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It is known that people at sea are vulnerable to harsh weather conditions and maritime security threats. Nowadays, case law highlights how maritime security operations that are meant to be a source of security for these people also constitute a source of vulnerability – as such operations may be undertaken in a manner that violates their rights. This issue emanates from the friction between maritime security operations and human rights law linked to the dissonance between international human rights law (IHRL) and the international law of the sea (LOS). Scholars suggest a systemic integration between these two fields of law, alongside other relevant fields of international law, to protect people at sea. The problem is that the existing research does not contemplate the gaps within the law as a stumbling block to protecting people at sea. By utilising the human security framework to guide the doctrinal analysis of IHRL and LOS vis-à-vis maritime security, this thesis finds that people at sea are still rendered vulnerable by gaps in protection resulting from legal uncertainties (including, but not limited to, maritime 'legal black holes'). For example, legal uncertainties cause de jure rightlessness affecting the protection of migrants visible in the Mediterranean Sea and de facto non-enforcement affecting the protection of civilians within the Gulf of Guinea. These issues are genuine conflicts within international law that a traditional conflict avoidance technique cannot remedy. This thesis proposes the novel perspective of human security as a framework relevant to maritime security and international law that can strengthen the protection of people at sea. It argues that the tenet of human security allows it to function as a bridge over the maritime legal black holes, as it unifies traditionally set apart laws (IHRL and LOS), policies, governments, organisations, civil society groups, etc. By examining the potential and limits of the human security approach to deal with identified gaps in protection, this thesis ...

The policy of developing formal Islamic inheritance law by the government of the Republic of Indonesia is closely associated with the spotlight of the world news, particularly concerning the consequences of international relations and agreements. Referring to this matter, the disclosure of the meeting point of formal Islamic inheritance law in Indonesia and international law is highly required as an effort to create world harmony and build knowledge for the international community who interacts with Indonesian citizens or when dealing with formal Islamic inheritance law in Indonesia. Through the application of the descriptive method, it can be found that the meeting point of Islamic inheritance law in Indonesia with public international law occurs at the meeting of articles 23 of the UDHR and articles 2, 3 and 23 of the ICCPR with several articles in the compilation of Islamic law Book II and some dynamic religious court judges' decisions. Meanwhile, the meeting point with private international law is at the primary and secondary linkage point as well as on the lex site and lex patriae principles. ; Kebijakan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia dalam membangun hukum kewarisan Islam formal tidak bisa lepas dari sorotan dunia, terutama menyangkut konsekuensi adanya pergaulan dan perjanjian internasional. Oleh karena hal itu mengungkapkan titik temu hukum kewarisan Islam formal di Indonesia dengan hukum internasional sangatlah diperlukan sebagai salah satu upaya mewujudkan keselarasan dunia dan membangun pengetahuan bagi masyarakat internasional yang berinteraksi dengan warga negara Indonesia atau sebaliknya ketika berhubungan dengan hukum kewarisan Islam formal di Indonesia. Melalui metode deskriptif dapat ditemukan bahwa titik temu hukum kewarisan Islam formal di Indonesia dengan hukum internasional publik terjadi pada pertemuan pasal 3 UDHR dan pasal 2, 3 dan 23 ICCPR dengan beberapa pasal yang ada di kompilasi hukum Islam buku II dan beberapa putusan hakim pengadilan agama yang dinamis. Sedangkan titik temu dengan hukum perdata internasional ada pada titik pertalian primer dan sekunder serta pada prinsip lex situs dan lex patriae.

Countries require large amounts of energy for continuous economic growth. As mentioned by the US Energy Information Administration, total world energy consumption is expected to increase from 575 quadrillion Btu in 2015 to 736 quadrillion Btu in 2040, or an increase of 28% (U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2017) . However, resources of non-renewable energy are limited, and energy consumption is known to worsen major environmental problems in the world. To reach a balance between energy needs and environmental problems, using renewable energy is one of the best options for many countries. Given this state of affairs, this study addresses the long-term relationship of renewable energy consumption with respect to output, pollutant emissions and international trade. It uses a panel cointegration technique, along with the Pooled-Mean Group Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (PMG-ARDL) method, to compare a group of emerging countries with a group of developed countries. The study shows that the consumption of renewable energy is positively related to real GDP per capita and international trade for both emerging countries and developed countries, while it is negatively associated with CO2 per capita with a large magnitude. This result suggests that international trade and economic growth will promote the consumption of renewable energy in the long-run future. However, whether an increase in the percentage of renewable energy consumed solves the environmental problems depends a great deal on the future trajectory of CO2 emissions along with economic development. Overall, the empirical analysis in the present study demonstrates that international trade leads to the promotion of the consumption of renewable energy as a long-run relationship. It means that, in the future, economic development along with international trade and advances in environmental technology are expected to further facilitate and promote the consumption of renewable energy in every country. However, governments should issue policies to support significant growth and development of renewable energy along with the economic growth of the country in a manner consistent with the country's level of development.

Relevance of the research topic is due to the rapid growth in world trade, which leads to new challenges for Ukraine's industry in the context of deepening economic globalization and increasing international competition. Under these conditions, the development and application of effective industrial policy instruments aimed at supporting promising sectors of the processing industry in the process of integration into the world market is very important. Formulation of the problem. New opportunities associated with the further liberalization of foreign trade in an increasingly open and competitive environment require the creation of a favorable environment for promoting the export activities of Ukrainian industrial producers under the constraints of international trade agreements. Selection of unexplored parts of the general problem. In the context of increasing the influence of integration processes on the development of production, the problem of choosing the most effective instruments of state regulation, which most of all contributed to active cooperation with foreign partners for export-oriented industrial producers of Ukraine, in particular for products with a higher degree of processing, remains insufficiently studied. Setting the task, the purpose of the study. The objective of the study is to develop proposals for effective trade policy instruments aimed at supporting the export of industrial products with higher added value within the framework of the existing restrictions of international agreements. Method or methodology for conducting research. General scientific methods are used in the work: abstract-logical, systemic; analysis and synthesis, statistical comparisons, grouping, sampling; expert assessments. The field of application of results. The results of this study can be applied in the process of government policy formation on the main aspects of the export development of industry in the context of integration processes. Conclusions. Based on the analysis of quantitative and qualitative indicators of international trade, its geographical vectors, trends in exports and imports of Ukrainian-made industrial goods are disclosed, and effective trade policy instruments are proposed: namely, non-tariff regulatory methods aimed at creating effective policies and institutions and can be used for the eliminating restrictions upon integration of the Ukrainian manufacturer to the international markets.

This research examines whether and how the idea of Sweden as a multicultural society and the image of sport as a tool of integration have been used to increase the power of attraction of Sweden in international relations. Do sportspeople with an immigrant background constitute a form of Swedish soft power? There are different initiatives in Sweden aiming to facilitate integration of newly arrived immigrants and refugees into the Swedish society, and sport, reportedly, is becoming a relevant social platform for integration as it breaks down ethnic barriers. These initiatives are also attracting international attention, which is the focus of this research. There is previous research about sport as soft power tool but not much studies concern integrative sports projects or sportspeople constituting a form of soft power. The research on sport as a form of Sweden's soft power is also limited. Methodologically, this thesis relies on qualitative content analysis of primary data. In order to get a comprehensive knowledge about the image given about Sweden through sport integration projects and perceptions of outstanding Swedish sportspeople of immigrant background this study used the method of triangulation in data collection. The research analyzed articles published in international English-language media during the period of 2014–2018, four personal interviews conducted in January 2019 with immigrants and officials involved in a sport integration project, and the documentary film Trevligt Folk. The analysis of chosen primary data showed that although there is no explicit agenda on the part of the Swedish state, the government and its departments, to employ sportspeople of immigrant background in Sweden to promote soft power in international relations, there are elements of soft power in the examined phenomenon. Sportspeople with an immigrant background and various integration projects associated with them are able to attract positive international attention and can thus be said to constitute a form of Swedish soft power. In the analyzed case, soft power is constituted through seven themes which emerged from the analysis of data: sport as a tool of soft power, sport as a tool for integration, New Swedishness, representing Sweden, transnational belonging, personal development for change, and racism and anti-racism.

Open Access Journal; Published online: 25 Sept 2019 ; Scapsipedus icipe Hugel and Tanga (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) is a newly described edible cricket species. Although, there is substantial interest in mass production of S. icipe for human food and animal feed, no information exists on the impact of temperature on their bionomics. Temperature-dependent development, survival, reproductive and life table parameters of S. icipe was generated and integrated into advanced Insect Life Cycle Modeling software to describe relative S. icipe population increase and spatial spread based on nine constant temperature conditions. We examined model predictions and implications for S. icipe potential distribution in Africa under current and future climate. These regions where entomophagy is widely practiced have distinctly different climates. Our results showed that S. icipe eggs were unable to hatch at 10 and 40˚C, while emerged nymphs failed to complete development at 15˚C. The developmental time of S. icipe was observed to decrease with increased in temperature. The lowest developmental threshold temperatures estimated using linear regressions was 14.3, 12.67 and 19.12˚C and the thermal constants for development were 185.2, 1111.1- and 40.7-degree days (DD) for egg, nymph and pre-adult stages, respectively. The highest total fecundity (3416 individuals/female/generation), intrinsic rate of natural increase (0.075 days), net reproductive rate (1330.8 female/female/generation) and shortest doubling time (9.2 days) was recorded at 30˚C. The regions predicted to be suitable by the model suggest that S. icipe is tolerant to a wider range of climatic conditions. Our findings provide for the first-time important information on the impact of temperature on the biology, establishment and spread of S. icipe across the Africa continent. The prospect of edible S. icipe production to become a new sector in food and feed industry is discussed. ; Danish International Development Agency ; Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research ; Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany ; International Development Research Centre ; Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research ; Department for International Development, United Kingdom ; Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency ; Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation ; Government of Kenya ; Peer Review

Transformation processes experienced in the international arena have led to bestow higher priority to transnational issues, as well as greater recognition of non-state actors in regard to its influence on world politics. These processes, to change the international scope, initially are originated within a nation-state, from the sub-national and sub-state component. Starting from this, is introduced the concept of paradiplomacy, which involves the participation of non-central governments in the field of international relations, with the aim of promoting different dimensions that go beyond the internal constitutional policy, as in economic aspects, cultural aspects, etc. Thereby, paradiplomacy demonstrates to be an important piece for each country in the international system, which is capable of modifying intergovernmental relations, transnational relations, foreign policies and structures of integration. For its relevance, paradiplomacy is analyzed from five theoretical perspectives: 1) international actor; 2) foreign policy and decision-making processes; 3) territorial development; 4) regional integration and 5) governance. ; Los procesos de transformación experimentados en el escenario internacional han conllevado a otorgar mayor importancia a los asuntos transnacionales, así como un mayor reconocimiento a actores no estatales en lo que respecta a su influencia sobre la política mundial. Estos procesos, para cambiar el escenario internacional, inicialmente se originan dentro de un Estado-Nación, desde el componente subnacional y subestatal. A partir de esto, se introduce el concepto de paradiplomacia, el cual involucra la participación de los gobiernos no centrales en el ámbito de las relaciones internacionales, con el objetivo de impulsar diversas dimensiones que vayan más allá de la política constitucional interna, como en lo económico, cultural, etc. De esta manera, la paradiplomacia presenta ser una pieza importante para cada país en el sistema internacional, capaz de modificar relaciones intergubernamentales, relaciones transnacionales, políticas exteriores y estructuras de integración. Por su relevancia, la paradiplomacia se analiza desde cinco perspectivas teóricas: 1) actor internacional; 2) política exterior y procesos de toma de decisiones; 3) desarrollo territorial; 4) integración regional y 5) gobernanza.

El presente trabajo de investigación examina el papel y alcance de la consulta previa internacional entre Estados en el Derecho internacional. Las controversias internacionales suelen acontecer cuando un Estado, no siempre con ese propósito, lleva a cabo una acción unilateral que produce efectos adversos a los intereses de otros Estados. Con carácter general se ha reconocido que algunas de esas controversias internacionales pueden prevenirse si los Estados evitan previamente el riesgo de causar daños a otros Estados. El modo más efectivo de conseguirlo es mediante la consulta previa con los representantes de aquellos Estados potencialmente afectados. De este modo, cobra especial importancia la determinación de las circunstancias y elementos que el Derecho internacional impone a los Estados una obligación de consultar. Es así que el Derecho internacional ha establecido tal deber de consultar en tratados internacionales y en la práctica interestatal generando expectativas normativas a propósito de cual sea el comportamiento de los Estados. Este análisis de las circunstancias y elementos que requiere la consulta previa en la Sociedad internacional puede coadyuvar a una mayor efectividad de los mecanismos consultivos internacionales existentes. ; This study examines the role and the value of prior consultation among nations in international law. International disputes frequently occur when one nation, wiht no hostile intent, takes unilateral action that adversely affects the interests of other nations. It is generally acknowledged that some of these disputes could be avoided, and other could be ameliorated, if the acting government would asses beforehand the risk of harm to other nations. The most effective way to do this is through prion consultation with representatives of potentially affected nations. Thus, it is important to determine the circumstances in which international law imposes on them a duty to consult. To the extent that international law does impose such a duty, it arises fron treaties and from other state practice conducted with the understanding that normative expectations dictate that course of conduct. Whits this clarification of the circumstances requiring prior consultation, international consultation mechanisms may be made more effective.

Stanford education professor Martin Carnoy examines four main critiques of how international tests results are used in policymaking. Of particular interest are critiques of the policy analyses published by the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). Using average PISA scores as a comparative measure of student achievement is misleading for a number of reasons, Carnoy maintains: Students in different countries have different levels of family academic resources; The larger gains reported on the TIMSS, which is adjusted for different levels of family academic resources, raise questions about the validity of the PISA results when used for international comparisons. PISA test score error terms are "considerably larger" than the testing agencies acknowledge, making the country rankings unstable. The Shanghai educational system is held up as a model for the rest of the world on the basis of non-representative data. Of further concern is the conflict of interest arising from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (which administers the PISA) and its member governments acting as a testing agency while simultaneously serving as data analyst and interpreter of results for policy purposes. Carnoy considers the critiques within a discussion of the underlying social meaning and education policy value of international comparisons in general. He describes why using average national math scores as predictors of future economic growth is problematic, and points out that using scoring data in this manner has limited use for establishing education policy because causal inferences can not be meaningfully drawn. Finally, Carnoy explores the relevance of nation-level test score comparisons among countries such as the United States with diverse and complex education systems. The differences between states in the U.S. are, for example, so large that employing U.S. state-level test results over time to examine the impact of education policies would be more useful and interesting than using combined U.S. data. Despite valid critiques of international test result comparisons, Carnoy argues that the comparisons will neither go away nor stop being inappropriately used to shape educational policy. He concludes with five policy recommendations to reduce the misuse of testing data.

There is no doubt that after the end of the Cold War the structure of the International System had to reformulate. 20 years after the fall of the Soviet Union, it is worth asking the question: Are the Contemporary International Relation turning into the unipolar or multipolar system? And what impact on present-day states' capabilities to conduct foreign policy the globalization has and will be having? To capture the essence of the contemporary international environment the text is devoted to the historical evolution of International Relations which highlights the characteristics of the current period. The article reveals that, as a result of unsettled structure of the Contemporary International System and increasing influence of the globalization, present-day governments tend to look for different reference systems, depending on the objective to be achieved. In order to maximize security and development opportunities and minimize the level of dependence states are creating flexible networks of key partners. It seems that, at the threshold of the 21th century a successful foreign policy making is seen as the ability to balance between efficient management and independent management. ; Nie ulega wątpliwości, że po zakończeniu zimnowojennych zmagań bipolarny system międzynarodowy musiał ulec przeformułowaniu. Po 20 latach od upadku Związku Radzieckiego warto postawić pytanie: Czy współczesna scena polityczna zmierza w kierunku układu jedno- czy wielobiegunowego? Nie mniej istotny jest wpływ globalizacji i regionalizacji (fragmentaryzacji) – wielopłaszczyznowych procesów, które od połowy XX wieku coraz intensywniej kształtują sytuację gospodarczo-społeczną oraz polityczną świata . Aby uchwycić sedno współczesnego otoczenia międzynarodowego niniejszy tekst poświęcony został historycznej ewolucji stosunków międzynarodowych, która uwypukli cechy charakteryzujące okres obecny. W rezultacie systemowych uwarunkowań współczesne rządy będą szukały różnych układów odniesienia w zależności od rodzaju celu, jaki chcą osiągnąć. Wobec pragmatyzacji polityki współczesnych państw, sieci kluczowych partnerów, odpowiadające poszczególnym priorytetom ich strategii rozwoju, wydają się być rozwiązaniem maksymalizującym szanse i minimalizującym zagrożenia. Skuteczna polityka doby XXI wieku jawi się więc, jako umiejętność balansowania pomiędzy sprawnym zarządzaniem, a niezależnym zarządzaniem, dającym aktorom maksymalne bezpieczeństwo i możliwości rozwoju, przy możliwym do zaakceptowania poziomie uzależnienia.

My objective in this thesis is to present a study of women s human rights as part of the International Human Rights Regime, through a study of the promotion of female civil servants in Thailand. The thesis project uses regime theory from the field of International Relations as an academic reference, with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) taken as the pivot of the International Women's Human Rights Regime. There are two main arguments in this thesis: first, those women s human rights form a part of the International Human Rights Regime, and second, those internationally-supervised women s human rights play an important role in the domestic affairs of Thailand. This thesis provides an innovative study of the permeation of International Women s Human Rights norms into domestic politics. It uses a case study of the recognition of Article 7(b) of CEDAW by the Thai government with reference to the promotion of Thai female civil servants into Senior Executive levels. The case study is based on extensive fieldwork in Thailand in 2010, using documentary research, in-depth interviews, questionnaires and focus-group techniques to explore the knowledge and experience of women in the Thai civil service. The case study establishes evidence of the influence of CEDAW in the Thai civil service system. In contrast to some scholars who have argued that there is little evidence of the promotion of women s human rights in the Thai governmental structure, I present evidence of structural changes in central governmental bodies, and in laws and legal amendments to indicate that women s human rights, through compliance with CEDAW, are being promoted in the Thai state. However, my project suggests that most female civil servants have little awareness of these changes and opportunities, and that this lack of awareness forms a barrier to further progress in women s rights. My challenge to the conventional understanding of the lack of recognition of women s human rights in Thailand puts ...

В статье представлен сопоставительный анализ роли институтов гражданского общества в содействии международному развитию. Опираясь на результаты международных исследований, автор раскрывает особенности функционирования современных НКО и НПО в сфере СМР, в частности в странах новых донорах (Бразилии, Индии, Китая, ЮАР). Особенное внимание уделяется проблемам взаимодействия с донорами (глобальные НПО, международные институты, правительства) и друг с другом, анализируются процессы сетевого взаимодействия организаций для более эффективного содействия развитию на глобальном и национальном уровнях. Подробно представлены определения НПО, принятые в странах, традиционных и новых донорах, для более глубоко понимания специфической роли третьего сектора в процессах содействия развитию. Представленные результаты экспертного опроса о роли российских НПО и факторах, влияющих на участие в СМР, позволяют автору сделать предварительные выводы о современной ситуации в России в контексте развития потенциала отечественных НКО для содействия развитию ; The paper presents the results from the comparative analysis of the role of non-governmental organizations in contemporary development assistance processes. The author highlights special features of NGOs' functioning in international development cooperation, especially in emerging economies, such as Brazil, India, China and South Africa, basing on the results of the recent international studies. Such issues as communication and cooperation of NGOs with different types of donors operating in the field, including global NGOs, multilateral international institutions, and governments, as well as the interactions between organizations are comprehensively analyzed. The special focus is given to the networking NGOs, interactions between organizations to provide better efficiency and coordination of development assistance at national level and globally. To get the in-depth vision of the third sector's specific role in international development assistance the definitions to notion NGO adopted in traditional and new donor countries are included to the analysis. The preliminary conclusions about the current state of NGOs' capabilities to impact and influence on development assistance at national and global levels are based on the results from the expert interviews taken from Russian NGOs representatives active in the field and elucidated their own vision of the role and impact to international development assistance (IDA) and factors affected on their more efficient and active participation in these processes

AbstractHuman rights organisations have warned repeatedly that basic human rights are being challenged in the so-called 'War on Terror'. One particularly controversial area is the use of diplomatic assurances against torture. According to international human rights instruments, the state shall not return anyone to countries in which they face a substantial risk of being subjected to torture. In the 'War on Terror', an increasing number of non-citizens are being deemed 'security threats', rendering them exempt from protection in many Western states. To be able to deport such 'threats' without compromising their duties under international law, states are increasingly willing to accept a diplomatic assurance against torture – that is, a promise from the state of return that it will not subject the returnee to torture. There is wide disagreement as to whether and/or when diplomatic assurances can render sufficient protection to satisfy the obligations of non-refoulement to risk of torture. Whereas the human rights society label such assurances as 'empty promises', others view them as effective, allowing states to retain their right to remove non-citizens without violating international law. This article reviews international and selected national jurisprudence on the topic of diplomatic assurances against torture and examines if and/or when such assurances might render sufficient protection against torture to enable removals in accordance with international law. The courts and committees that have reviewed the use of diplomatic assurances against torture have identified essential problems of using them, thus rejecting reliance on simple promises not to torture. However, they have often implied that sufficient protection might be rendered by developing the assurances. I argue that this approach risks leading the governments into trying to perfect a system that is inherently flawed – whilst, incidentally, deportations to actual risk of torture continue. Even carefully modelled assurances render only unreliable protection against torture. For this, and reasons connected to undesirable side-effects of their use, I argue that the practice should be rejected.

The Thai economy has been enjoying impressive growth following the financial crisis in 1997. Despite this recovery, Thailand's competitiveness in recent years has stagnated. Other additional issues have also caused concerns over the future of Thai competitiveness and raised important questions. Whether Thailand can continue relying on its lower-cost labour and other fundamental advantages as keys to sustained economic growth and competitiveness remains vague. Hence, a study examining and assessing Thai competitiveness is timely in order to provide insights in this area and to draw out effective policies for sustained competitiveness development. Thai research into this area remains undeveloped with a distinct lack of in-depth analyses. Porter's (2003) research appears to be the only serious study that provides theoretical findings and policy recommendations to enhance Thai competitiveness. However, the weaknesses of the Porter model (1990) have caused scepticism about the reliability and accuracy of the findings. Therefore, this dissertation applies a more rigorous and advanced framework, the generalised double-diamond model (Moon, Rugman & Verbeke, 1998) to assess and analyse Thailand's international competitiveness. The study aims to provide theoretical findings as well as additional insights into Thai competitiveness further to Porter and to draw out reliable policy recommendations. As the generalised double-diamond framework integrates international variables with Porter's domestic diamond model, the research findings provide a more comprehensive picture of Thai competitiveness performance. While producing evidence to support Porter's (2003) findings, the study also offers additional insights to better understand Thai competitiveness. This is especially obvious in the area of the international determinants of competitiveness that Porter failed to investigate, such as international demand conditions and international related and supporting industries. Finally, the study suggests more specific policies that directly improve the main problems of Thai competitiveness further to those suggested by Porter (2003). These additional policies should receive more attention from the government, firms and policymakers to reinforce Thai competitiveness and enable Thailand to compete more effectively with other nations around the globe.

Multinational enterprises (MNEs) are often held responsible for the 'relocation of production' and 'exporting jobs' to, often low-wage, countries at the expense of domestic jobs. Additionally, host country governments – in particular in developing countries - often perceive international production by MNEs as the panacea for generating employment and economic growth. What is the spatial organization of production and employment of MNEs? What are the employment effects of changes in the geography of international strategy? Have MNEs increasingly integrated production across borders with a regional division of labor and, what are the employment effects?This thesis demonstrates that the geography of a MNE's internationalization strategy as well as the stage of its internationalization process influences employment in both home and host countries. Competition among workers within macro regions in industrialized countries (e.g. the EU) and among low wage countries or regions is often greater than between high and low wage countries. The employment effects of internationalizing firms are often intertwined with processes of regional integration as well as with the herding and strategic behavior of MNEs. ; Multinationale ondernemingen (MNOs) worden vaak verantwoordelijk gehouden voor de relocatie van productie en export van banen. Daarnaast worden de activiteiten van MNOs – met name in ontwikkelingslanden - gezien als de bron van werkgelegenheid en de motor achter economische groei. Wat is de geografie van internationale productie en werkgelegenheid van MNOs? Wat zijn de werkgelegenheidseffecten van de verandering in de locatie van internationale productie en internationale strategie van MNOs? Hebben MNOs in toenemende mate hun transnationale productie geïntegreerd, is er een regionale arbeidsverdeling en wat zijn hiervan de werkgelegenheidseffecten? Deze studie laat zien dat de geografie van internationalisering alsmede de fase van internationalsering waarin de MNO zich bevindt belangrijke verklarende factoren zijn achter werkgelegenheideffecten in het thuis als het gastland. Concurrentie tussen werknemers binnen macro regio's in zowel ontwikkelde als ontwikkelingslanden is vaak groter dan tussen lage-lonen en hoge-lonen landen. De werkgelegenheidseffecten van internationalsering zijn nauw verbonden met regionale integratie als met het strategische gedrag van MNOs.