En la actualidad el cambio climático ha sido señalado como una de las principales amenazas para las especies silvestres y las especies cultivadas. Debido a la intrincada relación entre el clima y las especies, se tiene registro de modificaciones en la distribución, en la fenología y en las interacciones bióticas de especies terrestre y marinas. Se ha observado un aumento de 0.85°C desde 1880 y se espera un aumento de hasta 4.8°C para las siguientes décadas a nivel mundial, en México el incremento podría ser de hasta 3.5 °C. Este trabajo evaluó el efecto del cambio climático en el cultivo de caña de azúcar en México y el Mundo, utilizando el modelado de la distribución potencial. Para ello se construyeron bases de datos con la ubicación geográfica de los cultivos azucareros a nivel mundial, y para México se consultaron las principales variedades cultivadas y en particular para aquellos ingenios en categoría de temporal. En cada caso (México y Mundial) se realizaron modelos de nicho ecológico para obtener su distribución potencial en el presente y se realizaron proyecciones a futuro (RCP 2.6 y 4.5 a 2050 y 2070). Se generaron mapas con la distribución potencial para observar los cambios presente versus futuro, además estos cambios fueron evaluados mediante el estadístico Kappa y así conocer el grado de cambio espacial entre las distribuciones. Los resultados a nivel Mundial sugieren una constancia en la conservación de áreas con condiciones a futuro de hasta 93% respecto del área presente, una ganancia en áreas nuevas para posibles cultivos azucareros de hasta 72% y una pérdida de 7%, coincidiendo ambos escenarios en países como Brasil, Costa Rica o República Democrática de Congo. Para México los análisis para las principales variedades (CP 72-2086 y MEX 69-290) conservan hasta un 85 % del su área de distribución, la ganancia de áreas potenciales se ve reflejada en mayor porcentaje para aquellos ingenios de temporal aumentando casi el doble de la distribución en el presente y reflejándose en mayor proporción dentro de la Península de Yucatán, la pérdida de áreas asciende hasta un 33% reflejándose principalmente en la región de noreste del país, siendo constante a 2050 y 2070 para ambos escenarios. Finalmente se presenta una tendencia para la permanencia de áreas potenciales para el desarrollo de la caña de azúcar a futuro en el Mundo y para las principales variedades cultivadas en México, además de los altos porcentajes en áreas de ganancia bajo los cuales potencialmente se puede desarrollar la caña de azúcar ; Currently, climate change has been pointed out as one of the most important threats to wild and cultivated plant species. Due to the close relationship between climate and species, it has been changes in the distribution, phenology and in the biotic interactions in both terrestrial and marine plant species. Since 1880, the temperature of the world has increased 0.85° C, with expected increases of up to 4.8° C in the next decades, while in Mexico the increase could be up to 3.5° C. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of climate change on the cultivation of sugarcane in Mexico and the world, using the modeling of the potential distribution. It was built a database with the geographical location of the sugarcane crops worldwide, and for Mexico the database contains the main rain-fed grown sugarcane varieties. In both cases, ecological niche models were constructed to obtain the potential distribution of the crop in the present and its future projections (RCP 2.6 and 4.5 to 2050 and 2070). The models were evaluated through the Kappa analysis, with the objective of knowing the spatial changes between current and future distributions. Worldwide, the results suggest a future constancy in the conservation of the areas with conditions for the cultivation of sugarcane up to 93% with respect to the present area, an increase in new areas for cultivation of up to 72% and a loss of 7%, with the same pattern in both scenarios in countries such as Brazil, Costa Rica or the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In Mexico, the main varieties of sugarcane grown (CP 72-2086 and MEX 69-290) conserve up to 85% of their current distribution area, while the increase in the potential areas indicates larger areas for the rain-fed cultivated sugarcane, with increases of almost double the distribution in the present and a greater proportion in the Yucatan Peninsula, the loss of 33% of the cultivated areas, mainly in the northeast region of the country, being constant to 2050 and 2070 for both scenarios. Finally, there is a trend for the future permanence of potential areas for the cultivation of sugarcane in the world and for the main varieties grown in Mexico, as well as increases in new potential areas for cultivation.
Resumen en español: "Los arrecifes de coral son ecosistemas de gran importancia a nivel ecológico, social y económico. Se considera que presentan la más alta biodiversidad entre todos los ecosistemas marinos, además de brindar invaluables servicios ecosistémicos y ser el sustento de millones de personas alrededor del mundo. Sin embargo, diversos factores de origen antrópico amenazan la estructura e integridad de los sistemas arrecifales por lo que actualmente son uno de los ecosistemas más amenazados a nivel mundial. En este contexto, se ha visto la necesidad de complementar las estrategias de conservación pasivas a través de la implementación de medidas activas como la restauración de arrecifes coralinos para mitigar la pérdida de cobertura de coral en diversas partes del mundo. Este tipo de intervención ha surgido como una alternativa de conservación que busca contribuir de manera directa a la recuperación de los sistemas arrecifales degradados utilizando técnicas de cultivo de corales. El Sistema Arrecifal Mesoamericano (SAM) es una región que alberga importantes formaciones arrecifales que se encuentran en riesgo debido a presiones antrópicas tanto locales como globales. Para enfrentar la degradación de los arrecifes del SAM, se han implementado diversos proyectos de restauración y uno de los más importantes se encuentra en Belice (uno de los cuatro países que forman parte de esta región). Al llevar a cabo una revisión sobre la técnica de cultivo de corales y un estudio de caso sobre el proyecto de restauración en Belice, se determinó la importancia de las actividades de seguimiento y monitoreo posteriores a la restauración. A pesar de las numerosas iniciativas y presencia internacional en el SAM, la restauración arrecifal aún iv se encuentra en sus primas etapas y los países involucrados (México, Belice, Guatemala y Honduras) han presentado dificultades en cuestiones políticas e institucionales, además de limitaciones de fondos y construcción de capacidades. Sin embargo, se están llevando a cabo esfuerzos para incrementar la integración de los cuatro países con relación a las actividades de restauración arrecifal para la conservación de los arrecifes del SAM. El estado actual de los sistemas arrecifales requiere la implementación urgente de estrategias de manejo directas e indirectas para mitigar la acelerada degradación de estos importantes ecosistemas. En este sentido, resulta importante incrementar los esfuerzos para determinar el éxito de los diversos proyectos de restauración mediante indicadores ecológicos más completos, así como la integración de consideraciones socioculturales y económicas. " ; Resumen en francés: "Les récifs coralliens sont des écosystèmes de grande importance sur le plan écologique, social et économique. On considère qu'ils présentent la plus grande biodiversité parmi tous les écosystèmes marins, en plus de fournir des services écosystémiques inestimables et d'être la source de revenu de millions de personnes dans le monde. Cependant, divers facteurs anthropiques menacent la structure et l'intégrité des systèmes récifaux, ce qui explique pourquoi ils sont actuellement l'un des écosystèmes les plus menacés au monde. Dans ce contexte, il émerge la nécessité de compléter les stratégies de conservation passive par la mise en oeuvre de mesures actives telles que la restauration des récifs coralliens pour atténuer la perte de la couverture corallienne dans diverses parties du monde. Ce type d'intervention est apparu comme une alternative de conservation qui cherche à contribuer directement à la récupération de systèmes récifaux dégradés en utilisant diverses techniques de culture de coraux. Le Système Récifal Méso-américain (MAR) est une région qui abrite d'importantes formations récifales menacées par des pressions anthropiques locales et globales. Pour faire face à la dégradation des récifs de cet région, plusieurs projets de restauration ont été mis en oeuvre et l'un des plus importants est celui du Belize (l'un des quatre pays faisant partie de cette région). En effectuant une révision de la technique de culture du corail et une étude de cas sur le projet de restauration au Belize, l'importance des activités de suivi et de suivi post-restauration a été déterminée. Malgré les nombreuses initiatives et la présence vi d'organisations internationales dans la région, la restauration des récifs n'en est encore qu'à ses débuts et les pays concernés (Mexique, Belize, Guatemala et Honduras) ont présenté des difficultés en matière politique et institutionnelle, ainsi que des limites de financement et de renforcement des capacités. Cependant, des efforts sont faits pour accroître l'intégration de ces quatre pays en relation avec les activités de restauration des récifs pour la conservation du système de récifs mésoaméricain. L'état actuel des systèmes récifaux nécessite la mise en oeuvre urgente de stratégies de gestion directes et indirectes pour atténuer la dégradation accélérée de ces écosystèmes précieux. En ce sens, il est important de redoubler d'efforts pour déterminer le succès des différents projets de restauration à travers des indicateurs écologiques plus complets, ainsi que l'intégration de considérations socioculturelles et économiques. "
The evolution of international environmental policies and national and local conservation contexts gives increasing importance to the anthropic dimension within the national parks (category IIUICN). Not only does this dimension takes into account the local population that lives permanently in these various natural areas, but also the economic actors who, legally or illegally, benefit from those protected areas (tourism, gold-washing, wood, etc.) or participate directly or indirectly in the process of the territorial elaboration of a national park. The integration of the anthropic aspect definitely help the emergence of new dynamics and strategies of collaborative management and policies. Building on political geography, socio-cultural geography and political ecology , this thesis aims to shed light how that anthropic dimension (sociocultural as well as economical) entails the transition of some protected areas from a classical type to a new category we identify as the "Nature and Anthropic National Park" (PNNa). We focus on three specific study cases in the American continent: the Amazonian park of the French Guiana, the Sea Park of Saguenay-Saint-Laurent of Québec, Canada, and the Amazonian Amacayacu National Park of Colombia. The systemic analysis of their structure and their functioning, as far as macrostructure of policies and microstructures of management are concerned, has allowed us to bring out that transition in the territorial management of these category II protected natural areas and the deriving conflicts for power. ; La evolución de las políticas de gobernanza medioambiental internacional y la transición de los contextos nacionales y locales de conservación, favorecen cada vez más la integración de la dimensión antrópica al interior de los parques nacionales (categoría II-UICN). Esta dimensión corresponde de una parte, a las poblaciones locales que habitan de manera permanente las diversas zonas de protección dentro del parque nacional, y de otra parte, a los actores económicos (legales e ilegales) que explotan el territorio protegido (Turismo, explotación minera, explotación de madera, etc), o que participan de manera directa o indirecta en los procesos de construcción territorial del parque nacional. La integración de la dimensión antrópica dentro de estos territorios naturales de protección favorece en consecuencia la emergencia de nuevas dinámicas y estrategias participativas de gestión y de gobernanza. A través de un triple enfoque científico construido mediante el cruce de diversos puntos de vista de la geografía política, de la geografía sociocultural y de la political ecology, esta tesis se interesa en el análisis de tres casos de estudio particulares del Continente americano. El objetivo de esta contribución es el de intentar mostrar, cómo la integración de la dimensión antrópica (sociocultural y económica) influencia la transición de algunos espacios naturales protegidos hacia una nueva configuración que nosotros proponemos identificar aquí bajo el nombre de "parques nacionales naturales antropizados – PNNa". El análisis sistémico de la estructura y del funcionamiento de las macroestructuras de gobernanza y de las microestructuras de gestión participativa del Parque amazónico de la Guayana, en Francia, del Parque marino del Saguenay-Saint-Laurent en Quebec, Canadá, y del Parque nacional natural Amacayacu en Amazonia colombiana, nos permitieron poner en evidencia este tipo de transición en la gestión territorial de los espacios naturales protegidos de categoría II, así que los conflictos de poder que resultan de esta transformación. ; L'évolution des politiques de gouvernance environnementale internationale et la transition des contextes nationaux et locaux de conservation favorisent de plus en plus l'intégration de la dimension anthropique au sein des parcs nationaux (catégorie II-UICN). Cette dimension s'adresse d'une part aux populations locales qui habitent de manière permanente les diverses zones de protection, et d'autre part, aux acteurs économiques (légaux et illégaux) qui exploitent le territoire protégé (tourisme, orpaillage, bois, etc.) ou qui participent de manière directe et indirecte aux processus de construction territoriale du parc national. L'intégration de la dimension anthropique au sein de ces territoires naturels de protection favorise en conséquence l'émergence de nouvelles dynamiques et stratégies de gestion et de gouvernance participatives. Avec une triple approche scientifique construite autour des regards croisés de la géographie politique, de la géographie socioculturelle et de la political ecology, cette thèse s'intéresse à l'analyse de trois cas d'études particuliers du continent américain afin de comprendre comment l'intégration de cette dimension anthropique (socioculturelle et économique) favorise la transition de certains espaces naturels protégés classiques vers une nouvelle configuration que nous proposons d'identifier ici sous le nom de « parcs nationaux naturels anthropisés - PNNa ». L'analyse systémique de la structure et du fonctionnement des macrostructures de gouvernance et des microstructures de gestion du Parc amazonien de la Guyane en France, du Parc marin du Saguenay-Saint-Laurent au Québec (Canada) et du Parc national naturel Amacayacu en Amazonie colombienne, nous ont permis ainsi de mettre en évidence quelques aspects de cette transition dans la gestion territoriale des espaces naturels protégés de catégorie II, ainsi que les conflits de pouvoir qui en résultent.
Based on experience gained through the collaboration of two FP7 projects (ARCH and LAGOONS), a methodology used for stakeholders' involvement in the management of lagoons under climate and anthropogenic pressures is discussed. The central objective of the ARCH project (Architecture and roadmap to manage multiple pressures on lagoons) was to develop participative methodologies in collaboration with the involved managers, policy makers and stakeholders to manage the multiple problems affecting lagoons in Europe (10 cases). Three main challenges for the improvement of "sustainable lagoon management" were supported by the ARCH, these include the transition: from segregated disciplinary scientific results to well integrated and usable scientific knowledge; from "government" to "governance": from sectoral policies towards sustainable management; from an unaware and uninformed "lagoon community" towards an involved and well-informed community. The main objective of the LAGOONS project (Integrated water resources and coastal zone management in European lagoons in the context of climate change) was to contribute to a science-based seamless strategy – in an integrated and coordinated fashion – of the management of lagoons seen under the land-sea and science-policy-stakeholder interface; i.e., the project seeks to underpin the integration of the EU Water Framework Directive, Habitat Directive, the EU's ICZM Recommendation, and the EU Marine Strategy Directive. An approach applied to the Vistula Lagoon stakeholders' consultations process (collecting opinions from different groups of interests like public administration, researchers and experts as well as local citizens) was extremely well assessed by all participants. The role of local communities and their actual engagement in the management processes in the Vistula Lagoon Region is analysed in the paper, based on the author's observations as a facilitator of the process. Creating positive and trustful relations is a prerequisite for successful consultations with local communities. An importance of the role played by local communities in the management process is still underestimated by both managers and the communities themselves. However, building trustful relations requires time and efforts from both sides and cannot rely on a 'project to project' basis. Local communities that once got involved in the participatory management process expect continuity and implementation of their ideas through rational and fair-minded debate. Public involvement in decision making processes, if managed properly, increases the legitimacy of decisions in the eyes of those affected by them, which makes it more likely that the decisions will be implemented effectively [1]. There is an urgent need for a permanent consultation process built in a daily routine of managing organisations constituting, in a sense, their statutory task not resulting from different legislation, laws, obligations, etc. but from the will to build a participatory society. ; W oparciu o doświadczenia zdobyte dzięki współpracy dwóch projektów 7PR (ARCH i LAGOONS) przedstawiono i zanalizowano metodologię zastosowaną do zaangażowania interesariuszy w zarządzaniu zalewami i lagunami będącymi pod presją zmian klimatycznych oraz antropogenicznych. Głównym celem projektu ARCH (Architecture and roadmap to manage multiple pressures on lagoons) było opracowanie i przetestowanie metody partycypacyjnego zarządzania opartego o współpracę naukowców, decydentów i interesariuszy (10 studiów przypadku). Trzy główne wyzwania zaadresowane w projekcie to przejścia: od dyscyplinarnych wyników badań do zintegrowanej i użytecznej wiedzy; od "rządzenia" do "zarządzania", od polityki sektorowej do zintegrowanego planowania i zarządzania, od nieświadomej i niezaangażowanej społeczności do wspólnoty zaangażowanych i dobrze poinformowanych interesariuszy. Głównym celem projektu LAGOONS (Integrated water resources and coastal zone management in European lagoons in the context of climate change) było przyczynienie się do wypracowania strategii zarządzania zalewami opartej na wiedzy i umożliwiającej minimalizację problemów związanych z interakcjami na różnych płaszczyznach (ląd-woda, wiedza- -polityka-interesariusze). Podejście zastosowane w procesie konsultacji z interesariuszami Zalewu Wiślanego (zbieranie opinie różnych grup interesów, takich jak administracja publiczna, naukowcy i eksperci, społeczności lokalne) było bardzo dobrze ocenione przez wszystkich uczestników procesu. Rola społeczności lokalnych i ich rzeczywiste zaangażowanie w procesy zarządzania w regionie Zalewu Wiślanego są analizowane w oparciu o obserwacje autorki jako moderatora procesu. Tworzenie pozytywnych relacji i zdobywanie zaufania jest warunkiem sprowadzenia skutecznych konsultacji z lokalnymi społecznościami. Znaczenie społeczności lokalnych w procesie zarządzania jest wciąż niedoceniane zarówno przez menedżerów, jak i przez same społeczności. Budowanie relacji opartych na zaufaniu wymaga czasu i wysiłku z obu stron i nie należy oczekiwać, że jest to możliwe na zasadzie realizacji incydentalnych projektów. Lokalne społeczności, które raz zaangażowały się w proces zarządzania partycypacyjnego oczekują kontynuacji tego procesu i realizacji swoich pomysłów poprzez racjonalną i umożliwiającą wymianę poglądów debatę. Zaangażowanie społeczeństwa w procesach decyzyjnych, jeżeli są one odpowiednio zarządzane, zwiększa prawomocność decyzji w oczach osób poddanych ich działaniu, co sprawia, że jest bardziej prawdopodobne, że decyzje będą skuteczniej realizowane. Istnieje pilna potrzeba wbudowania procesu konsultacji ze społecznościami lokalnymi w codzienną praktykę organizacji zarządzających obszarem Zalewu Wiślanego, tak by stało się to niejako ich statutowym zadaniem nie wynikające z różnych przepisów, ustaw, zobowiązań, itp, ale z chęci budowania społeczeństwa partycypacyjnego. ; Renata Kozak
Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic sedimentary deposits of the North American Cordillera record large fluctuations in global biogeochemical cycles, the establishment and diversification of multiple eukaryotic clades, the fragmentation of the supercontinent Rodinia, and the protracted development and subsequent demise of the western and northern Laurentian passive margins. Here, I put forth new tectono-, bio-, and chemo-stratigraphic models for the ~780-540 Ma Windermere Supergroup of western North America and “pre-Mississippian” stratigraphy of northern Alaska that refine previous models for the Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic tectonic and environmental evolution of Alaska and northwest Canada. First, I present an updated model for early Windermere (780–720 Ma) sedimentation in NW Canada through a detailed study of the Callison Lake Formation of the Mount Harper Group, spectacularly exposed in the Coal Creek and Hart River inliers of the Ogilvie Mountains of Yukon, Canada. Twenty-one detailed measured stratigraphic sections are integrated with geological mapping, facies analysis, and new Rhenium-Osmium (Re-Os) geochronology to provide a depositional model for the Callison Lake Formation. Mixed siliciclastic, carbonate, and evaporite sediments record a complex subsidence history in which episodic basinal restriction and abrupt facies change can be tied accumulation in marginal marine embayments formed in discrete hangingwall depocenters of a major Windermere extensional fault zone. New organic-rich rock Re-Os ages of 752.7 ± 5.5 and 739.9 ± 6.1 Ma bracket Callison Lake sedimentation and constrain early Windermere sedimentation in NW Canada to post-date the eruption of the Gunbarrel Large Igneous Province by ~30 million years and predate the successful rift-drift transition by ~200 million years. In order to accommodate coeval extensional and compressional tectonism, abrupt facies change, and Neoproterozoic fault geometries, I propose that NW Canada experienced strike-slip deformation during the ~740–660 Ma early fragmentation of Rodinia. Second, I integrate carbon and oxygen isotope chemostratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy, geochronological data, and microfossil biostratigraphy from the Callison Lake Formation to highlight the potential for margin-wide correlation of Neoproterozoic successions in North America. Here, I also report the discovery of abundant and well-preserved vase-shaped microfossils in the Callison Lake Formation, dated with Re-Os geochronology at 739.9 ± 6.1 Ma, that share multiple species-level taxa with a well-characterized and coeval assemblage from the Chuar Group, Grand Canyon, Arizona dated with U-Pb on zircon from an interbedded tuff at 742 ± 6 Ma. The overlapping age and species assemblages from these two deposits suggests biostratigraphic utility, at least within Neoproterozoic basins of Laurentia, and perhaps globally. Sequence stratigraphic data from the Callison Lake Formation and other basal Windermere successions in northwest Canada delineate four major depositional sequences that are broadly coeval with similar stratigraphic packages in the ~780–720 Ma Chuar-Uinta Mountain-Pahrump basins of the western United States. The new Re-Os age also confirms the timing of the Islay carbon isotope excursion (ICIE) in northwest Canada, which predates the onset of the Sturtian glaciation by >15 million years. Here, I hypothesize that this carbon isotope excursion represents a primary perturbation to the global carbon cycle and explore a number of models for its origin related to the duration of the excursion. Together, these data provide global calibration of sedimentary, paleontological, and geochemical records on the eve of profound environmental and evolutionary change. Finally, I present an updated model for the origin of the Arctic Alaska–Chukotka microplate, a composite Cordilleran “suspect” terrane that comprises the greater portion of the modern continental margin of the Amerasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean, through a detailed study of pre-Mississippian stratigraphy in the Shublik, Sadlerochit, and British Mountains of the northeastern Brooks Range, Alaska. An exotic, non-Laurentian origin of Arctic Alaska–Chukotka has been proposed based on paleobiogeographic faunal affinities and various geochronological constraints from the southwestern portions of the microplate. Here, I report new early Paleozoic trilobite and conodont taxa that support a Laurentian origin for the North Slope of Arctic Alaska, as well as new Neoproterozoic–Cambrian stratigraphic correlations and igneous and detrital zircon geochronological data, that are both consistent with a Laurentian origin and profoundly different from those derived from similar-aged strata in the southwestern portions of Arctic Alask¬a–Chukotka. The North Slope terrane is accordingly interpreted as allochthonous with respect to its current position in northwestern Laurentia, but most likely originated further east along the Canadian Arctic or North Atlantic margins. These data demonstrate that Paleozoic construction of the composite Arctic Alaska¬–Chukotka microplate resulted from juxtaposition of the exotic southwestern parts of the microplate against the northern margin of Laurentia during protracted Ordovician(?)–Carboniferous Caledonian and Ellesmerian tectonism. ; Earth and Planetary Sciences
L'aumento dell'attività di pesca a livello mondiale e il depauperamento delle risorse nazionali in risposta all'incremento della domanda di mercato dei prodotti ittici hanno determinato il progressivo aumento delle importazioni, sia da Paesi Comunitari che da Paesi Terzi, in particolar modo dalla Cina. Nel settore ittico, la Cina produce, allo stato attuale, oltre il 38% del fatturato mondiale, grazie soprattutto alla promozione di strategie commerciali estremamente concorrenziali. Tali livelli produttivi non sono supportati, però, dalla messa in atto di procedure efficienti, ai fini di una corretta tracciabilità dei prodotti alimentari lungo la filiera produttiva, con notevoli ripercussioni a livello commerciale e sanitario. Inoltre, in risposta alla crescente domanda da parte del consumatore di alimenti pronti al consumo e di facile utilizzo, negli ultimi anni si è assistito ad un aumento della commercializzazione di prodotti ittici trasformati e precotti. Il riconoscimento di specie assume un'importanza fondamentale per la prevenzione di fenomeni di falsificazione e contraffazione a tutela e protezione del consumatore. Considerando che la tecnica di identificazione di specie su base morfologica, unica riconosciuta in Italia in sede legale, risulta inapplicabile in tali tipologie di prodotto, l'attenzione è stata rivolta all'individuazione di strumenti analitici alternativi. Le metodiche analitiche basate sull'analisi del DNA finalizzate all'identificazione di specie sono quelle maggiormente utilizzate in virtù dell'elevato grado di resistenza dell'acido nucleico a trattamenti fisico-chimici e a fenomeni di degradazione, offrendo un valido strumento per il controllo della tracciabilità nelle diverse tipologie di prodotto (fresco, trasformato, conservato). In quest'ottica, i progetti di studio sviluppati sono stati rivolti sia al miglioramento delle tecniche per l'estrazione del DNA in matrici fresche o conservate, in grado di garantire soddisfacenti caratteristiche quali-quantitative dell'acido nucleico ottenuto ed un minore impegno dell'operatore, sia allo sviluppo di strumenti analitici basati sull'utilizzo della PCR per la discriminazione di specie diretta o post sequenziamento del target selezionato. Sono state sviluppate con successo metodiche per la discriminazione diretta tra specie di provenienza cinese e specie mediterranee o atlantiche di maggior valore commerciale e realizzati studi di caratterizzazione di prodotti ittici reperibili in esercizi commerciali etnici e di mangimi per animali domestici, ai fini del controllo di conformità su quanto dichiarato in etichetta. Infine, le metodiche sviluppate sono state utilizzate per effettuare controlli su prodotti commerciali acquistati presso la piccola e grande distribuzione, evidenziando come il fenomeno di sostituzione di specie, volontaria o involontaria, rappresenti una problematica reale, la cui entità suggerisce la necessità di potenziare le attività di controllo da parte degli organi ufficiali e ulteriori studi. In questo contesto, un adeguato livello di tutela del consumatore non può prescindere dallo sviluppo di metodiche analitiche sempre più rapide e performanti. The global increase of fishing activities, together with the depletion of national marine resources, in response to the rising demand for seafood, led to a progressive growth in imports, both from European Union countries and Third countries, particularly from China. In the fishery sector, China produces, at present, over 38% of the world output, thanks to the promotion of very competitive commercial strategies. These production rates are not supported, however, by the implementation of efficient systems of traceability of food products along the supply chain, with significant repercussions on trade and health issues. In addition, in recent years the commercialization of processed and precooked fish products has increased, in response to the growing demand for ready to cook and ready to eat food products. Thus, species identification acquires fundamental importance in the prevention of phenomena of counterfeiting and adulteration for consumer protection. Considering that the morphological identification of seafood species, the only official method approved in Italy, is inapplicable in these types of products, alternative analytical tools are needed. DNA-based analytical methods are the most applied for species identification due to the high resistance of nucleic acid to physical-chemical treatments and degradation, representing a valuable tool for traceability in different types of products (fresh, processed, canned). In this perspective, the research activities were aimed: I) to the improvement of DNA extraction techniques in fresh or processed matrices , in order to ensure satisfactory qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the obtained nucleic acid and simplify the laboratory workflow, II) to the development of analytical tools based on PCR for direct or post sequencing species discrimination using selected targets. Methods for direct discrimination between Chinese fish species and Mediterranean or Atlantic species of higher commercial value have been successfully developed, as well as studies on the identification of fish products sold in ethnic shops and of pet food, with the aim of evaluating the label correctness. Finally, the developed methods have been used to carry out analysis on commercial products directly purchased in small and large retailers, highlighting that the phenomenon of species substitution, whether deliberate or accidental, represents a real problem, suggesting the need for the implementation of further Official control activities and research studies. In this context, the development of rapid and performing analytical tools is essential to ensure an adequate level of consumer protection
The "stock" concept is fundamental to fisheries management. To manage a fishery responsibly it is important to understand its stock structure and how fishing effort and mortality are distributed (Begg e Waldman, 1999). The failure to comply the true stock structure and the ineffective fisheries management of an exploited species can lead to overfishing and depletion of the stock (Begg et al., 1999a). In the last years, scientific community has pointed out that the most successful way to address stock identification studies is the application of a holistic approach, thus involving a broad selection of complementary techniques (Begg et al., 1999a; Abaunza, 2008a; Cadrin et al., 2013). The European hake (Merluccius merluccius, Linnaeus 1758) represents a basic component of the demersal communities and one of the target species in the Mediterranean Sea (Lo Brutto et al., 2004; Ligas et al., 2011). For this reason it has been extensively studied. Furthermore, hake stocks are generally considered over-exploited both in the Atlantic Ocean (ICES, 2011; 2012) and in the Mediterranean Sea (STECF, 2013; GFCM, 2014). At present, European hake populations in the Mediterranean Sea are managed considering several relatively small geographical sub-areas (GSAs), which are identified mainly on the basis of political considerations (Ragonese et al., 2012; Vittori et al., 2013). In this partition, Sardinian seas are represented by GSAs 11.1 and 11.2 and are split between two FAO Statistical Divisions (Balearic Islands and Sardinia). It is known that the complexity of many marine species stocks is often underestimated in modern stock management processes (Begg et al., 1999a). As regards the Mediterranean sea, various studies suggested a geographical distribution of the stocks that appears considerably different from the current management units partition (Abaunza et al., 2000; Abaunza et al., 2008c; Murta et al., 2008), and this fact have been observed also for the European hake (Castillo et al., 2004; Mattiucci et al., 2004; Tanner et al., 2012; Fiorentino et al., 2014). The need of the achievement of a comprehensive knowledge about the stock structure of a commercially important species like M. merluccius, has led to the development of this study, which aims, through the employment of a multidisciplinary approach, at a better geographical definition of this species stock in the waters around Sardinia. A first insight into the complexity of the European hake population in the area has been supplied by the analysis and comparison of its length structure in the western and eastern coasts of Sardinia, showing a degree of differentiation that has been subsequently deepened through the application of various techniques. The analysis of the variability in the growth of the species hasn't indicated a meaningful differentiation of the populations in the two sides of the island, but has suggested that the presence of many spawning areas in the western coast could be the cause of the difference in the 0 age-class mean length obtained, as well as in the length structure above-mentioned. On the contrary, the implementation of a geometric morphometric technique to study the shape of individuals has led to the discovery of a significant, even though of moderate extent, differentiation between the two coasts. However, as remarked by Tudela (1999) and Levi et al. (2004) in other case-studies, these differences were believed to be linked only to environmental influences, without a connection to those biological parameters that are fundamental in the definition of a stock. This hypothesis has been made also considering that the observed difference in shape didn't seem to affect individuals' growth. Lastly, the parasitological exam of specimens collected in the whole area of Sardinian seas, has supported the hypothesis of homogeneity of the populations in the area. Indeed, no significant differences have been found in the relative abundance and prevalence of the various parasite taxa examined. Comparing these results with those obtained in a similar study carried out in the Mediterranean Sea (Mattiucci et al., 2004) it has been possible to highlight a considerable similarity of our study area with the central area of Mediterranean sea, and, conversely, a clear differentiation between Sardinian seas and the eastern part of Mediterranean basin. Similar considerations has been made in the context of StockMed project (Fiorentino et al., 2014). This study has therefore provided a solid evidence of the homogeneity of the European hake stock in the waters around Sardinia, leading to the conclusion that this population should be managed jointly. Moreover, it has supported the recently expressed opinion that its stock (as well as those of other important species) could be wider than expected, underlining the need of improving current management units boundaries.
ABSTRACTThis study aims to determine : 1 ) disclose and analyze barriers to enforcement against foreign fishermen fishing in the territorial waters of West Kalimantan ZEEI , 2 ) disclose and analyze the policy pursued enforcement against foreign fishermen convicted criminal and that no corporal punishment do not run away . The research was conducted in Pontianak include Court Judge at the District Court Pontianak Fishery , Marine Resource Trustees and Fisheries ( PSDKP ) Pontianak , West Kalimantan Directorate of Water Police and the Indonesian National Army Navy ( TNI - AL ) Pontianak . Data collection methods used were interviews , questionnaires , and direct observations . The data obtained in qualitative analysis . The results showed that the type of fishing ( illegal fishing ) which conducted foreign fishermen in West Kalimantan is a form of incompleteness ZEEI licensing documents (original , SIPI , and fishing ground ) , violation of gear use area , and do not activate communication devices (transmitter) . From the results patrol SPSDKP Pontianak , the number of foreign ships that captured illegal fishing activities in 2011 to 2012 as many as 55 vessels , consisting of 55 skippers and crew as much as 424 people . Of the cases ZEEI fishing in West Kalimantan was transferred to the Court of Fisheries at the District Court of Pontianak , the authors took a sample 7 decision , the verdict of the 4 countries of origin of foreign fishermen and 3 decision against Vietnamese fishermen from Thailand . The second decision of the ad hoc judges , proved that there is a difference penalty of foreign fishermen fishing in ZEEI , where to fishermen from Thailand country already has a MoU with Indonesian fishermen from the state instead of Vietnam have MoU yet . Thus law enforcement against foreign fishermen associated with the implementation of Article 102 of Law No. 45 Year 2009 on amendments to the Law No. 31 of 2004 on Fisheries greatly weaken the law enforcement process even in the long term Indonesian state will experience a greater loss . The absence of the MoU in the field of fisheries has become the modus operandi in fishing , even less foreign and foreign-flagged vessels using child labor or crew ( ABK ) from Indonesia . When the arrest and deportation , security forces of confusion , with the deportation process itself. In an effort to address the conduct of law enforcement foreigners engaging in fishing activities in West Kalimantan ZEEI , then the government should formulate policies related to the implementation of Article 102 which undermine law enforcement process .Keywords : Law enforcement policies against foreign fishermen convicted criminal and not corporal punishmentA B S T R A KPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui : 1) mengungkapkan dan menganalisis hambatan penegakan hukum terhadap nelayan asing yang melakukan penangkapan ikan di ZEEI wilayah perairan Kalimantan Barat, 2) mengungkapkan dan menganalisis kebijakan yang dilakukan penegak hukum terhadap nelayan asing yang divonis pidana dan tidak dilakukan hukuman badan agar tidak melarikan diri. Penelitian ini dilakukan di Pontianak meliputi Hakim Pengadilan Perikanan pada Pengadilan Negeri Pontianak, Pengawas Sumber Daya Kelautan dan Perikanan (PSDKP) Pontianak, Direktorat Kepolisian Perairan Kalimantan Barat dan Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Laut (TNI-AL) Pontianak. Metode pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah wawancara, kuesioner, dan pengamatan langsung. Data yang diperoleh di analisis secara kualitatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa jenis penangkapan ikan (illegal fishing ) yang dilakukan nelayan asing di ZEEI Kalbar adalah berupa ketidaklengkapan dokumen perizinan (SIUP, SIPI, dan fishing ground), pelanggaran wilayah pemanfaatan alat tangkap, dan tidak mengaktifkan alat komunikasi (transmitter). Dari hasil patroli SPSDKP Pontianak, jumlah kapal asing yang ditangkap melakukan kegiatan illegal fishing pada tahun 2011 sampai 2012 sebanyak 55 kapal, terdiri dari 55 nakhoda dan ABK sebanyak 424 orang. Dari kasus-kasus penangkapan ikan di ZEEI Kalbar yang dilimpahkan ke Pengadilan Perikanan pada Pengadilan Negeri Pontianak, penulis mengambil 7 sampel putusan, yaitu 4 putusan terhadap nelayan asing asal negara Vietnam dan 3 putusan terhadap nelayan asal Thailand. Dari kedua putusan hakim ad hoc tersebut, terbukti bahwa terdapat perbedaan sanksi hukuman bagi nelayan asing yang melakukan penangkapan ikan di ZEEI, di mana untuk nelayan asal negara Thailand sudah mempunyai MoU dengan Indonesia sebaliknya untuk nelayan asal negara Vietnam belum memiliki MoU. Dengan demikian penegakan hukum terhadap nelayan asing terkait dengan penerapan Pasal 102 Undang-Undang Nomor 45 Tahun 2009 tentang perubahan atas UU Nomor 31 Tahun 2004 tentang Perikanan sangat melemahkan proses penegakan hukum bahkan dalam jangka panjang negara Indonesia akan mengalami kerugian yang lebih besar. Belum adanya MoU di bidang perikanan ini menjadi modus operandi dalam penangkapan ikan, bahkan tidak jarang kapal asing dan berbendera asing menggunakan tenaga kerja atau anak buah kapal (ABK) asal Indonesia. Ketika dilakukan penangkapan dan deportasi, aparat keamanan kebingungan, dengan proses deportasi itu sendiri. Dalam upaya melakukan penegakan hukum untuk mengatasi Warga Negara Asing yang melakukan penangkapan ikan di ZEEI Kalimantan Barat, maka pemerintah harus memformulasikan kebijakan terkait penerapan Pasal 102 yang melemahkan proses penegakan hukum.Kata Kunci : Kebijakan penegak hukum terhadap nelayan asing yang divonis pidana dan tidak dilakukan hukuman badan
The advancement of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in Latin American countries may vary from established programs to experimental phase implementation and even inexistence. This creates an opportunity for the development of new ideas and experiments, especially in the quite long stretches of littoral where no occupation has yet been planned or consolidated. However there are localized issues that need to be attended with certain degree of urgency, especially in coastal settings that have been urbanized, developed for industry and/or are situated around port facilities. Spain and Portugal implemented the marine and environmental policies of European Union and may be seen as models for public and private ICZM initiatives. These situations created opportunities and needs that are somehow reflected in dedicated scientific production, as well as in social impact and the related capacity building programs. We surveyed some key costal management journals to know how Latin American based academics are doing in their mission of creating, developing and discussing ICZM along our diverse shores stretching along all climatic zones. Capacity building programs and exchange networks were also scrutinized. Results suggest that the thematic participation in the major publication channels is modest and needs to improve in number and diversity of subjects bringing obvious benefits to the policy and decision makers. Capacity building programs are still in its infancy across the region. There are no, or very few, specialized educational programs to form practitioners and scientists at all academic levels. Training programs integrating countries around all aspects of ICZM are even scarcer. Coordinated actions, such as networks across the political borders are one of the many future needs we point out here as being the next frontier for thinkers and managers in the region. ; A Gestão Integrada da Zona Costeira (GIZC) nos países da América Latina se encontra em diferentes níveis de desenvolvimento, desde programas estabelecidos, passando por níveis experimentais e pela não-existência de iniciativas de GIZC em alguns casos. Isso cria uma predisposição para o desenvolvimento de novas ideias e experiências, especialmente nos longos trechos de litoral, nos quais a ocupação ainda não foi planejada e/ou consolidada. Há, no entanto, questões localizadas que precisam ser atendidas de imediato, especialmente em ambientes costeiros que já foram urbanizados, industrializados ou ainda que se desenvolveram em torno de instalações portuárias. Espanha e Portugal - agora sob a influência da União Europeia - permanecem como nossos modelos de iniciativas de GIZC, tanto públicas quanto privadas. Estas oportunidades e necessidades de alguma forma refletem na produção local científica e seu impacto internacional, bem como em nossos programas de capacitação para a gestão integrada. Nós examinamos publicações de importância para gestão costeira a fim de averiguar como acadêmicos latino-americanos cumprem a sua missão de criar, desenvolver e discutir a GIZC. Analisamos também programas de capacitação e redes estabelecidas. As revistas mais representativas para a comunidade acadêmica de GIZC e que vem sendo publicadas pelo menos nos últimos 30 anos, e que foram brevemente examinadas nesta revisão foram a Ocean and Coastal Management, Coastal Management, Journal of Coastal Research e Journal of Coastal Conservation. Com relação aos programas de capacitação para a GIZC levou-se em consideração estudos recentes que demonstram que a maioria dos temas tratados nos cursos de pós-graduação acadêmicos relacionados com a GIZC não estão diretamente relacionadas com a gestão, mas sim às ciências natural, ou da terra, ou ainda à descrição da dinâmica costeira e ou poluição. Com apoio da Rede Ibero Americana de Gestão Costeira Integrada pode-se chegar a listagem de diversas redes que atuam na América Latina, Espanha e Portugal e que se relacionam com o tema. Os resultados sugerem que a representação nos principais veículos de publicação é tímido e precisa melhorar em número e diversidade de assuntos. Melhorias na publicação científica poderia levar a uma melhor utilização dos temas para o benefício dos tomadores de decisão. A capacitação também ainda está pouco desenvolvida na região. Existem poucos cursos especializados para formar técnicos e cientistas sobre o tema em níveis elevados de educação, ou nível de pós-graduação. Os programas de treinamento em torno de todos os aspectos da GIZC são ainda mais raros. A tendência em se considerar a perspectiva de integração como uma soma de conhecimentos disciplinares, não necessariamente ligados, são apresentadas em iniciativas de capacitação e produção científica. Esta abordagem é considerada falha pois, estas disciplinas, a maior parte do tempo, não se inter-relacionam para fornecer uma perspectiva holística para a gestão. Ações coordenadas, tais como redes, que ultrapassam as fronteiras políticas são uma das muitas necessidades futuras destacadas aqui como sendo a próxima fronteira para os pensadores e gestores da região.
-Peter Hulme, Polly Pattullo, Last resorts: The cost of tourism in the Caribbean. London: Cassell/Latin America Bureau and Kingston: Ian Randle, 1996. xiii + 220 pp.-Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Édouard Glissant, Introduction à une poétique du Divers. Montréal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 1995. 106 pp.-Bruce King, Tejumola Olaniyan, Scars of conquest / Masks of resistance: The invention of cultural identities in African, African-American, and Caribbean drama. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. xii + 196 pp.-Sidney W. Mintz, Raymond T. Smith, The Matrifocal family: Power, pluralism and politics. New York: Routledge, 1996. x + 236 pp.-Raymond T. Smith, Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the past: Power and the production of history. Boston: Beacon, 1995. xix + 191 pp.-Michiel Baud, Samuel Martínez, Peripheral migrants: Haitians and Dominican Republic sugar plantations. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1995. xxi + 228 pp.-Samuel Martínez, Michiel Baud, Peasants and Tobacco in the Dominican Republic, 1870-1930. Knoxville; University of Tennessee Press, 1995. x + 326 pp.-Robert C. Paquette, Aline Helg, Our rightful share: The Afro-Cuban struggle for equality, 1886-1912. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. xii + 361 pp.-Daniel C. Littlefield, Roderick A. McDonald, The economy and material culture of slaves: Goods and Chattels on the sugar plantations of Jamaica and Louisiana. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993. xiv + 339 pp.-Jorge L. Chinea, Luis M. Díaz Soler, Puerto Rico: desde sus orígenes hasta el cese de la dominación española. Río Piedras: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1994. xix + 758 pp.-David Buisseret, Edward E. Crain, Historic architecture in the Caribbean Islands. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994. ix + 256 pp.-Hilary McD. Beckles, Mavis C. Campbell, Back to Africa. George Ross and the Maroons: From Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone. Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, 1993. xxv + 115 pp.-Sandra Burr, Gretchen Gerzina, Black London: Life before emancipation. New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995. xii + 244 pp.-Carlene J. Edie, Trevor Munroe, The cold war and the Jamaican Left 1950-1955: Reopening the files. Kingston: Kingston Publishers, 1992. xii + 242 pp.-Carlene J. Edie, David Panton, Jamaica's Michael Manley: The great transformation (1972-92). Kingston: Kingston Publishers, 1993. xx + 225 pp.-Percy C. Hintzen, Cary Fraser, Ambivalent anti-colonialism: The United States and the genesis of West Indian independence, 1940-1964. Westport CT: Greenwood, 1994. vii + 233 pp.-Anthony J. Payne, Carlene J. Edie, Democracy in the Caribbean: Myths and realities. Westport CT: Praeger, 1994. xvi + 296 pp.-Alma H. Young, Jean Grugel, Politics and development in the Caribbean basin: Central America and the Caribbean in the New World Order. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995. xii + 270 pp.-Alma H. Young, Douglas G. Lockhart ,The development process in small island states. London: Routledge, 1993. xv + 275 pp., David Drakakis-Smith, John Schembri (eds)-Virginia Heyer Young, José Solis, Public school reform in Puerto Rico: Sustaining colonial models of development. Westport CT: Greenwood Press, 1994. x + 171 pp.-Carolyn Cooper, Christian Habekost, Verbal Riddim: The politics and aesthetics of African-Caribbean Dub poetry. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1993. vii + 262 pp.-Clarisse Zimra, Jaqueline Leiner, Aimé Césaire: Le terreau primordial. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993. 175 pp.-Clarisse Zimra, Abiola Írélé, Aimé Césaire: Cahier d'un retour au pays natal. With introduction, commentary and notes. Abiola Írélé. Ibadan: New Horn Press, 1994. 158 pp.-Alvina Ruprecht, Stella Algoo-Baksh, Austin C. Clarke: A biography. Barbados: The Press - University of the West Indies; Toronto: ECW Press, 1994. 234 pp.-Sue N. Greene, Glyne A. Griffith, Deconstruction, imperialism and the West Indian novel. Kingston: The Press - University of the West Indies, 1996. xxiii + 147 pp.-Donald R. Hill, Peter Manuel ,Caribbean currents: Caribbean music from Rumba to Reggae. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995. xi + 272 pp., Kenneth Bilby, Michael Largey (eds)-Daniel J. Crowley, Judith Bettelheim, Cuban festivals: An illustrated anthology. New York: Garland Publishing, 1993. x + 261 pp.-Judith Bettelheim, Ramón Marín, Las fiestas populares de Ponce. San Juan: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1994. 277 pp.-Marijke Koning, Eric O. Ayisi, St. Eustatius: The treasure island of the Caribbean. Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, 1992. xviii + 224 pp.-Peter L. Patrick, Marcyliena Morgan, Language & the social construction of identity in Creole situations. Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American studies, UCLA, 1994. vii + 158 pp.-John McWhorter, Tonjes Veenstra, Serial verbs in Saramaccan: Predication and Creole genesis. The Hague: Holland Academic Graphic, 1996. x + 217 pp.-John McWhorter, Jacques Arends, The early stages of creolization. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1995. xv + 297 pp.
The Biodiversity Coalition Newsletter No.11, September 1995 An International NGO Network for Biodiversity Conservation (c/- P.o., Cygnet 7112, Tasmania, Australia. phifax: +61-02-951745 Newsletter No. 11 September 1995 Code Number: NL95032 Size of Files: Text: 67K Graphics: Line Drawing (gif) - 29K CRUNCH TIME ON VOTING MAJORITIES Parties at COP 2 must agree on a qualified majority voting formula for deciding on financial contributions pursuant to Articles 20 and 21. We would like to suggest that such a formula be: a two thirds majority of Parties present and voting including three quarters of those Parties listed pursuant to Article 20(2). No further consideration of subsequent agenda items should be allowed until this issue has been resolved. Nuclear Disarmament - Life beyond MAD [Extracts from Speech to GLOBE International Conference, Tokyo, 29 August 1995, by Japan's Finance Minister, Mr Takemura (in his personal capacity)] AGENDA FOR JAKARTA COP 2 The second Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity [COP 2] is now less than two months away. It will be held in the Jakarta Convention Centre from 6 17 November 1995. The Provisional Agenda, with a few suggested additions and alterations, is set out below with brief notes. Later articles elaborate on some of the key issues in need of resolution at COP 2. Coral Reefs - A Crisis for Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Change A recent paper by Dr Hajime Kayanne* published in Science [Vol.269, 14/7/95, pp.214-6] and presented to the GLOBE International Conference in Tokyo claims that healthy coral reefs are significant sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide and not the sources many had previous thought them to be. SBSTTA - a mixed success The first SBSTTA meeting can best be described as a 'mixed success' having made minimal progress on any issue (apart from coastal and marine biodiversity) and demonstrated limited ability to build on earlier good work of NGOs, UNEP Panels and the Mexico meeting let alone those of thousands of other groups and organisations around the world. Modus Operandi- Regional sub-structure a 'must' Regionalism for Resource Rights not Centralism for Global Commons Panels of Experts needed - Lots of Them! Indigenous Forests - major components of biological diversity under threat In-situ Conservation CHOSING A FINANCIAL MECHANISM FOR THE CBD - NO NEED TO BE RUSHED INTO THE GEF GEF INELIGIBLE NEED TO ADVISE ALL MDBS 1. A FINANCIAL MECHANISM TO MEET THE REAL NEEDS OF THE CONVENTION 2. A Community Rights Benefit Sharing Fund. PRIORITIES & CRITERIA - MAJOR OVERHAUL NEEDED NATIVE FORESTS' FATE HANGS IN THE BALANCE - Brazil Holds the Line Against Forestry Convention at FAO, & CSD's IPF has Urgent Problems MONTREAL PROCESS CRITERIA - COMMENDABLE RHETORIC - PROBLEMS WITH THE IPF - UNDERLYING CAUSES NEGLECTED The IPF is proposing to delay discussing the crucial issue of underlying causes of indigenous' forest destruction and degradation until its third meeting. This is merely sweeping the problems under the carpet - if the underlying causes of the problem cannot be discussed 'up front', what hope is there of working out how to confront them. CALL FOR ACTION AT COP 2 With the CSD,s IPF process off and running, the CBD can no longer avoid active participation -surely?! EMERGING ISSUES - VISION FROM SEVILLE- UNESCO'S MAB SHOWS THE WAY - CBD IMPLEMENTATION THROUGH COOPERATION Biosphere Reserves: The Vision from Seville (in part) The Seville Conference identified 10 key directions for their new Seville Strategy: IUCN Trips up on CITES CITES is another example of an existing international organisation with its own programmes and projects which should readily qualify for CBD financial support. GENETIC RESOURCES - THE BATTLE RAGES ON FAO's Commission on Plant Genetic Resources is having predictable difficulties in building consensus among its member Governments for its grand vision for a 'Global System' to protect plant - and, more recently, animal genetic resources useful, and potentially useful, for food and agriculture. NATIONAL STRATEGIES AND REPORTS - NEED FOR COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT RATIFICATION PROGRESS A further 19 countries have ratified the Convention in the first eight months of this year, bringing the total to 127 countries as of 24th August 1995. Other Governments and NGOs with access to these tardy Governments are urged to persuade them to ratify as soon as possible. FINANCIAL RULES No agreement on the formula for setting financial contributions from all Parties to fund the COP's budget was agreed at COP 1 because of objections by Brazil that the formulae proposed would saddle larger LDCs with an unfair burden. INDIA IMPLEMENTS THE CBD Indian NGOs are active in working with their governments and other stakeholders in implementing the CBD and Ashish Kothari of the Indian Institute of Public Administration [I.P. Estate, New Delhi 110002, India; fax: +91-11-331.9954] has asked for information on progress in other countries to assist in this work.
Announcement by Alden Partridge of the opening of the Pennsylvania Scientific and Military Collegiate Institute, at Reading, Pennsylvania. Includes a general description of the system of education and course of study offered at the school. A note about the possibility of opening a female seminary at this location is also included. ; Printed at Norwich, Vermont? ; THE PENNSYLVANIA SCIENTIFIC AND MILITARY COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE AT READING, PENNSYLVANIA. CA.PT. A. PARTRIDGE would inform the public that the above Institution will be opened under his superinten-dence, assisted by able and faithful Instructors, on the FIRST MONDAY IN APRIL, 1850. The following branches of Literature, Science and practical Instruction will constitute the course of Education, at this Institution, viz : The Latin, Greek, aud English Languages; Arithmetic ; the Construction and Use of Logarithms ; Algebra: Geometry; Trigonometry; Planometry ; Stereometry; Mensuration of Heights and Distances; Practical Geo-metry, includiug particularly Surveying and Levelling; Civil Engineering; Conic Sections ; The Use of the Ba-rometer, with its application to measuring the altitudes of Mountains and other Eminences; Natural Philosophy ; Astronomy ; the Elements of Chemistry and Electricity ; Optics; Navigation ; Geography, with the use of Maps ^nd Globes; Composition and Declamation; Logic; History; Moral Philosophy; Natural and Political Law; the Law of Nations ; Military Law ; the Constitution of the United States, and the Science of Government gene-rally ; Metaphysics; Political Economy; Agriculture ; Permanent and Field Fortification, both Ancient and Mod-ern ; Field Engineering; the Construction of Marine Batteries ; Artillery Duty; the Principles of Gunnery; a complete Course of Military Tactics; the Attack and Defence of Fortified Places, both in ancient and modern times; Castrametation ; Military and Topographical Drawing; Architecture; Book Keeping. The Military Exercises will be attended to at such hours of the day as not to interfere with the studies and rec-itations ; they will conduce equally to health and improvement. The charge for Tuition, per quarter of eleven weeks, will be as follows, viz; For the Latin and Greek Languages, $10,00 For the English Course, - 8,00 Students between the ages of ten and fourteen years, will be charged per quarter, for Tuition, as follows, viz ; For the Latin and Greek Languages, $7,00 For the English Branches, 6,00 No deduction will be made for absence in term time. A Primary Department will be established, should there be sufficient encouragement, in which will be taught all the elementary branches necessary to prepare the students to enter on the higher branches of study in the Institute. The Tuition will be four dollars per quarter. Youths under eleven years of age will be admitted into this Department. The tuition in all of the departments must be paid quarterly in advance. Board will be furnished on reasonable terms. Students, whose parents reside at such distance that they cannot attend to the pecuniary affairs of their sons, can be furnished with Board, Tuition, the use of study rooms and furniture, with washing, lights, and fuel, for one hundred and seventy five dollars for the Collegiate year of forty four weeks—one half to be paid to the Superintendent, at the time of joining, and the oth-er half at the expiration of twenty two weeks. Capt, P. will take charge of the funds of all such students, and see that they are appropriated for necessary purposes only. No extra charge will be made for this duty. Capt. P. has engaged Professors Rehrer and Batehelder, as his assistants in the Institute. These gentlemen are well ac-quainted with the system of Education, (having been educated under it,) and are in every respect well qualified for their respective stations. Students who may not wish to complete the full course of studies, can attend to such branches as they, or their parents or guardians may designate. The full course will prepare a young man for any of the learned professions, for Civil and Military Engineers, for practical Science, and all the practical business of life; in fine it will make good scholars, good citizens, and good soldiers. Capt. P. will deliver an annual course of Lectures on Military Science, Political Economy, Philosophy, Astronomy, Geography, &c., which will be free to all the members of the Institute. For further information, prior to the first of April, application can be made to Capt. P. at Pembroke, New Hampshire, also to Gen. WM. H. KEIM, the Hon. J. P. JONES, and Judge BANKS, at Reading. NORWICH, VERMONT, NOVEMBER 8, 1849. NOTE. A Seminary for Young Ladies will be opened at Reading, under the patronage of the Institute, as soon as sufficient encouragement shall be given. The course of Instruction will be of as high an order as at the best Female Seminaries in the country.
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Japanese Prime Minister Kishida Fumio's successful visit to Washington between 9 and 11 April testified to a deepening of the US-Japan alliance and important strategic shifts across the First Island Chain, which includes archipelagos stretching from the Kurils up in Northeast Asia down to the Japanese archipelago, Taiwan, the Philippines, all the way south to the Malay peninsula in Southeast Asia. This is part and parcel of a shift in favour of a "Strategy of Denial", as per the thinking of then US Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Strategy and Force Development Elbridge Colby, a key policymaker under the Trump administration.[1] According to Colby, the US would double its efforts at balancing China, enlist US allies and partners across the First Island Chain to buttress deterrence capabilities towards the People's Republic – including in Taiwan – and avoid a potentially domino-like process of subordination to Beijing. These efforts revolve around Japan's ability to shoulder more security responsibilities, a strengthened and more seamless US-Japan alliance – including joint operational planning over a Taiwan crisis scenario and the restructuring of portions of the US military planning to Japan – and a set of geopolitical minilaterals, within which the US-Japan alliance plays a key role.US-Japan(-Philippines) cooperation in the security domain Japan's three strategic documents from December 2022 and the joint statements by Japan and the US in 2023 suggest that the transpacific allies are indeed working in lockstep in the security domain, with deterrence and coercive diplomacy vis-à-vis China high in policymakers' minds. According to these documents, Japan is about to shoulder more security responsibilities as it militarises and embraces offensive strike capabilities. In the process, Japan would ease US fatigue and work side-by-side to buttress its military and diplomatic projection – an aspect emphasised by Kishida in his speech to a joint session of the US Congress. Interestingly, Kishida's visit coincided with a trilateral Japan-Philippines-US summit, which attested to the strategic outreaches of both Washington and Tokyo to interlock the US hub-and-spokes system across the First Island Chain. Japan's minilateral diplomacy aimed at purposeful multi-layered security ententes, often on an ad hoc basis, has worked in concert with the US government's regional efforts. The aim has been to balance China militarily, counter its regional and global diplomatic and economic influence, and do so "by taking full advantage of comprehensive national power, including diplomatic, defence, economic, technological, and intelligence/information capabilities", as per Japan's 2022 National Security Strategy.[2] This whole-of-government grand strategy walked side-by-side with the US concept of an "integrated deterrence" that leveraged allies' capabilities, including basing rights and access for the aforementioned strategic objectives. The force posture and – to all effects – military doctrine changes in Japan have gone hand in hand with increases of US basing rights in both Japan and the Philippines and through enhanced bilateral military cooperation with Manila.Developments in the Taiwan Strait and the creation of the MLR While underplayed by government actors, especially so now that US-China relations have (to some extent) stabilised and public reassurances are gaining more traction, the Taiwan-specific aspects of these strategic changes are worthy of note. From a geopolitical standpoint, Japan and the US benefit from the preservation of the status quo across the Taiwan Strait because it bottles up China's advancement into the seas within the First Island Chain and facilitates the tracking of Chinese military assets venturing beyond it, including intercontinental ballistic missiles, ships and submarines. In fact, as mentioned, the Japanese government has been discreetly overhauling its security regime, military doctrine and force posture to preserve a modicum of military balance of power, even just asymmetrically, to deter Chinese aggression. In parallel, the US government has been providing Taiwan with weapons, training and ways to bolster resilience along its newfound emphasis on asymmetric deterrence across the First Island Chain, while eliciting coalition-building with and among third parties, including NATO allies. Japan's interlinkage of its own security with Taiwan's is evident in US-Japan alliance developments in 2023. On 11 January 2023, the Japan-US "2+2" meeting of foreign and defence ministers was held in Washington during which both governments announced that "the 12th Marine Regiment w[ould] be reorganized into the 12th Marine Littoral Regiment by 2025", a move aimed at "strengthen[ing] alliance deterrence and response capabilities by positioning more versatile, resilient, and mobile forces with increased intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, anti-ship, and transportation capabilities".[3] This initiative dovetailed with the expansion of the US-Philippines Enhanced Defence Cooperation Agreement to allow for four new US bases in key spots across the First Island Chain, thus increasing from five to nine, with more possibly in store to allow for rotational deployments. Effectively, the Marine Littoral Regiment (MLR), made up of ca. 1,800-2,000 servicemen, will split into smaller teams of 50-100 soldiers to allow for intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) of Chinese activities across the East and South China Seas by deploying unmanned surface, underwater and aerial vehicles. Hence, in a contingency, these US amphibious teams in Japanese and the Philippines' territory may distribute maritime operations (that is, disperse lethal forces) through anti-ship missiles and low-altitude defence systems, all while theoretically hopping from island to island every 48 to 72 hours to avoid Chinese attacks, while continuing to conduct ISR and fight. These so-called "stand-in forces", which will have to rely on Japanese military and/or civilian facilities (and, potentially, on Japan's direct military involvement), may well disrupt a Chinese blockade or amphibious landing on Taiwan and facilitate logistical support to the self-governed island. Finally, and in connection to that, a Japan-Philippines Reciprocal Access Agreement, which is currently under negotiation, would strengthen the Tokyo-Manila security side of the newly born trilateral.Enlisting the Republic of Korea Aside from the US-Japan alliance preparations for a Taiwan contingency and coordination with the Philippines, minilateral alignments have gone through the enlisting of the Republic of Korea (RoK), better known as South Korea. The advent of the conservative Yoon Suk-Yeol presidency translated into a stronger RoK alignment with the US and its goals. In fact, an Indo-Pacific Strategy was announced in December 2022. Yoon Suk-Yeol specifically assigned its development to the North America Affairs Bureau of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, suggesting a desire to align with Washington. Aided by his forceful character as a former prosecutor, Yoon single-handedly abandoned his predecessor Moon Jae-in's engagement policy towards the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), aka North Korea, and aligned more fully with the United States on the China and Russia dossiers, so much so that it "indirectly" supplied more artillery shells to Ukraine than all European countries combined. Yoon's decision to tilt on one side of the conflict in Ukraine was not a foregone policy choice given the influence and leverage that Russia and China may exert over their North Korean neighbour, which constitutes Seoul's main foreign and security policy preoccupation. These developments cemented the idea of a progressive rift among competitive blocs, following Russia's 2022 war of aggression in Ukraine. More importantly, and through active US intercession under the Biden administration, the South Korean government took the initiative in perhaps the hardest foreign policy call: reprising dialogue with Japan. This had soured over a negative spiral of disputes over the legacy of past colonial occupation and economic retaliation, especially in 2019. Kishida's mellower public persona and more conciliatory political background compared to his immediate predecessors in Japan's Prime Minister's Office, the late Abe Shinzō in particular, partly smoothened the road. But there were no meaningful concessions from the Japanese government's side, not least because of Kishida's unpopularity and, crucially, the weight of nationalists within his own Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). Still, the stabilisation of Japan-RoK relations – two major US allies – ushered the way for the landmark trilateral US-Japan-RoK cooperation, as evidenced by the Camp David summit of 18 August 2023.[4] There too, minilateral cooperation expanded horizontally to include the diplomatic, educational and technological fields. But the key "integrated deterrence" outcomes were in security, through expanded intelligence sharing, missile defence and strengthened cybersecurity coordination. More importantly, the three documents released at the summit aimed at regularising security consultations, routinising trilateral meetings, both at the summit and working level, and diversifying and expanding their remit beyond North Korea to include food security, economic security and, importantly, China.The potential benefits of minilateralism Through these arrangements, first and foremost, the US government aimed at an institutionalisation of US-RoK-Japan cooperation, thus inter-locking the region's most powerful, prosperous and technologically advanced US allies. It did so with an eye on binding South Korea and Japan into cooperation into the future, as successive governments in either country may not be as sympathetic to their counterpart across the sea as the current ones (especially Yoon's). The routinisation of trilateral cooperation and coordination also aimed at damage limitation in the event of a potential Trump comeback, who would prioritise his own interests at the expense of trilateral coordination. Second, in the context of the RoK-Japan-US minilateral, regularised avenues for dialogue were deepened at multiple levels: from Director General level up to summit meetings, which will be held at least once a year. Third and in connection to the above, the scope of trilateral cooperation expanded notably across agencies, given the multi-layered nature of the challenges and opportunities faced by the three countries. The inauguration of a Japan-US-RoK Indo-Pacific Dialogue and of a Trilateral Framework on scientific cooperation, including defence technology, testified to this logic, not unlike other minilaterals that the Biden administration promptly revitalised or gave birth to, such as the Quad with Australia, India and Japan, or AUKUS with Australia and the UK (soon to include, perhaps, Japan and Canada in one of their two pillars of cooperation). Japan-US-RoK cooperation, however, promised to go deeper with new dialogues or plans on common or coordinative frameworks aimed at combating North Korea's cyber activities, stifling disinformation and promoting humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HA/DR), as well as government financing across the Indo-Pacific (starting with the Pacific Islands), maritime, space and economic security, including the establishment of an early warning system on potential disruptions to supply chains. Fourth, the most publicised development has been the strengthening of intelligence sharing, notably by allowing for a trilateral real-time system that linked the three countries radars tracking and evaluating missiles flying from North Korea, with potential implications also in a Taiwan contingency scenario. This may also well apply to the Philippines – although Manila was likely not as appealing as Seoul's capacity in this regard. Notably, reporting has suggested that Japan was quietly beefing up military and intelligence assistance to the self-governing island, if not directly, by triangulation through the United States, and potentially with some help from South Korea as well.[5]Looking ahead to November 2024 and beyond While momentum has been clear, some of these mechanisms may be put to the test – especially the pledge to consult – by regional dynamics, as North Korea's bellicose behaviour toward its neighbour has been accompanied by DPRK leader Kim Jong-un's overtures towards Japan. Moreover, the Japanese government is still watchful about domestic political developments in South Korea, such as the progressive parties' electoral resounding win in the recent legislative elections (that is, a non-confidence vote against Yoon) and the South Korean Supreme Court's decision to uphold lower courts' orders for compensation by Japanese industries' responsible for wartime labour. Also for this reason, Tokyo is unlikely to allow South Korea into the G7 framework on a more regular basis, which is arguably also one of Washington's desiderata to buttress the rostrum of "like-minded partners". Similar hesitancies have been likely at play vis-à-vis Manila, where former President Rodrigo Duterte's daughter – the current Vice-President – may swift the pendulum away from this alignment of planets carefully engineered by the Biden administration. Developments in US politics may affect the process too. With a second Trump presidency, the Japanese government would be again fearful of a reprise of US concessions to, and US summit diplomacy with, North Korea. This same logic may apply to the US-Japan-Philippines minilateral and other ententes that have been cajoled or blessed by Washington, such as NATO's outreach towards the Asia-Pacific, especially Japan, South Korea and Australia. A Trump redux may break apart NATO, but he might also rethink the merits of his mercenary and transactional tactics in the context of coercive diplomatic leverage towards China. Thus, the bigger test of the "resilience" of minilateral alignments is the possible resurface of a disruptive and unilateral Trump presidency, whose transactional logic would thrive on US leverage at a bilateral level, and, perhaps, the incognita of China's staying power and of US-China strategic rivalry at large. As events unfold, the First Island Chain is and will be the place to watch to understand the geopolitics of US-China competition.Giulio Pugliese is Associate fellow (Asia-Pacific) at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI), Lecturer in Japanese Politics at the University of Oxford and Part-time Professor on EU-Asia Studies at the European University Institute. This commentary is an extract and re-adaptation from a forthcoming academic article: Giulio Pugliese and Marco Zappa, "Japan 2023: Still Walking on Abe Shinzō's Footsteps", in Asia Maior, Vol. XXXIV.[1] Elbridge A. Colby, The Strategy of Denial. American Defense in an Age of Great Power Conflict, New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 2021.[2] The English language version of the strategy translates jōhō merely as "intelligence", but it is a broader concept that encompasses (and can be translated as) "information". In fact, the Japanese government has been particularly apt at leveraging information and intelligence to shape its strategic environment. Cfr. Japan Ministry of Defence, Kokka anzen hoshō senryaku [National Security Strategy], December 2022, p. 4, https://www.cas.go.jp/jp/siryou/221216anzenhoshou/nss-j.pdf. For the English language version see: National Security Strategy of Japan, December 2022, p. 3, https://www.mofa.go.jp/fp/nsp/page1we_000081.html.[3] US and Japan, Joint Statement of the Security Consultative e Committee ("2+2"), 11 January 2023, https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/100444894.pdf.[4] Japan, RoK and US, The Spirit of Camp David: Joint Statement of Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the United States, 18 August 2023, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/08/18/the-spirit-of-camp-david-joint-statement-of-japan-the-republic-of-korea-and-the-united-states.[5] Kathrin Hille and Demetri Sevastopulo, "US to Link up with Taiwan and Japan Drone Fleets to Share Real-Time Data", in Financial Times, 8 June 2023, https://www.ft.com/content/bde0db76-a7f8-4ecd-b5d5-03de0b5a8659.
This doctoral thesis examines how European merger control law is applied to the energy sector and to which extent its application may facilitate the liberalisation of the electricity, natural gas and petroleum industries so that only those concentrations will be cleared that honour the principles of the liberalisation directives (IEMD and IGMD ). In its communication on an energy policy for Europe, adopted on 10/01/2007, the Commission emphasized that a real internal European energy market is essential to meet Europe's three energy objectives, i.e. competitiveness to cut costs for citizens and undertakings to foster energy efficiency and investment, sustainability including emissions trading, and security of supply with high standards of public service obligations (Art. 106 TFEU). The EU issued three pre-liberalisation directives since the 1990s. Dissatisfied with the existing monopolistic structures, i.e. in Germany through demarcation and exclusive concession agreements for the supply of electricity and natural gas, which were until 1998 exempted from the cartel prohibition provision (§ 1 GWB), and the prevalence of exclusive rights on the energy markets, the Commission triggered infringement proceedings against four member states under Art. 258 TFEU. The CJEU confirmed that the Commission has the power to abolish monopoly rights under certain circumstances and the rulings had the effect of convincing the member states to enter into negotiations for an opening up of energy markets owing to the internal market energy liberalization directives of 1996 / 1998 / 2003 / 2009 / 2019 (IEMD and IGMD) . The core element of the IEMD and IGMD is to abolish exclusive rights and offer primarily at least large industrial electricity and gas consumers to choose their supplier (market opening for eligible consumers) and to grant negotiated or regulated third party access to transmission and distribution grids so to address natural monopolies. The second liberalization package of 2003 brought a widening of market opening and acceleration of pace of market opening to a greater number of eligible customers (all non-household consumers since July 2004 and all consumers since July 2007) and an increase in the provisions on management and legal unbundling. In parallel, two regulations regulate the access to cross-border electricity infrastructure (interconnectors) and the third party access to gas transmission networks. Two further Directives addressed the security of natural gas and power supply and a third deals with energy end use efficiency and services , a fourth dealt with the promotion of co-generation and a fifths covers marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive in combination with the Hydrocarbons-Licensing Directive ) backed by the public procurement directive in the energy sector. A regulation covers energy statistics. The implementation of the second energy package was slow and the Commission launched infringement proceedings against 5 member states in front of the CJEU (Art. 258, 256 TFEU). The 3rd energy package of 2009 addressed ownership unbundling of key-infrastructure ownership and energy wholesale and retail supply consisting of three regulations and two directives, deals with independent regulators, an agency for the cooperation of energy regulators (ACER) and cross-border cooperation (the European Network for transmission system operators for electricity and gas [ENTSO-E/G] and a regulation on cross-border grid access for electricity and natural gas. Another new regulation deals with market integrity and transparency . Hence, new regulations regulate guidelines on electricity balancing, congestion management, long-term capacity allocation, the code for grid access and transmission system operation . Other regulations address the guidelines for a European cross-border energy infrastructure, which has to be interpreted in the context of European environmental impact assessment law, the submission of data in electricity markets, establish a network code on demand connection , rule on a network code for grid access for direct current transmission systems, define guidelines on electricity transmission system operation, regulate a network code on electricity emergency , deal with security of natural gas supply and establish a programme to aid economic recovery by granting financial assistance. Finally, Directives promote the usage of renewable energies, regulate common oil stocks, the safety of offshore oil and gas production and the quality of petrol and diesel fuels. The 4th liberalization package consists of a new IEMD2019 and IGMD2019, of a new regulation on European cross-border electricity trade, of a regulation on risk preparedness in the electricity sector, of a new agency for the cooperation of European energy regulators, addresses energy efficiency and rules on good governance in the energy union. Since 2008, the Art. 194 I-II TFEU governs the ordinary legislation procedure in the energy sector (internal market in energy, security of energy supply, energy efficiency, energy saving, renewable energies, interconnection of energy grids) notwithstanding of unanimous decision making in case of energy taxation matters (Art. 194 III TFEU). A brief analysis of the economic implications of concentrations is followed by an assessment of the evolution of European merger control law under Art. 66 ECSCT, Art. 101 and 102 TFEU, the merger control regulation of 1989 and its significant amendments of 1997 and 2004. Then, the theoretical findings are contrasted to the results of recent merger proceedings in the energy sector with a focus on the VEBA/VIAG decision. Several deficiencies are established which limit the efficacy of merger control as a tool of offsetting shortcomings in the secondary EC law with regard to the liberalisation of the electricity and gas supply industry (IEMD and IGMD). Commitments proposed by the parties of a given concentration and accepted by the Commission as being sufficient to remedy a serious potential of dominance may only be of subsidiary relevance to the liberalisation of sectors owing to a number of analytical and practical drawbacks. One dominant drawback relates to the fact that the commitments depend always on parties' proposals and can never be imposed ex officio. Others relate to the blunt authorisations provided by the wording of Art. 6 and 8 MR1997 and MR2004 as to the implementation of undertakings. With regard to acquisitions of U.K. regional electricity companies by EdF, it is elaborated that the current merger control law leaves no scope for reciprocity considerations regarding acquisitions by incumbent companies in liberalised markets even though the acquirer is a protected public undertaking. Moreover, it is established that different decisions apply inconsistent market definitions. By means of the VEBA/VIAG and RWE/VEW cases, the question is addressed which causes are responsible for the established analytical and practical deficiencies of merger control in the energy sector. It is stated that the weaknesses of the IEMD 2009/72/EC and IGMD 2009/73/EC are partly responsible for weak undertakings which do not sufficiently remove the scope for dominance on the affected markets and which do not rule out any possibility of impediments of effective negotiated or regulated TPA and do not remove any commercial incentive of the grid subsidiaries of the vertically integrated companies as to access which discriminates between intra and extra group applicants. It is reported that another argument relates to the limited scope that the Commission has if it wants to remedy deficiencies of written primary law owing to the extraordinary nature of the implied powers doctrine based on the principle of constitutional state. Adverse political influence against competition authorities is also judged. Further, it is analysed that accidental regulation based on incidental provisions imposed on undertakings which may or not implement a concentration is by no means a consistent and non-discriminatory and predictable tool to overcome drawbacks of primary or secondary European law in a given sector owing to the democratic principle and the constitutional state doctrine. It is discussed that secondary legislation with regard to energy networks is inter alia restricted by Art. 345 TFEU and provisions of national constitutions which protect property rights against dis-proportionate expropriations or re-definitions of property. Further, legal authorisations of said calibre will have to be connected to a system of state liability law. Adverse political pressures are considered. The same is true for egoistic national policies which abstain from transnational task forces in order to settle difficulties and disputes. Furthermore, the adverse effect of different stages of the maturity of domestic markets, different consumer patterns and a potential isolation of the system is not neglected, because these conditions make it more difficult to apply consistent standards as to the appropriate market definition in order to facilitate harmonisation. The implementation of the VEBA/VIAG merger is discussed, as the former was further complicated owing to specifically evaluated circumstances which were difficult to predict. Nevertheless, the Commission is not exempted from the duty to take due care concerning potential impediments as to the realisation of parties' commitments. In contrast to the negative aspects, it can be highlighted that the Commission quickly realised flaws of the energy liberalisation project as expressed by the present form of the IEMD and IGMD. Consequently, the co-ordinative and innovative mechanisms of Florence and Madrid were created in order to boost the development of effective cross border trade - i.e. tariff systems and interconnector congestion management. It will be concluded that undertakings put forward by the parties and accepted by the Commission should be restricted to a subsidiary legal instrument, only applied if strictly necessary to overcome certain detrimental aspects of given concentrations in order to provide a hint for the legislator, to specify its legislation. Competition as a de-central distributor of risk, wealth and power will be extended to its maximum extent, if wholesale consumers benefit from lower energy prices which allow greater productivity of European products on the world markets in combination with higher environmental standards owing to modern, cost-efficient plants. A successful implementation will be described by liquid spot markets for power accompanied by tools of financial risk management like forwards, futures and options. These will be valuable indicators of efficient liberalisation of the European electricity and gas supply industries. ; Diese Doktorarbeit untersucht wie das Europäische Fusionskontrollverfahrensrecht auf den Energiesektor angewendet wird und in welchem Ausmaß seine Anwendung die Liberalisierung der Elektrizitäts-, Gas- und Erdölmärkte unterstützt, so dass nur solche Unternehmenszusammenschlüsse freigegeben wurden, die die Prinzipien der Liberalisierungsrechtsakte (Binnenmarktstromrichtlinie und Binnenmarktsgasrichtlinie). In ihrer Mitteilung über eine Energiepolitik für Europa, angenommen am 10.01.2007, betonte die Kommission, dass ein realer Energiebinnenmarkt essentiell ist, um Europas drei Energieziele zu erreichen, d.h. Wettbewerbsfähigkeit, um Kosten für Bürger und Unternehmen zu senken, um Energieeffizienz und Investitionen zu fördern, und Nachhaltigkeit, darin eingeschlossen ein Emissionshandel, und Energieversorgungssicherheit mit hohen Standards von öffentlichen Dienstleistungspflichten (Art. 106 AEUV). Die EU erließ drei Prä-Liberalisierungsrechtsakte seit den 1990er Jahren . Unzufrieden mit den existierenden monopolartigen Strukturen, d.h. in Deutschland durch Demarkationsverträge und ausschließliche Konzessionsverträge für die Versorgung von Strom und Erdgas, die bis 1998 vom allgemeinen Kartellverbot ausgenommen waren (§ 1 GWB), und die Vorherrschaft von ausschließlichen Rechten auf den Energiemärkten, löste die Kommission Vertragsverletzungsverfahren gegen vier Mitgliedstaaten gemäß Art. 258 AEUV . Der Gerichtshof bestätigte, dass die Kommission das Recht hat, ausschließliche Rechte unter gewissen Bedingungen abzuschaffen, und die Urteile hatten den Effekt, die Mitgliedstaaten zu überzeugen, in Verhandlungen für eine Marktöffnung der Energiemärkte gemäß den Energiebinnenmarktrichtlinien von 1996, 1998, 2003, 2009 und 2019 einzutreten (Strombinnenmarktrichtlinie und Gasbinnenmarktrichtlinie). Das Kernelement der Strombinnenmarktrichtlinie und Gasbinnenmarktsrichtlinie ist es, ausschließliche Rechte abzuschaffen und primär zumindest großen industriellen Strom und Gasverbrauchern das Recht einzuräumen, ihren Versorger frei zu wählen (Marktöffnung für auswählbare Verbraucher) und einen verhandelten oder regulierten Drittparteizugang zu Übertragungsnetzen und Verteilungsnetzen zu gewähren, um natürliche Monopole zu regulieren. Das zweite Liberalisierungspaket von 2003 brachte eine erweiterte Marktöffnung und Beschleunigung der Geschwindigkeit der Marktöffnung zu einer größeren Zahl von auswählbaren Verbrauchern (alle Nicht-Haushaltskunden seit Juli 2004 und alle Konsumenten ab Juli 2007) und eine Ausweitung der Vorschrift über Management- und rechtliche Entflechtung . Parallel dazu regeln zwei Verordnungen den Zugang zu grenzüberschreitenden Elektrizitätsinfrastrukturen (Interkonnektoren) und den Drittparteizugang zu Gas Übertragungsnetzwerken. Zwei weitere Richtlinien adressieren die Versorgungssicherheit von Erdgas und Strom und eine dritte behandelt die Energieendnutzungseffizienz und Dienstleistungen , eine vierte Richtlinie beschäftigte sich mit der Förderung von Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung und eine fünfte deckt Meeresumweltschutzpolitik ab (Marine Strategie Rahmenrichtlinie in Verbindung mit der Kohlenwasserstoff-Lizensierungsrichtlinie, verstärkt durch die Richtlinie über das öffentliche Auftragswesen im Energiesektor. Eine Verordnung behandelt Energiestatistiken. Die Umsetzung des zweiten Energiepakets war langsam und die Kommission leitete Vertragsverletzungsverfahren gegen 5 Mitgliedstaaten ein beim Europäischen Gerichtshof (Art. 258, 256 TFEU). Das dritte Energiepaket von 2009 adressierte die eigentumsrechtliche Entflechtung von Schlüssel-Infrastrukturen und die Energiegroßhandelsversorgung und die Kleinkundenenergieversorgung bestehend aus drei Verordnungen und zwei Richtlinien, beschäftigt sich mit unabhängigen Energieregulierungsbehörden, einer Agentur für die Zusammenarbeit von Energieregulierungsbehörden (ACER) und der grenzüberschreitenden Kooperation (das Europäische Netzwerk für Übertragungsnetzwerkoperatoren für Strom und Gas [ENTSO-E/G] und eine Verordnung über grenzüberschreitenden Netzzugang für Strom und Erdgas . Eine andere Verordnung behandelt die Marktintegrität und Transparenz. Außerdem regulieren neue Verordnungen Grundzüge der Strom-Balancierung, Verstopfungsmanagement, langfristige Kapazitätszuweisung, den Kodex für den Netzzugang und die Operation des Übertragungsnetzes. Andere Verordnungen regulieren die Grundsätze für eine europäische grenzüberschreitende Energie-Infrastruktur, welche im Kontext des europäischen Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfungsrechts interpretiert werden muss, die Einreichung von Daten über Strommärkte, etablieren einen Netzwerkkodex über Nachfrageverbindung, regeln einen Netzwerkkodex für den Netzzugang für Gleichstromübertragungssysteme, definieren Richtlinien über Stromübertragungssystemoperation, regulieren einen Netzwerkkodex über Stromversorgungsnotfälle, behandeln Erdgasversorgungssicherheit und etablieren ein Programm, um der ökonomischen Wiederherstellung zu helfen, indem finanzielle Hilfen gewährt werden. Schließlich fördern Richtlinien die Nutzung von erneuerbaren Energien, regulieren gemeinsame Erdölvorräte, die Sicherheit der Hochsee Erdöl- und Erdgasproduktion und die Qualität von Benzin und Diesel Kraftstoffen. Das vierte Liberalisierungspaket besteht aus einer neuen Strombinnenmarktrichtlinie 2019 und einer Erdgasbinnenmarktrichtlinie 2019, aus einer neuen Verordnung über europäischen grenzüberschreitenden Stromhandel, aus einer Verordnung übrer Risikovorbereitung im Stromsektor, aus einer neuen Agentur für die Zusammenarbeit der Europäischen Energie-Regulatoren, adressiert Energieeffizienz und regelt die gute Geschäftsführung in der Energieunion. Seit 2008 regelt Art. 194 I-II AUEV das ordentliche Gesetzgebungsverfahren im Energiesektor (Binnenmarkt für Energie, Energieversorgungssicherheit, Energieeffzienz, Energieeinsparung, erneuerbare Energien und die Interkonnektion von Energienetzen) unabhängig vom einstimmigen Entscheiden im Bereich von Energiebesteuerungen (Art. 194 III AEUV). Eine kurze Analyse der wirtschaftlichen Implikation von Unternehmenszusammenschlüssen folgt die Untersuchung der Evolution des Europäischen Fusionskontrollverfahrensrechts gemäß dem ehemaligen Art. 66 EGKSV, Art. 101 and 102 AEUV, der Fusionskontrollverfahrensverordnung von 1989 und ihrer signifikanten Änderungen von 1997 und 2004. Dann werden die theoretischen Ergebnisse den Resultaten der Fusionskontrollverfahren im Energiesektor gegenübergestellt mit einem Schwerpunkt auf der VEBA/VIAG Entscheidung. Mehrere Schwachstellen werden herausgestellt, welche die Effektivität der Fusionskontrolle im Energiesektor herausstellen, die die Effektivität der Fusionskontrolle als ein Werkzeug zum Ausgleich der Schwachstellen im Sekundärrecht der EU mit Bezug auf die Liberalisierung der Strom- und Erdgasversorgungsindustrien mindern (Elektrizitätsbinnenmarktrichtlinie und Erdgasbinnenmarktrichtlinie). Verpflichtungszusagen auf Vorschlag der Partien eines Unternehmenszusammenschlusses, die von der Kommission angenommen worden sind, um hinreichend zu sein, um ein seriöses Potential von Marktbeherrschung zu adressieren können nur auf hilfsweise Relevanz zur Liberalisierung on Wirtschaftssektoren dienen gemäß einer Anzahl von analytischen und praktischen Nachteilen. Ein relevanter Nachteil bezieht sich auf das Faktum, dass die Verpflichtungszusagen der Parteien immer auf den Parteivorschlägen fußen und dass sie niemals ex officio auferlegt werden können. Andere Nachteile beziehen sich auf die grobe Autorisierung der Kommission, wie sie nahegelegt wird durch den Wortlaut von Art. 6 and 8 Fusionskontrollverordnung 1997 und 2004 bezogen auf die Umsetzung von Nebenbestimmungen. Mit Bezug auf die Akquisition von regionalen Stromunternehmen im Vereinigten Königreich durch EdF wird herausgearbeitet, dass das gegenwärtige Fusionskontrollverfahrensrecht keinen Ansatz für Reziprozitätserwägungen lässt mit Bezug auf Akquisitionen durch amtierende Unternehmen in liberalisierten Märkten, auch wenn der Erwerber eine geschützte öffentliche Unternehmung ist. Außerdem wird herausgearbeitet, dass unterschiedliche Entscheidungen inkonsistente Marktdefinitionen herausarbeitet. Durch die VEBA/VIAG and RWE/VEW Entscheidungen wird die Frage beantwortet, welche Ursachen verantwortlich sind für die etablierten analytischen und praktischen Nachteile der Fusionskontrolle im Energiesektor. Es wird herausgestellt, dass die Schwächen der Elektrizitätsbinnenmarktrichtlinie 2009/72/EG und der Erdgasbinnenmarktrichtlinie 2009/73/EG zu gewissen Anteilen verantwortlich sind für schwache Nebenbestimmungen, die nicht hinreichend den Anwendungsbereich für Marktbeherrschung auf den betroffenen Märkten eliminieren und die nicht jedwede Möglichkeit von Erschwernissen des verhandelten oder regulierten Drittparteizugangs zu Infrastrukturen ausschließen und welche nicht den kommerziellen Anreiz der Netztochtergesellschaften der vertikal integrierten Unternehmen entfernen, zu unterscheiden zwischen Intra- und Extra-Gruppen Netzzugangspetenten. Es wird geschildert, dass sich ein anderes Argument auf den limitierten Anwendungsbereich bezieht, dass die Kommission, wenn sie es möchte, um Nachteile zu adressieren des primären Gemeinschaftsrechts gemäß der außergewöhnlichen Natur der impIizierten Befugnisse Doktrin basieren auf dem Prinzip des Rechtsstaates. Gegenteilige politische Einflussnahme gegen Wettbewerbsbehörden wird außerdem untersucht. Darüber hinaus wird analysiert, dass akzidentielle Regulierung basierend auf Nebenbestimmungen, die vielleicht oder nicht einen Unternehmenszusammenschluss implementieren unter keinem Gesichtspunkt ein konsistentes und vorhersehbares Werkzeug ist, um Nachteile des primären oder sekundären Europäischen Rechts in einem gegebenen Sektor zu überwinden gemäß dem Demokratieprinzip und dem Rechtsstaatsprinzip. Es wird diskutiert, dass sekundäre europäische Rechtssetzung mit Bezug auf Energienetzwerke unter anderem durch Art. 345 AEUV begrenzt wird und dass Vorschriften nationaler Verfassungen, die Eigentumsrechte garantieren, gegen die unverhältnismäßige Enteignung oder Inhalts- und Schrankenbestimmungen des Eigentum schützen . Darüber hinaus werden rechtliche Ermächtigungen des besagten Kalibers gewürdigt und mit einem System von Staatsverantwortlichkeitsrecht verbunden. Gegenteilige politische Drücke wurden erwogen. Das gleiche trifft zu für egoistische nationale Politiken, die von nationalen Taskforces Abstand nehmen, um Schwierigkeiten und Streitigkeiten zu adressieren. Außerdem wird der gegenteilige Effekt von unterschiedlichen Phasen der Reife häuslicher Märkte, unterschiedlichem Verbraucherverhalten und einer möglichen Isolation des Systems untersucht und nicht vernachlässigt, weil diese Bedingungen es schwieriger machen, konsistente Standards mit Bezug auf die sachgerechte Marktdefinition anzuwenden, um die Harmonisierung zu erleichtern. Die Einflüsse der VEBA/VIAG Fusion wird diskutiert, weil diese Entscheidung weiter erschwert war und kompliziert wurde durch spezielle ausgewertete Umstände, die schwierig vorherzusehen waren. Dennoch war die Kommission nicht befreit von der Verpflichtung, um notwendige Sorgfalt anzuwenden bezogen auf potentielle Erschwernisse bezogen auf die Realisierung der Verpflichtungszusagen der Parteien. Im Gegensatz zu den negativen Aspekten kann herausgestellt werden, dass die Kommission schnell Schwachstellen des Enerigeliberalisierungsprojektes erkannt hat, wie es durch die gegenwärtige Form der Elektrizitätsbinnenmarktrichtlinie und der Erdgasbinnenmarktrichtlinie geprägt wird. Konsequenterweise wurden die koordinierenden und innovativen Mechanismen der Foren von Florenz und Madrid geschaffen, um die Entwicklung effektiven grenzüberschreitenden Energiehandels voranzutreiben, d.h. Tarifsysteme und Interkonnektorenverstopfungsmanagements. Es wird der Schluss gezogen, dass Unternehmen, vorangetrieben durch die Parteien und angenommen durch die Kommission, davon ausgenommen wurden sollen, ein subsidiäres rechtliches Instrument zu begrenzen, um gewisse schädliche Aspekte einer gegebenen Unternehmenskonzentration zu überwinden, um für einen Hinweis and den Gesetzgeber zu sorgen, seine Gesetzgebung zu spezifizieren. Wettbewerb als ein dezentrales Verfahren zur Verteilung von Risiko, Wohlstand und Macht wird ausgedehnt zu seinem maximalen Ertrag, wenn Großhandelsverbraucher von geringeren Energiepreisen profitieren, die eine gesteigerte Produktivität Europäischer Produkte auf den Weltmärkten bewirken in Kombination mit höheren Umweltstandards durch den Einsatz moderner, kosteneffzienter Produktionsstätten. Eine erfolgreiche Implementierung wird beschrieben durch liquide Spot-Märkte für Energie, begleitet durch Werkzeuge des finanziellen Risikomanagements wie Forward-Derivate, Future-Derivate und Optionen. Diese wurden wertvolle Indikatoren einer effizienten Liberalisierung der Europäischen Elektrizitäts- und Erdgasversorgungsindustrien sein.
Fruto de un proceso de interacción de más de seis meses, el pasado 2 de diciembre de 2016 se formalizó la creación de la Red de Estudios Organizacionales Colombiana (REOC). Esta iniciativa, impulsada por profesores de las Universidades EAFIT, del Rosario y Jorge Tadeo Lozano, fue secundada en su creación por profesores de las Universidades Externado, Militar Nueva Granada y Nacional de Colombia (sedes Bogotá y Manizales). La Red surge en un momento clave para el fortalecimiento de la investigación en administración en el país y en Latinoamérica. Su objetivo es enriquecer las miradas más convencionales de la investigación organizacional, nutriéndolas desde las ciencias sociales, la reflexión crítica y la búsqueda de identidad nacional y latinoamericana. La formación de redes similares tuvo origen en Europa (European Group for Organizational Studies -ecos-, fundado en 1973[1]) y se ha expandido a México (Red mexicana de Investigadores en Estudios Organizacionales -Remineo-2), Brasil, entre otros3. En desarrollo de este proceso, se invitó a los miembros fundadores de la REOC a reflexionar sobre el alcance y contenido de los Estudios Organizacionales. Las siguientes líneas presentan una de tales reflexiones, cuya responsabilidad plena es de este editor.Partimos de admitir la existencia de un amplio grupo de personas, de ideas y de tradiciones de pensamiento, que lentamente ha consolidado teorías, metodologías y propuestas de explicación y comprensión de las organizaciones. Estas ideas han estado también sintonizadas con valores y posiciones concretas sobre la sociedad y el ser humano, así como sobre los objetivos que este debe perseguir y los mecanismos mediante los que opera la coordinación colectiva.Diferencias ontológicas, epistemológicas y metodológicas permiten caracterizar escuelas, tradiciones, paradigmas y programas de investigación sobre este asunto. La contraposición, surgida de procesos históricos diferentes, concepciones de la sociedad diversas y dinámicas de comprensión de las organizaciones diferenciadas, plantea una disyuntiva con asociación geográfica, que distingue a la tradición en teoría de las organizaciones de los Estados Unidos (en general Norteamérica) de su contraparte, los estudios organizacionales, de estirpe europea (González-Miranda, 2014). Esta diferenciación, que efectivamente se marca y que se hace evidente en ciertos aspectos, no reconoce la dinámica propia del campo de los estudios organizacionales, que también está presente en Estados Unidos. Por ello, la contraposición o demarcación geográfica es posiblemente incompleta e imprecisa. Algunos autores plantean otros criterios para establecer sus orígenes y tendencias actuales (Sanabria, Saavedra y Smida, 2014).La distinción sobre el campo que plantean Clegg y Hardy (1996), según la cual los estudios organizacionales cubren los problemas asociados a las organizaciones (como entes empíricos, socialmente construidos), la organización (como cuerpo conceptual) y el organizando (como el proceso social-contextual), resulta creativa y bien soportada desde criterios epistemológicos y axiológicos. También es aceptado que los estudios organizacionales implican una preocupación por la organización, asumiéndola como una red de relaciones e interacciones humanas, históricas y contextuales. De esta forma, las organizaciones pueden ser entendidas como carentes de un sentido teleológico unificado y atravesadas por los conflictos intrínsecos, propios de la condición y la psique humanas. Estos son entes emergentes, fruto de la complejidad de la acción social y de la permanente pugnacidad de las relaciones de poder que se manifiestan a través del conocimiento, las formas jurídicas y la subjetividad. Por esta razón, la dualidad de la acción humana, que se debate entre la estructura social y la agencia individual, está en el centro de los problemas que abordan los estudios organizacionales. Este es, por tanto, un campo de estudio inter y multidisciplinario en construcción, que integra los conocimientos de las ciencias sociales y que prioriza la comprensión, como un instrumento intrínseco de transformación a través del pensamiento como acción. Este campo de conocimiento es crítico, bien por una postura sobre las relaciones de dominación y explotación, bien por su espíritu de duda sistemática acerca de las ideas y las corrientes dominantes (mainstream). Algunas de las visiones más difundidas en las teorías de las organizaciones son cuestionadas (especialmente aquellas que asumen el individualismo metodológico y la visión economicista-determinista del comportamiento humano, tales como la racionalidad económica neoclásica), mientras que muchas otras teorías son complementadas y enriquecidas por los estudios organizacionales.Estamos convencidos de que la REOC promoverá procesos y articulará esfuerzos en beneficio de las preocupaciones académicas enfocadas en las organizaciones en nuestro contexto. Expresamos nuestro sentido agradecimiento a los compañeros de esta iniciativa, los profesores Diego René González, Juan Javier Saavedra, Diego Armando Marín, Mauricio Sanabria, Mariano Gentilín, Juan Carlos Cuartas, Andrés Hernández, Olga Lucía Anzola, José Gabriel Carvajal, Pedro Sanabria, Carmen Ocampo, Manuel Zevallos y Francisco Ortega.El actual número de INNOVAR está estructurado en cuatro secciones: Marketing; Estrategia y Organizaciones; Educación y Empleo, y Administración Pública. Publicamos nueve artículos, que esperamos resulten interesantes para nuestros lectores y relevantes para la comprensión-intervención de los problemas organizacionales.En la sección de Marketing, publicamos tres artículos de investigación, realizados por académicos de diversos países de la Iberoamérica.Desde España, los profesores Juan Miguel Alcántara y Salvador del Barrio-García, adscritos a la Universidad de Granada, aportan la investigación "El papel moderador del control de incertidumbre, la orientación a largo plazo y el individualismo en el efecto del riesgo percibido sobre la aceptación de un sitio web". Esta plantea un modelo de aceptación y procesamiento de la información de los clientes en un sitio web. Se busca identificar el papel que juegan ciertos valores culturales (concretamente el control de incertidumbre, la orientación al largo plazo y el individualismo) en la formación de actitudes hacia el sitio web, tales como la lealtad. Se realizó un diseño experimental con un sitio web ficticio, en el que participaron 491 sujetos de nacionalidad española y británica. La investigación concluye que las empresas que actúan en mercados internacionales a través de páginas de comercio electrónico deberían enfatizar en las diferencias culturales al diseñar sus estrategias de marketing.Los profesores Leslier Valenzuela y Eduardo Torres, vinculados a la Universidad de Chile, son los autores del artículo "Does Customer Value-oriented Management Influence Financial Results? A Supplier's Perspective". Este trabajo tiene como objetivo verificar la influencia de la gestión del valor para el cliente sobre los resultados financieros, a partir del precio de la acción, el margen de rendimiento y el retorno sobre el capital. Se realiza un trabajo empírico a partir de encuestas a 107 ejecutivos de cuenta de uno de los más grandes bancos en Chile. En el modelo se plantearon cuatro hipótesis relativas a la influencia que tiene la gestión orientada al valor para el cliente en el incremento en la tasa de retención de clientes, la mejora en el costo de la inversión en estos, la mejora en el ingreso generado por los clientes y, finalmente, el valor financiero de la empresa. El trabajo concluye que la gestión del valor orientado al consumidor-cliente tiene una influencia positiva en la tasa de retención y en la optimización de la consecución de clientes, así como en los resultados financieros de la empresa.El tercer trabajo de esta sección nos presenta la propuesta de "Escala mexicana de calidad en el servicio en restaurantes (EMCASER)", de los profesores mexicanos Jorge Vera y Andrea Trujillo, quienes se encuentran vinculados al Tecnológico de Monterrey en Ciudad de México. La investigación tuvo como objetivo desarrollar una escala para la medición de la calidad del servicio en restaurantes en el contexto mexicano. El documento contiene la escala propuesta, que consta de 29 atributos, y los resultados de diferentes pruebas empíricas que permitieron ajustarla, incrementando su confianza y validez. La EMCASER contrasta con la escala que predomina en el ámbito internacional (SERVQUAL), ya que la primera se enfocaría en un sector específico y reconocería las condiciones culturales del contexto mexicano, aportando mejores elementos para la gestión de la lealtad hacia la marca.En la sección de Estrategia y Organizaciones de este número, se recogen dos trabajos, resultados de procesos de investigación.En una colaboración internacional, los profesores Melquicedec Lozano-Posso, de la Universidad Icesi, Colombia, y David Urbano, de la Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, España, aportan el artículo "Relevant Factors in the Process of Socialization, Involvement and Belonging of Descendants in Family Businesses". Esta investigación se enmarca en el estudio de las empresas familiares. La literatura académica ha identificado la existencia de tres etapas o fases en el proceso de relevo generacional en este tipo de empresas. Por ello, la investigación parte de la pregunta ¿qué relaciones causales se evidencian entre los factores que comprenden las tres etapas del proceso de socialización, participación y pertenencia de los descendientes? A partir de la metodología de estudio de caso, el trabajo aborda cuatro empresas familiares (dos medianas y dos grandes), en las que están involucrados descendientes de segunda y tercera generación. Fruto de este trabajo, se realiza una codificación y categorización de las relaciones causales, para luego realizar un contraste de hipótesis, con base en una muestra de 274 empresas familiares localizadas en el Valle del Cauca, Colombia. El trabajo confirma la dependencia entre cada uno de los estados en la evolución de la empresa familiar, lo que permitiría optimizar la preparación de los descendientes para conseguir la continuidad del negocio.De la Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano, Colombia, el profesor Diego Armando Marín participa en la presente edición con el trabajo titulado "Entendiendo la explotación y la exploración en el aprendizaje organizacional: una delimitación teórica". Este trabajo demarca teóricamente, a partir de una revisión sistemática de la literatura, dos competencias centrales en el aprendizaje organizacional: la explotación y la exploración. Estas categorías, derivadas del trabajo seminal de March (1991), son centrales en el debate contemporáneo sobre la innovación, la gestión del conocimiento y la estrategia organizacional. El profesor Marín desarrolla una revisión analítica de la literatura y plantea una caracterización de las dos competencias, bien como sustitutas o como complementarias, en la comprensión del proceso de aprendizaje organizacional.Dos artículos componen la sección de Educación y Empleo para nuestra actual edición de la revista."Metodología para el análisis de problemas y limitaciones en emprendimientos universitarios" es el título del trabajo fruto de una colaboración chileno-española. Sus autores son los profesores Nikulin, Viveros, Dorochesi y Lay Bobadilla de la Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Chile, y el profesor Adolfo Crespo de la Universidad de Sevilla, España. Este artículo tiene como objetivo presentar una metodología estructurada, que permite contextualizar y analizar los emprendimientos universitarios, a partir de los recursos concretos (reales) con que cuenta, planteando una priorización de opciones-soluciones. El trabajo se soporta en el método desarrollado por la teoría de resolución de problemas de inventiva, ya que sus herramientas permiten comprender situaciones conflictivas en contextos de recursos limitados. El artículo, además, incluye el estudio de caso de un emprendimiento universitario en Valparaíso, Chile, que permite validar la metodología plateada.Los profesores Rivero, Dabos, Marino y Rodríguez, vinculados a la Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina, participan con el artículo titulado "Impacto de la educación formal de postgrado en Management: análisis de las transiciones de carrera de los graduados de un Master of Business Administration". Con esta investigación se buscó explorar en profundidad los cambios y las transiciones de carrera que vivió un grupo de profesionales que estudiaron un prestigioso programa de Master of Business Administration (MBA), en Argentina. La muestra se conformó con 24 de los egresados de los últimos cinco años de ese programa. Con base en la teoría fundada, se identificaron tipologías dominantes de las transiciones de las carreras profesionales de los individuos estudiados, así como los motivos que impulsaron tales transiciones. Los resultados permiten estructurar un modelo teórico que explica las relaciones y condiciones en los procesos de transición de carreras profesionales que caracterizan el actual mundo del trabajo.Nuestra última sección, Administración Pública, está conformada por dos artículos académicos.Los profesores Francisco Azuero, de la Universidad de los Andes, Colombia, y Alexander Guzmán y María Andrea Trujillo, del Colegio de Estudios Superiores de Administración (CESA), Colombia, aportan el trabajo "Contratos de estabilidad jurídica en Colombia: un análisis desde la economía de la información y la economía política". En el contexto de cambios normativos que ha experimentado el país en los últimos diez años, con el objetivo promover la inversión privada, este trabajo analiza los Contratos de Estabilidad Jurídica (CEJ), desde la economía de la información y la economía política. Con un robusto análisis teórico y a partir de datos de fuentes secundarias, los autores concluyen que la creación y existencia de los CEJ son una manifestación de un sistema de redistribución de ingresos y de generación de rentas que beneficiaron a los empresarios firmantes. También expresan una inconsistencia intertemporal de los objetivos de la política pública que, en vez de conseguir la creación de capital físico en el largo plazo, promovieron un flujo de inversión de corto plazo, para mostrar resultados del Gobierno.Desde la Universidad de Granada, España, los profesores Alcaide-Muñoz, Rodríguez-Bolívar y López-Hernández aportan el resultado de investigación titulado "Análisis bibliométrico sobre la implementación de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación en las administraciones públicas: aportaciones y oportunidades de investigación". Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo realizar un análisis bibliométrico sobre la evolución de la implementación de las TIC en la administración pública. El gobierno electrónico (e-Gobierno) se ha convertido en un instrumento central en los procesos de reforma de la administración pública en los últimos quince años. Ello se debe a su capacidad para modernizar los procesos administrativos o de gestión y para ampliar la rendición de cuentas. No obstante, cada vez se evidencian más vacíos y problemas conceptuales y prácticos en su implementación. Este trabajo destaca este bajo grado de madurez y plantea como una oportunidad para la investigación académica la necesidad de construir teorías más sólidas para el e-Gobierno y el desarrollo de trabajos cuantitativos.Esperamos que este número de INNOVAR sea del agrado de nuestros lectores y, como siempre, estamos prestos a recibir contribuciones académicas de profesores e investigadores de todas las regiones en español, inglés, francés y portugués, que se relacionen con el campo organizacional y empresarial, desde referentes amplios o particulares de las ciencias sociales.Notas1 http://www.egosnet.org/egos/about_egos/egos_history_short_overview.2 http://www.remineo.org/index.php/2016-02-14-09-18-25/nuestros-origenes.3 También en el 2016 se llevó a cabo la Sexta Reunión de Estudios Organizacionales en Latinoamérica y Europa (LAEMOS), en Viña del Mar, Chile.
