mulyadi Pontororing. Studi Tentang Aspek-Aspek Sosial-Budaya Masyarakat Daerah Pebatasan: Studi Kasus Masyarakat di Pulau Miangas, Kerjasama dengan Balai Pelestarian Nilai Budaya Manado, (Kepel Press, Yogyakarta, 2012). Keraf, S. A. 2010, Etika Lingkungan hidup. Penerbit, Buku Kompas, Jakarta: 2010. Koentjaraningrat, 2009 : Pengantar Ilmu Antropologi. Edisi revisi ( Rineka Cipta, Jakarta; 2009) _____________, 1990. Sejarah Teori Antropologi II ( Universitas Indonesia (UI-Press), Jakarta; 1990. Kusnaka, Adimiharjo. Hak-hak sosial Budaya Masyarakat Adat, dalam Menggugat Posisi Adat Terhadap Negara. Jakarta: Lembaga Pers dan Pembangunan, 1999. Korten, D.C., dan Sjahrir, Pembangunan Berdimensi Kerakyatan, Jakarta: Yayasan obor, 1988. Lam Herman Johannes, Miangas (Palmas) (Batavia: G. Kolf & Co.,1932) Lapian B. Adrian, Orang Laut, Bajak Laut, Raja Laut Sejarah Kawasan Laut Sulawesi Abad ke XIX. Komunitas Bambu. Jakarta. Linton. Ralph. The Study of Man, an Introductory, Student"s Edition, Appleton-Century- Crofts Inc., New York, 1936. Logemann, J.H.A. 1948. Over de Theorie van een Stelling staatsrecht. Leiden : Universiteit Pers Leiden. Mac Iver, Robert M, The Web of Goverment (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1961) Mac Iver, Robert. M and Page, Charles. H. Society. New York: Barnes and Noble College Outline Series, 1960.Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia "Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945" Sekretariat Jendral MPR RI, 2007. Madjowa Verrianto: "Warga Miangas Butuh Tambahan Guru", Tempo interaktif, Rabu, 23 Mei 2007 Pokok-Pokok Antropologi Budaya/editor T.O Ihromi.-ed.8.- ( Jakarta Yayasan Obor Indonesia, 1996) Rusadi Kantaprawira. 1988. Sistem Politik Indonesia: Suatu Model Pengantar.Bandung: Sinar Baru Salindeho & Sombowadile, 2008.Kawasan Sangihe-Talaud-Sitaro: Daerah Perbatasan, Keterbatasan, Perbatasan. Puspad, Jogja. Sarundajang, S.H, 2011. Arus Balik Kekuasaan Pusat Ke Daerah. Cetakan ketiga edisi revisi, (Kata Hasta Pustaka, Jakarta; 2011). Selo Soemardjan- Soelaeman Soemardani (eds). Setangkai Bunga Sosioloogi. Edisi Pertama. Djakarta: Jajasan Badan Penerbit Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia, 1964. Sjamsuddin, N, 1989. Integrasi Politik Di Indonesia. Penerbit, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta: 1989. Soehino,1986, Ilmu Negara. (Liberty Yogyakarta; Jayeprawiran 21, 23, Yogyakarta 55112, 1986) Soerjono Soekanto, 1981. Sosiologi Suatu Pengantar, Cetakan Ketujuh, Penerbit. Universitas Indonesia-Press, Jakarta:1981. Soetiknya, Imam. Politik Agraria Nasional. Yogyakarta: UGM,1990. Stephen P. Robbins, Organisational Behaviour: Global and Southern African Perspectives, 2nd Edition (Cape Town: Pearson Education South Africa (Pty) Ltd., 2009)Strong, C. F,. Konstitusi- konstitusi Politik Modern, Kajian Tentang Sejarah Dan Bentuk-bentuk Konstitusi Dunia. Nusa Media: Bandung, 2004. Sudarsono, Juwono, editor, 1991. Pembangunan Politik Dan Perubahan Politik; Sebuah Bunga Rampai. Kumpulan tulisan-tulisan para ahli dari bidang Ilmu Antropologi, Ilmu Politik, Ilmu Ekonomi, dan tulisan dari Bapak Sosiologi Indonesia Selo Soemardjan. Cetakan kelima oleh Yayasan Obor Indonesia, Jakarta; 1991. Sugihardjanto Ali, dkk. Globalisasi Perspektif Sosialis. Cetakan Pertama. Penerbit. Cubuc, Jakarta, 2003. Sugiyono, 2011. Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, Dan R&D. Penerbit, CV. Alfabeta, Bandung; 2011. Suhady Idup dan Sinaga A. M, 2009. "Wawasan Kebangsaan Dalam Kerangka Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesi, Jakarta: Lembaga Administrasi Negara. Sumarsono, dkk. 2005. "Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan". PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. Syafiie K Inu & Azhari, 2005. Sistem Politik Indonesia. Penerbit, PT Refika Aditama, Bandung: 2005. Ulaen J. Alex, Triana Wulandari, Yuda B. T Tangkilisan. Sejarah Wilayah Perbatasan Miangas- Filipina 1928-2010; Dua Nama Satu Juragan. Penerbit, Gramata Publishing, Jakarta: 2012. ____________, Paulina Nugrahini, Christian Setiawan, Asrullah Dukalang, Alinabur. Studi Tentang Sosial Budaya Masyarakat Daerah Perbatasan: Studi Kasus Masyarakat Pulau Marore Kabupaten Kepulauan Sangihe, Kerjasama dengan Balai Pelestarian Nilai Budaya Manado, Penerbit, Kepel Press, Yogyakarta, 2012. ____________, 2010. Nusa Utara Dalam Sejarah Bahari; Kumpulan Tulisan 2003-2004. Penerbit, Yayasan Marin-CRC Manado, 2010. ____________, 2003, Nusa Utara Dari Lintasan Niaga ke Daerah Perbatasan. Pustaka Sinar Harapan, 2003. ____________, Laut Yang Menyatukan:Mengungkap ruang‐jejaring Laut Maluku, "Maritim Sebagai FaktorPemersatu Bangsa dari PerspektifSejarah" Makalah Pengantar Dialog Kesejarahan di Ambon, 2010 ____________,"Miangas (Las Palmas) dalam Dinamika Wilayah Perbatasan Bahari", dalam Konferensi Nasional Sejarah ke- 9, di Jakarta, 5 – 7 Juli 2011 Undang-Undang Republik IndonesiaNomor 32 Tahun 2004TentangPemerintahan Daerah Undang-Undang Pokok Agraria Nomor 5 Tahun 1960 "Tentang Pertanahan" Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 72 Tahun 2005, "Tentang Pemerintahan Desa" Van Leur, J. C. Indonesian Trade and Society, Essay in Asian Sosial and Economic History,1967. Widodo, Joko, 2001. Good Governance,Telaah dari dimensi: Akuntabilitas Dan Kontrol Birokrasi, Pada Era Desentralisasi dan Otonomi Daerah. Penerbit, Insan Cendekia, Surabaya; 2001. Weber Max, Essay in Sociology, translated and edited by H-H Gerth and C. Wright Mills, Oxford University Press, New York 1946.Zakaria, R. Yando, 2000. Abih Tandeh. Masyarakat Desa di Bawah Rezim Orde Baru, Jakarta: ELSAM Daftar Publikasi Media Tentang Miangas dalam Majalah Online dan Cetak: "Berkunjung ke pulau tempat transit para pelaku Bom Bali" Jawa Pos 13 Oktober 2005. www.jawapos.co.id. (Miangas disebut sebagai tempat transit teroris).Gatra, 19 Februari 2009 dalam http://www.gatra.com/artikel.php?id=123414) dan Gatra, 4 Juli 2005. Tempo interaktif, Senin, 17 April 2006.Keterangan Pers Menteri Kelautan dan Perikanan Freddy Numberi, dilaporkan oleh Endang Purwanti.http://koran.kompas.com/read/xml/2009/08/15/03175473/nasionalisme.itu.mahal.http://id.shvoong.com/law-and-politics/politics/1881037-sengketa-pulau-miangas-bagian/#ixzz1UALABO1khttp://mdopost.com/news/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3644&Itemid=57 Sumber Lain: Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia, Nomor 38 Tahun 2002, tentang Daftar Koordinat Geografis Titik-titik Garis Pangkal Kepulauan Indonesia"Profil dan Dinamika Penyiaran di Daerah Perbatasan NKRI" Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia (Lembaga Negara Independen), 2012, dalam (www.kpi.go.id) Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 26 Tahun 2008 Tentang Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah Nasional dalam (http://www.dephut.go.id/files/pp_26_08.pdf), diunduh 6 Maret 2013. Video Dokumenter, Badan Pengelola Perbatasan Daerah Sulawesi Utara, 2011. "Pengembangan Pembangunan Daerah Perbatasan" dalam seminar di hotel Granpuri ruang pertemuan Anoa III, 24 April, Manado, 2013.
THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, The Literary Journal of Pennsylvania College. Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. VOL. IX. GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1900. No. S RALLY 'ROUND THE STANDARD. CHAS. W. WEISER, '01. Those days are gone, they've swiftly flown, With pleasures fraught, and joys well known, When by the sea or mountain town We gaily roamed, or lithe, sat down— Or in the country on the farm Renewed our health thro' nature's charm. We'd often sport throughout the day, And when the zephyrs held their sway We'd chat with friends and loved ones light, 'Neath Hesper islands of the night, Of actions done which time had sealed, Or of the future unrevealed. Those days are gone, and back to toil, We've come, and burn the midnight oil— Aye eagerly once more we've come, 'Though minds are full of thoughts of home, For thro' it all we get a view Of the orange and the blue. We see our standard in the air, Floating high in noon-tide glare, And feel that we must lead the ranks Which cross the yellow Tiber's banks, And bravely 'neath our ensign stand,— A glorious future's now at hand. 138 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY BARNACLES. [First Gies Prize.] R. D. CLARE, '00. My soul is sailing' through the sea, But the Past is heavy and hindereth me. The Past hath crusted cumbrous shells That hold the flesh of cold sea-mells About my soul. The huge waves wash, the high waves roll, Each barnacle clingeth and worketh dole And hindreth me from sailing-. Old Past, let go, and drop i' the sea Till fathomless waters cover thee ! For I am living but thou art dead; Thou drawest back, I strive ahead The Day to find. Thy shells unbind ! Night comes behind, I needs must .hurry with the wind And trim me best for sailing'. —SlDNBV L,ANIER. We have in the lines just quoted the forcible and correct im-plication of a great and eternal truth—great in its significance and comprehensiveness, eternal in its applicability to existence in all ages and the constant uniformity of its operation. The Past is ever exercising a mighty controlling influence on the Present and is at the same time determining with wonderful ac-curacy the character of the Future. L,ike a dread sovereign, clothed with absolute power, it secures the complete enactment of its every edict. Even the forces of nature are subservient to it and yield unquestioning obedience to its behests. Its influence is at the same time beneficent and tyrannical, benign and arrogant, uplifting and debasing. Its realm of activity being infinite, all men come within its potent sway. Every individual is therefore to a great extent, in his intellectual, moral and physical char-acteristics, a product of past ages. Innumerable habits and tendencies are transmitted from generation to generation, now in-creasing in strength, now weakening or disappearing, all the time carrying with them blessing or destruction. To those who have a deep and sympathetic insight into human nature with all its frailties and ceaseless struggles, these choice lines of Eanier will appeal with special force and significance. The analogy between the soul and a vessel upon the sea is both THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 139 beautiful and appropriate. Who has witnessed the departure of an ocean liner on its solitary journey to some far distant port without being reminded of the passage of a human soul across the broad ocean of life ? Imagine the scene. In a sheltered harbor, riding at anchor upon the gently undulating surface of the water, is a stately ship. Her highly polished decks, glitter-ing sides and burnished armorings suggest immaculate cleanliness and youth, while her dazzlingly white sails, bathed in the warm sunlight, are the very emblems of purity. On board, stationed at their respective posts of duty, are the hardy sailors, eager for the cruise. Finally the signal is given; the anchor is lifted, and the sails are spread to the ready breeze. Slowly at first, but with ever increasing speed, the beautiful ship, like a huge white-winged bird, passes majestically from the harbor out into the open sea. The shores rapidly recede from view until they describe to the fond farewell gaze of the sailors nothing more than a thin haze along the horizon. This too soon disappears, and ere long our proud ship is far from all lauds, pursuing her solitary course upon the trackless depths of the ocean. Days come and go and the ship is still on her watery way, propitious winds co-operating with the unerring intelligence of the pilot in directing her to her destined harbor. From time to time the hearts of the sailors are cheered by the appearance of a sail on the horizon and the passing of another vessel with its precious burden of human beings. But the interest is only tem-porary ; halloos and good-byes are exchanged and the vessels soon lose sight of one another. Each has its own peculiar mission to perform, just as different souls, which in life's experiences may come into close contact one with another, must always remain individual existences with their own peculiar missions and obli-gations. Following our ship in her onward course we find her still staunch and true. Nor does she escape untoward conditions; the fury of the elements threatens her repeatedly; the thunders roar and the lightnings play about her masts. But she successfully braves every tempestuous sea, as though confident of her own soundness and safety. In time her first port is made; her first achievement gloriously won. The cruise is continued and the ship sails from port to port in the performance of her responsible mission. But in the course of time there gradually appear signs mmm 140 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY of deterioration in the vessel. Not only is there a decided dimi-nution in her speed, but her draught is increased and her sailing more laborious. An investigation reveals the startling fact that clinging to her once smooth and clean hull with tenacious grasp are many small barnacles, whose appearance there had been so gradual as to be at first almost without any perceptible effects. The ship is hundreds of miles from a dock and consequently the evil cannot be remedied. The number of barnacles is rapidly increasing now and the sailing of the ship is continually becom-ing more laborious. Our once proud and beautiful ship begins to show unmistakable signs of decay. She is ever sinking deeper in the briny deep and can continue her course only with the greatest difficulty. No longer is she able to withstand the buffet-ing storms; and those in charge of her make strenuous efforts to get her into the nearest port before calamity overtake her. But alas their efforts are vain ! A terrific storm, arises; again the winds toss up huge overwhelming billows. The thunders roar and the vivid lightnings flash, and in their flash can be read the doom of our vessel, whose early fortitude and strength now gone, rides helplessly in the cruel sea. Repeatedly submerged beneath the mountain waves, she can no longer be managed by her terror-stricken crew. At last comes the fatal moment. The ship is in sight of land and makes frantic efforts to reach safety, but the thousands of barnacles now adhering to her hull drag her down and impede her progress. About her the breakers are roaring. Suddenly and with a crash of doom the ship is dashed upon the hidden rocks; her well-built frame trembles and yields to the rending force of the waves; her brave crew are sacrificed to the deep, and a proud and promising career is ended in ruin. Was it the tempest that did it? No, it was the small and apparently in-significant barnacle. After the foregoing elaboration on the chief thought of the poem it would be a reflection on the intelligence of our readers to explain the applicability of this thought to human life and ex-perience. Into every life there come at an earlier or later period mischievous and destructive habits and tendencies. Like the barnacles in the poem their coming is gradual and unobserved, calling for the greatest watchfulness on the part of the individual. They quietly and insinuatingly implant themselves into the very moral fibre of our being, and cling to us with an almost inextric- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 141 able grasp. They are furthermore like the real barnacle in that they continually multiply in number and evil effects, until at last they bring about ignominious death and destruction. A discussion of the formation of habits aud the cultivation of tendencies in early life from a purely psychological standpoint would necessarily be more comprehensive than the scope of this essay permits or the ability of the writer justifies. We shall con-. tent ourselves therefore with the mere facts and their applications. Man, in his moral and spiritual nature, has been defined as a "bundle of habits and tendencies." While this definition may be opeu to just criticism it nevertheless expresses a great psy-chological truth and implies an almost terrifying moral responsi-bility for our daily life and conduct. That character chiefly determines the nature of man's ethical distinctions and mental acts and states is generally acknowledged. That man is morally accountable for most of his own peculiar habits is no less true. This simple truth, from which men are prone to flee, invests life with the greatest responsibility. It is a serious thing to live. Barnacles of habit! What failures, sorrow aud wide-spread misery they are accountable for! Although restricted in their operations to no particular periods of life, they are most likely to appear in the early and formative periods. They meet us at the very threshold of our earthly existence, and with insinuating art invade the sacredness of pure, sweet childhood and youth, firmly attaching themselves to innocent souls and implanting therein the germs of all those evils which go to rob life of its rightful happiness and peace,and render existence through time and eternity one dreary round of sorrow and remorse. In order that we may get a more comprehensive view of the modes of operation of those barnacles of habit as well as their far-reaching effects, we shall now consider the state of the indi-vidual who has become a victim to them : and for our present purpose it is desirable that we treat first the objective influence of this individual in his social relations. We distinguish in this objective influence a two-fold division: First, the influence on others ; Second, the reflex influence, or the influence on self through the solidarity of the race. Both divisions are very important and far-reaching, but between them can be drawn no entirely clear line of demarkation. Clearly an individual's objective influence will be determined largely by his 142 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY intellectual and social status. But laying this consideration aside, it is evident that the average individual exerts a wonderfully great influence upon those about him. His habits of action and even of thought are bound to become, to a certain extent, theirs also, and to just this extent does he become morally responsible for their course of life and conduct. Since men love darkness rather than light, it would seem that his evil habits possess a more operative and effective influence than his good habits. This evil influence, emanating from him, affects not only his immediate companions, but it also leaves its deadly stamp upon the com-munity at large. Indeed the moral tone of the entire human race suffers a positive lowering because of the evil influence of this single individual. We come now to the reflex objective influence of the indi-vidual to whom these barnacles of habit adhere. It is an un-deniable fact that every individual creates to a large extent his own environment. Whether he shall be surrounded by light or darkness, joy or sorrow, righteousness or sin depends largely upon his own course of life and conduct. As an image is reflected in a mirror so is the influence of evil habits reflected in those upon whom it operates, to be seen and experienced again by him in whom it first had its origin. From the standpoint of self-interest, it is just as unreasonable to draw a fellow-man from the path of rectitude and duty as to drag him by main force into a bed of quick sand, for in both cases the aggressor must share the fate of his victim. Thus we see that he who wields an evil influence is not only a dangerous enemy to society, but is also a curse to himself, for he is continually preparing pitfalls for his own feet, and jeopardizing all chance of his ever attaining to moral worth. The subjective influence of the individual calls for treatment now, and it is here that we observe the saddest and most destruc-tive workings of these barnacles of habit. Like the unfortunate ship, whose career we have described, many a life has its begin-ning in comparative purity and strength. Full of confidence in its own powers, it presses boldly on, overcoming obstacle after obstacle. But just as the watery environment of our ship con-tained many hidden and unsuspected dangers, so is the environ-ment of this life teeming with evils which ere long begin to assert themselves. Pernicious habits of temperament, disposition, or passion appear. Silently, but with the inexorableness of Fate THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 143 they undermine all that which is best and noblest in human nature, and in the end bring moral wreck and ruin. Nor is this hideous transformation limited only to the outward expression of char-acter. There is a marked physiological change in the very brain cells of the individual. The very citadel of man's superior glory and strength is attacked and laid low. The intellect is debased and misdirected in its operations. The sensibility is rendered weak and misleading; the will is helplessly bound, as in ada-mantine chains. Beautiful and lofty thoughts, refined feelings, and noble resolves are no longer possible. In their place are low and unworthy conceptions, coarse feelings and ignoble desires and resolutions. If perchance there flash through this night of sin and shame a faint auroral beam of truth and purity, the fettered will can only by the most strenuous effort respond to its uplifting influence. Weoffer no apology for the dark picture here presented; human experience in all ages will testify to its fidelity to stern reality. These hell-born barnacles of habit have destroyed the highest in-tellects and debased the most beautiful characters. All spiritual worth falls before them. For an unutterably sad illustration of this truth, let us take a brief glance at the life of one of England's most distinguished poets, Lord Byron. Although a man of great genius, rank, fame and power, his life was in the end a miserable failure. The barnacles of habit, which first made their appear-ance in him in early youth, clun'g to him to the close of his life with ever increasing bane and deadening influence. Throughout his sad and romantic life he was in continually abject slavery to the Past. The vicious habits formed then asserted their dread power even in his best moments, and, like the hideous Eumenides of old, allowed him no rest, but drove him from shore to shore until, with a prematurely worn out body and destroyed peace of mind, his life, once full of glorious promise but now bereft of all its charm,was sadly ended. The unutterable sorrow and regret of the following lines, written but three months before his death, bar comment: "My days are in the yellow leaf ; The flowers and fruit of love are gone; The worm, the canker, and the grief, Are mine alone. 144 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY But probably the most important phase of our subject is the influence of the individual upon posterity. We stand face to face with the great law of heredity, whose workings are now receiving such general recognition by all intelligent people. If there is one thing which more than any other gives to life solemn and tremendous responsibility it is heredity, for literally, "none of us liveth to himself," but he lives for the whole race, both in this age and in all subsequent ages. We can no longer believe that " each soul is an emanation, fresh and unpolluted, from a divine fountain of being." It is entirely opposed to all our knowledge of psychical phenomena and the modern views on evolution. On the other hand, we must refrain from going to the opposite extreme of the materialist and say that " men are what they were born." The former view imposes upon poor man a terrible burden of responsibility for every slight violation of right which causes him to fall from a state of absolute purity, render-ing his moral condition utterly hopeless. The latter view would lead us to fatalism, and the denial of all responsibility. The former view ignores the existence of the law of heredity ; the lat-ter view would endeavor to explain everything by this law. Heredity is not all. Environment plays an inestimably import-ant part in the development of every human being. The evolu-tion of man is but the history of the operations of these two great forces. Like two Titans, engaged in work upon some great structure, heredity and environment ply their respective tasks, the former continually building with utmost constancy of pur-pose ; the latter capriciously assisting for a time, and then again hindering or destroying the work of the former. It is only by recognizing the existence of these influences, and their effect upon character, that we can arrive at even an elementary knowledge and appreciation of life's problems. We have thus far said but little relative to the will, and its functions in the development of character. We have, however, by our frequent references to moral responsibility in life, implied its existence and over-ruling power. Heredity and environment are not all. Towering above them in dignity and power is the human will, which, if rightly exercised, can overcome to a greater or lesser extent many of their most potent influences. This will necessarily operates in freedom, and it is in this freedom that the responsibilities of life arise. " Each human being is free, and THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 145 therefore responsible, in a measure ; and yet no child has any voice in saying where he shall be born, what blood shall course in his veins, what tendencies shall impel, or what aspirations thrill him."—(Amory H. Bradford.) In thus opposing will to heredity and environment we do not wish to imply that it operates in a field distinctly its own, and is altogether above and free from the influences of the latter. The character of the will is indeed determined to a very large degree by heredity and environment. Should the will of the parent be affected by the barnacles of weakness, indecision and cowardice, we would have reason to expect the same condition in the case of the child. For the sake of illustrating the manner in which a weakness of the will may be inherited, let us cite a sad example. The English poet, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was addicted to the use of stimulants. Although he earnestly strove to overcome this tendency, he found that he lacked the will-power necessary for complete abstinence. His son, Hartly Coleridge, also a poet, inherited all his father's weakness in this direction ; and his entire life was a constant and unsuccessful struggle against temptation. In a spirit of despair he wrote of himself: " O ! woeful impotence of weak resolve, Recorded rashly to the writer's shame, Da3rs pass away, and time's large orbs revolve, And every day beholds me still the same ; 'Till oft neglected purpose loses aim, And hope becomes a flat, unheeded lie." And thus these barnacles of habit beset the individual, and accomplish their deadly work. They appear when life is young and sweet, and, like the Sirens, entice him with their soft allure-ments to destruction. As time progresses they tighten their re-morseless hold upon him, and weigh him down beneath their slimy weight of shame remorse and despair. At last death, with a thousand terrors, overtakes him, and another lost soul enters the realm of everlasting darkness. But the evil effects of the barnacles of habit do not end with the death of the individual. The curse is transmitted to subsequent generations. There is started a stream of death, which flows on down through the ages, continually exhaling from its poisonous waters, mixed with tears and blood, the germs of sin, grief, agony and unutterable despair. We shall now conclude this rather meagre and unsatisfactory 146 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY treatment of some of life's great problems. If our essay partakes of too gloomy and despondent a tone to please our reader's ears, its theme should be held accountable, but not its writer. We have endeavored to the best of our ability to set forth some of the more obvious evil effects resulting from the formation of wrong habits of life ; and throughout we have conscientiously endeavored to develop the central thought of L,auier's poem—the powerful influence of the past upon the present. Danier recognized the fact that life, for many an individual, is a ceaseless struggle ; that every attainment of virtue and true worth is reached only by the overcoming of innumerable obstacles, and the resolute and deter-mined resistance to the restraining grasp of the spectral hand which the dead past is ever reaching out to us. In conclusion, we wish to say that, by the very nature of our subject, we have been compelled to depict the darkest side of human nature. That there is a bright side, too, we confidently believe. While it is a serious thing to live, because of life's re-sponsibilities, it is also a blessed thing to live, because of life's glorious opportunities. And for us to invest life with deep gloom and sorrow is not only the height of folly, but it is an insult to ourallwise and loving Maker. The Reign of Righteousness will come ; for, while that which is true and holy will abide and in-crease throughout all time, sin has in itself the seeds of its own decay. " The wages of sin is death." THE BLACK CURL. MAY BELLE DIEHL, '03. TT was a warm day, about the middle of June, when Detective A Elair got to Richard's house. He could see it when he entered the wood, a small house, painted white, with a porch running all around it. Blair was on the search for Richard, better known as "Sly Bill." He had skipped off with about a thousand, one dark night, from the bank in which he was working. Blair had never seen him, but he was sure he would know him as soon as he would see him. As he drew near the house he heard singing, and stopping to listen, he thought he recognized a woman's voice. When he rapped on the door it was opened by a withered old woman who THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 147 curtly inquired what he wanted there. Her face grew a little pale when he asked for her son, but she straightened herself up and said that he had gone. Blair's face fell, but he asked leave to search the house. When that was ended he sat down to think. No trace whatever had he found of the fellow. Instead he found, sitting in her room, the loveliest girl he had ever seen, dark as night. Blair adored dark girls. As he was far from New York he was invited to stay over night. He declined to stay, but afterwards decided to do so and go back the next day. That evening they had a pleasant time chatting on the porch, but Blair had no idea whether either of them suspected what he was there for. He grew to love the girl in those few hours. When they took a walk the next day she coyly asked why he could not stay a little longer. He was delighted and determined to stay until he was ordered to leave. And he did. These two took a great many walks, and one pleasant evening when Blair thought the time had come, he asked her to be his wife. Of course she accepted him and he told her all about New York, and where they would live, etc. But there was only one cloud to mar the pleasure. She shunned him a little, a very little, but Blair saw it and wondered to himself. One evening he asked her why she did this;—they were sitting under a weeping willow by the brook, their favorite spot—she started a little when the question was asked, but looking at the water at her feet she coyly said, "I am afraid if I were with you always I would not be able to let you go when—a—when—the time came to part." He put his arm about her and drew her towards him; but just then there were footsteps and Mrs. Richards called her daughter. The girl arose and rau forward to her mother and they went toward the house together. The next day he got word to start and hunt Richard at another place where he was supposed to have been seen. He decided to go, and on his way stop for "Blanche." The day he left they were in their old place by the brook. Blair had asked her for a certain curl that hung lovingly over her little ear. She cut it off, and when he took it he pressed it to his lips and put it in his card case. While he was on the way to find the thief he received a tele-gram: "Come back at once; thief found." He decided to come 148 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY for his sweetheart later, and set out for New York-. He arrived there a few days later, and when he walked into the office one of the men came up to him and slapped him on the back and said: "Well, old boy, so you were entrapped ?" At this all the other men laughed. Blair looked bewildered, and he was led to a door, which, when it was unlocked was thrown open to his gaze. Blair staggered back and covered his eyes, then opened them and looked again. There in a corner by an opeii window stood— "Blanche," yet not "Blanche." The same dark skin and black eyes and pretty ringlets that Blair had so admired. She(?) held a cigarette between her pearly teeth and a cap sat back on the clustering curls. There came a sneering laugh from between those teeth when Blair came in but "fool!" was the only word that came. But he certainly made a pretty girl! ONE OP COD'S WAIPS. [Second Gies Prize.] C. M. A. STINE, '01. '"pHB train had just roared out of its miles of snowsheds and ■"■ paused for a moment on the summit of the Sierras. It was dusk. The sun had sunk behind the cloud-capped peaks and the platform before the little box of a station was very quiet after the long vestibuled train vanished into the fast approaching night. At the one end of the platform, playing with the pebbles and singing softly to himself, was a rosy cheeked, brown-eyed little boy. He was clothed in a rough suit of jeans many sizes too large, and his soft brown curls peeped through his ragged straw hat. The boy's name was Tom. Tom's father worked in the mines and sometimes Tom became very lonesome with no companions save the great, silent moun-tains. But the moutains answered Tom when he shouted in his childish sports and he thought they sympathized with him en-tirely. His mother had died six long years before, and nobody had thought it worth while to explain to him that it was an echo. To-night, when Tom spied his father in the distance and ran to meet him as usual, he was put aside and told to run away and not bother his father. It was the first time that he had not met THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 149 with a loving welcome and been lifted to his father's shoulder. His soft red lips quivered a moment and the brown eyes filled as he turned silently away. A little later when Tom had eaten his meagre supper and then gone to his bed in one corner, the little cabin was filled with men and Tom heard his father deny some-thing again and again, but he could not quite understand what it was all about. Finally one of the men sprang up, with an oath, and threatened to shoot his father, but the other men pulled him out of the cabin, saying that they offered one alternative, that was that his father go away and not show himself again. His father promised and then came and told Tom to dress himself and come. The trouble was about a large nugget of gold which had dis-appeared mysteriously. Tom's father had been working near the place where the nugget was last seen, and when it disappeared the readiness to suspicion by the rough miners at once asserted itself, and it was agreed that Tom's father could tell more about the lost nugget than he was willing to admit. He was a new-comer and had no friends, so things went hard with him. As the two stole away in the night, Tom, looking back over his father's shoulder as he was carried, saw their little cabin in flames, and when he reported the discovery his father only walked faster and didn't seem to care. But Tom cried a little to himself as he was hurried off, and finally went to sleep on his father's shoulder. The man plodded wearily on for awhile and then laid Tom down under a pine and wrapping him up in his coat, paced up and down till the gray light of dawn crept down from its resting place in the towering peaks. As he walked he talked to himself softly; " Oh, Mary, if you had only stayed. Why did God have to take you ? The brutes! To burn my home and drive me out with my little boy into the mountains to die! I did not take the cursed nugget. Oh, God ! I dare not kill myself. My poor little boy ! You can't realize what it means to you to be the son of a man who has been branded a thief.'' Finally he threw himself beside Tom and, exhausted with work and anxiety, slept till the rays of the morning sun kissed the closed eye-lids of his little boy and awoke him. The little fellow called his father, and the two trudged wearily on till they came to another mining town. The father bought a meagre dinner from one of the cabins ISO THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY which a huge board proclaimed a " Restournt." He took Tom to a cabin and gave a woman some money, asking her to keep the little fellow till he came back. Then he took Tom aside, looking at him a long time, told him to grow up to be a good man, and stroked Tom's soft brown hair awhile. At last he took a tiny locket from within his ragged blue shirt and hung the delicate chain around Tom's neck and showed him how to look at the picture of the sweet, girlish face within. He held Tom's head in his hands and gazed into the deep brown eyes as if looking for the resemblance to the face in the locket. The look in his father's face made the little fellow feel like crying, though he knew it wasn't manly to cry. That evening they brought his father back to the little town and a couple men hastily buried the body for decency's sake- There was a bullet hole in the forehead. " He had committed suicide, because his revolver had one chamber empty and was found lying beside him." Such was the verdict of the astute coroner. No one took the trouble to look about near the scene of the supposed suicide or they might have found the loaded shell which had been taken from one chamber of the revolver tossed there by the coward who had threatened to shoot him by his very fireside, and now had accomplished his craven will from a con-cealed spot among the rocks. The same villain who took the gold now had covered up his crime with an almost devilish cun-ning. He escaped punishment on earth, unless his own dark thoughts tormented him. The woman kept Tom for awhile, but she had many cares of her own and finally Tom was left to make a living for himself. The little fellow (just five summers he had seen) did all sorts of odd jobs, but was hungry always, only sometimes not quite as much as at others. One night it rained and Tom caught cold. The next day he couldn't work and one of the miners pitied the little fellow and took him to his home. For a few weeks Tom was very sick, but he was carefully watched over by the great-hearted Christian mother, who willingly undertook the care of the homeless, ragged little stranger, a part of whose pitiful ex-perience she knew. At last, one day, the great brown eyes opened and the fire of intelligence was once more alight within THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 151 them. He finally got well and received work in the company store. We must pass over a period of ten years, during which the little lad grew to be a strong, intelligent, kind-hearted youth. His restless spirit and his thirst for knowledge induced him, at the end of his sixteenth year, to take a sad leave of the woman who had cared for him as tenderly as a mother, and whom he had learned to love. At parting he left with her the delicate gold chain of peculiar workmanship, but took the locket himself. He said that he intended to find work, get a college education, and some day he would return. When, he did not know. Three years more slipped away. The little mining town had grown with a mushroom-like growth to the size of a great city. Many new mining industries had arisen. One morning a grey haired, withered old woman offered flowers for sale to an equally grey and old, but richly dressed and proud-faced woman, who, attracted by the magnificent roses of the old flower-woman, had ordered her carriage to stop. She bestowed a passing glance on the poorly dressed little woman and was about to turn again to the roses when she uttered an exclamation and demanded to know where this woman, who probably had never had money enough to buy a fine dress, could have gotten the strangely fashioned and costly chain which had slipped into view from beneath the old flower-woman's wrap. She became more agitated as the old flower-woman took the chain off and permitted her to examine it. Passers-by were astonished to see the rich and fashionable Mrs. Grayson in earnest conversation with a poor old flower-woman. Finally she out-raged the refined sensibilities of her sister, who had been leaning listlessly back in the carriage, by actually taking the shabby old woman into her carriage and ordering the coachman to drive home. "Oh, Marion, what will our friends say?" But this phrase, which usually had the desired effect, seemed spoken to deaf ears. A look into Mrs. Grayson's pale face silenced her. The old flower-woman related how Tom had come to her when a little sick lad and left her after he had grown almost to manhood, and how she had never heard of him since. The old woman's voice trembled and her faded old face took additional ti. i ii. ,.«■——w ii minim HW.IU. 152 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY lines as she told bow she longed to see her lost boy. And then her grief gave place to wonder as she discovered that the woman beside her was shedding tears from eyes that had almost forgotten what tears were. " It is certainly my daughter's son," she exclaimed, noticing the look of wonder on the face of the old flower-woman. " But where is the locket?" and she indicated the place on the chain where the locket had hung. " He kept the locket," the old flower-woman answered. Then Mrs. Grayson explained in a voice frequently inter-rupted by grief how her daughter, when but a young girl, had fallen in love with a wild young civil engineer, and on her parents' absolute refusal of their consent, had disappeared and not been heard from. The chain and locket with a picture of the young girl had been given to her daughter by her on a birthday before she left home. The mother had loved her daughter most tenderly, and when the little boy, Tom, was but a few months old the mother had received a letter asking her, if anything should happen his mother, to take care of the little fellow. She had then tried to find her daughter, but they had gone farther West and she never again heard, and did not know that her daughter was dead, though she had feared that such must be the case. That night the wires sang and operators were astonished at the number of messages and inquiries, all relating to the same man. They hesitated between the belief that the man who created all this inquiry was a murderer and the belief that he was an absconding bank cashier. But all inquiry was in vain. The past refused to give a clue to the present. Detectives who had never failed before gave up the vain search. Mrs. Grayson came to the end of her resources. All that wealth could do had been done, without result. She had shown her gratitude to the old flower-woman by making her comfortable for the remainder of her life. She, herself, decided to go abroad in search for lost health, and perhaps, deep down in her heart, she thought that some kind providence would reveal her grandson, for whom she had a very tender and deep affection as the son of her erring, but well be-loved, daughter. One day on the deck of the steamer she found a man's watch THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 153 and chain, and at once the charm on the chain caught her eye. It was the missing locket. She touched a spring and found her-self gazing, with tear dimmed eyes, at the smiling face of her daughter pictured within. A moment later a young man inquired of her for a watch and chain that he thought must have slipped from his clothing as he lounged in a steamer chair. The law of heredity had told. The strain of refinement showed itself in that, through all these years of hard work and rough surroundings, he had succeeded, and was the quiet, re-fined looking fellow the grandmother had longed to see. He had managed to earn his way through a business college, and now as private secretary of a well-to-do merchant was in a fair way to reach his goal, a higher education. Without a word the grandmother fastened the locket in its place on the curious old chain which she had received again through the old flower-woman, and handed the beautiful bit of jewelry to him. Ten minutes later the lazy passengers were astonished to see Mrs. Grayson go by leaning on the arm of a tall, brown-eyed fel-low (for she was old and the ship swayed on the ocean swell), and to notice that there were actually tears on the aristocratic old face, and a suspicious moisture in the eyes of the young fellow who helped her along so carefully, and with such a caressing touch. God had cared for and watched over the motherless waif, and when human strength had failed to unite relatives, in His fathomless love He gave the young man a loving mother in place of the mother he had lost so many years ago. CONSCIOUSNESS. Within the silent rock exist A billion yearning- lives. Man is a petty egotist To think he only strives, To think he only struggles up To God through toil and pain. He is but one drop in a cup Filled from the mighty main. The flowers have tender little souls, That love, repine, aspire. 1S4 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Each star that on its orbit rolls, Feels infinite desire. The diamond longs to scintillate When hid beneath the sod. The universe is animate With consciousness of God. —E1.1.A WHEELER WILCOX, IN COLLIER'S WEEKLY. G^U HONOR, OR HONORS? (Gits Prut Production, Third Prize.) D. C. BURNITE, '01. "TN the world's broad field of battle" each contestant must have •*■ a purpose. This life has been called the "struggle for existence." This might be said, with some measure of truth, of some of the meanest of God's creatures, but such a purpose is unworthy of one made in His image. We struggle for more than mere existence. Each has a definite end towards which he strives, an ideal he seeks to imitate. A man's moral character is measured by his ideal. The higher his ideal, the nobler his traits of character. And how many there are who fail to realize the importance of the choice of an ideal! Many persons are, unfortunately, accustomed to act before they think. They do not consider tbat there are two sides to every question. Attracted by the brilliant achievements of others, without considering the means and methods by which such persons have attained their ends, they set up a goal, towards which they blindly direct their course of action, forgetful of everything but success. Comparatively few men can stand success. As in the case of the misguided Mohammed, with the attainment of distinction comes a change of character. Too often do men forsake honor in the strife for honors. Yet honors are not to be wholly despised. Even the most modest persons experience some satisfaction when the success of their efforts meets with the approval of their fellows. And the pursuit of such approval cannot justly be condemned if attended by sturdiness of character and the pre-servation of honor. On the contrary, such a course can be com-mended, for its successful outcome is not only a source of gratifi- THE GETl^YSBURG MERCURY 155 cation to the participant himself, but brings joy to his friends and credit to his community. But not all the honors that mankind can bestow can compensate for the loss of one grain of honor. "An honest man's the noblest work of God." Shall we, then, labor to win the empty praises of men, or to fulfill our Maker's design? With honors as the one end for which we strive, honor may be lost; but if all we do is done with this one purpose in view, the building up of an honorable character, sufficient honors will surely come. What man's name is more honored than that of "honest Abe Lincoln?" Each year our nation celebrates the memory of the virtuous Washington. The humble works ofMoody have brought him esteem, more sincere than could any other achievement, political or military. These are men who have worked, not for honors, but for honor, and obtained both. But what a host of men have forgotten character in the race for glory! The pursuit of honors under such circumstances is vain. What availed all the distinctions won by the intriguing Caesar? The name of Nero is remembered, not so much as that of a great Roman emperor, as that of history's most cruel tyrant. It was checked ambition which led Benedict Arnold to give his name to history, not as a successful American general, but as a traitor. For those the maintenance of honor was impossible, with honors alone in view. This fault of excessive ambition appears not only in past history, but also in that of the present. Men are no less inclined to endanger their good names in the pursuit of honors now than they have always been. But the means taken are somewhat different. The days of bloodshed and outright robbery to gain distinction are past; but the practice of falsehood, cheating and inti'igue has scarcely abated. It is too true that in these days honors accompany riches. By a large majority of people the wealthy are respected and courted because of their possessions only. And this being realized, many are the means taken to acquire wealth. Many a man starts out into business with the avowed intention of letting right rule his every act and word. But the ever appearing opportunity of telling a "business lie," or perpetrating one of the numerous "tricks of trade," assails him at every turn. Unless he recalls and clings to his good resolve, the first step below the level of 1S6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY honesty is too frequently the beginning of a general weakening of character, the loss of which he imagines is repaid by the acquirement of wealth and all the honors it brings. The honors attendant upon political eminence are particularly attractive. It is very easy for the political aspirant to be induced to employ falsehood and intrigue as assistants in reaching coveted ends, and it is to be deplored that these means too often are successful in producing the desired results, not only in connection with our town and state affairs, but in the government of our nation itself. So prevalent are such practices that a great pro-portion of our populace firmly believe that political honors and personal honor are incompatible. But business and politics are not the only directions in which honor can be lost to honors. There is scarcely one line of labor which does not offer abundant chances for deterioration of character. And not only at one time of life may we have this delusive ambition. It appears alike in the old and young. In fact, the evil practices of men are generally the continuation of dishonorable habits formed in early life. Nowhere is this sacrifice of honor for honors practiced so much as in our institutions of learning—those places where young men are finishing the mould-ing of characters that are to endure all through manhood. It is a cause of regret that so many in such places seem not to realize the importance of right dealing at this period of life. The bestowal of honors in the shape of high grades, in most schools and colleges, is based, not upon what the student has the ability to do—for it would be impossible to ascertain that accu-rately— but upon what he makes his instructors think he can do. What an inducement for wrong-doing, especially if these honors take the form of material rewards, or even verbal approval. He who in his zeal for honors lays aside honor, can find countless methods by which he may create the required good impression upon the minds of his tutors. And many do find and use these methods. The bane of our institutions of learning is the extensive practice of cheating, the great prevalence of the inclination to do wrong for the sake of advanced notation. Too many students are willing to give honor for honors. College credits, rightly acquired, are worthy of attainment, for they are evidence to the student himself of his real worth. But dishonestly obtained, they are nothing. And the excessive THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 157 use of this latter method of obtaining honors renders the whole system of numerical or alphabetical notation almost useless as a standard for the judgment of ability. But the majority of students fail to see this, and regard these honors as the one goal towards which they must bend their efforts, and to make the process easy, many stoop to unworthy methods. How utterly foolish such deeds ! For a few short years of self-satisfaction, for the praise of friends, and for the sake of transient credit, they are willing to injure that which is designed to regulate the whole course of life, the character. Too frequently we are mistaken in our conception of what true honors are. We consider the approval of a large number of persons as sufficient to call an attainment an honor. But true honors are not those regarded as such by many, but by certain men—the wise, the good, and by One who is infinitely wiser and better, the Great Judge. It is in His sight that the deepening of character becomes in itself an honor. With these thoughts in mind, let us ask ourselves, "For what shall we strive ? For that which will please our Maker or for the praise of men ; for self-improvement or vain glory ; for honor or honors?' ' Let Fate do her worst, there are relics of joy— Bright dreams of the past, which she cannot destroy. They come in the night-time of sorrow and care, And bring back the features that joy used to wear. Long, long be my heart with such memories filled, Like the vase in which roses have once been distilled; You may break, you may shatter the vase if you will, But the scent of the roses will cling 'round it still. -MOOKK. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Entertd at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. Voi,. IX. GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1900. No. 5. Editor-in- Chief, S. A. VAN ORMEK, '01. Assistant Editors, W. H. HBTRICK, W. A. KOHLER. Business Manager, H. C. HOFFMAN. Alumni Editor, REV. F. D. GARLAND. Assistant Business Manager, WILLIAM C. NEY. Advisory Board, PROF. J. A. HIMES, LIT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg") College. Subscription price, One Dollar a year in advance; single copies Ten Cents. Notice to discontinue sending- the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors, and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORS' DESK. "EVERYTHING points to a successful year for Pennsylvania *-* College ! A larger Freshman class, to the members of which—though too late to extend a welcome—THE MERCURY extends a greeting and an invitation to contribute to her columns ; a lively, healthy, interesting athletics ; a rival of the old-time enthusiasm in getting new men into the literary societies; an exceptional feeling of good-will among the students ; and a com-mendable harmony pervading the whole institution ; all these signs seem to augur a " star" year in the history of the college. Let us all conduct ourselves as students worthy the proffered privileges ! THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 159 HPHERE is no more opportune time to urge the expediency of * regularly attending and actively participating in the work of our literary societies than at the beginning of the college year for the old students, and of the college course for the new. The college graduate, no matter in what profession he may be engaged, will frequently be called upon in public meetings, either to conduct the proceedings or give his opinion and counsel. How often, with a brilliant college record behind him, he hesitates or reluctantly accepts, only to stumble and falter in speech, or dis-play a grievous ignorance of parliamentary practice, to his own confusion and the disgust of those assembled. Opportunities to rise into public notice, to win the confidence of his community, and, in general, to exhibit qualifications for public duty and trust, are thus allowed to pass unimproved, and the disappointed aspirant is obliged to confine his interests and activities to the narrow channels of professional routine, and tamely work out his ordinary destiny on the dead level of professional common-place ; all because in his struggle for class standing, distinction in col-lege sports or general college activities, if not because of utter indifference, he has neglected the literary societies and their training. Too often the training there imparted is depreciated, and re-garded as a college incidental of collateral importance and in-terest, and not an essential and supplementary part of one's equipment for life—a part, indeed, of higher market value in the world to-day than that any department of study in the college curriculum can furnish. The literary societies are both animated by a spirit of earnest endeavor—a spirit which, though it savors of rivalry and competition, is modified by a sympathetic interest in the literary culture of all members. Their doors are ever open to visitors, and welcome ever warm to applicants. -K. **p LITERARY INOTES. HTHE publication at this time of the United States Government's *■ History of the Civil War in 128 volumes of narrative, and 35 volumes of maps, makes very tiniely the publication of Col. Thomas L,. Iyivermore's " Numbers and L,osses in the Civil War." The work is based upon official information contained in per- 160 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY mauent department records of both sides in the struggle, and gives the numbers engaged and the losses sustained in the long contest between the North and the South. Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. will publish the work. Jt Edna Dean Proctor, whose " Poems," chiefly of New England subjects, have won for her an enviable reputation, has in press with the Messrs. Houghton, Miffliu&Co. a new volume of verse, which relates entirely to New Hampshire, her native State. The book will be issued under the title, " A Mountain Maid, and Other Poems of New Hampshire." It will be illustrated by a number of reproductions of photographs of some of the romantic mountain and other scenery of the " Old Granite State." j* The publishers of " David Harum" give some interesting statistics regarding that work, now in its 436th thousand : Over 5,000 pounds of ink, 5,865 reams of paper, and 1,900 miles of thread have been used in making the books. If placed end to end they would extend for more than fifty miles. e^b THE MAIDEN ALL PORLORN. STANLEY C FOWLEB, '04. "IT'S de gospel truff I'm a tellin yo'. Dis yere house am ■*■ ha'nted shur nuff." " What's up now ?" asked Mr. Bently, looking up from his morning paper. George Washington rolled his eyes and twiddled his thumbs as he repeated his former assertion : " Dat de house am ha'nted." "Where did you obtain this pleasant information?" Mr. Bently demanded. " W'a a young gen'lenian, dats a stayin' downhe'ar, tole me dat de spook ob a beau'ful lady walks up in de garret. Dis lady used ter lib he'ar, when dis yer house was fust built, wid an ole uncle who wanted ter marry her ter his son, so's he'd git her money, but she wa' dead in lub wid a young fellar dat she used to meet ' clandistinctly.' One night dis ole uncle spied her a goin' up ter de garret an' cotched her a makin' signals out of dat THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 161 ' oriole' window to de fellar. De ole wretch locked her in de room, an' stole down an' waited fo' de young man, an' killed him while she wa' a lookin' at 'em. She went crazy, an'used ter steal up dere ebery Wednesday night (fo' dat's de night her uncle killed him), an' moan an' groan about him, an' when she died her spook walked. De people called her ' De Maiden All Forlorn.' " And having delivered this pleasant piece of news, George Washington retired. Here was a pretty state of affairs. Mr. Bently had spent three days with his wife and nephews at the large, old-fashioned man-sion on the Hudson, that he had recenttypurchased for a summer residence. These nephews, while at college, had earned the reputation of being " wild," but had developed into two quiet cads during the three days spent in the company of their aunt; much to the de-light of that estimable lady, and disgust of her husband. Mr. Bently rubbed his ears reflectively, and said, " George Washington's name is a warrant for his veracity, but, Good Dord ! just think of living in a house inhabited by a spook ! It's just like you, Tom Bently, to buy a place like this. What will you poor boys do when she begins to walk and groan ?" asked Mr. Bently. '' I will lay me down in peace and take my rest; for it is Thine, Dord only, that makest me dwell in safety," said Fred, rolling his eyes to the ceiling. Will, the younger nephew, was too deeply interested in "Uncle Tom's Cabin," which he had been reading for the past few days, to pay any attention to the conversation. Well, if she's going to walk she'll do it to-night. But say, Fred, how will that club of yours, that you have invited to spend every Wednesday night here, stand it?" asked Mr. Bently. " They are all Christian boys, and fear nothing," said Fred. Mr. Bently's foot itched to connect with Fred, but, fearing his wife's anger, he found satisfaction in kicking the dog. " Well, it's queer that the agent forgot to mention ' The Maiden All Forlorn.' I'm going to examine the garret," and off Mr. Bently stamped. The garret had two very large rooms. One which had an oriel window, overlooking the river, opened into another smaller room, in which were a wooden table and several large packing 162 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY cases. This room opened into a large closet with a door at one end. Mr. Bently found it to be locked and the key missing. After getting the lay of the land for future emergencies, he hur-ried down to welcome the guests. They were six of the gayest looking " Christian" boys he had ever seen. His spirits rose only to fall again, for they proved to be the exact counterparts of his nephews. Mr. Bently's blissful snoring was brought to an abrupt end. " There, that's her ! Don't youhearthat noise ? Go up and see what it is !" said Mrs. Bently, who was sitting bolt upright in bed. It is needless to say that Mr. Bently failed to display a proper spirit of eagerness or enthusiasm at his wife's command, but a few prods from her succeeded in instilling the proper degree of courageousness necessary for such an undertaking. Calling for George Washington, who came running along with a bamboo cane in his hand, Mr. Bently handed him a pistol, some matches and a lighted candle; and after taking the cane from him, ordered him to lead the way. Trembling with fear they climbed the garret stairs, and just as George Washington was opening the garret door he sneezed, and out went the candle. " Light that candle ! " screamed Mr. Bently. Poor George was so excited that he succeeded in dropping the matches, and after Mr. Bently groped about in the dark, consol-ing himself and blessing George audibly, he was forced to proceed in total darkness. George plucked up sufficient courage to open the door very slowly, and both stole in. The moonlight was stealing through the window, and there, walking, or rather gliding over to it, her gauzy drapery floating gracefully behind her, was a beautiful young girl. George Wash-ington gave one yell and fled, tripping Mr. Bently, who did not take the time to rise to his feet, but scampered on all fours, fin-ishing a close second to George ; for Mr. Bently, instead of run-ning down stairs, jumped. He sailed through the air like a comet, his dressing gown floating majestically behind him as stiff as a board. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 163 When he lauded he imagined that he heard a chuckle, but turning he beheld George Washington shaking like a lump of jelly and muttering his prayers. "Say, George, I'll give you five dollars ifyou will completely forget this little excursion," said Mr. Bently. " All right, sah," said George. The next day, while strolling in the grounds, Mr. Bently was surprised to hear voices coming from behind a clump of bushes. Hearing his name mentioned, he listened and heard his nephew's voice say, " George, tell us how he looked when he sailed down stairs." Then he heard George Washington's voice answer, " Well, Massa Fred, he done went so fast ah could only see a streak ob him from de top to de bottom ob de stairs.'' Here then was a burst of laughter. Mr. Bently turned savagely on his heel and stalked away muttering, " The black snoozer. I'll choke him. Wait, I'll surprise them yet." Next Wednesday Mrs. Bently announced her intention of sleeping in the left wing of the house, far from the stamping ground of the maiden. Mr. Bently said nothing, but looked very wise. It was almost midnight, and Mr. Bently, fully dressed, his feet shod with soft felt slippers, and carrying a dark-lantern, slowly ascended the garret stairs. He trembled so violently as he turned the knob of the door that he was forced to lean against the wall for a minute. He finally opened it and peeped in. All was quiet and serene, so he tiptoed into the room. Presently he heard footsteps, and hastily shading the lantern saw George Washington walk by and enter the smaller room. As the door opened a flood of light came out, and he heard the sound of many feet tramping. Then he heard Will singing : " O, the youngest son, was a son of a gun, He was, he was, He shuffled the cards and he played for mon, He did, he did." Mr. Bently stole up and peeped into the room through the crack, for George had neglected to shut the door tightly. There sat Will and five "Christian boys" around the wooden table, on which were cards and chips. Fred was boxing with the re-maining " Christian boy," both clad in scant attire. George Washington was opening some bottles of champagne. 164 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY " Come, Ed, it's time that you did your act," said Will. Ed, a big, broad-shouldered fellow, arose aud placed a big blonde wig on his head and donned a long white wrapper. Then he draped some gauze about his shoulders. As he took off his shoe he dropped it. " Are they blasting rock as late as this?" innocently asked Will. " You horrid thing, to make fun of my little shoes. I'll hit you real hard," said Ed as he sent the other number eight sail-ing through the air in the direction of Will's head. When Ed had completed his toilet he stole up to Will, and laying his head on his shoulder, gazed up into his eyes and said, " Does 'oo love 'oo little tootsey-wootsey ?" " He should, ior he lost enough filthy lucre to you last club night," said Fred. Will sang " Thou'rt Like Unto a Flower," and was telling Ed how he " longed on those golden tresses his folded hands to lay," when Ed threw back his head and gave voice to such a howl as human ear had never heard before. It was the bray-ing of a donkey and the howling of a clog, blended harmoniously into one cry, " in linked sweetness long drawn out." "Suffering Moses! When did you cultivate that howl?" asked Will. " I got my inspiration from a Wagnerian chorus that I had the agony of listening to for about four hours and a half. I've practiced it for the past week. Dos't think it sounds like The Maiden All Forlorn singing, " Where Art Thou Now, My Be-loved?" said Ed. " She must have sung like a snorting gale," said Fred. " Say, George Washington, you told that tale with good effect. Who coached you?" asked Ed. " Ah belong to de ' Moonlight Dramatic Association,' " said George, proudly. " Gee," whispered Will, "I should think so many clouds would spoil the moonlight." " Go on, Ed, and do your act. The old gentleman may in-vestigate again," said Will. " Not much. He has his nightcap pulled down over his ears and his head buried under the pillows," said Ed. This was too much, and Mr. Beutly threw open the door and —MI im>i»nm—P THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 165 walked in. What a scene ! George Washington dropped on his knees, saying, " "Tis me father's ghost," in tones that would make the " Divine Sarah" turn green with envy. The Maiden All Forlorn, like the proverbial ostrich, had her head buried in a packing case, and her pedal extremities waving frantically in the air. A row of coat-tails were fast disappearing under the table. Only Fred remained cool and collected. " Good morning, gentlemen," said Mr. Bently. "Good morning, uncle. Won't you join the 'Precious Pearls' in their exercises ?" said Fred. " Don't care if I do," said Mr. Bently. A howl came from the depth of the packing case, where the Damsel Crowned With Rue had taken refuge. A head slowly appeared from the opposite side of the table. " But, uncle, I thought that you didn't approve of poker ?" " That's when your aunt's listening," said Mr. Bently, giving a sly wink. " Whose idea was this ?" " Mine," answered Will. " You see, Aunt Ann insisted on my reading ' Uncle Tom's Cabin,' and I thought that Cassy's racket might work here. It's diplomacy, you know." " And blamed good diplomacy. How do you get up here ?" asked Mr. Bently. " There's a flight of stairs leading from a closet in our room to that door in there," said Fred, pointing to the door in the closet of the room. " Well, it's a mighty good racket so long as your aunt don't investigate," said Mr. Bently. c^p THE NATIONAL NOMINATING CONVENTION. T}RIOR to the year 1825 candidates for President and Vice- A President were nominated by what was called the Con-gressional Caucus. Its power had become so great that a nomi-nation by the Caucus had come to be equivalent to an election. But when it attempted to force upon the people as candidates for the Presidency ir in whom the rank and file of the party did not wish, its usefulness was in question, and because of its persistence 166 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY in such obnoxious actions it lost all its power and influence and came to an inglorious end during the campaign of 1824. Throughout the stage of transition from the Congressional Caucus to the National Nominating Convention the State Legis-lative Caucus assumed the duty of making the presidential nomi-nations. The plan for nominating presidential candidates by means of a national convention had been proposed by different individuals and newspapers opposed to the Congressional Caucus and was under discussion for several years ; but the difficulties in the way, together with the lack of agreement on the part of the people, had prevented a general movement in favor of the plan. Some of the difficulties began to disappear as facilities for com-munication between the States improved with the improved roads and the building of railways. The first call for a national nominating convention was sent out by the Anti-Masonic party in 1830. Thirteen States were represented in this first national convention. An address to the people of the United States was issued and nominations for President and Vice-President were made. The convention idea was now in the air and was promptly adopted by the two great parties. The city of Baltimore has the honor of being the place where candidates for President and Vice-President were first nominated by national conventions. The procedure of these Baltimore conventions was in many particulars much like that of National Conventions to-day. There was the temporary organi-zation, the examination of credentials, the permanent organization, the address to the people setting forth party principles and assail-ing the principles of other parties, the "nominating speeches," and the committee to notify those nominated of the honor conferred. There was no formal"platform " adopted at the first conventions. This feature was introduced by a gathering of young men which met in May, 1832, in the interest of Henry Clay's candidacy. At this meeting a series of resolutions were adopted which, in the language of Mr. Bryce, "constituted the first political plat-form ever put forth by a nominating body." In the National Convention of the present the "platform" occupies a conspicuous place. Three ideas are now seen to enter necessarily into a political platform. There is first a statement of the general fundamental principles for which the party stands. Secondly, THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 167 there is a conscious effort to set forth a specific policy to be pursued under existing circumstances and conditions. And, third, the platform carries with it a pledge, stated or implied, that the party will be true to its historic principles and will carry out the policy outlined. The Anti-Masons contributed to convention organization the suggestion that each State should send as many delegates as it had electoral votes, and the National Republicans the suggestion that the delegates be elected by Congressional districts. In the early conventions the number of delegates from each State was not limited, though the number of votes was restricted to the number of electors. For twenty years from 1852 the number of delegates from each State to Democratic conventions was fixed at double the number of electors and each delegate was given a half a vote. In 1872 this rule was changed so as to give to each delegate a full vote and retain the number of delegates at double that of the electors. The Republicans had adopted this latter rule twelve years before, and it is still in force in both parties. Two delegates from each territory are admitted to Republican conventions, with the privilege of voting. Democratic conventions do not grant this privilege to territorial delegates. Since the year 1892 the Republican party requires every State to elect its delegates by Congressional districts. The Democratic party has two methods in general use. The two delegates to which each Congressional district is entitled are chosen by that district, while the State Convention elects the four "delegates-at-large" for the whole State. There is also a difference between the Republican and Democratic Conventions with respect to some other important rules—the Two-Thirds Rule, the Majority Rule and the Unit Rule. The first Democratic Convention adopted a rule declaring "that two-thirds of the whole number of votes in the convention shall be necessary to constitute a choice." This rule has been reaffirmed by every subsequent Democratic Convention. The Majority Rule was adopted by the Whigs in 1840, and is the rule which has been used by the Republican Conventions up to the present time. The first Democratic Convention also adopted a rule which has been understood to give to the majority of the delegates from any State the right to cast the vote of the State. This is known 168 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY as the Unit Rule. It disregards the wishes of the minority in any particular State and at the same time makes it possible for candi-dates to be nominated who are approved by a minority only of the party voters of the country. But as tending to exalt the rights of the State as such, the Unit Rule has been much favored by Democratic State Conventions, which have often instructed their delegates to national conventions to vote as a unit. In Republican National Conventions the Unit Rule never gained foothold, though efforts have been made to impose it upon the party. The rule which is now in force was adopted in 1880. It requires that in case any delegate objects to the announcement made by the chairman of his delegation, "the president of the convention shall direct the roll of members of such delegation to be called and the result recorded in accordance with the votes individually given." The National Nominating Convention has come to be such an important factor in our form of government that every citizen should become as familiar with its organization and manner of working as with the Constitution itself. An insight into the methods of the great political leaders framing the future policies of the nation, together with an opportunity to witness the delib-erations of the men who control the destinies of the country— especially at this important period of our national existence— ought to be sought by every young man who glories in the proud name of an American citizen. "PROMETHEUS." AN EXPOSITION.—THE LAW OF ENERGY. HAVING cut a small square out of a card-board screen, hold the screen in a vertical position near a lighted lamp be-tween the lamp and the wall. In your imagination, connect the corners of the illumined surface on the wall with the corresponding corners of the square hole in the screen. The connecting cords converge, and, if con-tinued through the hole, will meet in the flame of your lamp. The square pyramid thus formed may be seen if there is dust in the atmosphere. The part of this pyramid between the lamp and the screen, is also a pyramid, similarto the whole. By geometry, we know that the sides of these two squares are proportional to their respective distances from the point in the flame where the imaginary cords meet; hence, their areas are proportional to the squares of their distances from the flame. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 169 A bunch of rays of light that will light up the surface the size of the hole in the screen, if let pass on, will illuminate the much larger surface on the wall. Evidently, the degree of brightness is not so. great at the wall as at the screen. This degree of brightness varies as the respective areas, just as a given quantity of paint is four times as thick on a certain surface as on another surface four times as great, supposing it is evenly distributed in each case. But, we have shown that the illumined surfaces are to each other as the squares of the distances from the source of light, hence the first part of the law for the intensity of light energy. The amount of radiant energy of light to the square inch of surface varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source. Now, turn up the wick and the amount is a certain part greater at both places. It can at once be seen that the amount increases in direct ratio with the increase at the source of light. This gives us the second part of the law ; and the entire law may be stated thus: The amount of light received per unit area is inversely pro-portional to the squares of the distances from the source, and directly proportional to the intensity of light possessed by the luminous body. A student of physics has but this one law to learn for intensity of energy, and he may apply it to physical energy of whatever form. By using a screen of alum solution we might produce a similar pyramid of heat energy, able to be outlined as definitely by using a thermometer. You know it better perhaps by trying to get into the shade, as it were, of the hot rays from a stove or grate, by placing a screen, it may be of glass even, before your face. Then, as to the law, how instinctively you move back from a stove becoming too hot. The same law holds the solar system together, and we call the force, there acting in couformity with the law, the force of gravitation. There is also a similar force acting between the earth and objects upon it, and between these objects themselves. This, too, varies inversely as the square of the distances, and directly as the product of the masses. By it, electrical attraction is governed; hence, the specific inductivity of substances. Magnetic force and sound as well as light and heat vary accord-ing to the same law. In short, all physical energy varies inversely as the square of the distance, and directly as the product of the amounts. Nature is simple if we put ourselves into the spirit of her actions. She is open, ready to be read by all who will. As to the degree of energy we have learned her simple law and may apply it theoretically without a question. L,ucus. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. C. F?. SOLT MERCHANT TAILOR Masonic Bldg., GETTYSBURG . Our collection of Woolens for the coming Kail and "Winter season cannot be surpassed for variety, attractive designs and general completeness. The latest styles of fashionable novelties in the most approved shades. Staples of exceptional merit, value and wearing durability. Also altering, repairing, dyeing and scouring at moderate prices. .FOR UP-TO-DATE. Clothing, Hats, Shoes, And Men's Furnishing Goods, go to I. HALLEM'S MAMMOTH CLOTHING HOUSE, Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG, PA. ESTABLISHED 1867 BY ALLEN WALTON. ALLEN K. WALTON, President and Treasurer. ROBT. J. WALTON Superintendent. flammelstoiun Bromn Stone Gompany Quarrynieu and Manufacturers of Building Stone, Sawed Flagging and Tile Waltonville, Dauphin Co., Pa. Contractors for all kinds of Telegraph and Express Address. Cut Stone Work. BROWNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting the Quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station on the P. & R. R. R. For a nice sweet loaf of Bread call on J. RAiHER Baker of Bread and Fancy Cakes, GETTYSBURG. PA. EIMER & AMEND, Manufacturers and Importers of Chemicals and Chemical Apparatus 205, 207, 209 and 211 Third Avenue, Corner 18th Street NEW YORK. Finest Bohemian and German Glassware, Royal Berlin and Meissen Porcelain, Pure Hammered Platinum, Balances and Weights. Zeiss Mi-croscopes and Bacteriological Apparatus; Chemical Pure Acids and Assay- Goods. SCOTT PAPER COMPANY MAKERS OF FINE TOILET PAPER 7th and Greenwood Ave. PHILADELPHIA ■'""■"■""/'*»
We study a model of strategic competition among farmers for land use in an agricultural economy. Each agent can take possession of a part of the collective forest land and convert it to farming. Unconverted forest land helps preserving biodiversity, which contributes to reducing the volatility of agricultural production. Agents' utility is given in terms of a Kreps Porteus stochastic dierential utility capable of disentangling risk aversion and aversion to uctuations. We characterize the land used by each farmer and her welfare at the Nash equilibrium, we evaluate the over-exploitation of the land and the agents' welfare loss compared to the socially optimal solution and we study the drivers of the ineciencies of the decentralized equilibrium. After characterizing the value of biodiversity in the model, we use an appropriate decomposition to study the policy implications of the model by identifying in which cases the allocation of property rights is preferable to the introduction of a land conversion tax.
The Mercury December. 1906 HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau or Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. Makers of Caps and Gowns To Gettysburg College, Lafayette, Lehigh, Dickinson, State College, Univ. of Pennsylvania, Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods for Degrees. WHY NOT GET A POSITION NOW 1 The sooner the young graduate finds the right opportunity the bet-ter his chances for success. We offer the best means of bringing your ability to the attention of employers in all parts of the country. Are you familiar with our successful methods'? We will gladly give you without charge full information concerning desirable posi-tions that will be open in the early summer and fall for capable College. University and Technical School graduates. Better not delay about writing us for we are al-ready placing many 1B0U men. The National Organization ot ZKC-^^GrOOIDS, Brain Brokers. UPen.n.syl-va.srLia, rBld.g-., :iPis.ila,d.elpli.ia,, UPa. Ofnces in Twelve Other Cities. Come and Have a Good Shave,,, or HAIR-CUT at Harry B. Sefton's BARBER SHOP 35 Baltimore St. BARBERS' SUPPLIES A SPECIALTY. Also, choice line of fine Cigars. R. A. WONDERS Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, etc. Scott's Corner, opp. Eagle Hotel GETTYSBURG, PA. Pool Parlors in Connection. IF YOU CALL ON C. A. Bloeher, Jeuuelef*, Centre Square, He can serve you in anything you may want in REPAIRING or JEWELRY. WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. Allen K. Walton, Pres. and Treas. Robt. J. Walton, Superintendent. Hummelstown Brown Stone Company j If £ G2TT-£>_^:Ei-3r:b/£:E3:fcT and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING, and TILE, fALTONVILLE. '" PENNA. Contractors for all kinds of cut stone work. Telegraph and Express Address, BROWNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting quarries will leave cars at Hrownstone Station, on the P. & R. R. R. 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The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. Vol. XIV. GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER 1906. No. 7 CONTENTS "THE PASSING"—Poem 182 FRANK W. MOSER, '07. " ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF PENSIONS FOR TEACHERS " —Essay 183 SAMUEL E. SMITH, '07. "OUR LIBRARIES "—Essay .188 THOMAS E. SHEARER, '07. "A MILLIONAIRE"—Story. . . 191 F. M. HARMON, '08. "POE: POET OR CHARLATAN "—Essay. . 19s W. WISSLEU HACKMAN, '08. I "THE TWENTIETH CENTURY'S DEMANDS UPON WOMAN "—Oration 201 ELSIE A. GERLACH, '07. "A MYSTERY SOLVED "—Story 204 LEVERING TYSON, '09. EDITORIALS, . . . 208 182 THE MERCURY. . THE PASSING. FRANK W. MOSER, '07. kHE pleasant Autumn days are gone, Their joys have passed away ; Girt with the legions of the North Old Boreas has issued forth To dominate the day. The pumpkins all are gathered in, The corn flags all are furled ; The trees have wept to see them go And fling their leaves like falling snow- Across the dying world. Right valiantly did Autumn strive To yield a bounteous store ; Her granaries were opened wide That lavishly from every side The golden fruit might pour. The snapping of the backlog sounds A message old yet new ; Pile up the fire and let it roar To match the winds that downward pour, The blackened fireplace through. The chestnuts crackle with delight To welcome Winter in ; But Autumn goes with face forlorn, Beat by the surly Winter's storm, A.11 pinched and wan and thin. So life will pass from morn to eve, From noontide glow to dark The cheerful voices of the day Will cease their songs and fade away ; Death kills the vital spark. • »i THE MERCURY. 183 ECONOMICAL EFFECTS OF PENSIONS FOR TEACHERS. SAMUEI, E. SMITH, 07. ASUBJECT of this nature is necessarily very broad. Teachers are of many grades. The teacher of the country school, receiving thirty-five dollars per month, or even less, marks the lowest grade. The college professor, whose compensation is five thousand dollars or more per year, may serve to establish the other margin, although only in rare in-stances is such a sum received by a professor. Between these two limits are many different classes of teachers, whose rates of wages are comparatively well defined. In the discussion of this topic our observations shall be confined, for the most part, to the highest class, college professors, since what pertains to them with reference to public pensions, is also applicable to the teachers of lower grades. Public pensions for .teachers would naturally involve a great variety of economical questions, since those instructing the youth form a large and influential element in society. In our opinion the economical effects would be both direct and indirect; direct in that they affect teachers as a class, and indirect seeing that they would undoubtedly in-fluence society in general. Beginning with the direct economical effects of pensioning teachers, it may first of all be affirmed that a better class of men would take up teaching as a profession. The degree of efficiency in the profession of teaching varies just as it does in the business world. In business the marginal factors are the day laborer and the entrepreneur; in teaching the adher-ent and advocate of a parrot-like mastery of book theories, too often antiquated, and the teacher with a personality, a thinker and one capable of stimulating thought, and yet withal severe in his demands for careful study on the part of students. To the instructor of the youth, a compelling personality is just as essential as it is to the entrepreneur. Rarely does one find a successful business man without a decided personality and yet multitudes of men, are attempting to mould young lives, who are lacking in this essential characteristic. ■ 184 THE MERCURY. Why is it that the men of power more frequently choose a business career than the noble calling, that of instructing the young ? Simply beeause the inducements are mostly on the side of the business career. The professor never receives a large salary and after his days of usefulness are over he may, as a rule, look forward to a mere pittance which he has labori-ously saved during his active service. On the other hand the successful business man looks forward to a comfortable old age made possible by the property acquired during a period when his own efforts were the only limits to his acquisition of wealth. This very difference in prospects makes the business career the more desirable as no man is desirous of spending his old age deprived of the comforts of life. In the event of teachers re-ceiving a pension, after years of faithful service, the natural horror of an old age spent in poverty would be removed. Men are ever willing to toil for a livelihood during their years of strength when a future day of comfort is in prospect, but look with fear upon that calling whose active days require a struggle which is unattended by the promise of support in the declining years. When teachers receive pensions more of the choice spirits will take up the noble work. The result will be that teachers of inferior personality and attainment will be forced into other lines of activity, and it is safe to say that the new work will be for the most part of a clerical nature. Having thus seen that the teaching force would be materially changed by the establishment of pensions, it is also worthy to note that a higher standard of living would prevail among teachers. The teacher would have more money to spend dur-ing the time of his active service. As the teachers number a small army, throughout the country, this item would be of no little importance. More books would be purchased, travel would be more extensive, there would be more and better food and clothing. Thus demand would be increased and produc-tion would naturally be increased to meet the demand. Another direct result of public pension would be the in-creasing number of teachers. For example, if a man after forty years of service should be granted a pension, he would usually be glad to retire to follow various pursuits of a literary, THE MERCURY. I85 political or social nature, pursuits which could not be noticed during the period of active service. Provided a man began teaching at the age of twenty-five he would retire at the age of sixty-five. Under the present system, many men teach until long after the age of sixtv-five. Retirement at this age would make the period of service shorter for each teacher and thus more instructors would be required. These are the direct economical results which would be brought about by the pen-sioning of teachers. However, there are yet more important considerations to be regarded, namely, the effect upon society of granting of such •pensions. These we would characterize by the term indirect. Many branches of commercial activity would be affected. The prospect of a pension, as has already been shown, would attract more and a better class of men to the profession of teaching. Consequently, men now engaged in banking and various business pursuits, whose compensation is equal or con-siderably superior to the salary of teachers, would be eager to enter the ranks of teachers as there would be the strong inducement of being provided for in old age. This same proposition would hold good for all the grades of positions in the profession. Besides, the opinion is almost univer-sally held that teaching is more honorable than a business career. The teacher has also more leisure as the summer months are completely his own. With the added advantage of a pension in old age, great numbers would turn from pur-suits essentially commercial to teaching. In order to retain the most efficient individuals in the business world wages would of necessity increase in a great many lines of business. For example certain men leaving college, would find it more to their advantage to accept an instructorship in a college or high school with the prospect of at length receiving $2,000 per year as a professor and a pension in old age, than to enter a bank with the prospect of becoming cashier at $2500 per year and no pension in old age. Again the girls who must earn their own living, would find it better to become teachers at $40, $50 or $60 per month and receive a pension in old age, than to stand behind a counter or in the telephone ex- UMUn 186 THE MERCURV. change for a compensation of $8, $10, or $12 per week, with-out prospect of a pension, and then oft times be exposed to the indecent and insulting propositions of their employers and the men with whom they are compelled to associate. Besides,, in the case of a woman, it is considered much more respect- ■ able to be a teacher than to be a saleslady, stenographer or cloak model. Without a doubt, the granting of pensions to-teachers would attract the choice spirits to that line of work and all wages in the business world would be advanced in order to keep up the required standard of efficiency. Then too, the standard, of the teaching force having been raised, as has been shown, a gradual change would be effected in the habits and ideals of the people who would receive in-struction under the better teachers. As was intimated before, in the event of pensions being granted to teachers, the change in efficiency would be largely marked by the improved person-, ality of those instructing the young. The teacher who is lack-ing in magnetism and tact is bound to present books and en-force discipline in such a way as to alienate the restless young spirit from scholarly pursuits and respect for authority. Too often the youth having experienced the ennui, pro-duced by books and theories, made possible by the bund-derings of a teacher totally lacking in personality, rushes forth into commercial life, turns his back on true knowl-, edge and culture, and strives only for the dollar. To this man gratification of the senses is the only form of pleasure. He lives a selfish life, ever seeking to take advantage of his fellow-men. He amasses great wealth at the expense of his neigh-bors. Better teachers, especially those with high ideals and a compelling personality would in time help materially to correct this selfish spirit. The young would be taught to respect scholarship and finally to love it. The youth, with a virile mind directing his training, would eventually see that mere money is not the goal to be attained, but that the acquisition of wealth in order to help one's fellowmen is the summum bonum. The young, thus having been inspired with higher ideals would gradually change social and economical conditions in a decided manner. THE MERCURY. I87 However, in another way the granting of pensions would affect society in general. A pension having been granted, after a number of years of service, would surely retire many men, comparatively vigorous in body and mind. Men of this class would naturally take an interest in the social and politi-cal life of the community in which they reside. Having both time and money at their disposal and being filled with high ideals, they would undoubtedly be a power in their community. First there would be a moral uplift but eventually material conditions would be changed. The retired educators would be as a leaven in the social mass. For example, reading cir-cles and culture clubs would be more popular than the gather-ings for playing bridge whist. This would soon have its ef-fects on the manner of dress and the nature of amusements, both of which have to do with the wants of the people. Thus a change in economical conditions. In this brief manner we have endeavored to show the direct and indirect economical effects, which would arise from the pensioning of teachers. However, since no extensive experi-ments have been tried along these lines, most of the discussion relative to this subject is theoretical. It is to be hoped that the next few decades will afford practical examples of pensions for teachers so that the truth or falsity of present conjectures may be demonstrated. i88 THE MERCURY. OUR LIBRARIES. THOMAS E. SHEARER, '07. THE time is now ripe, it seems, to set forth the belief that our libraries would fulfiill their purpose with greater effi-ciency and more satisfaction to all parties concerned, if they were united and systematized under a single index. This idea of a unified library is undergoing some agitation at the pres-ent time, and if this article in anyway increases that agitation and helps to bring about the desired result its purpose shall have been accomplished. Libraries have existed from the remotest times of antiquity. Ever since man was first able to put his thoughts into writing of any form, whether on papyrus, stones, tiles, or paper there have been books and consequently libraries. All our great modern libraries—and particularly is it true of college libraries —are established and maintained for the purpose of research in all the branches of knowledge. In order that a library may effectively fulfill this great purpose, it must be exhaustive, i. e., it must contain all the works necessary for research work in any branch of knowledge. Our present system of libraries is not the best possible for us under the present circumstances. There is too much wasted energy in it. In our three libraries we have a total of about thirty thousand volumes. Of the eighteen thousand volumes of the College Library over one-third are government reports and records of one kind or another—works distinctively of a referential character ; and of each of the societies six thou-sand volumes, practically one fourth are magazine vohimes. Now do not misunderstand this. It is not meant that these books could at all be dispensed with. Far from it. No college library would be at all complete without them. But these volumes are not used very much. These divisions are made merely to get an estimate of what we may call our working library. Therefore, estimating about twelve thousand volumes in College Library and four thousand five hundred in each of the Society Libraries, that are of such a character as to be put into regular use, we have at most twenty-one thousand volumes THE MERCURY. 189 in our working library. This number includes all encyclope-dias, hir.tories, gazetteers, etc., and all other works of reference, with the exception of, as has been noted, government reports, records, and bound magazines. Now, if we had this many different books we would be very well off indeed, but we find a very great number of the same books in all three libraries. For example, among the encyclo-pedias in College Library are: Chambers, The Edinburg, Penny's, The New American and The Americana ; all of which are found in one of the Society Libraries also, and some in both. Now this seems to be an altogether unnecessary outlay of money for such works when we have so many other good works of the same kind in College Library. But, it may be said, that these works named are all old and not up-to-date. That is true, and so much the more reason why we should not have two and three sets of them. The fact that we have more than one set of these works brings out the point that there has been little or no system or unison in the selectfon of books by the different library committees. If there had been system there would not be this useless overlapping of Encyclopedias. That this is a fault not only of the past but also of the pres-ent regulations, is shown by the fact that this overlapping is found not only in the older encyclopedias but also in other de-partments. There is in each of the three libraries the set of The British Poets, in one hundred volumes, one set of which would be sufficient for our Library. The same overlapping is seen in Biography, History and in the standard authors such as Ruskin, Carlyle, Dickens, Scott, Thackery, Cooper, Bulwer- Lytton, Irving, Emerson, Hawthorne, Holmes, and all the standard poets. This overlapping, all told, amounts to a good many hundred volumes. It is necessary to have more than one copy of some of these works, but of the vast majority of them, especially of the sets, a single copy or set is sufficient in a college of our size. It is evident from the extent of the overlapping that a change in the system of selecting our books is necessary. But what change shall we make ? Shall it be a general merger of the 190 THE MERCURY. three libraries into one, or simply a joint committee to select the books? At all events there must be cooperation. The merger idea seems to be the one in popular favor, and would, no doubt, 'solve the problem most satisfactorily. To have our libraries under a single index, systematically and logically arranged in one apartment, and in charge of a person who is acquainted with the entire library, and then to have a unified method of procuring new books, would be almost in-calculably better than the present system. But, it might be objected, that under these conditions the Literary Societies would no longer be ambitious to add a goodly number of books each year. This need not be so. Under this merger let each society put its seal in its new books but leave the numbering and shelving directions to come in under the College system. Each society could also keep a record of the books it adds to the library. In this way the societies could keep up their libraries, but merged into and subject to the College Library. Under this plan we see no reason what-ever why the societies should not continue to vie with each other in securing as many good books each year as possible, under this plan, this expensive and futile overlapping would be done away with, and a wider field of Literature, History and Science would be open to the students. But, most of this, it might be said, could be secured by the mere working of a joint committee to select the books. But that would leave the three libraries separate with their in-complete indices and would not unify matters as they should be. Although a joint committee could do good work in this matter, yet we believe that one good, exhaustive Library would be much better than three, each of which is incomplete in itself. THE MERCURY. IQI A MILLIONAIRE. F. M. HARMON, '08. THE deep-toned noon whistle on the -boiler-house called a thousand men and boys away from their work of prepar-ing "anthracite " for commercial use. The huge breaker en-gines quickly ceased their dreary roaring ; the " lokies " were side-tracked and deserted ; and in every direction hurried the tired, begrimed men to secure their dinner-pails and partake of a cold and unsatisfying lunch. Little knots of congenial spirits were soon assembled in every convenient, shad}' spot, for the sun was hot and the air sultry. Topics of local and universal interest were eagerly taken up and hotly debated. It is wonderful with what earnestness and attention these debates are entered into and listened to by these men of toil. The baseball situation in the major leagues .hav-ing been discussed at length; the protracted and intensely hot weather forcibly disapproved ; plans for the approaching na-tional holiday, the Fourth, eagerly arranged—an article on the next inter-national automobile race was read from the city paper by the breaker engineer, who was the only man around the colliery that indulged in having his paper delivered to him while at work. Immediately arose speculations as to the out-come of the race. In the ensuing discussion about automo-biles in general, a little slate picker exclaimed " Gee, it must take a heap of tin to run one of them things:" " You bet, those guys must have money to burn." Up sprang a grey-haired old man, old " Danny," the boss of the chutes, " Yes, and where do they get their money? They steal it from us workin' men, what earn it hard and then never get it! " The old man's eyes flashed and his voice quivered ■with anger—" I have worked for this company for thirty years ; I have given my best days in its service. What have I to show for it ?—a miserable job at the chutes when I might Vbeen engineer at No. 6." " Yes, but Danny, you're way off, we were talking about automobiles," I 192 1HE MERCURY. " So am I," yelled Danny, highly excited, " Look at old P , (president of the company) just last week he went an' bought one of them noisy back-kickin' machines. They say it cost him twenty thousand. Well, I say that the old miser didn't pay for that thing himself, I paid for it! " " You don't say,'' teased one of the chaingang men. " Yes I did ! though not of my own choosing. Old P has cheated me out of that much money and more since I first started to work for him over in ' Orphan's Home' gangway. Why they tell me he's got twenty million hoarded up. How-much of that did he honestly earn ? Not a cent! He stole it, every penny." " But, Danny, he inherited over five million." " Well then, his people before him stole that too. You needn't try to tell me that any man can honestly work hard enough in a life-time to pile up that much money. He's got to be crooked some place. I've worked my whole life, ever since I was a little shaver of twelve—and I did honest work, too—and to-day I'm an old man and haven't a cent stored up for a rainy-day. If I do earn a little money, they get it back again in the company store. What's he going to do with all his money anyway ? Why can't we have a share in it ? There are a few big thieves who steal up a billion dollars, and then store it away some place. If that would be given out to us who earned it and deserve it, none of us would have to work no more and we'd have plenty of grub and clothes and a little left over for the tobacco. Emitting a flow of strong language directed against all rich men in general, Danny, with an air of the sense of the injustice of the whole thing, sat down again A burly young chain-gangman, closing his emptied dinner can with a bang, began : " Danny is right; those rich old duf-fers have no right to hang on to all that money. The money in the first place come from some place in the earth ; we are all on the earth. In the second place, every man is just as-good as the next one, so no man has any call to get something more than any other man can get. You see old P strut THE MERCURY. 193 down the street in his swell clothes, smoking dollar cigars and looking as if he was the only pebble. He's got a string of race horses that bring him in a good many thousands a year. They have those races all fixed, anyhow. That's all right, for one thief to rob another thief, but who earns the money which those big suckers are stealing ? We do ! It's our money ! How could anything be done except for the working man. Suppose these old soaks had to work the way we do i I'd given a week's pay to have gotton old P on one end of that fan we carried up the west slope of the old Hollywood stripping. We'd have either broken his back or his head. There are over a thousand men working here in this colliery and those thousand are under the thumbs of one or two big bugs. Why do we let them tramp on us like this ? We could easily put them out of business and run things to suit ourselves. I know if we just had some fellow to lead us we could soon make old P .duff up." " Well, why don't you lead off, Tippey ?" " No, thanks, I am not anxious for the job ; but just the same I'm ready to follow a good leader." "Same here—So am I" "That's the cheese," and similar expressions were muttered by the listening men. Just then the warning whistle blew and the men hurried to their places of work to be ready when the engines started again. Among those who heard the discussion that noon hour was a young fellow who went to college, but who liked to spend his summers working among the laboring people. This discus-sion occupied his thoughts all afternoon and when quitting time came he was anxious to get home and find the opinion of some other person upon some of the questions brought up by the miners. The man whose opinion he sought was the cashier of one of the largest banks in the city and was noted for his knowl-edge of things in genera! and knowledge of money in particu-lar. The one question which had arisen in the youth's mind was whether the money owned by the millionaire was really hoarded up. 194 THE MERCURY. The cashier answered this question immediately and decis-ively : "No, that money, said to be owned by a single indi-vidual, is in constant circulation throughout the financial uni-verse. What difference does it make whether one man owns the million dollars or whether a hundred or a thousand men own it. A millionaire is generally a shrewd business man or he would never have acquired his possessions. So the money in his hands is made to do the greatest possible work, while in the hands of a number of people it might not be used to such wise advantage. It takes brains as well as energy to become a millionaire. Those men over there at the colliery who were today ignorantly discussing a great subject have not the mental capacity required to control and use rightly a vast fortune. I'll admit that people of great wealth very often waste their money in extravagant affairs. But is that money really lost ? No, it returns into the general circulation and remains a part of the inestimable wealth of the world. The working man does not really desire to live like a mil lionaire and even if he did have the opportunity of indulging in the little follies of the rich, he couldn't endure them long, for generations of the one plane of living have habituated him to his occupation in life and he will be out of place anywhere away from his natural work. I am no defender of the million aire in his follies, but I do believe that his money does as much good and more when manipulated by his keen business ability than if divided among people who in conceit think themselves capable of using wealth, but who in truth are in no way able to use wisely more money than seems to be their just amount. So let us not envy the rich man or be harsh in our judgment of his actions. Our manner of living is different from his and so we cannot be fair in our estimate of his conduct." !' THE MERCURY. 195 POE: POET OR CHARLATAN? W. WISSLER HACKMAN. II. AS POET. IT is not our intention to usurp the office of critic—had we even the ability—the need were lacking. It is not so much a question whether or no Poe wrote good poetry, or bad poetry, or mediocre, for he did, as, is he sincere, is he consistent with his own. declaration of faith ; are the motives and emotions he displays genuine. There is however, a deeper, a subtler, a more intangible phase to be determined which does involve a certain consideration of style. The question that confronts us at the very outset is such as would—to satisfy the hypocritical—-necessitate a del-ving to the very roots and vital bases of poetry—even more a determination of the very nature and essence of poety it-selt. To state clearly, concisely, and convincingly what POETRY is per se, is a proposition before which greater intel-lects than ours have quailed. It is therefore, with a sense of gratefulness that we may assert that for our purposes we" need go no further than the poet's own assertion in the matter— " Poetry in words is therythmical creation of beauty." Yet let us be a little clearer on this matter of poetry before we draw deductions. Just as red light, brass bands, and tri-colored draperies in-spire an exaltation of emotion by no means necessarily iden-tical with patriotism, and as the abnormal stir of passion pro-duced by the snare drums' spirited roll is not, nor should be, confounded with love of fatherland; so let us not confuse me-chanical means and effects, be they ever so admirable, with the true soul exaltation of poesy. To the majority of the public Poe appears in the single role 'of Poet. This is rather significant, for the sum of his poetry, in bulk, is comparatively slight. Yet so completely has he won the title of Poet from the masses as to have it eclipse, in a manner, the other and more extensive phases of his literary activity. I have said this was significant. And this signifi- 190 THE MERCURY. cance will be apparent when we turn to the poet's own words, " With me poetry has been, not a purpose, but a passion." * If anywhere Poe is sincere it must be in his poems. All through his career " Poet" was the one goal of his ambition, the passionate aspiration of his being. Almost all his prose was written in the form of " pot boilers," or to wreak ven-geance or perchance malice on rivals or critics, supposed or real. Eureka alone I think may be set aside as wrought in purity and reverence; and toward poetry he maintains much the same worshipful, sincere attitude. Note his words: " Events not to be controlled have prevented me from making, at any time, any serious efforts in what [poetry,] under happier circumstances, would have been the field of my choice." f Fur-ther down ; "and. the passions [among them that of poetry] should be held in reverence: they must not—they cannot at will be excited, with an eye to paltry compensations, etc." \ That the subject of poetry powerfully appealed to Poe is evident in his own prose work. He has devoted five articles to poetry in one phase or another ; more than to any one other subject. And almost always his treatment is serious ; bitter often, carping frequently, but in the main sincere. The tenets of his poetic faith are set forth in apparent good faith, and lived up to with remarkable fidelity. Only once does his man-ner descend dangerously near to buffoonery, the concluding paragraph of his Rationale of Verse—a nasty fling at Long-fellow, for whom Poe, as a rival perhaps, had scant love. Yet even here it is an injury aimed rather at a school of writers than an evidence of irreverence to poetry. One other instance of a similar attack may be lound in his poetry proper, "The Einigma" a take sonnet which will be again noted in this article. What, then, are the principles of Poe's poetical creed ? 1st principle—"The value of the poem is in the ratio of this elevating excitement [i. e. of soul]." 2nd principle—" Beauty is the sole legitimate province of * Preface to edition of Poems in 1845. t Preface to edition of Poems in 1H45. % Italics are mine. THE MERCURY. 197 the poem."* Postulate—a POEM should not aim to satisfy intel-lect by Truth, or excite the heart by passion, but should aim to give the highest, purest, intensest pleasure. A little farther on in this same essay of his he argues forci-bly against didactic poetry. He continues all effort to teach for the sake of teaching. Truth he boldly asserts may be in-troduced merely to illucidate, to be a foil, as intended discords in music, or low comedy in Shakespeare. All, then, is subser-viant to " beauty "; " The Beautiful " is paramount in the cre-ation of POETRY. Bear in mind, however, he does not utterly banish TRUTH from the realm of poesy; he distinctly concedes that at such times as he has stipulated TRUTH may be profitably introduced. In the mechanism of his verse there are four characteristics worthy of especial attention; the refrain, alliteration, intraand interlinier rhyme, and a daring independence in material ar-rangement. Poe was a keen analyst, and consequently an able mathematician. He was fond of calculus, and both at college and West Point took high rank in mathematics. To the popu-lar mind there presents itself somewhat incongruous, a so close union between two so seemingly diametrically opposed forms of mental activity. The Poet is the very antithesis to the Mathematician, such seems the general sentiment, and to have them brought together thus rudely and unceremoniously is a shock, sudden and unprecedented, to accepted ideals. Yet is there really such incongruity ? Poe's arguments are then re-markably lucid and plausible. He not only preaches but practices. Now for a brief review of his more important poems, they fall naturally into four groups; personal, meditative, melan-cholic, abnormal or supernatural. Throughout all winds the tragic thread of hysteria, all are marked or marred by an ab-normal egotism, a morbid self interest. I have said Poe was Byronic in egotism, this is nowhere so evident as in these poems. Under the first group come his tributes to benefactors and sympathizers, the best of which is probably the one "To * Philosophy of Composition. 198 THE MERCURY. Helen,"* the worst "The Enigma." "To Hellen " was written at the age of fourteen, yet the illusive flow and exalted grandeur of this slight poem caused Lowell to exclaim in wonder, "A standard to which many in their maturity fail to approach !" The poem starts with a line of peculiar beauty, " Helen thy beauty is to me—" The second stanza ends in the magnificent couplet: '' To the glory that was Greece, And the grandeur that was Rome." Words crammed with centuries, resonant of the ages! The final stanza is evidently reminiscent of some occasion strongly impressed; the "agate lamp" lends a touch of homely reality that attests to sincerity, although it mars the atmosphere of the elevated, and otherwise classic setting. Compared to this "The Enigma" is rank doggerel, and it is a blessed relief to feel Poe so intended it. It is rather coarsely ironic, yet it is clever. It is a trick poem, an accostic hinted in the last line containing the names Anna and Lewis. Aside from this it is a mere blunt stab at the then existing popularity and abuse of the \ sonnet, in which form this same is written. To the second group belong a larger part of Poe's poems. Foremost: are " A Dream Within a Dream," " The Coliseum," " Silence," " Dreams," " Romance." Of these " The Coliseum " is in my judgment the noblest. The sustained loftiness, the classic stateliness of its measures, is happily free from the blem-ishes of ill-timed commonplaces which so often mar his other poems. The second stanza is an invocation ; sombre and sonorous. Note the slow, stately sweep of the feet like the measured tread of legions. Vastness ! and Age ! and memories of Eld. Then follows a remarkable series of parallels, the final being elimacteric in its somber irony : " Here, where on golden throne the monarch lolled, Glides, specter-like, unto his marble home ; *I refer to the " To Helen " addressed to Mrs. Stanard, the mother of a school-mate, who, by her kindness, wielded a remarkable influence over the sensitive youth. Her death called forth this poem together with " The Sleeper." THE MERCURY. 199 Lit by the wan light of the ronnd moon, The swift and silent lizatd of the stones." Then the query, full of a vast regret : "These stones—alas ! these grey stones—are they all- Left ********** By the corosive Hours to Fate and me ? " And the triumphant reply : " ' Not all '—the Echoes answer me—' not all! , Prophetic sounds and loud, arise forever From us, and from all Ruin unto the wise, Not all * * * * that hang upon And cling around about us as a garment, Clothing us in a robe of more than glory.' " Of the Melancholic there are a host. In fact very few of Poe's poems are free from melancholia. Although Poe in his "Philosophy of Composition" makes melancholia an impera-tive necessity in a poet's equipment—yet I feel that Poe's poems in the main are melancholiy because they are autobiographic. They are of the soul; and that soul warped, distorted and embittered. Of these I can but note, in passing, "Ulalume " and " Tamerlane," the former mystic, the latter lucid ; they stand widely apart and yet they are akin in spirit. Tragedy, deep, vague, flows through them like a turgid, stream, livid and unwholesome. " Al ArafT" together with "Tamerlane" show marked traces of the influences of Byron and Moor, both of whom Poe intensely admired. Peculiarly redolent with Poe's own aspirations, fresh in youth, yet already tainted with the bitter edge of dissappointment, are the lines : " I wrapped myself in grandeur then And donned a visionary crown— Yet it was not that of fantasy Had thrown her mantle over me— But that, among the rabble—men, Lion ambition is chained down— And crouches to a keeper's hand— Not so in deserts where the grand— The wild—the terrible conspire With their own breath to fan his fire."* The final group- * Tamerlane. -the fantastic, the wierd, the grewsome 200 THE MERCURY. this is Poe's special sphere. The somber tragedy of " The Raven," the morbid unhumaness of " Anabell Lee," the quaint fantastic irony of " For Arnnie,"the creeping, slimy, awful still-ness ; the brazen waters, the livid sky—the silence, downpress-ing and palpable ; the noisless stir—the dull horror of " The City of the Sea," in " The Sleeper; " the human common place-ness of its former part, the growing mystery, the freedom from natural grief, the the dull repression of its latter part; the un-seemly cheerfulness grating harshly to stimulate a feeling very like repugnance; to all this the allegory of " The Haunted Palace " insistently seems to offer a clew—it is Poe's INTELLECT ! " The olden time of long ago," is his childhood and early youth—the demon haunted palace is the present;—the demon's —thoughts! How many have crept their slimy selves into dis-torted perpetuity. It is terrible to conceive of a human be-ing cursed with such a horror-breeding brain bordering on de-mentia— it is more terrible to think of a man deliberately manu-facturing in cold blood such twisting, grinny, ghoulish crea-tions. No, this is too profound—in parts, too diabolic—if you please, to pass for mere buffoonery ; it may be charlatanism in dead earnest—but to me it smells of downright magic and fellest black-art. NOTE—"The Raven," " The Bells," "Tamerlane," "Leonore" will receive fuller attention in a later article embracing these together with " Eureka " under the head of Poe's Masterpieces. The next installment will treat of Poe under the phase as Critic and Essayist. —Ed. THE MERCURY. 201 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY'S DEMANDS UPON WOMAN. ELSIE A. GERLACH, '07. BEFORE the present century dawned it was not uncom-mon to hear the mannish woman styled the twentieth century woman. Where the idea originated is not known. But it was possibly due to the fact that woman was becoming more self-reliant, was taking her place in the business world, and was entering with keen appreciation into the sports which were hers for the asking but which only men had indulged in heretofore. The last and perhaps the greatest reason was that woman was coming to the front in education, and standing on an equal plane with the men, both in our own country and Europe. In the early part of the last century the women of the West worked shoulder to shoulder with their husbands on the farm- Willingly they helped to tame the wilderness, following the plow and gathering the harvest, and bravely they faced the danger when death threatened them in the shape of wild beasts or wilder men. But alas! their willing hands often faltered under a burden too heavy for them to bear. And while these women were helping wich strenuous manual labor to build up a new life in the West, our Southern women, with innumerable slaves at their command, were living a life of ease and luxury, basking under a tropical sun. For a Southern woman of gentle birth to work was considered a disgrace. House work was forbidden, and to go out into the world to earn a living was not to be thought of. So it seemed to fall to the lot of the Northern woman to set the pace for a happy medium. Stirred to activity by the cool winds of the North, work seemed the most natural thing in the world for her. Yet it was not all work and no play which she desired. If necessity compelled her to make her living she did it willingly, and was respected for it. But at the same time she entered with zeal into the healthful out-of-door sports and exercises. She also advanced step by step toward the higher education formerly attained only by the men, until 202 THE MERCURY. to-day she stands at the zenith. Can the extent of this for-ward movement be measured? " In man there is nothing great but mind " is the familiar abhorism of Hamilton, and the men-tal endowment is received directly from the mother. Find, if you can, one man who has been truly great whose mother was not a wise woman, and now since higher education has become universal, with such a heritage from his mother the man of the twentieth century ought to achieve things inconcievable to-former generations. The Western and Southern women soon realized and ac-knowledged the superiority of the course which the Northern woman was pursuing, and to-day not only they, but the wo-men all over the world, are following her example of Sana metis in corpore sono. With such privileges granted her, what does the century de mand of woman? One thing is certain, that the present cen-tury demands far more than former centuries. The reason for this may. be that we are living in a more strenuous age and one must live faster to keep abreast of the times. The cen-tury's primal demand is that woman must be educated. No-matter in what sphere of life she may be she must be educated that she may be able to cope with the many perplexing prob-lems which arise daily. If her sphere is the home, she must be familiar with the science of cooking. If she has servants she must know how to bring out the best that is in them. She must be able to answer the questions of her children, who know more at ten than their great-grandfathers did at fifty. She must be able to be a good companion to a husband who-is alert, well balanced in business affairs, and keeping pace with the times. There is an urgent demand for the cheaper labor of woman. Many a foolish girl leaves a good home where she has all the necessities of" life, and a not a few luxuries, to enter a factory. She has, as one says, " All she needs but not all she wants." To earn a few trifling luxuries and to enjoy, a few worthless pleasures, she will forego all the joys of home life, and will go from the guiding hand of a loving mother, out into the world, into the oftimes degrading factories, with their deafening, mad- THE MERCURY. 203 dening roar, their awful monotony of work, and in many cases their dull and coarse workmen. Mrs. Van Vorst writes that a girl working by her in the factory said to her, " I'll bet you can't guess how old I am." The lady records, " I look at her. Her face and throat are wrinkled. Her hands broad and scrawney. She is tall and has short skirts. What shall be my clue ? If I judge by pleasures " Unborn " would be my an-swer. If by effort then " A thousand years." " Twenty " I hazard as a safe medium, " Fourteen " she laughs. " I don't like it at home. The kids bother me so, Mamma's people are. well to do. I'm working for my own pleasure." Is it right for a girl to throw her life away in this manner? The answer is emphatically " No." This demand ought not to be com-plied with. She ought to learn a higher aim than the mere making of money. Still worse is the case of the sweat shop, where the cheap bargain-counter goods are made. Cheap ? Yes, cheap in money value, but dearly bought at the price of the lives of women and children who are not able to demand high wages. This demand for labor ought to be prohibited by law, law closing the sweat shops. At least all good women ought to know the significance of the bargain-counters and shun them. On the other hand, and here is a puzzling question, if the century demands a place for women in the congenial business world with the men, does she find it, after all, her sphere ? When the number of women who enter the business world is increasing year by year, what will be the outcome ? Is it, after all, best ? The " Homeletic Review " gives the following sta-tistics : In 1890 about 4,000,000 women were engaged in gain-ful occupations. Ten years later they had increased 36 per cent. Relatively to men the number of women engaged in domestic and personal service actually fell off in this same time, while in trade and transportation it rose from 6 per cent, to 10. True, hundreds and thousands of women are working on an equal basis with men, equally capable and receiving equal salaries, and we would not say that it is not for woman to earn a living: far from it. It is only when the work she does unfits her for higher spheres or detracts from the gentle- 204 THE MERCURY. ness, modesty and virtue that is the true heritage of every woman. The demands of the century are many, and it would be im-possible to discuss them all. I have treated only those which are most evident. But now let us consider, finally, the demand that woman shall be effective in bringing about a higher stand-ard of living. Many specific examples might be cited, as the Hull House, in Chicago, which has accomplished a wonderful work in the elevation of the people of the slums, mentally, morally, and physically. The work of the Woman's Mission-ary Society, and their Christian Association is well known to all. The Woman's Temperance Union is often scoffed at, but along what line have we made more progress than the lessen-ing of the curse of drunkenness ? Early in the last century liquor flowed freely at the harvesting, the dances, the weddings, and even at the funerals. Although drunkenness prevails today, there has been a great reformation along this line. This im-provement is universally attributed to the influence of woman. Considering the strength of this single argument, we could boldly affirm, that the world is growing better. " God's in His Heaven, all's well with the world." A MYSTERY SOLVED. LEVERING TYSON, '09. SOON after my graduation from Yale University, my thoughts turned to inventive channels. I left my home in New Haven and moved to Kansas. On a wide, barren stretch of prairie land in the outskirts of Topeka, I built a handsome residence and near by an observatory and a laboratory. I de-voted all my spare time to astronomical researches, and the heavens ever proved a source of interest and pleasure. There were two principal inventions which I contemplated ; the first—an exceptionally powerful light, whose rays would be brilliant enough to penetrate many, many miles through any obstacle; the second—an automatic shell, which, when hurled forth into space, would gain in velocity, the greater the oppos- THE MERCURY. 205 ing force. This latter was the result of many years of hard labor and concentrated thought. It was about seventeen feet long and five wide, and was shaped like a projectile. The outer shell was so constructed of scales or plates of steel, that they regulated a motor inside the shell and thus the velocity was increased when it struck an obstruction. This huge piece of mechanism was nearing completion, and was standing on a high scaffold a short distance from my lab-oratory. Not long after this, in the dead of night, I was awak-ened by a loud, fierce, crashing, I dressed immediately and hurried downstairs. My foreman began to pound on the door furiously and, when I answered his urgent summons, said that the scaffolding which supported the automatic shell, had given 'way, and that the shell had struck the ground and begun to bore into the earth. We hurried to the scene of action and found a hole five feet in diameter, reaching down, down, down, nobody knew where. After setting men to work to ascertain the depth of the shaft, I again retired. The men worked on, lowering a cord with a lead on the end. Late in the forenoon of the next day they struck bottom four-teen and one-half miles below the surface of the earth. I then decided to find out all I could about the course of my shell and why it had finally stopped. My first step was to lower a camera with electrical appliances into the shaft. The pictures were developed and those taken at different depths showed very interesting strata formations. Those, however, which were taken at the bottom of the shaft showed nothing but light, light, nothing but light. One pe-culiarity existed in every picture—every one had a dark blur in some part. This I finally decided was my shell. I finally hit upon an idea. My powerful Xray ! The very thing ! It was nearly completed and now everything was laid aside until it should be tested and proved a success. I sent away for the most powerful telescope made to examine the path of my light. This I erected above the mouth of the shaft, and under the balcony on which it rested, were the pow-erful batteries of this wonderful light. 206 THE-MERCURY. It was ready for a trial in a few: weeks' time, and the time had come, as I thought, to solve the mystery of the light. I stationed myself just above the mouth of the shaft and turned the switch. With a tremenduous hiss, the enclosure was brilliantly illuminated with the ray. I finally lowered it and it slowly ate its way downward, seeming to devour layer after layer of rock and bed after bed of coal and other products of nature hidden beneath the earth's surface. . This continued for nearly half an hour, when suddenly my ray did not disclose anything. There was the bright beam seemingly penetrating into the depths of the earth. I ordered my foreman to turn on all power possible. He complied with my requests but all ef-forts were fruitless. That steady, glow still met my gaze at the end of my glass and there was always a small dark corner projecting into view. Again I was baffled by the strange light, at a loss as to its meaning. I returned to spend a sleep-less night, tossing from side to side in my vain efforts to solve the phenomenon. I finally dozed off, I reached a conclusion while I slept, and it seemed that in the few hours I rested, my brain was still active. I would descend the shaft. As soon as I awoke I summoned my foreman, told him my resolution and put him in full charge of constructing a huge hoisting engine and a car the exact shape of my shell. Preparations were completed in a little less than seven months, I named a day when I was to descend into the earth's depths and final arrangements were at length completed. I entered the car and began to descend slowly, down, down, down. The car was so constructed that you could see on all sides while the descent was being made. My car Was comfortably constructed and elaborately fitted out. I had a telephone at my elbow and conversed with my foreman about many matters while I slowly descended. I passed through coal beds, and stratum upon stratum of rock and sandstone. These wonders I reported to my foreman who took notes so that, if any acci-dent occurred, my venture would still be of some use to scien-tists. I finally reached the bottom of the shaft safely after a most interesting journey. THE MERCURY. 207 No sooner had I struck bottom,* than a blinding glare met my eyes. It was several moments before I could see objects distinctly. I then noticed that the light was all about me. My car was suspended in space, and was in a cavern about twenty feet above my shell, lying on its side, not injured in the least by its strenuous journey. I directed my car to be slowly lowered until it was but several inches above the shell. The light still puzzled me. My shell rested upon it, but as far as •eye could see there was that unconquerable light, that light that had baffled me so often. .1 stepped from my car to the shell, but still kept firm hold of the bottom of the car. Low-ering myself gradually I finally stood on the light. Noticing some small pieces of some substance lying at my feet I picked them up and to my astonishment found that these fragments of " light " were pure diamond. I gathered several more speci-mens of " light" and, seized with a sudden fear; again entered my car and was slowly drawn upward. The problem was deeper than before, the mystery was not yet solved. As I slowly ascended to the upper air, the revelation of the whole matter buist upon me. The earth, like most of the other planets was, in the primaeval age, part of the tail of a •comet. Her whole interior was a solid diamond and this was charred and burned by the action of the elements. The upper crust was nothing more than an accumulation of ashes during many, many stages of natural development. At last every-thing seemed plain to me. I finally reached the upper air. Closeting myself for three months I prepared a book containing my views. Naturally this created a sensation in the scientific world. After a com-mittee of college professors and noted scientists visited my works and inspected the shaft I ordered it closed by the use of dynamite. Much to my satisfaction 'my theory was finally verified. The diamonds brought from the earth's depths were bought by a syndicate of kings and remained in their possession for many centuries. THE MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter VOL. XIV GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1906 No. 7 Editor-in-chief WARD B. S. RICE, '07 Exchange Editor THOS. E. SHEARER, '07 Business Manager THOMAS A. FAUST, '07 Ass't Bus. Managers. HENRY M. BOWER, '08 H. WATSON DAVISON. 'OS Associate Editors GEO. W. KESSLER, '08 J. K. ROBB, '08 EDMUND L. MANGES, '08 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, LITT.D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. One of the Y. M. C. A. COURSE. most ed. uca-tional and cultivating features of the college year is* about to be-gin, that of the Y. M. C. A. Course. Through the manage-ment of this branch of work a course of performances has been arranged which no one who is-interested in the rareties of lite can well afford to miss. It consists of a good variety of lec-tures, musicals and recitals, given by some of the most highly THE MERCURY. 209 skilled artisans of the season. As promoters of the educa-tional and literary spirit, we would urge all, especially students, to attend these intellectual feasts. The committee in charge have gone to no little trouble, and have assumed no little-risk in scheduling these numbers, for which they deserve much credit and loyal support. The cause for which this course is promoted would alone be worthy of our aid ; but when duty is so coupled with an extraordinary privilege, it should martial an unusual support. In taking advantage of this course we not only help a good cause, but adds very* materially to our gen-eral and aesthetic knowledge. DUTY. If you are a a member of this or that activity, what are you doing? Is the activity indebted to you, or are you indebted to it? In other words : Are you doing your duty ? We are all a little inclined to shift a responsibility, if we can, and we believe that it is due to this fact that the proper spirit is lacking in some departments, especially the literary. How many of us, when asked to serve on the society program, have not said: "It doesn't suit me this week, I don't have time?" There are, no doubt, many valid excuses given, but in a num-ber of cases, is it not simply an effort to avoid the task ? How many, when asked to contribute to the monthly journal, have not said : " Oh, I can't write; " or, " I don't have the time ?'' Again there may be legitimate reasons, but many times it is merely a way of putting it off. Other instances may be cited in which we are too ready to shirk our duty. Is this not more of a habit than anything else? We are so accustomed to excusing ourselves that we often give some excuse when we consent with the next breath. Let us break away from this ; when asked to perform a reasonable task, consider it a duty and do it, unless a plausible excuse can be offered. Many ot these departments are of our own institution ; and they will succeed only in so far as they are supported by their constituents. Therefore, when asked to do a service, let us not say we do not have time—others may be as busy as we—but remember it is our duty. 2IO THE MERCURY. It is the consensus of opinion that Gettysburg has played a remarkable game this foot ball season, having lost but one game. Her success was proven not to be the result of force and brute strength, but of good coaching and a team with a capacity for being coached. It is not our intention to discuss the game as played, but to emphasize an-other factor to which we attribute much of the success ; one whose value is sometimes underestimated ; one which is very rare in the case of athletic teams, especially successful ones. It is one which is highly commendable and worthy of example. All are well aware of the fact that at most universities and colleges there are a certain number of players who are contin-ually " cutting " classes, that is not including trips and times when they are obliged to absent themselves. We are glad to say that this was not the case at Gettysburg. The intellectual was not sacrificed to the physical. It can be said with all sin-cerity that the men who represented Gettysburg on the Grid-iron this season were men who were here for an education and of no mean standing in their class work; not one of them were here especially to play foot-ball. We believe then that the success in a large measure lay in the fact that the school was represented not by mere residents, but real students; men who have the true college spirit and a deep sense of interest in their Alma Mater. This is a record to be envied; let us keep it up, the success and honor will be the greater for it. As is customary, on account of the winter vacation, there will be no January issue of the MERCURY. Lack of space prevents the publication of the usual exchange column in this issue. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISER'S FURNITURE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. * Telephone No. 97. EE_ IB. :i3e:cLd.ez 37 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. The Windsor Hotel 1217=2 Filbert St., Philadelphia. Headquarters for Students. Thoroughly Renovated, Refurnished and Remodeled FRANK M. SCHEIBLEY, Manager. Graduate of Lafayette College 1898. A. G. Spalding & Bros. Largest Manufacturers in the World of Official Athletic Supplies Base Bali Lawn Tennis Foot Bali Archery Roque Quoits Cricket Lacrosse Golf Implements for all Sports Spalding's Official Base Ball Guide for 1906. Edited by Henry Chadwick. The most complete and up-to-date book ever published on the subject. Fully illustrated. Price 10 Cents. Spalding's Official League Ball is the adopted ball of the National League, and must be used in all match games. Every requisite for Lawn Ten-nis and Golf. For over a quarter of a century Spalding's Trade-Mark on Base Ball implements has marked the advancement in this particular sport. Spalding's Trade Mark on our Athletic Implement gives you an advantage over the other player as you have a better article, lasts longer, gives more satisfaction. Every Base Ball Manager should send at once/or a copy of Spalding's Spring and Sum-mer Catalogue—FREE. A. G. SPALDING 6 BROS. 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EMIL ZOTHE COLLEGE EMBLEMS Engraver, Designer and Manufacturing Jeweler, 722 CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA Specialties: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes All Goods ordered through F. A. Faust. .s. Dealer in E Picture Frames of All Sorts. Repair work done promptly. i^*I will also buy or exchange any second-hand, furniture 40hamberaburgSt., GETTYSBURG, PA. SEFTON & FLEMMINGS LIVERY Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg, Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arrangements by telegram or letter. Lock Box 257. J. I. MUMPER. 41 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. The improvements to our Studio have proven a perfect success and we are now better prepared than ever to give you satisfactory work. Under New Management The Peoples Drug Store Invites you to visit tliem and select your needs from a fresh, new, and up-to-date stock. ■ C. WM. BEALES, Ph.G., Prop. 1). J. 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International audience ; The collective work presents the study and publicationof excavated materials of an archaeologically known twoapsechurch from the first half of the 9th to the first half ofthe 10th century at the top of the Tuzluk Hill in the Yedi Evlerarea, Crimean Peninsula, near the village of Semidvorie(Alushta, Crimea, Ukraine). This sanctuary was linked tothe large agricultural and pottery producing settlement thatexisted in this economically developed and populous regionin the second half of the 8th/9th - first half of the 10th century.The settlement was situated 150-250 meters to the east andsoutheast from the church. Just 350 meters southeast fromthe church was a medieval cemetery of the "Suuksu" typeof the 7th – 8th / 9th (?) centuries existed which was left by thepopulation usually identified as Crimean Goths tribes.In 2007, an area of around 96 m2 was investigated andchurch ruins and surrounding cultural layer were studied.The stratigraphical analysis managed to identify here 44archaeological layers or contexts, one medieval grave withdouble burials, and a Bronze Age cultual place. The studyof ruins shows that the sanctuary was rebuilt multiple times.The church consisted of two communicating compartmentsof different sizes. As for characteristic features, the southernmain apse is bigger in size than the northern one, andthere was an entrance in the main part of the church throughthe northern compartment as well as two other doorwaysfrom the west and from the south. The western portal of thenorthern compartment was completely open and no traces ofwall masonry here were attested. In contrast to the southerncompartment, the foundation of the northern part was cutin natural. The three-layer masonry wall was made of localpoor faceted rectangular stones of various sizes. For buildingmortar, mud solutions with clay loam as a binder elementwere mostly used. The inside of the southern churchwalls was plastered with lime mortar, which in some placesis preserved in situ, and painted with red linear and geometricpatterns including letters or even inscriptions that aretoday illegible. The roof likely had two slopes covered bylocally made tiles of different types.The overall dimensions of the church were: width – 5.60-5.70 m, length - 8.50 m. The thickness of the wall was about0.7 m. Structure remains are preserved to a height of 0.80 m.Both apses have shoulders connecting apsidal semicirclesand walls. The external diameter of the southern apse is 2.13m. The internal dimension of the southern main compartmentis 2.34×4.15 м. The external diameter of the northernapse is 1.20 m, while the internal is 0.63 m. The width in thewestern part of the northern compartment is 1.34 m, and inthe eastern part it is reduced to 1.26 m. The church was orientedto the northeast. The azimuth of its central axis is 47°,which roughly corresponds to the azimuth point of sunriseduring the summer solstice for Crimean latitude.SUMMARYIn the first chapter, written by V. Kirilko, the buildinghistory of the church and its architectural peculiarities arepresented. The double apse sanctuary belongs to the relativelyrare type of churches of the Middle Byzantine periodthat could be described as a two-apse church with unequalapses of different sizes. G. Dimitrokallis (1976), the authorof the most representative corpus of double apse byzantinesanctuaries, classified them as "pseudobiconques." Thereare some examples of double apse churches in the Crimea(Sotera near Alushta, Sudak, Funa near Luchistoe settlement,Chembalo fortress in Balaklava). Yet, these sanctuariesmainly date back to the 14th century, with the one exceptionbeing the Sotera church that belonged to the periodof the 8th-10th century, and none of them provides an exactparallel to the church of Yedi Evler.During the short period of its history, the church wascompletely rebuilt at least once. The first building periodinvolved the creation of the main southern church with theapse and the three entrances from the west, south and north.It is highly likely that the church was intentionally conceivedby priests, ktitores or the Christian community as a doubleapse and two-part building. Immediately after the perfectionof the southern church, the additional northern compartmentwith open western portal and separate apse was added. Thispart of the church was connected to the main church via aspecial doorway in the wall dividing the compartment thatpreviously served as the northern entrance to the southernchurch. In fact, the second building period is distinguishedonly theoretically as a final step in the construction of thechurch. The chronology of the first two periods of the building'shistory, based mainly on the study of pottery and ceramicmaterials from the complex, dates back to the firsthalf of the 9th century, or more precisely the second-third tothe middle of the century.After a short period the church was completely destroyed,most likely due to inadequate construction worksor an earthquake. The third building period is determined as860-880s, when the sanctuary was rebuilt and reconstructed.After reconstruction, the northern compartment was buriedby earth and ruined stones and preserved according tocanon law practices for unused sacral Christian objects. Inthe third building period, the northern part was not active asa liturgical zone. The sanctuary became an ordinary ruralByzantine one-apse, one-nave church. A narthex was constructedin the eastern part of the sanctuary. The doorwaybetween the southern and northern parts was closed off bywall masonry. During the third building period, only twoentrances — the southern and western — were still active.The main entrance was the southern one, which was addedby a wooden apprentice. After the second deterioration ofthe church in the first half of the 10th century, no more renovations were carried out. The ruins were reused by the localpopulation for ordinary purposes no earlier than in the secondhalf of the 14th -15th century, as pottery fragments fromthe ruins show. Most probably, the narthex and apse wereused at this time as a temporary living structure in what isregarded in the chapter as the fourth building period. Theauthor proposes graphical reconstruction of the sanctuaryaccording to fourth building periods and shows architecturalparallels to this building among contemporary churches ofthe Northern Caucasus and Minor Asia.Chapter two, author I. Teslenko, deals with the stratigraphyof the site and description of archaeological layers.The analysis of excavated materials provided in the chapterallowed for the presentation of all steps of anthropogenicactivity on the Tuzluk Hill from the Bronze Age to moderntimes. The description of materials is organized by archaeologicallayers, with general characteristics of different findsincluded. Every layer inside and outside the church is attributedto a corresponding building period. A hypothesison the formation of each layer and its causes are also given.The most important layers are linked to two dilapidationsof the church, and some of them are attributed to regular liturgicallife and different rituals practiced in and around thesanctuary. Several layers may be left from construction andreconstruction works. A detailed description of the archaeologicalfinds and a cultural and liturgical interpretation ofstructures, layers and bones are given in the next chapters.In the third chapter, I. Teslenko provides an analysis ofceramic and pottery materials from the church. During theexcavation, 2,589 fragments of roof tiles and kalypters (55%of all ceramic materials), 637 fragments of kitchen and tablewares (13.5%) and 1,485 pieces of pithoi and amphora (31.5%) were recorded. Among them 9 intact rectangular rooftiles that were still preserved and 5 kalypters can be fragmentarilyreconstructed. Several tiles have a constructionsign or craftsmen marks as tridents and Greek letters «λ»,«ρ», «π» «В», «V». A theoretical estimation on the numberof tiles, including kalypters for covering the roof, has beendone. The amount is between 374 tiles / 376 kalypters and396 tiles / 397 kalypters in the second and third buildingperiod respectively. Accordingly, in the second period theweight of the roof was about 3893-3897 kg, for the thirdperiod – 4118-4122 kg.Nearly all excavated ceramic materials came from localproduction. The author lists the characteristics and providesa description of clay pottery and ceramic items, which showtwo craftsmen traditions. The first one emerged locally andis characteristic of primitive treatments, the use of a handpottery wheel and unsatisfactory baking. The second craftsmentradition reflects well-organized, high-technology commodityproduction oriented on the external wine trade. It ispresented specially by amphora. Today, there are more than40 known pottery workshops with high-technology kilns inthe southern part of the Crimean peninsula. Such a potterytradition was most likely brought here in the 8th-9th centuryfrom Minor Asia. The author discusses chronologies ofvarious types of local pottery, particularly amphora, and hemakes comparisons to groups of amphora known from differentregions of the Byzantine World. Local amphoras arepresented by so-called "Black Sea type" (second variant),which was produced until the mid-10th century, according tothe author. At the archaeological site, only two fragments ofimported pottery have been recorded: the bottom of a highneck brown clay jug with wide flat handles, no earlier thanthe mid-9th century, and a fragment of Glazed White Ware II,according to J.W. Hayes, from 10th century Constantinople.The kitchen pottery which were in use in Khazar kaganateis also absent. Ceramic finds in the church date back mainlyto the end of 8th-10th century; only several fragments of twored glazed sgraffito bowls and one fragment of a brown unglazedpot come from the 14th-15th century.The fourth chapter presented by I. Teslenko and A.Musin describes and studies the collection of glass lampfragments (342 items) that are partially not indentified.The bulk (91%) of the lamps comes from the third buildingperiod and is concentrated near the southern entrance tothe church, where the liturgy should start. Precisely withinthe same zone, micropieces of flint made by strike-a-lightfor making "liturgical fire" were recorded, and kitchen andbone remains from community meals were also attested.Glass lamps are presented by two main groups: polycandelonor beaker-shaped lamps with hollow stems, and singlelamps with handles on the rim. All lamps have close parallelsamong glass finds from other Middle Byzantine sanctuaries,for instance, Myra-Demre in Turkey, Thessaloniki inGreece, Chersoneses in Crimea, etc. The glass is mainly coloredlight green and blue. A slowly increased percentage ofpotassium oxide recorded by optical emission spectroscopymay point to glass production centers in the southeasternpart of Asia Minor or Levant.Chapter five, written by A. Musin, analyzes and classifiesmetal crosses found in the church. The excavation recordedat least 30 crosses and their fragments. Crosses wereused throughout the entire period of the church's existence.Crosses are regarded as an ex-voto offering. Most of themwere concentrated in the altar zone of the sanctuary andnear the southern entrance to the church. Two crosses wereput in wall masonry that closed the doorway between thenorthern compartment and the main church during the thirdbuilding period, evidently with apotropaic magic purposes.Presumably, crosses were suspended on the church wall oron elements of the church's interior, or inserted in them. Thecorpus of crosses is divided into five typological groups.The main group consists of iron crosses with an extendedlower branch made of two plates connected with a rivet thatderived from individual processional crosses and turned inex-voto. Some crosses with splayed arms were cut from thinsheet-metal, including copper alloy and probably silver,and decorated with punch ornamentation. Two crosses weremade of silver coins: Umayyad dirham (661 – 750 AD) andimitation of Arab-Sassanian half-drachma of the Sassanidking Kosrou II (590-629 AD).The two last groups of crosses can be compared to thecrosses of the type 1.2.2 according to J. Staecker found inEarly Rus' and Scandinavia in the 10th – 11th century, especiallyknown to be in graves in Birka (Sweden), Gnezdovonear Smolensk, Timerevo near Yaroslavl (Russia), Kiev,Iskorosten (Ukraine) and other political and economic centersof the formation of early medieval states in Russia andSweden. Several scholars have insisted that the crosses havean Anglo-Saxon origin and appeared in Sweden around930-940s AD with the mission of bishop Uni from BritishIslands. However, after the Yedi Evler excavation, the Byzantineorigin of these crosses is quite clear. Crosses fromEastern and Northern Europe may have been created usinga Byzantine example or brought directly from this regionin several cases. During the cultural transformation of theChristianization period, crosses that initially belonged to liturgicalpublic culture were turned in barbarian society intoprivate devotion objects and used as an element in burialcustoms.Nearly all crosses found in the Yedi Evler church haveparallels in other regions of the Byzantine Empire and theneighboring region in the Black Sea coastland, Mediterranean,Asia Minor, Northern Caucasus and Balkans. Suchex-voto crosses illustrate a special feature of post iconoclasticculture in the beginning of the Middle Byzantine period,as well as large distribution of personal reliquary-crossesof the end of the 9th – 11th century. However, prior to becomingan ex-voto offering in church interior, both types ofcrosses were generally used in private Christian devotion.It is largely accepted that the 9th -11th century was a periodof increasing individualism, social atomism and growingemphasis on personal piety. With that in mind, individualcrosses were evidence of the new post-iconoclasm Orthodoxyas a manifestation of personal activity in church lifeand a sign of the victory of polis community tradition overimperial tyranny.The process of donating personal crosses to churchesshould be regarded as a special way of reconciling personaldevotion with the liturgical needs of the local communityencouraged by Church hierarchy. The present hypothesisis confirmed by information in the Byzantine MonasticTypikons, especially that of Empress Irene Doukaina Komnenefor the Convent of the Mother of God Kecharitomenein Constantinople founded between 1100 and 1118, whichprescribed that each Saturday laymen would offer crosses-stauria in the sanctuary for the commemoration of thedeceased, and that other crosses must be brought similarlyeach Sunday on behalf of the living who are recorded on thediptychs. Crosses from the Yedi Evler church and in othercases should be regarded as an archaeological illustration ofsuch a ritual.Other small finds from the church like nails, chain linksfor the suspension of lamps, fragment of bronze wire, leadplates from a wick holder, buttons of bronze, small greenglass beads, and an iron arrow-head characteristic of EasternEurope military culture in the 10th/11th - 13th century aredescribed and analyzed in chapter six by I. Teslenko. Twoamulet-pendants found in the church that are made of clamshell of Cerithium vulgatum and tooth of deer of Cervuselaphus, which could also be offered in the sanctuary asex-voto, are presented in chapter seven by G. Gavris and I.Teslenko.Chapters eight to twelve compiled by G. Gavris, V.Logvinenko, and S. Leonov deal with bones and faunisticremains including birds, mammals, fishes, marine mollusks,and land snails recorded during the excavations. As a result,information is exhausted on the repertoire of animal sacrifices,a normal practice in rural parish Byzantine churches,and the composition of church festive meals has been determined.Among 139 identified bones of mammals, 64% belongto Ovis aries and Capra aegagrus hircus, 16% to Sus scrofadomesticus, 6% to Lepus europaeus and 2 % to Bos Taurus.Birds are presented with 148 individuals of 19 species,including 78% of Gallus domesticus and Gallus domesticussm. and an insignificant quantity of bones of Otis tarda,Cygnus olor, Perdix perdix etc.It is quite interesting to note that fishes are nearly absentfrom the collection, and consequently, on the table of parishmen who lived along the sea coast, only 13 bones ofAcipenser gueldenstaedtii and Perciformes were recorded.Evidently, bones from the excavation present the remainsof a festive meal and not an everyday diet. However, shellfishesare recorded here in 1900 fragments of Mytilus galloprovincialis(95% of mollusk) and a small number ofPatella ulyssiponensis and Ostrea lamellose. Eriphia spinifronspresented in 4-5 individuals should also be noted. Terrestrialgastropods mollusks are mainly presented by Helixalbescens (72.4%), Monacha fruticola (24.2%) Chondrulatridens (3.2%), and only one shell of Brephulopsis cylindrical.Some remarks on the distribution of animal bonesin the excavated complex will be provided in the followingchapters.In chapter thirteen, I. Teslenko proposed and arguedthe chronology of the site based mainly on pottery analysis.Coins from the 7th – mid-8th century that were used forthe manufacturing of crosses give only large terminus postquem for the church building. Amphora with small horizontalmultiple grooves on the surface well-known in Crimeanot later than the beginning - first half of the 9th century arenot recorded among the excavation materials; so the beginningof the church complex must date back to the secondthird-middle of the 9th century. The find of the fragment of ahigh neck jug with wide flat handles in layers of the secondbuilding period, and their absence later on, puts the date ofthe rebuilding of the church at 860-880 AD. The presence oflocal "Black Sea type" amphora of the second variant andthe absence of forms similar to amphora of types I and IIbaccording to N. Günsenin allow to propose the first half –mid of the 10th century as the final stage of the church's existenceand that of surrounding settlements. Another find isthe fragment of Glazed White Ware II, dated no earlier thanthe beginning of the 10th century. The history of the churchactually spans about 100 (± 20-25) years.Chapter fourteen by A. Musin discusses liturgical ritualspracticed in the sanctuary against the large background ofByzantine church culture and shows parallels from relatedterritories. To explain the meaning and origin of the two unequalapse church building in the Yedi Evler area, the authorprovides a thorough account of the phenomenon of doubleapse churches with unequal apses from Transcaucasia andthe Northern Caucasus through Asia Minor and the GreekIslands up until biapsidal churches were recorded in medievalItaly in the 9th-13th century. As a result, a conclusionhas been made that the Mediterranean World did not havea unique genesis of double apse churches. Late Antiquitychurches with two symmetrical naves and apses cannot beregarded as a direct prototype for the Yedi Evler church andrelated building. The architecture of Transcaucasia and theNorthern Caucasus sometimes gives similar features, forexample Mgvimevi, Georgia, the end of the 13th century,but all of them were built later than the monument underconsideration.The "pseudobiconques" churches with a reducednorthern apse are also known in medieval Italy and Corsicaof the 10th-12th century (see for example: San Venerio,La Spezia-Migliarina, Liguria; San Tommaso al Poggio,Rapallo, Liguria; Santa Maria della Chiappella, Rogliano,Haute-Corse; Santa Maria di Sibiola, Serdiana, Sardegna).However, they hardly could be a source of inspirationfor builders of the Yedi Evler church for cultural andchronological reasons. The Italian architecture of the "chiesebiabsidate" did, however, deeply influence the appearanceof two apse churches in Crimea and Muscovite Russia inthe end of the 14th-15th century. Nevertheless, early Italiantwo apse sanctuaries, especially with different apses and anadditional northern entrance, could initially reflect the sameprocess of the change of liturgical planning as in the YediEvler church.It should be acknowledged that "pseudobiconques"churches are not very characteristic for the Greek Island.Some indirect parallels can bee seen in the planning ofthe church of St Spyridon – Panagia Protothroni Halkia,Halki, Naxos Island; church of St Pantaleon, Kotraphi,Peloponnesus; church of St Athanasius, Phaturu, PatmosIsland; church of St Athanasius, Phaturu, Patmos Island. Inall cases, it is difficult to say whether the additional reducedcompartment was initially intended for this or that particularliturgical ritual. It is quite possible that both naves wereused for the Eucharist. However, in the Middle Byzantineperiod, the appearance of double churches of Sts John andGeorge, Sarakini, Samos, and the Monastery of St JohnChrysostomos at Koutsovendis, Cyprus can be attested.The double apse church was renewed in the 10th century inÜçayak, near Kirşehir, Central Anatolia, Turkey. The mostnotable fact is that the high density of two apse middlebyzantine churches, including the "pseudobiconques"sanctuary, is known to have existed in the ancient Pontprovince and near Trabzon, Turkey, for example in Koralla,Görele Burunu fortress or Gantopedin fortress (Matzouka,Zana Kale), Labra, Maçka Dere, near Köpruna Köy. Thisregion always had direct ties with the northern Black Seacoast and Crimea during Antiquity and Middle Ages.At the same time, the closest parallel to the Yedi Evlerchurch can be seen in the 10th-11th century double apsechurch in the Upper City of Middle Byzantine settlementin Boğazköy (Hattusa, Asia Minor), Turkey, excavated by P.Neve in the early 1980s. At the small northern compartmentthat served as the principle entrance in the southern mainchurch, obviously meant for the Eucharist, a considerablenumber of metal ex-voto crosses was recovered. Thecombination of such features attested both in Yedi Evlerand Boğazköy and the chronological coincidence cannot beaccidental.The author argued that different liturgical functions of twochurch compartments and the subsidiary role of the northernpart may be stressed by their sizes and architectural volumesand expressed in the exterior of churches in an architectonicway and by means of architecture. An additional means ofspecial organization of two parts of liturgical space involvedthe arrangement of a separate doorway to the main churchvia the northern compartment as a supposable place of initialworship rituals.Such a change in liturgical planning finds its possibleexplanation in the reform of Prothesis/Proskomedia,which took place in Middle Byzantium during and rightafter the iconoclasm period. The Euchologion Barberinigr. 336, the oldest Orthodox liturgical book of the end ofthe 8th century, reported the appearance of the first priest'sprayer for the preparation of bread and wine as gifts for theEucharist. There was a time when the clergy and monksestablished control over the expression of community andindividual piety within the bringing of liturgical gifts. Thechapter argues in support of a hypothesis on the Prothesisfunction established in the northern compartment in MiddleByzantine churches with two unequal apses such as YediEvler, Sotera, Boğazköy, several sanctuaries of Pont andTrabzon, etc. as a materialization of church reforms at thattime. It is quite possible that contemporary Italian churcheswith two unequal apses were also influenced by the samearchitectural and liturgical innovation in the beginning of theMiddle Byzantine period, especially since the EuchologionBarberini is a manuscript of southern Italian provenance,which reflects, however, practices of Constantinople.Architectural studies let us assume that initially, for anewly performed ritual, the northern annexes or nave ofchurch could be reserved, but later such liturgical planninginnovation did not catch on in church practice. Both preanaphoraand anaphoric rituals were concentrated in thealtar zone.The architectural implementation of the Prothesisreform could be reflected in another way, for example, in theconstruction of rectangular annexes to Middle Byzantinechurch as monastery Kisleçukuru, Antalia, and in İnişdibifortified settlement, Istlada, near Kekova – Myra/Demre,both in Turkey provide examples. In fact, the MiddleByzantine period is generally characterized by the risingof additional architectural volumes and a compartmentaround the main church building within the multiplicationof liturgical rituals and "Privatisation" of Liturgy.As proof for the given hypothesis, a find of liturgicalequipment in the church can be added. At the central partof the northern compartment just opposite the doorway tothe main church, an almost rhomboidal flat stone with dimensionsof 0.5 х 0.7 m (weight 75 kg) was attested. Itshorizontal position in situ was fixed by two roof tiles andfragments of amphora. A considerable number of potteryand glass fragments was concentrated around the stone, aswell as some animal bones. At the east end of the northernapse, the bottom of pithos and fragmentary sheep skullwere also recovered, which indicate some unknown ritual.It is quite possible that such flat stones laying directly on thechurch floor and serving as the Prtothesis table for offeringliturgical bread and wine were typical for rural Byzantinechurches, as the information of Pratum spirituale by JohnMoschus suggests.No remains of the altar table or distinct elements of thealtar screen were recorded during the excavations. This impliesthat the Holy table in the church could be made ofwood and the altar screen existed as a cloth curtain or katapetasma.However, the altar zone was separated from thenaos by a terrace cut in natural as a kind of bema. Near thebema, there was a pit, most likely for a water reservoir usedfor church needs and ritual purification purposes. Beside thispit within the altar zone, several roof tiles were stocked as aspecial construction associated with finds of metal crossesand glass lamp fragments that may be regarded as an elementof an unpreserved altar barrier.Such liturgical elements as the offering of ex-voto crossesand new arrangement of the Prothesis ritual may suggesta monastic influence in the area. Additionally, this possibilityis confirmed by some features of burial custom of thegrave excavated near the church to the southeast from themain apse, i.e. the fixation of the head of one buried senilisman with the help of small stones or a special head-supportknown in the practice of Mont Athos monasteries and in theTypikon of Studios monastery in Constantinople. This observationallows for a revision of the role of Byzantine monasticismin the development of Crimean Christian cultureof the iconoclasm and posticonoclasm period, especiallysince an erroneous hypothesis on the "mass migration" ofByzantine monks-iconodoules to the Crimean peninsulabased on an uncritical review of the information of the Lifeof Saint Stephen the Younger has been abandoned after newresearch.However, rituals practiced in the Yedi Evler church werelinked not only to monastic practices but also to popularChristianized rituals, as finds of animal bones in and aroundthe church suggest. Without a doubt, these kitchen remainstestify to animal sacrifice and parish community or familyfestive meals organized in the church. The finds of oxremains, an animal usually offered as a sacrifice in ruralGreek communities during sanctuary consecration, nearthe western and southern entrances to the church may referto rituals of dedication of the church after its constructionand reconstruction in the second and third building periods.Other bones and faunal remains are relatively proportionallyspread out in the church complex. It is difficult todeterminate where exactly the common meals took place.Most likely, during the first period of church life it was thenorthern part of the church; the joint offering of gifts forthe Eucharist and ordinary meal in the same place near theflat stone in the northern part of the church shows a kindof syncretism of liturgical and popular rituals. During thelast period, when the northern compartment was buried accordingto canon law postulates the main part of the kitchenremains was concentrated near the southern entrance to thesanctuary.The practice of animal sacrifices and parish meals waslargely in use in Byzantine popular religion, or so-called"parish Orthodoxy." In spite of prescriptions against suchpractices, which can be found in canon law, it was regardedas a norm in society, and even hagiographical texts, for example,the Life of Saint Nicolas of Sion in Asia Minor, tellabout such rituals without any fulmination. Rituals of animalsacrifices are also known in the North Caucasus, Transcaucasia,and the Balkans and are still preserved in ethnographicpractice until the beginning of the 20th century andon several territories up until the present age. For example,in the Farassa area, Cappadocia, modern Feke, Adana Province,Turkey, in the Greek parish the ritual of animal sacrificeswas recorded in the church opposite the main altar on abig stone. This parallel may suggest that the flat stone in thenorthern part of the Yedi Evler church, apart from its Prosthesisfunction, could have also served as archaic sacrifice.The remains of rituals of church consecration are alsoknown from the excavations. They have been attestedthanks to one-time concentrations of charcoals and fireplacesas well as kitchen remains opposite to the entrances of thesanctuary. For the first church consecration, three fireplaceswere recorded to the north, west and south of the church.The second consecration left one fireplace to the south fromthe church according to the position of the main doorwayduring the third building period.Within the last zone, micropieces of flint made by strikea-light were found. It is obvious that there was a specialplace here for making 'liturgical fire' before the beginningof office of vespers. Evidently, the celebration in the churchwas not conducted every day, but on special days includingFeast and Sunday Liturgies. Today the ritual of makingnew fire before offices is still preserved in Latin andGreek parish life, only on the eve of Easter Day when theliturgical light for the ceremony is normally lit from a bonfireburned outside the church. In Russian and UkrainianOrthodoxy, such practice has been abandoned. A specificderivate of such practices is the ritual of 'Holy Fire' in thechurch of Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem on Great Saturday,the day before Orthodox Easter, presented in mass mentalityand church propaganda as a miracle. However, the practiceof making 'new' or 'holy' fire, especially at the beginningof spring, is well known thanks to ethnological research inWestern and Central Europe, and relations between churchrituals and folklore customs are difficult to establish. Multiplefragments of glass lamps in the same zone hardly referto any rituals, nor do presented remains of lamps accidentallybroken during manipulation. Only one church customthat involves the intentional breaking of wedding glass cupsof wine was first attested in the Euchologion Paris Coislin.213 in 1027 AD. However, until the 12th century, the churchblessing of wedding was practiced in the aristocratic milieuand was not very widespread in rural society.In sum, the local parish community had enough cultivatedlevel of religious life and combined innovations ofliturgical mainstream of Byzantine society issued from culturalcenters and archaic practices belonging to the provincialrural population.The conclusions presented by I. Teslenko and A. Musinsummaries research results and give future perspectives.For the first time in the history of excavations of Crimeanmedieval churches, thanks to careful digging and fieldfixation, architectural archaeology managed to record manyliturgical features and everyday life elements characteristicof Byzantine rural churches. It allowed for determining acharacteristic of the material culture of the local populationduring the "demographic boom" and establishing of themataadministrative division in Byzantine Empire in the 8th-9thcentury. Church planning kept the very important step inthe development of the initial part of East-Christian Liturgyas ritualisation of Prothesis. Archaeological contextspreserved intact bones of animal sacrifices and communitymeals appropriated to Byzantine popular religion, tracesof making of 'holy' or liturgical fire as micropieces of flintmade by a light-a-strike, and ex-voto offering in the formof metal crosses, and amulets pendants that at the sametime could serve as interior church decoration. Such findsallowed us to establish byzantine origin of several typesof Christian devotional crosses pendants from the 10th-11th century originated from the territories of Early Rus'and Scandinavia. The church in Yedi Evler is an examplemonument of the Middle Byzantine period for the study ofliturgical devotion, rural sacral architecture and everydaylife of provincial settlements, which should be useful forthe understanding of both Crimean medieval culture and thehistory of other parts of the Byzantine World.The study of the Yedi Evler church permits us todraw some conclusions about the historical developmentand cultural situation in the southern part of the Crimeanpeninsula at the end of the 8th – mid 10th century. The materialculture of the local population known from the result ofthe church excavation and investigation of surroundingsettlements and pottery workshops suggests importantinnovation, such as stone housebuilding using roof tiles,high-technology pottery production with very effectivekilns, winemaking oriented to local and long distancetrade, and ecclesiastical architecture of basilica-type parishchurches. All these improvements were previously unknownfor the autochthonic people, which may be indentified tothe Crimean Goths. The settlement archaeology in the areashows that the above-mentioned innovations were broughthere with the wave of mass migration, and newly-establishedresidences of the new population existed quietly side by sidewith previous habitations. This situation may demonstratethe process of mutual integration and even acculturation ofautochthonic people in higher organized society. Most likely,the main group of migrants came from Asia Minor andbrought the mentioned traditions of Byzantine-Rhômaioscivilization, including high technology in pottery andliturgical innovations reflected in ecclesiastical architectureand devotional practices.Undoubtedly, the colonization of the southern part of theCrimean peninsula was organized by the administration ofthe Byzantine Empire in the framework of the establishingof the themata system. The theme ta Klimata in this areawas constituted in 841 AD, and later in the 850s it wasreorganized in the theme of Chersoneses. In the same vein,the new church administration was established here. Theregion under question had probably been included in themetropolitan of Ghotia or Doros, whose eastern borderseparating it from another one new diocese of Sougdaia orSourozh, now Sudak, was exactly across from the Yedi Evlervalley. The Goths diocese is referred to as "a certain regionalong the coast there called Dory," mentioned by Procopiusof Caesarea in his panegyric on the building activity of theemperor Justinian De Aedificiis.The chronology of pottery materials suggests that thechurch in Yedi Evler and the local agglomeration, as wellas a considerable part of settlements in Southern and South-Western Crimea, ceased to exist at the same time in the firsthalf of the 10th century. Such a social collapse may be linkedto the politically unstable situation in the area caused by theconflict between the Byzantine Empire and Khazar kaganateand active military raids of the Rus' from the Middle Dnieperarea to the Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions, Asia Minorand Constantinople. The local population moved to moresecure regions or fled behind city walls for protection.This publication is supplemented by appendixes withcatalogues of finds of various categories including metals,glass, and faunal artifacts (I. Teslenko, N. Turova), pottery,ceramic and stone materials (O. Ignatenko, I. Teslenko),architectural elements (V. Kirilko), find of Bronze Ageperiod (I. Teslenko), description and results of opticalemission spectroscopy of glass finds (A. Egor'kov) andstudy of flint finds (V. Chabai).
