Suchergebnisse

Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências Agronómicas e Florestais ; Um sistema de bovinicultura leiteira intensiva com base em duas culturas forrageiras anuais foi desenvolvido no Noroeste de Portugal. Este sistema gera anualmente grandes volumes de chorume e, embora este efluente possa ser utilizado para o fornecimento de nutrientes às culturas forrageiras praticadas, a disponibilidade de solo é limitada para a sua reciclagem. Para garantir a sustentabilidade da produção agrícola nesta região, o excesso de chorume bovino precisa de ser tratado e/ou transportado para explorações com necessidades acrescidas de nutrientes. O objetivo geral desta tese foi avaliar os impactos ambientais e agronómicos no sistema de duas culturas forrageiras anuais de milho / aveia, decorrentes do tratamento de chorume por separação mecânica de sólidos e pela aplicação de aditivos, a fim de definir as práticas que mais contribuam para a redução das perdas de nutrientes e, simultaneamente, garantam o aumento da eficiência e do rendimento das culturas e o seu valor nutritivo. Esta tese está organizada em 5 capítulos. O Capítulo 1 apresenta o state-of-the-art relativamente ao ciclo do azoto em sistemas leiteiros, emissões gasosas provenientes da agricultura, mecanismos e fatores que controlam a volatilização de amoníaco (NH3) e as emissões de metano (CH4) e óxido nitroso (N2O) durante o armazenamento de chorume e após a sua aplicação ao solo. Neste capítulo, dá-se ainda ênfase às estratégias de mitigação para minimizar as emissões desses gases. No Capítulo 2 descreve-se um ensaio onde foi avaliado o impacto do tratamento do chorume por aditivos biológicos (EU 200®, Bio-buster® (BB) e JASS®) e de um aditivo acidificante (H2SO4) aplicado a dois tipos de efluentes (chorume bruto (WS) e a sua fração líquida (LF)), sobre as características físico-químicas, as fibras (celulose, hemicelulose e lenhina) e as emissões gasosas (NH3, CH4, dioxido de carbono (CO2) e N2O) durante o armazenamento anaeróbio e após aplicação ao solo do efluente animal. A acidificação do chorume bruto inibiu a degradação de materiais orgânicos (celulose, hemicelulose, matéria seca, matéria orgânica e do carbono) mas aumentou a concentração de N e reduziu as perdas de NH3 durante o armazenamento (69%) e depois de aplicação ao solo (93%) relativamente ao chorume não tratados aditivos biológicos não mostraram qualquer efeito significativo nos parâmetros analisados. Após aplicação ao solo, as emissões de NH3 a partir do chorume bruto (18,1 kg N ha−1) foram superiores às observadas a partir da fração líquida (9,3 kg N ha−1) e da fração sólida compostada (0,3 kg N ha−1). No Capítulo 3, um sistema especializado para o estudo da desnitrificação em condições controladas (DENIS), que aplica uma técnica de lavagem da atmosfera do solo, foi usado a uma temperatura constante de 20 ° C, durante 32 dias, para estudar ou comparar o efeito nos processos de nitrificação e desnitrificação do tratamento da fração líquida (LF) do chorume por acidificação (LFA) a pH 5,5, com LF sem tratar e LF tratado com inibidores de nitrificação (3,4- Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP)) (LF+DMPP) bem como as emissões gasosas (de óxido nítrico (NO), N2O e CO2) e dinâmica do azoto mineral do solo. A origem das emissões de N2O foi estimada como sendo principalmente o processo de desnitrificação. O tratamento ALF reduziu as emissões de N2O em 52% relativamente ao tratamento LF (não tratado) enquanto a adição de DMPP reduziu as emissões em cerca de 30%. Relativamente às emissões de NO, o tratamento ALF atingiu uma redução de 36%, enquanto que a adição de DMPP permitiu uma redução de 79%. No Capítulo 4 é descrito um ensaio de campo de 2 anos realizado em Vila Real (Portugal), entre Julho de 2013 e Maio de 2015. Nesse ensaio, o efeito do tratamento de chorume por separação mecânica e do tratamento da fração líquida (LF) com aditivos (H2SO4 a um pH 5,5 (LFA) e H2SO4 + DMPP (LFAD)) foi comparado com os tratamentos convencionais (chorume bruto e fertilizante mineral (nitrato de amónio)) aplicados ao milho (cultura de verão) e aveia (cultura de inverno), relativamente aos seguintes parâmetros: produção de matéria seca e qualidade de forragem, exportação de nutrientes, indicadores de eficiência de utilização do N (Valor de Substituição de Adubos Azotados, calculado com base na produção de matéria seca (NFRVDM) e recuperação aparente do azoto (ANR)), bem como o valor residual de N mineral do solo depois de cada cultura. A maior quantidade de matéria seca (média de 2 anos) foi obtida quando a LFA e a LFAD foram aplicadas. A LFAD aumentou a concentração de N nas folhas do milho 31,4% relativamente à LF e ao fertilizante mineral. No caso da aveia, a aplicação de fertilizante mineral conduziu a uma quantidade mais elevada de matéria seca (4,2 t ha-1), embora não significativamente diferente dos tratamentos WS e LF. O N exportado no tratamento LF aumentou para valores semelhantes ao fertilizante mineral após o tratamento com acidificação ou acidificação mais DMPP. Após a colheita do milho, o potencial de lixiviação de nitratos nos tratamentos com chorume foi inferior ao tratamento com N mineral. Conclui-se (Capítulo 5) que a utilização dos aditivos biológicos com o objetivo de diminuir as emissões gasosas e modificar as características dos chorumes não apresentou vantagens evidentes. Contudo, a acidificação do chorume é uma tecnologia eficaz na redução das perdas de NH3, N2O e NO após a aplicação e para aumentar o valor agronómico do efluente durante o armazenamento. Também, a separação mecânica permite a redução das perdas de NH3 no campo após a aplicação das frações líquidas, redução que é justificada pela maior infiltração do efluente no solo, devido ao decréscimo do teor de matéria seca decorrente da separação mecânica. O ALF pode ser usado como alternativa ao LF+DMPP para mitigar emissões de N2O, mas no caso das emissões de NO, o ALF não foi tão benéfico como o LF+DMPP. O chorume tratado por separação mecânica e pelos aditivos não biológicos (H2SO4 ou H2SO4 + DMPP) pode ser uma técnica viável de tratamento de chorume com beneficios ambientais (potencial de lixiviação inferior) e valor fertilizante equivalente à aplicação de adubo mineral no sistema de produção milho/aveia nas condições climáticas Mediterrânicas. ; An intensive dairy system based on a double crop foraging system has been developed in the North-West of Portugal. This system results in huge volumes of slurry produced annually and although this slurry could be utilized to meet crop nutrient demand, there is limited land for recycling of slurry nutrients. To ensure sustainability of agricultural production in this region, excess slurry needs to be treated or transported to farms in deficit of nutrients. The overall aim of this thesis was to evaluate the environmental and agronomic impacts of the treatment of slurry by mechanical separation and slurry additives under maize/oat double crop foraging system in order to make recommendations for practices that reduces nutrient losses as well as increase crop yield and quality. This thesis is organised into 5 chapters. Chapter 1 provides a-state-of-the-art in relation to nitrogen cycle in dairy systems, gaseous emissions from agriculture, mechanisms and factors controlling ammonia (NH3) volatilization, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) during slurry storage and after application. In this chapter, emphasis is also given to mitigation strategies to minimize emissions of these gases. In chapter 2, the impact of the treatment of slurry using biological additives (EU 200®, Bio-buster® (BB) and JASS®) and an acidifying (H2SO4) additive applied to two effluent types (cattle whole slurry (WS) and its liquid fraction (LF)) on the physical-chemical characteristics, fibre components (cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin) and gaseous emissions (NH3, CH4, carbon dioxide (CO2) and N2O) during anaerobic storage and after soil application was evaluated. Slurry acidification inhibited the degradation of organic materials (cellulose, hemicellulose, dry matter, organic matter and total carbon) but increased the N concentrations and reduced NH3 losses during storage (69%) and after soil application (93%) relative to the untreated slurry. Biological additives had no impact on all measured parameters. After soil application, NH3 losses in the WS (18.1 kg N ha−1) was higher than the LF (9.3 kg N ha−1) and composted solid fraction (CSF) (0.3 kg N ha−1). In chapter 3, a specialized denitrification system (DENIS/gas-flow-core technique) was used to study or compare the impact of the treatment of slurry LF by acidification (LFA) to pH 5.5 with the untreated LF and LF treated with a nitrification inhibitor (3,4-Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP)) (LF+DMPP) on nitrification and denitrification processes as well as gaseous emissions (nitric oxide (NO), N2O and CO2) and nitrogen speciation evolution in the amended soils for 32 days at constant temperature of 20 °C. Emission of N2O was mainly produced from denitrification. The ALF reduced N2O by 52% relative to the untreated LF whereas the DMPP tended to reduce N2O emissions by 30%. The ALF reduced NO emissions by 36% whereas the DMPP led to a greater decrease of 79%. A 2-year field experiment (chapter 4) was conducted in Vila Real, Portugal between July 2013 and May 2015. The impacts of the treatment of slurry by mechanical separation and treatment of the LF with additives (H2SO4 to a pH 5.5 (LFA) and H2SO4+DMPP (LFAD)) were compared with that of the conventional treatments (whole slurry and mineral fertilizer (ammonium nitrate)) applied to maize (summer crop) and oat (autumn/winter crop) relative to the following parameters: forage dry matter yield (DMY) and quality, nutrient removal, N use efficiency indicators (Nitrogen fertilizer replacement value based on dry matter yield (NFRVDM) and apparent nitrogen recovery (ANR)) as well as the residual soil mineral N content after each cropping season. The highest maize DMY (2-year average) of 16.7 t ha−1 was achieved when the LFA and LFAD were applied. The LFAD increased N concentration of maize leaves by 31.4% relative to the LF and Mineral fertilizer. In relation to the oat crop, the mineral fertilizer led to the highest DMY of 4.2 t ha−1 although not significantly different from the WS and LF treatments. The N removal in the LF increased to values comparable to the Mineral fertilizer after treatment with acidification (LFA) or both acidification plus DMPP (LFAD). The nitrate leaching potential in slurry treatments were lower than the mineral fertilizer after maize harvesting. Overall, it was concluded (chapter 5) that the use of the above biological additives to decrease pollutant gases and to modify slurry characteristics are questionable. Slurry acidification is a potent tool to reduce NH3, N2O and NO losses from slurry after application and to increase the agronomic value (mainly N and S concentrations) of slurry during storage. Reducing slurry dry matter through mechanical separation can mitigate NH3 losses from field applied slurry. The NH3 reductions in the LF is mainly related to the higher infiltration of ammonium in the top soil (0-5cm layer) relative to the whole slurry. The ALF can be used as an alternative to LF+DMPP to mitigate N2O emissions but in the case of NO emissions, the ALF was not as beneficial as the LF+DMPP. Slurry treated by mechanical separation plus additives (H2SO4 or H2SO4 + DMPP) can be recommended as a viable technique with environmental benefits (low nitrate leaching potential) and an equivalent fertilizer value as the mineral fertilizer in a maize-oat cropping system under Mediterranean climatic conditions. ; People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013

The purpose of this research was to assess the effect of different potassium doses and fertilizer sources on growth rate and time of bulb formation of garlic (Allium sativum L.). The research was conducted in April to Agustus 2019 in Sidomukti Village, Bandungan District, Semarang Regency and at Ecology and Crop Production Laboratory, Faculty of Animal and Agricultural Sciences, Diponegoro University, Semarang. The research used a factorial randomized block design with three groups. The first factor was the dose of potassium fertilizer which consisted of a dose of 60 kg K2O/ha, 120 kg K2O/ha, 180 kg K2O/ha, and 240 kg K2O/ha. The second factor was the source of potassium fertilizer which consisted of KCl, ZK, and KNO3. Parameters that collect were time of bulb formation, growth rate, relative growth rate, and potassium absorption of bulb. The data obtained were analyzed by analysis of variance and obtained further by the Duncan test (Duncan's Multiple Range Test) at a significance level of 5%. The results showed that the application of ZK and KNO3 fertilizers at 240 kg K2O/ha had been able to increase the growth rate and the relative growth rate. The higher dose of fertilizer was increasing of potassium absorption of the bulb and made time of bulb formation getting slower. References Ahmed, M. E., El-Kader, N. I. A. & Derbala, A.A.E. (2009). Effect of Irrigation Frequency and Potassium Source on the Productivity, Quality, and Storability of Garlic. Australian Journal Of Basic and Applied Sciences, 3(4), 4490–4497. Alfian, D. F., Nelvia & Yetti, H. (2015). The Effect of Potassium Fertilizer and Compost Mixture of Oil Palm Empty Bunches with Boiler Ash on Growth and Yield of Onion (Allium ascalonicum L.). Jurnal Agroekoteknologi, 5(2), 1-6. Amiroh, A. (2017). Pengaplikasian dosis pupuk bokashi dan KNO3 terhadap pertumbuhan dan hasil tanaman melon (Cucumis melo L.). Jurnal Saintis, 9(1), 25 - 36. Arisha, H. M. E.,. Ibraheim, S. K. A & El-Sarkassy, N. M. (2017). Response of garlic (Allium sativum L.) yield, volatile oil, and nitrate content to foliar and soil application of potassium fertilizer under sandy soil conditions. Middle East Journal of Applied Sciences, 7(1), 44-56. Aslamiah, I. D., dan Sularno. (2017). Response of growth and production of peanut plants of the addition of organic fertilizer concentration and reduction of an organic fertilizer dosage. Prodising Seminas Nasional Fakultas Pertanian UMJ. BPS. (2018). Statistik Indonesia. Badan Pusat Statistik Republik Indonesia, Jakarta. Gunadi, N. (2009). Kalium sulfat dan kalium klorida sebagai sumber pupuk kalium pada tanaman bawang merah. Jurnal Hortikultura, 19(2),174-185. Hickey, M. (2012). Growing Garlic in NSW Second Edition. Primefact 259. Department of Primary Industries. NSW Government. Australia. Hilal, M.H., Selim, A.M. & El-Neklawy, A.S. (1992). Enhancing and retarding effect of combined sulfur and fertilizer applications on crop production in different soils. In Proceedings Middle East Sulphur Symposium 12-16 February, Cairo, Egypt. Marschner, P.( 2012). Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants Third Edition. Elsevier Ltd. Oxford. Nainwal, R. C., Sigh, D., Katiyar, R. S., Sharma, I & Tewari, S. K. (2015). The response of garlic to integrated nutrient management practices in a sodic soil of Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 24(1), 33-36. Putra, A. A. G. (2013). Kajian aplikasi dosis pupuk ZA dan kalium pada tanaman bawang putih (Allium sativum L.). Jurnal Ganec Swara, 7(2), 10–18. Setiawati, W., Murtiningsih, R., Sopha, G. A & Handayani, T. (2007). Petunjuk Teknis Budidaya Tanaman Sayuran. Balai Penelitian Tanaman Sayuran. Shafeek, M. R., Nagwa, M. H., Singer, S. M., & El-Greadly, N. H. (2013). Effect of potassium fertilizer and foliar spraying with Ethereal on plant development, yield, and bulb quality of onion plants (Allium cepa L). Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 9(2), 1140-1146. Sholihin, Y., Suminar, E., Rizky, W.H. & Pitaloka, G.G. (2016). Meristem explants growth of garlic (Allium sativum L.) Cv. tawangmangu on various compositions of kinetin and ga3 in vitro. Jurnal Kultivasi, 15(3), 172–179. Sulichantini, E. D. (2016). Effect of plant growth regulator Concentration Against Regeneration Garlic (Allium sativum L) In the Tissue Culture. Jurnal Agrifor, 15(1), 29–38. Suminarti, N.E. (2010). The Effects of N and K Fertilization on the Growth and Yield of Taro on Dry Land. Akta Agrosia, 13(1), 1–7. Uke, K. H. Y., Barus, H & Madauna, I. W. (2015). Effect of Tuber Sizes and Potassium Dosages on Growth and Production of Shallots var. Lembah Palu. Jurnal Agrotekbis, 3(6), 655 - 661. Utomo, P.S & Suprianto, A. (2019). Respon pertumbuhan dan produksi tanaman bawang merah (Allium ascalonicum L.) varietas thailand terhadap perlakuan dosis pupuk kusuma bioplus dan KNO3 putih. Jurnal Ilmiah Hijau Cendekia, 4(1), 28–34. Wu, C., Wang, M., Cheng, Z & Meng, H. (2016). The response of garlic (Allium sativum L.) bolting and bulbing to temperature and photoperiod treatments. Biol Open, 5(4), 507-518.

The concentration of fine particulate pollution in Delhi, India is 10.7 times higher than WHO annual air quality guidelines. Every autumn there is a dramatic increase in air pollution in India, especially in Delhi, where decreasing winds and falling temperatures act as a trap for pollutants. It's also the time of year when farmers perform their annual burn, removing excess paddy straw in order to clear land for the next crop. The resulting smoke spreads across the country, and combines with other hazardous pollutants, largely generated in cities. In early November of this year, that combination created a mass of smoke pollution thick enough that it could be seen in NASA satellite imagery, and led to some primary schools closing until pollution levels were safer. The health risks in such pollution are very real. Fine particulate particles—what scientists refer to as PM 2.5—are made up of specks of sulfate, nitrate, and black carbon that have been shown in some cases to clog lungs, impair cognitive and immune functions, and cause various diseases. These particles are one-thirteenth of the width of a human hair, and can make their way into the lungs and bloodstream. Some researchers say breathing Delhi's air is like smoking 25-30 cigarettes a day. A study from the Air Quality Life Index by the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago posits that with current pollution levels, nearly 40% of India's population will die 7.6 years earlier. If pollution levels were reduced to meet WHO minimum recommendations, 240 million Indians would have 10 years added to their lives. India's pollution problem is not new, but it is getting worse. The Swiss air quality company IQAir now ranks Delhi, India as the world's second most polluted city. This year, the monsoon rains arrived later in the season, causing Indian farmers' burning season to continue over the Hindu festival of Diwali—a holiday celebrated with fireworks throughout India, which contributes to the increasing amount of pollution and smoke in the air. Firecrackers were prohibited during Diwali, and were banned from use during the Cricket World Cup that was played in New Delhi's Arun Jaitley Stadium. Despite this, many did not listen, increasing pollution levels in India. Government officials are taking steps to try to combat the pollution problem. For instance, New Delhi's Environmental Minister, Gopal Rai, announced a weeklong odd-even rule where vehicles categorized by their license plate numbers stayed off the streets on alternating days. India's national government has limited construction, enlisted water-spraying trucks, and other efforts to reduce pollution levels. Minister Rai is also hoping for approval from India's Supreme Court to use a technique called cloud seeding to help clear the air. Cloud seeding speeds up the condensation of moisture in clouds to create rain. It's done using airplanes or generators that inject clouds with salts like silver or potassium iodide. The salts act as a catalyst to combine water droplets in clouds that bring rain. However, the conditions have to be perfect for rain to be produced, and more research is needed to understand its effectiveness and potential longterm implications. With 2023 very likely to be deemed the hottest year on record, solutions for the dangerous smog that hovers over portions of India are in greater demand than ever. Friends of India worry that air pollution challenges could threaten the country's ambitious plans for attracting new investment and creating economic opportunities. They argue that helping India shape effective approaches to meeting its pollution challenge is in everyone's best interest. Not only would it accelerate commerce and economic alliances, but it may help other cities, for the problem faced by Delhi now may be just a taste of what others will confront in the years ahead.

The concentration of fine particulate pollution in Delhi, India is 10.7 times higher than WHO annual air quality guidelines. Every autumn there is a dramatic increase in air pollution in India, especially in Delhi, where decreasing winds and falling temperatures act as a trap for pollutants. It's also the time of year when farmers perform their annual burn, removing excess paddy straw in order to clear land for the next crop. The resulting smoke spreads across the country, and combines with other hazardous pollutants, largely generated in cities. In early November of this year, that combination created a mass of smoke pollution thick enough that it could be seen in NASA satellite imagery, and led to some primary schools closing until pollution levels were safer. The health risks in such pollution are very real. Fine particulate particles—what scientists refer to as PM 2.5—are made up of specks of sulfate, nitrate, and black carbon that have been shown in some cases to clog lungs, impair cognitive and immune functions, and cause various diseases. These particles are one-thirteenth of the width of a human hair, and can make their way into the lungs and bloodstream. Some researchers say breathing Delhi's air is like smoking 25-30 cigarettes a day. A study from the Air Quality Life Index by the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago posits that with current pollution levels, nearly 40% of India's population will die 7.6 years earlier. If pollution levels were reduced to meet WHO minimum recommendations, 240 million Indians would have 10 years added to their lives. India's pollution problem is not new, but it is getting worse. The Swiss air quality company IQAir now ranks Delhi, India as the world's second most polluted city. This year, the monsoon rains arrived later in the season, causing Indian farmers' burning season to continue over the Hindu festival of Diwali—a holiday celebrated with fireworks throughout India, which contributes to the increasing amount of pollution and smoke in the air. Firecrackers were prohibited during Diwali, and were banned from use during the Cricket World Cup that was played in New Delhi's Arun Jaitley Stadium. Despite this, many did not listen, increasing pollution levels in India. Government officials are taking steps to try to combat the pollution problem. For instance, New Delhi's Environmental Minister, Gopal Rai, announced a weeklong odd-even rule where vehicles categorized by their license plate numbers stayed off the streets on alternating days. India's national government has limited construction, enlisted water-spraying trucks, and other efforts to reduce pollution levels. Minister Rai is also hoping for approval from India's Supreme Court to use a technique called cloud seeding to help clear the air. Cloud seeding speeds up the condensation of moisture in clouds to create rain. It's done using airplanes or generators that inject clouds with salts like silver or potassium iodide. The salts act as a catalyst to combine water droplets in clouds that bring rain. However, the conditions have to be perfect for rain to be produced, and more research is needed to understand its effectiveness and potential longterm implications. With 2023 very likely to be deemed the hottest year on record, solutions for the dangerous smog that hovers over portions of India are in greater demand than ever. Friends of India worry that air pollution challenges could threaten the country's ambitious plans for attracting new investment and creating economic opportunities. They argue that helping India shape effective approaches to meeting its pollution challenge is in everyone's best interest. Not only would it accelerate commerce and economic alliances, but it may help other cities, for the problem faced by Delhi now may be just a taste of what others will confront in the years ahead.

Nutrient (phosphorus and nitrogen) discharges from wastewater lead to water quality degradation (74 % of the total French territory in 2006). According to the actual situation, the French government has adopted a Water Framework on December 30, 2006 to achieve a"good ecological status of water" in 2015. Therefore,more stringent standards on nutrients removal for raw wastewater treatment plants are expected (down to 15mg TN.L-1 and 2 mg TP.L-1). However, standards actually remain under the responsibility of departmental authorities according to the water quality of the receiving environment. Since 1990s, Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands(VFCWs) have been more and more popular in treating raw domestic wastewater for small collectivities of less than 2000 person equivalent (> 2500 units in 2012). However, nitrogen and phosphorus removal are limited in VFCWs (70-80 mg TN.L-1; > 10 mg TP.L-1) according to the new legislation. The aim of this work was on the one hand to implement a recirculation of treated effluent on a VFCW for better nitrogen removal and on the other to use reactive materials to improve phosphorus removal. The experimental scientific approach consisted in monitoring both laboratory and field pilot scale systems under process conditions during 2 years. Treatment and hydraulic performances were monitored over time. Two VFCWs (2,5 m²) filled with expanded schist (Mayennite®) were fed with raw domestic wastewater. The effect of a saturated layer and of the recirculation of treated effluent were studied. Results showed that 38 % of a saturated layer and 100 % of recirculation enabled to improve nitrogen treatment performances ( 15°C) and/or hydraulic retention time (more than 2 days) improved the kinetics of phosphorus removal at pilot scale, (iii) the active filter implementing is limited by the discharge standard required (> 3 mg PTOT.L-1) and the distance to the steel factory (transport costs). ; Le rejet des nutriments (phosphates et nitrates) issues des eaux usées domestiques entraînent la dégradation des écosystèmes (74 % du territoire français concerné en 2006). Compte tenu de la situation, l'Etat français a promulgué la Loi sur l'Eau et les Milieux Aquatiques le 30décembre 2006 qui vise à atteindre le « bon état écologique des eaux et des milieux aquatiques » d'ici 2015. Cette notion bien que difficilement intégrable a généré des normes plus strictes pour les stations d'épuration en termes de rejet de nutriments vers le milieu récepteur (jusque 15 mg NTOT.L-1 et 2 mg PTOT.L-1). Depuis la fin des années 1990, la technologie des filtres plantés de roseaux (FPR) est de plus en plus employée(> 2500 unités en 2012) pour le traitement des eaux usées domestiques des petites collectivités inférieures à 2000 Equivalent-Habitants. Cependant, des limites de traitement existent sur les concentrations résiduelles en azote (rejet de 70-80 mg NTOT.L-1) et en phosphore (rejet> 10 mg PTOT.L-1), en vue de répondre à la réglementation future. Ce travail a eu pour objectif de mettre en oeuvre des améliorations telles que la recirculation sur un étage de traitement pour le traitement de l'azote d'une part et l'emploi de matériaux réactifs pour piéger le phosphore d'autre part. La démarche scientifique expérimentale déployée a consisté à suivre des pilotes sur site réel et en laboratoire pendant 2 années. Le suivi des performances épuratoires et hydrauliques a été réalisé au cours du temps. Pour l'azote, 2 FPR (2,5 m²) garnis de schiste expansé (Mayennite®) ont été alimentés en effluent brut. L'effet de la hauteur de saturation en eau dans la partie drainante ainsi que l'effet de la recirculation ont été étudiés. Les résultats obtenus ont montré : une couche saturée à 38 % (rapporté à la hauteur totale) et un ratio de recirculation de 100 % permettent une meilleure élimination de la matière particulaire-carbonée (Arrêté du22 juin 2007) et de l'azote ( 15 °C) et/ou du temps de séjour (48h et plus) améliore la cinétique d'élimination du phosphore à échelle pilote et (iii) l'implantation d'un filtre réactif garni de laitier de four à arc électrique est limité par le degré de traitement souhaité et la distance du futur chantier (coût du transport).

Nutrient (phosphorus and nitrogen) discharges from wastewater lead to water quality degradation (74 % of the total French territory in 2006). According to the actual situation, the French government has adopted a Water Framework on December 30, 2006 to achieve a"good ecological status of water" in 2015. Therefore,more stringent standards on nutrients removal for raw wastewater treatment plants are expected (down to 15mg TN.L-1 and 2 mg TP.L-1). However, standards actually remain under the responsibility of departmental authorities according to the water quality of the receiving environment. Since 1990s, Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands(VFCWs) have been more and more popular in treating raw domestic wastewater for small collectivities of less than 2000 person equivalent (> 2500 units in 2012). However, nitrogen and phosphorus removal are limited in VFCWs (70-80 mg TN.L-1; > 10 mg TP.L-1) according to the new legislation. The aim of this work was on the one hand to implement a recirculation of treated effluent on a VFCW for better nitrogen removal and on the other to use reactive materials to improve phosphorus removal. The experimental scientific approach consisted in monitoring both laboratory and field pilot scale systems under process conditions during 2 years. Treatment and hydraulic performances were monitored over time. Two VFCWs (2,5 m²) filled with expanded schist (Mayennite®) were fed with raw domestic wastewater. The effect of a saturated layer and of the recirculation of treated effluent were studied. Results showed that 38 % of a saturated layer and 100 % of recirculation enabled to improve nitrogen treatment performances ( 15°C) and/or hydraulic retention time (more than 2 days) improved the kinetics of phosphorus removal at pilot scale, (iii) the active filter implementing is limited by the discharge standard required (> 3 mg PTOT.L-1) and the distance to the steel factory (transport costs). ; Le rejet des nutriments (phosphates et nitrates) issues des eaux usées domestiques entraînent la dégradation des écosystèmes (74 % du territoire français concerné en 2006). Compte tenu de la situation, l'Etat français a promulgué la Loi sur l'Eau et les Milieux Aquatiques le 30décembre 2006 qui vise à atteindre le « bon état écologique des eaux et des milieux aquatiques » d'ici 2015. Cette notion bien que difficilement intégrable a généré des normes plus strictes pour les stations d'épuration en termes de rejet de nutriments vers le milieu récepteur (jusque 15 mg NTOT.L-1 et 2 mg PTOT.L-1). Depuis la fin des années 1990, la technologie des filtres plantés de roseaux (FPR) est de plus en plus employée(> 2500 unités en 2012) pour le traitement des eaux usées domestiques des petites collectivités inférieures à 2000 Equivalent-Habitants. Cependant, des limites de traitement existent sur les concentrations résiduelles en azote (rejet de 70-80 mg NTOT.L-1) et en phosphore (rejet> 10 mg PTOT.L-1), en vue de répondre à la réglementation future. Ce travail a eu pour objectif de mettre en oeuvre des améliorations telles que la recirculation sur un étage de traitement pour le traitement de l'azote d'une part et l'emploi de matériaux réactifs pour piéger le phosphore d'autre part. La démarche scientifique expérimentale déployée a consisté à suivre des pilotes sur site réel et en laboratoire pendant 2 années. Le suivi des performances épuratoires et hydrauliques a été réalisé au cours du temps. Pour l'azote, 2 FPR (2,5 m²) garnis de schiste expansé (Mayennite®) ont été alimentés en effluent brut. L'effet de la hauteur de saturation en eau dans la partie drainante ainsi que l'effet de la recirculation ont été étudiés. Les résultats obtenus ont montré : une couche saturée à 38 % (rapporté à la hauteur totale) et un ratio de recirculation de 100 % permettent une meilleure élimination de la matière particulaire-carbonée (Arrêté du22 juin 2007) et de l'azote ( 15 °C) et/ou du temps de séjour (48h et plus) améliore la cinétique d'élimination du phosphore à échelle pilote et (iii) l'implantation d'un filtre réactif garni de laitier de four à arc électrique est limité par le degré de traitement souhaité et la distance du futur chantier (coût du transport).

This report describes the SLE study concerning quality infrastructure in three value chains and its potential to contributing to economic growth in southern Kyrgyzstan. In the context of GIZ's Sustainable Economic Development Programme in Kyrgyzstan, the German development agency tasked SLE to perform the study out its Jalal-Abad office, with the following subtasks: - Studied three value chains (apple, tomato and plum) partly; - Has interviewed companies producing and processing those commodities and - Has analyzed the national quality infrastructure (NQI) serving the three. Following a similar task in Ghana, SLE developed a qualitative research methodology with a five week stay in Kyrgyzstan. Through 60 interviews mainly with food processors, but also including farmers, quality infrastructure (QI) service providers and GIZ partners, the three staff SLE team prepared recommendations after verifying them in workshops. Three recommendation groups were developed: 1. Strengthen utilization of formal market demands as driver for improved Food Safety and QI 2. Widen scope of Kyrgyz QI services and increase clients' satisfaction in order to boost QI utilization 3. Flank intervention in quality management through facilitating investment climate Background and Task This summary condensates the SLE study on how quality infrastructure in three value chains can contribute to economic growth in southern Kyrgyzstan. In the context of GIZ's Sustainable Economic Development Programme in Kyrgyzstan, the German development agency operates an office in the rural South Fergana Valley. Based out of that office in Jalal-Abad, this research consultancy has: • Studied three value chains (apple, tomato and plum) partly; • Has interviewed companies producing and processing those commodities and • Has analyzed the national quality infrastructure (NQI) serving the three. These steps were taken in order to come up with recommendations how to support economic growth in rural Kyrgyzstan through specific interventions. The Kyrgyz national economy is still much depending on Russia, 27 years after Soviet Union's breakup. Yet, many young Kyrgyz people migrate to Russia instead of farming on their families' properties with the consequence of them not being available in the Kyrgyz national labor market. Stemming from Soviet's era, the Quality Infrastructure (QI) subsector serves companies and their customers alike through Metrology, Standardization, Testing, Certification and Accreditation. The -mostly governmental- NQI operates on the policy level out of the capital, the regional hubs such as Osh being relevant to Jalal Abad and on the county level (oblast). Besides supplying national Kyrgyz markets, exports play a particular role as they are relevant to apple and plum products. Since the accession of Kyrgyzstan to the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) with Russia, Belarus, Armenia and Kazakhstan, export regulations are expected for summer 2017. In light of this the client defined the main research questions as to how to improve food safety and how quality infrastructure services can contribute to creating job opportunities, especially for youth. Methodology Having completed a study of Ghana's national quality infrastructure in 2015, the Seminar Ländliche Entwicklung (SLE) has been commissioned by GIZ to perform this task, replicating partially the methods and partly in personal union. Given the explorative character of the Kyrgyzstan study, and in coordination with the client during the inception phase, a qualitative approach was adopted. Given the results of the research in Ghana showing the best chances of QI utilization on the medium size company level, the Kyrgyzstan study focused on food processors. The three expatriate SLE consultants designed a five week field phase, flanked by two national Kyrgyz experts. Supported by GIZ's logistics, the SLE team spent a week in each value chain. The interviews covered 20 food processing companies; three farmers and one retailer were interviewed. 18 interviews were conducted with service providers in the quality infrastructure sector. The total of sixty interviews included also six with development agencies, partly in GIZ partnership. During the final stages, recommendation workshops were hold in Jalal Abad and Bishkek with the purpose of verifying the results and recommendations. Findings and Observations Some out of many observations shall be reflected here: The interviews with producers revealed that EAEU markets, especially Russia are highly relevant to them and will become even more once compliance with customs regulations become obligatory, foreseen in 2017. Looking at the type of producer and processor, the research found a "dual-economy" existing with informal markets for fresh products and formal markets requiring certifiable quality management. Given the formal markets concluding contracts between producers, processors and their clients also concerning quality characteristics, it results in a higher chance of quality management and QI services playing a role. Pondering obligatory and voluntary use of QI, this research applied the assumption that formal markets impose quality regimes sparing the authorities from obligating farmers, processors and exporters as well as policing compliance. On paper, Kyrgyz NQI should function, but in reality this is barely in position to check compliance of products being exported to EAEU countries. While the EAEU is supposed to equip Kyrgyz QI providers even in regions, much is left to be done. Since soviet past, the line ministries for agriculture and health shared the task of maintaining QI services. However, given the nowadays' involvement of the state inspectorate, exporters have to check compliance for each authority the same characteristics. This duplication withholds willing QI customers and frustrates them, instead of facilitating their work. With 28'000 out of the total 150'000 tones annual apple production, apple products are subject to export regulations. In so far, EAEU's customs union is very relevant, which can even become restrictive, like it was observable with potatoes evading quality infrastructure. Apple juice, which is examined by health authorities additionally for sanitary reasons, requires quality infrastructure services, but does lack inspection. Given this situation, Kyrgyz apples or products more generally do not reach lucrative markets. Like apple, the pomicultures plum is growing in orchards typically planted back in Soviet times. The up to 20'000 tons of Plums produced annually, are dried in order to conserve them with the few micro-drying facilities. However, even more is sold to intermediaries who partly export them to more lucrative markets, through Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Hardly any QI service utilization was observed. Tomatoes are produced on some 10'000 ha of fields in Southern Kyrgyzstan. 60% of these tomatoes are processed to juices and paste, where hygiene and quality regimes apply. On the fields, fertilizer is applied leading to a necessity to analyze Nitrate concentrations, yet hardly any QI utilization has been observed. In all three value chains, it would be required using Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) because it is the most effective and economic way to combat food safety problems. Nevertheless, HACCP is not mandatory in the EAEU quality management and training has been too theoretical. While organic products do not play any role on Kyrgyz national markets, there is an opportunity for European markets. Already now, Kyrgyz Walnuts, plums and other are exported to Turkey, and partly re-dispatched onwards to the EU. A few European processors even invest directly, such as in Kyrgyz nuts. However, in order to do so, they utilize their own company based quality management. Nevertheless, given the growing EU organic market, an opportunity arises for Kyrgyz plums, dried apples, herbal spices and more. This is even more relevant, given the national quality infrastructure contributing. Looking at job opportunities, income generation and youth's migration, the youth's multitude of motives for leaving the country presented itself. Youth also leaves rural South in order to be in reach of urban opportunities from mobile phone access to training opportunities. The research concludes that in order to influence migration, the necessary condition is an integrated program offering job opportunities Results and recommendations Summarizing all three value chains, quality infrastructure is utilized rarely by farmers and micro-scale processors, also because National QI is concentrated in Bishkek. In order to solve this, QI services need to be offered on the producer level in relevant villages. Extending services on village level also involves consultancy as to how translating the QI results in a proper HACCP management. Already now, Quality infrastructure is not utilized sufficiently to access profitable markets. The reason is partly the high cost, the unawareness by producers and partly the poor presence in relevant fields and area. Given the poor scope of tests and compliance checks, farmers and processors risk having to check twice quality properties. Consequently, and in order to comply with EAEU regulations already during 2017, the rejection risk of Kyrgyz products grows. In light of this, it is recommended to stimulate QI utilization, widen the scope of QI services and facilitate general economic conditions as follows: 1. In order to use formal market demand as driver for improved Food Safety and QI – service utilization in selected value chains (VC) it is necessary to: a. improve the linkage of local VC actors with formal markets b. facilitate compliance of local VC actors with market requirements 2. QI utilization should grow through fulfillment of two recommendations. a. In order to increase QI service utilization, the necessary condition is to increase its scope. b. The sufficient condition is customers satisfied with easy access, speed and precision of service. 3. Besides these two main recommendations, general conditions should augment room for change.

The issue of sustainable agriculture has attracted considerable attention. Sustainable agriculture encompasses economic viability, social acceptance, conservation of the environment, and food quality. The present thesis aims to evaluate the sustainability of conventional (CON), integrated (INT), and organic (ORG) production systems (PS). The assessment of sustainability of different PS was made in terms of the four most significant aspects of sustainability—agronomic, economic, environmental, and food quality—at the field level (i). Agronomic parameters such as the number of leaves, leaf area index, fruit characteristics, and seed/oil yield and economic feasibility were evaluated for oil seed pumpkin (ii). The environmental sustainability was assessed through the ecological footprint and weed biodiversity index (iii). The study of food quality determined the internal quality (total phenol, sugar, organic acid, vitamin C, mineral, and nitrate content and antioxidant activity) and sensory evaluation (iv, v). The sustainability of the PS for the four crops was assessed using a qualitative multi-attribute model (DEXi methodology (vi). Because field trial was conducted in protected landscapes (PL), the options for the development of PLs with the ORG PS were evaluated. To obtain the data, a field trial was conducted on a 4000 m2 area in the years 2008 to 2011. Wheat, oil seed pumpkin, red beet, and cabbage grown by the three different PSs—CON, INT, and ORG—and a control plot were studied. They were arranged in a randomized complete block split-plot design with four replications. The production systems differed in plant protection and fertilization strategies, as defined by legislation and standards. Survey of literature point out that indicator are the basis of assessing sustainability, the assessment of sustainability should encompass at least three pillars of sustainability (i). Agronomic parameters (ii) and economic feasibility were evaluated for oil seed pumpkin in the field trial. The leaf area index differed significantly between CON (4.8 for CON and 4.1 for ORG) and other production systems at later growth stages (BBCH = 600-700), and it was highly correlated with the yield (808 kg ha-1 for CON and 723 kg ha-1 for ORG). The yield and all agronomic parameters were significantly lower in ORG ; however, the economic feasibility analysis showed that the financial results could be higher because of lower production costs (1.784 € ha-1 for CON and 1.434.5 € ha-1 for ORG) and higher product prices. The same economic feasibility analysis results were also obtained for cabbage and red beet (iii). The Biodiversity Ecological Footprint index (iii) were interpreted using the SPIonExcel tool and the Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index for the weeds species diversity. The ecological footprint of ORG was 3.3 times lower than that of CON (21 ha to 70 ha), and the Shannon-Weaver diversity index of ORG was significantly higher than that of CON (which was 20% higher, 0.66 for CON and 0.86 for ORG). The internal quality were studied for red beet and white cabbage. Sensory evaluation of sauerkraut samples was made. In the case of red beet, the differences were significant for vitamin C (23.3% higher for ORG than for CON), antioxidant activity (30.3% higher for ORG than for CON), and some microminerals (Na, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn) (iv). In the case of cabbage, a significantly lower amount of P and N and a significantly higher amount of Na, Mg, and total phenols (in ORG 0.360 GAE mg g-1 FW and in CON 0.310 GAE mg g-1 FW) was found for ORG than for CON cabbage. The concentration of nitrates is significantly lower in ORG (530 mg kg-1 for CON and 370.37 mg kg-1 for ORG). The sensory evaluation of sauerkraut samples was performed by 100 consumers using a nine-point hedonic scale. The ORG and control samples were evaluated significantly better than the INT and CON samples (overall acceptability was 5.94 for ORG and 5.34 for CON) (v). The core of the qualitative multi-model (DEXi methodology) is a hierarchical tree that divides ; Cilji trajnostnega kmetijstva so ekonomska upravičenost, socialna sprejemljivost, ohranjanje okolja in kakovost hrane. Namen disertacije je ocenjevanje trajnosti pridelovalnih sistemov, in sicer konvencionalnega (KON), integriranega (INT) in ekološkega (EKO) pridelovalnega sistema (PS). Ocenjevanje trajnosti PS je temeljilo na štirih najpomembnejših vidikih trajnosti – agronomski, ekonomski in okoljski vidik ter vidik kakovosti hrane – na ravni njive (i). Agronomski parametri kot so število listov, indeks listne površine, lastnosti plodov, pridelek semena in olja in ekonomska upravičenost so bili ovrednoteni za oljne buče (ii). Okoljska trajnost je bila ocenjena skozi okoljski odtis in indeks diverzitete plevelnih vrst (iii). Kakovost hrane je zajemala proučitev notranje kakovosti (skupni fenoli, sladkor, organske kisline, vitamin C, vsebnost mineralov in nitratov ter antioksidativno aktivnost) in senzorično ocenjevanje (iv, v). Trajnost PS za štiri posevke je bila ocenjena z uporabo kvalitativnega multi-atributivnega modela (DEXi metodologija) (vi). Zaradi lokacije poljskega poskusa na zavarovanem območju (ZO) je bila proučevana možnost razvoja ZO z EKO PS. Za zagotovitev podatkov je bil vzpostavljen poljski poskus v skupni velikosti 4000 m2 v letih 2008 do 2011. Pšenica, oljne buče, rdeča pesa in zelje so bili pridelovani v treh različnih PS – KON, INT, EKO – in kontrolne parcelice. Poskus je bil vzpostavljen kot naključni blok sistem v štirih ponovitvah. PS so se razlikovali v strategijah gnojenja in varstva rastlin, kot je definirano v zakonodaji in standardih. Osnovna obdelava tal, setev in datumi ter metode žetve oziroma spravila so bile enake za vse parcelice. Pregled literature je pokazal, da so indikatorji osnova za ocenjevanje trajnosti. Ocenjevanje bi naj zajelo vsaj tri vidike trajnosti ; ogrodja bi naj bila dovolj široka v času in prostoru, prenosljiva, upoštevajoča lokalne in globalne vplive ter primarno namenjena odločevalcem (i). Agronomski parametri (ii) ter ekonomska upravičenost pridelave so bili ovrednotene za oljne buče v poljskem poskusu. Indeks listne površine se je signifikantno razlikoval med KON (4,8 za KON in 4,1 za EKO) in drugimi PS pri poznejših fazah rasti (BBCH=600-700), in je bil visoko povezan s pridelkom (808 kg ha-1 za KON in 723 kg ha-1 za EKO). Pridelek in ostali agronomski parametri so bili signifikantno nižji v EKO, vendar pa je ekonomska upravičenost pokazala, da je finančni rezultat lahko višji v EKO zaradi nižjih proizvodnih stroškov (1.784 € ha-1 za KON in 1.434,5 € ha-1 za EKO) in višje odkupne cene. Enake rezultate je pokazala analiza ekonomske upravičenosti za rdečo peso in zelje (iii). Združen indeks biodiverzitete in okoljskega odtisa (iii) je bil interpretiran z uporabo orodja SPIonExcel in Shannon-Weaverjevega diverzitetnega indeksa za diverziteto plevelnih vrst. Okoljski odtis v EKO je bil 3,3 krat nižji kot v KON (21 ha proti 70 ha). Shannon-Weaver diverzitetni indeks je bil v ORG signifikantno višji kot v KON (20% višji, 0,66 za KON in 0,86 za EKO). Notranja kakovost so bile proučevane za zelje in rdečo peso. Senzorično ocenjevanje je bilo opravljeno za vzorce kislega zelja. V primeru rdeče pese (iv) so bile razlike signifikantne za vitamin C (23,3% višje vrednosti za EKO kot za KON), antioksidativno aktivnost (30,3% višje vrednosti za EKO kot za KON), in nekatere mikrominerale (Na, Cu, Fe, Mn in Zn). V primeru zelja je bila v EKO signifikantno nižja vsebnost fosforja in dušika in signifikantno višja vsebnost natrija, magnezija in skupnih fenolov (0,360 v EKO in 0,310 GAE mg g-1 FW v KON) kot v KON. Koncentracija nitratov je bila v EKO signifikantno nižja kot v KON (530 za KON in 370,37 mg kg-1 za EKO). Senzorično ocenjevanje vzorcev kislega zelja je opravilo 100 potrošnikov z uporabo 9- stopenjske hedonske lestvice. Vzorci ORG in kontrolnega obravnavanja so bile signifikantno bolje ocenjeni kot INT in KON vzorci (splošna sprejemljivost v EKO 5,94 in 5,34 v KON) (v). Ogrodje kvalitativ

[EN]The aim of this thesis was to obtain Saxony back that could be qualified as the generic term " Organic Farming " and evaluation of conservation under different storage conditions, to establish its life. To achieve this overall objective, the following specific objectives were set: . . 1 - Adapting the conventional development process lomo Saxony for obtaining qualified as organic , product 2 - Get back eco Saxony without the use of nitrites by use of a plant extract , 3 - . study life under different storage conditions Saxony loin prepared with reduced nitrite content and made with a vegetable of 4 abstract - . study the effect of using different antimicrobial coatings life in lomo Saxony prepared with reduced and that of nitrites made from a plant extract content. To do this, from 78 loins from organic white pigs , different batches of spine Saxony experimental were prepared and cooking losses , process efficiency and physico- chemical characteristics (pH, aw , AR , percentage composition were determined , ingredients and additives content ) and sensory (color L * , a *, b *, C * , H * , nitrosilhemocromo texture TPA , acceptance tests , triangle tests and preference tests with a panel of tasters ) product. Furthermore, in Study 2 , along the development process , the microbial flora, pH, additive content and the oxidation states of myoglobin was determined. In studies of life , throughout the storage period the evolution of the microbial flora, pH, aw , lipid oxidation , L * , a * and b * texture - TPA was studied and acceptance tests were conducted with trained tasters. Given the results we can say that the types of massaged used in the preparation of lomo Saxony ecological, massaged including mechanical work carried out at a speed of 8 rpm and a resting stage of 21 h , allowed Saxony lomo get more efficiency, higher moisture , lower hardness and greater cohesiveness . Comparing the results obtained in the experimental plots loin with Saxony Saxony obtained for the commercial spine , differences in any of the parameters analyzed were found , but in no case amounted to a detriment of the quality of the product. In relation to the use of plant extracts as an alternative to the addition of nitrite in the manufacture of Saxony back , the results obtained indicate that the use of this strategy could be obtained processing a meat product with similar characteristics and the commercial product , except in the residual nitrite content , prepared according to the legislation governing organic production. To overcome this drawback studied ( 1) using different concentrations of plant extract (1.32 , 0.90 , 0.48%) and ( 2) the use of different types ( white wine extract , rosemary extract, sage and oregano ) and concentrations (0.60 , 1.80 %) of natural antioxidants. The development of Saxony loin with different concentrations of plant extract did not involve differences in either the results of the technological parameters evaluated , or those obtained in the instrumental color evaluation . In contrast , differences in the nitrite content were detected and only the batch prepared with 0.48% are presented next to the provisions of law governing organic production values. However, sensory evaluation , assessors clearly indicated their preference for the batch prepared with 1.32% due to a more homogeneous and had rosy pink color. Therefore, the reduced level of plant extract used in the preparation of Saxony back was not considered an appropriate strategy to reduce levels of residual nitrite. The use of different types and concentrations of natural antioxidants did not involve differences in either the technological parameters , or the pH , or in color (assessed instrumentally ) loin Saxony elaborated with a plant extract . Regarding the residual nitrite , in no case allow values to classify the product were obtained as ecological . The use of higher concentration of white extract (1.80 % ) yielded wine although a lower content of nitrite , involved a higher content of residual nitrate . However, from the sensory point of view , the spine Saxony prepared with 0.60 % extract of white wine was preferred by tasters because they had a more intense and uniform pink. Regarding the effect of processing Saxony tenderloin with a vegetable extract over its lifetime, the results showed that the evolution of microbial counts , pH, aw , color and lipid oxidation during storage in darkness or light, were similar to the product produced with nitrite. However, the texture was observed evaluated instrumentally using a plant extract only allowed improved texture stability during storage as well as a natural antioxidant phosphates were used. This behavior also occurred in the sensory evaluation prior tasters , which established that the batch made with nitrites and made from a plant extract and phosphate were acceptable for 21 days and made from a plant extract and phosphate for 14 -21 days . However, considering the results of the microbiological evaluation, the life of all lots tested was established in 14 days when both were stored in darkness and in light. Finally, the inclusion of different types of antimicrobial coatings ( rosemary extract , rosemary extract + Pediococcus acidilactici ) did not involve improving the microbiological quality of Saxony back . This could be due to both the quantity used of these compounds was not able to sufficiently be interactions between the constituents of the coating and the active agents of the same which reduced their effectiveness . In the physico- chemical and sensory characteristics , a remarkable effect of the applied treatment was observed, so in this sense , these results are positive from the point of view of the feasibility of applying antimicrobial therapies but negative from the standpoint since the effectiveness not possible to increase the life of the back Saxony . Therefore, to increase the effectiveness of these antimicrobial without affecting the sensory acceptability Saxony spine , it would be desirable to improve the coatings used so that it can increase the concentrations of these compounds and their activity . ; [ES]El objetivo de esta Tesis Doctoral fue la obtención de lomo Sajonia que pudiera ser calificado con la denominación genérica de calidad "Agricultura ecológica" y la evaluación de su conservación bajo diferentes condiciones de almacenamiento, para establecer su vida útil. Para alcanzar este objetivo general, se plantearon los siguientes objetivos específicos: 1.- Adaptar el proceso convencional de elaboración del lomo Sajonia para la obtención de un producto calificado como ecológico, 2.- Obtener lomo Sajonia ecológico sin la utilización de nitritos, mediante el empleo de un extracto vegetal, 3.- Estudiar la vida útil bajo diferentes condiciones de almacenamiento del lomo Sajonia elaborado con un contenido reducido en nitritos y la del elaborado con un extracto vegetal, 4.- Estudiar el efecto de la utilización de diferentes recubrimientos antimicrobianos en la vida útil del lomo Sajonia elaborado con un contenido reducido en nitritos y en la del elaborado con un extracto vegetal. Para ello, a partir de 78 lomos procedentes de cerdos blancos ecológicos, se elaboraron diferentes lotes de lomo Sajonia experimental y se determinaron las pérdidas por cocción, el rendimiento del proceso y las características físico-químicas (pH, aw, AR, composición centesimal, contenido en ingredientes y aditivos) y sensoriales (color -L*, a*, b*, C*, H*, nitrosilhemocromo, textura TPA, pruebas de aceptación, pruebas triangulares y pruebas de preferencia con un panel de catadores) del producto. Además, en el Estudio 2, a lo largo del proceso de elaboración, se determinó la flora microbiana, el pH, el contenido en aditivos así como los estados de oxidación de la mioglobina. En los estudios de vida útil, a lo largo del periodo de almacenamiento se estudió la evolución de la flora microbiana, del pH, de la aw, de la oxidación lipídica, de L*, a* y b*, de la textura -TPA y se realizaron pruebas de aceptación con catadores entrenados. Teniendo en cuenta los resultados obtenidos se puede decir que de los tipos de masajeado utilizados en la elaboración de lomo Sajonia ecológico, el masajeado que incluía un trabajo mecánico llevado a cabo a una velocidad de 8 rpm y una etapa de reposo de 21 h, permitió obtener un lomo Sajonia con mayor rendimiento, mayor porcentaje de humedad, menor dureza y mayor cohesividad. Comparando los resultados obtenidos en los lotes experimentales de lomo Sajonia con los obtenidos para el lomo Sajonia comercial, se encontraron diferencias en alguno de los parámetros analizados, aunque en ningún caso supusieron un detrimento de la calidad del producto. En relación al uso de extractos vegetales como alternativa a la adición de nitritos en la elaboración de lomo Sajonia, los resultados obtenidos indicaron que con el uso de esta estrategia de elaboración se podía obtener un producto cárnico con características similares a las del producto comercial y, excepto en el contenido en nitritos residuales, a las del elaborado según la legislación que regula la producción ecológica. Para solventar este inconveniente se estudió (1) la utilización de diferentes concentraciones de extracto vegetal (1,32, 0,90, 0,48%) y (2) la utilización de diferentes tipos (extracto de vino blanco, extracto de romero salvia y orégano) y concentraciones (0,60, 1,80%) de antioxidantes naturales. La elaboración de lomo Sajonia con diferentes concentraciones de extracto vegetal no implicó diferencias ni en los resultados obtenidos en los parámetros tecnológicos evaluados, ni en los obtenidos en la evaluación instrumental del color. Por el contrario, sí se detectaron diferencias en el contenido en nitritos y sólo el lote elaborado con un 0,48% presentó valores próximos al establecido en la legislación que regula la producción ecológica. Sin embargo, en la evaluación sensorial, los catadores indicaron claramente su preferencia por el lote elaborado con un 1,32% debido a que presentaba un color rosado más homogéneo y atractivo. Por ello, la reducción del nivel de extracto vegetal a utilizar en la elaboración de lomo Sajonia no se consideró una estrategia adecuada para disminuir los niveles de nitrito residual. La utilización de diferentes tipos y concentraciones de antioxidantes naturales no implicó diferencias ni en los parámetros tecnológicos, ni en el pH, ni en el color (evaluado de forma instrumental) del lomo Sajonia elaborado con un extracto vegetal. En relación a los nitritos residuales, en ningún caso se obtuvieron valores que permitieran clasificar el producto como ecológico. La utilización de la concentración más alta de extracto de vino blanco (1,80%) aunque permitió obtener un menor contenido de nitritos, implicó un mayor contenido en nitrato residual. Sin embargo, desde el punto de vista sensorial, el lomo Sajonia elaborado con un 0,60% de extracto de vino blanco fue preferido por los catadores debido a que presentaba un color rosado más intenso y homogéneo. En relación al efecto de la elaboración de lomo Sajonia con un extracto vegetal sobre su vida útil, los resultados obtenidos pusieron de manifiesto que la evolución de los recuentos microbiológicos, del pH, de la aw, del color y de la oxidación lipídica durante el almacenamiento en oscuridad o en luz, eran similares a la del producto elaborado con nitritos. Sin embargo, en la textura evaluada instrumentalmente se observó que la utilización de un extracto vegetal sólo permitía mejorar la estabilidad de la textura durante el almacenamiento cuando además de un antioxidante natural se utilizaban fosfatos. Este comportamiento también se verificó en la evaluación sensorial realizada con catadores, en la que se estableció que el lote elaborado con nitritos y el elaborado con un extracto vegetal y fosfatos eran aceptables durante 21 días y el elaborado con un extracto vegetal y sin fosfatos durante 14-21 días. No obstante, teniendo en cuenta los resultados obtenidos en la evaluación microbiológica, la vida útil de todos los lotes evaluados se estableció en 14 días tanto cuando eran almacenados en oscuridad como en luz. Finalmente, la inclusión de diferentes tipos de recubrimientos antimicrobianos (extracto de romero, extracto de romero + Pediococcus acidilactici) no implicó una mejora de la calidad microbiológica del lomo Sajonia. Esto podría ser debido tanto a que la cantidad utilizada de estos compuestos no fue suficiente como a que pudieron existir interacciones entre los constituyentes del recubrimiento y los agentes activos de los mismos que disminuyeron su efectividad. En las características físico-químicas y sensoriales, no se observó un efecto destacable del tratamiento aplicado, por lo que en este sentido, estos resultados son positivos desde el punto de vista de la viabilidad de la aplicación de los tratamientos con antimicrobianos pero negativos desde el punto de vista de la efectividad ya que no permitieron aumentar la vida útil del lomo Sajonia. Por tanto, para aumentar la eficacia de estos antimicrobianos sin afectar a la aceptabilidad sensorial del lomo Sajonia, sería conveniente la mejora de los recubrimientos utilizados de modo que se puedan incrementar las concentraciones de estos compuestos y su actividad.

It is well established that bacteria are the first organisms to adhere and colonize both abiotic and biotic surfaces. Their subsequent multiplication and production of exopolymeric substances (EPS) bring to biofilm formation which is believed to influence the settlement of following colonisers starting biofouling process on surfaces. Biofilm and fouling often have a deleterious effect on colonized surfaces and materials. They explicate a complex and various range of processes on abitic surfaces that cause physical damages, chemical alterations, loss of functionality and discolouration of surfaces, generating tremendous environmental and economical harm for human society. The control of the deleterious biofilm and the following fouling is today a great challenge. Currently, we have two choices: to remove biofilm by traditional methods or to research new effective antifouling approaches. Traditional techniques consist mainly in the application of biocides, however this practice has several disadvantages. In fact, traditional biocides are not generally specifically target against detrimental microorganisms and they are often potentially toxic both for humans and the environment. In addition, biological matter released by their use can offer a favourable substratum for subsequent colonisations. Others problems concern the development of resistance in target pest populations and the low biodegradability of these chemicals. Moreover, biocides are not always effective at low concentrations because life inside the biofilm leads to increased resistance to antimicrobial products up to 1000-fold compared to planktonic cells. Finally, current legislation in UE and USA regulates the use of biocides and lately several products have been withdrawn from the market. New antifouling strategies need to be effective, economic, safe for the public and to pose negligible risk to human health and the environment. In the last years new strategies able to control biofilm growth have been proposed as alternative to traditional active substances. However, several years will be required to set up and test satisfactory methods, so, these novel strategies can be only a long term solution. In the meantime, as short term solution, it is vital to study methods for a more sustainable use of traditional antimicrobial agents. Therefore, the aims of the PhD project here presented were: 1) to use biocides for the removal of deleterious biofilm from relevant abiotic surfaces in the most sustainable way; 2) to exploit the ability of a new promising inorganic compound, the photocatalytic titanium dioxide, as an innovative non-toxic antifouling system to control biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces. The study reported in the chapter 3 addresses the first aim. Generally, broad-range biocides are used to remove alterative biofilms from historical and artistic surfaces. In order to obtain a use as sustainable as possible of antimicrobial agents, the strategy has been to identify alterative microorganisms so as to use a suitable biocidal product which targets specifically the biodeteriogen agents. In this work, for the first time, an integrated biotechnological system that enables the cleaning of cultural heritage stone affected by both biological and chemical alteration process was used. The study was conducted on alterations found on two stone sculptures decorating the courtyard of the Buonconsiglio Castle in Trento (Italy). Stone, especially if exposed to the weather, is subject to chemical, physical and aesthetical deterioration. In this regard, pollution and environmental parameters play an important role since they are most responsible of deterioration process. Samples from altered and unaltered areas were characterized using stereomicroscope, cross-section observations and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analyses. Results reveled that stone was an oolitic limestone and changes were both discolorations ascribed to biological agents and chemical alteration represented by black crusts composed mainly by gypsum with a small amount of calcite, nitrate and silicates. Cultural and biomolecular methods were adopted to study microbial biofilm from powders samples. The cultural analyses proved that heterotrophic bacteria, fungi and prokaryotic and eukaryotic algae were present on surfaces and that in some samples the counts were quite high (up to 7 logCFU/g for bacteria and up to 6 logCFU/g for fungi). Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and sequencing from total DNA extracted allowed to identify taxa of microorganisms causing discolorations: they were Cyanobacteria, Chlorophyta green algae (Myrmecia and Friedmannia), Streptophyta green algae (Klebsormidium), microcolonial black fungi (Alternaria and Cladosporium) and other species of fungi able to deposit melanin in the cell wall (Verticillium). Fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH) highlighted that the Cyanobacteria generally were dominant (more than 60%) among the other prokaryotics belonging to the Bacteria domain. In this case, in order to remove the discolourations, despite the initial purpose to use a product that targeted only the small population of harmful microorganisms, we were forced to choose the biocide BIOTIN N (constituted by a mixture of tributyltin naphthenate (20% w/v) and didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (35% w/v)) with a broad spectrum of activity due to the taxonomical variety of the biodeteriogens. The same traditional and biomolecular methods were carried out on the samples collected after the cleaning to verify the removal of alterative microorganisms. Treatment with the biocide resulted in a decrease of the bacterial load (up to five orders of magnitude), and neither culturable fungi nor culturable prokaryotic and eukaryotic algae grew. Indeed the DGGE profiles showed far fewer bands than before treatment and proved that Cyanobacteria and most of the green algae and dematiaceous fungi had been efficiently removed. Chemical alterations were removed by a biocleaning treatment, an innovative, efficient and highly selective bioremediation technology, alternative to the use of chemicals, that uses viable cells of sulphate-reducing bacteria able to remove sulphates from stone ornamental surfaces. In this work for the first time this approach was applied on limestone. Sulphate-reducing bacteria have been Desulfovibrio vulgaris subsp. vulgaris (ATCC 29579). The treatment consisted in three 12-h applications for a total duration of 36 h. Comparison of the results of the chemical analyses performed before and after the biocleaning proved that gypsum, nitrates and silicates were almost completely removed. In addition, both optical evidence and FTIR analysis showed that the limestone substratum was preserved. In general, the cases of biofilms with large taxonomical variety (as the biofilms on the sculptures from Buonconsiglio Castle in Trento) are very frequent. Therefore, due to the side-effects of biocides, the development of alternative strategies for the prevention and control of deleterious biofilm becomes imperative. They must allow to protect materials from biodeterioration, and thus preserve their usefulness for as long as possible. In addition, new approaches must be safe for human beings and the environment. The study reported in the chapter 4 refers to this second aim of the project. The ability of photoactivated titanium dioxide (TiO2), a promising alternative to biocide for the biofilm control and prevention, was investigated. The biocidal activity of TiO2 against planktonic cells thanks to its strong photocatalytic properties has been reported since 1985. TiO2 per se is non-toxic, as the tests in rats prove, and has been approved by the American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in human food, drugs, cosmetics and food contact materials. Moreover, it is considered an environmentally friendly photocatalyst, it is relatively inexpensive, chemically stable and effective under weak solar irradiation in ambient atmospheric environment. Few attention was dedicated to study the potential of photocatalytic TiO2 against the bacterial biofilm so far. The aim was to investigate the ability of photocatalytic TiO2 as a new non-toxic antifouling nanotechnology to deter and prevent the attachment and biofilm formation of selected bacteria on TiO2-coated surfaces. Aeroxide P25 (Degussa) was employed as source of TiO2. The effects of both photocatalyst nanopowder suspensions (3g/l concentration) and thin TiO2-film applied on glass coverslides by sol-gel method were valued. During the experiments TiO2 was photoactivated by a lamp emitting radiation over a UV-A wavelength range with light intensity similar to outdoor solar irradiation (between 3000 and 500 μW/cm2). An efficient protocol for the photoactivation of TiO2 was set up degrading the dye rhodamine B. Thus activity was investigated on Bacillus cereus-group sp. (Gram-positive) and P. stutzeri and P. aeruginosa (Gram-negative) planktonic cells. The results proved that photoactivated TiO2 provoked a significant decrease of CFU/ml. Biocidal activities of nanopowder suspension in demineralised water in Bacillus sp., P. stutzeri and P. aeruginosa were respectively 1-log reduction after 24 h, 2-log reduction after 30 min and 1-log reduction after 2 h compared to non-photoactivated TiO2. TiO2 thin film also produced a complete disinfection of P. aeruginosa planktonic cells in 24 h. Finally, the activity of photoactivated TiO2 was investigated on P. aeruginosa biofilm at various formation steps both at the solid-liquid and at the solid-air interface. It was proved that neither TiO2 nanopowder nor photocatalytic film showed any biocidal activity on P. aeruginosa biofilm at all the interfaces investigated. The experiments have demonstrated that the lack of cell inactivation by photocatalytic action on biofilm was not due to 1) the presence of phosphates that could block active sites on the catalyst surface, 2) scavenge oxidative radicals produced at the surface, nor to insufficient presence of O2 at the TiO2 surface, which maintains charge transfer in photocatalytic reactions, 3) biofilm growth that screens UV-A light, deactivating TiO2, 4) insufficient build-up of photocatalytically-generated reactive species necessary for cell inactivation. In addition, confocal laser scanning microscope analysis demonstrated that not even exopolysaccharides produced by biofilm cells were the cause of fail inhibition since almost absent in the very young tested biofilms. The only possible explanation for these findings was that the cells, when live in sessile form, invoke a genetic response that imparts them an increased resistance to oxidative stress generated by photoactivated TiO2. In conclusion, the studies reported here have demonstrated that: a) Biotechnologies could facilitate a more sustainable use of biocides addressing the choice toward a suitable product that targets only the biodeteriogen microorganisms. b) The biocleaning treatment is an effective technology, alternative to use of chemicals, to remove selectively sulphates from stone. c) The photocatalytic TiO2 is not a good candidate to develop an effective technology that is alternative to traditional biocides for the control of deleterious biofilm. Further studies with other promising environmentally-friendly compounds may provide new ways to move forward in the search and to pursue the goal of an efficient surface coating methods able to prevent biofilm formation or, at least, to interfere with their inconvenient increased resistance to biocides, respecting the human health and environment. The research for new non-toxic antifouling strategies continues.

Soil pollution by potentially toxic metal(loid)s (PTMs) is a globally widespread problem because of most metals don't undergo microbial or chemical degradation, and their total concentration in soil persists for a long time after their introduction. For these reasons is necessary to find soil remediation technologies, also to minimize the potentially accumulation of metals in the food chain. During the last decades, the application of the "green technologies" found the interest of the scientific community because more cost-effective and easily applicable. In this thesis, the importance of an appropriate sampling scheme to assess the PTMs pollution in agricultural soils subjected to waste disposal and dumping, the relevance of bioavailability assessment for phytoremediation and the potential PTMs (im)mobilization by amendments application were studied. The choice of a most appropriate sampling scheme is a crucial step to establish soil pollution and, consequently, risk management. The sampling scheme should be able to detect the pollution level, determine its geographical extension and, possibly, the background level of pollution in the area. Usually, the high cost of the laboratories analysis and the difficulty of managing extensive soil sampling, lead to choose wide grids of sampling (from 25x25 m to 5x5 km) and to bulk discrete soil samples to obtain composite samples. However, when strong concentration gradients exist in the field compositing the discrete soil samples may significantly underestimate the risk posed by the pollutants. For this reason, the degree and spatial variability of soil pollution by PTMs, in three agricultural sites, subjected to waste disposal, were assessed applying a soil sampling scheme based on a two-level grid resolution. On the first level, a regular low-resolution 10x10 m grid was defined. On the second level, each grid was subdivided into nine high-resolution 3x3 m subplots. Discrete soil samples were taken from each 3x3 m plot. Composite soil samples were made bulking aliquots from the discrete soil samples. Soil samples were collected from both 'topsoil' (0-30cm) and 'subsoil' (30-60 cm) layers to evaluate vertical gradients. Comparing the statistical analysis and various pollution indices data from composite and discrete soil samples, only Giugliano (GI) site resulted to be polluted . Indeed, from the analysis of composite data, GI site appeared to be slightly polluted by Cu and Zn (mean content of 131 and 95 mg kg-1, respectively). When the same analysis and indices were applied to discrete soil data, the slightly polluted site became highly polluted by Cu (mean and max of 276 and 1707 mg kg-1) and Zn (174 and 972 mg kg-1), and slightly polluted by Sb and As (max of 15 and 30 mg kg-1). Furthermore, a large inhomogeneity in soil pollutant spatial distribution emerged. Most part of existing legislations on soil remediation, define an area as potentially polluted on the basis of the total or pseudototal content of PTMs. However, to establish the risk associated to soil PTMs pollution, it is crucial to determine the mobility and bioavailability of pollutants, the latter defined as the fraction of the total metal(loid)s available to the receptor organism. Based on the previous work results, the mobility and bioavailabilityof Cu and Zn in polluted discrete soil samples was investigated applying single and sequential extraction procedures. Main aim of this work was, to assess the feasibility and the effectiveness of a phytoremediation action of the soil based on Eucalyptus planting assisted by compost, Trichoderma sp. and microorganisms. 1M NH4NO3 and 0.05M EDTA extractions were applied, before and during the phytoremediation treatment, to assess the readily and potentially bioavailable amounts of Cu and Zn. The amount of both metals extracted by 1M NH4NO3 was from 0.1 to 7.9 % of respective total contents while the amount extracted by 0.05 M EDTA ranged from 13 to 64 % of total content. After one year from planting, a significant reduction of Cu and Zn bioavailable amounts was observed, without any difference between the several applied treatments. Plants uptake was not significantly correlated with both chemical extractions and a general underestimation of 1M NH4NO3 bioavailable Zn in comparison with plant uptake was observed. Both single and sequential extractions suggested an higher mobility of Zn respect to Cu in soil. A reduction of the plant uptake efficiency, as assessed by the accumulation factor in correspondence of highly polluted plots was observed. Overall, in the study sites currently under assisted phytoremediation, the chosen treatments appear to be effective in reducing at least the mobile and plant available PTMs content of the soil. When it is not possible to remove the metal(loid)s from polluted soils, other options, such as immobilization treatments should be considered as an integral part of risk management. Immobilization technique consists in an increasing of PTMs retention on soil. In agriculture, several amendments are frequently used to improve the soil properties. Many of them may modify significantly the mobility of PTMs in the soil environment. Part of the thesis work was, therefore, focused on the influence of organic and inorganic amendments on the bioavailability of As and Cd in two Australian soils with different physico-chemical properties. Soils were spiked with As and Cd and, after four weeks, incubated with poultry manure (PM), poultry manure biochar (PMBC) and coal fly-ash (CFA). After other four weeks, the incubated samples were analysed for pH and bioavailability of As and Cd, assessed by1M NH4NO3 extraction and pore-water analysis. These data were compared with plant uptake, using maize (Zea mays L.) as test crop. Cadmium was almost completely immobilized in all treated soils, mostly due to the influence that the amendments had on soil pH. Indeed, the higher pH of soil A (8.5±0.03), automatically reduced the bioavailability of Cd, independently of the applied treatment. Opposite behaviour was observed for As, whose bioavailability generally increased after amendments addition. Indeed, in soil B with pH 5.1±0.03, the As bioavailability was lower than in soil A and the application of amendments always increased the bioavailable fraction. These trends were confirmed by maize uptake. In conclusion, the application of amendments to reduce the mobility and bioavailability of metal(loid)s in polluted soil resulted efficient for Cd and inefficient for As. This different behaviour was mainly related to their different nature (cation and anion, respectively) and intrinsic properties. Hence, the amendments, modifying soil characteristics, can influence the metal(loid)s mobility and bioavailability but their effect is related to the metal properties. A similar experiment was carried out with soil and sludge from the ex-ILVA brownfield area located north of Naples city (south Italy). A phytoremediation study was carried out for two consecutive years, involving the use of humic acids to enhance the adaptability and grown of A. Donax on polluted soil and post-washing sludge with attention to the mobility and bioavailability of PTMs. The humic acid application significantly increased the biomass production, in both soil and sludge. In particular, although A. donax grown on the most polluted substrate, i.e. sludge, it was interesting to observe an increasing of plant biomass as a consequence of humic acid addition, maybe due to an improvement of rhizosphere N cycling activity consequent to more intense root activity and exudation. The addition of humic acid, although useful for the plant growth, had no influence on Pb and Zn mobility and bioavailability, in both soil and sludge, probably as a consequence of the high pH value of both substrates. Despite the low bioavailability of the metals in soil and sludge, A. donax uptaken more Pb and Zn than the amounts "predicted" by 1M ammonium nitrate extraction, confirming the high ability of A. donax to phytoextract metals in all conditions and, hence, encouraging its use for phytoremediation purposes.

This paper provides an overview of major groundwater issues for Sub-Saharan Africa, with an assessment of their policy implications in terms of potential development and appropriate management. In terms of construction time, capital outlay and drought resilience, groundwater is the preferred source to meet most water-supply demands, despite hydro geological complexity, natural constraints on water well yields and quality, and institutional weaknesses. The 'new developmental agenda' relates to improving urban water-supply security and expanding irrigated agriculture to meet these challenges many countries need to undertake strategic assessment of their groundwater and prioritize investment on institutional strengthening so as to facilitate appropriately-managed groundwater development. Without effective use of available groundwater resources, improved livelihoods and climate-change adaptation will prove much more difficult to achieve.