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Article by Morris Arnold on the Arkansas Legal System during the Colonial Period. ; THE ARKANSAS COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM, 1686-1766 Morris S. Arnold* Except for the silence of its final letter, there is nowadays noth­ing very French about Arkansas. Yet before the American takeover in 1804 the great majority of the European inhabitants of the area presently occupied by the state were of French origin. There is s9me visible proof of this in the names, many now mangled beyond e:asy recognition, which eighteenth-century voyageurs and coureurs de bois gave to a good many Arkansas places and streams; 1 and there are, as well, a number of Arkansas townships which bear the names of their early French habitants .2 While these faint traces of a remote European past survive, ab­solutely nothing remains of the laws and customs which the ancient residents of Arkansas observed. This is no accident. It was a favor­ite object of Jefferson to introduce the common law of England into the vast Louisiana Territory as quickly as he could. In the lower territory he waited too late. New Orleans had had a large French population and a somewhat professionalized legal system for some time, and the civilian opposition, given time to congeal, proved to * Ben J. Altheimer Distinguished Professor of Law, University of Arkansas at Little Rock. B.S.E.E. 1965, LL.B. 1968, University of Arkansas; LL.M. 1969, S.J.D. 1971, Harvard Law School. This article is the first chapter of Professor Arnold's book, UNEQUAL LAWS UNTO A SAVAGE RACE: EUROPEAN LEGAL TRADITIONS IN ARKANSAS, 1686-1836, which will be published later this year. l. See generally Branner, Some Old French Place Names in the State of Arkansas, 19 ARK. HIST. Q. 191 (1960). The etymology of some of these names is difficult and interesting. Who would guess very quickly, for instance, that Smackover in Union County is Chemin Couvert (covered road) in disguise? Id. at 206. Tchemanihaut Creek (pronounced 'Shamanahaw") in Ashley County is a good deal easier: Chemin a haut (high road) must have been its original name. Its initial letter, one local historian has plausibly suggested, is probably attributable to "a misguided attempt to derive the name from the Indian lan­guage." Y. ETHERIDGE, HISTORY OF ASHLEY COUNTY, ARKANSAS 17, 18 (1959). Other names should on sight be instantly intelligible to a modern Parisian, though their current pronunciation might cause him consternation: Examples are the Terre Rouge (red earth) and Terre Noire (black earth) Creeks in Clark County, the L 'Angui!le (eel) River in north­east Arkansas, and La Grue (crane) township in Arkansas county. 2. Vaugine and Bogy Townships in Jefferson County, Darysaw (Desruisseaux) Town­ship in Grant County, and Fourche La Fave (Lefevre) Township in Perry County are good examples. 391 392 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 have sufficient muscle to win a partial victory.3 As a result, as to substantive civil matters the state of Louisiana is today a thoroughly civilian jurisdiction. In the upper territory, however, by a piecemeal process beginning in 1804, the English common law was insinuated into the legal system, until, in 1816, it was at last adopted virtually wholesale by the General Assembly of the Missouri Territory.4 The purpose of this article is to explain why civilian legal institutions proved so weak in Upper Louisiana and especially in Arkansas. It turns out that the smallness and character of the European popula­tion in Arkansas was the main cause for the vulnerability of Euro­pean legal norms there. The reception of the common law in Arkansas was simply one element in a more general exchange of cultures which occurred following the Louisiana Purchase. I At ten o'clock on the morning of March 12, 1682, Robert Cava­lier, sieur de la Salle, having been commissioned four years earlier by Louis XIV of France to explore and take possession of the Mis­sissippi and its tributaries, drew near the Quapaw Village of Kappa. The village was located on the right bank of the Mississippi River about twenty miles north of the mouth of the Arkansas. From the war chants emanating from the Indian town, La Salle judged that he was in for a hostile reception; so he hastily constructed a "fort" on an island opposite the village and awaited developments. Soon, however, the Quapaw chief sent the calumet of peace, and La Salle and his men went to Kappa where they were received with every possible demonstration of affection both public and private. Asked by the Quapaws for help against their enemies, La Salle promised that they could thenceforth look for protection to the greatest prince of the world, in whose behalf he had come to them and to all the other nations who lived along and around the river. In return, La Salle said, the Quapaws had to consent expressly to the erection in their village of a column on which His Majesty's arms were to be painted, symbolizing their recognition that he was the master of their lands. The Indians agreed and Henry de Tonti, La Salle's lieutenant 3. See generally G. DARGO, JEFFERSON'S LOUISIANA: POLITICS AND THE CLASH OF LEGAL TRADITIONS (1975). 4. 1 LAWS OF A PUBLIC AND GENERAL NATURE, OF THE DISTRICT OF LOUISIANA, OF THE TERRITORY OF LOUISIANA, OF THE TERRITORY OF MISSOURI, AND OF THE STATE OF MISSOURI, UP TO THE YEAR 1824, ch. 154 (1842). 1983) COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 393 and commandant of one of the two brigades in the company, imme­diately caused the column to be fashioned. On it was painted a cross and the arms of France, and it bore these words: Louis the Great, King of France and of Navarre, rules. 13th of March, 1682. Tonti then conducted the column with all the French men-at-arms to the plaza of the village, and, La Salle taking up a position at the head of his brigade and Tonti at the head of his, the Reverend Fa­ther Zeno be Membre sang the hymn 0 crux, ave, spes unica. The company then went three times around the plaza, each time singing the psalm Exaudiat te Dominus and shouting vive le roy to the dis­charge of their muskets. They then planted the column while re­peating the cries of vive le roy, and La Salle, standing near the column and holding the king's commission in his hand, spoke in a loud voice the following words in French: On behalf of the very high, very invincible, and victorious prince Louis the Great, by the grace of God, King of France and of Navarre, the fourteenth of this name, today, the 13th of March, 1682, with the consent of the nation of the Arkansas assembled at the village of Kappa and present at this place, in the name of the king and his allies, I, by virtue of the commission of His Majesty of which I am bearer and which I hold presently in my hand . , have taken possession in the name of His ffi.ajesty, his heirs, and the successors to his crown, of the country of Louisiana and of all the nations, mines, minerals, ports, harbors, seas, straits, and roadsteads, and of everything contained within the same . . . . After more musket-firing and the giving of presents the Indians cele­brated their new alliance throughout the night, pressing their hands to the column and then rubbing their bodies in testimony to the joy which they felt in having made so advantageous a connection. Thus did France gain sovereignty over and ownership of Arkansas. The reason that we know all these details and more about La Salle's activities in Arkansas is that he had requested, and received, from Jacques de la Metairie, the notary who was in his company, a lengthy proces-verbal describing the events at Kappa and officially attesting their occurrence.5 This was Arkansas's first exposure to civilian legal processes. It would be almost 150 years before the influence of the civil law ceased to make itself felt there. 5. 2 P. MARGRY, DECOUVERTES ET ETABLISSEMENT DES FRAN<;:AIS DANS L'0UEST ET DANS LE SUD DE L'AMERIQUE SEPTENTRIONALE, 1614-1754 (1881). 394 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 II Arkansas Post was the first European establishment in the lower Mississippi valley. It was first located about twenty-seven miles by river from the mouth of the Arkansas on the edge of Little Prairie at what is now called the Menard Site. (See Figure 2). Set­tled in 1686 by six tenants of Henry de Tonti to whom La Salle in 1682 had granted the lower Arkansas as a seignory, 6 it was to serve as an Indian trading post and as an intermediate station between the Illinois country and the Gulf of Mexico.7 Tonti's plans for the place had been large indeed. In 1689 he promised the Jesuits to build a house and chapel at the Arkansas and to grant a resident priest a sizeable amount of land; while there, Tonti confidently asserted, the priest could "come and say mass in the French quarter near our fort."8 No priest in fact established himself during Tonti's ownership of the Arkansas and his French quarter and fort never materialized. When in an undated grant of land to Jacques Cardinal, one of his men at the Post, Tonti styled himself seigneur de ville de Tonti (lord of the town of Tonti),9 he was in the grips of an excessive enthusi­asm. There is no evidence that the European population of the place ever exceeded six. In fact, when Joutel arrived there in 1687 there were only two Frenchmen remaining in residence; 10 and the single log house he descpbed is apparently the only structure ever erected at Tonti's Post. Joutel remarked of Tonti's two traders that "if I was joyous to find them, they participated in the joy since we left them the wherewithal to maintain themselves for some time." Indeed, he said, "they were almost as much in need of our help as we of theirs." He ridiculed the whole idea of a post at that location. "The said house," Joutel noted sarcastically, "was to serve as an 6. See Faye, The Arkansas Post ef Louisiana: French Domination, ;26 LA. HIST. Q. 633, 635-36 ( 1943). 7. Such was the view of Father Douay, a Jesuit who described Tonti's post in 1687. See M. THOMAS, THE ARKANSAS POST OF LOUISIANA, 1682-1783 (M.A. Thesis, University of California, 1948). 8. Tonti's grant to the Jesuits is quoted in 1 M. GIRAUD, A HISTORY OF FRENCH LOUI­SIANA 8 (J. Lambert trans., 1974). 9. The grant is translated in THE FRENCH FOUNDATIONS 396 (T. Pease & R. Werner eds., 1934). 10. Faye, supra note 6, at 735. 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM Henry de Tonti, lieutenant of La Salle. He founded Arkansas Post in 1686 and in the late seventeenth century styled himself seigneur de ville de Tonti. He was the first European to possess judicial authority in Arkansas. (Courtesy of the Museum of the History of Mobile). 395 396 UALR LAW JOURNAL · [Vol. 6:391 entrepot [way-station] for the French who travelled in these parts, but we were the only ones whom it so served." 11 Short of supplies and virtually inaccessible, the tiny outpost never prospered. The war with the Iroquois closed the route to Ca­nada and made trade to and from Arkansas impossible much of the time until 1693.12 By 1696, Jean Couture, Tonti's lieutenant and commandant at the Post, had deserted to the English, 13 and in 1699 Jesuit missionaries to the Quapaws found no trace of a French set­tlement. 14 By then the French had evidently abandoned the Arkan­sas, though there may have remained behind a "few white savages thereabouts as wild as red savages." 15 However grandiose and ambitious had been the schemes of Tonti, they would soon come to seem tame. In 1717 the Mercure de France, a Paris newspaper, began advertising the riches of Louisi­ana to its readers: Gold and silver could be mined there "with al­most no labor." The mountains situated on the Arkansas River would be explored, and there, one correspondent exuded, "we shall gather, believe me, specimens from silver mines, since others al­ready have gathered such there without trouble." When Cadillac sensibly protested that "the mines of the Arkansas were a dream" he was promptly committed to the Bastille "on suspicion of having spo­ken with scant propriety against the Government of France."16 The man behind the propaganda campaign was John Law, a Scot, who owned a bank in Paris and who had in 1717 succeeded in securing for his Compagnie d'Occident a monopoly on Louisiana trade. Law's company recruited thousands of colonists to settle in Louisiana and the king granted it authority to grant land from the 11. Joutel Remarques sur /'Ouvrage de Tonti Re/at(( a la Louisiane ( 1703), Archives Service Hydrographique (Paris), vol. 115-9, no. 12 (Typescript in Little Rock Public Li­brary). The translation in the text is mine. 12. Faye, supra note 6, at 638. 13. IBERVILLE'S GULF JouRNALS 144 at n.98 (R. McWilliams ed. 1950). 14. 18 COLLECTIONS OF THE WISCONSIN HISTORICAL SOCIETY 427, at n.37 (1908). 15. Faye, supra note 6, at 646. See also I M. GIRAUD, supra note 8, at 8: "When d'Iberville reached the Mississippi [i.e., in 1699] the post had been abandoned." Some writ­ers are reluctant to say that the Arkansas was completely devoid of Europeans at this time. See, e.g., P. HOLDER, ARCHAEOLOGICAL FIELD RESEARCH ON THE PROBLEM OF THE LOCA­TIONS OF ARKANSAS POST ARKANSAS 4 (1957): "The French occupation of the general area along the lower courses of the Arkansas and White Rivers was virtually continuous from the 1680's onward." The truth is that the sources simply fail to mention any Europeans in Ar­kansas, except Jesuit missionaries, between 1699 and 1721. It is, however, hard to resist believing that a few hunters and trappers ventured from time to time into the area and established temporary camps there. Almost certainly no real settlement existed however. 16. Faye, supra note 6, at 653. 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 397 Royal domain. Proprietors of the company's land grants (conces­sionaires) were given considerable latitude in choosing the spots for their settlements, since the interior of Louisiana was not well known; and they therefore exercised much discretion in locating their colonists on arrival. 17 However, the company early on had recognized the Arkansas River as an important spot, since it was thought that it might well be the best route to the Spanish mines of Mexico. Thus the company specifically directed where the Arkansas concession should be located and ordered that it be the first occu­pied. 18 It granted this concession to Law himself. In August of 1721, a group of Law's French engages (perhaps as many as eighty) took possession of land on Little Prairie at or near the site of Tonti's abandoned trading post. 19 (See Figure 2). Although Law was by then bankrupt and had fled France, the news did not reach Louisiana until after Jacques Levens, Law's director in Louisiana, had caused the Arkansas colony to be established under the command of some of his subordinates.20 By December of that year Bertrand Dufresne, sieur du Demaine, replaced Levens as director for Arkansas, and in March of 1722 he took possession of the concession and began an inventory of its effects and papers.21 On his arrival he found only twenty cabins and three arpents (about 2.5 acres) of cleared ground. He reported a total of about fifty men and women resident,22 tristes debris, Father Charlevoix called them,23 of Mr. Law's concession. They had produced only an insig­nificant harvest. Lieutenant la Boulaye was nearby with a military detachment of seventeen men.24 (See Figure 1). Despite the existence of a company store at the Arkansas con­cession, both the colony and the military establishment were in con­siderable difficulty.25 Dufresne therefore immediately released twenty of the engages from service and gave them lots to cultivate in the hopes that a better harvest of corn and wheat would be realized in 1722. In February of the following year there were only forty-one colonists remaining, divided now into two small farming communi- 17. 4 M. GIRAUD, H!STOJRE DE LA LOUISIANE FRANc_;;AISE 198 (1974). 18. Id. 19. Id. 20. Id. at 199. 21. Id. at 271. 22. Id. at 272. 23. 6 P. CHARLEVOIX, JOURNAL D'UN VOYAGE FAIT PAR ORDRE DU Roi DANS L'AMERIQUE SEPTENTRIONNALE 164 (1744). 24. 4 M. GIRAUD, supra note 17, at 273. 25. The following paragraph is based on Id. at 273-74. 398 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 ties: Fourteen men and one woman at Law's concession under Dufresne, and sixteen men, some with families, two leagues down the river with the troops. Among this latter group there lived six black slaves. 26 Benard la Harpe, while exploring the river in 1721, had predicted, or at least hoped for, a turn in the fortunes of the struggling colony, but that hope proved false and in 1727 Father Paul du Poisson, the Jesuit missionary to the Arkansas, reported that only about thirty Frenchmen remained behind.27 The military post had been abandoned two years previous. 28 Village des Arcan~as ---N Poste francais commande par le S. la Boulaie 0 - - - -, ·: ·Concession de M. Law I I L. --- ' MISSISSIPPI Figure 1 Sketch of the location of Law's colony by Du­mont de Montigny,Archives Nationales, Paris, 6 JJ-75, Piece 254. All this seemed worth recounting in some detail because for generations historians of Arkansas have believed that a colony of Germans once occupied their river. Law did recruit many Germans for settlement in Louisiana, and they were destined for the Arkan­sas, but as soon as the news of Law's bankruptcy reached the colony 26. Recensement General des Habitans Estab!ys,,.SoteJouy Arkansas et d~s Ouvrier~ ~e la Concession cy devant Apartenant a M. Law, 18 February, 1723. (Transcnpt at Lomsiana History Center, Louisiana State Museum, New Orleans). 27. Du Poisson to Father___, translated in Falconer, Arkansas and the Jesuits in 1727-A Translation, 4 PUBLICATIONS OF THE ARKANSAS HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 352, at 375 (1917). 28. Faye, supra note 6, at 670. 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 399 in June of 1721, the Compagnie des Indies took over the direction of his concession;29 and when the time arrived to transport the German immigrants to Arkansas, the company, in an economy move, de­cided instead to send them to Delaire's grant in Lower Louisiana.30 In short, none of Law's Germans ever reached Arkansas. This is a pity, as the prospect of discussing, or at least imagining, a group of German immigrants living under French law on the Arkansas River was an intriguing one--one of which the facts have now unfortu-nately deprived us. · III Before 1712, the colony of Louisiana, with a population of only a few hundred, had been entirely under military rule and regular civil regulation was altogether lacking. On September 19, 1712, the Crown granted a trade monopoly to Antoine Crozat but he was given no governmental authority: As Henry Dart noted, the charter was "only an operating contract with the duties of government re­tained in the Crown."31 However, the charter did adopt as law for the colony "nos Edits, Ordonnances Et Coutumes Et !es usages de la Prevoste Et Vitf/omte de Paris--our edicts, ordinances, and customs, and the usages of the Provostry and Viscounty of Paris."32 The Cou­tume, despite its name, was actually a small code of some 362 titles first reduced to writing in 1510,33 and treating both substantive and adjective law. It was itself terse, indeed epigrammatic; but the com­mentary on it by the time of its adoption in Louisiana was volumi­nous. 34 Annotated versions of the Coutume were therefore very popular in France and in time they found their way to Louisiana.35 Also in 1712, by a separate instrument, a new and important institution was created for the colony, the Superior Council of Loui­siana. 36 Modelled on the governmental arrangements already in 29. 4 M. GIRAUD, supra note 17, at 216. 30. Id. at 248. 31. Dart, The Legal Institutions of Louisiana, 3 SOUTHERN LAW Q. 247 (1918). This article also appears in 2 LA. HIST. Q. 72 (1919). 32. The charter is printed in 4 PUBLICATIONS LA. HIST. Soc. 13, at 17 (1909). 33. For a precis of its provisions, title by title, see Schmidt, History ef the Jurisprudence of Louisiana, l LA. L. J., no. l, l (1841). 34. The most useful eighteenth-century commentary is C. FERRIERE, CoMMENTAIRE SUR LA CouTUME DE LA PREVOTE ET VICOMTE DE p ARIS. It is available in several editions. 35. Dart, The Law Library ef a Louisiana Lawyer in the 18th Century, 25 REPORTS OF THE LOUISIANA BAR ASSOCIATION 12, at 22 et seq. (1924). 36. See Dart, supra note 31, at 249 et seq. See also, for some discussion of the work of this body, Hardy, The Superior Council in Colonial Louisiana, in FRENCHMEN AND FRENCH 400 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 place in other French colonies, the Council had original and exclu­sive jurisdiction to decide disputes arising anywhere in Louisiana. It consisted of the Lieutenant General of New France; the Intendant of the same; the Governor of Louisiana; a first councilor of the king; two other councilors; the attorney general; and a clerk. Judgments in civil cases required the concurrence of at least three members and in criminal cases at least five. The Council was originally created to exist for three years, but on September 7, 1716, it became by virtue of a Royal Edict a permanent institution.37 In 1717 a fundamental change occurred in the government of Louisiana. In that year Crozat, having lost an enormous sum under his operating charter, surrendered it, and John Law's Compagnie d'Occident was given a monopoly over trade in the colony. In addi­tion, unlike Crozat's company, the Compagnie d'Occident was granted extensive governmental authority: It had the power to ap­point the Superior Council, to name governors and military com­mandants, and to appoint and remove all judges. The charter also provided that "Seront tous !es juges Etbalis en tous !es d. Lieux tenus de juger suivant !es Loix Et ordonnances du Royaume Et se Con-former a la Coutume de la prevoste Et Vicomte de Paris. . . ."; that is, that "all the judges established in all the said places shall be bound to judge according to the laws and ordinances of the realm, and [shall also be bound] to conform to the customs of the Prevostry and Viscounty of Paris."38 This portion of the charter obviously provided for the reception of general French legislation and the Custom of Paris. In addition, it has been shown that subsequent French legislation, as soon as it was registered in the colony, and the legislation of the Superior Council itself, formed part of the body of colonial Louisiana law.39 The subsequent French legislation was of three distinct sorts: (a) general legislation; (b) special colonial legis­lation; ( c) colonial legislation passed specifically for Louisiana. 40 Two years later we hear for the first time about inferior courts for outlying portions of the colony. On September 12, 1719, the king noted the need to appoint persons to act as judges "to facilitate w A YS IN THE MISSISSIPPI v ALLEY 87 (J. McDemott ed., 1969); Micelle, From Law Court to Local Government: Metamorphosis of the Superior Council of French Louisiana, 9 LA. HIST. 85 (1968). 37. The edict is printed in 4 PUBLICATIONS LA. HIST. Soc. 21-23 (19CS). 38. Id. at 48. 39. Baade, Marriage Contracts in French and Spanish Louisiana: A Study in "Notarial" Jurisprudence, 53 TUL. L. REV. 3, 9 (1978). 40. Id. 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 401 the administration of justice in places distant from the place where the Superior Council holds it sessions."41 The "heads or directors" of concessions along with "other of our subjects, capable and of pro­bity" were to "exercise both civil and criminal justice." The edict went on to provide that, even in these inferior courts, "three judges shall sit in civil matters and in criminal matters five judges . " The plan, evidently, was to have a kind of provincial council at each settlement. The king further provided that an appeal from these lo­cal tribunals would lie in all cases to the Superior Council.42 All this was being done, of course, to make ready the way for Law's coloniz­ing schemes. In 1720 or 1721 Louisiana was for the first time divided into districts (or counties). Arkansas was one of the nine districts origi­nally created, and a local commandant and a judge was assigned to each "to put justice with greater ease in reach of the colonists."43 Presumably, and understandably, the plan to establish local councils outside New Orleans was abandoned at this time. The sources sim­ply fail us on the question of whether more than one person was expected to sit on local courts, but it could not have proved worka­ble in remote places like Arkansas to assemble a multi-member ju­dicial body. In May of 1722 the Regent issued an order creating a provincial council for Illinois, the jurisdiction of which supposedly extended from "all places on and above and Arkansas River . . . to the boundaries of the Wabash River." The commandant of the Illinois, Lieutenant de Boisbriant, was to serve as "chief and judge" of this so-called council, which in fact had only one other member.44 It thus seems to have been the plan to abolish the Arkansas district and annex its territory to its nearest northern neighbor; and the Illi­nois provincial council was directed "to hold its sessions at the places where the principal factories of the company shall be estab- 41. The edict is printed in 4 PUBLICATIONS LA. HIST. Soc. 63 (1908). 42. The translation in the text is mine. The entire edict is translated and discussed in Dart, supra note 31, at 261 et seq. Further discussion of this edict can be found in Dart, The Colonial Legal Systems of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas, 27 REPORTS OF THE LOUISIANA BAR ASSOCIATION 43 at 52 (1926). 43. Id. at 267. The other districts were New Orleans, Biloxi, Mobile, Alibamous, Natchez, Yazoo, N atchitotches, and the Illinois. 44. Translated extracts from this order appear in 2 J. WHITE, A NEW COLLECTION OF LAWS, CHARTERS, AND LOCAL ORDINANCES OF THE GOVERNMENTS OF GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, AND SPAIN, RELATING TO THE CONCESSION OF LAND IN THEIR RESPECTIVE COLO­NIES . 439-40 (1837). 402 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 lished."45 This language could have been construed to require the Illinois council to sit at the Arkansas. It is, however, very much to be doubted that such a session was ever held, and certainly it is not believeable that anyone would repair from Arkansas to Illinois to settle a grievance in 1722. It seems probable, then, that whatever judicial functions were exercised at the Arkansas were entrusted to its resident directors even after the supposed creation of the council of the Illinois. The only resident director that the Arkansas ever had was, as we saw, Bertrand Dufresne, sieur du Demaine, who arrived at the Post March 22, 1722, and he was evidently the judge from that point on. Prior to that, Jacques Levens had been director, but as he never took up residence in Arkansas we have to presume that if judicial func­tions were undertaken by anyone, it was by one or more of the three subordinates to whom Levens had entrusted the management of the struggling colony: Jean-Baptiste, Menard, Martin Merrick, and Labro.46 When Dufresne left the Arkansas around 1726 we can hardly guess the means resorted to for the settlement of disputes. Probably Father Paul du Poisson, the Jesuit missionary resident from 1727 to 1729, used his good offices to maintain order among the approximately thirty Frenchmen who had remained behind.47 It seems probable, therefore, that Arkansas's first sustained ex­posure to European legal proceedings and principles occurred in the period during which Law's Company held sway in Louisiana. Tonti's seventeenth-century feudal seignory no doubt carried with it the right to render justice. Though his charter from La Salle has not as yet come to light,48 other conveyances of La Salle's are extant; and in them he gave his grantees judicial power over small cases ("low justice" this is called) while specifically reserving important cases ("high justice") to himself. (Cases of the latter type he di­rected to be heard by the judge "who shall be established at Fort St. 45. Id. at 440. 46. 4 M. GIRAUD, supra note 17, at 272. Menard left the Arkansas in 1722 (jd., 275) and was in New Orleans in 1720. Index to the Records efthe Superior Council of Louisiana, 4 LA. HIST. Q. 349 (1921). 47. Dufresne appears in the Arkansas census of January !, 1726; but on October 21, 1726, he is described as a "settler in Arkansas, but now domiciled with Mr. Traguidy [in New Orleans]." Index to the Records of Superior Council of New Orleans, 3 LA. HIST. Q. 420 (1920). In 1727 there was no director at the Arkansas, as Father Du Poisson tells us that he took up evidence in "the India Company's house, which is also that of the commandants when there are any here . " See Falconer, supra note 27, at 371. 48. For a charter from Tonti to Jacques Cardinal, one of his men at the Arkansas, see THE FRENCH FOUNDATIONS, supra note 9, at 396. 'Fhla is tlae Olll)' grant gf Tgati's eKtastF 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 403 Louis.")49 We do not know whether Tonti's charter contained iden­tical provisions but it certainly would have contained similar ones. But during the fifteen years or so that Tonti held the right to dispose of certain cases arising in his seignory, it hardly seems credible that he or his deputies ever held anything resembling a court, or even executed many instruments or documents.50 IV In 1731 the Compagnie d'Occident surrendered its charter to Louis XV, and for the rest of the period of French dominion Louisi­ana was a Crown Colony. Late that same year a military garrison was re-established in Arkansas; it consisted of twelve men com­manded by First Ensign de Coulange and was located again on the edge of Little Prairie. 51 (See Figure 2). It was apparently during the reorganization of the colony in 1731 that civil and military authority at the outposts of Louisiana were combined in the commandant of the garrison-an arrangement that would survive into the Spanish period and even for a short time during the American regime. Part of a post commandant's civil authority was to act as notary and judge. The exact scope of his judicial jurisdiction during the French period is obscure, there being no document of which I am aware which describes it specifically. Parkman, writing of condi­tions in the Illinois in 1764, says that the "military commandant whose station was at Fort Chartres on the Mississippi, ruled the Col­ony with a sway as absolute as that of the Pasha of Egypt, and judg­ed civil and criminal cases without right of appeal."52 Captain Phillip Pittman, an English engineer and Mississippi explorer who was writing at almost exactly the same time, gives a slightly different version. According to him, the Illinois commandant "was absolute 49. Concession in fee by La Salle to Pierre Prudhomme, in id. at 32. 50. When Tonti petitioned for confirmation of his charter, he was evidently refused. The petition is printed in E. MURPHEY, HENRY DE TONTI, FUR TRADER OF THE MISSISSIPPI 119 (1941). It is possible that La Salle did not have the power to make permanent grants and that may be the reason that Tonti needed confirmation. The Letters Patent of May 12, 1678, giving La Salle the right to explore "the western part of New France" in the king's behalf, gave him the power to build forts wherever he deemed them necessary; and he was "to hold them on the same tern1s and conditions as Fort Frontenac." See T. FALCONER, ON THE DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI 19 (1844). La Salle said expressly in 1683 that this allowed him to "divide with the French and the Indians both the lands and the commerce of said country until it may please his majesty to command otherwise . " See THE FRENCH FoUNDATio~;upra note 9, at 43. The language is ambiguous, but on one permissible read­ing it indicates a specifically reserved power in the king to revoke grants made by La Salle. 51. Faye, supra note 6, at 673. 52. Quoted in Dart, supra note 31, at 249. 404 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 in authority, except in matters of life and death; capital offences were tried by the council at New Orleans."53 Of course, the Arkan­sas commandant's judicial jurisdiction was not necessarily as exten­sive as that possessed by the commandant of the Illinois. He may very well have been subordinate to the Illinois commandant during most of the French period. Some fitful light is thrown on the judicial authority of the Ar­kansas commandant by an interesting proceeding which took place at the Post in 1743.54 In October of that year, Anne Catherine Chenalenne, the widow of Jean Francois Lepine, petitioned Lieu­tenant Jean-Francois Tisserant de Montcharvaux, whom she styled "Commandant for the King at the Fort of Arkansas," asking him to cause an inventory and appraisal to be made of the community property in her possession. The object in view was to make a distri­bution to the petitioner's son-in-law and daughter who had the pre­vious May lost all their goods when attacked by Chickasaws on the Mississippi not far below the mouth of the Arkansas. They had nar­rowly escaped with their lives.55 Widow Lepine had decided to make a distribution to "her poor children, at least to those who have run so much risk among the savages." She was preparing to marry Charles Lincto, a well-to-do resident of the Post, and she wished to dissolve the old community which by custom had continued after her husband's death in her and their children. The commandant informed Madame Lepine that on 26 Octo­ber, 1743, he would inventory the "real and personal property de­rived from the marital community" and would bring with him two persons to look after the widow's interest and two to represent the children. The idea was that each party in interest should have in­dependent appraisers present to insure the impartiality of the inven­tory and evaluation. De Montcharvaux in the presence of these and other witnesses caused the inventory to be made on the appointed day. The estate was fairly sizeable, being valued at 14,530 /ivres and 10 sols. It contained a great deal of personalty, including four slaves, a number of animals, 1600 pounds of tobacco, and notes and accounts receivable; the realty noted was "an old house" with three small outbuildings. Interestingly, no land was mentioned. There are two possible explanations for the absence of land in S3. P. PITTMAN, THE PRESENT STATE OF THE EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT ON THE M1ss1s­SIPPI S3 (1770) (Reprinted with intro. by R. Rea 1973). S4. The relevant documents are translated in Core, Arkansas through the Looking Glass ef 1743 Documents, 22 GRAND PRAIRIE HISTORICAL SOCIETY BULLETIN 16 (1979). SS. This incident is reported and discussed in Faye, supra note 6, at 677-78. 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 405 the inventory. One is that land may not have been actually granted to Arkansas settlers but only given over temporarily to their use. The other possibility is that the land on which the house was built had belonged to Lepine before the marriage and had remained his separate property under his marriage contract or under the general provisions of the Coutume de Paris. The Coutume, which, as we have seen, was in force in French Louisiana, provided that all mov­ables (personalty), belonging to a husband or wife, whenever ac­quired, became part of the community; but only certain immovables (realty) acquired after the marriage were so treated.56 This rule could be altered by contract, but in Louisiana, as in France, the Cou­tume was often specifically incorporated into marriage contracts by future spouses in defining the regime that would rule their prop­erty; 57 and if there was no contract provision creating a property regime, the Coutume of course automatically applied. The inventory is said to have been made "Pardevant nous Jean Francois Tisserant Ecuyer Sieur Demoncharvaus Commandant pour le Roy au Fort des Arkansas." The formulapardevant nous ("before us") is Parisian notarial boiler-plate and indicates that the comman­dant was acting in his surrogate notarial capacity. To an American common lawyer, the notary is not a member of the legal profession, not even a paralegal. But in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century France he enjoyed a much more elevated status, as indeed he still does in that country. Originally an official of the medieval Euro­pean ecclesiastical courts, the notary developed into a nonconten­tious secular legal professional in France. In England, partly because the canon and secular laws were not on speaking terms, "the notarial system never took deep root."58 For one thing, an im­portant aspect of the notary's duties, his authority to "authenticate" documents, was of little use to the English. The whole notion of a state-sanctioned authenticator of private acts was entirely foreign to the common law: Whereas in France we see notaries "making" and "passing" contracts, the common law left that to the parties. The state was very much in the background in England, and was called upon only to enforce obligations that arose by force of nature. The other aspect of the French notary's duties, the drafting of instruments, conveyancing, and the giving of legal advice, was per- 56. See Baade, supra note 39, at 7, 8. 57. Id. at 25. 58. l F. POLLOCK & F. MAITLAND, A HISTORY OF ENGLISH LAW 218 (2d ed., reissued with intro. by S. Milsom 1968). 406 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 formed by the regular legal profession in England. It is true that there was a scriveners' company organized in London in the six­teenth century which was granted a charter in the reign of James l.59 Members were empowered to draft legal documents, especially obli­gations (or bonds), and they gave a certain amount of low-level le­gal advice particularly in commercial and banking matters. 60 The few secular notaries who practiced in London at that time con­cerned themselves mainly with drafting documents relevant to inter­national trade, and they were members of this company.61 But in the eighteenth century the company lost its effort to keep common­law attorneys from competing, and in 1804 parliament made con­veyancing the monopoly of the regular legal profession.62 In con­trast, the French notary's duties by the eighteenth century had come to include not only the familiar ones of administering oaths, taking acknowledgements, and giving "authenticity" to "acts" of private persons by attesting them officially, but they also ran generally to the drafting of documents, conveyancing, and the giving of practical legal advice.63 It is not surprising, therefore, that notaries would 59. See 12 w. HOLDSWORTH, A HISTORY OF ENGLISH LAW 70 (1938). See generally on the notary in England, Gutteridge, The Origin and Development ef the Profession of Notaries Public in England, in CAMBRIDGE LEGAL ESSAYS 12 (1926). 60. 12 w. HOLDSWORTH, supra note 59, at id. 61. 5 w. HOLDSWORTH, supra note 59, at 115 (3d ed. 1945). 62. 12 w. HOLDSWORTH, supra note 59, at 71-72; T. PLUCKNETT, A CONCISE HISTORY OF THE COMMON LAW 227-28 (5th ed. 1956). 63. As draftman of wills, marriage contracts, and conveyances, Mons. le Notaire has survived in France as a much respected person, especially in the country villages. He is a general non-forensic legal practitioner, his part in the legal scheme "being confined to vol­untary as distinct from contentious jurisdiction." Brown, The office of Notary in France, 2 INT'L & COMP. L. Q. 60, at 64 (1953). Indeed, the French notary is close to the equivalent of the English solicitor, except for the latter's participation in litigation. Thus one modern-day commentator opined that "a solicitor would feel much at home in the etude of the French notary, though he would be surprised, and perhaps disappointed, by the cordiality of the morning post." Id. at 71. Today in Louisiana as well the notary enjoys considerable powers. See Burke & Fox, The Notaire in North America: A Short Study of the Adaptation of a Civil Law Institution, 50 TUL. L. REV. 318, at 328-32 (1975); Brosman, Louisiana-An Accidental Experiment in Fu­srim, 24 TUL. L. REV. 95, 98-99 (1949). The Louisiana notary has the power "to make inventories, appraisements, and petitions; to receive wills, make protests, matrimonial con­tracts, conveyances, and generally, all contracts and instruments of writing; to hold family meetings and meetings of creditors; . to affix the seals upon the effects of deceased per­sons and to raise the same." LA. STAT. ANN.§ 35:2 (1964). When the Louisiana legislature defined the practice of law, and prohibited all but licensed attorneys from engaging in it, it therefore remembered to except acts performed by the notary which were "necessary or incidental to the exercise of the powers and functions of (his] office." LA. STAT. ANN. § 37:212(B) (1974). A walk through modern-day New Orleans will reveal a number of signs proclaiming the existence of "Law and Notarial Offices", a combination having an odd ring in the ears of an American common lawyer. The Louisiana notary is simply "a different and 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 407 make an appearance in eighteenth-century Louisiana. In New Orle­ans, of course, there was much work for them, but there were also provincial notaries operating in Biloxi, Mobile, Natchitoches, Pointe Coupee, and Kaskaskia.64 Since De Montcharvaux acted as notary for the Lepine inven­tory, it is reasonably clear that there was no provincial notary resi­dent at the Arkansas at that time. This comes as no surprise since in 1746 there were at the Post only twelve habitant families, ten slaves, and twenty men in the garrison, 65 hardly a sufficient European pop­ulation to require or attract a law-trained scrivener. When it was time to have their marriage contract made, the widow Chenalenne and her future spouse executed it in New Orleans. No doubt there was available there legal advice on which they might more comfort­ably rely.66 Besides, there was at that time no resident priest at the Post to perform the marriage. v On May 10, 1749, an event occurred that considerably reduced the European population of Arkansas and also made it difficult to attract settlers there for some time. On that day, the Post was at­tacked by a group of about 150 Chicaksaw and Abeka warriors. Their coming was undetected67 and thus they caught the small habi­tant population altogether unaware. They burned the settlement, killed six male settlers, and took eight women and children as slaves.68 The census taken later that year shows, not surprisingly, that the population had decreased since the previous census. Seven more important official person than is the notary public in other jurisdictions of the United States." Brosman, supra at 98. 64. See Baade, supra note 39, at 12. 65. Memoire sur /'Eta! de la Colonie de la Louisiane en 1746. Archives des Colonies, Archives Nationales, Paris [hereinafter cited as ANC], Cl3A, 30:242-281, at 249, (Typescript of original document available at Little Rock Public Library). As the average family size in Arkansas in the middle of the eighteenth century was about four, this would put the number of habitant whites at the Post at about forty-eight. 66. For an abstract of this marriage contract, see Records o.f the Superior Council o.f Louisiana, 13 LA. HlsT. Q. 129 (1944). 67. However, the habitants may have had a warning that something was afoot, for on May l, Francois Sarrazin had written from Arkansas that "two savages have killed a man and a woman and burnt a man in the frame." Records efthe Superior Court o.f Louisiana, 20 LA. HlsT. Q. 505 (1937). This incident may have been connected with the attack nine days later. 68. Vaudreuil to Rouille, September 22, 1749, calendared in THE VAUDREUIL PAPERS 59-60 (B. Barron ed., 1975). See also Faye, supra note 6, at 684 et seq. W. BAIRD, THE QUAPAW INDIANS: A HISTORY OF THE DOWNSTREAM PEOPLE 34 (1980), gives the number taken as slaves as thirteen. 408 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 men, eight women, eight boys, and eight girls remained, a total of only thirty-one white habitants at the Poste des Akansa .69 Nor did all this mark an end to serious trouble. When in June of 1751 First Ensign Louis-Xavier-Martin de Lino de Chalmette, the comman­dant of the Post, went uninvited to New Orleans to consult with the governor, his entire garrison of six men took the opportunity to de­sert. 70 Things were obviously at a critical juncture. When later in 17 51 Lieutenant Paul Augustin le Pelletier de la Houssaye took command at Arkansas he found there a post recently rebuilt by its habitants and _voyagij,tfrs and probably already relo­cated to a spot ten or twelve miles upriver at the edge of the Grand Prairie. (See Figure 2). It is clear that Governor Vaudreuil had determined to hold the Arkansas even if the cost proved high, for he assigned to De La Houssaye a large company of forty-five men.71 The lieutenant was also authorized to build a new fort; government funds being lacking, he undertook the construction at his own ex­pense in return for a five-year Indian trade monopoly.72 This new beginning could, in the nature of things, have given only a slight lift to the prospects for sustained settlement in the Ar­kansas country. Late in 1752 Governor Vaudreuil was informed that the Osages had attempted an attack on Arkansas Post but had failed. 73 While this indicates a stability of sorts for the l?ost, thanks no doubt to the size of the new garrison, still the perceived danger must have been so high as to discourage all but the most intrepid from taking up residence at the Arkansas. Mentions of Arkansas in the legal records tend to emphasize the dangerousness of the place. For instance, a couple from Pointe Coupee, on the verge of leaving for a hunting trip to the White River country, thought it best to deed their property to a relative, with the stipulation that the deed was to be void if they returned.74 It is not surprising, therefore, that even as late as 1766, the last year of French dominion, only eight habitant families, consisting in all of forty white persons, were resident at Arkansas Post.75 69. Arkansas Post Census, 1749, Loudon Papers 200, Huntington Library, San Marino, CA. There were also fourteen slaves resident at the post and sixteen voyageurs who had returned after their winter's work. There were five hunters on the White River and four on the St. Francis. Thirty-five hunters had failed to return from the Arkansas River. 70. Faye, supra note 6, at 708. 71. Id. at 211. 72. Id. 73. THE VAUDREUIL PAPERS, supra note 68, at 136. 74. Index to the Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, 24 LA. HlsT. Q. 75 (1941). 75. See Din, Arkansas Post in the American Revolution, 40 ARK. HIST. Q. 3, at 4 (1981). 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 409 All of these difficulties, and others, made for a place in which it might be regarded as too polite to expect the presence of much which corresponds to a legal system. In addition, political exigen­cies sometimes interfered to such an extent that the application of even-handed legal principle became inexpedient and thus entirely impracticable. For instance, the continued existence of the Arkan­sas settlement depended heavily on the loyalty of the Quapaws and their wishes were therefore relevant to any important decision made there. Their influence could extend even to the operation of the le­gal system as the following incident demonstrates. On 12 September, 1756, a meeting was held in the Government House in New Orleans to hear an extraordinary request from Guedetonguay, the Medal Chief of the Quapaws.76 His tribe had captured four deserters from the Arkansas garrison and had re­turned them; but the chief had come on behalf of his nation to ask Governor Kerlerac to pardon the soldiers. One of those captured, Jean Baptiste Bernard, in addition to having deserted, had killed his corporal Jean Nicolet within the precincts of the fort. The chief, obviously a great orator, said that he had come a long distance to plead for the soldiers' lives despite the heat and the demands of the harvest; and in his peroration he said that his head hung low, hi~ eyes were fixed to the ground, and his heart wept for these men. He knew, he explained, that if he had not come they would have been executed, and this was intolerable to him because he regarded them as his own children. He recited many friendly acts of the Qua paws to prove the fidelity of his people to the French. Among them was the release of six slaves (perhaps Chicaksaws cap­tured by the Quapaws) "who would have been burned" otherwise, and the recent capture of five Choctaws and two trespassing Eng­lishmen. He himself, he noted, had recently lost one son and had had another wounded in the war against the Chickasaws; and he . counted this "a mark of affection for the French." In recompense he asked for the pardon of the soldiers. The chief added that this was the only such pardon his nation had thus far requested, and he promised never to ask again. He did not doubt that Kerlerac, "the great chief of the French father of the red men," charged to govern them on behalf of "the great chief of all the French who lived in the 76. What follows is based on a memorandum entitled "Harangues faites dans /'assemb/ee tenue a /'hotel du gouvernment cejourdhui, 20 Juin 1756," found in ANC, Cl3A, 39:177-180 (Transcript at Little Rock Public Library). The translations are mine. 410 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 great town on the other side of the great lake," would listen and do the just thing. Guedetonguay left his best argument for last. He maintained vigorously that, under his law, any criminal who managed to reach the refuge of the Cabanne de Valeur where the Quapaws practiced their religious rites was regarded as having been absolved of his crime. It was their custom everywhere that the chief of the Cabanne de Valeur "would sooner lose his life than suffer the refugee to un­dergo punishment for his crime." Evidently the soldiers were claim­ing this right; and Ouyayonsas, the chief of the Cabanne de Valeur, was there to back them up. This last argument was an excellent one because it called upon the French to recognize an established Indian usage not dissimilar from the European custom of sanctuary. And the argument carried with it a threat of violent reaction if the cus­tom were not allowed. Kerlerac answered the chief that he was not unmindful of the past services of the Quapaws, nor was he ungrateful for them. "But," he said, "I cannot change the words declared by the great chief of all the French against such crimes, and . . . it would be a great abuse for the future" to pardon the soldiers. So, he continued, "despite all the friendship that the French have for you and your nation, these men deserve death." The great chief stood for a long time with his head down and finally answered ominously that he could not be responsible for the revolutions which the chief of the privileged house might stir up-­revolutions which he said ''would not fail to occur." The argument continued and the governor offered to grant the chief "anything else except these four pardons." But Guedetonguay stubbornly main­tained that "the sole purpose of his journey was to obtain the par­don of the four men." In the end the Governor extracted from the Quapaw chiefs "publicly and formally their word . . . that they would in the future deliver up all deserting soldiers as malefactors or other guilty persons without any restriction or condition whatso­ever, and that . pardons would be accorded at the sole discretion of the French." No immediate decision was reached by the Governor, but later that day some of his advisors, having reflected on what they had heard, reckoned "that a refusal of the obstinate demands of these chiefs . . . the faithful allies of the French would only involve the colony in troublesome upheavals on the part of the said nations who have otherwise up to the present served very faithfully." They con- 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 411 eluded that "saving a better idea by Monsieur le Gouverneur it would be dangerous, under all the present circumstances, not to sat­isfy the Indians with the pardons which they demanded." The governor took the advice but evidently did not write to Berryet, the French Minister of the Marine, for some time to tell him about it. From the comfort of Versailles it was easy for Berryet to pick at Kerlerac's decision.77 In responding to Kerlerac, Berryet first made the point that Bernard's case was different from that of the other captured soldiers since he was accused of homicide in ad­dition to desertion. Then, too, the minister had a lot of questions. Could not the difference in Bernard's case have been urged on the Arkansas chiefs to get them to relent in his case? Where was the record of the legal proceedings which should have been conducted relative to the killing? If this was a wilfull murder the pardon had been conceded too easily. "It would be dangerous," the minister warned, ''to leave such a subject in the colony, not only because he would be an example of impunity but also because of new crimes that he might commit." (The arguments of general and specific de­terrence are not very recent inventions.) Finally, the governor was sternly admonished "not to surrender easily to demands of this sort on the part of the savages . If on the one hand it is necessary, considering all the present circumstances, to humor the savages, it is also necessary to be careful of letting them set a tone that accords neither with the king's authority nor the good of the colony." Nevertheless, the minister talked to the king and he ratified the governor's decision. Writs of pardon were therefore issued under the king's name for each of the Arkansas soldiers. Because the homicide committed by Bernard was not a military crime and was cognizable therefore by the Superior Council of Louisiana, his par­don was directed to the Council. Interestingly, though Berryet ad­mitted knowing nothing of the circumstances surrounding the killing, the pardon recited that a quarrel had arisen between Ber­nard and Nicolet, that they had beaten each other, that Bernard : "had had the misfortune to kill the said Nicolet," and that the death "had occurred without premeditated murder."78 Thus Louis XV pardoned Jean Baptiste Bernard for killing by mischance when there was no evidence adduced as to the facts resulting in Nicolet's 77. What follows is based in Berryet's letter to Kerlerac and Bobe Descloseaux dated July 14, 1769. ANC, B, 109:487-88 (Transcript at Little Rock Public Library). The transla­tion is mine. 78. The pardon (brevet de grtJce) was enclosed in the letter and is ANC, B, 109:489 (Transcript at Little Rock Public Library). The translation is mine. 412 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 death. The decision was generated simply by a desire to accommo­date an important ally. Faithful adherence to legal principle some­times had to take a back seat to the more compelling demands of politics. VI Father Louis Carette, the Jesuit missionary who came to the Post of Arkansas in 1750, nevertheless attempted to bring some or­der to the legal affairs of the place. As he noted in a procuration (power of attorney) dated at Arkansas in 1753, he was "authorized by the king to make in every post where there is not a Notary Royal all contracts and acts . "79 There is no evidence that he had any formal legal training, but he was a Jesuit, and thus a learned man, one of a handful of such who would make their residence in eight­eenth- century Arkansas. The 1753 procuration is itself of some interest, as it sheds light on how litigants whose cases were technically beyond the jurisdic­tion exercised by the Arkansas commandant (whatever that was) might have had their cases heard if they wanted to resort to regular methods of dispute settlement. As incredible as it seems, it is prob­able that the only court of general jurisdiction in the entire colony was the Superior Council of Louisiana. Now, in 1763 La Harpe said that it was a two-week boat trip from the Arkansas to New Orleans, and six to eight weeks back.80 Obviously, the procuration was an important device for people in remote posts like Arkansas, for it enabled them through their attorneys, in the language of the docu­ment under discussion, "to act . . . as though they were personally present."81 Convoys or individual vessels travelled down the Mis­sissippi frequently enough to make this means of tending to legal affairs more tolerable than it might otherwise have been. In this case, the attorney chosen was Commandant de la Houssaye, and he was deputed to act in a probate matter at Pointe Coupee for Etienne de Vaugine de Nuysement and his wife Antoinette Pelagie Petit de Divilliers. An interesting feature of procurations which increased their utility and flexibility was that they were assignable. This fea­ture came in handy in this instance since De La Houssaye, having 79. Index to the Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, 22 LA. H!sT. Q. 255 (1939). 80. La Harpe to Chosseul, August 8, 1763, ANC, Ci3B, 1 (Typescript in Little Rock Public Library). 81. Records, supra note 79, at id. 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 413 been detained at the Arkansas due to illness, simply transferred the power of attorney to a member of the Superior Council "to act in my place as myself."82 Perhaps one of the reasons that Carette had acted as notary in this instance was that the only other person in the little community authorized so to act, the commandant, was a party to the instru­ment. But in the French period priests were given general notarial powers and could act even in the absence of circumstances disabling the commandant. For instance, Carette acted as notary, and thus probably draftsman, for a marriage contract in which the comman­dant was not interested. This was the marriage contract of Francois Sarrazin and Francoise Lepine, executed at Arkansas Post on Janu­ary 6, 1752. Marriage contracts have no exact parallel in common-law prac­tice, and it thus seems worthwhile, before discussing the particulars of the Sarrazin-Lepine contract, to devote some time to their expla­nation and description. In a recent seminal study, Professor Hans Baade has outlined the provisions which one typically finds in mar­riage contracts executed in accordance with eighteenth-century Pari­sian notarial practice.83 The first and invariable undertaking by the future spouses was a promise to celebrate their marriage in facie ec­c! esiae. The parties would then choose the regime which would govern their property during the marriage. Next would come a dec­laration that the ante-nuptial debts of the parties were to remain their separate obligations; this was followed by a disclosure of the parties' assets, a requirement for the validity of the previous provi­sion. The dowry brought to the marriage by the wife was next re­cited; and delineating preciput, the right of the spouse to specific property in the event of dissolution of the community, frequently followed. Finally came the donation clause, usually a reciprocal grant of all or part of the predeceasing spouse's estate. In Louisiana, this donation, in order to be valid, had to be registered with the Superior Council in New Orleans. An inspection of the Sarrazin-Lepine marriage contract reveals that it very clearly drew on these French notarial precedents, and it reflects, moreover, an awareness of the practical requirements of the Louisiana registration provisions. It contained a promise to cele­brate the marriage in regular fashion, the creation of a community property regime, a clause stating the amount of the wife's dowry, a 82. Id. 83. What follows is taken from Baade, supra note 39, at 15-18. 414 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 mutual donation to the survivor of all property owned at death, and an undertaking to have the contract registered in New Orleans.84 While there was no clause dealing with ante-nuptial debts and no mention of preciput, it is quite obvious that the good Jesuit knew more than a little about French notarial practice, and may well have had at his disposal a form book on which he could draw. He was, for all practical purposes, for a time the "lawyer" of the post as well as its cure. Before we leave this interesting document there is an aspect of it which bears detailed attention. The property regime chosen by the parties included in the community "all property, movable and immovable"85-as common lawyers would say, all property, both personal and real. In this respect the contract departs from the Cus­tom of Paris which included in the community all movables but only certain immovables (conquets) acquired after marriage. 86 Par­ties were allowed in Louisiana to contract almost any property ar­rangement they wanted, 87 and Sarrazin and Lepine had elected a somewhat unusual variety of community. Curiously, however, the contract reckoned that this regime was "in accordance with the cus­tom received in the colony of Louisiana." A few months after the execution of this contract Commandant de la Houssaye wrote to the governor to say that Monsieur Etienne V augine, a French officer, was of a mind to marry Madame de Gouyon, the commandant's sister-in-law, and he sent along "the proposed conditions for the contract of marriage."88 This was a draft of the contract, as De La Houssaye asked the governor to pass "/'exemplair du contra!" along to the New Orleans notary Chantaloux if the governor decided to give his permission for the marriage. Chantaloux was "to make it as it should be."89 Three weeks later the governor wrote to say that the contract would be sent back soon and that Chantaloux had left it intact except for one rea­sonably minor alteration.90 In 1758 Father Carette, dismayed by the irreligious inclination of his flock, left the Arkansas and no replacement was sent. In 17 64, 84. Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, 25 LA. HlsT. Q. 856-57 (1942). 85. Id. at 856. 86. Baade, supra note 39, at 15. 87. Id. 88. La Houssaye to Vaudreuil, Dec. l, 1752, LO 410, Huntington Library, San Marino, CA. 89. Id. 90. THE v AUDREUIL PAPERS, supra note 68, at 152. 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 415 Captain Pierre Marie Cabaret Detrepi, commandant at the Arkan­sas, after Madame Sarrazin had found herself widowed, passed a second marriage contract for her which was extremely unsophistica­ted and rudimentary.91 It contained only a promise to marry regu­larly and a mutual donation. Perhaps the good widow had by this time tired of long-winded formalities. Just as likely, the Post was feeling the absence of Carette's drafting skills. VII As tiny, remote, and inconsequential as the Arkansas settle­ment was, then, it is nevertheless clear that at least some of its peo­ple were part of the time adherents to French legal culture. Of course almost everyone who lived at the Post during the period of French domination was either a native of France or French Cana­dian; and by the end of the French period a substantial number of native Louisianans were there. It is most interesting to find the sur­vival of civilian legal form in so remote an outpost of empire. Obvi­ously, not all of Arkansas's residents lapsed into a kind of legal barbarism. There were, however, circumstances at work which would make it impossible for some time to establish a community which could be expected to value the observance of legal niceties very highly. As we have already seen, the Post could not have been very attractive to the more civilized settler owing to its dangerous loca­tion. Arkansas Post, moreover, over the years experienced an ex­treme physical instability since it was necessary to relocate it several times due partly to flooding. (See Figure 2). The Arkansas River was in the eighteenth century "a turbulent, silt-laden stream, subject to frequent floods which were disastrous along its lower course."92 This proved to be a considerable disincentive to settlement. Add to that the enormous expanse occupied by the alluvial plain of the Mississippi and the difficulty becomes plain enough. Almost any site within thirty miles of the mouth of the Arkan­sas carried with it a considerable risk of floods. Law's colony, on the Arkansas twenty-seven miles or so from its mouth, was said in 1721 to be "in a fertile sector but subject to floods."93 The success of the attack by the Chickasaws in 1749, when the Post was at the same 91. Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, Feb. 11, 1764, Louisiana History Center, Louisiana State Museum, New Orleans. 92. P. HOI.DER, supra note 15, at 152. 93. 4 M. GIRAUD, supra note 17, at 273 (1974). 416 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 location, was made possible by the absence from the neighborhood of the Quapaws: Because of recent floods they had abandoned their old fields for a more promising place upstream.94 This place, called Ecores Rouges (Red Bluffs) by the French, was about thirty-six miles from the mouth of the Arkansas and was at the present loca­tion of the Arkansas Post Memorial.95 After the attack, the Post was moved to join the Indians at Ecores Rouges so as to provide for mutual protection.96 The new spot was free from floods but proved unsatisfactory from a strategic standpoint because of its distance from the Missis­sippi. The location delayed convoys and Governor Vaudreuil ex­pressed the view that "a post on the Mississippi would be more practical."97 Therefore in 1756 the Post was moved back downriver to about ten miles above the mouth. But the inevitable soon oc­curred. In 1758 heavy flooding, graphically described in a letter of Etienne Maurafet Layssard the garde magasin (storekeeper) of the Post, caused heavy damage, almost undoing the work of builders and architects who had been at work for the better part of a year. The houses were saved by virtue of being raised on stakes against such a day as this; but the habitants' fields, everything but Lays­sard's garden for which he had providently provided a levee, were entirely inundated.98 It was in fact a small enough loss. From the beginning, and understandably, the attempt to make a stable agricultural commu­nity of the Arkansas had failed miserably. There is no doubt that the European population of Arkansas during the French period con­sisted almost entirely of hunters and Indian traders. In 1726 the reporter of the Louisiana census remarked of the Arkansas that "all the habitants were poor and lived only from the hunting of the Indi­ans." 99 A 1746 report said of the twelve Arkansas habitant families 94. Faye, supra note 6, at 717-19. 95. See figure 2. 96. For details, see Appendix II to my forthcoming book, UNEQUAL LAWS UNTO A SAV­AGE RACE; EUROPEAN LEGAL TRADlTIONS IN ARKANSAS, 1686-1836. 97. THE VAUDREUIL PAPERS, supra note 68, at 118. 98. Faye, supra note 6, at 718-19. A detailed description of the repairs made in the summer of 1758, evidently necessitated by these floods, is in ANC, CBA, 40:349-50 (Type­script in Little Rock Public Library). In addition to making repairs, the builders constructed a house 26 feet long and 19 wide just outside the fort for the Indians who came there on business. It was of poteaux en terre construction, was covered with shingles, and was en­closed with stakes. The report describing the renovation and construction work of 1758 is signed by Denis Nicol~s Foucault, chief engineer of the Province of Louisiana. 99. ANC, GI, 464 (Transcript at Little Rock Public Library). 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM • DeWitt ARKANSAS COUNTY • Dumas I I I 0 1. 1686-1699; 1721-1749 N 1 DESHA COUNTY T I I 4 I 8 mi Figure 2 Locations of Arkansas Post, 1686-1983 2. 1749-1756; 1779-1983 3. 1756-1779 JB Based on a map drawn by John Baldwin which appeared in Arnold, The Relocation of Arkansas Post to Ecores Rouges in 1779, 42 ARK. HIST. Q. 317 (1983). Used with permission of the Arkansas Historical Association. 417 418 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 that "their principal occupation is hunting, curing meat, and com­merce in tallow and bear oil." As for cultivating the soil, the same source reported that the habitants grew "some tobacco for their own use and for that of the savages and voyageurs." 100 In 1765 Captain Phillip Pittman, an Englishman, said that there were eight families living outside the fort who had cleared the land about nine hundred yards in depth. But, according to him "on account of the sandiness of the soil, and the lowness of the situation, which makes it subject to be overflowed," their harvest was not enough even to supply them with their necessary provisions. Pittman noted that "when the Mis­sissippi is at its utmost height the Lands are overflow' d upwards of five feet; for this reason all the buildings are rais'd six feet from the ground." Thus the residents of the Arkansas, he said, subsisted mainly by hunting and every season sent to New Orleans "great quantities of bear's oil, tallow, salted buffalo meat, and a few skins." 101 Both Layssard102 and Father Watrin103 hint that the discour­agement produced by the frequent flooding contributed to Father Carette's decision to leave. However that may be, it must be clear that during the period of French dominion the Post did not provide fertile soil for either crops or religion. Would regular bourgeois le­gal procedures have generally been afforded a more cordial accept­ance? Even absent direct evidence, this would in the abstract seem most unlikely. Unsafe, unstable, and uncomfortable, the Arkansas Post of Louisiana during the period of French dominion must surely also have been largely unmindful of bourgeois legal values. It is true, as we have seen, that some of the Post's residents tried to maintain a connection between their remote outpost and Euro­pean legal culture. But the few legal records that chance has al­lowed to come down to us from the French period are remarkable not only for their small number but also for the social and economic characteristics they reveal of the people who figured in them. They were an elite, related by marriage and blood, struggling under the difficult circumstances of their situation to participate in regular le- 100. Memoire, supra note 65 (Transcript at Little Rock Public Library). 101. P. PITTMAN, supra note 53, at xliv, 40-41. 10+. See ANC, Cl3A, 40:357 (Transcript in Little Rock Public Library). Layssard there remarks that the inhabitants at Arkansas were too poor to build a levee, and that "the Father would rather leave than go to such an expense. He is very poor." 103. See J. DELANGLEZ, THE FRENCH JESUITS IN LOWER LOUISIANA 444, where Watrin is quoted as saying that, despite there being little hope for conversion of the Quapaws, Fa­ther Carette "nevertheless followed both the French and the savages in their various changes of place, occasioned by the overflowing of the Mississippi near which the post is situated." 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 419 gal processes. The probate proceeding of 1743 was instituted by one of the most well-to-do residents of Arkansas in the person of Anne Catherine Chenalenne, widow of Jean Francois Lepine. The com­munity property inventoried included four slaves. 104 Her future husband Charles Lincto became the most substantial civilian resi­dent of the Post. The 17 49 census, if one excludes from it for the moment the commandant and his household, reveals that Lincto's household accounted for eight of the twenty-nine white habitants and seven of the eleven slaves at the Arkansas. 105 Etienne de Vau­gine de Nuysement who executed the procuration of 1753 was a member of one of the most distinguished French families of Louisi­ana; 106 and he granted the power to Commandant de la Houssaye who would soon become a Major of New Orleans and a Knight of the Royal and Military Order of St. Louis. 107 Vaugine and De la Houssaye married sisters. The marriage contract executed at the Arkansas in 1752 was entered into by the Post's garde magasin and Francoise Lepine, a daughter of Anne Catherine Chenalenne the petitioner in the probate proceeding of 1743; and the bride's dowry had resulted from the dissolution of the community which had been the aim of that proceeding. Finally, Francoise Lepine's second mar­riage contract, passed by Detrepi in 1764, was prelude to her mar­riage to Jean Baptiste Tisserant de Montcharvaux, officer and interpreter at the Post and son of the commandant who executed the 1743 inventory. We are dealing with a propertied and intercon­nected gentry here, a tiny portion of what was anyway a very small population. How the other, the major part of the Arkansas populace regu­lated their lives during the French period will, in the nature of things, be difficult to document. But there is some evidence on this point and it indicates that there was a good deal of lawlessness on the Arkansas. According to Athanase de Mezieres, the Lieutenant Governor at Natchitoches, the Arkansas River above the Post was inhabited largely by outlaws. "Most of those who live there," he claimed, "have either deserted from the troops and ships of the most Christian King and have committed robberies, rape, or homicide, 104. For a translation of this inventory, see Core, supra note 54, at 22. 105. Resancement General des Habitants, Voyageurs, Femmes. En.fans, Esclaves, Clzevaus, Beufs, Vaclzes, Coclzons du Foste des Akansas, 1749. Lo. 200, Huntington Library, San Ma­rino, CA. 106. On the Arkansas Vaugines, see Core, T!ze Vaugine Arkansas Connection, 20 GRAND PRAIRIE HISTORICAL SOCIETY BULLETIN 6 (1978). 107. Faye, supra note 6, at 709. 420 UALR LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 6:391 that river being the asylum of the most wicked persons, without doubt, in all the Indies." 108 On another occasion, De Mezieres sin­gled out as a particularly heinous offender an Arkansas denizen nicknamed Brindamur, a man "of gigantic frame and extraordinary strength." Brindamur, De Mezieres complained, "has made himself a petty king over those brigands and highwaymen, who, with con­tempt for law and subordination with equal insult to Christians, and the shame of the very heathen, up to now have maintained them­selves on that river." 109 He had been resident on the Arkansas for a long time, as his name appears in the census of 1749. Interestingly, it is placed at the very head of a considerable list of "the voyageurs who have remained up the rivers despite the orders given them." 110 All persons hunting on the rivers were supposed to return every year as passports were not issued for longer periods. But there were large numbers of hunters who lived for twenty years or more in their camps without ever reporting to the Post. They constituted a large proportion, indeed sometimes a majority, of the European popula­tion in Arkansas during the French period. The 17 49 census, for instance, lists a habitant population of only thirty-one, including the commandant and his wife. But there were forty hunters on the Ar­kansas River whose passports had expired, and nine on the White and St. Francis Rivers. Sixteen hunters were said to be at the Post being outfitted to return to the hunt. Brindamur, the bandit King, was murdered by one of his men after the end of the French period, "though tardily" De Mezieres reckoned, and "by divine justice."111 In the Spanish period an effort was made to rid the river of these malefactors. VII Since no records of litigation initiated at the Arkansas during the French period have survived, if indeed any were ever kept, very little can be said directly on how lawsuits were conducted there. However, in 1747 Francois Jahan initiated a suit in the Superior Council in New Orleans against one Clermont, a resident of Arkan­sas Post, claiming damages for the conversion of a cask of rum at Arkansas. 112 The Superior Council, as we have shown, had jurisdic- 108. 1 ATHANASE DE MEZIERES AND THE LOUISIANA-TEXAS FRONTIER, 1768-1780 166 (H. Bolton ed., 1914). 109. Id. at 168-69. 110. Resancement, supra note 105. 111. t\. BOLTON, supra note 108, at 167. 112. Index lo the Records of the Superior Court of Louisiana, 17 LA. HIST. Q. 569 (1934). 1983] COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEM 421 tion throughout Louisiana, and this case reveals how it was exer­cised against a defendant in the hinterlands. The summons was served on the Attorney General of Louisiana; thus, as Henry Dart pointed out, "it would seem . . . that a resident of the Post of Ar­kansas could be sued in New Orleans by serving the citation on the Procureur [Attorney] General."113 How the case would have, in the ordinary instance, proceeded from there is difficult to say. Probably the Arkansas commandant would have been asked to act as a master to gather facts and to report to the Superior Council. But it seems that the commandant had already ruled independently on the matter. Commandant de Monbharvaux's statement on this case, which is entered in the record a'few days after the suit was initiated, indicates that he had held a hearing on the matter at the Arkansas, had taken testimony as to the rum, and had "sentenced Clermont to pay for it."114 Apparently he had kept no record of the proceeding, as none was offered: The good lieutenant bore his own record. It is interesting to note, however, that this case was evidently not brought to enforce the commandant's judgment but was an independent action. How did the justice provided by the Post commandant during the French period measure up? In the absence of litigation records, this is the hardest kind of question to answer. We know, however, that whatever jurisdiction was exerciseable by the commandant, he acted alone, without official advisors and without, of course, a jury. To say that rule is autocratic is not to say

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ILLUSTRIERTE GESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES 1914/15. ERSTER BAND. Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Erster Band. (Erster Band) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([I]) Impressum ([II]) Inhaltsverzeichnis. ([III]) Kunstbeilagen. (IV) Karten. (IV) Kriegskalender zur Original-Einbanddecke der Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Erster Band enthaltend die Ereignisse bis Ende 1914. ( - ) Juni. Juli. August. September. ( - ) Oktober. November. Dezember. ( - ) [Tabelle]: Schiffsbestand der Kaiserlichen Marine bei Kriegsausbruch ( - ) [Abb.]: ( - ) 1. Linienschiffe ( - ) 2. Küstenpanzerschiffe. 3. Panzerkreuzer. ( - ) 4. Geschützte Kreuzer ( - ) 5. Kanonenboote. 6. Flußkanonenboote. 7. Torpedoboote. 8. Unterseeboote. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 1 (Heft 1) ([1]) [Abb.]: Ein Blick auf Sarajewo, die Hauptstadt Bosniens, von Nordost. Das große Gebäude im Vordergrund rechts vom Miljackafluß ist das Rathaus, dem der Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand und seine Gemahlin einen Besuch abstatteten. Vom Rathaus zieht den Fluß entlang der Appelkai. Das Attentat wurde vor der letzten Brücke (im Hintergrund), wo die Franz-Joseph-Straße auf den Appelkai stößt, ausgeführt. Das große weiße Gebäude im Mittelgrunde links ist die Franz-Josephs-Kaserne, das von Pappeln umgebene Gebäude der Konak. ([1]) [Gedicht]: ([1]) [4 Abb.]: (1)Graf Leopold v. Berchthold, österreichisch-ungarischer Minister des Äußern. (2)Kronprinz Alexander von Serbien, Oberbefehlshaber der serbischen Streitkräfte im Kampfe gegen Österreich-Ungarn. (3)Erzherzog Friedrich, der neue Generalinspekteur der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee. (4)Der serbische Ministerpräsident Paschitsch. (2) [4 Abb.]: (1)v. Putnik, serbischer Generalstabschef. (2)Freiherr v. Hötzendorf, österreichisch-unagrischer Generalstabschef. (3)v. Krobatin, österreichisch-ungarischer Kriegsminister. (4)Stefanowitsch, serbischer Kriegsminister. (3) [Abb.]: Das Attentat auf den Erzherzog-Thronfolger Franz Ferdinand von Österreich und seine Gemahlin in Sarajewo am 28. Juni 1914. ([4]) [Abb.]: Der Gottesdienst am Bismarckdenkmal in Berlin am 2. August 1914. ([5]) [Abb.]: Wilhelm II., Deutscher Kaiser, König von Preußen. .Wir sind im tiefsten Frieden in des Wortes wahrhafter Bedeutung überfallen worden. Dem Gegner werden wir zeigen, was es heißt, Deutschland in so niederträchtiger Weise zu reizen, und nun empfehle Ich Euch Gott. (Aus der Ansprache Kaiser Wilhelms vom Balkon des königl. Schlosses zu Berlin am Abend des 31. Juli.) (6) [Abb.]: Franz Joseph I., Kaiser von Österreich und König von Ungarn. In dieser ernsten Stunde bin Ich Wir der ganzen Tragweite Meines Entschlusses und Meiner Verantwortung vor dem Allmächtigen bewußt. Ich habe alles geprüft und erwogen. Mit ruhigem Gewissen betrete Ich den Weg, den die Pflicht mir weist. Ich vertraue auf Meine Völker, die sich in allen Stürmen stets in Einigkeit und Treue um Meinen Thron geschart haben und für die Ehre, Größe und Macht des Vaterlandes zu schwersten Opfern immer bereit waren. Ich vertraue auf Österreich-Ungarns tapfere und von hingebungsvoller Begesiterung erfüllte Wehrmacht. Un Ich vertraue auf den Allmächtigen, daß er Meinen Waffen den Sieg verleihen werde. (Aus dem Manifest des Kaisers Franz Joseph: An meine Völker!) (7) [Abb.]: Der Zeppelinkreuzer "Z VI" bombadiert Lüttich in der Nacht vom 6. August. ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Reservisten auf dem Marsche zum Bahnhof. (2)Bei der Abfahrt auf dem Bahnhof. (10) [Abb.]: Der Abschied vom Hausgenossen. ([11]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (12) Die patriotischen Kundgebungen in der Reichshauptstadt. (12) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte des deutsch-französischen Kriegschauplatzes. ([13]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bewachung eines Tunnels durch österreichisches Militär. (2)Bewachung von Eisenbahnen und Brücken an der österreichisch=serbischen Grenze. (14) Kriegszustand und Mobilmachung. (14) Sicherung der Wege und Bahnen. (15) Unsere Gegner. (15) [Abb.]: Französischer Wachtposten vor einem Signalapparat auf dem Bahnhof St. Lazare. (15) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte der deutsch-russischen Grenze. ([16]) [Abb.]: Das Aufhalten eines Verdächtigen Automobils an der oberschlesischen Grenze. ([17]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine russische Schützenlinie. (2)Französische Infanterie zum Angriff vorgehend. (18) Die Schlacht bei Mülhausen. (19) [Abb.]: Typen vom belgischen Heer. Feldartillerie. Infanterie. (Feldanzug) Regiment Chaffeurs à cheval. Grenadier-Reg. (Tambour). Regiment des Guides (Trompeter). Lancier-Regiment. Geniertruppe (Mineur). Carabinier-Regiment. Im Hintergrund: Reitende Artillerie (Offiziere). General (kleiner Anzug). Jäger zu Pferde (Offizier). 2. Lancier-Regiment (Offizier, Feldanzug). (19) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Stadt Mühlhausen im Oberelsaß, der Schauplatz des ersten deutsch-französischen Zusammenstoßes, durch den ein französisches Armeekorps und eine Divison von ihrem Stützpnkt Belfort nach Süden abgedrängt wurden. (2)Die Stadt Markirch im Elsaß-Lothringen, Kreis Rappoltsweiler, die noch vor der Kriegserklärung von den längst vorbereiteten französischen Truppen überrumpelt und nebst den Ortschaften Gottesthal, Metzeral, sowie dem Schluchtpaß vorübergehend besetzt wurde, obwohl die französische Regierung die Innehaltung einer unbesetzten Zone von 10 km zugesagt hatte. (20) Der Sturm auf Lüttich. (21) [2 Abb.]: (1)General der Infanterie v. Emmich, der den Sturm auf Lüttich persönlich befehligte und die glänzende Waffentat der Eroberung der Festung vom Kaiser durch Verleihung des Ordens pour le mérite ausgezeichnet wurde. (2)Ansicht von Lüttich. (21) [Karte]: Brialmontisches Fortin (nach Schröter, Moderne Festungen). (22) [Abb.]: Ansicht der Festung Namur. (22) Namur. (23) [Abb.]: Die verheerende Wirkung eines deutschen 42-cm-Geschosses auf das Panzerfort Lancin der Festung Lüttich. (23) [Karte]: Die Festung Lüttich und ihre Forts. (24) [Gedicht]: Zwischen Metz und den Vogesen. 20. August 1914. (24) [Abb.]: Die Heldentat des deutschen Minenlegers "Königin Luise" vor der Themsemündung am 8. August. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 2 (Heft 2) ([25]) [Abb.]: Ankunft der ersten gefangenen Franzosen in Stuttgart. ([25]) [Abb.]: In Berlin vor dem königlichen Schloss nach der Schlacht bei Metz. ([27]) [Abb.]: Anreitende russische Kavallerie wird von drei deutschen Infanteristen beschossen. (28 - 29) [Brief]: Am 1. August nachmittags veröffentlichte der "Reichsanzeiger" in einer Sonderausgabe folgenden kaiserlichen Erlaß: (31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schwestern vom Roten Kreuz beim Kochen von Krankenkost. (2)Deutsche Verwundete werden in Automobilen in Stuttgarter Lazarette überführt. (32) [Tabelle]: die Mobilmachungstage waren im ganzen Reiche die gleichen. Es hieß da: (32) [Abb.]: Abschied der Königin Charlotte von Württemberg von einem Lazarettrupp des Württembergischen Landesvereins vom Roten Kreuz. (33) Illustrierte Kriegsgeschichte. (34) Das Gefecht bei Lagarde. (34) [Abb.]: Eroberung der ersten französischen Fahne und der der ersten Geschüzte bei Lagarde. ([35]) Die Beschießung von Libau durch den kleinen Kreuzer "Augsburg" am 2. August. (36) Drei gegen fünfzig. (36) [Abb.]: Bedrohung verhafteter Deutscher durch belgische Behörden. ([37]) Minensperrung in der Themse. Die Beschießung von Libau. (38) Auf dem Weg zur Grenze. (38) [8 Abb.]: (1)General der Infanterie v. Moltke, Chef des deutschen Generalstabs. (2)Generaloberst Herzog Albrecht von Württemberg. (3)Generaloberst Großherzog Friedrich II. von Baden. (4)Generalfeldmarschall Kronprinz Rupprecht von Bayern. (5)Großadmiral Prinz Heinrich von Preußen, Generalinspekteur der Marine. (6)Admiral v. Pohl, Chef des Admiralstabs der Marine. (7)Vizeadmiral Friedrich v. Ingenohl, der neue Chef der Hochseeflotte. (8)Großadmiral v. Tirpitz, Staatssekretär des Reichsmarineamts. (38) [8 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant v. Falkenhayn, Kriegsminister. (2)Generaloberst v. Bülow. (3)E. Freiherr v. d. Goltz, Generalfeldmarschall und Gouverneur von Belgien. (4)Gottlieb Graf v. Häfeler, Generalfeldmarschall, (5)General der Infanterie v. Heeringen. (6)Generaloberst v. Prittwitz und Gassron. (7)Generaloberst v. Eichhorn. (8)General der Infanterie v. Kluck. (39) Zur Schlacht bei Metz. (40) [Abb.]: In Erwartung der Abfahrt. (40) Belgische Ausschreitungen gegen die Deutschen. (40) Vom Roten Kreuz. (41) [Abb.]: Eine auf der Fahrt zum Kriegschauplatz befindliche Truppe hält auf freier Strecke. (41) Der Sturm auf Schabatz. (42) Belfort. (42) [Abb.]: Strassenkampf in Schabatz. ([43]) [Abb.]: Blick auf die Festung Belfort. (44) [Abb.]: Plan von Belfort und Umgebung. (44) [Abb.]: Landung englischer Truppen in Nordfrankreich. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1915 Heft 3 (Heft 3) ([45]) [Abb.]: Generaloberst von Beneckendorff und Hindenburg, der Held von Gilgenburg. ([45]) [Abb.]: Das Einbringen der ersten französischen Geschütze in Strassburg. ([47]) [Abb.]: Vernichtung einer russischen Kavalleriebrigade durch deutsche Infanterie. (48 - 49) [5 Brief]:(1) Der Kaiser an den Zaren: Vom 28. Juli, 10 Uhr 45 nachm. (2)Der Zar an den Kaiser: Peterhof, Palais, 29. Juli, 1 Uhr nachm. (3) Der Kaiser an den Zaren: Vom 29. Juli, 6 Uhr 30 nachm. (4)Der Kaiser an den Zaren: Vom 30. Juli, 1 Uhr vorm. (5)Der Zar an den Kaiser: Peterhof, 30. Juli, 1 Uhr 20 nachm. (50) [Abb.]: Der ostpreusische Kriegschauplatz. (51) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (52) Die Schlacht bei Ortelsburg und Gilgenburg. (52) [Abb.]: Flüchtende englische Kavallerie bei St. Quentin. ([53]) Die ersten eroberten Geschütze in Strassburg. (54) Bei St. Quentin. (55) Die Bewaffnung der französischen Feldartillerie. (55) [Abb.]: König Wilhelm II. von Württemberg besichtigt eines der bei Longwy erbeuteten französischen Feldgeschütze. (55) [Abb.]: Ungarischer Bajonettangriff auf russische Infanterie in der Schlacht bei Krasnik ([56 - 57]) Poincaré. (58) [2Abb.]: (1)Albert I., König der Belgier. (2)Georg V., König von Grossbritannien und Irland. (58) Albert (58) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nikolaus II., Kaiser von Russland. (2)Raymond Poincaré, Präsident der Französischen Republik. (58) [2 Abb.]: (1)Grossfürst Nikolai Nikolajewitsch, Generalissimus der russischen Armee. (2)General Joffre, Oberbefehlshaber der französischen Armee. (59) Georg V. (59) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalfeldmarschall Sir John French, Oberbefehlshaber der englischen Expeditionstruppen, die zur Verstärkung des französischen und des belgischen Heeres nach dem Festland entsandt wurden. (2)Lord Kitchener, der neue englische Kriegsminister, der die Aufgabe hat, das englische Landheer zu reorganisieren. (59) Nikolaus II. Alexandrowitsch (60) Die gegnerischen führenden Generale. (60) [Abb.]: Festnahme eines zur Notlandung gezwungenen feindlichen Fliegers. ([61]) Von unseren kühnen Fliegern. (62) Die Riesenschlachten der österreichisch=ungarischen Armee. (62) Generaloberst von Beneckendorff und Hindenburg (63) [Abb.]: Karte des österreichisch=russischen Kriegschauplatzes. (63) Landung englischer Truppen auf dem Kontinent. (63) Die Befestigungen von Paris. (64) [Abb.]: Plan von Paris. (64) [Karte]: Karte vom westlichen Kriegschauplatz. (64) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 4 (Heft 4) ([65]) [Abb.]: Das erste Gefecht der Einundachtziger. ([65]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Rast ostpreussischer Flüchtlinge. (2)Erfrischung ostpreussischer Flüchtlinge durch das Rote Kreuz. (68) [Abb.]: Russische Kosaken plündern und brennen ein Dorf nieder. ([69]) [Abb.]: Im Kampf gegen französische Gebirgstruppen bei Epinal. ([73]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (74) Die Landwehr in den Vogesen. (74) Prinz Friedrich Karl von Hessen und die "81 er". (75) [Abb.]: Schülerinnen der höheren Mädchenschule des Direktors Richter in Berlin beim Stricken von Strümpfen für die im Felde stehenden Soldaten. (75) Sanitätshunde. (76) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen der österreichischen Gebirgsbrigaden auf dem montenegrinischen Kriegschauplatz. ([77]) Deutsche Flieger über Paris. (78) Die Kämpfe auf dem montenegrinischen Kriegschauplatz. (79) [Abb.]: Unsere Kriegs=Sanitätshunde. (79) Ostpreussische Flüchtlinge. (79) [Abb.]: Der Kriegschauplatz im Südwesten. (80) [Abb.]: Verpflegunsstation im Aufmarschgebiet. ( - ) [Abb.]: Deutsche Flieger über Paris. ([81]) Die Attacke bei Perwez. (82) [Abb.]: Ansicht von Antwerpen. Blick von der Kathedrale auf Stadt. (82) [Abb.]: Attacke deutscher Ulanen gegen französische Dragoner bei Perwez. ([83]) [Abb.]: Plan von Antwerpen und Umgebung. (84) Die Festung Antwerpen. (84) [Gedicht]: Das Lied vom Hass. (84) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 5 (Heft 5) ([85]) [2 Abb.]: (1)General Viktor Dankl. (2)General Moritz Ritter v. Aussenberg, der Sieger von Zamosc. ([85]) [Abb.]: Russische Verwundete in deutscher Verpflegung. (88) [Abb.]: Im Kampf mit Franktireurs. ([89]) [Abb.]: Eroberung russischer Geschütz durch deutsche Kavallerie in den Kämpfen bei Soldau. (91) [Abb.]: Wasserversorgungswagen. (93) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (93) Die Verpflegung unserer Heere. (93) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fahrbare Feldküche. (2)Abkochen im Biwak. (94) [Abb.]: Rast im Heerlager mit den Proviant= und Bagagenwagen. (95) Die Nacht von Andenne. (Ein Kampf mit Franktireurs.) (96) [Abb.]: Gefangennahme meuchelmörderischer belgischer Bauern. (97) [Abb.]: Die deutschen Maschinengewehre in der Schlacht bei Löwen. ([98 - 99]) Die Kämpfe bei Löwen. (100) [Abb.]: Das Rathaus von Löwen, das bei dem Brande der Stadt unversehrt blieb. (101) Von der Schlacht bei Longuyon (101) [Abbl.]: Eines der erbeuteten russischen Maschinengewehre mit russischem Vorspann wird in Berlin am 2. September eingebracht. (102) Die Generale Dankl und v. Aussenberg. (102) [Abb.]: Blick über den Pariser Platz in Berlin während des Einholens eroberter Geschütze. - Im Hintergrund das Brandenburger Tor. Am 2. September wurden die ersten in der Reichshauptstadt eingetroffenen erbeuteten französischen, belgischen und russischen Geschütze, Maschinengewehre und Trophäen unter feierlichem Glockengeläute und Salutschüssen deutscher Artillerie eingebracht und im Schlosshof aufgestellt. ([103]) [Karte]: Karte vom westlichen Kriegschauplatz. (Südliche Hälfte). ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 6 (Heft 6) ([105]) [Abb.]: Österreich=ungarische Infanterie besetzt ein Dorf an der serbischen Grenze. ([105]) [Abb.]: Österreich=ungarische Infanterie=Patrouille im kalksteinreichen Grenzgebiet. (107) [Abb.]: Attacke österreichischer Ulanen auf russische Infanterie in der Schlacht bei Zamosc. ([108 - 109]) [Abb.]: Der nordwestliche Kriegschauplatz. (111) [Abb.]: Von deutschen Truppen mit Maschinengewehren heruntergeschossener französischer Flieger bei Lunéville. (112) [Abb.]: Ein Kampf in den Lüften. ([113]) [Abb.]: Deutsches Massengrab bei Lauterfingen nach der Schlacht vom 16. August. (115) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (116) Die Schlacht bei Zamosc. (116) [Abb.]: Unser freiwilliges Automobilkorps in Feindesland. ([117]) [Abb.]: Lastselbstfahrer der Verkehrstruppe. (118) Selbstfahrer im Kriegsdienst. (118) Brief eines Verwundeten. (119) [Abb.]: Ein Kraftwagenzug. (119) [Abb.]: Das Grenadier=Regiment Königin Olga (1. Württembergisches) Nr. 119 vor einem brennenden Dorf. (120) Ein Kampf in den Lüften. (120) Mein erstes Gefecht. (121) [Abb.]: Während des Feuers der Artillerie hat sich die Infanterie vor das Dorf zurückgezogen. (121) [Abb.]: ".Mit Inbrunst werden Liebesgaben verzehrt." (122) Gebirgskrieg in Serbien. (122) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Landsturmmann als Bahnwache in Feindesland. (2)"Spanischer Reiter", Eisengitter zur Strassensperrung für Autos und Räder. (123) Wie es auf Helgoland aussieht. (124) [Abb.]: Helgoland (124) [Abb.]: Kronprinz Rupprecht von Bayern auf dem Schlachtfeld bei Saarburg. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914 Heft 7 (Heft 7) ([125]) [Abb.]: Das neueste Heft der "Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914" im Lazarett. ([125]) [Abb.]: Eroberung französischer Geschütze durch deutsche Kavallerie. ([127]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Dorf Rouvres bei Stain nach den Kämpfen zwischen Longwy und Verdun. (2)Dorf Romain bei Longwy an der französisch=belgischen Grenze. (128) [Abb.]: Reserveinfanterieregiment vor dem Gefecht bei Mittersheim in Lothringen (Kreis Saarburg). (129) [Abb.]: Der Donaumonitor "Körös" im Kampf gegen die Belgrader Festungswerke. (130) [Abb.]: Österreich=ungarische Artillerie an der serbischen Grenze. ([131]) [Abb.]: Semlin a. d. Donau (132) [Abb.]: Verbrüderung der deutschen Skukariktruppen mit den österreich=ungarischen Soldaten in Wien. (133) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (134) Von der Schlacht bei Saarburg. (134) Übergang über die Maas. (135) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen überschreiten die Maas bei Méziéres. ([136 - 137]) Die Kirche in St. B . . . . e. (138) Kriegsneurosen. (138) [Abb.]: Von den Belgiern zerstörte Maasbrücke bei Lüttich. (139) Die Seekämpfe bei Helgoland und Hoek von Holland. (140) [Abb.]: Vorpostengefecht bei Helgoland. (140) Die Feldpost. (140) [Abb.]: Vernichtung der englischen Panzerkreuzer "Aboukir", "Hogue" und "Cressy" durch das deutsche Unterseeboot "U 9" am Morgen des 22. September etwa 20 Seemeilen nordwestlich von Hoek van Holland. ([141]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Aushilfs=Feldpostwagen. (2)Ein Etappenwagen der Feldpost. (142) [Abb.]: Deutsche Feldpost nimmt vor der Abfahrt von vorbeimarschierenden Truppen Briefe in die Heimat mit. (143) [Abb.]: Dumdumgeschosse. (144) Die Dumdumgeschosse unserer Feinde. (144) [Karte]: Karte vom serbisch=montenegrinischen Kriegschauplatz. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 8 (Heft 8) ([145]) [Abb.]: Mittagsmahl einer deutschen Truppe bei Mercy=le=Haut im Departement Meurthe=et=Moselle im nordöstlichen Frankreich. ([145]) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Boussois vor Maubeuge. ([148 - 149]) [Abb.]: Maubeuge und Umgebung nach einer französischen Skizze. (150) [Abb.]: Die Panzerkreuzer "Goeben" und "Breslau" vor Messina. In der Nacht zum 6. August gelang es den Panzerkreuzern "Goeben" und "Breslau", mit abgeblendeten Lichtern aus dem Hafen von Messina auszulaufen und die englische und französische Flotte zu durchbrechen. (151) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine von den Russen niedergebrannte Strasse in Hohenstein. (2)Ruinen eine an der deutsch=russischen Grenze gelegenen Städtchens. (152) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Infanterie lagert auf dem Marktplatz in Johannisburg. (2)Das Innere eines von den Russen zerstörten Geschäftshauses in Gerdauen, Ostpr. (153) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte (154) Die Eroberung von Maubeuge. (154) [Abb.]: Erbeutete russische Geschütze vor dem Arsenal in Wien. (155) Das moderne Unterseeboot. (155) [Abb.]: Auf dem Schlachtfeld bei Czernowitz. ([156 - 157]) [Abb.]: Das Periskop dient in einem Unterseeboot zur Beobachtung der Vorgänge auf der Wasseroberfläche. (158) Wie die Russen an der deutschen Grenze gehaust haben. (158) Aus der Vier=Tage=Schlacht bei Baubecourt. Brief eines verwundeten Mittkämpfers. (159) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Held von "U 9", Kapitänleutnant Weddigen, erhielt das Eiserne Kreuz 1. und 2. Klasse. (2)Das kühne deutsche Unterseeboot U 9, in der Mitte zwischen zwei anderen Unterseebooten, das am 22. September drei englische Panzerkreuzer vernichtete. (159) An der Grenze der Bukowina. (160) Das bedrohte Tsingtau. (161) [Abb.]: Beim Auswerfen von Schützengräben. (161) 2 [Abb.]: (1)Tsingtau mit Umgebung (2)Prinz Heinrich von Preussen mit dem Gouverneur von Tsingtau, Kapitän z. S. Meyer=Waldeck. (162) [2 Abb.]: (1)Tsingtau. (2)Eine Abteilung der Matrosenartillerie in Tsingtau. (163) Die Kämpfe um Nancy. (164) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gesamtansicht von Nancy. (2)Skizze von Nancy und Umgebung. (164) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 9 (Heft 9) ([165]) [Abb.]: Die ehemalige deutsch=russische Grenze Endtkuhnen-Kibarty: Zollhaus Kibarty. ([165]) [Abb.]: Wirkung einer deutschen Granate am Burgunder Tor in Longtwy. (166) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Kaiser in Beuveille am 31. August 1914. (2)Von Pionieren wiederhergestellte Brücke über die Maas bei Stenay. (167) [Abb.]: Übergabe der Festung Longwy. ([168 - 169]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Truppen in Brüssel. Im Hintergrund der Lunapark. (2)Auf dem Platz Sainctelette in Brüssel. Deutsche Soldaten sorgen für die Feldküche. ([171]) [Abb.] Verfolgung der russischen Armee nach der Schlacht bei Tannenberg. ([173]) [Abb.]: Russische Gebirgsartillerie. (174) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (174) Etwas von der russischen Armee. (174) [Abb.]: Truppen vom 8. Ostsibirischen Schützenregiment. (174) [3 Abb.]: (1)Russische Artillerieoffiziere im Feldlager an der ostpreussischen Grenze. (2)Ein russisches Kosakenregiment beim Abzug durch eine ostpreussische Grenzstadt. (3)Gefangene von der Njemenarmee werden nach den deutschen Festungen abgeführt. (175) [Abb.]: Die niederlage der Serben im Kampf an der Save. (176 - 177) Die Übergabe der Festung Longwy. (176 - 177) [Abb.]: Übersichtskarte des österreichisch=serbischen Kriegschauplatzes. (178) Ein zurückgeworfener Einfall der Serben. (178) [6 Abb.]: (1)Erzherzog Franz Salvator verabschiedet sich von den Ärzten und Offizieren des Roten Kreuzes vor ihrer Abfahrt aus Wien nach dem Kriegschauplatz. (2)Fahnenweihe des ersten Honved=Infanterie=Regiments in Budapest. (3)Abschied der nach Galizien fahrenden ungarischen Soldaten (4)Rückkehr leichtverwundeter ungarischer Soldaten nach der Schlacht bei Lemberg. (5)Ankunft serbischer Kriegsgefangener in Budapest. (6)Gefangene verwundete algerische und französische Soldaten. ([179]) [Abb.]: Die Kathedrale von Reims. (180) Das Heldengrab bei Pewlingen. (180) [Abb.]: Einzug deutscher Husaren in Reims. ([181]) Reims. (182) [Abb.]: Steilfeuergeschütze der Fussartillerie, aus gedeckter Stellung feuernd. (182) [Abb.]: In die Luft geworfene Panzerdecken eines Forts, die umgekehrt zurückfielen (183) "Die fleissige Berta". (183) [Abb.]: Die mehrere Meter starke Betondeckung eines belgischen Forts, die ebenso wie die beweglichen Panzertürme durch einen Schuss der deutschen 42=cm=Haubitzen zerstört wurde. Der Schuss drang bis zur Munitionskammer durch, so dass das ganze Fort in die Luft flog. (184) [Gedicht]: Ein Vater seinen ausmarschierenden beiden Söhnen. (184) [Abb.]: Einzug der deutschen Truppen in Brüssel. Aufmarsch auf dem Marktplatz vor der Parade. - Links Rathaus, rechts Gildenhäuser. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 10 (Heft 10) ([185]) [Abb.]: Generaloberst v. Kluck. ([185]) [2 Abb]: (1)Die Zitadelle in Lüttich von deutschen Truppen bewacht. (2)Ein Blick in das innere der Zitadelle von Lüttich. (186) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten vor dem Hauptbahnhof in Lüttich. (187) [2 Abb.]: (1)Stimmungsbild aus den Strassen von Brüssel. (2)Rast deutscher Soldaten in Schaerbeek bei Brüssel. ([188]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Feldöfen auf der Grande Place in Brüssel. (2)Deutsche Maschinengewehre in Schaerbeek bei Brüssel. ([189]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldatenpatrouille auf dem Boulevard Anspach in Brüssel. (190) [Abb.]: Gefecht bei Tirlemont. (191) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Strassensperre hinter Gravelotte. (2)Kaserne der 15. Ulanenregiments in Saarburg, in der sich die Franzosen verschanzt hatten, nach der Beschiessung. (192) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ausgebrannte Häuser bei der Kirche in Bruderdorf bei Saarburg, aus denen Freischärler auf deutsche Truppen geschossen hatten. (2)Innere Ansicht der von den Franzosen verwüsteten und geplünderten alten Reichsbank in Saarburg. ([193]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (194) Mit dem Rad auf den Schlachtfeldern von Saarburg. (194) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Wagen mit Leichtverwundeten in Stenay. (2)Der deutsche Kronprinz im Gespräch mit dem Kommandierenden General des XVI. Armeekorps in Romagne=fous=Montfaucon am 20. September 1914. (195) König Ludwig III. begrüsst seine Bayern. (196 - 197) [Abb.]: König Ludwig III. begrüsst seine siegreichen Truppen in der Nähe von Cháteau=Salins am 13. September 1914. (196 - 197) Die Schlacht an den masurischen Seen. (196 - 197) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppengepäckwagen auf der Petersburger Strasse in Suwalki. (198) Bericht eines bei Ausbruch des Krieges in England zurückgehaltenen Deutschen. (198) [Abb.]: Wasserträger in Suwalki (198) [Abb.]: Die Grodnoer Reservearmee wird in der Schlacht bei Lyck geschlagen. ([199]) [Abb.]: Schauplatz der Kämpfe im Osten an den masurischen Seen. (200) Generaloberst v. Kluck. (200) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten in einer russischen Droschke in Suwalki. (201) Die österreichisch=ungarischen Kraftfahrhaubitzen. (201) Krieg und Volkswirtschaft. (201) [Abb.]: Stehen gebliebene Wand eines von den Russen zerstörten Gehöftes bei Lyck. (201) [Abb.]: Ein schweres Geschütz wird durch Motorkraft befördert. (202) Hindenburg und die Masurischen Seen. (203) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch=ungarische Truppen mit ihren 30,5=cm=Kanonen in Brüssel. (2)Eine der österreichisch=ungarischen Motorkanonen vor der Artilleriekaserne in Brüssel. (203) Englische Kriegsgefangene. (204) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englische Kriegsgefangene im Munsterlager. (2)Gefangene Engländer und Franzosen im Sennelager bei Paderborn. (204) [Abb.]: Beschiessung von Antwerpen. Der Anblick ist von Westen nach Osten gegeben, von wo aus die Beschiessung erfolgte und wo das Gelände von vielen sich kreuzenden Bahndämmen durchzogen ist. Vor der Stadt liegen die inneren Forts, von denen man die Schüsse aufblitzen sieht. Im Vordergrund eine zur Aufklärung vorgesandte Ulanenabteilung. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 11 (Heft 11) ([205]) [Abb.]: Aus der Schlacht bei Sadweitschen. Das Generalkommando beobachtet im Feuer schwerer Artillerie den Fortgang der Schlacht; im Hintergrund einschlagende Granaten. ([205]) [Abb.]: Aus der Schlacht bei Sadweitschen. Der Beobachtungsposten im Fesselballon meldet telephonisch dem Generalkommando, dass unser linker Flügel von einer feindlichen Batterie in der Flanke bedroht wird. Ein Ordonnanzoffizier schreibt die Meldung nieder, die dann sofort an das Generalkommando weitergegeben wird. (206) [Abb.]: Fesselballon als Beobachtungsstation über einem der masurischen Seen; im Vordergrund Fernsprechwagen. (207) [Abb.]: Der afrikanische Besitz der Grossmächte. (208) [Abb.]: Die " roten Teufel". ([209]) [ 6 Abb.]: Unsere Soldaten im Felde: Wie sie sich zu helfen wissen. (1)Morgenwäsche. (2)Rasieren im Felde. (3)Ungewohnte Arbeit. Deutsche Soldaten beim Stopfen ihrer Socken vor einem Hause in Belgien. (4)Abziehen des Rasiermessers am Gewehrriemen. (5)Beim Frühstück auf der Schulbank. (6)Melken einer Kuh. ([211]) [Abb.]: Stellung der 3. Kompanie des Reserve=Infanterie=Regiments Nr. 121 vom 1.-11. September bei St.=Dié. (212) [Abb.]: Der Turbinenkreuzer "Dresden" jagt den englischen Riesendampfer "Mauretania". ([213]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (214) Die Schlacht bei Soissons. (214) [Abb.]: Eine neue französische Aeroplan=Mitrailleuse, wie solche während des jetzigen Krieges von unseren Feinden verwendet werden. Man hat diese Aufnahme als Postkarte von französischen Flugzeugen auf deutschem Gebiet abgeworfen, um die Grenzbevölkerung in Schrecken zu versetzen. (214) Die neuen Kriegsmittel. (215) [Abb.]: Eingegrabene deutsche Artillerie im Feuer. (215) [Abb.]: Nachtangriff in der Schlacht bei Soissons gegen die Engländer. ([216 - 217]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Militärflieger im Aufklärungsdienst. (218) Feldpostbrief aus den Vogesen. (219) [3 Abb.]: (1)Unsere Feldtelefunkenstation in Feindesland. (2)Legen einer Feldtelegraphenleitung durch serbisches Militär. (3)Eine deutsche Feldtelephonleitung. (219) Dampferjagd auf hoher See. (220) [3 Abb.]: (1)Verankerte Minen. (2)Galvanische Schlagmine. Schema der Lage der galvanischen Strömung. (3)Die gebräuchlichste Art der Seeminen. (220) [Abb.]: Die Wirkung von Minen. (221) Die tapferen Bosniaken. (221) Der Fall von Antwerpen. (221) [Abb.]: Einrückendes bosnisches Regiment auf dem Weg zum Bahnhof. (222) Die Schlacht bei Sadweitschen. (222) Generalleutnant v. Stein. (223) [2 Abb.]: (1)General v. Beseler, leitete den Angriff auf Antwerpen. (2)Zerstörte Kirche vor Antwerpen. (223) [Abb.]: Mag ringsum noch so stark die Lüge sein: Die Wahrheit siegt, sie ist - von Stein! (224) [Lied]: Der Honvedhusar. Ein Reiterlied aus Österreich=Ungarn grosser Zeit. (224) [Abb.]: Tätigkeit einer Sanitätskolonne auf dem Schlachtfelde. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 12 (Heft 12) ([225]) [Abb.]: Generalleutnant v. Stein. ([225]) [Abb.]:Untergang eines französischen Kriegschiffes bei Cattaro. (226) [Abb.]: Die Bucht von Cattaro. (227) [Abb.]: Leutnant v. R. Matthes erobert mit seinem Zuge eine feindliche Batterie bei Rongiville in der Nähe von St. Dié. ([228 - 229]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lublin. (2)Lemberg. (230) [Abb.]: Der Kriegschauplatz in Galizien und Russisch=Polen. ([231]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Divissions=Brückentrain im Anmarsch. (2)Von unseren Pionieren errichtete Schiffbrücke. (232) [Abb.]: Übergang über die Meurthe. ([233]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Baccarat nach der Räumung seitens der Franzosen. (2)Zerstörtes Franktireurdorf an der Meurthe. (234) [Abb.]: Batterie Galopp! Artillerie zum Angriff vorgehend. (235) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (236) Über die Meurthe. (236) [6 Abb.]: (1)Strasse in Mecheln. Die Belgier schossen auf die Stadt, um unsere Truppen zu vertreiben. Links die Kathedrale, die nur leicht beschädigt ist, rechts das Gildehaus. (2)Von feindlichen Granaten zerstörtes Haus. (3)Unsere Blaujacken als Feuerwehrleute bei den Aufräumungsarbeiten und dem Löschen in den Vororten Antwerpens. (4)Die Wirkung der Geschosse bei einer Villa in des Nähe von Vilvorde in Belgien. (5)Die Wirkung von Schrapnellen.Die Eisenbahnschienen haben sich unter der Wucht des Schusses vollständig verbogen. (6)Ein zerschossener Panzerturm, der zur Deckung feindlicher Kanonen diente und von einem Schuss unserer schweren Geschütze vollständig abgedeckt wurde. Unser Bild zeigt den zerschossenen Panzerturm in der Festung Maubeuge. ([237]) Ein Seekampf vor Cattaro. (238) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch=ungarisches Automobil im Dienste der Verpflegung auf dem russischen Kriegschauplatz.(2)Sanitätsautomobil, geöffnet. (238) [Abb.]: Leichtverwundete werden durch Mitglieder des Roten Kreuzes zum Lazarett geführt. (239) Kriegsanitätswesen. (239) [Abb.]: Ein deutscher Verwundetentransport in Conflans (Französisch=Lothringen). (240) [2 Abb.]: (1)Leiterwagen zum Fortschaffen von acht Schwerverwundeten. (2)Tätigkeit der freiwilligen Sanitätskolonne bei Ankunft Verwundeter. (241) Ein Schwabenstreich. (241) [Abb.]: Abfeuern einer Breitseite von einem englischen Flaggschiff. (242) Kriegseindrücke in Ostfrankreich. (242) [Abb.]: Zum Einsetzen in die Lafette fertiges Rohr einer englischen Schiffskanone. Der Preis einer solchen Kanone beträgt etwa 200 000 Mark. (243) [Abb.]: Zerschossene Silbermünzen aus dem Brustbeutel eines Gefreiten. Die Geldstücke retteten dem Getroffenen das Leben. (244) Englische Schiffsgeschütze. (244) [Abb.]: Der deutsche kleine Kreuzer "Emden" beschiesst Madras. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 13 (Heft 13) ([245]) [Abb.]: Im eroberten Fort Wavre St. Catherine vor Antwerpen. Soldaten auf den erbeuteten belgischen Geschützen. ([245]) [3 Abb.]: Serben in österreichisch=ungarischer Gefangenschaft. (1)Serbische Bauern von der bosnischen Grenze, wo Spionage im grössten Umfang getrieben wurde. (2)Gefangene serbische Komitatschi (Freischärler) in einem österreichisch=ungarischen Gefangenenlager. (3)Von Österreich=Ungarn eingebrachte serbische Gefangene. (246) [Abb.]: Bilder vom russisch=polnischen Kriegschauplatz. (1)Eingedeckter Unterschlupf, aus dem die Russen von den österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen vertrieben wurden. (2)Gefangene Russen beim Brettspiel in einem österreichisch=ungarischen Gefangenenlager. (3)Halb in die Erde gegrabenes russsisches Feldlager. (247) [Abb.]: Rückzug russischer Kolonnen über die bukowinische Grenze b ei Nowosielica. ([248 - 249]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russischer militärischer Grenzposten. (2)Erbeutete russische Feldküchen. (250) [2 Abb.]: (1)Insterburg, das die Russen zwei Wochen lang besetzt hielten. Partie an der Angerapp. (2)Deutsche Infanterie in einem Kriegslager an der russischen Grenze. (251) [3 Abb.]: (1)Ostpreussische Trümmerstätte nach dem Abzug der Russenhorden. (2)Ein durch die Russen in Brand gesteckter und vernichteter deutscher Güterzug an der Ostgrenze. (3)Ruinen eines von den Russen in Brand gesteckten ostpreussischen Rittergutes bei Tannenberg. (252) [Abb.]: Erkundungsfahrt nach Russland auf einer Tenderlokomotive. (253) [Abb.]: Fregattenkapitän v. Müller, Kommandant der "Emden". (254) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (254) Der deutsche Kreuzer "Emden". (254) Der Kampf des 1. bayrischen Armeekorps bei Rommelfingen und Rieding. (255) [Abb.]: Russische Haubitzen in der Schanze. (255) [Abb.]: Das 1. bayrische Armeekorps in der Schlacht bei Rommelfingen und Rieding. Das 1. bayrische Armeekorps hatte den Befehl, seine Stellung zwischen Rommelfingen und Rieding entscheidend zu verteidigen. In der Nacht vom 19. zum 20. August traf der Befehl ein, am kommenden Tage zum allgemeinen Angriff auf der ganzen Linie überzugehen. Das Bild zeigt das Scheitern des französischen Angriffs und das Vorgehen unserer Truppen gegen die Höhen dicht westlich Saaraltdorf. Das in der Talmulde gelegene Dorf brennt bereits mehrfach. Das französische 8. und 13. Armeekorps wurde an diesem Tage geworfen. (256 - 257) Die Teilnahme unserer Marine am Landkriege. (258) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Matrosen auf dem Durchmarsch durch Brüssel. (2)Die Stellungen der deutschen und französischen Truppen in der Schlacht bei Saarburg. (258) Aus der Nordmark des Reiches. (258) [Abb.]: Ein warmes Frühstück auf Feldwacht vor Antwerpen. Offiziere und Mannschaften vom Seebataillon und der Marinedivision (259) Beim Vormarsch über Montfaucon. (260) Vom westlichen Kriegschauplatz: General v. Gotzler während der Schlacht bei Montfaucon. (260) [Abb.]: Durchzug deutscher Truppen durch Montfaucon. ([261]) [Abb.]: Von deutschen Pionieren wiederhergestellte Eisenbahnbrücke bei Piwianowice. (262) Der Pionier in Feindesland. (262) Was kostet ein Weltkrieg? (262) [Abb.]: Pioniere beim Bau einer durch belgische Soldaten zerstörten Brücke bei Visé. (263) Toul. (264) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein erbeuteter französischer Munitionswagen. Nach einer Aufnahme vom Kriegschauplatz. (2)Die Festung Toul mit ihren Forts. (264) [Gedicht]: Landsturmmanns Abschied. (264) [Abb.]: Leutnant Mayer von den reitenden Jägern fällt als erster deutscher Offizier auf seinem Patouillenritt in den Vogesen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 14 (Heft 14) ([265]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldten verteilen Brot an die arme Bevölkerung Mechelns. ([265]) [Abb.]: Rast im Strassengraben. Oben auf der Strasse: Die Feldküche in Tätigkeit. (267) [4 Abb.]: (1)Wachtposten am Abhang des Donon. (2)Patrouille im Klein=Auto auf dem Donon. (3)Grandfontaine bei Schirmeck mit Gipfel des Donon im Hintergrund. (4)Der Tempel auf dem Gipfel des Donon. (268) [Abb.]: Kampf um den Donon. ([269]) [3 Abb.]: Aus dem Lagerleben der österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen. (1)Feldbäckerei. (2)Feldmetzgerei. (3)Raststation an der russischen Grenze. ([271]) [Abb.]: Durchziehende Infanterie vor Dieuze am Bergaviller Torhaus. (272) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (272) Musson, Baranzy, Signeulr. (272) [2 Abb.] (1)Nach der Schlacht von Dieuze-Saarburg. Auf der Höhe das Dorf Oberstinzel. Dahinter die bayrische Artillerie=Stellung, von wo aus die Saareckmühle an dem von den Franzosen besetzten Walde in Brand geschossen wurde. (2)Nach der Schlacht von Dieuze-Saarburg. Blick von der Höhe von Oberstinzel auf die Waldungen in der Richtung Dieuze. Diese waren weithin von Franzosen besetzt. Die Höhen - Saarburg=Finstingen - hielten bayrische Infanterie und Artillerie, die nach dem Gefecht siegreich vordrangen. Im Vordergrund eine deutsche Artilleriescheinstellung, markiert durch Wasserleitungsröhren. ([273]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Herzog Albrecht von Württemberg und General v. Schenck während eines Gefechtes. (2)Zum Artikel Russon, Baranzy, Signeulr. (274) Die Offizierfernpatrouille der Kavallerie. (275) [Abb.]: Gefecht bei Musson-Baranzy. (275) [Abb.]: Vernichtung einer montenegrinischen Brigade bei Foca. ([276 - 277]) Der Sieg über die Montenegriner bei Foca. (278) Am Donon. (278) [4 Abb.]: (1)Eine Flüchtlingswohnung im Freien in der Nähe von Antwerpen. (2)Erste Ankunft des neutralen Zuges von Eschen aus Holland, mit dem die ersten belgischen Flüchtlinge wieder zurückkamen. (3)Zerstörtes Haus in Berchem bei Antwerpen. Die Wirkung einer 18=cm=Granate. (4)Der verbarrikadierte Hauptbahnhof in Antwerpen. Hinter den Säcken stehen zwei Maschinengewehre. ([279]) Die Schlacht bei Kirlibaba. (280) Die Schlacht von Dieuze. (280) [Abb.]: Was die belgischen Soldaten in Antwerpen zurückgelassen haben. Bekleidungsstücke und zertrümmertes Hausgerät liegen in wirrem Durcheinander auf den Strassen. (281) Moderne Festungen. (281) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Fortgürtel der Festung Mamur, deren Aussenbefestigung aus einem Gürtel von neun Panzerforts bestand. Die Einnahme erlangte am 25. August. (2)Versenkbare Panzertürme in den belgischen Forts: 1. Panzerkuppel mit Schnellfeuergeschützen, die zum Verschwinden eingerichtet sind. 2. Panzerturm in Schussbereitschaft. 3. Panzerturm mit möglichst geringer Angriffsfläche. 4. Vorpostenhaus im Festungsgelände. 5. Fort mit Panzerturm, aus der Ferne gesehen. (3)Versenkbare Panzertürme in den belgischen Forts: 1. Ein durch Buschwerk versteckter Geschützturm. 2. Panzerturm 3. 22=cm=Festungsgeschütze in einem drehbaren Panzerturm. 4. 22=cm=Festungsgeschütze in Panzerung und Betoneindeckung. 5. Drehbarer Panzerturm mit Schnellfeuergeschützen. (282 - 283) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durchschnitt eines zwischen zwei belgischen Forts gelegenen Zwischenwerkes mit den Verteidigungsmassnahmen und den Hindernissen, die die deutschen Truppen im Sturm zu nehmen hatten. 1. Ein Fort von der Seite gesehen. 2. Sturmkolonne mit Wurfbrücken zur Überwindung der Drahthindernisse. 3. Ausgedehntes Drahthindernis. 4. Elektrische Mine, aus der der anstürmende Gegner während des Überschreitens mit einem Steinregen überschüttet wird. 5. Zweites kleines Drahthindernis. 6. Infanterie=Feuerstellung mit Eindeckung und schusssicheren Unterständen. 7. Feldgeschütze in ausgebauter Batterie mit Schutzräumen und Munitionsdepots. 8. Flankierendes Maschinengewehr in gedeckter Stellung. 9. Feldhaubitzstellung. 10. Stellung der Belagerungsgeschütze. 11. Verbindungsgraben mit Zufuhrgraben. (2)Durchschnitt eines Panzerforts von Lüttich mit drehbarem Panzergeschütz. Ein solches Panzerfort galt bisher wegen seiner Beton= und Panzerdeckung wie auch infolge der ausgedehnten Drahthindernisse und hohen Böschungen im Vorfeld als uneinnehmbar. (284) Von der Ostgrenze Galiziens. Ein tapferer Infanterist. (284) [Abb.]: Nach der Belagerung der Festung Mamur: Die Besetzung durch deutsche Truppen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 15 (Heft 15) ([285]) [Abb.]: In den Vogesen: Eine bayrische Infanteriekolonne mit französischem Schlachtvieh, das zum Ziehen des Wagens benutzt wird. ([285]) [Abb.]: Fuhrkolonnen auf dem Markt in Goldap, im Hintergrunde eine abrückene Fuhrkolonne. (286) [Abb.]: Etappenstrasse auf dem Kriegschauplatz. Auf der linken Seite Gepäckkolonne, rechts marschierende Infanterie. Die Mitte der Strasse ist für den Autoverkehr freigehalten. (287) [Abb.]: Eingreifen der Artillerie in der Schlacht bei Allenburg-Nordenburg-Angerburg. (288 - 289) [6 Abb.]: Fremdländische Hilfstruppen auf dem westlichen Kriegschauplatz. (1)Allgerische Schützen. (2)Indische Reiterei auf dem Marsch. (3)Turko und Franzose im Gefangenenlager zu Friedrichsfeld. (4)Zwei in englischen Diensten stehende indische Offiziere. (5)Einmarsch eines kanadischen Rifleregiments in London. (6)Schwarze Senegaltruppen. ([291]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (292) In der Etappe. (292) [Abb.]: Der Kriegschauplatz in Belgien und Nordwestfrankreich. (292) [Abb.]: Angriff deutscher Kavallerie bei Hazebrouck am 10. Oktober 1914. ([293]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Vorhut in St. Amand auf dem Vormarsch nach Lille. (294) Die Reiterschlacht bei Lille. (294) Die Schlacht bei Wehlau-Allenburg-Nordenburg-Angerburg. (295) [Abb.]: Deutsche Vorposten tränken ihre Pferde in St. Amand. (295) [Abb.]: Eroberung einer Fahne in der Schlacht bei Zamosc. (296 - 297) Eroberung einer Fahne bei Zamosc. (296 - 297) Fremdländische Hilfsvölker unsrer Gegner. (296 - 297) [Abb.]: Drei Brüder, die sich freiwillig beim Feldartillerieregiment Nr. 76 meldeten und nicht nur bei der gleichen Batterie, sondern sogar beim gleichen Geschütz als Fahrer dienen. (298) Bei Montigny. (298) [Abb.]: Der älteste Bürgergardist in Budapest, der 73jährige Fuhrmann Ludwig Weiss. In Budapest bildete sich unter der Führung des Grafen Andrassy eine "Bürgergarde", die nach einer kurzen militärischen Ausbildung den Wachdienst über öffentliche Bauten, Brücken, Krankenhäuser usw. zu versehen hat. Die Budapester Bürgergarde oder, wie sie amtlich genannt wird, das "f r e i w i l l i g e W a c h k o r p s" setzt sich aus militärdienstfreien Bürgern der ungarischen Hauptstadt zusammen, die sich freiwillig melden und den Dienst freiwillig versehen. Die erste, bereits ausgebildete Truppe hat im Oktober einige wichtige Wachposten übernommen. Zweck der Bürgergarde ist, durch Übernahme des Wachdienstes dem aktiven Militär zu ermöglichen, sich auf den Kriegschauplatz zu betätigen. (298) [Abb.]: Russischer Angriff auf einen österreichisch=ungarischen Proviantzug auf der Bahnlinie Lemberg-Grodek wird von einem k. u. k. Infanterieregiment mit dem Bajonett abgewiesen. (299) Ein österreichisch=ungarischer Proviantzug bei Lemberg. (300) Untergang des englischen Kreuzers "Hawke". (300) Die Tätigkeit unserer Pioniere. (300) [Abb.]: Der englische Kreuzer "Hawke" wird von einem deutschen Unterseeboot in den Grund gebohrt. ([301]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wiederherstellung eines zerstörten Tunnels durch unsere Truppen. (2)Aufschütten von Befestigungen bei Lierre. Im Vordergrund Feldpostbriefe schreibende Soldaten. ([302]) [2 Abb.]: Deutsche Pioniere beim Neubau einer durch die Belgier zerstörten Eisenbahnbrücke. (1)Errichtung der hölzernen Brückenpfeiler. (2)Eiserne Brückenträger werden mittels Dampfkran über die Holzpfeiler gelegt. ([303]) [Abb.]: Unsere Pioniere beim Bau einer Umgehungsbahn. (304) [Gedicht]: Penny und Blut. (304) [Abb.]: Aushebung des Landsturms in einem ungarischen Dorfe. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 16 (Heft 16) ([305]) [Abb.]: Generaloberst v. Bülow. ([305]) [6 Abb.]: (1)Schwieriges Überschreiten der von den Belgiern zerstörten Eisenbahnstrecke bei Merxem. (2)Die Feldpoststelle in Antwerpen. (3)In Merxem bei Antwerpen halfen unsere Marinesoldaten, die daselbst den Überwachungsdienst ausübten, den Flüchtlingen in jeder Weise und trugen ihnen bis zu den Wagen das schwere Gepäck. (4)Die neue elektrische Bahn Brüssel-Antwerpen, die hauptsächlich dem Verwundetentransport dient. (5)Die telegraphische Verbindung zwischen Antwerpen und Brüssel wird von den Deutschen wiederhergestellt. Das Bild wurde in dem ganz zerstörten Dorfe Waelhem aufgenommen. (6)Bewohner von Berchem bei der Wiederherstellung ihrer zerstörten Wohnungen: ein Zeichen, dass sie sich unter dem Schutz der Deutschen geborgen fühlen. ([307]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Artillerie zwingt die englische Flotte an der belgischen Küste zum Rückzug. (308 - 309) [Abb.]: Transport eines Flugzeuges. (310) [Abb.]: Die Kaserne in Maubeuge, deren Fenster zum Teil noch mit Sandsäcken verbarrikadiert sind. (311) [Abb.]: Das Innere der Festung Longwy, in der ein grosser Bombenvorrat von den Franzosen zurückgelassen wurde. (312) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (312) Zu den Kämpfen bei Longwy. (312) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen bei Lonwy. ([313]) [Abb.]: Longwy am 27. August 1914 nach der Belagerung. (314) Die Einberufung der ungarischen Landwehr und des Landsturms. (315) Deutsch=französische Schützengrabenkorrespondenz. (315) [Abb.]: Der grosse Marktplatz in Longwy mit erbeuteten Geschützen. (315) [Abb.]: Kundgebung vor dem Gebäude des Festungskommandos in Przemysl nach glücklich überstandener Belagerung. Der Festungskommandant und Verteidiger der Stadt, Exzellenz v. Kusmanek, bringt ein dreifaches Hoch auf den Kaiser aus. (316) Belagerung und Entsatz von Przemys. (316) [Abb.]: Die Russen im vergeblichen Ansturm auf das Aussenfort Duckowiczky der Festung Przemys. ([317]) [Abb.]: Berliner Wiedergabe des von Generalfeldmarschall Freiherrn v.d. Goltz erlassenen Aufrufs an die Bevölkerung des in deutsche Verwaltung übergegangenen belgischen Gebietes. (318) Generaloberst Karl v. Bülow. (319) [Abb.]: Die Zitadelle von Namur mit zerstörter Brücke. (319) Deutsche Artillerie an der belgischen Küste. (320) [Abb.]: Ankunft Leichtverwundeter auf Lazarettkähnen in Berlin. (320) Mit Liebesgaben an die Front. (320) [3 Abb.]: (1)Soldaten bei der Morgenwäsche im Alarmquartier. (2)In gedeckter Haubitzenstellung vor dem Feind. (3)Unser Liebesgabenauto im Alarmquartier. (321) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Maschinengewehre auf dem Dache eines Hauses zur Abwehr feindlicher Flieger. (2)Eine österreichisch=ungarische Maschinengewehrabteilung in Gefechtsbereitschaft. ([322]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Alpenjäger mit Maschinengewehr in den Bergen. (Der Lauf des Gewehrs liegt frei, ohne Kühlwassermantel; er hat nur Luftkühlung und erscheint daher weniger dick als bei den deutschen und österreichisch=ungarischen Maschinengewehren.) (2)Französisches Maschinengewehr auf einem Automobil in Tätigkeit. ([323]) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehrabteilung auf dem Marsch. (324) Maschinengewehre. (324) [Abb.]: Begegnung Kaiser Wilhelms II. mit dem deutschen Kronprinzen bei dem Dorfe Sorbey am 2. September 1914. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 17 (Heft 17) ([325]) [Abb.]: Honvedhusaren verfolgen die bei Lancut geschlagenen russischen Truppen. ([325]) [Abb.]: Ausmarsch türkischer Truppen aus Konstantinopel. (326) [3 Abb.]: (1)General Enver Pascha, türkischer Kriegsminister und Generalissimus der türkischen Streitkräfte. (2)Feldmarschalleutnant Hermann v. Kuzmanek, der heldenmütige Verteidiger von Przemysl. (3) General der Infanterie Svetozar Boroevic v. Bojna, der Führer der 3. österreichisch=ungarischen Armee, die bei Przemysl siegreich gegen die Russen kämpfte. (327) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bordeux vom Zollamt aus gesehen. (2) Wegeskizze. Zu dem Artikel: Das Schlachtfeld von Noers (328) [Abb.]: Das Schlachtfeld südlich von dem brennenden Dorfe Noers mit Front nach St. Laurent und Grand Failly. Links die Strasse Noers-Laurent, von der links sich die Stellungen des Grenadierregiments Königin Olga, rechts die Stellungen des Kaiser=Regiments befanden. ([329]) [Abb.]: Eine von den Russen zerstörte Eisenbahnsterecke auf dem Wege nach Warschau wird von einer deutschen Patrouille untersucht. (331) [Abb.]: Rast einer Brückentrainabteilung in Russisch-Polen. (332) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (332) Das Schlachtfeld von Noers*). (332) [2 Abb.]: Infanterie im strömenden Regen vor Kielce in Russisch=Polen mit Aufklärungspatrouillen. (2)Artilleriemunitionskolonne in Russisch=Polen (333) Honvedhusaren bei Lancut. (334) Kämpfe an der schleschisch=russischen Grenze. (334) Die Millionenschlacht an der Marne und Aisne. (334) [Abb.]: Strassengefecht in einem Dorfe Russisch=Polens. ([335]) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines französischen Kavallerieangriffs an der Marne. ([336 - 337]) Begegnung Kaiser Wilhelms mit dem Kronprinzen bei Sorbey. (339) [Abb.]: Feldküche während der Fahrt in Feindesland. Die Mahlzeit wird während der Fahrt in der Feldküche angesetzt, so dass die Truppen schon unterwegs oder sofort bei der Ankunft am Ziel mit warmer Nahrung versehen werden können. Zur Verhütung des Anbrennens hängt der Kochtopf in einem mit Öl gefüllten Kessel. (339) Die Generale Hermann v. Kuzmanek und Svetozar Boroevic v. Bojna. (340) Die Gesundheit des Soldaten im Felde. (340) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feldbacköfen, im Hintergrunde die grossen wasserdichten Zelte, in denen der Brotteig hergerichtet wird. (2)Bäckereikolonne im Felde. Einige der Feldbäcker sind gerade beim Mittagessen. Die Backöfen werden alle vier Stunden neu mit Brot beschickt. (341) [Karte): Karte des russisch=türkischen Kriegschauplatzes. ([342]) [Abb.]: Die türkischen Kreuzer "Sultan Yawus Selim" und "Midilli" beschiessen den russischen Hafen Odessa am Schwarzen Meer. ([343]) [Abb.]: Deutsche, österreichische und ungarische Soldaten in einem österreichischen Lazarett. (344) Enver Pascha und das Eingreifen der Türkei in den Weltkrieg. (344) [Gedicht]: Emden. (344) [Abb.]: Die Seeschlacht bei Coronel. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 18 (Heft 18) ([345]) [Abb.]: General v. Francois, Führer der achten Armee, im Gespräch mit General v. Briefen auf der Landstrasse nach Sarajewo in Russisch=Polen an der ostpreussischen Grenze. ([345]) [Abb.]: Das 34. Landwehr=Infanterieregiment rastet auf dem Marsche nach Suwalki vor einem polnische Gehöft. (346) [Abb.]: Der Eingang zu dem Dorfe Filipowo in Russisch=Polen. Im Vordergrunde Mannschaften vom 3. Landsturmbataillon. (347) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Forts Camp des Romains. ([348 - 349]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ostpreussische Landsturmpatrouille, die sich zum Schutz gegen die Kälte mit Decken versehen hat.(2)Blockhaus an der deutsch=russischen Grenze, in dem eine Landsturmwache untergebracht ist. (350) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wasserschöpfen an einem galizischen Brunnen für die grosse Wäsche. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Soldaten in Galizien beim Wäschereinigen. (351) [2 Abb.]: (1)Plan der Festung Warschau mit Umgebung. (2)Eine Strasse in Sosnowice an der polnisch=galizischen Grenze. (352) [Abb.]: Die Wiedererstürmung der Höhe Magiera durch die österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen am 20. Oktober 1914. Die Tiroler Landeschützen zeichneten sich hierbei durch einen Heldenmut ohnegleichen aus und lösten eine Aufgabe, die drei Regimentern gestellt war. ([353]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (354) Unser Seesieg bei Coronel. (354) Die russischen Festungen. (354) [ 2 Abb.]: (1) Vizeadmiral Graf v. Spee, der Chef des deutschen Kreuzergeschwaders, das an der chilenischen Küste ein englisches Geschwader vernichtete (2)Zum Seesieg bei Coronel: Das Wirkungsfeld unserer Kreuzer im Stillen Ozean. (355) Der Sturm auf Dixmuiden. (356) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Abteilung deutscher Soldaten am Strande von Ostende. (2)Unsere Blaujacken graben auf der Kurpromenade in Ostende die Küstenbatterien ein. (356) Aus deutschen Schützengräben. (356) [Abb.]: Unsere Freiwilligen in den Kämpfen an der Yser bei Nieuport am 10. November 1914. (Achtmal hintereinander wiederholter Bajonettangriff auf französische Artillerie und Maschinengewehre.) ([357]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Infanterie hebt einen Schützengraben aus. (2)Eine Ruhepause im Schützengraben. (358) Tiroler Landeschützen erstürmen die Höhe bei Magiera. (359) [Abb.]: Wie sich ein findiger Batteriechef im Schützengraben wohnlich einzurichten wusste. (359) Der Sturm auf Camp des Romains. (360) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Infanterie auf dem Durchmarsch in Medjedje an der bosnisch=serbischen Grenze. (360) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hofarkaden in der zum Reservelazarett eingerichteten Universität Wien. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Fuhrparkkolonne mit deutscher Militärbedeckung. (361) Das Elsass im Kriege. (362) [Abb.]: Offizierspatrouille in den Strassen einer elsässischen Stadt kurz nach der Kriegserklärung. (362) [2 Abb.]: (1)Thann im Oberelsass, vom Raugenkreuz gesehen, mit dem umgestürzten Turm der Engelsburg rechts. Im Hintergrunde der Rossberg. (2)Rotenbacher Kopf (Südvogesen) mit dem Steilabfall nach der deutschen Seite; rechts ein Stück des Grenzgrabens. (363) [2 Abb.]: (1)Grenzkamm bei Hohneck (Elsass). (2)Vogelschaukarte zu den Kämpfen im Oberelsass und in den Vogesen. (364) [Abb.]: Zusammenbruch der Attacke afrikanischer Jäger unter dem Feuer deutscher Landwehr bei Mühlhausen am 20. August 1914. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 19 (Heft 19) ([365]) [Abb.]: König Wilhelm II. von Württemberg (X) verabschiedet sich von den Offizieren seiner siegreichen Truppen im Felde. ([365]) [Abb.]: Eine Sotnie des Nertschinski=Kosakenregiments. (366) [Abb.]: Russische Kosaken. (367) [Abb.]: Erstürmung eines französischen Schützengrabens zwischen der Aisne und dem Argonner Wald. ([368 - 369]) [Abb.]: Die 27 bei der Reiterattacke bei Tagsdorf (Oberelsass gefangen genommenen Chaffeurs d´Afrique (afrikanische Jäger) auf dem Abmarsch vom Bezirkskommando in Lörrach zum Bahnhof. (371) [Abb.]: Wegeskizze zum Pionierüberfall bei Brandeville (372) Illustrierte Kriegsberichgte. (372) Ein Todesritt afrikanischer Jäger im Oberelsass. (372) [Abb.]: Vernehmung russischer Gefangener durch einen deutschen Generalstabsoffizier und einen Dolmetscher in Soldap. (372) [Abb.]: Pionierüberfal bei Brandeville. (373) Zwischen der Aisne und dem Argonner Wald. (374) [Abb.]: Englische Marineinfanterie bei den Kämpfen am Yserkanal. (374) Der Pionierüberfall bei Brandeville. (375) [Abb.]: Gefangene Turkos von der Kampffront bei Nieuport. (375) Das Heldenmädchen von Rawaruska. (376) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines Durchbruchversuchs der französischen Ostarmee im Vorgelände der Festung Spinal. ([377]) [Abb.]: Rosa Zenoch, die Heldin von Rawaruska. (378) Ein Durchbruchsversuch der französischen Ostarmee. (378) [Abb.]: Aus Frankreich zurückgekehrte Deutsche begeben sich in die in Singen bereitgestellten Unterkunftsräume. (378) Aus Frankreich zurück. (379) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch=ungarische Regimenter vor dem Abmarsch nach dem russisch=galizischen Kriegschauplatz. (2)Österreichisch=ungarischen Vorposten bei Frampol in Russisch=Polen. (379) Das Schwarze Meer und der Kaukasus. (380) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zwei Typen persischer Kosaken, die, als tapfer bekannt, im jetzigen Kriege gegen Russland zu Felde ziehen. (2)Türkische Kavallerie. (380) [2 Abb.]: (1)Senussi, die bisher gegen Italien gekämpft haben, ziehen auf die Verkündigung des Heiligen Krieges hin über die ägyptische Grenze, um gegen die Engländer zu kämpfen. (2)Eine Gruppe Kaschkainomanden, die jetzigen Kämpfer gegen die Engländer und Russen in Persien. (381) Kosaken. (382 - 383) [Abb.]: Die Kreuzer "Gneisenau" und "Scharnhorst" beschiessen Papeete, die Hauptstadt von Tahiti (382 - 383) [Abb.]: Rast nach einem Gefecht in der Nähe von Verdun. (384) Verdun. (384) [Abb.]: Die Festung Verun und ihre Forts. (384) [Abb.]: Der grosse Marktplatz in Mecheln mit Tausenden von belgischen Soldaten, die bei der Eroberung Antwerpens gefangen genommen wurden. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Heft 20 (Heft 20) ([385]) [Abb.]: Generaloberst v. Moltke, zu Beginn des Krieges Chef des Generalstabs der deutschen Armee. ([385]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Erzherzog Friedrich und Conrad v. Hötzendorf nehmen im Hauptquartier eine Meldung entgegen. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Truppen in ihren in die Erde eingegrabenen Höhlenwohnungen bei Diszkovica. (387) [3 Abb.]: (1)Eine österreichisch=ungarische Batterie in gedeckter Feuerstellung (2)Französische Artillerie und französische Flugmaschine im Felde. (3)Schwere Feldhaubitzen im Argonnenwald beschiessen die feindlichen Stellungen. Links und rechts im Vordergrund Flechtkörbe zum Herbeischaffen der Geschosse. (388 - 389) [Abb.]: Feldtelephon im Schützengraben. (390) [Abb.]: Eine Artillerie=Telephonstation im Strassengraben. Sämtliche Befehle werden den zurückliegenden Batterien oft auf 2-3000 Meter telephonisch übermittelt. (391) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (391) Zu den Kämpfen in den Argonnen. (391) [Abb.]: Karte des Kriegschauplatzes: Toul-Verdun-Reims. ([392]) [Abb.]: Erstürmung eines Bauerngehöfts in den Argonnen. ([393]) Wie Ulanen und Husaren zwei französische Kavalleriebrigaden vernichteten. (394) [2 Abb.]: (1)In weit vorgeschobener Stellung durch das Feldtelephon in Verbindung mit dem Kommando. (2)Prinz Leopold von Bayern (X), der Führer der Bayern vor Verdun, kehrt von einer Truppenbesichtigung in sein Hauptquartier zurück. (394) [Abb.]: Aus der Verteidigungstellung von Toul übergelaufene französische Soldaten werden durch bayrische schwere Reiter als Gefangene abgeführt. (395) Unsere Haubitzen. (395) [Abb.]: Die Vernichtung zweier französischer Kavalleriebrigaden durch deutsche Reiter am 4. Oktober 1914. ([396 - 397]) Generaloberst v. Moltke. (398) [Abb.]: In jeder Familie unseres deutschen Vaterlandes befindet sich heute wohl eine Karte vom Kriegschauplatz. Mit regem Interesse verfolgt alt und jung, wie auf unserem Bilde, die allgemeine Kriegslage und freut sich, wenn unsere Truppen weiter in Feindesland vorrücken. (398) Die Operationsziele der Türkei. (399) [Abb.]: Karte des türkisch=ägyptischen Kriegschauplatzes. (399) Das Gefecht bei Soldau. (400) [Abb.]. Blick auf Tiflis im Kaukasus. (400) [6 Abb.]: (1)Gefangene Russen auf dem Bahnhof Eydtkuhnen. (2)Das Dorf Wirballen; Zugang von der Gefechtslinie aus. (3)Fliegende Händler in Eydtkuhnen. (4)Durch Granaten zerstörtes Haus in Pillkallen. (5)Kochkisten auf erbeuteten Russenkarren. Das Essen wird über dem Feuer angekocht und dann in die Kochkisten gestellt. (8)Truppenkolonnen auf dem Marsch. Den Schluss bildet die Feldküche. ([401]) Das Telephon im Kriege. (402) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Schlachtfeld bei Soldau wird von deutschen Landsturmmännern nach Gefallenen abgesucht. (2)Deutsche Infanterie zieht auf dem Marsche nach Mlawa durch das von den Russen zerstörte Städtchen Soldau. (402) [Abb.]: Russische Kavallerie wird von deutscher Infanterie in den Kämpfen bei Soldau am 18. November 1914 zurückgeworfen. ([403]) [Abb.]: Feldkriegskasse eines bayrischen Armeekorps, die einen Wert von mehreren Millionen Mark darstellt. Die Regimenter sowie die höheren Verbände führen grosse Kriegskassen mit sich, da die Überweisungen der Löhne und Gehälter an die Truppen regelmässig in bar erfolgen. (404) Frieden mitten im Krieg. (404) [Abb.]: Ein Zeppelinkreuzer über Antwerpen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15 Hef 21 (Heft 21) ([405]) [Abb.]: Panzerturm auf Fort Lierre, den ein Schuss eines 42=cm=Mörsers völlig blosslegte. ([405]) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehre und Infanterie im Schützengraben beim Angriff auf Fort Wavre bei Antwerpen. (406) [Abb.]: Strassenbild aus Lierre nach der Beschiessung. (407) [Abb.]: Im Kampf um Lihons. ([408 - 409]) [Abb.]: Von englischen Seesoldaten und belgischen Artilleristen bediente Panzerkanonen auf den Wällen der Forts von Antwerpen. (410) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englische Soldaten in Laufgräben vor Antwerpen. Im Vordergrund ein Maschinengewehr. (2)Englische und belgische Verwundete verlassen die Laufgräben vor Antwerpen. Vorn ein Engländer, der durch eine Granate schwer am Kopf verwundet ist. (411) [Abb.]: Eine von den Engländern auf ihrer Flucht verlassene Artilleriestellung vor Antwerpen. (412) [Abb.]: Wegnahme englischer Geschütze vor Antwerpen. ([413]) [Abb.]: Vom Einzug der deutschen Truppen in Antwerpen. Im Hintergrund die berühmte Kathedrale, auf deren höchster Kreuzblume ein wagemutiger Krieger eine grosse deutsche Flagge hisste. (414) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (414) Die Gefechte bei Curtigny und Lihons. (414) [Abb.]: Vom Einzug der deutschen Truppen in Antwerpen. Im Hintergrund das Mansee de S.een. (415) Überfall eines sächsischen Liebesgabentransports. (416) Englische Artillerie vor Antwerpen. (416) [Proclamation]: (416) [Abb.]: Überfall eines sächsischen Liebesgabentransports. ([417]) [Abb.]: Serbische Gefangene. (418) Feldzeugmeister Potiorek und der Feldzug gegen Serbien. (418) [ 2 Abb.]: (1)Feldzeugmeister Oskar Potiorek, der siegreiche Oberbefehlshaber der österreichisch=ungarischen Balkanarmee. (2)Truppenlager in Serbien. (419) Der Maasübergang der 26. Infanteriedivision. (419) [Abb.]: Wegeskizze zum Maasübergang der 26. Infanteriedivision. (420) [Abb.]: Der Maasübergang der 26. Infanteriedivision. ([421]) Eine Eilbotenfahrt in der Nähe von Przemysl. (422) [Abb.]: Zurückkehrende Bewohner von Antwerpen zeigen den deutschen Wachtposten ihre Pässe vor. (422) Die Granate, das Schrapnell und ihre Zünder. (423) [3 Abb]: (1)Landleute bringen von der Militärbehörde verlangtes Getreide, das von dieser sofort bei Übernahme bezahlt wird. (2)Unsere Feldgrauen bei einer russischen Teeverkäuferin. (3)Zwei Landsturmleute beim Obstkaufen. (423) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Landsturmmann auf Wachtposten in Winterausrüstung. Zum Schutz gegen die Kälte sind die Posten mit Schafpelzen und Ohrenschützern versehen. (2)Verkleinerte Wiedergabe einer von Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg eigenhändig geschriebenen Feldpostkarte an die Verwundeten in der Prof. Riedingerschen Privatklinik in Würzburg. (424) [Abb.]: Beschiessung Belgrads durch österreichisch=ungarische Monitore. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Heft 22 (Heft 22) ([425]) [Abb.]: Fort Boussois bei Maubeuge. ([425]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Sappeure beim Festungsbau. (426) [Abb.]: Bau einer Seilhängebrücke zum Überqueren von Schluchten im Gebirge durch Pioniere der österreichisch=ungarischen Armee. (427) [Abb.]: Kavallerieschlacht bei Kolo am 6. November 1914. ([428 - 429]) [Abb.]: Übersetzen deutscher Truppen über die Schelde. Die Schiffe im Flusse waren zuvor durch Eisenbrücken verbunden, um den Belgiern und Engländern zur Flucht zu dienen. (430) [Abb.]: Die deutschen Truppen auf dem Wege von Antwerpen nach Gent und Ostende. Der Übergang über die schmale Brücke in Vilvorde dauerte siebeneinhalb Stunden. (431) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die berüchtigte Ernagora zwischen Virpazar und Antivari. (2)Die montenegrinische Grenzfeste Virpazar am Scutarisee. ([432]) [Abb.]: Wegnahme des montenegrinischen "Langen Tom" bei Bileca. (433) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Festung Belgrad. (2)Mühlenwache in Masny-St.Pierre (Nordfrankreich)- (434) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (435) Beschiessunglund Erstürmung Belgrads. (435) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches Motorboot mit Maschinengewehr auf einer Patrouillenfahrt. (435) Das Treffen bei Kolo. (436) [Abb.]: General v. Rennenkampf. (436) [Abb.]: Der Sturm auf Chevillecourt am 20. September 1914. ([437]) General v. Rennenkampf. (438) Von den tapferen Schwaben. (438) Die von Schneckenbusch. (439) [Abb.]: Das erste Kriegerdenkmal 1914 auf dem Dünkelsberg bei Saarburg. Zur Erinnerung an die im Kriege gegen Frankreich bisher gefallenen Kameraden errichtet vom Landsturm=Infanteriebataillon Neustadt a. d. H. (439) Die "technischen Truppen" Österreich=Ungarns. (440) Französische Fliegerpfeile. (440) Saphis auf Feldwache. (440) [Abb.]: Algerische Spahis und Chasseurs d`Afrique im Oberelsass auf Feldwache im Morgengrauen. ([441]) Die Eroberung des "Langen Tom". (442) 2 [Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Mars=Doppeldecker (auch im englischen Heere vertreten). (2)Deutscher L.=V.=G.=Renn=Eindecker mit deutschem Gnomemotor. Vertritt den Typ der schnellen französischen Eindecker. (442) Die Flugzeuge der kriegführenden Staaten. (443) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Albatros=Militär=Doppeldecker mit Mercedesmotor. (2)Deutscher Jeannin=Eindecker 1914. (Verbesserte Taube.) (443) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fliegerleutnant Caspar und der Beobachtungsoffizier Oberleutnant Roos werden bei ihrer Rückkehr vom ersten Flug nach England von der Mannschaft ihrer Fliegerabteilung begrüsst. (2)Stahlpfeile aus einem französischen Flugzeug. (444) [Abb.]: Erstürmung von Valjevo durch die Österreichisch=ungarischen Balkanstreitkräfte. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Heft 23 (Heft 23) ([445]) [Abb.]: Auf Vorposten im Schnee in Westflandern. ([445]) [Abb.]: Vom Kriegschauplatz in Westflandern: Der Schauplatz der erbitterten Kämpfe um Vecelaere. (446) [Abb.]: Das Rathaus in Ypern. Infolge der Überschwemmung der Küstengebiete um Nieuport ist Ypern zum Mittelpunkt der schweren Kämpfe in Westflandern geworden, in deren Verlauf auch das altertümliche Rathaus schwer gelitten hat. Die Stadt, einst Sitz ausgebreiteter Tuchfabrikation, zählt etwa 20 000 Einwohner und liegt an der kanalisierten Yperlée. Sie war schon in früheren Jahrhunderten, während der Kriege mit Frankreich und Spanien, der Schauplatz häufiger Belagerungen und Beschiessungen. (447) [Abb.]: Sturmangriff des achten preussischen Jägerbataillons auf englische Schutzgräben am 30. Oktober 1914 bei Zandvoorde in der Schlacht bei Ypern. ([448 - 449]) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen am Yserkanal: Mit Stroh ausgelegte deutsche Stellung bei Nieuport, hinter aufgeworfener Erddeckung. (450) [3 Abb.]: (1)Unterkunfsthütte einer Schweizer Grenzwacht. (2)Signalposten auf einem Berggipfel an der Schweizer Grenze. (3)Schweizer Grenzposten. (451) [Abb.]: Drahtverhau auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz zur Verhinderung des feindlichen Vorgehens. (452) [Abb.]: Verteidigungstellung bei Tapiau. ([453]) [Abb.]: Der erste Brief nach Hause aus Lodz. (454) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (454) Feldpostbrief aus der Schlacht bei Lodz. (454) Die Erstürmung von Valjevo. (455) [Abb.]: In den Kämpfen um Lodz gefangene Russen, darunter auch Leibkosaken des Zaren (an ihren hohen Mützen kenntlich). (455) [Abb.]: Die Beschiessung von Zeebrügge durch deutsche Kriegschiffe am 23. November 1914. (456 - 457) Der Sturm auf Zandvoorde. (456 - 457) Das Bombardement von Zeebrügge. (456 - 457) Die Schweizer an der Grenze. (458) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kavallerie reitet über eine Brücke des Kais in Ostende. (458) [Abb.}: Eine Abteilung des deutschen Seebataillons in den Dünen von Ostende. Oben ein Telephonist in Tätigkeit. ([459]) Der Tag von Vailly. (460) Der polnische Winter. (460) [Abb.]: Der Sturm auf Vailly. ([461]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Mühseliger Transport eines österreichisch=ungarischen Munitionswagens auf grundlosen Wegen. (2)Inneres eines verlassenen serbischen befestigten Lagers nördlich von Glusci. (3)Infanterielager österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen an der russischen Grenze. (462 - 463) Die Verteidigung der Deimestellung bei Tapiau. (462 - 463) [Abb.]: Auszug von Kriegsfreiwilligen aus Berlin am 30. November 1914. (464) [Gedicht]: Wir Mütter. (464) [Abb.]: Die Einnahme von Lodz am 6. Dezember 1914. (464) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. (Heft 24) ([465]) [Abb.]: Vertreibung der Russen aus den Karpathenpässen. ([465]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Feldbahn mit deutscher Begleitmannschaft in Russisch=Polen. (466) [3 Abb.]: (1)General vom Mackensen. (2)General Ludendorff. (3)General v. Morgen. (467) [2 Abb.]: (1)Besetzung der kleinen französischen Ortschaft Cunel vor Verdun durch deutsche Truppen. (2)Das von den Deutschen besetzte Epinonville im Departement Meuse wurde vollständig zerstört; links die Überreste der Kirche. ([468]) [Abb.]: Sprengung unterminierter französischer Schützengräben bei Chauvoncourt, einem Vorort von St.=Mihiel, auf dem jenseitigen Ufer der Maas. ([469]) [Abb.]: Beobachtungsposten der schweren Gardeartillerie mit Scherenfernrohr. Auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz. (470) [Abb.]: Soldaten mahlen sich ihr Mehl zum Brotbacken selbst. (471) [2 Abb.]: (1)Strasse in Lodz. (2)Gesamtansicht von Lodz. (472) [Abb.]: Typen der von unseren Truppen in Polen gefangenen Russen: Baschkiren, Kirgisen und Tataren. (473) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (474) Die Vertreibung der Russen aus den Karpathenpässen. (474) Die Sprengung französischer Schützengräben bei Chauvoncourt. (474) [6 Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Truppen im winterlichen Karpathengelände. (1)Schutzhütten in den Karpathen. (2)Vorzügliche Deckung der Truppen in den Karpathen. Die Höhlen im Schnee sind durch Gänge miteinander verbunden. (3)Feind in Sicht. (4)Geschützstand diesseit des Pruth. Auf der anderen Seite der Hügelkette lagern Russen. (5)Notbrücke in der Bukowina. (6)Wetterfeste Pferdestände am Pruth. ([475]) [Abb.]: Die verbündeten deutschen und österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen in den Kämpfen bei Czenstochau am 25. November 1914. ([476 - 477]) Die Kämpfe bei Czenstochau. (478) [Abb.]: Nachtquartier dreier deutscher Soldaten im Hof eines russischen Bauernhauses bei Ziechanow in Russisch=Polen. (478) Die Generale v. Mackensen, Ludendorff und v. Morgen, Hindenburgs erfolgreiche Mitkämpfer in Polen. (478) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine deutsche Infanteriekolonne marschiert bei bitterer Kälte gegen Ziechanow nördlich von Warschau. (2)Proviantausgabe an deutsche Truppen in der Gegend von Ziechanow. (479) [Abb.]: Unsere Artillerie in Charpentry bei Varennes. (480) Artilleriepatrouille. (480) [Abb.]: Vorgeschobener Artillerieposten. ([481]) Schützengräben. (482) [3 Abb.]: (1)Entwicklung der Schützengräben. Fig. 1. Liegender und stehender Schütze. Fig. 2. knieender und stehender Schütze. Fig. 3. Stehender Schütze mit Umgang. (2)Entwicklung der Schützengräben.Fig. 4. Der deutsche einfache und der Schützengraben mit Umgang. Fig. 5. Schützengraben mit Eindeckung. (3)Entwicklung der Schützengräben.Fig. 6, In einem Strassengraben hergestellter Schützengraben bei Dirmuiden. (482) Die Schlacht um Lodz. (483) [Abb.]: Deutscher Schützengraben auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz. (483) [2 Abb.]: (1)Als Schmuckgegenstände gefasste Geschossteile. Nach Entwürfen von Otto Zahn in Pforzheim. (2)Ein deutscher Soldat teilt seine Suppe mit hungrigen belgischen Kindern. (484) Kriegsgedenkschmuck. (484) [Abb.]: Ein nächtlicher Angriff auf die englischen Stellungen an der Yser. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Heft 25 (Heft 25) ([485]) [Abb.]: Deutsche und österreichisch=ungarische Truppen in treuer Waffenbrüderschaft auf dem Marsch in Russisch=Polen. ([485]) [2 Abb.]:(1) Panorama von Daressalam. (2)Ansicht von Lome: Blick über die Stadt. (487) [3 Abb.]: (1)Eine Kompanie der Schutztruppe von Deutsch=Ostafrika in Daressalam. (2)Schutztruppenkommando Soppo. (3)Viktoria mit grossem und kleinem Kamerunberg. (488 - 489) [2 Abb.]: Patrouille im Überschwemmungsgebiet am Yserkanal. (2)Der westflandrische Ort Ramscapelle in dem Überschwemmungsgebiet am Yserkanal bei Nieuport. (490) [Abb.]: Strasse in der von den Engländern, Belgiern und Franzosen mit äusserster Hartnäckigkeit verteidigten Satdt Nieuport. (491) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (492) Marschtage. (492) [Abb.]: Wegeskizze zum Artikel: Marschtage. (492) [Abb.]: Rast des Infanterieregiments Kaiser Friedrich Nr. 125 vor St. Juvin. ([493]) [Abb.]: Karte der Dardanellenfestungen. (494) Aus den Kämpfen an der Yser. (495) [2 Abb.]: (1) Die wichtigsten Kriegsverdienstorden Deutschlands und Österreich=Ungarn. I. 1. Der Orden Pour le Mérite. 2. Das Eiserne Kreuz. 3. Der bayrische Militär=Max=Josephs=Orden. 4. Der sächsische Militär=St.=Heinrichs=Orden. 5. Der württembergische Militär=Verdienstorden. 6. Der badische Militär=Karl=Friedrichs=Orden. 7. Der hessische Philippsorden. 8. Der Maria=Theresia=Orden (Österreich=Ungarn). (2)Die wichtigsten Kriegsverdienstorden Deutschlands und Österreich=Ungarns. II. 9 u. 9a. Das Mecklenburg=Schwerinsche Militärverdienstkreuz. 10. Das Verdienstkreuz für Frauen und Jungfrauen (Preussen). 11. Der bayrische Militärverdienstorden. 12. Die österreichisch=ungarische Tapferkeitsmedaille. 13. Das preussische Militärehrenzeichen. (495) Die Dardanellenfestungen. (495) [Abb.]: Gefangennahme des Gouverneurs von Warschau, Baron v. Korff, durch Metzer Dragoner in der Nähe von Kutno. ([496 - 497]) Die Gefangennahme des Gouverneurs von Warschau. (498) [Abb.]: 15=cm=Gechütz beim Abfeuern. (498) Artilleriewirkung. (498) [Abb.]: Das Artilleriefeuer. 1. Wirkung des Schrapnells mit Streuungskegel. 2. "Rafale=Feuer" - der Feuerüberfall, den die französische Feldartillerie gegen Infanterieangriffe anwendet. 3. Haubitzfeuer aus verdeckter Stellung sowie unwirksames Flachbahnfeuer. 4. Wirkung einer Granate gegen lebende Ziele hinter Deckungen. 5. Wirkung einer Granate mit Aufschlagzünder gegen Panzertürme im Bogenschuss des Steilfeuergeschützes sowie im Flachbahnschluss, der ohne Wirkung bleibt. - Die Artillerie verwendet nach der verschiedenen Art und Lage der Ziele verschiedene Geschütze und Geschosse. Lebende, sich bewegende und ungedeckte Ziele werden mit Flachbahngeschützen, den F e l d k a n o n e n (Abb. 1 und 2). Ziele hinter oder unter feldmässigen Deckungen (Abb. 3 und 4), die nur von oben zu treffen sind, werden durch Steilfeuergeschütze mit mässigem Bogenschuss, die leichten H a u b i t z e n , bekämpft; gegen sehr widerstandsfähige wagerechte Deckungen, z. b. Panzertürme (Abb. 5), wird aus Steilfeuergeschützen mit stark gekrümmter Flugbahn, den s c h w e r e n H a u b i t z e n und M ö r s e rn, gefeuert. Die Steilfeuergeschütze schiessen meist aus verdeckter Stellung. Als Geschoss kommt gegen alle lebenden, nicht dicht hinter Deckungen oder unter Eindeckungen befindlichen Ziele (Schützenlinien, Kolonnen) das S c h r a p n e l l zur Anwendung, das zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt vor oder über dem Ziel platzt und durch seine Füllkugeln und Sprengteile, die sich in einem Streuungskegel in der Flugbahnrichtung ausbreiten, auf das Ziel wirkt (Abb. 1 und 2). Gegen lebende Ziele hinter Deckungen oder unter schwachen Schutzwehren wird die G r a n a t e mit B r e n n z ü n d e r benutzt, deren zahlreiche Sprengstücke nach dem Platzen nach allen Seiten mit verheerender Wirkung fortgeschleudert werden. Zum Zerstören widerstandsfähiger Ziele werden die G r a n a t e n mitA u f s c h l a g z ü n d e r im Bogenschuss der Steilfeuergeschütze verwendet (Abb. 4 und 5), die weniger durch ihr Gewicht und ihre Geschwindigkeit als durch die Kraft ihrer Sprengladung wirken. ([499]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der österreichisch=ungarische Thronfolger Karl Franz Joseph (X) im Felde. (2)Deutsche und österreichisch=ungarische Generalstbsoffiziere im Hauptquartier. (500) Aus dem österreichisch=ungarischen Hauptquartier. (501) [Abb.]: Der österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsminister, Exzellenz Krobatin (X), im Hauptquartier. (501) Englisch=indischer Truppentransport verlässt den Hafen von Port Said. (501) Deutsche und österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsorden. (502 - 502) [Abb.]: Englisch=indischer Truppentransport verlässt, von zwei französischen Linienschiffen der Charlemagneklasse begleitet, nachdem er Kohlen gefasst hat, den Hafen von Port Said. (502 - 502) [Abb.]: Eisbrecher auf der Angerapp bei Mühle Kisselen. Im Hintergrund eine von den Russen erbaute Notbrücke. (504) [Einband]: ( - ) [Einband]: ( - )

Issue 49.5 of the Review for Religious, September/October 1990. ; R[ vl~ w ~-OR R~-t ~G~OUS (ISSN 0034-639X) ~,, pubhshed b~-monthly at St Louis Unlver,,~ty by the M~s-soun Prov~nce Educational Institute ol the Society of Jesus: Editorial Office; 3601 Lmdell Blvd. Rm. 428; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis MO. Single copies $3.50. Subscriptions: United States $15.00 for one year; $28.00 for two years. Other countries: US $20.00 for one year: if airmail. US $35.00 per year. For subscription orders or change of address. write: R~vtEw FOR R~-:~.w, ous: P.O. Box 6070: Duluth. MN 55806. POSTMASTER: Send address changes tu R~:vw~:w vor Rv:~.~aot~s; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. ~1990 Rv:vt~.:w vor Rl.:Li~;~ot~s. David L. Fleming, S.J. Philip C. Fischer, S.J. Elizabeth McDonough, O.P. Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Editor Associate Editor Canonical Counsel Editor Assistant Editors Advisory Board David J. Hassel, S.J. Mary Margaret Johanning, S.S.N.D. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Sean Sammon, F.M.S. Wendy Wright, Ph.D. Suzanne Zuercher, O.S.B. September/October 1990 Volume 49 Number 5 Manuscripts, books for review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to Rv:\'~:w v'o~ Rv:w.uaot~s; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. I~mis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the department "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Eliza-beth McDonough, O.P.; 5001 Eastern Avenue; P.O. Box 29260; Washington, D.C. 20017. Back issues and reprints should be urdered from Rr:\'~:w roa Rr:~.~;m~s; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. IA~uis, MO 63108-3393. "Out of print" issues are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. A major portion uf each issue is also available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually impaired. Write to the Xavier Suciety for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York. NY 10010. PRISMS. At the May meeting of the Advisory Board for REvIEw FOR RELIGtOUS, the members became engrossed in a discussion of the heritages-- Benedictine, Dominican, Salesian, and many others--that consecrated life fosters and should foster in the Church. Sometimes women and men religious forget their special call to be channels of their own spiritual tra-dition and practice. Religious life, signalized in Vatican II documents as belonging to the charismatic structure of the Church, continues to give birth anew to its members by the overshadowing of the Spirit. The particular spiritual in-sights and practices which establish each religious community become permanent gifts not only to the vowed members but also to the whole Church. The Church's recognition and approval is based on this prem-ise. Religious life plays a critical role in carrying forward the Christian spiritual-life traditions in the Church community. The Church expects in-dividual religious and religious families to give witness to their spiritual traditions. It is no surprise, then, that books and journals dealing with the spiritual life (such as REv=Ew FOR REUCtOUS) are so often the product of people living in this consecrated lifeform. In our times we are being made far more aware of the tradition of the Pauline Body of Christ, with the differing gifts of its members. One of the gifts specially present in religious life is its responsibility to hand on the spiritual-life traditions within the Christian community. Obviously God's gifts are never merely self-enhancing, and so religious life was never meant to be a caste apart or its own separate church. The gift of religious life within the Church only heightens the ways that Christians feel called to live out their following of Jesus in their own day--not only the members with a particular religious calling,.but also friends, cowork-ers, students, parishioners---in a word, all who are touched in some way by members of a religious community. This journal's very title could seem to restrict its reading audience to people following a certain consecrated lifeform recognized in the Church. But, as a matter of fact, from its beginnings almost fifty years ago, REvmw FOR REL~CIOUS has invited diocesan priests, bishops, and lay people to find in its pages the roots of our Christian spiritual heritage which nourish us all. The number of subscribers other than religious was small in the beginning, but has grown steadily, especially with the bur- 641 642 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 geoning of ministries and prayer groups in the Church after Vatican II. Articles in REvmw FOR RELm~OtJS will continue to focus on various Christian heritages which religious life helps keep alive in the Church. We hope thereby to provide for all our readers access to roots as well as to budding developments in the living of the Christ-life. The authors in this issue again are representative of our reading audi-ence. For example, Barbara Dent, well-known for her spiritual writings, continues her own experiential reflections on a prayer tradition deep in the Carmelite religious family. Father Richard Lamoureux, a.a., takes an "American" approach to an age-old Augustinian tradition of prayer. The diocesan priest Father Clyde Bonar uses the experiences of St. Fran-cis of Assisi to suffuse with faith the human experience of shame. Dr. James Magee, professor of gerontology, in his article "Planning an In-tercommunity Skilled Nursing Facility," tries to facilitate the working together of religious groups coming from various religious traditions. Perhaps at this time in history we especially need to grow in our ap-preciation of religious life as the purveyor of the Christian spirituality heritage. If we do grow in this way, the Church worldwide will become all the richer in its own life and mission. David L. Fleming, S.J. Moral Issues in Spiritual Direction Shaun McCarty, S.T. Father Shaun McCarty, S.T., teaches in the Washington Theological Union and is a staff member of the Shalem Institute for Spiritual Formation. His address is Holy Trinity Mission Seminary; 9001 New Hampshire Avenue; Silver Spring, Maryland 20903. My gracefully aging mother has acquired a certain Wisdom from the ex-perience of her years, yet she still seeks confirmation from her clerical eldest in matters of faith and morals! Vatican II suited her just fine be-cause, she says, "It said a lot of things I always thought!" On my weekly visits, she will often begin with, "Now tell me if I'm to think this way, but . " And then she will go on to comment on some issue she has been thinking about in the quiet of her "digs" in a condomin-ium for the elderly (which she sometimes thinks may be the only heaven she will get to!). On the issue of Church: "I go to church because I like to, not because I have to. But I can't see running in and out all the time. Especially when people need you. What good is it to go to church if it does not help you be a better person outside?" On prayer: "God's not just in church. He is (she is not fully feminist yet!) in my apartment too. And I do not think ! have to say a lot of prayers; God and I just have these talks when I say what is on my mind and he talks to me." On sev-eral occasions she has raised this moral issue: "Now tell me if I am wrong to think this way, but I think a lot of these rules that come from the Church are not God's. Most are man-made. Now I think God gave us heads to think ourselves. Not just run off and ask the priest what is right or wrong or wait for the Pope to tell us what to do or not do. If you ask me, I just think the reason people do that is because they are too damn lazy to think for themselves! Now is it wrong for me to be think-ing this way?" I ask her: "Now, Morn, don't you think the Church has 643 644 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 anything to say about what is right or wrong?" She answers: "Of course, but I'm choosy about whom I listen to!" I just smile, shake my head and assure her that she will probably escape ecclesiastical censure! Actually, she gives new meaning, life, and hope for the terms spiritual and moral life! 'Moral is one of those words laden for many with negative undertones ~uch as repressive, punishing, puritan, pharisaical, and the like. Spiri-tual often connotes an a_nemic and pious evasion of down,t0-earth~ d~ ~o-day living. Until we encounter both embodi_e_d_and~i0tegr_~t_ed_i_n~--~l ,rpeople like Mom ,hose lives and choices validate t~]~ch~i'~hg0i~nd prayer! rYOften, too, moral life and spiritual life are separated: the former re- .ferring to what is right and wrong; the latter, to what is good and beetler. 19 the ministry of spiritual direction, which aims primarily-at-'spiri~ual ~rowth, moral issues frequently arise and discrepancies become appa~ ~.nt either within the value system of the dii'ectee, between the dire~tee an~ Church teaching, or between the value systems of the d~rector and the~ dtrectee. What follows wall be an attempt to provide a frame.w~o_rk m which spiritual gu~des~can-tleal'w~th~moral-~ssues'and'grapple with such ~liscrepancies. ~I will first explore the meaning and relationships of some key terms ip.cluding moral and spiritual life, conscience and discernment. Then, I will consider the role of Church as teacher and the role of the spiritual director as guide in the formation of conscience, including some specific ~reas in which the director can be helpful. Finally, I will raise some dif-ficulties that can occur in dealing with moral issues in the ministry of s~iritual direction. ~Moral and Spiritual Life I.n the context of this article, spiritual life means graced growth in the~spirit, that is, in that dimension of human existence by which we are ~.open t~___.transcendent_ rove and drawn by the Spirit into intimate union ~.with God and communion with each other through, with, and in Christ. ~lokalli~ refers t0-th-~t ~i~e~ct of life that has to~do with. human C~h~0~ic~-s ~fi~eely~made~and~lowngl6ehav~ors~freely:embraced~that;-:under:grace, en- ~able one to pursue good, avoid evil, and~ herice, grow hurria-~ly. ,~ As moral theologians point out, unfortunately in the past, there tii~S ~.been and continues to be a split between moral and spiritual theology. Respected Redemptorist theologian, Bernard Haring says: Moral theology for the use of confessors and penitents was almost un- Moral Issues / 645 avoidably guided by the knowledge of dominion and control. Since such a theology, written mostly for controllers, could threaten the freedom of believers in the realm of things solicited by grace, it seemed best to leave out or bypass spirituality . ~ This resulted in a dual track for Christians: one for an elite who wanted to strive for maximum ideals in "seeking perfection" and the other for those who were satisfied to meet minimum expectations in "sav-ing their souls." Beatitudes were for the former; commandments for the latter. Not only was there a split between classes of Christians, but indi-vidual conscience also was divided into two compartments: one for moral norms, the other for "works of supererogation" (those above and be-yond the call of duty!). ~e dichotomies_are unfortunate. Moral and spiritual life are warp and w~i'~?oi;~ameTf:~l~i-U.~'~'~]i~fiaor~a~:~on focuses on an~ai-ea key to human, and therefore, spiritual growth--namely, that of choices that define a person more-thah anything else and behaviors that promot~ ~0~ih~. ;there is a universal call to holiness. To love God with all our hearts and to love others as Christ loves us is a normative ideal for every Christian. The choice is not between a "spiritual" life or a "moral" life. Whether intentional or not, every Christian is on a spiritual journey and summoned to be challenged by the beatitudes as well as by the com-mandments. Again, B. Haring: It is detrimental to the very fundamental norms of Christian ethics, but especially to the formation of a distinctively Christian consciousness, if the law of growth and the criteria for a deeper understanding of Chris-tian love are relegated to another discipline . But it should be equally clear that a distinctively Christian formation of conscience does not belong to those who specialize in "knowledge of control"! For it is at the very heart of salvation.2 The bottom line is that love is the highest common denominator of every moral act as well as the source and goal of all spiritual growth. ~Con~_s_cience ~I~n general, as a faculty of moral lif~-,-~ohscience is concerned with .~ ~ . ~.-:~ ~. . - ~ . .~- ,h~urfian cbOic6s of good or ewl. An ~nformed conscience is the final ar-biter of moral choice. It refers to that element in the experience of free-dom that makes one aware of responsibility and accountability for one's decisions and actions. The biblical term for conscience is "heart" in which God's will is written (Rm 2:15). Theologically speaking, it is "self-consciousness passing moral judgment.' ,3 In speaking of the dig- 646 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 nity of moral conscience, the Fathers of Vatican II described conscience as ". the most secret core and sanctuary of a man (sic). There he is alone with God, whose voice echoes in his depths."4 Conscience may be said to operate at three levels: ~(1) Fundamental level: This refers to th~ hiJFria--ff-~apacity freely t6 ~hoose a life-orientation towards God (the Choi~ce); _tp. p~_rsue .good(the Wight) and to avoid evil (the Darkness) with an awareness of respp.n__s_i~ ~ility and accountabilii'~At this level, one may be said to have a ge~n- ~ral sense of value.' A fundamental choice for the Light assumes that to be human is to have basic freedom and to have a radical openness to the mystery of God which, again, defines a person more than anything else. To take this option is to experience metanoia (change of heart) which af-fects the whole person (body, mind, and spirit). It is an invitation to turn over all of one's energies to God, to put one's life at the disposal of God, to be a disciple in loving service of others as Christ did and to live under the guidance of the Spirit in subsequent day-to-day decisions. It is in the light of this fundamental level of conscience that important life-decisions such as marriage, priesthood, and vowed life should be made. (2) Reflection/assessment level (individual choices): This level con-cerns day-to-_day choices of varying degrees of importance requiring a process of moral reasoning related to concrete situations.~It calls for re-flection, discussion, and analysis. I think it is what my mother means I~y "using the head that God gave us." Here one is concerned with spe-cific perception of value. At this level, there is room for difference, dis-agreement, error, blindness, distortion, rationalization, confusion, and cultural blindness. Consequently, it is primarily at this level that a per-son needs assistance from more objective sources including Sacred Scrip-ture, one's faith community, friends, confessor, and spiritual director. It is precisely at this level that conscience needs continually to be formed and informed. For that to happen effectively, a person needs humility so that conscience can "kneel at the altar of truth" to which conscience is always subject. It is at this level that the teaching Church as reposi-tory of the values of a faith-community, has an important but limited role as moral teacher and one distinct from that of spiritual director. More about this later. ~,~.(3)~Action level: This refers.to.the_moral judgment or choice of wh~t one believes to be right that brings with it a moral imperative to act. At C~his lev~e_l, a person exercises responsibility and accountability for actions ~and for the consequences of actions that conscience commands. A sign of responsible moral choice is growth in willing, compassionate concern/ Moral Issues / 647 action as opposed to willful, selfish action/inaction. In other words, genu-ine moral judgments and decisions find their completion and become enfleshed in moral deeds. pis:ernn~en~t i Discernment refers to the prayerful sorting out of interior movements ~expenenCe~d ~n-theprocess of tnakmg judgments and deos~ons to deter-m~ ne'wh~ch are of the Spent consequently resonant w~th the fundamen-taVl level-of c-~fiscie0.~e.-It presupposes a quest Of interior freedom as w~ll ~.ffs-careful attent~0n to the concrete particulars of a situation taking into i~onsideration subjective feelings as well as objective facts. It is possible to speak also of levels of discernment that bear some correlation with the levels of conscience occurring at: (1) the fundamen-tal (or core) level of faith, where a person becomes aware of God-experience in light of which one perceives that way of life where she or he can best express and pursue a fundamental choice of God and the good; (2) the reflection/assessment level of day-to-day choices of vary-ing degrees of significance and permanence made with a sufficient de-gree of interior freedom and in resonance with one's fundamental expe-rience of God; (3) the action level whereby a discerned judgment or de-cision is brought to completion by translating it into a concrete behavior that, if it is truly discerned, will bear the fruits of the Spirit. Relationship of DiScernment and Conscience Discernment is critical in the process of what lawyer-priest, R.P. Stake, calls the "evangelization of conscience" which entails the power of the Gospel to reveal to an individual the fact and the seriousness of one's sins.5 What discernment brings to the evangelization of conscience in:~ cludes: (l) a sharper focus on the subjective and unique factors at work,] for this person in this .situation (especially important at a time of accel-erating moral complexity and waning adequacy of objective moral norms and extrinsic moral authority); (2) a situating of decision-making within ff ~?a biblical tradition of both Old and New Testaments, especially in the letters of John and Paul;~(3) a rooting and contextualizing of the decision-r~ aklng process in a person's prayer and experience of Go~l; (4) a more ihtentional attempt to examine motivations to see from where they are ~commg and to where they are 'l~ading so as to create the conditions for greater interior freedom in making choices;~(-5) a nuancing of choicest-- not just of the good over the bad, the genuinely good over the supposed good, but also choices among goods; ~(6) in contrast to an excessive de- 6411 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 pendence on laws and authority as sources of moral judgment, discern-ment is conducive to ~clearEr focusing of responsibility four,the decision ~. 3. -- a~nd its cons~equ_e_n-ces on_ the pers_on making the de_.c~!s~on; (~7) ~n contrast to an individualistic and isolated process, a situating of the decision~ making process within the context of a person's faith commUfiity; (,8)~ contrast to a more exclusively rational and deductive approach (~s is often the case in the exercise of prudence ), ] serious~consideration of human affectivit~ as an important locus of grace~in human choice. , In testing the spirits oy measunng them against one s tunoamen-tal God-experience, moral judgments are more likely to be integrated with conscience as well as reinforcing of conscience at the level of one's fundamental choice¯ In short, discernment makes for a more prayerful, thorough, personalized, interiorized, and human process of conscience formation¯ Hopefully the discussion thus far makes clear that discernment is not dispensation from moral law, but rather an invaluable help in observing it. Rather than an "occasional exercise," discernment presupposes the cultivation of a "prayerful mode" and commitment to contemplative practice that can clarify one's vision and solidify one's dedication to truth¯ It is interesting to note that moral theologians today are showing a marked interest in a discernment approach to moral choice.6 ~,Role of the Church in Formation of Conscience ~The Church (understood as the e~n~ir'~Z~P~'o~le~f~G~d)~ qt preserves and hands down a faith-community's values, is an impor-tant, but limited agent in the evangelization of conscience¯ The teaching ~'Church is not a substitute for conscience; nor is its proper role one o~ ~Grand Inquisitor"; nor yet is it the ultimate arbiter of morality¯ Con-science is. But the Church is a privileged moral teacher and recognized ~leader that plays a significant role in thg~ilJp_mination of conscience. It d~es not create morality. Rather it helps people to discover God's de-sires for humankind which are written on the "fleshy tablets" of the hu- ~man heart¯ Not only does the Church embrace historically and cross-culturally an experience far wider than that of a single individual or cul-ture, but believers hold that the Church has special guidance from the Holy Spirit. Though the Church cannot be expected to address all the val-ues in every moral situation, it can provide norms against which people can measure their own moral judgment. Such norms protect values. Val-ues may be protected in different ways in different eras and/or cultures. Above all, the Church is eminently equipped to help form mature Chris-tian consciences that will enable people to accept responsibility for "us- Moral Issues / 6t19 ing the heads God gave them" in arriving at sound moral decisions. ~Role of-Sp~tual Director in Formation of Conscience ¯ ,Since:mOraVand~spiritual~life:should not'be d~vided~ the~d~rector ob7- ~o~s.~y ~ concerned w~th the moral choices of the directee. In the pro-cess of disce~ment, choices should be consonant with a fundamental choice of the Light and with the person's value system. Though neithe~ ~a represeatative 6fthe-teaching Church as such nor a moral judge of oth- .ers -Consc~ence~ ~n the role of spiritual dire&or, nevertheless ihe-dir~' t~r dbe~ have a responsibility to assist in the ongoing evangelization of conscience by way of enabling individuals to find their own way.- The director also needs to pay attention to his or her own blocks, biases, and unfreedoms that can arise from conflicts between the director's value sys-tem and that of the directee. The director's moral code is not normative ,for the directee. ~ spiritual director acts best as moral guide by being a witness to ~,(trut~hd pers0ndleXample Of integrity~- In addition, the director can help form consciences by appropriate interventions, pat~'e nt wa~t~ng," " compas-sionate understanding, and by maintaining a non-judgmental attitude, -~hde at the same t~me offering honest challenge. The most helpful in-tervention is attentive listening. All spiritual growth, including the evangelization of conscience, happens incrementally. This calls for pa-tience and attentiveness to the readiness of the directee in a~iving at her or his own judgments. It should be noted that self-denigration is one of the most basic moral issues with which many in direction need to deal~ Real or supposed moral lapse especially can deepen it, and this calls for compassionate understanding. Yet, good people are prone to subtle ways of rationalizing and, at times, need honest challenge. It is one thing to experience ambiguity in moral issues; it is another to refuse to wrestle with it] It is comfo~ing to remember that when difficulties arise, the same Holy Spirit who illumines discerning hea~s is also leading persons to moral integrity~ What specifically can a spiritual guide do to enable the formation of conscience? At the fundamental level of conscience, it can be assumed that the person coming for direction has made a fundamental choice of God and the pursuit of good. It would be important in making discerned moral choices that persons continue to refer back to the deepest level of their God-experience. In reference to a major life-decision affecting a per-son's deepest commitments (for example, to enter or to leave marriage, priesthood, vowed life), a director might ask: Has the directee spent shf-ficient time in serious prayer? Made a careful examen of motives? Asked 650 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 others for feedback? It is at the reflection/assessment level of conscience that most guid-ance is sought. :S~6'~ " a "ec o be ~i~fulz ~ (1 ) In assessing moral maturity: What is the quality of the moral rea-soning process of the directee in reference to this choice? Does the per-son have a sufficiently informed conscience? Where are the blind spots? To what extent is the directee open to outside input? Is she or he making efforts to inform conscience by some reference to moral norms? (for ex-ample, Scripture, norms of his or her faith community?) Has the directee already made up his or her mind and now is unwilling to be "confused with the facts"? Does the directee rely on authority and law for some directives she or he likes, but on a subjective process of "discernment" for others she or he does not? Who will be affected and how by this moral choice? (2) In clarifying values: What values seem important to the directee (as they become visible in choices acted upon as well as spoken of!) and in what priority are they held? Does the person have sufficient clarity con-cerning these priorities? What values does the directee perceive in refer-ence to the specific moral issue with which she or he is now struggling? Is there any struggle? In "grey" areas is the directee willing to strug-gle? Has the director grappled with the same issue and know where she or he stands at present? Is the director clear about his or her own value system? What unfreedoms in the director might significantly hinder fa-cilitating the directee's discernment? (3) In establishing a prayerful mode: Is the directee bringing the is-sue to prayer/discernment: sufficiently in touch with her or his experi-ence of God? seeking inner freedom? gathering sufficient data? attentive to affective responses as options are explored and data gathered? In re-flecting on and in assessing options, does the directee feel any incongru-ence or resistance within towards one or the other option? In deciding on the action level of conscience: Does the directee trans-late moral judgments into deeds? Is she or he open to accountability? Will-ing to take responsibility for his or her actions? What are the conse-quences of the directee's moral decision for others? For self? ~Difficulties Facing Directors in Dealing with Conscience ,Since consciences differ as people do, it .is tO be expe~.cot_eod_~that diffi- ~'ulties can arise indealing with moral issues. These include: ~(1) Difference in moral conviction: When there is a difference of moral conviction on an issue with a directee (for example, divorce, Moral Issues / 651 greed, tax fraud, contraception, sexual activity, and so forth), what is the moral responsibility of the spiritual director? Although a guide in the process of moral choice rather than a teacher of morality, a spiritual di-rector must make a judgment as to whether she or he feels so strongly about an issue as to be unable to help the person deal with it. The direc-tor might pose the question: Will my own strong conviction constitute a major interference in the direction process? What would be appropri-ate to share with the directees at this time concerning my difference of conviction? (For example, a director might be absolutely unwilling to help a person "discern" an abortion.) ~(2) Inadequate social moral consciousness of the directee: What can a director do to help a person broaden the horizons of a conscience lack-ing in social consciousness or with little sense of social sin? On the one hand, the director needs to respect the value system of the directee and to respect readiness for change. On the other hand, the working alliance between the two should also have provided for appropriate challenge as a help to growth. If social consciousness seems to need broadening, a director might: (a) suggest readings to provoke thought; (b) be attentive to possible points of entry for discussion arising from life experience re-ported by a directee that can be occasions of broadening social aware-ness-- for example, a chance brush with a beggar or a personal experi-ence of discrimination; (c) suggest firsthand exposure to situations of so-cial concern--for example, volunteering time at a shelter for the home-less; (d) at times of periodic assessment (for which a good working alli-ance will also make provision), an honest and direct, yet gentle challenge may be in order. ~)(3) Distress after moral lapse: Without unduly mitigating a healthy sense of guilt that helps a person to recognize culpability and move to repentance, a compassionate director can help minimize the debilitating preoccupation that often accompanies guilt. If a person is overly dis-traught over a moral lapse, a director can help by getting the directee to contextualize it, that is, to see it in relationship to his other fundamental option and to the rest of his or her moral life. Does it reverse the funda-mental optioh? Erode it? Not substantially affect it? In addition to sin, where has grace been experienced? How might the experience of moral lapse and its aftermath (for example, a lessening of spiritual pride) been an occasion of grace? Conclusion In dealing with moral issues in spiritual direction, we have explored the meaning and relationship of moral and spiritual life and seen that the 652 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 two should not be divided. Moral life has as one of its concerns a key aspect of spiritual life--namely, decision-making and its relationship to character formation. Discernment is not an alternative to, but an enrich-ment of moral decision-making. Both Church as moral teacher and spiri-tual director as moral guide play significant, but different and limited roles in the formation of conscience--the final arbiter of moral judgment which, in turn, must always remain open to ongoing formation. Finally, we considered some ways for a spiritual director to deal with difficulties that arise in dealing with moral issues. Hvopefully, both Church and spiritual director will provide teachi~g~ find guidance that will enable folks, as-Mom says, "to use the heads God !~ga,~ethem to think for themselves!" That might give both the terms moral and spiritual life better press! You know, as I think of it, my mother was and continues to be my first (and probably my best!) profes-sor of moral and spiritual theology! Exercise Can you think of a situation in which your moral judgment differed from that of a directee? One in which the directee's was in conflict with Church teaching? What did you judge as your own moral responsibility towards the di-rectee? How did this affect your ability to discern as spiritual director? How did you try to discern what you should share with the directee? What aided your discernment? NOTES ~ See B. Haring, Free and Faithful in Christ, Vol. I (New York: Seabury, 1978), pp. 2-3. 2 Ibid, p. 253. 3 K. Rahner & H. Vorgrimler, Theological Dictionary (Herder & Herder, 1968), p. 95. 4 "Gaudium et spes," (n. 16) The Documents of Vatican II, W.M. Abbott, ed. (New York: Guild Press), p. 213. 5 R.P. Stake, "Grounding the 'Priest-Penitent Privilege' in American Law," Con-fidentiality in the United States (Washington, D.C.: CLSA, 1988), p. 151. 6 For example, see Tracing the Spirit, J.E. Hug, ed. (New York: Paul ist, 1983), pp. 379ff. Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? Timothy Brown, S.J. and Harriet A. Learson Father Timothy Brown, S.J., is assistant professor of law in the Sellinger School of Business and Management, Loyola College in Baltimore, Maryland. Harriet Lear-son, M.B.A., M.A., is a senior management consultant, Right Associates, in Phila-delphia, Pennsylvania, and is a practicing spiritual director. Correspondence may be addressed to Loyola College; 4501 North Charles Street; Baltimore, Maryland 21210- 2699. In today's service-oriented society, one can hardly avoid the media's al-most daily reports about the issue of malpractice. Doctors, lawyers, psy-chologists, psychiatrists, and human service professionals are becoming increasingly liable and vulnerable to public scrutiny regarding their prac-tices, philosophies, and ethics. In an editorial in the Jesuit publication Human Development Father James Gill, S.J., a Jesuit psychiatrist, raised the question of licensing spiritual directors. He comments: Haven't we reached a point in the Church's history when a group of well-trained and experienced spiritual directors can come together and deter-mine what type and amount of preparation would entitle a candidate to be licensed as a spiritual director? For the self-confidence of the direc-tors, no less than the well-being of their directees, a board of examiners and a certifying process comparable to those maintained by clinical psy-chologists, nurses, and physicians should be created. These profession-als have, in conscience, set high standards for their performance for the sake of their clients. We who are given access to the deepest recesses of souls should hardly be less conscientious. I There has been an outpouring of lawsuits against Churches and clergy as a result of alleged malpractice in recent years. The term that 653 654 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 has been coined is clergy malpractice which covers a wide variety of torts and crimes including child abuse, paternity suits, and intentional inflic-tion of emotional distress. The constitutional questions, under both state and federal Constitutions, oftentimes deny a cause of action because of the First Amendment issue of separation of Church and State. A number of cases have come to the attention of the media in the area of clergy mal-practice. One of the most noteworthy comes from California, Nally vs. Grace Community Church.2 In this case, parents whose son committed suicide brought an action against a church and church-related counselors, alleging negligent coun-seling and outrageous conduct which ultimately led to the death of their son.3 I. Constitutional Issues in Nally Vs. Grace Community Church Kenneth Nally committed suicide after having become part of a re-ligious organization that his parents alleged suggested to his son that, if you kill yourself, you will go to heaven. His parents brought suit against the Grace Community Church of the Valley, a fundamentalist sect, lo-cated in Southern California. The parents sued the church and four pas-tors for malpractice, negligence, and outrageous conduct. They con-tended that the church's evangelical fundamentalist teachings "in-culcated in their son the belief that he had betrayed Christ's love and trust, and otherwise exacerbated Ken's preexisting feelings of guilt, anxi-ety, and deep depression with the knowledge that these acts would in~ crease the tendencies of Ken to attempt to take his own life."4 The church countered that the young man had been examined by five physi-cians and a psychiatrist after an earlier suicide attempt and that the coun-selors had arranged or encouraged many of these visits. A trial judge dis-missed the case after the close of the plaintiff's case, 5 and the case was appealed. The appellate court reversed the trial court's nonsuit of the negli-gence and outrageous conduct allegations against the Grace Community Church and several of its pastoral counselors. They held that the Church's counselors negligently failed to refer this suicidal youth to those authorized and best suited to prevent his death.6 Associate Justice Johnson writing for the majority began the opinion by clearing up the confusion regarding the issue of clergy malpractice: The court., does not view the causes of action discussed in our opin-ion to involve 'clergy malpractice.' Instead, we see them more accu-rately characterized as 'negligent failure to prevent suicide,' and 'inten- Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? tional or reckless infliction of emotional injury causing suicide'- which negligence and intentional or reckless acts happens to have been committed by church-affiliated counselors. In our view this case has lit-tle or nothing to say about the liability of clergymen for the negligent performance of their ordinary ministerial duties or even their counsel-ing duties except when they enter into a counseling relationship with sui-cidal individuals.7 The church appealed the ruling by the California Court of Appeals for the Second District. After eight years of litigation after the suicide of Kenneth Nally, the Supreme Court of California in a 5-2 opinion held that the "legal duty of care" imposed by the State on licensed praction-ers did not apply to the clergy.8 Chief Justice Lucas writes: "Neither the legislature nor the courts have ever imposed a legal ob-ligation on persons to take affirmative steps to prevent the suicide of one who is not under the care of a physician in a hospital. Imposing such a duty on nontherapist counselors could have a deleterious effect on coun-seling in general and deter those most in need of help from seeking treat-ment out of fear that the private disclosures could subject them to invol-untary commitment to psychiatric facilities."9 The California court notes the California legislature's recognition that "access to the clergy for coun-seling should be free from state imposed counseling standards." to Two other Justices agreed that the case should be dismissed but said the defendants did have a legal duty of care but that the evidence showed the pastors never breached it or contributed to the man's death. The Court unanimously dismissed the case. II. Spiritual DirectionmA Definition Whether spiritual directors should be licensed to prevent the kind of tragedy described in the Nally case is a question that is presently being debated by many in the field. Spiritual direction has a very broad con-notation. It can be defined as an interpersonal situation in which one per-son assists another person to growth in the spirit, in the life of faith (prayer), hope (difficulties), sufferings (trials), and love (the person's life in the Christian community). 1~ Spiritual direction may better be defined by what it is not, rather than by what it is. Spiritual direction is not pri-marily information even though it may be the occasion for sharing ideas. It is not primarily therapeutic even though there are times when issues of mental and psychological need get discussed. It is not seen as primar-ily advisory although in many situations good advice is imparted. Spiri-tual direction is viewed as primarily the opportunity to get clarification and discernment. How this gets accomplished is by discussing the prayer 656 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 life and spiritual life of the directee so as to shed some light on what is happening in the life of faith, hope, and love in relation to God. In spiritual direction, the directee tries to describe to a spiritual di-rector his or her prayer experiences. The subject matter of that discus-sion constitutes such areas as when prayer happens, how often, how, what actually happens in the prayer period, other daily life issues such as anxiety over family, job, day-to-day depressions, joys, consolations and desolations, issues of tolerance, patience, and possible manipulation of others. The director's role is to help the person to objectify those per-sonal experiences, to assist by asking appropriate questions in order to gain some clarity on the directee's personal issues. The spiritual direc-tor is interested in helping the directee in the life of prayer so that the relationship with God and the men and women with whom they live and work can become strengthened and enhanced. III. Basic Skills Required of a Spiritual Director At the Jesuit Spiritual Center in Wernersville, Pennsylvania a com-petency profile was developed in an effort at concretizing and articulat-ing the requisite personal qualities, knowledge, skills, and graces to do spiritual direction. Here are some of the standards that were established in that study: 1. Personal Characteristics/Qualities A. Living a vital spiritual life B. Being a recipient oneself of spiritual direction C. Docility to the Spirit D. Kindness E. Gentleness F. Psychological Maturity G. Initiative H. Having a broadly lived human experience J. Stability K. Respect for confidentiality L. Sociability M. Detachment N. Productivity 2. Knowledge A. Lived experience in the Christian tradition B. Christian Doctrine/tradition C. Sacred Scripture D. Christian mystical/ascetical traditions E. The Spiritual Exercises Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? / 657 F. Ecclesiology G. Grace H. Christology J. Vatican II K. Justice L. A psychological matrix (theory & language) M. Jungian Psychology 3. Skills/Abilities A. Intrapersonal (affective awareness) B. Discernment C. Listening D. Clarifying E. Diagnosing F. Prescribing G. Judgment H. Common sense J. Interpersonal Skills K. One-on-one L. Group M. Trustworthiness 4. Graces A. Spiritual freedom B. An ongoing call to this work by others C. Called by grace to this work D. Seeing the Gospel happening~2 IV. Ministerial Malpractice Malpractice refers to professional misconduct or the failure of one rendering services in the practice of a profession to exercise the degree of skill and learning normally applied by members of that profession in similar circumstances.~3 The traditional elements necessary to state a cause of action in negligence have beenstated by Prosser as: 1) a duty, or obligation, recognized by the law, requir-ing the actor to conform to a certain standard of conduct for the protection of others against unreasonable risks; 2) a failure on his part to conform to the standard re-quired; 3) a reasonably close causal connection between the con-duct and the resulting injury; and 4) actual loss or damages resulting to the interests of an-other. 14 Review for Religious, September-October 1990 The problem that the courts would face in trying to construe a duty, and then defining that duty in the area of spiritual direction, is in attempt-ing to define what falls within the parameters of the spiritual as opposed to psychological counseling. How would a court make some kind of de-termination as to whether a directee's problem is, in fact, a spiritual or psychological one. The reason that distinction is so necessary is to safe-guard and protect members of the clergy involved in spiritual direction. Father John English, S.J. has written that the distinction between spiri: tual and psychological counseling is oftentimes a fine one. He comments that "although it may be helpful for the director to distinguish between psychological and spiritual counseling, these realities are not distinct within the person being counseled. And the concern is always with the total person." ~5 There are occasions when a director can see that the real need in direction is no longer to facilitate growth in relationship with God but instead to move the person into a psychological counseling setting so that other issues in the directee's life can better be addressed. What are some of the occasions when someone should be referred to therapy? One spiritual director, Mercy Sister Maureen Conroy, R.S.M. regards three situations as clearly signals to refer. They are: 1) when a person experiences serious psychological and emotional disorders, including depression, severe neuro-sis, suicidal tendencies, psychosis; 2) when more time needs to be spent exploring a present life issue, such as a marital problem; and 3) when specific therapeutic skills are needed to explore the conscious and unconscious effects of past life expe-riences, such as sexual abuse or emotional neglect in child-hood. 16 The Supreme Court of California in the Nally case addressed the is-sue of referral of seriously ill directees. Regarding the duty as to "whether the court should impose a duty on defendant and other 'nonth-erapist counselors' (that is, persons other than licensed psychotherapists who counsel others concerning their emotional and spiritual problems) to refer to licensed mental health professionals once suicide becomes a foreseeable risk," the court said no.~7 In determining the existence of a duty of care in any given case, a number of factors were considered, including: "the foreseeability of harm to the injured party, the degree of certainty that he suffered injury, the closeness of the connection be-tween defendants' conduct and the injury suffered, the moral blame at-tached to (defendants), the policy of preventing future harm, the extent Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? / 659 of the burden to the defendants and consequences to the community of imposing a duty to exercise care with resulting liability for breach, and the availability, cost, and prevalence of insurance for the risk in-volved. ' ' 18 The court cautiously noted the inappropriateness of imposing a duty to refer in areas involving spiritual counseling because of the very na-ture of the relationship. So many times those relationships are informal, spur of the moment, and gratuitous. The foreseeability of harm may not always be recognized in a one hour session with a disturbed directee. The court concluded by saying that "imposing a duty on defendants or other nontherapist counselors to. insure their counselees [are also] under the care of psychotherapists, psychiatric facilities, or others authorized and equipped to forestall imminent suicide could have a deleterious ef-fect on counseling in general." 19 The California legislature has exempted the clergy from any kind of licensing requirement applicable to "mar-riage, family, child and domestic counselors, and from the operation of statutes regulating psychologists.' ,20 The court took note that the reason why the legislature has exempted clergy from licensing is in order to ex-plicitly "recognize that access to the clergy for counseling should be free from state imposed counseling standards, and that the secular state is not equipped to ascertain the competence of counseling when performed by those affiliated with religious organizations.''2~ V. The Difficulty of Devising Workable Standards For Determining Negligence Along with the difficulty the court recognized with arriving at some kind of workable standard of competency to be established in religious counseling situations, the Nally court also noted the added problem of identifying to whom the duty of duc care should be applied. It would be an immense task to define what exactly constitutes a spiritual direction relationship. Who qualifies as aspiritual director (only the ordained? mem-bers of religious orders?) as well as trying to resolve the issue of relig-ious diversity demonstrates difficulty in determining in what context the interaction is framed. There are all kinds of First Amendment issues in-volved as well. The court expressed the dilemma writing: "Because of the differing theological views espoused by the myriad of religions in our state, and practiced by Church members, it would certainly be impracti-cal and quite possibly unconstitutional to impose a duty of care on pas-toral counselors. Such a duty would necessarily be intertwined with the religious philosophy of the particular denomination or ecclesiastical teach-ings of the religious entity.' ,22 66{I / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 Establishing some kind of criteria of competency that a court could apply would always involve a state intrusion into the realm of religious doctrine and practice. The state would be put in the position of asking whether a particular religious practice was indeed being employed, a par-ticular teachin~g applied correctly, a particular style of spirituality or dis-cernment used properly. All these determinations entail a great deal of state entanglement in sectarian matters. In 1971 the Supreme Court in Lemon vs. Kurtzman,23 adopted a three prong test to decide whether a government activity violates the Estab-lishment Clause of the First Amendment. The test requires that: 1) The purpose of the action be clearly secular; 2) The primary effect of the action must neither advance nor inhibit religion; and 3) the activity may not result in excessive government en-tanglement with the religion.2a Any kind of judicial enforcement of some kind of standard of com-petency for spiritual directors would fail the Lemon vs. Kurtzman test on all three points. The effect of the government overseeing the practices of spiritual directors would more than likely inhibit some of the freedom required to explore, discern, and clarify issues in spiritual direction. The potential for excessive church-state entanglement in the area of enforce-ment of guidelines for direction is limitless. Any standard of care applied in determining qualified licensed prac-tioners in the field of spiritual direction would involve some sort of check as to whether the practice was in step with the religious criteria set forth in the religious teachings of the sect. At best it could be argued that some minimum standard of.training and competence to protect the public from religious fanatics, charlatans, or frauds might be established, but any full-fledged licensing would stifle First Amendment freedom and inhibit re-ligious practice. VI. Difficulties in Establishing a Standard of Care for Spiritual Di-rectors Looking at the Competency Profile of the Jesuit Spiritual Center, one wonders how a court would be able to determine what constitutes com-petency when the spiritual qualification requirements of directors include such characteristics as: 1) Living a vital spiritual life--a life of charity; 2) Habitual experience of individual prayer; 3) A life of Charity .toward all peop!e coupled with an awareness of the w~der needs of the human family; Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? / 661 4) An evermore intense interior experience; 5) An ever-growing delicacy of conscience; 6) Kindness--having and showing a benevolent readi-ness to intend the good of others; 7) Giftedness--honoring another's perceptions, judg-ments, and person; a non-defensiveness of spirit, pa-tience, and sympathy; 8) Psychological maturity--free from crippling emo-tional, mental, or volitional habits of a neurotic nature; 9) Sociability--the ability to interact with a variety of per-sonalities; 10) Knowledge--lived experience in the Christian tradi-tion; 1 1) Skills and abilities--interpersonal awareness of one's interior mental and emotional states; 12) Discernment--the experiential knowledge of self in the congruence of the object of choice with one's funda-mental religious orientation; 13) Judgment--the ability to form wise opinions, esti-mates, and conclusions from circumstances presented to the director; 14) Graces-spiritual freedom --without undue influence of disordered affections and attachments; 15) An inner suppleness of character.25 Looking over this list of characteristics needed to be a competent spiri-tual director one could see the difficulty that a court of law would have in trying to render a determination of standards which would meet licens-ing requirements. Courts are not in any position to evaluate the content of the prescribed qualifications. Aside from the obvious First Amend-ment problems found in making judgments on what grace, kindness, char-ity, and other criteria operative within the practice of spiritual direction are, licensing could discourage and diminish the gifts of both the direc-tor and directee. It is the view of the authors that licensing, evolving in the current secula¢ context, goes against the very grain of what spiritual direction is all about and could do a real disservice to those who enter into a direction relationship fearing lawsuits. It could also have a chill-ing effect on directees as well. There is something unique, healing, and very human about spiritual direction as a growth process if we view it as art, science, and discipline. 662 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 VII. Some Final Observations In reviewing the current legal opinions regarding malpractice in the area of spiritual and pastoral counseling, the authors present several ob-servations. --Licensing spiritual directors is clearly a prophetic question as pro-posed by Gill and is coming increasingly into its own time. The issues surrounding licensing are complex, profound in their implications, dis-turbing, and hopeful as we look at the work of defining the criteria for training, developing, and evaluating competent directors. --Defining what competencies are needed in a spiritual director in different schools of spirituality, religious groups and sects, and what con-tent needs to be included in their training programs producing such pro-fessionals is a challenge that is only beginning to be publicly addressed, discussed, or attempted. --In light of the current legal findings and opinions, spiritual direc-tors need to demand and seek training that is concerned with addressing issues of competency as defined by the required knowledges, skills/ abilities, and personal characteristics/qualities reflecting their spiritual tra-dition towards achieving competency in the training of spiritual direc-tors. --First steps would be for practitioners in the field to come together in a spirit of open inquiry, genuine unselfish concern, and humble aware-ness of the enormity of the task to be accomplished. Developing semi-nars and forming associations or professional forums could provide prac-titioners the milieu to discuss, study, and outline priorities and action steps towards the establishment of professional criteria and guidelines for training, developing, and evaluating spiritual directors. NOTES Gill, "License Spiritual Directors?" 6 Human Development 2 (Summer, 1985). Nally vs. Grace Community Church, 204 Cal. Rptr. 303 (Cal. App. 3 Dist. 1984). Ibid, at p. 303. 4 Ibid, at p. 303. 5 Ibid, at p. 303. Nally vs. Grace Community Church, 253 Cal. Rptr. 97, 1988. lbid, at p. 219. 8 lbid, at p. 105. 9 Ibid, at p. 105. ¯~o Ibid, at p. 105. Jesuit Center for Spiritual Growth, Competency Profile. ~2 Restatement (Second) of Torts 299A (1977). t3 Ibid. ~4 W. Prosser, Law of Torts (1966). 15 j. English, Spiritual Freedom (1975). 16 M. Conroy, Growth in Love and Freedom (1987). 17 Nally vs. Grace Community Church, 253 Cal. Rptr. 97 at p. 106. Should Spiritual Directors Be Licensed? / 663 18 Ibid, at p. 106. 19 Ibid, at p. 103. 20 Ibid, at p. 108. 21 Ibid, at p. 108. 22 Ibid, at p. 109. 23 Lemon vs. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602. 24Ibid, at p. 60. 25Jesuit Center for Spiritual Growth, Competency. The Risk You take a risk when you invite the Lord Whether to dine or talk the afternoon Away, for always the unexpected soon Turns up: a woman breaks her precious nard, A sinner does the task you should assume, A leper who is cleansed must show his proof: Suddenly you see a hole in your roof And a cripple clutters up your living room. There's no telling what to expect when He Walks in your door. The table set for tea Must often be enlarged and decorum Thrown to the wind. It's His voice that calls them And it's no use to bolt and bar the door: His kingdom knows no bounds-~of roof, or wall, or floor. Marcella M. Holloway, C.S.J. 6321 Clemens Avenue St. Louis, Missouri 63130 Prayer as Desire: An American ViewI Richard E. Lamoureux, a.a. Father Richard E. Lamoureux, a.a., has been provincial for the Augustinians of the Assumption. His address is Assumptionist Center; 330 Market Street; Brighton, Mas-sachusetts 02135. The contemporary American artist Andrew Wyeth teaches us a good deal about prayer. Many of his paintings, depicting everyday objects--a bowl of fruit, a cookie jar, a cooling blueberry pie--invite a quiet, simple gaze. But it is not just Wyeth's spare, silent scenes that lead us in the direction of prayer. So many of his portraits are unconventional inas-much as they present the subject turning away from the viewer, appar-ently looking for something in the distance. Forrest Wall, shown in the Man from Maine (1951), turns his back to us and peers out a window partially visible on the right. Elizabeth James, in Chambered Nautilus (1956), does the same from her sick bed. What may be Wyeth's most famous painting depicts Christina Olsen (Christina's WorM, 1948) sit-ting in the field below her home, straining with all her might in the di-rection of the house as if she might return there on the strength of her desire despite the palsied legs that restrict her to the ground. Two of his most beautiful paintings are portraits of Jimmy Lynch. One (The Swinger, 1969) shows him on a porch swing looking off into the dis-tance; the other (Afternoon Flight, 1970) catches him similarly absorbed. What is it on the horizon that draws his gaze?2 This most American artist explores a dimension of our existence that I would consider to be a central ingredient in prayer. In what follows, I want to explain how longing or desire is at the heart of prayer and how desire has fared in our recent American experience. Finally, I will sug-gest a way to address the particular challenge that faces us as American 664 Prayer as Desire / 665 women and men of prayer. No one has explained better than Saint Augustine how desire is re-lated to prayer. Sometime at the beginning of the fifth century, Augustine received a letter from Proba, a Roman woman whose husband had just died.3 Her purpose in writing was to ask a simple question: can you tell me something about prayer that would be helpful? In his response, Augustine writes unexpectedly at great length about widowhood and then tries to explain how it relates to prayer. For example, he says to Proba: What characteristic of widows is singled out if not their poverty and deso-lation? Therefore, insofar as every soul understands that it is poor and desolate in this world, as long as it is absent from the Lord, it surely commends its widowhood, so to speak, to God its defender, with con-tinual and most earnest prayer (p. 400). Augustine very simply reminds Proba that her widowhood, that is, her experience of loss and especially her desire for presence once again, is a precious opportunity to learn about prayer. If you would want to pray, Augustine seems to be saying, begin with the experience of desire or longing. Augustine, then, defines prayer primarily as desire. Words and pi-ous activities, which we normally think of as prayer, are useful only to the extent that they intensify our desire for God. They are necessary, he writes, so that we may be roused and may take note of what we are asking, but we are not to believe that the Lord has need of them . Therefore, when we say "Hallowed be thy name," we rouse ourselves to desire that his name, which is always holy, should be held holy among men and women also . . . (p. 391). Desire then is synonymous with prayer. In relating the two in that way, Augustine teaches us three very important lessons about prayer. First, prayer is really very simple. It is as natural for human beings as desire is. And desire, as we all know, is a universal human experience. It is as natural for a person to pray as it is for a person to desire. And a person who desires is a person who can pray. Second, by defining prayer in terms of desire rather than in terms of methods or formulas or actions, Augustine more clearly situates it as a function of the human heart. There is little that is more personal to us or that we are more hesitant to divulge than our desires. And Augustine would have us understand that it is precisely in that most intimate and personal place that prayer is born and grows. 666 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 Finally, by relating prayer to desire, Augustine helps us to under-stand that we can grow in prayer, for taking our desires seriously is a stimulus to such growth. He develops this idea in his letter to Proba and most especially in the Confessions. To Proba he writes: God wishes our desire to be exercised in prayer that we may be able to receive what he is preparing to give (1 Co 2:9) . Therefore, it is said to us: "Be enlarged, bear not the yoke with unbelievers" (2Co 6:13, 14), (p. 389). Desire helps to enlarge the heart. Augustine would claim that by fan-ning the flame of desire, we will become more able to recognize God's gift when it is offered and to appreciate it to the extent that it deserves. In the Confessions Augustine explains even more clearly how tak-ing our desires seriously is a stimulus to growth in prayer and can lead to deeper faith and intimacy with God. These desires are a complex re-ality ["Who can unravel that complex twistedness?" (II, 10)4] But rather than shy away from the complexity, Augustine sets out on a long journey precisely to get to the bottom of those desires. He goes all the way back to his earliest desire for the milk from his mother's breast, then recalls the games of his youth, and also the longing for wisdom when he read Cicero. With anguish, he remembers the burning desires that char-acterized his early relations and the resistance he put up to other desires lurking in his heart. "My soul turned and turned again, on back and sides and belly, and the bed was always hard" (VI,16). Augustine's long journey through the labyrinth of his soul was marked by a painful experience of desires at war with each other, but even more so by a confidence that the battle waged in all honesty and with his friends would lead to a liberation of his deepest desire, one that he came to understand could only be satisfied by God. "Behold thou art close at hand to deliver us from the wretchedness, of error and estab-lish us in thy way, and console us with thy word: 'Run, I shall bear you up and bring you and carry you to the end' " (VI, 16). Augustine took all of his desires seriously, even those that troubled him and brought him to tears, because he believed that all of them were in some way, at times in some distorted ways, a path to the deepest craving of the human heart. He seemed sure of God's love and also confident that deep within his own heart was an enormous love for God: "Thou hast made us for thy-self." (Confessions I, 1). Those are convictions we all find hard to come by, but they are crucial for growth along the way of prayer. To summarize then and to make the point clearly: for Augustine prayer is not more complicated than giving free rein and full expression Prayer as Desire / 66"/ to the sometimes confused desire for God that God has placed in our hearts. As he writes in his commentary' on the first letter of St. John: "Love and do what you will." Or perhaps I can say: "Desire and do what you will." Now, that may sound simple, but there are a few complicating fac-tors, some of which Augustine was aware of. Many of the complicating factors, however, are particular to our own time and culture; they are the shadow side of the cultural qualities we cultivate in the United States. One of the recent most popular movies, Dead Poets Society, is a se-rious indictment of American culture. It tells the story of a private pre-paratory school in the United States in 1959, where faculty and student body alike hold in highest esteem the pursuit of successful careers and high social status. Along comes an eccentric poetry teacher, effectively portrayed by Robin Williams. He succeeds in opening a few sleepy, even blind eyes, urges his students to ("carpe diem") "seize the moment," and awakens them to the excitement of poetry. Dull, distracted boys be-come spirited young men full of powerful desires. They found their own secret society where dead poets--and dead students-~come back to life. The movie was successful, I suppose, because it touched a sensitive chord in our American hearts. Though we are reluctant to admit this, the movie helped us see that we might be dull people, men and women with-out longing, without desire. But you might object: "Doesn't every human being desire some-thing?" As I reflected on the movie, I came to understand that for a va-riety of reasons and in different ways desire has been drained from our hearts. I could see it happening in four or five different ways. At other times and in other contexts, I might present the following items in a much more positive vein, as qualities that are proper to us as Americans. But in the context of this discussion on desire, what might be consid-ered the merits of our particular American way of living and looking at things becomes a liability. 1) In our day, in this country, by hard work, ingenuity, abundant natu-ral resources and a little bit of luck, we have attained a level of material satisfaction that enables us to meet most of our needs. We acknowledge that there are unsatisfied needs in us, but we are also confident that the only kinds of needs we have are needs that we can eventually satisfy our-selves. And if it takes too long to satisfy them, we energetically look for and usually find other remedies; there are many "quick fixes" we can turn to. But then if all the needs are satisfied, what is there left to de-sire? I am not simply condemning American materialism, nor am I re- Review for Religious, September-October 1990 ferring here to the unrestrained pursuit of pleasure and sensual satisfac-tion. Instead, I am suggesting 'that the level of material security we en-joy may be having a subtle, debilitating effect on our capacity to long for less material goods. When the Israelites complained to Jeremiah that it would be preferable to return to Egypt rather than remain in exile, he urged them to stay where they were for Yahweh was with them. Instead, however, they returned to Egypt "where at least they would not hun-ger" (Jr 42:1~4). It is not pleasant to be hungry, but can we live without desire? We can call this sort of person "the comfortable self," and the "comfortable sell'' has few desires. 2) Today especially we seek to be creative and responsible members of the human race. We are inclined to set aside as somewhat irrelevant and escapist distractions those vague interior Iongings that apparently can never be satisfied: there is too much in the world to do and no time to lose. We tend to set aside the simple and less gifted i~mong us and have little patience for wasted time and effort. In Bonfire of the Vanities, Tom Wolfe would say that our ambition is to be a "Master of the Universe," and we are convinced we just might succeed. The "creative, functional sell''has little time or. need for vague longings and can realize his desires by rolling up his sleeves. 3) Psychology has helped us uncover, identify, and explain many of our desires. But Freud would also have us demystify these desires, re-duce them to understandable drives, and either "manage" them so they do not interfere or banish them completely. The "psychological sell" runs the risk of reducing desires to insignificance by denying them the possibility of any transcendent origin, significance, or purpose. 4) Dead Poets Society points an accusing finger at a society drained of desire and life. But I think the movie suffers from the sickness it is trying to identify. Note the poets that are quoted in the movie: they are almost exclusively what we call the romantic poets. Other sections of the poetry anthology used by the students are ripped out. No mention of Shakespeare or Homer, Milton or Hopkins. Why should we read poetry, according to this movie? For the excitement of it, I gather. The movie seems to say: it does not really matter what you give your life to as long as you feel passionately enough to give your life. I admire the passion, but it is a self-destructive passion, self-preoccupied, narcissistic. Really, in the end, no passion at all. The desires of the "romantic sell'' self-destruct in a beautiful, but tragically brief burst of flame. 5) Finally, a word about the "tolerant sell'' and what that, in its most recent form, has done to desire. In many ways I consider this to Prayer as Desire / 669 be the most serious attack on desire in our day, and I will discuss it at greater length.5 The founders of our country, acutely aware of the reasons for which Europeans came to these shores and the political struggle that led to in-dependence, enshrined the principles of freedom and equality at the heart of our Constitution. They did so in revolt against oppression in the coun-tries they came from, to assure that in this new regime each person would be free to profess and practice the religion of one's choosing or none at all. In order to assure that no one religion would be given ascendancy and that all religions would be considered equally valid. Such liberty and equality imply a prior commitment to tolerance. As Locke had earlier suggested,6 not only does tolerance forestall religious wars and oppression, it would seem to be synonymous with Christian char-ity. We should hesitate to tamper with a doctrine such as that of toler-ance, which has brought us many blessings, but there may be some side effects that need to be taken into account. If tolerance leads us to assert that all religions are equally valid, then it seems inevitable that at some point one will begin to wonder whether it is worth embracing this par-ticular religion rather than another., or any at all. Tolerance as the paradigmatic American virtue in religious matters erodes conviction and desire; it all too often leads to indifference and loss of confidence.7 Let me explain with a non-religious example. For one person, work-ing hard to provide housing for the homeless is an important "value"-- to use that word as we are accustomed to using it today. For another per-son, earning a million dollars a year and dining at a 4-star restaurant five nights a week is a "value" she or he would hold to with as much, per-haps even more vigor. In a society where tolerance is the paramount vir-tue and where there can be no criteria for ranking so-called "values," our social worker has no right to consider his "value" more important than that of the millionaire. I think that is the conclusion we have to draw, and my guess is that our "tolerant" selves would be reluctant to draw any other. In that case, I could easily imagine the social worker, returning home after a frustrating fifteen-hour day, and exclaiming in quiet desperation: "why bother?" If all "values" are equal, our social worker will begin to doubt the real worth of what she or he is doing and be drained of passion or desire for the cause being promoted. Tolerance is a great American virtue. It protects us from oppression and even allows us to be critical of the regime. But the brand of toler-ance practiced today also exacts a high price. It can drain our soul of all 670 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 passion. Without passion or desire, the "tolerant self' will find it very difficult to pray. The comfortable self, the creative self, the psychological self, the ro-mantic self, the tolerant self--so many ways in which desire has been disarmed. It has been disarmed or short-circuited. What keeps desire alive has been eliminated. Etymologically, the word "desire" with its reference to "sidera," the stars, suggests that without an object that tran-scends the self, desire that is not created by the self, or under its con-trol, or in any way dependent upon the self, desire quickly evaporates. I think the social and political consequences of diluted or disarmed de-sire have been considerable, but in the context of this discussion I want to draw attention to the consequences for our faith and our prayer as well. So, how do we recover desire? The question is an old one. It already appears in the Gospel. But, as I have tried to explain above, our American context leads us to pose it in a particularly acute way. It should not come as a surprise that since we Americans are closest to the problem that it is we Americans who have also hit upon a solution. I think that Alcoholics Anonymous and its 12-step program, begun in this country some fifty years ago, may be helping us rediscover desire and could be more helpful to those wanting to pray than any crash course on meditation.8 This may come as a surprising suggestion. But consider some of the more traditional methods used to foster growth in prayer. Among the early desert fathers and mothers, one popular and effective method (known in the Russian Orthodox tradition today as "starchestvo") is a practice whereby the novice reveals to his spiritual master all of his in-terior thoughts and feelings and humbly seeks help in discerning what God calls him to through these apparently confused experiences.9 Augustine himself sought to grow in prayer by telling story after story of how he pursued one way then another in search of happiness and peace. Ignatius of Loyola in the sixteenth century devised a system of spiritual exercises, whereby the one seeking to grow spiritually reveals the promptings of his heart to a spiritual guide who helps him interpret and discern the desires that will lead to growth. Ignatius even urged that his followers, members of his Society, regularly "manifest their con-science" to their superiors, much like the monks in the desert, in order to gain enlightenment. Those are the traditional methods of spiritual growth, but for some reason today for many they are not working, or we are not inclined to take them seriously. But many are taking the 12 steps seriously. One of Prayer as Desire / 671 the insights on which the 12-step method is based is the importance of recounting, at a meeting or to a sponsor, the story of one's desires-- desires for alcohol, for sex, for food, desires that have run out of con-trol, but also a desire, perhaps only a small spark at the outset, but a de-sire for sobriety. It is in the telling and the retelling of the story that the desires are sorted out, that the healthiest sparks are fanned into stronger flames, and that one begins to come to deeper serenity and happiness. Why does the 12-step program work? Because I begin to name desires rather than blindly accede to them, proudly condemn them, or run from them in fear. Because I acknowl-edge that a power greater than I alone guides human affairs, inspires hu-man desires, and fulfills the deepest among these: the desires I can sat-isfy will not bring peace to a restless heart. Because I acknowledge that in addition to that power other people are necessary to test my desires and help me keep the best alive. Because I know that helping others will intensify my own desire at the same time as it helps another. I cannot explain adequately in this context the effectiveness of the 12-step program. I am grateful to those friends and confreres who have given me some understanding of the 12 steps and for their own witness to the program's power. They could better make the point I want to make. Beneath the program is an understanding of life deeply consonant with the Gospel and, I would maintain, profoundly nourishing for one's life of prayer. Remember Augustine's words to Proba: Insofar as every soul understands that it is poor and desolate in this world as long as it is absent from the Lord, it surely commends its wid-owhood, so to speak, to God its defender, with continual and most ear-nest prayer (p. 400). Prayer is impossible if you start from a distorted understanding of the Gospel. As Americans, our comfortable self may be too sated to seek a Savior, our creative self may lead us to think we can save ourselves, our psychological self may convince us that the desire for a Savior is escapism, our romantic self may consider the desire an end in itself, our tolerant self may think open-ness and tolerance are identical with love. The Gospel, the writings of Augustine, and the 12-step program re-flect both more skepticism and more confidence about human nature than any of these false selves. They are not so afraid or angry with their hu-manness that they deny or disregard their desires, but they do not accept 672 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 that responding to the most pressing desires will necessarily lead to the greatest happiness. They are deeply confident that their deepest desires can be satisfied, but have surrendered the illusion that they can or must explain or satisfy those desires on their own. They, like St. Paul, refuse to judge and condemn themselves, and certainly not others, but they cou-rageously and unambiguously name the desire that has led them to dis-aster and they can say: "My name is Richard or John or Dorothy, and I am an alcoholic!" Many are seeking new ways to pray, and a 12-step meeting is hardly an ancient method. But if I were to suggest the practices of sacramental confession or spiritual direction as ways to grow in prayer, many would not take note. Something has happened to our traditional practices or our use of them that has made them seemingly ineffective. What I am sug-gesting is that the 12-step program with its emphasis on confession/ story telling, community, and commitment to service--is a contempo-rary method that I feel convinced can teach us how to pray. I cannot help but believe that God is attentive to the simple prayer of a recovering al-coholic, a wounded person full of desire, who speaks with the words of the psalmist: God, you are my God, for you I long. For you my soul is thirsting. My body pines for you like a dry, weary land without water. So I gaze on you in the sanctuary to see your strength and your glory, for your love is better than life. My lips will speak your praise, so I will bless you all my life. NOTES ~ A first version of this paper was presented as the keynote address for a Conference at Assumption College, Worcester, Massachusetts, entitled "Prayer--A Psychologi-cal Perspective." I am grateful to the organizers of the Conference, Dr. George Scar-lett and Rev. Edgar Bourque, A.A., for their invitation to address the Conference. 2 These paintings are reproduced in Davis McCord and Frederick A. Sweet, Andrew Wyeth (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1970). 3 Quotations from Augustine's letter are taken from The Fathers of the Church-- Saint Augustine: Letters Vol. II (New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc. 1953). 4 Quotations from the Confessions are taken from the translation by Frank J. Sheed in The Confessions of St. Augustine (London: Sheed & Ward, 1984, original edition 1944). 5 Although many have discussed this notion, the most thorough and cogent discus-sion recently is in the book by Allen Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987). 6 See John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration, ed, by James H. Tully (Indian- Prayer as Desire / 1573 apolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 1983). 7 In J. Hector St. John Crevecoeur, Letters from an American Farmer, (New York: Fox, Duffiealad and Company, 1904, reprinted from the original 1782 edition), pp. 64-65, we read an eighteenth-century account of religion in America. After describ-ing in letter no. 3 the variety of creeds cultivated in the country, the author contin-ues: "Each of these people instruct their children as well as they can, but these in-structions are feeble compared to those which are given to the youth of the poorest class in Europe. Their children will therefore grow up less zealous and more indif-ferent in matters of religion than their parents. The foolish vanity, or rather the fury of making Proselytes, is unknown here; they have no time, the seasons call for all their attention, and thus in a few years, this mixed neighborhood will exhibit a strange religious medley, that will be neither pure Catholicism nor pure Calvinism. A very perceptible indifference even in the first generation will become apparent." 8 A good deal of Alcoholics Anonymous literature deals with prayer and spiritual-ity. The eleventh step explicitly encourages the practice of prayer and meditation ("We sought through prayer and meditation to improve our conscious contact with God as we understood him, praying only for knowledge of God's will for us, and the power to carry that out.") But the program can have even broader implications for the spiritual life. See "Origins of A.A. Spirituality" by Dr. Ernie Kurtz, The Blue Book, Vol. XXXVIII, Proceedings from the 38th Annual Symposium-June 16- 20, 1986 (January, 1987). Catholic writers and lecturers are beginning to discuss the spiritual potential of the program. See, for example, the recently released confer-ences of Father Richard Rohr, "Breathing under Water: Spirituality and the 12 Steps" (Saint Anthony Messenger Press Audiocassettes, 1989). 9 See B, Pennington, O.C.S.O., O Holy Mountain.t (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1984), p. 92. The Emptiness Within Barbara Dent Barbara Dent, mother and grandmother, has been for eighteen years a Secular Carmelite. One of her most recent books has been The Gifts of Lay Ministry (Ave Maria Press, 1989). Her address is Postinia: 7A Cromwell Place; Pukekohe, New Zealand. Ours is an age of space-consciousness and space exploration. These have induced an awareness of a limitless beyond that can be terrifying. We know that in space universe extends beyond universe in an infinitude of expanding galaxies. The immensity is beyond our comprehension. Ours is also an age of inner exploration of our own human psyche. Depth psychology probes level on level of inner awareness, submerged awareness, and non-awareness. These probings link up with that aspect of spirituality which mystically intuits the indwelling of the Trinity, the homeliness of God in us that Jesus spoke of and promised to his faithful followers the night before he died. Just as there is endless mystery in the outer universe, so there is also in the inner one. God dwells in us--if we long for him and prepare our spiritual house to receive him. Not only that, but he permeates our inner being further and further as we open ourselves to receive him. "How rich are the depths of God!" exclaimed St. Paul. And it is these very depths that merge with our own through the divine penetra-tion and the graces it brings. This is by no means always a consoling experience. On the contrary it can seem to hurl us into an abyss of unmeaning which is caused by our incapacity to understand divine meaning and purpose in all their in-finite inclusiveness. Only faith can cope with the apparent absurdity, and too often in this state we experience ourselves as lamentably lacking in faith. 674 The Emptiness Within / 675 In this article I examine and comment on this negative aspect of di-vine and human intermingling by using the concept of "the inner Void." Normally, we human beings fill our days and nights with the busi-ness of living, working, playing, and social interchange. This is the way it has to be if society is to continue and be dynamic. For committed Chris-tians this day-to-day living and doing is permeated with another dimen-sion- that of being-in-Christ. The more fully they relate mundane ac-tivities to loving and serving the Lord, the more Christocentric their lives become. The more they cleave to him, the more the Trinity enters into their inner selves through the purity of their intentions, so that they truly become temples of the Holy Spirit. A pure intention is one that is centered on what Jesus stressed must be our fundamental option--"God's will, not mine, because I love him with my whole being." Strangely, the intensity of such a single-minded love can lead not to a blissful sense of fulfillment, but to its opposite-- an experience of crucifying inner emptiness, a void of unappeasable long-ing crying out for a God who appears not to care or even answer. How much longer will you forget me, Yahweh? Forever? How much longer will you hide your face from me? How much longer must I en-dure grief in my soul, and sorrow in my heart by day and by night? (Ps 13:1-2). The ache for God, disguised as it may be in a multitude of ways, yet seems to be endemic to the human heart. In Christ's followers it can be-come so insistent that it rules their lives. After many years of loving, faith-ful service to this object of their desire, a paradoxical inner state is likely to develop. The searcher for the pearl of great price and the glorious lib-erty of the sons and daughters of God, though consumed with an intol-erable yearning for God, now experiences him as absent just when he is loved and longed for most. This is usually a sign of the call to a much deeper relationship with him, one that has a different quality from any that preceded it. We are drawn by the Spirit into this state of being when all created things have lost their power to compel or fulfill us. We have learned, often in bitterness and pain, that none of them can supply anything but a temporary and partial satisfaction. Behind and through them we have kept glimpsing their Creator, and now he fills our vision and summons us to come closer. We have begun floating in our inner Void, sure at last that only his love can fill it. 676 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 Aware that he is calling and drawing us, we want with all our will to respond, yet we remain thwarted. Yearn and strive as we may, we can neither reach nor receive him. Empty and grieving, we experience him as the absentee God, yet we have never in our lives been more free of sin and fuller of love than we now are. Why has this Void opened at the very time when we are possessed by love-longing for God? To anyone familiar with the inner depth reality of the subconscious and unconscious, the answer will make sense. The roots of our attachments to what God has created, and the causes of our persistence in letting them come between us and him, are still bur-ied deep within us. They fasten us down to where we are so that we are unable to soar in freedom to him. Though we have done all in our power, with the help of grace, to love and serve him, and though deliberate sin of any kind has long been eliminated from our living, the roots of sinful tendencies remain there hidden away, so that we are not even conscious of them. We cannot locate or name them, let alone wrench them out or dissolve them away. In our impotence and humiliation we gradually re-alize only God can do this through his own mighty love and the grace he pours into us through his Spirit. Only his action can gradually dilate our hearts so that they are able to receive more and more of what he offers. Only his grace can pene-trate into our subconscious to reveal what is concealed there. Only it can in various ways impel upwards into consciousness what is hidden. Only his Spirit of Wisdom knows and can reveal to us in ways we can accept what must be made conscious and purified if we are to enter into full un-ion with the Trinity. By invading our depths, the Spirit is not violating our free will, for God knows our longing for him is such that at last we are prepared to let him have his way with us, no matter how much it hurts. "Oh God, my God, for you my heart yearns, like a dry, weary land without water" (Ps 63:1 ). God's answer to our yearnings is to fill our Void with himself. This process is purgatorial. After death we pass outside time and space into eternity and infinity. If at this transition we are not already filled with God, our Void goes with us. No one has returned to tell us how God deals with it then, but traditionally the Church has taught the doctrines of purgatory (a cleansing process through which grace fits us to receive and behold God), and hell, where our Void remains just that forever. All those, known and unknown, who have become saints before they died, The Emptiness Within / 677 have had their Voids filled with God in this life. Some have left records of what their experience was like, and these indicate something at least of what they endured under the Spirit's ruthless but perfectly loving ac-tion. St. John of the Cross's testimony is probably the most authoritative, instructive, and detailed, After stressing that this state of purification is one of darkness and pure faith, he elaborates as below. "The Divine assails the soul in order to renew it and thus to make it Divine; and, stripping it of the habitual affections and attachments of the old man, to which it is very closely united, knit together and con-formed, destroys and consumes its spiritual substance, and absorbs it in deep and profound darkness. As a result of this, the soul feels itself to be perishing and melting away, in the presence and sight of its miseries, in a cruel spiritual death, even as if it had been swallowed by a beast (as Jonas was). (and) in this sepulcher of dark death it must needs abide until the spiritual resurrection which it hopes for. ". But what the sorrowful soul feels most in this condition is its clear perception, as it thinks, that God has abandoned it, and, in his ab-horrence of it, has flung it into darkness. It is a grave and piteous grief for it to believe that God has forsaken it . For indeed when this pur-gative contemplation is most severe, the soul feels very keenly the shadow of death and the lamentations of death and the pains of hell, which consist in its feeling itself to be without God, and chastised and cast out, and unworthy of him; and it feels that he is wroth with it" (Dark Night II, Ch. VI, 1 & 2). The intensity and pain of this inner experience of the Void will vary according to the strength and depths of our sin-roots, the greatness of our love and longing for God, our perseverance and abandonment during the process, the degree of holiness (or wedding garment splendor and soar-ing freedom) God intends for each sufferer. This purpose of his is, of course, hidden in the mystery of his endless love, of which the Void it-self is but one aspect. If the Void is endured until the process of cleansing and freeing is completed, we have been through and emerged from our own personal purgatory. We are united with the Trinity in what has been called "trans-forming union" ("I live, now not I, but Christ lives in me") or "the spiritual marriage." "Alleluia! The reign of the Lord our God the Almighty has begun. Let us be glad and joyful and give praise to God, because this is the time for the marriage of the Lamb. His bride is ready, and she has been able Review for Religious, September-October 1990 to dress herself in dazzling white linen, because her linen is made of the good deeds of the saints" (Rv 19:7-8). Our Void has been emptied of self and filled with Christ. What are some of the hallmarks of this emptying and filling of the Void, in the here and now? Here is a commentary on a few of the main ones. 1. Helpless Waiting In the Void we have no alternative but to wait. I think of Mary be-tween the annunciation and the birth of Jesus. She knew she had con-ceived and that the Christ of God was growing and developing within her, but the process was and had to remain hidden and secret. What she did not know was exactly what and who the child would prove to be. God was at work in her, and she was co-operating pas-sively, through her fiat, by letting it happen and trusting him about the outcome of his labors. She was "full of grace" and so the whole pro-cess was under the Spirit's complete control. Her personal contribution was to stay still and see what eventuated. Once the Void opens in us, we too, must wait while Christ is formed in us in his fullness. We continue to live and love as Christians, to serve God and neighbor in our work, personal relationships, duties and offer-ings, all aimed at renewing the temporal order and purifying our lives from self-love and self-seeking. We have been doing these things for a long time and had assumed we would be persevering in them in much the same way till death. We do persevere, but not "in the same way." For now the Void is there, and we begin to enter a new dimension and level of being. Gradually grace enlightens us so that we understand something of what still needs to be done in our inner depths to open us to God so he can penetrate further. At the same time we are shown how it is beyond our own capacity and resources to bring about such a self-exposure. A chasm of helplessness and poverty gapes within us. We realize that in our frozen immobility we are still able to act in one specific way. We can let God act, and stay passive ourselves. We can let him do the un-veiling and the choosing, for us and in us in his own way and time. Our role is to surrender and wait. And wait. And wait . Waiting is a difficult art to learn and practice in our frenetically ac-tive and materialistic age. Neither our environment, education nor life aims and circumstances have prepared us for it. Though we try, we go The Emptiness Within on failing, because we cannot help interfering with God in spite of our best intentions. Humbled, we learn that only grace can enable us to learn this painful art. Under its influence, we slowly begin to relax and be still, and our Void gently opens wider in faith, trust, and hope. We realize how im-portant patience is, how lost we are if God does not help us, how he does not and cannot do so unless we deliberately exercise our free will and let him. Here the active and the passive merge. As we go on waiting, our helplessness deepens into a sense of im-potence. We are rather like quadriplegics who must depend on others for most of their needs. If they are not to be consumed with self-pity and rage, they must turn the necessary waiting that forms an indelible part of their lives into an art. We ourselves are not waiting for other people to help us, but for God. "I waited and waited for Yahweh. Now at last he has stooped to me and heard my cry for help" (Ps 40:1). 2. Longing for God Thirst for God consumes us in this state. "As a doe longs for run-ning streams, so longs my soul for you, my God. My soul thirsts for God, the God of my life" (Ps 42:1-2). We are like "a dry, weary land without water" (Ps 63:1). When two lovers are parted, they long ardently and painfully for each other's presence. In the Void we experience God as an absentee God, even as one who spurns us. We are hopelessly in love with him-- we would not have been invited by the Spirit into this level of being were it not so--yet he seems to be denying himself to us, to be teasing us cru-elly on purpose. We know he is there, believethis is so, and in some indescribable, formless way even experience him as indeed with us, enfolding us, and yet we never seem to reach or catch sight of him. In his absence we have faith he is present, but this is no comfort. It is like being alone in a completely dark room, yet having an intui-tive awareness of another Presence with us in the same enclosed space. We cannot see or touch him or even hear his breathing. Yet, shiveringly, we are completely certain Someone is with us. Perhaps because of this strange certainty, our longing that is never appeased intensifies until it possesses us. This absentee yet ever-present God and Lover we experience as capricious, so that our longing is a form of bitter suffering, and often we have to struggle against feelings of re- Review for Religious, September-October 1990 sentment and hopelessness. We challenge him, "It is you, God, who are my shelter. Why do you abandon me?" (Ps 43:2). There is no answer, no comfort. The silence is absolute, our hunger unappeased. In the end, we become dumb. Our patience in waiting has deepened as our longing intensified. We understand the time for consum-mation is not. yet, for we are not ready. We see that our longing is a grace, given to us so we will more readily submit to an even more radi-cal emptying out. We have not yet reached that total nakedness o.f un-selfed love which will indicate our readiness to be clothed in Christ. We have yet to long for this for his sake, his honor and glory, the fulfilling of his incarnational aims, instead of for our own self-gratifica-tion, and our pleasure in our own "holiness." At last we understand that our motives need radical purification, for they are laced together every-where by tenuous, yet tough strands of self-love and self-will. All holiness is God's. Of ourselves we have none until we have put on Christ and can glory in his glory, and love with his love. Our longing is being purified till this is what we truly want above all else. 3. Loss of Meaning and Purpose Whether it is a cause or a result of the Void is hard to say, but one of the hallmarks of this state is loss of meaning and purpose on one level, and final regaining of it on another. The loss shows itself in our life situ-ation in doubts and disillusionments about our personal relationships, and our aims, activities, and ambitions to do with worldly matters. What preoccupied us and fed our drive in our work now seems taw-dry and not worth all this effort. We question its reality and its right to absorb so much of our energy, to demand and receive our concentrated attention. Has it the right to fasten us so securely to the daily grind when God's insistent call to another level of being is there in the background all the time, distracting us? Of what use is "getting to the top"? Winning that big increase in salary? Being treated with respect and deference as the one who "has it all at her fingertips," the indispensable manager and organizer? There are times when we ardently want to "throw it all away" be-cause it seems so fatuous. Yet we know we cannot opt out, for we have a spouse to be faithful to, offspring to put through university, the mort-gage to pay off, obligations to associates to fulfill, our own lifelong am-bition to bring to its triumphant peak, a whole life pattern to round off harmoniously. Somehow we have to learn to live with our growing awareness of it all as a mindless treadmill "full of sound and fury, signifying nothing." The Emptiness Within In the face of the Void, it lacks reality, but, nonetheless, must be at-tended to. The true reality is an indefinable something located in our inner emp-tiness. It is drawing us till we want to let go of everything else and reck-lessly jump into that abyss to meet its embrace. At this point some people have a breakdown so that circumstances force them to take a long rest from their life-in-the world obligations and ambitions. Others keep on mechanically, but their heart is no longer in it, and they feel nothing but relief when someone else replaces them or the time comes for them to retire. This disillusionment and lack of drive registers as a humiliating disaster, yet it may well be a special grace open-ing the way for us to concentrate on "the one thing necessary." Alarmingly, the problem increases, rather than diminishes, once we free ourselves enough for such concentration. It is like a slap in the face to discover that we cannot find "mean-ing" in the things of God either, though we dumbly and idiotically know the meaning is there somewhere, expressed in ancient Babylonian hiero-glyphics no doubt! (And no one taught us at school or in the boardroom how to interpret these!) Faced with the Void and its implications, we find ourselves unable to understand God's meaning and purpose in our own lives or those of others. His actions seem arbitrary and often absurd. In fact, a general senselessness defying the rational mind pervades the whole Void. We slither aimlessly about, till we remember the lesson about staying still and waiting. When we apply this perseveringly, we are able to accept that it is no wonder we cannot understand the divine meaning and purpose when it is infinite and eternal while we ourselves remain time and space im-prisoned. It is also perfect love and omniscient wisdom, while we are full of "lacklove" and distorted vision. During the years spent in the Void we slowly learn to rest in peace in God's incomprehensible will, to trust its apparent irrationality, to have faith in its aim to express his beneficent care of us in and through our life circumstances even when they appear to be nothing but "a tale told by an idiot," to hope doggedly in a future blessed by fulfillment in bliss-ful union with him. Our concept of life's meaning and purpose has changed radically as grace permeated those levels where our basic semi- and unconscious re-bellion and misapplied self-will lay hidden but potent. 4. The Darkness of Entombment Review for Religious, September-October 1990 In the Void we are in the process of dying with Christ and being bur-ied with him so that our life may be his life and we be hidden with him in God, our glory part of his (see Col 2:12, 3:2-4). When Jesus hung upon the cross, he was in a kind of void between earth and heaven: the vacant space left by total immolation for the sake of others; the blank of utmost loneliness and dereliction expressed through his cry of abandonment and desolation; the kenosis of the God- Man brought about by the complete surrender of his awareness of his God-ness, coupled with his immersion in his representative Man-ness--his slav-ery as sin-taker for us when he himself was sinless. In various degrees and ways we, his lovers and beloveds, are invited by him to enter into his crucifixion and kenosis with him so we may even-tually share his resurrection glory. We have to die to self by hanging there with and in him through the sufferings--physical, mental, psycho-logical, emotional, and spiritual that God permits to come to us, and that our own and others' sins and sinfulness bring upon us. After the crucifixion comes the interlude of the entombment before the resurrection can occur. The sense of entombment is an essential as-pect of the Void. If we think of Jesus' corpse lying still,, cold, and alone on the stone slab, we shall understand some of the basic elements of the spiritual state of those called to die with him in order to rise with him. There is the darkness of this stone cavern behind its stone door. No chink of light anywhere. It makes us feel our intellect has been blinded and we shall never understand anything about God again. Though we carry on with our daily lives more or less satisfactorily, we suffer a kind of sense-deprivation of the spirit, (Only those who have experienced this state of being will find meaning in this paradox.) One form of torture of prisoners is to lock them into a pitch dark cell where there is complete sense deprivation so that time ceases to have meaning, as does everything else. Entombed with Jesus, we are in a similar state because all the satis-factions and enjoyments that come to a human being through his senses of hearing, sight, smell, touch, and taste no longer have power either to distract or fulfill us. We have become one-purposed in our longing for God, and the senses cannot tempt us away from it with their promise of surface, ephemeral delights. Since we have renounced the lesser good for the greater, the Spirit obliges by paradoxically taking away their irrelevant enticements--in a spiritual sense. To express it otherwise, our senses and our bodies and The Emptiness Within/ all our material being continue to function adequately for the purposes of everyday life. However, in relation to the spiritual life, we have be-come numb and dumb to their joys, attractions and any urge to seek deep meaning and fulfillment through them. We have been brought to that State where we float in the Void of blind faith that none of our senses can affirm as a reality. We gaze upon God without seeing him. We hear his Word without understanding it. We taste his supportive love without any sweetness or consolation--as if our taste buds had been anesthetized. He is weaning us from all such reassurances by imprisoning us in this Void of sense deprivation. He means us to learn how to enter, unencum-bered, into the central mystery of his Being, spirit to Spirit. He has led us into the depths of the Night of Faith. In it, usually for years after painful years, we learn to lie down with the dead Jesus in the tomb. We learn to lie there patiently and wait in our nakedness. We learn what being still really means as we contemplate the Savior's unbreathing body--not with bodily eyes, but with spiritual ones of unquestioning faith and a love stripped of self-seeking. We are seeds fallen into the ground and undergoing the hidden meta-morphosis from which we shall at last emerge, essentially changed per-sons, into spiritual resurrection. 5. Loneliness The inner Void is a crucifyingly lonely space of nothingness. We shall probably find there is no one who can understand our state, except one who is also in it, or one who has endured it and emerged. The one in it may be able to offer sympathy and sharing. The one emerged can give reassurance, understanding, encouragement, guidance, support, and hope for the future. This is so only if she or he has some understanding of what the lonely one is passing through or has emerged from. Such un-derstanding is rare. The Void can have many guises, including those of mental, emo-tional, or physical breakdown. It is often mingled with factors associ-ated with these. It adapts itself to whatever needs to be purified in the particular sufferer, since it is always under the control of the Spirit. It is not easy, and almost impossible, to discover a fellow sufferer who is enduring the same searching trial in the same ways. A qualified, learned, compassionate spiritual guide who has had both personal experience of the Void and of supporting others immersed in it is a very special blessing from God--one that is seldom given. An es-sential part of learning to live at peace in the Void's faith dimension is Review for Religious, September-October 1990 that of being able to trust oneself blindly to the hidden guidance and con-trol of the Spirit coming directly instead of through an intermediary. The purification process includes enduring it alone with God--and an absen-tee God at that. The only sure and never-failing companion is Jesus in his passion, especially in Gethsemane and in his cry of dereliction on the cross. We can find here, in union with him, the strength and purpose to endure, to hang helpless and in agony in absurdity, giving oneself up out of love for his redemptive work, staying with, and in him gladly, for love of him, sharing his loneliness and comforting his desolation. This is anything but mere sentimentality, as anyone who has really done it knows. It is a genuine, self-obliterating response of "Yes" to his questions, "Will you drink of the cup I must drink of? . . . Will you watch one hour with me? . . . Will you take up your cross and follow ¯ me? . . . Will you give yourself with me for others? . . . Will you love my Father's will wholeheartedly as I do to the end? . . . Will you fol-low me wherever I lead? . . . Will you go down into the darkness and die with me and then wait with me in my tomb till resurrection morning comes? . . . Will you dare Sheol with me? o . ." If we agree to share his loneliness, we shall indeed be lonely, and in that desolation share the essential loneliness of all abandoned, help-less, despised, outcast, comfortless human beings whom he represented on the cross, as well as those lost in the black loneliness of habitual, sev-ering sin, or those immured in purgatory in this life or the next. We may have friends who love and try to comfort us, but this will do little to ease what is a loneliness of our very essence crying out for God. Only if they have been through it themselves will they be able to apply balm. In the ultimate there is only one who can fill the Void of loneliness with genuine fulfillment and it is God himself. He is busy preparing in us a place fit to receive him. All we can do is wait in faith, hope, and love that feel like unbelief, despair, and a numb indifference that will never be able to love again. "Out of the depths have I cried unto thee, O Lord. Lord, hear my voice!" 6. Awareness of Sin The Void strips away inessentials, leaving the emptiness of nothing to cling to but God--and in.bare, stubborn faith. Because the motes in our own eyes (our absorption in the secondar-ies of created things instead of the one primary necessity of God) have The Emptiness Within now been removed, at least partly, by grace, we see much better. One of the things we see with our new sight and in startling clarity is the re-ality of sin. Not so much actual sins--these are fairly obvious to discern and we have long ago trained ourselves to watch and guard against them in our own lives. No--what we now see with the eyes of our spirit enlightened by the Spirit is innate sinfulness. We become aware of its substratum in ourselves (those tangled "roots" I mentioned earlier), and in other hu-man beings we have to do with. We helplessly observe it issuing from us and them in all kinds of meannesses, envies, prevarications, self-delusions, self-loves, rationalizations. Squirming and humiliated, we face, with the help of grace, that, "This is me . . . that is the person I loved and revered so much . " If we do not take care, this pitiless insight will cause discouragement and fear in ourselves, and a judg-mental, condemnatory, disillusioned attitude towards others--even cyni-cism. The taste of this racial and personal basic sinfulness is bitter indeed. We want to spit it out and rush to grab something, sweet to gourmandize on and hide that vile flavor. We have been living all the time with a des-picable traitor within us, and till now we have never even glimpsed him. His cronies are present in all other members of the human race, and from them emanate the sorrows, sins, evils and disasters of living on this planet that has been tipped off its axis. Some of the penitential psalms now have for us as never before a co-gent, humbling, and intensely personal message. Paraphrasing a little, we cry with St. Paul, "Who will rescue me from this enemy within?" and reply with him, "Nothing else but the grace of God, through Jesus Christ, our Lord." We know now that we really do need a personal Savior, that we would be lost without Jesus, that an essential part of our Void experi-ence is acknowledging our personal, basic sinfulness for which the only cure is the grace that Jesus gives. We cry, "Lord, you came to save me-- because I needed you so much. I need you even more now you have shown me the truth about myself. Only show me what you want of me, and I will do it. I will do anything at all for you, my Lord and my Sav-ior, because you have rescued me in my great need." This time we really mean it, because we are so much closer to Truth itself. We have been given the grace of a genuine horror of sin because of what it did to Jesus, and still does to him suffering in his members. We long to help heal the wound of sin in his Body. We offer our per- Review for Religious, September-October 1990 sonal wound of sin to him, humbly pleading for the grace of healing. As never before we understand the cleansing power and action of grace, sac-ramentally and otherwise. We hunger for it, seek it, open ourselves wide to receive it. We become beggars for it. We learn what spiritual poverty really means, and again lie down with Jesus in the tomb, content to be naked, trusting in his Body and Blood to heal us of our grievous wound. We are learning what it means to be dead to self and alive to Christ and his members. In the inner Void the self becomes so tiny in the Allness of God. We do not lose our individuality, but we long for it to be absorbed in Christ, so that we become exactly that aspect of his extended incarnation and continuous passion destined for us by the Father. We pray for deliverance from all evil--for ourselves, and for every other human being. We pray fervently, for at last we have "seen" what naked sin and evil are, and what they bring about--the death of the Loved One. 7. We enter a state of Heroic Abandonment and Endurance. Our Void has opened up enough for us to receive the grace we must have to enable us to lie down in the Lord in a state of advanced inner stillness, trust, and hope. The Void's darkness begins to take on the faint glow of incipient dawn, the intense silence is broken by the first tenta-tive twitterings of birds as something soundlessly rolls away our tomb's stone door. The sense of being stifled eases and we draw deep breaths of sweet, cold, dew-drenched air. There is deep within us an awareness of wounds having been healed, of a terrifying emptiness having been filled with Someone, of Love himself annihilating loneliness forever, of a still, si-lent, crystalline joy, and blessedness welling up from deep, deep down, crying in exultation, "Abba! Alleluia! Amen!" Then we see a Person is walking like a king towards the light grow-ing and glowing every second in the tomb's open doorway. It is as if the light emanates from him, as if he is The Light. Wondering and worship-ping, we rise from our stone slab, gather about us the new white gar-ment we find there and follow the Light into the new day. There is no void of inner emptiness anymore. Christ risen and triumphant fills it with himself. Shame: A Barometer of Faith Clyde A. Bonar Father Clyde A. Bonar is a priest of the diocese of Orlando, Florida. He holds ad-vanced degrees in formative spirituality from Duquesne University and in political science from George Washington University. He has served as parochial vicar and administrator of various parishes. His address is St. Joseph of the Forest Catholic Church; 1764 S.E. 169th Avenue Road; Silver Springs, Florida 32688. Aristotle called shame "a feeling or emotion . a kind of fear of dis-grace."~ Interestingly, what one values and what one distains can pro-vide a source for these feelings of disgrace. This allows shame to become a barometer of faith. For the faithfilled person, lapses in living one's faith, for example, can be causes for shame. Conversely, one who scorns religion may find shameful any personal exhibition of faith in an Eter-nal Being. In this paper I shall examine the generic core of "shame" and re-late the experiences of shame in the life of Francis of Assisi (ca. 1182- 1226). Francis' well-known incidents with the lepers caused that saint feelings of shame. Notably, why Francis felt shame about the lepers dif-fered in the earlier and the later parts of his life. Because of that, Fran-cis becomes illustrative of how shame can be a barometer of one's faith. On Shame The Generic Core The core of the shame experience is a sense of exposure and visibil-ity. 2 First, shame is intimately linked to the need to cover that which might unwantedly be exposed. Experiences of shame involve the expo-sure of the peculiarly sensitive, intimate, and vulnerable aspects of the self.3 Something is to be hidden, dodged, or covered up; even, or per- 687 61~1~ / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 haps especially, from oneself. Feelings of shame included "I am weak" and "I am inadequate." The particularities of what must be covered to prevent exposure may vary widely and are individually determinate. For example, while a physical deformity caused Philip in Of Human Bondage4 to feel shame when his clubfoot was exposed, a deeper shame burned "in secret" as Dimmes-dale in Scarlet Letter saw Hester Prynne bear in public the blame for their joint carnal indiscretion .5 Socrates warns of the disgraceful shame of ap-pearing inept in the presence "of some really wise man.' ,6 Personally, for example, I have felt shame for the way I treated a traveling compan-ion during a three-day trip. Second, there is an intimate connection between shame and visibil-ity. 7 When Yahweh called to Adam after he and Eve had eaten the for-bidden fruit, Adam said: "Because I was naked . . . I hid" (Gn 3:11). In his phenomenology of shame, Jean-Paul Sartre claims that shame arises from the look of the Other. "Shame. is the recognition of the fact that I am indeed that object which the Other is looking at and judg-ing." 8 When another looks at him, Sartre comments: What I apprehend immediately., is that I am vulnerable, that I have a body which can be hurt, that I occupy a place and that I cannot in any case escape from the space in which I am without defense--in short, that I am seen.9 Everyday expressions repeat this connection between visibility and shame. We speak of being "shamefaced" or "hiding my face in shame" when others know our failures, inadequacies, or losses of con-trol. A Happy Blush Two other aspects of shame need to be kept in mind as we proceed: that the feeling of shame comes unexpected. That first and physiologi-cal manifestation of shame, the blush, highlights the involuntary and sud-den characteristic of shame. Helen Lynd is perceptive on this aspect of shame: Shame interrupts any unquestioning, unaware sense of oneself . More than other emotions, shame involves a quality of the unexpected: if in any way we feel it coming we are powerless to avert it . What-ever part voluntary action may have in the experience of shame is swal-lowed up in the sense of something that overwhelms us . We are taken by surprise, caught off guard, or off base, caught unawares, made a fool of. ~0 Shame / 689 In his illustration of the voyeur at the keyhole, Jean-Paul Sartre confirms the "immediate shudder" of being unexpectedly caught: "All of a sud-den I hear footsteps in the hall. Someone is looking at me!''~ Importantly, this self-consciousness contains a revealing capacity. Again, it is Sartre who captures this: "Shame is by nature recognition. I recognize that I am as the Other sees me." ~2 Shame carries the weight of "I cannot have done this. But I have done it and cannot undo it, be-cause this is 1.''13 The thing that is exposed is what I am. To "recognize" one's self is to be open to reformation, and there is the delight. Adrian van Kaam writes that "reformation implies a re-appraisal of formative and deformative dispositions, judgments, memo-ries, imaginations, and anticipations." ~4 If experiences of shame can be fully faced, if we allow ourselves to realize their import, they can inform the self and become a revelation of one's self. The question is exactly what personal disposition is revealed by the quick reddening of the blush, the sudden feeling of shame, this which involuntarily and unexpectedly just happens. Writing back in 1839 on The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing, Thomas Burgess reported that the blush reflects "the various internal emotions of the moral feel-ings [so that one could] know whenever we transgressed or violated those rules which should be held sacred." He continued to point out that, given this "spiritual" nature of the "blush," it is "solely a moral stimulus that will excite a true blush.''15 That is~ it is our value system that is re-vealed by shame. For example, if I hold dispositions mostly congenial with the particular individual God designed me to be, a blush will reveal that there are also some uncongenial and not-reformed dispositions. Or, by contrast, if my fundamental orientation is that talk of God is mean-ingless I may blush at some scruples within my disposition constellation that would be more in agreement with faith in an Eternal Being. Among The Lepers The immediate question is what should not be exposed, what should be covered from visibility. Francis' experience with the lepers proves in-structive. In his "Testament" he wrote: The Lord granted to me, Brother Francis, to begin to do penance in this way: While I was in sin, it seemed very bitter to me to see lepers. And the Lord Himself led me among them and I had mercy upon them. And when I left them that which seemed bitter to me was changed into sweet-ness of soul and body.~6 This too brief statement includes all the elements of experiences of 690 / Review for Religious, September-October 1990 shame. Fallen Nature of Humanity By his words "While I was in sin" Francis refers to his youthful years. In his parents' home he enjoyed the easy life his successful father could provide. He was a most likable lad, clever, charming, smooth-talking, and insanely generous. Francis had a gift for business and seemed born to be a merchant like his father. The son enjoyed dressing with a studied elegance and entertaining at a good inn with the best of everything. Friends flocked around Francis when he appeared and played the troubadour with his Provencal songs. 17 One would say that Francis was reflecting the fallen nature of hu-manity common since the first sin of Adam, living in ignorance of the true transcendent nature of humanity. ~8 Caught in the competitive trade of the cloth merchant, his father taught Francis to live by that competi-tion. Escape in the exigencies and the excitement of being the business-man became a way of life, with questions of transcendence relegated to minor, occasional thoughts. Responsibility for being a faithfilled Chris-tian example for others was evaded, for the other was also typically the customer, who was to be sold something even if that meant a little de-ception and an excess of charm. Immersion in the sensual joys of life was a natural corollary in a society of, according to Pope Innocent III, "obscene songs, dances, and fornications." 19 Still, why was Francis affected by the lepers as he was? Other youths, his peers in cultural refinement and the easy life, would merely hold their noses when they smelled the horrible stench of the lazaretto where the lepers were confined, and unashamedly turn their horses a dif-ferent direction. But for Francis the human misery breathing death right into his face was incredibly disagreeable. And, the young clothier would experience shame when a wretched beggar would intrude.2° A clue to Francis at this early point in his life, while he was still "in sin," lies, I opine, in the phenomenology of shame. As we saw above, shame is an experience of the whole self: in moments of shameful expo-sure it is the self that stands revealed.2~ Existentialists state this force-fully: in the consciousness of shame, there is "a shameful apprehension of something and this something is me. I am ashamed of what I am . Through shame I have discovered an aspect of my being."22 The self that was standing revealed for Francis'was, in the terms of Adrian van Kaam, his foundational life form. The image of God deep within Francis was being exposed. Thomas Burgess, cited above, might say it was the internal moral feelings of Francis which were being ex- posed. As early as twelve years old Francis was struck in some special way by the elevation of the consecrated host during Mass. In the mud-dle of being dominated by his sensual and functional dimensions and his sociohistorical situations, the inchoate thunderbolt of the transcendent was there. But within the flamboyance and egotism of the sensuous and romantic party giver he appeared to be, Francis would feel shame when his more basic faith in God would protrude. His lifestyle hid from visi-bility the transcendent, as he took greater pleasure in identifying him-self as a prince of the world and knight of Assisi. As God's chosen who would become God's anointed, the young Francis would feel shame where others had no such self-consciousness. According to our paradigm of shame, what Francis's apparent life form, or way of being in his environment, sought to cover during these early years of his life was his foundational life form. When his "vul-nerability" or "inadequacy" was exposed, that is, his sensitivity to the sufferings of lepers and beggars, he felt shame at the "flaw," which was his deeper felt love of God, becoming visible through the cover of how he presented himself to others. Attuned to His God Francis was twenty-four when he stood in front of the episcopal pal-ace at Santa Maria Maggiore and stripped off his clothes in hot haste and threw them at his father's feet. God had seized him: the sinner faded to give way to the saint. But watching his second naked birth, the crowd fell silent, for this "erstwhile dandy" was seen to be wearing a hair shirt. "It was a hideous penitential device of horsehair for killing the instinct of sensuality and chastising the flesh day and night."23 The peni-tential hair shirt was a symbol for what had been happening for some time in Francis--the transformation from dissonance to consonance with the Eternal, a change from running away from God to running toward God. For our present emphasis, we might remember the words of Francis: "Bernardone is no longer my father," but Our Father who art in heaven. The words indicated his change. For Francis, shame is no longer from having love of God exposed within a life lived as a merchant, but henceforth the shame was in having any failure to love God exposed within a life of excited faith. Now, when Francis embraced the leper, as we quoted above in the words of Francis, "that which seemed bitter to me was changed into sweetness of soul." The contrast is sharp between the experiences of shame for Francis before and after his transformation. Upon encountering the so distaste- Review for Religious, September-October 1990 ful leper, "He slipped off his horse and ran to kiss the man . Filled with wonder and joy, he began devoutly to sing God's praises." He be-gan to render humble service to the lepers and "with great compassion kissed their hands and their mouths." Further, the lover of complete humility went to the lepers and lived with them. He washed their feet, bandaged their ulcers, drew the pus from their wounds and washed out the diseased matter; he even kissed their ulcer-ous wounds out of his remarkable devotion.24 Francis took the bold step of overcoming the conventional perception of what is attractive and what is repulsive by reaching out to love what re-pelled him. And the change in the source of shame was seen in other aspects of his life. When his pre-transformation apparent life form had dominated, Francis's selfish pride would tell him to feel deep humiliat

En la obra Trabajadores, el fotógrafo brasileño Sebastião Salgado, expone 350 fotos de actividades que él mismo ha calificado de "trabajo duro y penoso ". Se trata de una categoría ya olvidada o, al menos, se aborda de forma insuficiente en el derecho laboral. Este desequilibrio cuantitativo existente entre lo que el artista retrató como actividades en condiciones de penosidad, el respectivo tratamiento teórico , la praxis y las legislaciones jurídico-laborales, hace que nos planteemos las razones de esta ausencia o insuficiencia de reconocimiento jurídico y social del trabajo penoso y cuáles son los criterios para definirlo. Sin embargo, ¿no es una cuestión social y jurídica la cual, hasta día de hoy, se ha infravalorado, e incluso, menospreciado? La Constitución brasileña de 1988, establece en el capítulo II, artículo 7, inciso XXIII, la remuneración adicional de las actividades penosas, insalubres o peligrosas, en forma de ley como uno de los derechos de los trabajadores urbanos y rurales, que insten a la mejoría de su condición social. Por lo que, en general, la doctrina y los juzgados laborales de Brasil, consideran que, para la aplicación del pertinente dispositivo legal, por lo que respecta al suplemento de penosidad, así como para las condiciones insalubres y peligrosas, es necesaria una ley específica que lo regule. Con respecto a estas últimas actividades, existen definiciones legales y normas, en diversos países. Sin embargo, según la Constitución brasileña de 1988, el suplemento de penosidad aparece listado bajo el capítulo de los derechos sociales, siendo ésta, una cláusula pétrea (art. 60, IV), es decir, no se puede suprimir, así como el principio de no regresión de los derechos sociales. De este modo, aunque no se haya realizado una protección integral del trabajo penoso, el complemento de penosidad constituye un derecho social-laboral, con un estatus de garantía constitucional en la legislación brasileña. Desde l1998, numerosos diputados en Brasil, han presentado más de 200 proyectos de ley para intentar regular dicha situación, de los cuales, 6 están en periodo de tramitación. El objetivo de la presente investigación, no es estudiar la necesidad o no de una ley para dar efectividad al contenido de la norma constitucional que establece el suplemento de penosidad, ya que, existen diversos estudios relacionados con este tema. Distintamente, se trata de reflexionar sobre la necesidad o no de una retribución por la realización de actividades penosas, como, por ejemplo, los salarios bajos, así como el principio de prevención de riesgos laborales. Pero, ¿cuáles son los criterios jurídicos adecuados para a definir qué es un trabajo penoso en la actualidad y cuáles son los modelos de regulación más apropiados? El trabajo penoso se trata de una realidad de la que no puede negarse su existencia , necesitando de un reconocimiento adecuado, por lo que cabe ser nombrado, definido y protegido. Así pues, tendremos como premisa, abordar el tema del reconocimiento según la teoría de Axel Honneth, pues es quien, a nuestro ver, la presenta de una manera más sistemática y completa. ¿Será posible reconocer qué es un trabajo penoso a pesar de la no existencia, en gran parte de los países, de criterios o definición jurídica al respecto? El reconocimiento, como concepto filosófico, trata de demostrar que solo es posible admitir la existencia de una realidad reconociéndola, lo que, en términos normativos, consistiría en poder atribuirle valores positivos y hacer que el sujeto-trabajador, que ejerciera un trabajo penoso, tenga más conciencia de sus cualidades y, capacidades, y pueda valorarse a sí mismo y los otros, a saber, su compañeros de trabajo, los que están en su entorno afectivo y social. En la primera parte, analizaremos la teoría del reconocimiento de Honneth desde la concepción original de Hegel hasta la explicación de los patrones de reconocimiento, como el amor (o afecto emocional), el derecho y la solidaridad. Enfatizaremos, en especial, sobre los dos últimos, con la necesidad de desarrollo de la autoconfianza, del autorrespeto y de la autoestima, esenciales para el desarrollo moral del individuo y de la sociedad, así como formas de desprecio, como la violación de la integridad física, desposesión de derechos, las ofensas y la humillación. La eticidad, como concepto de vida buena y la redistribución como reconocimiento, se utilizarán, con el fin de establecer una teoría de la justicia social, como forma de autorealización y progreso moral. Los estudios de la teoría del reconocimiento de Honneth tienen, como obra inicial y principal, el libro La lucha por el reconocimiento - por una gramática moral de los conflictos sociales, el cual tomaremos como base del primer capítulo. Sin embargo, cabe aclarar que, dada la complejidad de esta teoría, se produjeron diversos estudios posteriores del mismo autor, proporcionando otros elementos que ayudaran a la comprensión de esta teoría reflejando, de una manera más directa, ejemplos en el trabajo como categoría sociológica. En este sentido, temas como el autoreconocimiento, es decir, la relación con uno mismo, podría poner en cuestión al trabajador, o incluso, la reificación de las dimensiones objetivas, subjetivas e intersubjetivas, teniendo en cuenta, el olvido del reconocimiento como "núcleo de todos los procesos de reificación ". Es objeto de estudio, el trabajador poder valorarse por sí mismo de manera positiva y, también, por los demás, ya que se viene impactado por las formas de ser de los trabajos y de los trabajadores en la actual sociedad capitalista. El trabajo, como categoría sociológica y con contenido social, se está viendo afectado. De ahí, la necesidad de reafirmarlo en el contexto de crisis del Estado social y derechos laborales. En la segunda parte, analizaremos el trabajo como categoría en el que el valor social es la causa y la consecuencia, enfatizando, de esta manera, en los conceptos y transformaciones entre las relaciones laborales. Exponemos cómo, con el tiempo, se fueron reconociendo diferentes formas de trabajo, desde la categoría central del derecho laboral, el trabajo por cuenta ajena. Así, se amplió la protección y el reconocimiento del trabajo de los niños, mujeres; trabajos domésticos, domésticos-infantil juvenil, rurales; trabajos forzosos, a distancia, extraordinarios, nocturnos, insalubres y peligrosos. La regulación jurídica se fue extendiendo, también, hacia formas de contratación que, al principio, resultaban atípicas como, por ejemplo, el contrato temporal y por tiempo parcial. Posteriormente, estudiaremos la modalidad del trabajo autónomo, destacando la innovación del modelo español con la Ley del Estatuto del Trabajo Autónomo (LETA), en especial cuanto a la figura del Trabajador Autónomo Económicamente Dependiente (TRADE), como forma de regulación específica y cuestionando el tipo de reconocimiento e implicaciones en el derecho laboral Los Caminos del reconocimiento en el derecho laboral apuntan a la ampliación de esta rama, ya sea mediante el reconocimiento de más derechos laborales, o con una flexibilización o desregulación que nos aleja de esta ampliación y que tiene sus límites, como se ve en tema de la jornada laboral. El trabajo autónomo, aunque haya sido objeto de regulación con un estatuto propio, podría significar una deslaboralización en cuanto a figura del Trabajador Autónomo Económicamente Dependiente (TRADE). Por otro lado, cabe plantearse como se podría desarrollar una autonomía y trabajo autónomo verdadero. El combate a la huida del derecho laboral debe seguir reflexionando sobre el devenir de la regulación y protección laboral, con fines de refuerzo y ampliación, analizando hasta donde podemos llegar y hacia qué tipo de modelos de trabajo y colectivos se pueden regular. Por último, trataremos, en especial, de más una otra forma de trabajo, el trabajo penoso, el cual no tiene reconocimiento jurídico satisfactorio en el plano internacional. La Constitución brasileña de 1988 establece, expresamente, un complemento para las actividades penosas, sin que, a día de hoy, se haya regulado este derecho. El Estatuto de los Trabajadores y en otras legislaciones españolas y brasileñas también lo mencionan, pero todavía, sin definirlo. Más que el estudio de un complemento de penosidad o de su ausencia de regulación, se amplía el tema para el estudio del trabajo penoso de una manera más extensa y desde otras perspectivas, no solo de las económicas. Analizaremos qué es el trabajo penoso, según las leyes que lo utilizan de forma secundaria o indirecta, en especial, las de seguridad social (jubilación anticipada), proyectos de ley como los mencionados en las doctrinas y convenios colectivos según los modelos de regulación en Brasil y España, cuyos contrastes tendrán como comparación los recientes cambios de las legislaciones de la seguridad social y laboral de Francia. Se propondrán criterios de definición y un modelo de regulación, desde el punto de vista del tiempo de trabajo, la remuneración, la salud y la seguridad en el trabajo y la seguridad social, teniendo en cuenta los fines de prevención de riesgos laborales. Destacaremos la privación o insuficiencia de reconocimiento de derechos para este colectivo, la degradación social del trabajador, la cual dificulta el libre desarrollo de la personalidad, la dignidad y el reconocimiento necesario para la formación de una subjetividad positiva en los trabajadores. La cuestión de las condiciones penosas de trabajo, en el caso de los países colonizados que tuvieron como base de la economía, la explotación de la mano de obra esclava, como Brasil, nos remite a características como la enajenación, intensificación del trabajo y la vulnerabilidad social, que han existido durante mucho tiempo y que, aún hoy, persisten dentro del modo de producción capitalista. El encubrimiento de un tratamiento jurídico más amplio, directo y explícito de las penosas condiciones de trabajo nos hacen reflexionar en cuanto a las causas del trabajo penoso, desde la perspectiva de los países periféricos y de los más desarrollados, como la desigualdad social o la discriminación. El trabajo infantil y forzoso, en especial, en los países menos desarrollados es parte de un círculo vicioso, que puede llevar a un trabajo penoso. A modo de ilustración, la obra del artista arriba citada, empieza con fotografías de trabajadores en cañaverales. Se trata justo de una de las primeras actividades económicas que se implantaron en el Brasil colonial. Allí, la historiadora Elsa Gonçalves Avancini , ha descrito la fabricación del azúcar como un "dulce infierno: dulce, el azúcar; infierno, la actividad y las condiciones de calor del trabajo de los negros ". No resulta ninguna novedad saber que estas condiciones infernales ya existían cuando los barcos transportaban esclavos negros africanos, como así lo describía es su poema O Navio Negreiro, Castro Alves, poeta del siglo XIX, el cual nos remite, una vez más, a la obra ya mencionada de Sebastião Salgado cuando compara a los trabajadores azucareros de Brasil y a los de Cuba, destacando la diferencia de tratamiento que reciben en sus países y, por ende, como se sienten. "El guerrero cubano es un héroe en el trabajo, orgulloso de su guerra. Es bien tratado por el estado-patrón. En Brasil, es diferente. En Cuba, el trabajo en los cañaverales solo lo hacen hombres fuertes, enormes guerreros. En Brasil, además de los hombres, también hay mujeres, ancianos y niños. Hay una diferencia de vida entre estos dos mundos enfrentándose a la misma batalla. Guerreros orgullosos contra guerreros derrotados ". Esto sucede porque el derecho laboral, desde un principio, ha regulado el trabajo por cuenta ajena del hombre industrial. Más adelante, fue necesario ampliar la protección a otros trabajadores: mujeres, niños, mayores de edad, esclavos, etc.; relaciones laborales especiales: rurales, domésticas y condiciones laborales específicas: insalubres, peligrosas, trabajo extraordinario, nocturno, y, aquellas pertenecientes al trabajo penoso, que, por sus particularidades, exigen un mayor reconocimiento jurídico y social. Este cambio de patrón genérico de reconocimiento con respecto a la relación laboral con otros más particulares, se puede abordar según la cuestión de un mayor o menor reconocimiento por razones históricas, patriarcales, de género y de desigualdades sociales, ya que , como expone David Sánchez Rubio "ser blanco, europeo u occidental; ser varón, heterosexual; o ser empresario, banquero, juez o un trabajador calificado puede causar un mayor estado de reconocimiento (…) frente a aquellos que no forman parte de estos grupos y que, por razones raciales, sexuales y de clase, son infravalorizados y tratados como si fueran objetos y no sujetos ". Por otro lado, también alega que, "ser negro, indígena, inmigrante, ilegal, mujer, gay o personal de mantenimiento, secretario o secretaria, o agricultor, produce una predisposición relacionada con la sobredeterminación o menor reconocimiento frente a quien está dentro de los esquemas raciales, sexuales y clasicistas predominantes ". El trabajo, en cuanto valor y categoría de reconocimiento, es amplio y diverso. Nuevos conceptos, mecanismos jurídicos-sociales y modelos legales de protección siguen y seguirán siendo creados y desarrollados, como, por ejemplo, del trabajo a distancia, autónomo, doméstico etc. En cuanto al trabajo penoso, se puede pensar en formas adecuadas de conceptualización y de regulación legislativa por negociación colectiva y aquellas que atribuyan valores más positivos, de acuerdo con la dignidad social y los deberes de cuidado y respeto, para que contribuyan a la construcción de identidades y subjetividades más favorables para estos trabajadores, con mejorías como las condiciones de vida de forma material y simbólica, remuneratoria y compensatoria. Desde el punto de vista del tiempo de trabajo, si se añadieran muchas condiciones de trabajo como el trabajo extraordinário, nocturno, a turnos la jornada laboral no sufriría ningún cambio en cuanto a la reducción en las últimas décadas. Desde el punto de vista de la remuneración, aunque haya sido criticado, el suplemento de penosidad, puede ser una forma de reconocimiento jurídico y social, en especial, considerando la realidad de los bajos salarios, los cuales, pueden suponer un criterio de caracterización del trabajo penoso. Es cierto que, de acuerdo con la legislación española, se puede intentar eliminar o reducir la penosidad en el trabajo, según la prevención de riesgos laborales. Sin embargo, es posible que puedan permanecer las condiciones de penosidad si éstas se regulan. Empezando por la seguridad social, ampliando su ámbito de materias teniendo en cuenta que, cada vez más aspectos psíquicos, mentales y consecuentes enfermedades son reconocidas, como debidos a factores relacionados con la naturaleza laboral. Se pueden garantizar una jubilación anticipada para todos aquellos trabajadores que hayan ejercido trabajos penosos según conceptos, criterios o factores de penosidad, como los modelos españoles ya existentes. Una conceptualización del trabajo penoso relacionada con la protección integral de la salud y la seguridad social, considerando como se presenta en la lógica capitalista, es que, dicho trabajo resulta la "degradación de la persona humana ", una característica estructural del sistema. De modo señalado, David Sánchez Rubio propone una "consideración diversa, no reducida al mundo del capitalismo, que es la expresión de los modos de producción y de vida que van más allá del capitalismo ". Cuestionamos las formas de trabajo desarrolladas en el sistema capitalista, como el trabajo penoso, con objeto de proponer modos de regulación que buscan el reequilibrio permanente que debe asegurar el derecho laboral, fortaleciendo los mecanismos jurídicos existentes y ampliando otros. Para ello, es necesario dar una mayor visibilidad social y reconocimiento jurídico a las verdaderas condiciones de penosidad de un número más amplio de trabajos y condiciones laborales con el fin de combatir y prevenir el trabajo penoso. El recuerdo y la defensa del reconocimiento buscan combatir los trabajos penosos, retirándolos del olvido, invisibilidad social y el ocultamiento, que, en última instancia, llevan a la cosificación del trabajo, del propio trabajador y de las relaciones laborales y entre los trabajadores. Para humanizar el trabajo hay que reconocer sus verdaderas condiciones y relaciones laborales, para según esta realidad, poder proponer y poner en práctica las posibles formas de acción, modos de comportamientos y así la construcción permanente hacia un trabajo digno. CONTENIDO DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN Son 3 capítulos: Capítulo 1 - Premisa: La lucha por el reconocimiento, con base en la obra de Axel Honneth, a partir de la cual se reconocen 3 esferas de reconocimiento, las relaciones afectivas, jurídicas y de solidaridad. Segundo capítulo: Trabajo: valor social y formas de reconocimiento jurídico, en que se trata del trabajo como un valor social, presupuesto y consecuencia de vínculos sociales y como el Derecho fue reconociendo diferentes formas de trabajo, desde el de la mujer, de los niños, hasta el trabajo forzoso, a ser combatido, y condiciones como insalubridad, peligrosidad, trabajo nocturno hasta el trabajo autónomo, temporal, por tiempo parcial. En el tercero capítulo se trata de una forma específica de trabajo que entendemos que no tuvo el reconocimiento adecuado, el trabajo penoso. Para eso, se conceptualiza el trabajo penoso en sentido amplio y estricto, necesario y sobrevenido y por trato degradante y violencia laboral. Hemos estudiado los modelos de regulación brasileño y español, siendo que para el primero se ha hecho una investigación empírica, que consistió en un estudio aclaratorio y de reflexión colectiva, con jueces laborales de Brasil, ya que se pretende estudiar, de modo más específico y extendido, la categoría del trabajo penoso y sus conceptos con el fin de proponer un modelo de regulación más adecuado. Para ello, se utilizaron los resultados y las variables analizadas en esta investigación. Se investigó el tema, desde dos vertientes, cualitativa, en cuanto a un concepto o definición de trabajo penoso y cuantitativa, en relación a los criterios adecuados o no para su definición. Se apuntaron como criterios para el análisis cuantitativo parte de los considerados como definiciones de trabajo penoso, los cuales aparecían en los proyectos de ley sobre el tema y, otros criterios de la doctrina laboral, de la filosofía social y de la sociología del trabajo. Como muestra, se hicieron encuestas con jueces de las capitales de tres regiones (1ª - Río de Janeiro, 6ª - Pernambuco y 8ª- Pará y Amapá) ubicadas cada una, en una región geográfica distinta de Brasil (sudeste, nordeste y norte). Los jueces contestaron a la pregunta abierta ¿qué consideran como trabajo o actividades penosas? Posteriormente, para analizar la información se aplicó la técnica de análisis lexicográfico, el Open Coding . Se realizó una tabla con categorías para reunir todas las palabras que componían las respuestas a la pregunta, extrayendo de los contenidos, las unidades de análisis, que posteriormente se contarían las palabras para conocer su frecuencia (Anexo II) de utilización por parte de los participantes, expresadas en números, para saber cuáles fueron las más utilizadas. En relación a la primera pregunta, lo que se considera como trabajo y actividades penosas, se analizaron 120 conceptos de trabajo penoso de jueces laborales brasileños. Los resumimos según la frecuencia de palabras más utilizadas e importancia práctica y doctrinaria, como aparecen en la tabla del anexo II. Según el análisis de la frecuencia de las palabras mencionadas, un concepto colectivo de trabajo penoso es que son actividades (N=37) o trabajos (N=58) en condiciones (N=32) desgastantes (N=35), difíciles (N=8), o estresantes (N=8), que exigen más un esfuerzo (N=45) físico, (N=69) mental (N=37), emocional (N=14) y psíquico (N=14), que pueden importar (N=25) en perjuicios (N=8) para la salud (N=17) del trabajador (N=27). Posteriormente a la pregunta sobre el concepto de trabajo penoso, el cuestionario presenta 30 ítems con posibles criterios que puedan o no caracterizar el trabajo penoso. Los jueces elegían, entre tres opciones, considerando el criterio adecuado, no adecuado o adecuado con observaciones. Los ítems se mezclaron, de forma intencional, con contenidos de naturaleza jurídico-laboral, sociológica y de filosofía social. Se utilizaron algunos de los criterios que constan en los proyectos de ley analizados que tienen como objeto de regulación el trabajo penoso, su caracterización y el suplemento de penosidad. Son los criterios de los proyectos de ley estudiados y apuntados en el cuestionario e ítem correspondiente: esfuerzo físico, gran desgaste (ítem 1), esfuerzo mental, atención constante (2), esfuerzo psíquico y emocional (3), posturas o actitudes exigidas perjudiciales para la salud mental (4), física (5) o emocional (6), estrés físico y mental (7), sufrimiento físico y mental (8), actividad no prevista como insalubre o peligrosa, independientemente de tener derecho a otros complementos o plus salariales (9), bajo sol o la lluvia (11), tener que empezar el trabajo muy temprano o terminar muy tarde (14), jornada extraordinaria habitual (15), tareas repetitivas (19) o sin rotación interna de la mano de obra (20) y sin posibilidad de descanso (28). Después, utilizamos las categorías jurídicas laborales que, con mucha frecuencia, vemos en el día a día de los juzgados laborales como se presente en el cuadro a seguir, con los resultados generales, es decir, el número y porcentaje del total de jueces que han contestado y considerado cada criterio como adecuado, no adecuado y adecuado con observaciones. CONCLUSIONES Conclusiones del trabajo de investigación sobre el reconocimiento jurídico y social del trabajo penoso: La aplicación del reconocimiento como concepto filosófico en las relaciones laborales, en lo que concierne a las esferas del derecho y de la valoración social, se da como premisa filosófica para mejorar la comprensión, explicación y aclaración de cómo el trabajo fue siendo reconocido en sus relaciones jurídicas y sociales. Las primeras fueron a través del reconocimiento jurídico en el que los trabajadores pasaron a ser sujetos de derecho según los principios de la igualdad jurídica universal y dignidad, considerando todavía presentes en el derecho laboral, el desequilibrio y debilidad del contrato de trabajo. Las relaciones de solidaridad, se dieron cuando las contribuciones y capacidades, en especial, de ciertas relaciones laborales y trabajadores, en las cuales aunque hayan obtenido un reconocimiento universal como sujetos de derechos, necesitan de mayor valorización por sus particularidades y cualidades, según la tendencia de individualización de las relaciones laborales, pero en el sentido de una atención individualizada, es decir, positiva, con atribución de más derechos y concretización de garantías laborales. En esa línea, el derecho del trabajo es una de las ramas del Derecho en la que su propia razón de ser exige que las esferas jurídicas y sociales estén unidas. En cuanto al concepto de eticidad, una vida buena y en la que haya justicia social, es cuando se dan las condiciones para que se logre el reconocimiento en sus tres esferas: amor, derecho y solidaridad. Así, los derechos de reconocimiento y distribución se vuelven una forma de reconocimiento que exige la reciprocidad y el mutuo respeto. El reconocimiento del otro, en la esfera jurídica, pasa por el reconocimiento institucional, es decir, por las instituciones del estado, gubernamentales y por los actores sociales en general. En un país republicano como Brasil, se debe observar la cooperación constante entre los poderes judicial, ejecutivo y legislativo, el que corresponda. Observado el principio de la separación de poderes en el ejercicio de las actividades de cada poder, no impide que, sin embargo, un poder coopere con el otro en las respectivas funciones de creación, ejecución y aplicación-interpretación de leyes, con el objeto de construir los fundamentos del Estado democrático de derecho en que se constituye la república de Brasil, como la ciudadanía, la dignidad y los valores sociales del trabajo. En este sentido, en Brasil por ejemplo, el Poder Judicial Laboral, además de ejercer sus funciones principales de juzgar, aún tiene programas republicanos como el Trabajo Seguro, con vistas a la prevención de accidentes y enfermedades laborales, en el cual, colabora con los poderes ejecutivo y legislativo, para fines de incentivos en cuanto a la proposición de ley y el cumplimiento de las existentes, en materias de salud y seguridad en el trabajo. En esa línea, hay que destacar la interactuación posibilitada entre jueces y diversos actores sociales como fiscales, sindicatos y escuelas, con el objetivo de una mayor concienciación y sensibilización en cuanto a la necesidad y práctica de una cultura de prevención. En el derecho laboral, el reconocimiento implica un reequilibrio entre las relaciones de poder en el que el mutuo respeto debe implicar múltiples reconocimientos, o sea, del Estado a través de las leyes que reconozcan derechos laborales, de la fiscalización y del cumplimiento de estas leyes, junto con la acción imprescindible de actores sociales como los sindicatos. El reconocimiento es antes de todo, un modo de comportamiento y acción, de ahí la necesaria interdependencia en la actuación de actores sociales. Según el principio de la dignidad social, el reconocimiento recíproco y mutuo respeto entre empleador y trabajador, debe conducir a relaciones laborales más humanas y democráticas, con el reconocimiento entre los trabajadores, de uno al otro y de sí mismo mediante el autoreconocimiento. Es decir, reconocerse como trabajador, portador de cualidades, particularidades, bienes inmateriales que deben ser valorados y respetados, por sí mismo y por los demás, lo que necesita de condiciones laborales adecuadas. El trabajo debe ser uno de los caminos por los cuales el trabajador pueda perseguir las autorelaciones prácticas que, según la teoría del reconcomiendo, vienen con las esferas de reconocimiento (en el amor, la autoconfianza, en el Derecho, el autorrespeto, en la valoración social y la autoestima). Es un reto que el trabajador tenga la condición de desarrollar estas autorelaciones prácticas en sociedades de países periféricos como Brasil, donde seguimos, hace siglos, construyendo subcidadanías y no una ciudadanía social, como se defiende en Europa. Las tasas y formas de criminalidad en Brasil, cada vez mayores y con más crueldad, incluso practicadas por niños, evidencian que se trata de una sociedad que necesita unas mínimas y mejores condiciones sociales, económicas y culturales. Es decir, para que se puedan desarrollar, individual y colectivamente, las formas más primarias y básicas de vínculos como el afectivo y la solidaridad en la familia, comunidad y rescatar la fuerza del contenido social en las relaciones laborales individuales y colectivas, con las acciones sindicales. A partir de ellos, el trabajador con derechos laborales reconocidos y más respetados, tiene unas mejores condiciones para experimentarse y construir una imagen de sí mismo y del otro compañero de trabajo, no como precario o temporal y si de una manera más positiva y valorada socialmente. Es cierto que para esto, se exigen cambios legislativos, jurídicos y, sobre todo, en la realidad social. Existe una tendencia expansiva del reconocimiento jurídico y social de las relaciones laborales, en especial en lo que refiere al trabajo de las mujeres, niños, en luchas contra la discriminación, el trabajo infantil y otras situaciones de degradación, como en el trabajo forzoso. Así, se observó que el derecho y la rama laboral, no cesan de reconocer nuevas condiciones laborales, formas de contratación y estatutos, como por ejemplo, los más recientes, en España, el Estatuto del Trabajador Autónomo y, en Brasil, el Estatuto de la juventud. Sin embargo, es necesario que las leyes reflejen las condiciones sociales y económicas efectivas, es decir, en las relaciones laborales reales, en países más y menos desarrollados, con el objetivo de una mayor protección y de crear instrumentos jurídicos de intervención en este sentido. El Estatuto del Trabajo Autónomo, aunque sea innovador, no puede hacer, por sí solo, que las relaciones laborales se vuelvan verdaderamente autónomas. Puede ser un instrumento jurídico si se interpreta correctamente y se aplica para contener la huida del derecho laboral, es decir, reconociendo relaciones laborales que sean verdaderamente autónomas y distinguiéndolas de cuando sea, en la realidad, un contrato por cuenta ajena. En la práctica, las relaciones de trabajo por cuenta ajena están, cada vez más, encubiertas por distintas formas de contratos o figuras de trabajo autónomo como el de emprendedor a través de la creación de una persona jurídica ficticia, franquicias, representación comercial y otros. Los medios tecnológicos en vez de utilizarse para cambiar la esencia del puesto de trabajo, en el cual se desarrollada una forma de trabajo verdaderamente autónoma, se utilizan para que en la apariencia, sea un trabajo autónomo, con formas de contratación muy complejas que solo existen en el papel. El reconocimiento se hace de forma inadecuada y desvirtuada para difundir en realidad, la ideología del empresario o del emprendedor. Así decir, esto no es reconocimiento, en la medida en que no significa valorización de condiciones de trabajo y de vida, sino empeoramiento, puesto que el trabajador, supuestamente autónomo, sigue con las mismas atribuciones que tenía cuando era trabajador por cuenta ajena pero con menos protección social, además de la identidad laboral del trabajador por cuenta ajena con derechos, que se pierde. En cuanto a la ampliación de la competencia de los juzgados laborales en Brasil, a partir del 2004, pasaran a ser la jurisdicción competente para juzgar los trabajos autónomos, como ocurrió en España con el Estatuto del Trabajador Autónomo. Sin embargo, más de diez años después, lo que fue muy divulgado y valorado positivamente por los jueces de Brasil como una ampliación de la competencia de los juzgados laborales no significó cambios efectivos en la realidad social. Podemos decir que los trabajadores que vienen a los juzgados siguen siendo, sobre todo, los del trabajo por cuenta ajena. Estos trabajadores subordinados, en las distintas regiones de Brasil y tipos de actividades profesionales y económicas, del sur al norte del país, tienen características en común, como las del trabajo penoso y como se presenta esa forma de trabajo en la actualidad, es decir, con bajos salarios, incumplimiento de derechos laborales y empeoramiento de las condiciones de trabajo. Es necesario un reconocimiento jurídico y social del trabajo penoso en el que se establezcan criterios jurídicos de definición generales o a título ejemplificativo con previsión en la ley infraconstitucional. Se señala que, en lo que se refiere a la legislación jurídica brasileña, la ley debe, expresamente, incentivar la negociación colectiva para fines de aclaración de estos criterios y previsión de medios y de una mayor protección para los trabajos penosos, más allá del punto de vista estrictamente económico, como ocurre hoy en día. En las pocas negociaciones colectivas que hacen referencia al trabajo penoso en Brasil, tratan tan solo del complemento de penosidad y en valores inferiores a los previstos en los proyectos de ley que lo regulan. En los convenios colectivos de Brasil como los estudiados, por lo general, nada consta en cuanto al trabajo penoso, para fines de valorización y protección, como en las negociaciones colectivas de España analizadas, en lo que se refiere a los grados y promoción de función y tampoco en cuanto a los aspectos de salud y seguridad en el trabajo, demostrando el insuficiente reconocimiento sea por parte del legislador o por los actores sindicales. Las experiencias laborales en los juzgados sociales de diferentes regiones de Brasil, nos han influenciado a lo largo del recorrido presentado en esta investigación, partiendo de las formas de reconocimiento jurídico de los trabajos por cuenta ajena y autónomo, para volver al trabajo por cuenta ajena, lo cual concentra a las "mayorías sociales", con el objetivo de estudiar las condiciones de penosidad presentes en distintos puestos de trabajos, categorías y sectores. Una de las razones, a nuestro ver, está relacionada con las características del trabajo por cuenta ajena acentuadas y distorsionadas, como la subordinación, desequilibrio contractual y mayor vulnerabilidad y debilidad del trabajador frente al empresario, en un entorno social, económico y político hostil. Esto viene haciendo, en la práctica, que muchos de los derechos fundamentales de la persona y de los derechos laborales-sociales, como la prevención adecuada de los riesgos laborales por medio de la protección de salud e integridad física y mental del trabajador, no sean lo suficientemente respetados. Los trabajos peligrosos e insalubres poseen una definición jurídica clara y específica en la legislación brasileña. Sin embargo, no ocurre lo mismo con el trabajo penoso. Y, a pesar de que la Constitución brasileña de 1988 establece su reconocimiento a través de un complemento salarial de penosidad, se exigió regular este derecho, lo cual nunca ocurrió, aunque se entregaron numerosos proyectos de ley que, la mayoría se archivaron, mientras que otros todavía siguen estando en periodo de tramitación. El trabajo penoso en Brasil tampoco es adecuado o suficientemente regulado por medio de negociaciones colectivas, de manera diferente al modelo español. Las normas colectivas en Brasil que tratan la penosidad tan solo se limitan a la fijación de un plus salarial, por regla general, reforzamos, con un valor inferior al que establecen los proyectos de ley y, de igual modo, a los valores de los complementos salariales reconocidos por la legislación laboral únicamente a los trabajos insalubres y peligrosos. Además, hay otras formas de compensación y regulación del trabajo penoso, siendo la económica solo una de ellas. Sin embargo, la legislación jurídica brasileña, en especial, las normas de seguridad social, tratan de reconocer el ritmo de trabajo penoso o condiciones difíciles de trabajo, como factores de naturaleza laboral causantes de enfermedades laborales, a saber, el Síndrome de burnout, trastornos mentales y otras enfermedades. Los proyectos de ley sobre el trabajo penoso establecen definiciones más amplias, en contraposición al tratamiento jurídico insuficiente con respecto al trabajo penoso. Como en los proyectos de ley en tramitación, en los cuales constan definiciones del trabajo penoso, se propone una legislación con previsión de criterios de caracterización general y que, como en el ejemplo del Código Laboral francés, se impulse la negociación colectiva para abordar el trabajo penoso con establecimiento de derechos más favorables, estimulando, expresamente, la prevención y el combate del trabajo penoso. Entendemos por trabajo penoso aquel que se presta en condiciones más difíciles, con un esfuerzo físico o mental excesivo que causa, constantemente, incomodidad, desgastes y sufrimientos ya sean físicos, mentales o psíquicos, según criterios tales como la existencia y cantidad de pausas, tiempo, local y tipo de trabajo, forma de contratación, valor del salario y ausencia o insuficiencia de reconocimiento jurídico y social, en razón de la actividad, por sí misma o por las formas practicadas de organización y de los tiempos de trabajo. Las actividades penosas degradan individual y socialmente al trabajador, dificultándole o impidiéndole que desarrolle, de forma libre y plena, su personalidad y potencialidades, en los ámbitos personal, familiar, laboral y social, según la dignidad social, retirándole la posibilidad de poder tener placer o satisfacción en el trabajo y, así, lograr una vida buena. Un concepto amplio de trabajo penoso debe considerar: las tendencias legislativas, como los proyectos de ley de Brasil, anteriormente estudiados, con el objeto de regular el trabajo penoso; la negociación colectiva, en el modelo de regulación español sobre el trabajo penoso de una forma más amplia que en la Constitución brasileña; y el tratamiento jurídico concedido a la penosidad en el trabajo, en el sistema francés. En este sentido, es importante destacar el carácter preventivo de las normas española y francesa sin perjuicio del reconocimiento de otras formas de compensación, y de reforzar la protección desde el punto de vista de la salud del trabajador y de la seguridad social. En esa línea, podemos extraer formas de tratamiento jurídico de estas materias y de los ejemplos tratados en el modelo español. En primer lugar, la elección y adopción prioritaria para la prevención de riesgos laborales, es decir, eliminarlos en su origen y, como medidas subsidiarias y complementarias cuya convivencia es posible: el pago de un complemento salarial de penosidad, la utilización de medios y equipos de protección que reduzcan las condiciones de penosidad y coeficientes reductores para la jubilación en caso de excepcional penosidad. La adopción del concepto de excepcional penosidad hace que se pueda aclarar, distinguir y valorar las ocurrencias de estas condiciones y las particularidades de ciertos puestos de trabajo, sectores y categorías. Otro ejemplo de este tratamiento específico que puede resultar más efectivo para fines de reducción de la jornada y protección de la salud, es la ley española de regímenes de jornadas especiales, la cual podría ampliar los sujetos a los que se aplica y englobar otros trabajos en condiciones de penosidad, además de los que ya regula como en el campo y en la minería. La investigación empírica realizada con jueces laborales en Brasil, nos ha sido útil para fines de estudio, aclaración y reflexión de los criterios de definición del trabajo penoso propuestos en los proyectos de ley sobre el tema, en Brasil. Se pudo concluir, que los proyectos de leyes adoptan un concepto que engloba e incluso es utilizado por la doctrina laboral más actual y los cuales, solo algunos fueran mencionados por los jueces, al contestar la pregunta abierta, "¿qué consideran por trabajos penosos?". En el análisis cualitativo de los datos de la investigación empírica, se constató de forma muy clara, con el concepto colectivo de trabajo penoso y la nube con la frecuencia de palabras utilizadas al contestar la última pregunta, que hay una mayor atención al medioambiente físico de trabajo que al psíquico o emocional. En ese mismo sentido, el análisis de la legislación laboral brasileña, que trata más del ambiente físico de trabajo. Así, se concluye que la interpretación y la comprensión judicial pueden ser distintas y más conservadoras que las concepciones adoptadas por los proyectos de ley o por la doctrina laboral en cuanto a la penosidad en ciertos tipos de trabajos que constituyen categorías jurídicas como, el trabajo extraordinario habitual, nocturno, a turnos, temporal y los bajos salarios. Un dado llamativo fue que la mayoría de los jueces que han participado en la investigación, consideraron que estos criterios (y otros como los trabajos repetitivos y sin rotación de la mano de obra) no son adecuados para caracterizar el trabajo penoso. En cuanto a los bajos salarios, por ejemplo, 100 de los 137 jueces que participaran, consideraron que no es un criterio adecuado para caracterizar la penosidad. Se observó, empíricamente, que es necesaria una mayor aproximación entre la interpretación de las leyes, categorías e institutos jurídicos de las condiciones sociales, económicas y laborales reales en la actualidad (condiciones laborales legales y reales). La aproximación entre la aplicación de la ley y la realidad laboral existente en determinadas regiones o contextos, exige una conexión entre la teoría y la práctica, es decir, conocimiento del derecho laboral y del día a día de los diversos trabajadores, en especial, los que suelen ir a los juzgados sociales. Se puso de manifiesto que dos de los proyectos de ley de Brasil analizados, con respecto al trabajo penoso, se presentaron por diputados que, antes de ingresar en la política, trabajaron en fábricas y estuvieran en cargos de dirección sindical. Esto demuestra, a nuestro ver, el valor de la experiencia directa y después, por la actuación política-legislativa en el sentido de la necesidad de reconocimiento del trabajo penoso como una categoría jurídica y con mayor protección social. Los modelos español y francés, nos han llamado la atención en cuanto al reconocimiento expreso y más directo, de la necesidad de prevenir y combatir el trabajo penoso, inexistente de esta forma, en la legislación brasileña. El modelo español, además de la ley de prevención de riesgos laborales, cuenta con la previsión expresa en este sentido en los convenios colectivos estudiados. El análisis de las normas colectivas respecto a la penosidad en España, nos ha permitido analizar textos de convenios colectivos que hacen referencia al trabajo penoso en sentidos y con efectos más amplios, más allá que del plus de penosidad. En este sentido, la referencia al trabajo penoso y la ejemplificación de condiciones de penosidad muestra, por ejemplo, previsión específica y expresa cuanto a la promoción, grado de función o modificaciones del trabajo en el caso de la trabajadora embarazada. Son cuestiones sencillas pero que los trabajadores cada vez más, trasladan a los juzgados sociales, como los de la ciudad de Río de Janeiro, donde hemos actuado en los últimos años, ya sean a través de demandas directas en este sentido como en los casos de trabajadoras embarazadas o madres, por modificaciones de horarios de trabajo o condiciones laborales o de forma indirecta, es decir, como factor colateral de otras situaciones más comunes en los juzgados brasileños, es decir, las horas extra habituales, nocturnas, acoso moral, insalubridad, peligrosidad y despidos. En el sistema francés, con los cambios recientes del Código del Trabajo y de las leyes de seguridad social, en especial en lo que se refiere a la jubilación aticipada, podemos entender que han adoptado el principio de prevención del trabajo penoso, como un derecho de reconocimiento, admitido en la propia doctrina francesa. Se consiguió pues, en este país, coordinar los cambios en la legislación laboral y de la seguridad social, de forma coherente y conjunta, y no aislada, pretendiendo una prevención y combate efectivos del trabajo penoso. Así, se propone un mayor reconocimiento jurídico y social del trabajo penoso, a través de una regulación conjunta y coordinada del derecho laboral y de la seguridad social, desde las condiciones de tiempo de trabajo, salario, salud y seguridad social. Los pluses de penosidad deben servir como estímulo para la eliminación y reducción de la penosidad y demás riesgos laborales, así como el reconocimiento de los bajos salarios es una cuestión que ha de ser enfrentada también por el Derecho Laboral. En esa línea, hay que reforzar y dar continuidad a las luchas sindicales por la reducción y limitación efectiva de la jornada laboral. Se propone aún la ampliación de los descansos y del numero de días de vacaciones pagadas. La protección social, en especial, desde la seguridad social, hay estar presente a lo largo de toda la vida laboral y también o principalmente, en el sentido de reconocer la necesidad de jubilación anticipada para los trabajadores que hayan ejercido actividades penosas. Es decir, debe ser asegurada la jubilación anticipada o especial a los trabajadores que han ejercido puestos de trabajo asociados a condiciones de penosidad, no solo excepcionales, pero en sentido más amplio, considerando las formas penosas de diversas condiciones laborales comunes en el cotidiano, como la nocturnicidad, temporalidad, jornada extraordinaria habitual y bajos salarios. Tampoco deben ser consideradas como criterio para la jubilación anticipada solo las llamadas "condiciones especiales de trabajo", según la legislación de Brasil, pues dificultan el ejercicio de este derecho. La prevención y el combate al trabajo penoso no ha impedido a la legislación española y francesa asegurar derechos, reconociendo un estatus de protección social reforzada y más efectivo que en Brasil. En España, aseguraron el establecimiento de pluses de penosidad por negociación colectiva, así como, en el caso de excepcional penosidad, coeficientes reductores para la jubilación anticipada o especial y el régimen de jornadas especiales. En Francia, las leyes recientes aseguraron la jubilación teniendo en cuenta los factores de penosidad que se añadieron en el Código Laboral, un instrumento de prevención y combate de la penosidad, con las fichas personales en que deben constar estas condiciones, dándoles mayor visibilidad y conciencia con respecto a las condiciones reales de trabajo. El sitio web del Ministerio de Trabajo, empleo, formación profesional y de diálogo social, en Francia, presenta los factores de penosidad con respecto a la jubilación de una manera muy expresa y didáctica, es decir, con figuras y destacando los principales requisitos. Es un ejemplo de instrumentos que dan una mayor visibilidad y reconocimiento institucional, de hecho, a la penosidad en el trabajo. Se crearon condiciones y medios tecnológicos que pueden permitir un mayor acceso y divulgación de la información en cuanto a la penosidad en el trabajo y derechos respectivos, que pueden generar una mayor conciencia, educación y sensibilización. Deben observarse los valores del trabajo digno en el combate al trabajo penoso y como construcción de la subjetividad del trabajador. Distintos mecanismos jurídicos pueden representar un reconocimiento jurídico y social del trabajo penoso, de forma indirecta o más directa, contribuyendo a la protección social reforzada, adecuada y suficiente de las condiciones reales de trabajo. Los valores del cuidado y mutuo respeto, la protección de la salud y el libre desarrollo de la personalidad junto con el reconocimiento de las condiciones reales de trabajo, en especial, las más difíciles, pueden ayudar en la modificación de la cantidad y de la calidad del trabajo para que durante y después del cese de la actividad laboral, el trabajador pueda lograr la autorrealización. Las formas de conceptualización del trabajo decente y digno pueden ser ampliadas más allá del combate al trabajo infantil y al trabajo forzoso, en especial, teniendo en cuenta la realidad social de los países periféricos del sur del hemisferio y pobres. El objetivo de la Unión Europea a partir del 2015 es la creación de un trabajo decente para todos, mientras que el de la ONU es proporcionar un crecimiento inclusivo para el 2030. El trabajo penoso puede ser más una forma de exclusión social y, en algunos casos, hasta humillación y violencia laboral, que deben ser combatidas de diversas maneras, una de ellas en la lucha contra la pauperización del trabajador, generalizada en países pobres y creciente en países más desarrollados, como los periféricos o del sur de Europa. Algunos de eses últimos, los cuales, uno de los motivos de orgullo era justo el de haber cambiado, en parte del siglo pasado, situaciones de pobreza por mejores condiciones laborales. El trabajo digno significa una amplitud de conceptos, en construcción y concretización permanentes, como la OIT sugiere en la definición del trabajo decente, es decir, con oportunidades que produzcan un ingreso digno, seguridad y mejores perspectivas de desarrollo personal e igualdad de trato. Sin embargo, hay que insistir, de nuevo y por cuanto sea necesario, en las luchas obreras históricas por mejores salarios o, en el contexto actual, contra el rebajamiento de salarios y la pauperización del trabajador; y por la reducción y limitación efectiva de la jornada, para las cuales, la acción sindical, sigue siendo la más adecuada. Aunque pueda parecer contradictoria la regulación de una forma de trabajo que se tiene como objetivo combatir y prevenir, es decir, sea con su abolición o reducción y protección social adecuada. En efecto, las realidades que vemos en diversas relaciones laborales, dentro y fuera de los juzgados sociales, es muestra de los resultados de las contradicciones y forma de ser del sistema capitalista. Más que refutarlas, es necesario reconocerlas como ejemplo de las patologías e injusticias sociales que este sistema produce, como señaladamente ocurre con el llamado trabajo penoso.

ILLUSTRIERTE GESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES 1914/15. FÜNFTER BAND. Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Fünfter Band. (Fünfter Band) ( - ) Einband ( - ) [Abb.]: Erbitterterter Straßenkampf in Montigny. Die von der am Kampfe teilnehmenden Bevölkerung des Ortes versteckt gehaltenen französischen Soldaten überfallen die eingedrungenen deutschen Abteilungen aus dem Hinterhalt. ( - ) Titelseite ( - ) Kriegskalender zur original-Einbanddecke der Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Fünfter Band enthaltend die Ereignisse vom 1. August bis 31. Dezember 1916. ( - ) August. ( - ) September. ( - ) Oktober. ( - ) November. ([I]) Dezember. ([II]) Inhaltsverzeichnis. ([III]) Kunstbeilagen. (IV) Karten. (IV) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 101 (Heft 101) ([1]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Maschinengewehrabteilung beim Sturm im Caillettewalde vor Verdun. ([1]) [Abb.]: Das Innere der Feste Donaumont kurz nach der Eroberung durch die Deutschen. (2) [Karte]: Die Gegend von Vaux mit dem Caillettewald. (3) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des befestigten Dorfes Damloup südöstlich Vaux durch die deutschen Truppen. ([4 - 5]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französischer Offizier in einer der neuzeitlichen Kriegführung angemessenen Schutzuniform. Er trägt Stahlhelm, Schutzmaske und, zum Schutz gegen die Nässe des Schützengrabens, Gamaschen. (2)Einer der neuen französischen schweren Mörser mit seinem Riesengeschoß. (6) [Abb.]: Französische Proviantkraftwagen fahren durch einen zerschossenen Ort bei Verdun. (7) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (7) Die Seeschlacht vor dem Skagerrak. (7) [Abb.]: Farbige Engländer an der Westfront. Englische Hindukavallerie reitet durch die Straßen von Marseille. (8) [Abb.]: Die Seeschlacht vor dem Skagerrak. Deutsche Großkampfschiffe vernichten am 31. Mai 1916 im Nachtgefecht englische Panzerkreuzer und Zerstörer. ( - ) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines Turko-Handgranatenangriffs westlich der Höhe 304 vor Verdun. ([9]) [Karte]: Der Schauplatz der Seeschlacht vor dem Skagerrak. Das Kreuz bezeichnet ungefähr den Mittelpunkt der Kampflinien. (10) [Karte]: Bildliche Darstellung der einzelnen Abschnitte der Seeschlacht vor dem Skagerrak. ([11]) Auf Patrouille. (12) [Karte]: Das Gelände östlich und südöstlich von Ypern, auf dem württembergische Regimenter in den Tagen vom 2. bis 5. Juni wichtige Erfolge gegen die Engländer errangen. (12) [Abb.]: Gefangene Engländer aus den Kämpfen bei Ypern vor ihrer Abführung ins Gefangenenlager. (12) [Abb.]: Württembergische Regimenter erstürmen am 2. Juni 1916 die englischen Höhenstellungen im Abschnitt von Ypern südöstlich von Zillebeke. ([13]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Torpedoboote auf der Suche nach dem Feind. (14) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der englische Schlachtkreuzer "Queen Mary", der in der Seeschlacht vor dem Skagerrak vernichtet wurde. (2)Der englische Panzerkreuzer "Hampshire", mit dem Lord Kitchener nebst seinem ganzen Stabe auf der Fahrt nach Rußland bei den Orkney-Inseln den Untergang fand. (15) [3 Abb.]: Die siegreichen Führer in der Seeschlacht vor dem Skagerrak. (1)Admiral Scheer, Chef der deutschen Hochseestreitkräfte. (2)Vizeadmiral Hipper, Befehlshaber der deutschen Aufklärungsstreitkräfte. (3)Deutsche Linienschiffe in der Nordsee in Kiellinie, klar zum Gefecht. (16) [Abb.]: Der Untergang des englischen Großkampfschiffes "Warspite", das in der Hochseeschlacht vor dem Skagerrak am 31. Mai 1916 mit dem deutschen Großkampfschiff "König" im Kampf stand und infolge schwerer Treffer durch eine Explosion vernichtet wurde. ([17]) Ein Kampf im Gletschereis. (18) [Abb.]: Die Franzenshöhe am Stilfser Joch mit dem Ortler und dem Gasthof Franzenshöhe. (18) [Abb.]: Abgeschlagener Angriff italienischer Alpini auf dem Ebenferner im Adamellogebiet. ([19]) Abbildung ([19]) [Abb.]: Luftbad an der Vogesenfront, 50 Meter vor dem Feind. (20) [Abb.]: Einmarsch der siegriechen Truppen der Armee des Erzherzog-Thronfolgers Karl Franz Joseph in Asiago. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 102 (Heft 102) ([21]) [Abb.]: Erbeutete italienische Fahnen vor einem österreichisch-ungarischen Kommandogebiet in Südtirol. ([21]) [Abb.]: Straße in der von den Italienern durch monatelanges Artilleriefeuer zu einem Trümmerhaufen zusammengeschossenen Stadt Piazza im Terragnolotal, die von den österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen bei ihrem Vordringen zurückerobert wurde. (22) [3 Abb.]: (1)Zufuhr von Kriegsmaterial auf steilen Gebirgstraßen mittels eigenartiger italienischer Karren mit Ochsenbespannung. (2)Nach erfolgreicher Beschießung italienischer Stellungen in Südtirol werden die Minenwerfer wieder instand gesetzt. (3)Auf der Wacht in den Südtiroler Bergen. (23) [Abb.]: Abteilungen des bosnisch-herzegowinischen Infanterieregiments Nr. 2 und des Grazer Infanterieregiments Nr. 27 erstürmen den Berg Meletta. ([24 - 25]) [Abb.]: Die Wohnbaracke des Erzherzog-Thronfolgers Karl Franz Joseph auf der Hochfläche von Vielgereuth. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gefangene Alpini aus den Kämpfen an der Front in Südtirol vor einem österreichisch-ungarischen Kommandogebäude. (2)Erbeutete italienische 28-cm-Mörser in dem am 23. Mai 1916 eroberten Panzerwerk Campomolon. (27) [2 Abb.]: Auf Posten in den wolhynischen Sümpfen. (2)Blick auf österreichisch-ungarische Stellungen in Wolhynien. (28) [Abb.]: Abweisung eines nach starker Artillerievorbereitung erfolgten russischen Waffenangriffs im Handgemenge bei Jaslowiec an der unteren Strypa. ([29]) [Abb.]: Verschanzte österreichisch-ungarische Stellung an der bessarabischen Front. (30) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (30) Friedensgefahren. (30) [Karte]: Das wolhynische Festungsdreieck Luck-Dubno-Rowno. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)General der Infanterie Felix Graf Bothmer, der hochverdiente Führer der deutschen Südarmee und erfolgreiche Verteidiger der Strypafront gegen die große russische Offensive im Juni 1916. (2)General der Kavallerie Karl Freiherr v. Pflanzer-Baltin (Mitte], Kommandant der österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen in der Bukowina. Links ein höherer deutscher Offizier. (31) Die Erstürmung von Notdre Dame de Loretto. (32) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehrkompanie zieht im Vormarsch auf Libau durch das Stranddorf Skatre. (32) [Abb.]: Vormarsch an der kurländischen Küste. ([33]) Die Eroberung Kurlands. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Soldaten in Stellung an der Ostsee zur Verteidigung der Küste Kurlands. (2)Russischer Gefangener bringt erbeutete Gewehre zur Sammelstelle. (34) [Abb.]: Sprengung einer Brücke bei Libau durch die Russen. (35) [Abb.]: Ein aus zwei zusammengesetzten Fischerkähnen errichtetes Postenhäuschen am Strande in Kurland. (36) Die Entwicklung unserer Unterkunftsbauten an der Westfront. (37) [Abb.]: Ertappte Plünderer: Kosakenhorden werden auf ihrem Raubzug von preußischen Dragonern vertrieben. (37) [6 Abb.]: Zu dem Aufsatz "Die Entwicklung unserer Unterkunftsbauten an der Westfront". (1)Mannschaftsbracke. Die niedrige Form wurde aus Sparsamkeitsrücksichten gewählt. (2)Offiziersblockhütte mit Gartenhäuschen. (3)Offiziershütte im Walde. (4)Zweistöckiges Wohnhaus in einem zerschossenen Stadtchen. (5)Pferdeställe aus Lehm und Stroh. (6)Wohnhütten aus Lehm und Stroh. ([39]) Die Eisenbahn im Kriege. (38) [Abb.]: Zu dem Aufsatz "Die Eisenbahn im Kriege". (40) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 103 (Heft 103) ([41]) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte der Gegend östlich der Maas bei Verdun. ([41]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Leutnant Rackow, der am 2. Juni 1916 an der Spitze der 1. Kompanie des Paderborner Infanterieregiments, unterstützt von den 20. Reservepionieren, in die Feste Vaux eindrang und das Fort besetzte, während starke französische Kräfte sich noch in den Kasematten befanden. Vom Kaiser wurde er durch Verleihung des Ordens Pour le Mérite ausgezeichnet. (2)Aus den Kämpfen bei Verdun. Deutsche Sturmtruppen mit den neuen Stahlschutzhelmen. (42) [Abb.]: Die Nordgräben der Feste Vaux, in die deutsche Truppen am 2. Juni 1916 unter Führung des Leutnants Rackow eindrangen. (43) [Abb.]: Erstürmung der Feste Vaux. ([44 - 45]) [Abb.]: Immelmanns letzter Erfolg. Das von Immelmann am 18. Juni 1916 abgeschossene feindliche Kampfflugzeug Baby Mine. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zum bulgarischen Vorstoß auf griechisches Gebiet. General Todoroff (1) mit dem Prinzen Cyrill, dem Generalstabschef Oberst Russeff (2) und dessen Stellevertreter Oberstleutnant Valroff beim Kartenstudium im Hauptquartier. (2)Eine deutsche Munitionskolonne überschreitet eine Schiffbrücke über den Wardar. (47) [Abb]: Transport Verwundeter durch Kosaken. (48) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (48) Kriegsprengmittel. (48) [Abb.]: Kosakengreuel am Grabmal des Imam Hussein bei Kasr i Schirin im Juni 1916. ( - ) [Abb.]: Vertreibung der Russen aus Kasr i Schirin. ([49]) [Abb.]: Von der Tätigkeit des türkischen Roten Halbmondes: Ein Saal des Seraigymnasiums in Galata, das als Lazarett dient. Die Schwestern sind türkische Damen, die in der Pflegerinnenschule des Roten Halbmondes ihre Ausbilung genossen haben. (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ankunft Djemal Paschas in Bir Saba im süden Plästinas. (2)Der Kommandant von Jaffa (Palästina) hält an die ausrückenden Truppen und das Volk eine begeisternde Ansprache. (51) Die Verluste der englischen Kriegsflotte seit Beginn des Krieges. (52) [Abb.]: Der russische Panzerkreuzer "Pallada" wird durch das deutsche Unterseeboot U 26 torpediert. ([53]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feldmäßig bepackter Telegraphist. (2)Ordnung im Granatfeuer: Regimentsgeschäftszimmer in einem Keller. (54) Der Untergang des russischen Panzerkreuzers "Pallada". (54) Die Feldtelegraphie. (55) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine aufgefahrene Telephonabteilung in Deckung dicht hinter der Front. (2)Ausgabe der zur Legung einer Telephonleitung notwendigen Geräte an die Mannschaften. (55) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der von den österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen am 15. Mai 1916 erstürmte italienische Stützpunkt "Castello Dante" bei Rovreit. (2)Teil des Kampfgrabens im italienischen Stützpunkt "Castello Dante" bei Robreit nach der Erstürmung durch österreichisch-ungarische Truppen. (56) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Truppen besetzen bei ihrem Vordringen in Südtirol am 18. Mai 1916 im Etschtale südlich von Rovreit den Ort Mori. ([57]) Die Kämpfe in Südtirol. (58 - 59) [Abb.]: Eroberung eines italienischen Dorfes durch österreichisch-ungarische Truppen. (58 - 59) [2 Abb.]: (1) Von der österreichisch-ungarischen Artillerie zerstörte Mörserbatterie auf Campomolon. (2)Bei den Kämpfen um die Doberdohochfläche übergelaufene italienische Bersaglieri werden von einem österreichisch-ungarischen Offizier des Generalstabes verhört. (60) [Gedicht]: Immelmann †. (60) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 104 (Heft 104) ([61]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der neue italienische Kriegsminister Paolo Morrone unter dem Ministerium Bissolati. (2)Der neue italienische Marineminister Camillo Corsi unter dem Ministerium Bissolati. (3)Einbringung italienischer Gefangener mit französischen Stahlhelmen. ([61]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Zur Hochebene führende Straße eines von den Italienern zerstörten österreichisch-ungarischen Grenzstädtchens. (2)Von den Italienern zerschossenes österreichisch-ungarisches Grenzstädtchen: Blick auf die Kirche. (3)Blick auf die zerstörten Häuser am Marktplatz des Städtchens gegenüber der Kirche. (62) [Abb.]: Der berühmte Brunnen am Hauptplatze in Asiago, der trotz des ständigen Feuers der italienischen schweren Artillerie wie durch ein Wunder unversehrt blieb. (63) [3 Abb.]: Die italienische Panzerfeste Monte Verena, die von den österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen am 22. Mai 1916 erstürmt wurde. (1)Zwei der vier Kuppeln des italienischen Panzerwerks Monte Verena. Der Bericht des italienischen Generalstabes hatte die Zelte als lediglich "flüchtig besetzte Geschützstände" bezeichnet. (2)Die Panzerfeste Monte Verena. Am Gipfel das von den österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen eroberte Panzerwerk. (3)Die südöstliche Ecke der italienischen Panzerfeste Monte Verena. ([64]) [Abb.]: Eroberung des von Alpini stark besetzten Monte Castelgomberto, nördlich des Monte Meletta, am 8. Juni 1916 durch österreichisch-ungarische Truppen. (65) [Abb.]: Oberleutnant Albin Mlaker, vom k.u.k. Sappeurbataillon Nr. 14, der ungeachtet des beiderseitigen Feuers in das zur Befestigungsgruppe von Arsiero gehörige italienische Panzerwerk Casa Ratti eindrang, die Besatzung gefangennahm und so drei unversehrte schwere Panzerhaubitzen, sowie zwei leichte Geschütze erbeutete. (66) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zum Artikel: "Die Eroberung des Vorwerks Leonowka". (66) [3 Abb.]: Beilder von der österreichisch-ungarischen Flotte. (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Torpedobootpatrouille in der Adria. (2)Österreichisch-ungarische Kreuzerflottille in voller Fahrt, von einer Beschießung der italienischen Küste zurückkehrend. (3)Österreichisch-ungarischer Torpedobootzerstörer verläßt den Hafen von Lissa. (67) [3 Abb.]: Bilder von der österreichisch-ungarischen Flotte. (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Torpedobootpatrouille in der Adria. (2)Österreichisch-ungarische Kreuzerflottille in voller Fahrt, von einer Beschießung der italienischen Küste zurückkehrend. (3)Österreichisch-ungarischer Torpedobootzerstörer verläßt den Hafen von Lissa. (67) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser bei der Armee des kommandierenden Generals Exzellenz v. Fabeck im Osten. Besichtigung der Truppen durch den Kaiser, an seiner Seite General v. Fabeck. (68) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (68) Die Eroberung des Vorwerks Leonowka. (68) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Vorwerks Leonowka durch deutsche Truppen der Armee des Generals v. Linsingen. ( - ) [Abb.]: Einbringung gefangener Russen an der Front von Smorgon. ([69]) [2 Abb.]: (1)General v. Linsingen, der Leiter der deutschen Gegenoffensive im Raume Kowel-Luck. (2)Deutsche Truppen auf dem Vormarsch in Galizien. (70) Mißhandlung deutschen Sanitätspersonals in Frankreich. (70) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Stellung am Strypaflusse. (71) [Abb.]: General Brussilow, der Kommandant der russischen Armeegruppe der Südfront. (72) [Karte]: Zu den Kämpfen an der bessarabischen Grenze. (72) Immelmanns letzter Flug. (72) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Flieger belegen die Bahnhofanlagen Veronas am 14. Juni 1916 erfolgreich mit Bomben. ([73]) Feldmarschalleutnant Ignaz Trollmann, der Bezwinger des Lovcen. (74) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feldmarschalleutnant Trollmann, Kommandant der albanisch-österreichisch-ungarischen Streitkräfte in Albanien. (2)Albanische Gendarmerie, die den vordringenden österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen wirkungsvolle Dienste leistete. (74) [Abb.]: Aus dem Albanierviertel von Uesküb. Leben und Treiben vor den Albanierhütten, in denen auch deutsche Soldaten Unterkunft fanden. (75) Die Fliegersprache. (75) Der Krieg in Ostafrika im April und Mai 1916. (76) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberst v. Lettow-Vorbeck, der Kommandeur der Schutztruppe für Deutsch-Ostafrika. (2)Deutscher kleiner Panzerdeckskreuzer "Königsberg", im Rufidji-Fluß (Ostafrika) eingeschlossen. (76) [Abb.]: Vom deutschen Heldenkampf in Deutsch-Ostafrika: Vorgehen deutscher Schutztruppenabteilungen im Kilimandscharogebiet . (77) [Karte]: Karte zu den Kämpfen in Deutsch-Ostafrika. (79) Das neue Reichsamt. (78) [3 Abb.]: (1)v. Batocki, der Präsident des "Kriegsernährungsamts", der neuen Behörde für die Lebensmittelversorgung des deutschen Volkes, früher Oberpräsident der Provinz Ostpreußen. (2)Dr. Clemens Delbrück, der ehemalige, um die Organisation der Lebensmittelversorgung des deutschen Volkes hoch verdiente Staatssekretär des Reichsamtes des Innern. (3)Ein guter Fang im Oberrhein an der Mündung der Kinzig. (80) [Abb.]: Abführung gefangener Franzosen nach dem Sturm auf Fleury in der Nacht vom 23. auf den 24. Juni 1916. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 105 (Heft 105) ([81]) [Abb.]: Der Armeeführer Kronprinz Wilhelm vor Verdun und drei seiner mit dem Orden Pour le Mérite geschmückten Offiziere. Von links: Hauptmann Bölcke, Leutnant Rackow, Erstürmer von Vaux, der Kronprinz, Oberleutnant Brandis, Erstürmer von Donaumont. ([81]) [Abb.]: Das Schlachtfeld bei den Maashöhen vor Verdun. (82) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das von deutschen Truppen eroberte Dorf Fresnes vor Verdun nach der Erstürmung. (2)Das von deutschen Truppen eroberte Dorf Haucourt bei Avocourt westlich von Verdun, dessen Kirche von dem deutschen Artilleriefeuer verschont wurde. (83) [Abb.]: Vorbereitung zum Abschießen eines Lufttorpedos aus einem französischen Schützengraben. (84) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines Angriffs starker, zum Teil neu herangeführter französischer Truppen gegen die von den Deutschen am 23. Juni eroberten Stellungen bei Fleury durch Artilleriesperrfeuer und vorgehende deutsche Infanterie am 27. Juni 1916. Links Fort Souville, davor Chapitrewald, rechts das zerschossene Fleury. ([85]) [Abb.]: Blick in die französische Ortschaft Lavannes bei Reims in der Champagne. (86) [Abb.]: Ein Minentrichter auf der Strecke zwischen Perthes und Tahure in der Champagne. (87) [Karte]: Das Hauptangriffsgebiet der engl.-franz. Offensive. (87) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (87) Die Schwarzen greifen an! (87) [Abb.]: Kulturkämpfer für Frankreich und England. (88) [Abb.]: Schwere englische Haubitzen im Zusammenarbeiten mit Flugzeugen an der französischen Front im Abschnitt südlich von La Bassée. ([89]) [Abb.]: Generalleutnant R. Robertson, der neue Chef des englischen Generalstabs. (90) [2 Abb.]: (1)Regenschirme und Stahlhelme im englischen Schützengraben. (2)Rattenjagd im englischen Schützengraben. (91) Die Schlachtfelder Wolhyniens. (92) [Abb.]: Bajonettsturm türkischer Truppen gegen die stark befestigten russischen Stützpunkte auf der über 2000 Meter hohen Bergkette nördlich des Tschorokflusses im südlichen Kaukasus am Morgen des 22. Juni 1916. ([93]) Die Badener beim Sturm am Jahnwäldchen. (94) [3 Abb.]: Deutsche Fürsten an der Front. (1)Herzog Ernst August zu Braunschweig und Lüneburg spricht einem Infanteristen, der sich vor Verdun besonders auszeichnete, seine persönliche Anerkennung aus. (2)Erzherzog Adolf Friedrich II. von Mecklenburg-Strelitz überreicht bei einer Truppenbesichtigung auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz Offizieren Auszeichnungen. (3)Großherzog Friedrich II. von Baden bei der Besichtigung eines Regiments, das sich bei den Junikämpfen 1916 im Westen auszeichnete, im Gespräch mit einigen Soldaten. ([95]) [Abb.]: Sturm der Badener am Jahnwäldchen. ([96 - 97]) Legen einer Telefonleitung in den Dolomiten. (98) [Abb.]: Nachrichtendienst im österreichisch-ungarischen Heere. Ein Telefonunterstand an der Tiroler Front. (98) [Abb.]: Beim Legen einer Telefonleitung in den Dolomiten. ([99]) Die Wanderbühne im Felde. (98) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ankunft der Truppe des feldgrauen Wandertheaters in Alberschweiler. (2)Die gesamte Truppe des Wandertheaters, zum Teil in Kostümen, aufgenommen in Wieh. (100) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 106 (Heft 106) ([101]) [Abb.]: Russische Truppen ergeben sich. Ein Augenblicksbild aus den erfolgreichen Kämpfen der deutschen Truppen im Osten. ([101]) [Abb.]: Artillerieoffiziere beobachten von einem mit Soldatengräbern besetzten Hügel aus den Rückzug der Russen aus einem in Brand geschossenen Dorfe. (102) [3 Abb.]: (1)Ein Beitrag zur schonungslosen Hinopferung russischer Soldaten: Russischer Soldatenfriedhof in Wolhynien. Der Friedhof ist mehrere Kilometer lang. (2)Eroberte russische Reservestellung bei Tarnopol. (3)Mustergültig ausgebauter österreichisch-ungarischer Unterstand am Styr. (103) [Abb.]: Erfolgreicher deutscher Vorstoß in den russischen Stellungen nördlich vom Miadziolsee an der nordöstlichen Front am 26. Juni 1916. ([104 - 105]) [Abb.]: Generaloberst v. Woyrsch (1) mit Oberstleutnant v. Heye (2) und Oberleutnant Prinz Reuß (3) bei der Besichtigung eines österreichisch-ungarischen Regiments in Rußland. (106) [Abb.]: Zusammenbruch des russischen Reiterangriffs bei Tlumacz im Artillerie- und Infanteriefeuer deutscher und österreichisch-ungarischer Truppen am 2. Juli 1916. ([107]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf der Flucht vor den Russen. (2)Von den Russen angezündetes Dorf an der galizischen Grenze. (108) [Abb.]: Sturm thüringischer Truppen auf die Trümmer von Cumières im Morgengrauen des 23. Mai 1916. ( - ) [Abb.]: Heldenmütige Verteidigung von Domidowka, westlich von Dubno, durch österreichisch-ungarische Infanterie. ([109]) [Abb.]: Blick auf Tolmein am Isonzo. (110) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (110) Die große Offensive. (110) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Soldaten bereiten auf einer Berghöhe eine Steinlawine vor. (2)Italienische Stellung im Suganer-Tal, aus der die österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen den Feind im ersten Ansturm vertrieben. (111) Zwischen Forges und Cumières. (112) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im serbischen Hochgebirge. (2)Überschreiten eines Gebirgsbaches bei Krivolac in Südmazedonien. (112) [Abb]: Aus den Kämpfen der Österreicher und Ungarn mit den Italienern. Österreichisch-ungarische Truppen dringen auf dem Kamm eines Berges im Handgranatenangriff über die erste italienische Linie vor. ([113]) [Abb.]: Blick auf Zerstörungen im Rabenwalde bei Verdun. (114) [Karte]: Das Kampfgelände vor Verdun westlich der Maas aus der Vogelschau gesehen. (114) [3 Abb.]: (1)Eine Straße in Forges. (2)Erstürmte Straßensperre in Forges. (3)Zerstörte Häusergruppe in Forges. (115) Tapfere Schwaben. Neues vom Kgl. Württembergischen Gebirgsbataillon. (116) [2 Abb.]: (1)Drei wackere Schwaben vom Königlich Württembergischen Gebirgsbataillon. (2)Ehrenurkunde des Königlich Württembergischen Gebirgsbataillons. (116) [Abb]: Ein am 10. Juli 1916 angesetzter Sturmangriff der Senegalneger auf die Höhe von La Maisonette (Sommegebiet) bricht an den deutschen Hindernissen blutig zusammen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 107 (Heft 107) ([117]) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines britischen Gasangriffs im Handgranatenkampf. Die Mannschaften tragen Masken zum Schutz gegen die giftigen Gase. ([117]) [Abb.]: Gefangene Franzosen von der englisch-französischen Offensive werden vom Bahnhof Perconne weiterbefördert. (118) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte zur englisch-französischen Offensive vom Ancrebach bis beiderseits der Somme. ([119]) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen an der Somme: Angriff der preußischen Garde auf die englischen Stellungen bei Contalmaison. ([120 - 121]) [Karte]: Das neue Angriffsgebiet der engl. französischen Offensive. (122) [Abb.]: Zerstörte Straße in Albert mit der Kathedrale, die von den Franzosen als Beobachtungsturm benutzt wurde und deshalb durch deutsche Artillerie beschossen werden mußte. (122) [Abb.]: Französische Stellung an der Somme mit Mörsern und Schützengrabenkanonen im heftigen Feuer deutscher Artillerie. ([123]) [Abb.]: Erstürmung der französischen Stellungen bei der "Hohen Batterie von "Damloup" im Handgranatenkampf am Morgen des 3. Juli 1916. Die Stürmenden sind mit den neuen Stahlhelmen ausgerüstet. (124) [Abb.]: Sturm des 10. bayerischen Infanterieregiments "König" und des bayerischen Infanterie-Leibregiments nach wirksamer Feuervorbereitung auf den Höhenrücken "Kalte Erde" und auf das Panzerwerk Thiaumont am 23. Juni 1916. Die Truppen sind mit den neuen Stahlhelmen ausgerüstet. ([125]) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen an der Somme: Das von den Franzosen vollständig zusammengeschossene Maschinenhaus einer Zuckerfabrik. (126) [4 Abb.]: (1)Die Hausflagge der Deutschen Ozean-Reederei G.m.b.H., Bremen. (2)Kapitän Paul König, Führer des ersten deutschen Untersee-Handelschiffs "Deutschland", das am 10. Juli 1916 in Baltimore mit einer Ladung wertvoller Farbstoffe eintraf. (2)Kapitänleutnant Loth. v. Arnauld de la Perière, Kommandant des Unterseeboots U 35, das ein Handschreiben des Deutschen Kaisers an den König von Spanien und Arzneimittel für die in Spanien weilenden Kamerun-Deutschen nach Cartagena brachte und auf der Rückfahrt den bewaffneten französischen Dampfer "Hérault" versenkte. (3)Direktor Alfred Lohmann vom Norddeutschen Lloyd, Vorsitzender des Aufsichtsrats der Deutschen Ozean-Reederei G.m.b.H., Bremen, der den Gedanken eines Untersee-Frachtverkehrs mit Amerika erfolgreich durchgeführt hat. (127) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (128 - 129) Ein deutsches Husarenstück zur See. U 35 in Cartagena. (128 - 129) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches Husarenstück zur See. (128 - 129) Die Elektrizität im Kriege. (130) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hochgeschraubter Scheinwerfer in Leuchtstellung. (2)Auf Kraftwagen montierte französische Scheinwerfer an der Westfront. (130) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kleine Scheinwerfer werden betriebsfertig gemacht. (2)Elektrisch betriebener Militärlastzug durchfährt einen Ort in Galizien. (131) [Abb.]: Gesamtansicht der Stadt Buczacz, wo die Russen bei ihrer Offensive im Sommer 1916 wiederholt unter Einsetzung aller Kräfte durchzubrechen versuchten. (132) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen der russischen Offensive im Raume von Buczacz. ([133]) Eroberung eines belgischen Panzerautomobils bei Buczacz. (134) [Abb.]: Eine Sanitätsabteilung in Wolhynien bei Holoby und Bol Porsk, wo heftige Kämpfe mit den Russen stattfanden, auf dem Wege zur Front. (134) Die große russische Offensive. (134) [Abb.]: Das brennende Swidnika an der wolhynischen Front, nordwestlich von Luck, ein russischer Stützpunkt, der von den deutschen Truppen genommen wurde. (135) [Abb.]: Der deutsche Kaiser bei einer Garde-Reservedivision im Westen. (136) [Abb.]: Kampf um den Monte Pasubio. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 108 (Heft 108) ([137]) [Abb.]: Verbandplatz hinter der österreichisch-ungarischen Front gegen Italien, der in wenigen Tagen an der Landstraße angelegt wurde. ([137]) [Abb.]: Verwundetenfürsorge im Hochgebirge. Ein Verwundeter wird von einem Berggipfel herabgelassen, wo sich das Feldlazarett befindet. (138) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eigenartige neue Schützenstellungen der Italiener. (2)Italienische 28-cm-Mörser, der unversehrt österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen in die Hände fiel. (139) [Abb.]: Vom Treiben der Russen in der Bukowina: Die Bevölkerung wird gezwungen, unter Aufsicht russischen Militärs ein Schlachtfeld aufzuräumen. ([140 - 141]) [Abb.]: Stachelbandhindernis auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz. (142) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Stellung im italienischen Grenzgebiet. Das Bild zeigt die ungemeinen Schwierigkeiten, mit denen unsere Feldgrauen in Rußland zu kämpfen haben. (2)Horchposten in Mückenschleiern ziehen auf Wache. (143) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (144) Erwerbsmöglichkeiten für heimkehrende Kriegsteilnehmer in geistig arbeitenden Berufen. (144) [Abb.]: Der Kriegshafen von Reval mit den Werftanlagen. (144) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen in der Gegend von Baranowitschi halten heftigen Massenangriffen der Russen stand. ([145]) Die Tätigkeit der Armee Pflanzer-Baltin auf dem Gebiete der Wohlfahrt und Wirtschaft. (146) [Abb.]: Unsere Soldaten helfen in Feindesland beim Aufstapeln des Heus. (146) [2 Abb.]: Unsere Soldaten bei der Kartoffelernte in Feindesland. (1)Kartoffelmiete. (2)Die Kartoffeln werden zusammengetragen. (147) Türkischer Bajonettangriff in der Schlacht bei Felahie (22. April 1916). (148) [Abb.]: Leben und Treiben in der Hauptstraße Bagdads. (148) [Abb.]: Türkischer Bajonettangriff in der Schlacht bei Felahie. ([149]) Krieg und Geld. (150) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Wirkung amerikanischer Munitionslieferung. (2)Das Verhältnis der vom Weltkrieg geforderten Opfer an Toten und Verwundeten. (150) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die bis zum 31. März 1916 erwachsenen Gesamtkosten des Weltkrieges werden auf 160 Milliarden Mark beziffert. (2)Neunzig Eisenbahnzüge zu je 70 und ein weiterer zu 72 Wagen wären erforderlich, um die Masse des Goldes zu befördern, das den bis zum 31. März 1916 erwachsenen Gesamtkosten des Weltkrieges entspricht. (151) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zur Beförderung des Goldes, das jede Minute des Weltkrieges kostet, wären drei Mann erforderlich. (2)Bildliche Darstellung der Menschenverluste der in den Weltkrieg verwickelten Völker. (152) Überfall preußischer Dragoner auf einen russischen Proviantzug. (152) [Abb.]: Erbeutung einer russischen Fuhrparkkolonne durch preußische Dragoner. ([153]) Über Feldstand- und Kriegsgerichte. (154) [Abb.]: Straßenbau in Frankreich durch die dortige Bevölkerung unter Leitung deutschen Militärs. (154) [8 Abb.]: Feldgraue Handwerker. (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Feldküche bei Görz. (2)Ausnutzung von Altmaterial: Reste eines französischen Transportdampfers, von deutschen Soldaten zum Bau von Unterständen benutzt. (3)Mechaniker einer Kraftwagentruppe bei der Ausbesserung eines Motors. (4)In einer deutschen Feldbäckerei. (5)Feldschusterwerkstatt in den Ruinen eines Dorfes in der Champagne. (6)Feldgraue bei der Herstellung von spanischen Reitern (Drahtverhauen für die Schützengräben). (7)Feldgraue als Gärtner hinter der Front. (8)Verkleidung des Schützengrabens mit Drahtgeflechten gegen das Nachrutschen des Erdreichs. ([155]) [2 Abb.]: (1)General Wille (X), der Oberbefehlshaber des Schweizer Heeres, bei einer Truppenbesichtigung. (2)Der Vierverband. Lehmfiguren, geformt von einem deutschen Feldgrauen im südlichen Elsaß dicht an der Schweizer Grenze. (156) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 109 (Heft 109) ([157]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Infanterist in neuer Ausrüstung. ([157]) [Abb.]: Englische Kavallerie reitet zur Attacke an (Sommegebiet). (158) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf eine Gruppe ehemaliger Wohnstätten bei Peronne. (2)Ruinen in einem vollständig zerschossenen französischen Dorfe (Gegend von Peronne). (3)Zerschossene betonierte deutsche Unterstände an der Somme, die beim ersten Anprall verloren, dann aber zurückerobert wurden. (159) [Abb.]: Zu dem beispiellosen Munitionsaufwand der Engländer im Westen: Zufuhr von Wurfminen in die englischen Schützengräben. (160) [Abb.]: Deutsche Maschinengewehrabteilung und Infanterie in Pozières verteidigen einen Straßeneingang. ([161]) [Abb.]: Zerschossene, mit Sandsäcken geschützte Straßenecke in Verdun. (162) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (162) Erwerbsmöglichkeiten für heimkehrende Kriegsteilnehmer in geistig arbeitenden Berufen. (162) [2 Abb.]: Verdun vor dem Kriege und während der Beschießung 1916.(1)Morgenstimmung am Ufer der Maas, Sommer 1913. Verdun, am Horizont Belleville. (2)Zerstörungen im unteren Stadtteil Verduns am Ufer der Maas. ([163]) [Abb.]: König Ludwig von Bayern und der deutsche Kronprinz schreiten eine Ehrenkompanie ab (westlicher Kriegschauplatz). (164) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen im südöstlichen Kaukasus (Kurdistan): Russisch-kaukasische Aufklärungsabteilung fällt in einen kurdischen Hinterhalt. ( - ) Der Feldzug in Mesopotamien. (165) [Abb.]: Französische Überläufer vor Verdun werden eingebracht. Die Offiziere suchen sich durch Verdeckung des Gesichts unkenntlich zu machen. (165) [Abb.]: Djemal Pascha, Kommandant der Wüstenarmee. (166) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Abteilung des Roten Halbmonds auf dem Marsch in der Wüste. (2)Türkische Infanterie und Kamelreiter auf dem Marsch in der Wüste. (167) Der Übergang über die Meurthe am 24. August 1914. (170) [Abb.]: Übergang über die Meurthe am 24. August 1914. ([168 - 169]) Feld- und Etappenbäckereien. (170) [Abb.]: Eine Anzahl "Ausgehungerter". (170) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feldbäckerei an der Westfront in der Champagne, die Brot für eine ganze Division bäckt. Das frisch gebackene Brot wird zum Lagerraum gebracht. (2)Feldbäckerei an der Westfront in der Champagne, die Brot für eine ganze Division bäckt. Das Mehl wird zur Backstube getragen. (171) Nachtkämpfe am Hilsenfirst in den Vogesen. (172) [Abb.]: Am Brunnen in einem Vogesenstädtchen. (172) [Karte]: Skizze zu dem Aufsatz: Nachtkämpfe am Hilsenfirst. (172) [Abb.]: Nächtlicher Kampf am Hilsenfirst. ([173]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zum Besuch des Kaisers und des Kronprinzen in den Vogesen. (2)Französische Fahnenwache in den Vogesen verläßt ihren Unterstand, um sich in das Kampfgebiet zu begeben. (174) [Abb.]: Sandsackstellung in sumpfigem Gelände in den Vogesen. (175) Generalmajor Maximilian Ritter v. Hoen, Kommandant des k.u.k. Kriegspressequartiers und Direktor des Kriegsarchivs beim k.u.k. Kriegsministerium in Wien. (175) [Abb.]: Generalmajor Maximilian Ritter v. Hoen, Kommandant des k.u.k. Kriegspressequartiers und Direktor des Kriegsarchivs beim k.u.k. Kriegsministerium in Wien. (176) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 110 (Heft 110) ([177]) [Abb.]: Zur Erweiterung des Befehlsbereichs des Generalfeldmarschalls v. Hindenburg. ([177]) [Abb.]: Rast österreichisch-ungarischer Truppen nach einem mühseligen Bergmarsch. (178) [2 Abb.]: (1)Beförderung eines italienischen Geschützes an einem zwischen zwei Berggipfeln ausgespannten Seile. (2)Österreichisch-ungarisches Flugzeug zum Aufstieg bereit. (179) [Abb.]: Abgeschlagener Alpiniangriff im Hochgebirge. ([180 - 181]) [Abb.]: Auf Feldwache in einem wolhynischen Haferfeld. (182) [4 Abb.]: (1)Gefangener Russe vom Kaukasus. (2)Von den österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen an der südlichen Ostfront gefangener Tscherkessenanführer in einer Prunkuniform. (3)Gefangener Russe kurz nach seiner Einbringung. (4)Gefangene Russen auf der Straße dicht hinter der Front in Wolhynien. (183) [Abb.]: Soldaten der bulgarischen XI. mazedonischen Infanteriedivision mit französischen Gefangenen. (184) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (184) Massenspeisungen. (184) [Abb.]: Im Gefecht abgesessene Reiterei im Osten schleicht sich an den Feind heran. ( - ) [Abb.]: Bajonettangriff bulgarischer Infanterie. (185) [Abb.]: Essenausteilung an unbemittelte Kinder. (186) [2 Abb.]: (1)Militärische Obstverwertungsanlage im Westen: Das Einkochen des Winterobstes. (2)Militärische Obstverwertungsanlage im Westen: Das Abfüllen des Fruchtsaftes und Einlegen des gekochten Obstes in die Gläser. (187) Der Kampf um die Feste Vaux. (186) [Abb.]: Französische Telephonleitung zu den vordersten Schützengräben. (188) [Abb.]: Zu dem Ringen um die Feste Vaux: Deutsche Truppen brechen aus dem Schützengraben zum Handgranatenkampf vor. ([189]) Neue Kämpfe in Wolhynien und den Karpathen. (190) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarischer Stab im Erdunterstand in Galizien. (2)Verlassene russische Stellung an der südlichen Ostfront. (191) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte der Ostkarpathen und der Bukowina mit Daten, die das allmähliche Vordringen der Russen veranschaulichen. (192) Kaperkrieg an Englands Küste. (192) [Abb.]: Aufbringung eines feindlichen Handelsdampfers durch deutsche Hochseestreitkräfte an der englischen Küste. ([193]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gekaperte Schiffe in flandrischen Häfen. Dampfer "Lestris". Vor ihm liegt ein Ladekahn. (2)Gekaperte Schiffe in flandrischen Häfen. "Brussels" und "Zaandstrom" im Hafen von Brügge. Die "Brussels" war das Schiff des erschossenen englischen Freibeuters Kapitän Fryatt. (194) Entwicklung und Ausbau unserer Schützengräben und Unterstände. (195) [Abb.]: Unterstand in den Vogesen, 40 Meter vorm Feinde. (195) [Abb.]: Aus Weidengeflecht hergestellte Barrikade an einem deutschen Schützengraben im Westen. (196) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 111 (Heft 111) ([197]) [Abb.]: Blick auf den Hof des Offiziersgefangenenlagers in der Zitadelle von Mainz, wo sich englische, französische und belgische Offiziere befinden. ([197]) [Abb.]: Englisches lenkbares Luftschiff, nach längerer Fahrt an seine Ausfahrtstation zurückkehrend. (198) [Abb.]: Eigenartiges Mißgeschick eines englischen Luftschiff-Beobachtungsoffiziers. Der Fallschirm seines Fesselballons wurde durch den Wind aus seiner Umhüllung gerissen und aufgespannt, wodurch der Korb des Beobachters in Gefahrt geriet, umzukippen. Nur durch schnelles Abschneiden des Taus vermochte sich der Insasse zu retten. (199) [Abb.]: Aus den Minenkämpfen im Westen bei der französisch-englischen Sommeroffensive 1916: Den nach vielstündiger Artillerievorbereitung vorstürmenden englischen Massen stürzen sich immer wieder aus unterirdischen Stollen, Minentrichtern und Granatlöchern deutsche Abteilungen entgegen, die den Engländern mit ihren Maschinengewehren, sowie im Nahkampf mit Handgranaten, Bajonett, Messer und Schaufel blutige Verluste zufügen. ([200 - 201]) [Abb.]: Großer Betonunterstand im Bau. (Westlicher Kriegschauplatz). (202) [Abb.]: Von der englisch-französischen Offensive im Sommer 1916: Schwere englische Haubitze in Tätigkeit. ([203]) [Abb.]: Ankunft tonkinesischer Schützen aus Französisch-Indochina in Paris. (204) [Abb.]: In Erdlöchern und Gräben verborgene deutsche Maschinengewehr-Abteilung hält dem nach stundenlanger Artillerievorbereitung durch das Stacheldrahtgewirr hereinbrechenden englischen Anprall erfolgreich stand. ( - ) [Abb.]: Sächsische Reserve schlägt am 10. August 1916 einen englischen Durchbruchsversuch hart nördlich der Somme zurück. ([205]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (206) Der Kampf um die Feste Vaux. (206) [Abb.]: Englische Soldaten bauen eine Straße durch die Trümmer von Contalmaison, das durch Geschützfeuer vollständig verschüttet wurde. (207) Entwicklung und Ausbau unserer Schützengräben und Unterstände. (207) [Abb.]: Aus Azannes, nördlich von Donaumont bei Verdun: Deutsche Soldaten mit den neuen Stahlhelmen beziehen ihre Stellungen. (208) Militär-Lastkraftwagen. (208) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines Angriffs starker, zum Teil neu herangeführter französischer Truppen gegen die deutschen Stellungen zwischen Maurepas und der Somme durch Artilleriesperrfeuer und vorgehende deutsche Infanterie am 9. August. ([209]) [Abb.]: Hauptmann Kalau vom Hofe, Führer des 1. Bataillons des Grenadierregiments Nr. 12, wurde für die heldenmäßige Verteidigung der Feste Donaumont im Mai 1916 durch Verleihung des Ordens Pour le Mérite ausgezeichnet. (210) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mannesmann-Mulag-Panzerwagen. (2)Kraftwagenzug der Pioniere. (211) Die Russenschlacht in Nordostgalizien. (210) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Tragtierkolonne auf dem Marsch in Nordostgalizien. (212) Überfall auf ein italienisches Lager in Tripolis. (212) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zu den Kämpfen in Nordafrika: Berittener Askari in der italienischen Kolonie Erythräa. (2)Überfall auf ein italienisches Lager in Tripolis. (213) Arbeit hinter der Front. (214) [Abb.]: Deutsche Organisation in Polen. Vor einer deutschen Kommandantur warten Arbeitsuchende auf Zuweisung von Arbeit. (214) [3 Abb.]: Vom Betriebe der polnischen Quarantäne-Anstalt in Modlin (Nowo-Georgiewsk). (1)Etwa 3000 flüchtige Bauern aus der Gegend von Minsk, Riga und Dünaburg kamen mit der Eisenbahn in dem von deutschen Truppen besetzten Gebiet an, wo sie in der Quarantäneanstalt entlaust, geimpft und von deutschen Militärärzten auf ihren Gesundheitszustand untersucht wurden. Nach Ablauf von drei Wochen wurden die Bauern, hauptsächlich Weißrussen, über die Kolonien in Polen verteilt. (2)Die gereinigten und gespeisten Flüchtlinge werden durch deutsche Soldaten in Gruppen eingeteilt zwecks Verwendung in verschiedenen Gebieten. (3)Ein Teil der Flüchtlinge mit den mitgebrachten Haushaltungsgegenständen. (215) Kriegsnotgeld. (214) [Abb.]: Ankunft von Liebesgaben auf einem Bahnhof im Osten. (216) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 112 (Heft 112) ([217]) [Abb.]: Die Piazuttakirche in Görz mit dem umliegenden zerschossenen Straßenviertel und Blick gegen das Kastell. ([217]) [Karte]: Görz und Umgebung aus der Vogelschau. (218) [Abb.]: Italienische Verwundete werden vom Schlachtfeld zum Verbandplatz gebracht. (219) [Abb.]: Die Stärke der europäischen Völkerschaften. (220) [Abb.]: Säuberung des Isonzoufers von den dort eingedrungenen italienischen Truppen. ([221]) [Karte]: Karte zum Vormarsch der Bulgaren an der mazedonischen Front. (222) [Abb.]: Zur Bekämpfung der auf dem Balkan besonders großen Seuchengefahr: Deutsche Soldaten werden zum Schutz gegen die Cholera geimpft. (223) [Abb.]: Blick auf Doiran am Doiransee an der serbisch-griechischen Grenze. (224) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (224) Die Kämpfe zwischen Pruth und Dnjestr. (224) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen (X) und der bulgarische General Bojadieff (XX) während einer Fahrt auf dem Ochridasee. (224) [Abb.]: Niederwerfung der Russen im Bajonett- und Handgranatenkampf am Skobrowabach 9. August 1916. ( - ) [3 Abb.]: (1)Von den Franzosen auf ihrem Rückzuge zerstörte Brücke in Mazedonien. (2)Eine Abteilung der bulgarischen XI. mazedonischen Infanteriedivision mit erbeuteten französichen Maschinengewehren. (3)Eine Abteilung der bulgarischen XI. mazedonischen Infanteriedivision in einem beim Vormarsch gegen die Franzosen aufgeworfenen Schützengraben. (225) [Abb.]: Serbischer Soldat in neuer Ausrüstung. (226) Russische Kampfformen in der Sommeroffensive 1916. (226) [3 Abb.]: (1)Generaloberst v. Teresztyanszky, Führer einer Armee an der Ostfront. (2)Der rumänische Ministerpräsident und Träger der vertragswidrigen Politik Rumäniens, Bratianu. (3)König Ferdinand von Rumänien. (227) [Abb.]: Essenfassen türkischer Truppen auf einem galizischen Bahnhof. (228) [Abb.]: Türkische Truppen in Galizien weisen am 17. August 1916 einen russischen Angriff an der Zlota Lipa zurück. ([229]) Körperpflege im Heere. (228) [Abb.]: Eine von deutschen Truppen errichtete Badeanstalt. Die Wände sind mit lustigen Zeichnungen geschmückt. (230) [3 Abb.]: (1)"Autobadewagen" auf der Fahrt. (2)Aufgeschlagener "Autobadewagen". (3)In Betrieb gesetzter "Autobadewagen". (231) Französische Feldbriefe. (230) Aus dem Kriegstagebuch eines Schwarzkragens. (232) [4 Abb.]: (1) General Schostow, Chef des bulgarischen Generalstabs, starb am 1. September 1916 an den Folgen eines schweren Anfalls von Blinddarmentzündung. (2)Die eiserne Gedenkmünze der Deutschen Reichsbank, die den Einlieferern von Goldgegenständen verliehen wird. (3)(4)Bescheinigung der Deutschen Reichsbank für den Umtausch von Gold in Kassenscheine. (232) [Abb.]: Deutsche Flieger über Belfort. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 113 (Heft 113) ([233]) [Abb.]: Marktplatz von Peronne mit zerschossenen Häusern und dem Denkmal der heldenmütigen Jungfrau von Peronne. ([233]) [Abb.]: Der von den Engländern zu einem Trümmerhaufen zusammengeschossene Ort Mametz nördlich der Somme. (234) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eingang zu dem Dorfe Fromelles im Gebiet der englischen Offensive im Westen, wo die Bayern am 19. Juli 1916 starke englische Angriffe zurückwiesen. (2)Von Geschossen aller Art duchsiebtes Haus in Fromelles. (235) [Abb.]: Französischer Flammenwerfer. (236) [Abb.]: Essenholen vor dem Einrücken in die Kampfstellung am Vauxberg vor Verdun. ([237]) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte zu den Kämpfen zwischen Thiaumont und dem Chapitrewald, um Fort Souville bei Fleury und Fort Tavannes vor Verdun. (238) [6 Abb.]: Zerstörungen in den Dörfern vor Verdun, westlich der Maas. (1)Granateinschläge, beobachtet von der Höhe 304 vor Verdun. (2)Sperrfeuer, von der Höhe 304 aus gesehen. (3)Trümmer von Haucourt-Malancourt am Fuß der Höhe 304. (4)Das gänzlich zerstörte Malancourt. (5)Der Fuß der Höhe 304 bei Haucourt-Malancourt. (6)Das gänzlich zerstörte Dorf Haucourt am Fuß der Höhe 304. ([239]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (240) Seestrategie und Seetaktik. (240) [Abb.]: Die kühne Mannschaft des ersten Handelsunterseebootes "Deutschland" mit ihrem Kapitän König nach der glücklichen Wiederkehr von ihrer Amerikafahrt in den Bremer Freihafen. (240) [Abb.]: Die Einfahrt des ersten Handelsunterseebootes "Deutschland" in die Wesermündung am 25. August 1916. ([241]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kapitänleutnant Walter Forstmann. (2)Abgeschossene französischer Kampfdoppeldecker mit zwei Motoren. (242) [7 Abb.]: Erfolgreiche deutsche Kampfflieger im Westen. (1)Leutnant Mulzer, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (2)Oberleutnant Freiherr v. Althaus. (3)Leutnant Wintgens, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (4)Leutnant Baldamus. (5)Leutnant Höhndorf, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite.(6)Leutnant Parschau, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite, starb den Fliegertod im Westen. (7)Leutnant Frankl, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (243) [Abb.]: Deutsche Hochseestreitkräfte beim Vorstoß in die Nordsee am 19. August 1916. ([244 - 245]) Der Tod als Würger. (246) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte zu den türkischen Angriffen an der Front des Suezkanals. (247) Aus der Sommeschlacht. (248) [2 Abb.]: (1)Rumänische Infanterie, ausgerüstet zur Front. (2)Rumänische Offiziere. (248) [Abb.]: Ein englischer Gasangriff auf deutsche Schützengräben an der Somme. ([249]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Gefangene Engländer aus der Sommeschlacht vor der Kaserne der Zitadelle von Cambrai (4. August 1916). (2)Gefangene weiße und farbige Franzosen aus der Sommeschlacht in der Zitadelle von Cambrai (4. August 1916). (3)Gefangene Engländer aus der Sommeschlacht in der Zitadelle von Cambrai (4. August 1916)- (250 - 251) Rumäniens militärische und politische Bedeutung. (252) [Abb.]: Rumänischer Kavallerist in feldmarschmäßiger Ausrüstung. (252) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 114 (Heft 114) ([253]) [Abb.]: Auf der Hauptstraße in Kowel. Deutsche Artilleristen auf dem dem Wege zur Front. ([253]) [Abb.]: Armeekommandant General der Kavallerie Erzherzog Karl (der österreichisch-ungarische Thronfolger Karl Franz Joseph) bei der Beratung mit den seiner Armee zugeteilten deutschen Führern. (254) [Abb.]: Beförderung eines 30,5-cm-Mörsers auf schwerer Etappenbrücke bei Stryj an der Strecke nach Chodorowo in Galizien. (255) [2 Abb.]: (1)Völlig erschöpfte russische Pferde in einem deutschen Pferdelazarett. (2)Verhör gefangener Russen kurz nach ihrer Einbringung. (256) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte der deutschen und österreichisch-ungarischen Ostfront vom Meere bis zum Balkan. ([257]) [Karte]: Sonderkarte von Rumänien. (258) [Abb.]: Blick auf die an der Dreiländerecke, der Grenze Österreich-Ungarns, Rumäniens und Serbiens gelegene Stadt Orsova an der Donau, vom serbischen Ufer aus. (259) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (259) Keine kolonialpolitischen Verzichte! (259) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Kronstadt (ungarisch Brasso) mit Umgebung in Siebenbürgen. Die Stadt wurde von den Österreichern und Ungarn vor den eindringenden Rumänen geräumt. (2)Straßenbild aus Herkulesbad (Herkules-Fürdö). Auf den Höhen östlich des bekannten ungarischen Heilbades wurden rumänische Angriffe abgeschlagen. (260) [Abb.]: Zur Vergewaltigung Griechenlands: Die englisch-französische Flotte vor dem Piräus am 1. September 1916. Links die Hafeneinfahrt des Piräus , rechts die Bucht von Phaleron, dahinter Athen. ( - ) [Abb.]: Stürmische Begeisterung der Bulgaren in Sofia anläßlich der Kriegserklärung gegen Rumänien. Bulgarische Truppen werden bei der Abreise zur Dobrudschafront von der Bevölkerung Sofias jubelnd begrüßt. Im Hintergrunde die Sobranje und davor das Denkmal des "Zar-Befreiers". ([261]) [Abb.]: Der französische General Sarrail, Oberbefehlshaber der verbündeten Truppen in Saloniki, wohnt der Ankunft des ersten italienischen Regiments bei. Hinter ihm ein italienischer höherer Offizier. (262) Seestrategie und Seetaktik. (262) [Abb.]: Stellungskizze zu dem Aufsatz "Seestrategie und Seetaktik". (263) [Abb.]: Vergeblicher Ansturm englischer Divisionen gegen die tapfer standhaltenden württembergischen Truppen bei Ovillers. ([264 - 265]) [Abb.]: "Nach zwei Jahren - Waffenbrüder. Eine Allegorie der Entente." (266) Aus der Sommeschlacht. (266) [Abb.]: Gefangene Franzosen aus den Kämpfen an der Somme warten am Bahnhof Ham in Nordfrankreich auf ihre Überführung nach Deutschland. (266) [Abb.]: Ein Riesenperiskop in hochgeschraubter Stellung. (267) Periskope des Landkrieges. (268) [Abb.]: Das Riesenperiskop fertig zum Transport. (268) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 115 (Heft 115) ([269]) [Abb.]: Ruhe nach schwerem Gefecht. ([269]) [Abb.]: Aufbruch einer Radfahrerkompanie zum Sturmangriff bei den Kämpfen der englisch-französischen Offensive. (270) [Abb.]: Erkundungsfahrt auf einem Neckarsulmer Motorrad durch einen von schwerem Granatfeuer umgelegten Wald. (271) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant Hermann v. Stein, Führer eines Reservekorps an der Somme, erhielt den Orden Pour le Mérite. (2)Laufgräben zur vordersten Linie und unterirdische Stollen, die unter den Ruinen der Häuser hindurchführen. (272) [Abb.]: Gefangennahme einer englischen Abteilung in einer Dorfkirche nördlich der Somme. ([273]) [Abb.]: Vorgehen deutscher Sturmtruppen beim Haumontwald vor Verdun. (274) [Abb.]: Vorfahrende Munitionskolonne einer schweren Batterie vor Verdun. (275) [Abb.]: Bulgarisches Feldlager im Gelände von Tutrakan in der Dobrudscha. (276) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (276) Seestrategie und Seetaktik. (276) [Abb.]: Die siegreichen bulgarischen und deutschen Truppen in der Dobrudscha nehmen den stark befestigten Platz Tutrakan im Sturm (6. September 1916). ( - ) [Abb.]: Das Szekler Infanterieregiment Nr. 82 in erfolgreichem Kampfe mit rumänischen Aufklärungsabteilungen südlich Kronstadt. ([277]) [Abb.]: Petroleumtanks im Hafen von Constanza, dem stark befestigten rumänischen Kriegshafen an der Küste des Schwarzen Meeres, der bereits mehrfach von deutschen Luftstreitkräften beschossen wurde. (278) Beschießung deutscher Stellungen an der asiatischen Küste der Dardanellen. (279) [Abb.]: Zeltlager österreichisch-ungarischer Truppen an der siebenbürgisch-rumänischen Grenze (279) [Abb.]: Beschießung deutscher Stellungen an der asiatischen Küste der Dardanellen durch die englisch-französische Mittelmeerflotte. ([280 - 281]) [Abb.]: Mit Hopfen geschmückte französische Kriegsgefangene, die bei der Hopfenernte in der Holledau, dem hopfenreichsten Teile Bayerns, tätig sind und denen diese Beschäftigung eine angenehme Abwechslung in ihrer Kriegsgefangenschaft bietet. (282) Das Ringen um Görz. (282) [Abb.]: Wie nach englischer Darstellung die Italiener unter österreichisch-ungarischem Feuer den Isonzo durchquerten, um Görz zu erstürmen. ([283]) [Abb.]: Innenansicht einer von den Italienern völlig zerstörten Kirche in Görz. (284) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 116 (Heft 116) ([285]) [Abb.]: General v. Gerok, der in dem Armeeverbande des Generals der Kavallerie Erzherzog Karl den Russen blutige Verluste beiderseits der Narajowka beibrachte. Unter General v. Linsingen bei der Südarmee erwarb sich General v. Gerok im Juli 1915 den Orden Pour le Mérite. ([285]) [Abb.]: Schwieriger Vormarsch mit Ochsenvorspann in den Karpathen. (286) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vorgeschobene Fernsprecherpatrouille einer Kavalleriedivision vor ihrem Unterstand in der Gegend des Naroczsees, südlich von Dünaburg. (2)Deutsche Fußartillerie auf dem Marsch in Galizien. (287) [Abb.]: Schützengraben eines ungarischen Honvedregiments an der russischen Front. (288) [Abb.]: Die russische Niederlage bei Swiniuchy, südwestlich von Luck, im August 1916. ([289]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Kraftwagenkolonne im Astachtal. (2)Österreichisch-ungarische Truppen nehmen Vorräte in Empfang. (Front gegen Italien.) (290) [Abb.]: Kampflinie im Karst auf 2100 Meter Höhe. (291) Illustrierte Kriegsbeilage. (292) Generalquartiermeister. (292) [Abb.]: Flüchtlinge von der Isonzofront bei der sechsten italienischen Angriffsbewegung. (292) [Abb.]: Einzug deutscher und bulgarischer Kavallerie in Silistria am 9. September 1916. ( - ) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines italienischen Überfalls am Berge Majo zwischen Etsch- und Astachtal. ([293]) Im Kampf gegen die Rumänen. (294) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen, der Führer der siegreichen deutschen, bulgarischen und türkischen Streitkräfte in der Dobrudscha. (294) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte zum Vordringen Mackensens in der Dobrudscha. (295) [Abb.]: Einbringung der ersten rumänischen Gefangenen in Sofia am 11. September 1916. (296) Der Krieg in Ostafrika im Juni und Juli 1916. (296) [Abb.]: Von dem linken Flügel der russischen Kaukasusfront: Türkische Truppen überfallen infolge eines glücklichen Handstreichs russische Gräben Ende August 1916, wobei eine große Beute an Kriegsmaterial und über 5000 Gefangene gemacht wurden. ([297]) [Abb.]: Bahnhof und Bahnhofsgebäude in Mombo an der Usambarabahn. (298) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fort Kilimatinde in Deutsch-Ostafrika. (2)Eingeborene von Deutsch-Ostafrika, die Trägerdienste für das deutsche Militär leisten, rasten auf der "Barra-barra" (Karawanenstraße). (299) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf die von den Engländern am 13. Juni 1916 besetzte ehemalige Station Alt-Langenburg am Nordende des Nyassasees. (2)Station Bismarckburg wurde am 11. Juni 1916 von den Engländern besetzt. (300) [Abb.]: Munitionskolonne überschreitet die Brücke über den Forgesbach in dem stark unter Feuer der feindlichen Artillerie von der Richtung des nördlichen Hessenwaldes und der Höhe 304 her gehaltenen Dorfe Forges. Im Hintergrunde der Rabenwald und ganz rechts hinten, in Granatenrauch gehüllt, der Tote Mann. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 117 (Heft 117) ([301]) [Abb.]: Starke Grabenstellung im Westen mit Schulterwehren für den einzelnen Mann. ([301]) [Karte]: Die Front Gueudecourt - Bouchavesnes. (302) [Abb.]: Eine der neuen Errungenschaften des Krieges: Maskiertes französisches 24-cm-Geschütz an der Sommefront. ([303]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Flieger in den Wolken. (304) [Abb.]: Deutsche Infanteriepatrouille beim Sturm auf ein Blockhaus in der Champagne. ([305]) [Abb.]: An einem Berghang vor Verdun von den Franzosen staffelförmig eingebaute Befestigungen und Unterstände für die Soldaten, sowie sicher angelegte Munitionskammern. (306) [Abb.]: Französische Kulturkämpfer. (307) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (308) Die Kämpfe im Karstgebiet (September 1916). (308) [Abb.]: Leben und Treiben auf einer Etappenstrecke am Isonzo. Auf den Kraftwagen die flüchtende Bevölkerung. (308) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Tragtierkolonne im krainischen Hochgebirge. ([309]) [3 Abb.]: Neue Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (1)Generalleutnant Ilse, Chef des Generalstabes eines Oberkommandos im Westen. (2)General der Infanterie v. Goßler. (3)General der Infanterie v. Hoehn, kommandierender General eines Reservekorps an der Somme. (310) [6 Abb.]: Neue Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (1)General der Infanterie Sxt v. Arnim, Führer einer Armeegruppe, die bei Thiepval besonders heftigen englischen Angriffen standhielt. (2)General der Kavallerie v. Laffert. (3)Oberst Heye, Chef des Generalstabes des Generalobersten v. Woyrsch. (4)Generalleutnant v. Kuhl, Chef des Generalstabes des Oberkommandos einer Heeresgruppe. (5)Generalder Kavallerie v. Bernhardi, der bekannte Militärschriftsteller, stellvertretender kommandierender General eines Armeekorps. (6)Königlich bayerischer General der Infanterie v. Xylander, kommandierender General eines Armeekorps. (311) Der Leuchtturm von Warnemünde. (312) [Abb.]: Küstenbeobachtungstation an der Ostsee: Der Leuchttum von Warnemünde. ([313]) Die stellvertretenden Generalkommandos und ihre Aufgaben. (314) [Abb.]: Zur Fleischversorgung im Felde: Soldaten treiben Vieh zu einer Korpsschlächterei im Osten. (314) [Abb.]: Der Wochenbedarf eines Armeekorps an Schweinen. (Westlicher Schauplatz.) (315) Die Feier des Beiramfestes am 31. Juli 1916 im Weinbergslager. (315) [3 Abb.]: Feier des Beiramfestes im Lager der mohammedanischen Kriegsgefangenen in Wünsdorf bei Zossen. (1)Die feierliche Ansprache und das Gebet. (2)Eine Gruppe gefangener Spahis während des Gebets. (3)Die gefangenen Russen mohammedanischen Glaubens während des Gebets. (316) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. heft 118 (Heft 118) ([317]) [2 Abb.]: (1)General v. der Marwitz, Befehlshaber der Truppen westlich von Luck, wurde unter Belassung in seinen Dienstverhältnissen zum Generaladjutanten des Deutschen Kaisers ernannt. (2)Ankunft frischer Truppen auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz: Nach dem Verlassen des Eisenbahnzuges. ([317]) [Abb.]: Blick auf ein deutsches Feldlager im Osten. (318) [Abb.]: Deutsche Armierungstruppen im Osten arbeiten an der Wiederherstellung von Festungswerken. (319) [Abb.]: Vergeblicher nächtlicher Sturm der Russen in den Karpathen. ([321]) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte der Dobrudschafront. (322) [Abb.]: Eine Straße in Hermannstadt (Nagy Szeben) in Siebenbürgen, das zu Beginn der Kampfhandlungen mit Rumänien von den österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen geräumt und durch die siegreiche Schlacht vom 26.-28. September 1916 den Rumänen wieder entrissen wurde. (323) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (323) Zwischen Wasser und Feuer. (323) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant v. Staabs, Führer deutscher und ungarischer Truppen in den wechselvollen Kämpfen gegen die Rumänen in Siebenbürgen im Raume des Balkan- und Szurdukpasses bei Petrofeny. (2)Die Talenge beim Szurdukpaß an der siebenbürgisch-rumänischen Grenze. (324) [Abb.]: Verfolgung der Rumänen in der Dobrudscha durch deutsche und bulgarische Kavallerie nach der Schlacht bei Dobric. ( - ) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Szurdukpasses durch die Truppen des Generalleutnants v. Staabs am 19. September 1916. ([325]) [Abb.]: Generalleutnant Krafft v. Delmensingen, der Sieger am Roten-Turm-Paß in Siebenbürgen, südlich von Hermannstadt. (326) Krieg und Flachsbau. (326) [Abb.]: Flucht der Reste der in der Umfassungschlacht bei Hermannstadt von deutschen und österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen unter dem Oberbefehl des Generals v. Falkenhayn geschlagenen ersten rumänischen Armee über den Roten-Turm-Paß, wo sie von dem verheerenden Feuer bayerischer Truppen unter Generalleutnant Krafft v. Delmensingen empfangen wurden. ([327]) Besuch in Donaumont. (328) [Abb.]: General Schekow, Generalissimus der bulgarischen Armee, im Felde. (328) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Kavallerie zersprengt am 17. September 1916 südlich der Linie Poroj-Matnica am Fuße der Belasica Planina die weichende italienische Infanterie. ([329]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ankunft des ersten Abteilungstransportes des 4. griechischen Armeekorps in Görlitz. (2)In Görlitz am 27. September 1916 eingetroffene griechische Soldaten des 4. griechischen Armeekorps, das sich in den Schutz des Deutschen Reiches begeben hat und in einem Barackenlager bei Görlitz untergebracht wurde. (330) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Kehlgraben 1 der völlig zerschossenen Feste Donaumont vor Verdun. (2)Statistik der jährlichen Baumwollernte der Erde. (331) Die Pistolkamera. (331) [3 Abb.]: (1)Die deutsche Pistolkamera im Gebrauch während des Fluges. (2)Die deutsche Pistolkamera von rechts gesehen. (3)Die deutsche Pistolkamera von links gesehen. (332) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 119 (Heft 119) ([333]) [3 Abb.]: (1)General der Infanterie v. Kathen. (2)General der Infanterie v. Boehn. (3)General der Infanterie v. Schenck. ([333]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von den Franzosen durchlöcherter Fabrikschornstein bei Chaulnes. (2)Verheerungen durch einschlagende Geschosse in einem Wäldchen bei Perconne. (334) [Abb.]: Neue Reservemannschaften ziehen an die Front in Nordfrankreich. Ankunft und Ausladen von Geschützen an der Bahn von Bapaume. (335) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen an der Somme: Unterirdische Geräusche kündigen an, daß der englische Schützengraben von deutscher Seite her untermininiert wird, wodurch die Besatzungstruppen sich genötigt sehen, ihre Stellung zu verlassen und den Graben zu räumen. Das deutsche Sperrfeuer zwingt sie jedoch in die Stellung zurück. ([336 - 337]) [Abb.]: neue belgische Riesenautomobile an der flandrischen Front. (338) [Karte]: Das bisherige Ergebnis der Somme-Offensive im Verhältnis zu dem Vorrücken auf Verdun und dem besetzten Gebiet. (339) [Abb.]: In der Sommeschlacht gefangene Franzosen werden auf dem Hofe des Kastells in Ham in Nordfrankreich mit Kaffee und Butterbrot gespeist. (339) [Abb.]: Von der Feier einer Fliegerabteilung im Westen bei Verleihung des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (340) [Abb.]: Thüringische Ulanen Nr. 6 (Hanau) überraschen und nehmen südöstlich der Stadt Tutrakan eine rumänische 15-cm-Batterie von vier Geschützen. ( - ) [Abb.]: Deutsches Fokkerflugzeug verfolgt einen Gegner. (341) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oberleutnant z.S. Peterson erlitt den Heldentod beim Luftangriff auf London am 23./24. September 1916. (2)Hauptmann Wilhelm Schramm Kommandant des Luftschiffes, das in der Nacht vom 2. zum 3. September 1916 über London im feindlichen Feuer abstürzte. (3)Kapitänleutnant Heinrich Mathy, Kommandant des beim Luftangriff auf London am 1./2. Oktober 1916 vernichteten Luftschiffes. (342) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (342) Thüringische Ulanen Nr. 6 bei Tutrakan. (342) [2 Abb.]: (1), (2)Lichtbildaufnahme des von deutschen Fliegern gesprengten englischen Munitionslagers bei Audruick, 16 Kilometer südlich von Calais, des größten Munitionslagers der Welt, am Tage vor und - nach dem Angriff. (342) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein seltenes Denkmal: Der Mast des "Maori". (2)Matrosenkompanie auf dem Marsch an der flandrischen Küste. (343) Rettung französischer U-Boot-Mannschaft durch österreichisch-ungarische Flieger. (344) [Abb.]: Die Fliegeroffiziere einer österreichisch-ungarischen Flotten-Flug-Abteilung mit ihrem Kommandanten, Linienschiffsleutnant Konjovic. (344) Der Kampf gegen die Rumänen. 2. Die Befreiung Siebenbürgens. (344) [Abb.]: Heldenmütige Rettung der gesamten Mannschaft des versenkten französischen Unterseebootes "Foucault" durch zwei österreichisch-ungarische Seeflugzeuge. ([345]) Frauen als Kämpferinnen. (346) [4 Abb.]: Weibliche Mitkämpfer im österreichisch-ungarischen und russischen Heer. (1)Fräulein Maria v. Fery-Bognar, die beim österreichisch-ungarischen Heere als Kriegsfriwillige kämpfte, zum Korporal befördert wurde und für bewiesene Tapferkeit vom Kaiser Franz Joseph eine goldene Brosche mit Initialen erhielt. (2)Fräulein Jarema Kuz, Kadettaspirant der Ukrainer freiwilligen Ulanenschwadron im österreichisch-ungarischen Heere. (3)Fräulein Tania, eine sechzehnjährige Russin, die als Infanterist im russischen Heere mitkämpfte. Der Infanterist zu ihrer Linken ist ein fünfzehnjähriger russischer Freiwilliger. (4)Marsa Malko, die Frau eines russischen Unteroffiziers, die an dessen Seite kämpfte, bis er fiel, und selbst bei Schaulen in deutsche Gefangenschaft geriet. Im Gefangenenlager Laugszargen wurde sie als Frau erkannt und mußte ihre Uniform mit Frauenkleidern vertauschen. (347) Gold gab ich für Eisen. (348) [Abb.]: Gold gab ich für Eisen. (348) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 120 (Heft 120) ([349]) [2 Abb.]: (1)General v. Eben, Kommandierender General an der Ostfront, dessen Truppen nördlich Zborow russische Massenstürme im Bajonettkampf restlos zurückschlugen, erhielt vom Kaiser den Orden Pour le Mérite. (2)Anlegen von Drahtverhauen vor den österreichisch-ungarischen Stellungen an der bessarabischen Front. ([349]) [Abb.]: Russische Gefangene werden gleich nach ihrer Einbringung mit warmem Essen gespeist. (350) [Abb.]: Blick auf die Straße eines von den deutschen Truppen besetzten russischen Dorfes in der Gegend von Kowel. (351) [Abb.]: Malerische Ansicht aus einem von deutschen Truppen besetzten russischen Dorf in Wolhynien. (352) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen in Wolhynien: eine Schwadron ungarischer Landsturmhusaren verfolgt bei Nowo-Poczajew zurückgeschlagene Russen. ([353]) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte des Gebietes um Kronstadt. (354) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (354) Grandpré an der Aire und sein Schloß. (354) Österreichisch-ungarische Vortruppen im Kampf mit den weichenden Rumänen vor Kronstadt. (355) [Abb.]: Vom Kriegschauplatz an der siebenbürgisch-rumänischen Grenze: Die Südkarpathen südlich von Kronstadt, wo die verbündeten Truppen die Grenze überschritten. (356) Die Funkentelegraphie im Weltkriege. (356) [Abb.]: Leben hinter der Front: Vor dem Schloß in Grandpré. Ausrückende Ulanenpatrouille, rechts Speisung französischer Gefangener. ( - ) [Abb.]: Einzug der siegreichen deutschen Truppen in das befreite Kronstadt. ([357]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Franziskanerpater Kovács begrüßt vor der Kirche die erste Honvedtruppe, die in Kronstadt eindrang. (2)Ansicht von Monastir mit dem Peristerigebirge (2532 Meter). (358) [Abb.]: Angriff deutscher und bulgarischer Truppen auf befestigte Feldstellungen an der Cerna. ([359]) Der Sturmangriff bei Zillebeke. (360 - 361) [Abb.]: Die Erstürmung des Höhenrückens südöstlich von Zillebeke bei Ypern und der dahinter gelegenen englischen Stellungen durch württembergische Regimenter am 2. Juni 1916. (360 - 361) [Abb.]: Moderne Schutzwaffen: Die Stahlweste eines englischen Hauptmanns, die ihn vor dem sicheren Tode rettete. (362) Der weiße Krieg. (362) [6 Abb.]: Aus dem Gletschergebiet des Ortlers in Südtirol. (1)Beförderung eines Geschützes über die Ferner. (2)Abfeuern eines Mörsers. (3)Patrouille sicht sich ihren Weg durch einen Gletscherbruch. (4)Abseilen eines Verwundeten. (5)Beförderung von Holz durch Hunde. (6)Verwundetentransport vom Gletscher. ([363]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Telegraphenstation auf einem Farman-Zweidecker. (2)Automobilstation (Innenansicht). (364) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 121 (Heft 121) ([365]) [Abb.]: Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose, der das deutsche Unterseeboot "U 53" aus Wilhelmshaven in 17 Tagen über den Atlantischen Ozean nach Newport auf Rhode Island (Amerika) führte, wo er am 8. Oktober 1916 ankam. ([365]) [Abb.]: Exzellenz v. Lochow, Kommandierender General des brandenburgischen Armeekorps im Westen. (366) [2 Abb.]: Bilder aus den besetzten Städten Cambrai und Bapaume. (1)Eine Infanteriekolonne überschreitet den Marktplatz in Cambrai. (2) Straßenbild aus Bapaume. (367) [Abb.]: Blick auf ein Schlachtfeld an der Somme von einem Flugzeuge in 200 Metern Höhe aus während des Kampfes um Vermandovillers am 17. September 1916. (368) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen weisen im Nahkampf französische Angriffe aus dem Raume Morval-Bouchavesnes zurück. ([369]) [Abb.]: Flugzeug eines französischen Fliegergeschwaders, das den Auftrag hat, Bomben auf deutsche Städte zu werfen. (370) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (371) Der Unterseebootkrieg im Herbst 1916. (371) [Abb.]: Handgranatenwerfer mit Sthalhelm (Sturmpionier). (371) [Karte]: Karte der neuen russischen Bahn zur Murmanküste. (372) [Abb.]: Katharinen-Hafen bei Alexandrowsk auf der Halbinsel Kola, der Endpunkt der Murmanbahn. (372) [Abb.]: Der deutsche Tauchboot "U 53" an der amerikanischen Küste. Begegnung mit dem amerikanischen Zerstörer "Benham" beim "Nantucket"-Feuerschiff. ( - ) [Abb.]: Beschießung des Hafens von Alexandrowsk, des Endpunktes der russischen Murmanbahn am nördlichen Eismeer, durch ein deutsches Unterseeboot. ([373]) Die Vorbereitung der Friedenswirtschaft. (374) [Abb.]: Französische Truppen auf dem italienischen Kriegschauplatz bereiten sich ihre Suppe. (374) [Abb.]: Kriegshunde als Zugtiere in der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee an der italienischen Front. (375) Die Vertreibung der Italiener aus Tripolis. (375) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarisches Maschinengewehr im Krn-Abschnitt in Stellung. (375) [Abb.]: Siegreicher Angriff der türkischen Freiwilligen unter Nuri Pascha, dem Bruder des Enver Pascha, auf die Italiener bei Mistrata in Tripolis (Juli 1916), wobei 200 Offiziere und 6000 Mann gefangen genommen sowie 24 Geschütze erbeutet wurden. ([376 - 377]) Neues von der Feldpost. (378) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Feldpost auf dem Vormarsch (östlicher Kriegschauplatz). (2)Feldpostexpedition im Unterstand (östlicher Kriegschauplatz). (378) [Abb.]: Die Feldpost in einer Stadt auf dem westlichen Kriegschauplatz. (379) [8 Abb.]: Unterhaltungen der Feldgrauen hinter der Front. (1)Kegelbahn hinter der Front. (2)Beim Krocketspiel in einem flandrischen Küstenort. (3)Kinovorstellung im Quartier. (4)Theatervorstellung im Unterstand. (5)Beim Boxen. (6)Beim Angeln in der Maas. (7)Kraftfahrerkapelle bei lustiger Musik. (8)Beim Skat vor dem Quartier. ([380]) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 122 (Heft 122) ([381]) [Abb.]: Oberleutnant v. Cossel und sein Flugzeugführer Vizefeldwebel Windisch. ([381]) [3 Abb.]: Aus den ostpreußischen Kriegsgefangenenlagern. (1)Baracken des Kriegsgefangenenlagers Tublauken bei Gumbinnen. (2)Die Kriegsgefangenen des Lagers Gumbinnen in ihrer Lagerstätte beim Morgenkaffee. (3)Ankunft der Post für die Kriegsgefangenen des Lagers Stallupönen. (382) [3 Abb.]: Aus den ostpreußischen Kriegsgefangenenlagern. (1)Russische Kriegsgefangene des Lagers Stallupönen beim Mittagsgebet. (2)Fünf verschiedenen Völkern angehörende Gefangene des Lagers Stallupönen beim Kartoffelschälen. (3)Engländer, Franzose, Serbe, Russe und Belgier in der Kantine des Kriegsgefangenenlagers Stallupönen (383) [Abb.]: Deutsche Infanterie und Artillerie bei Überschreiten der Narajowka. (384 - 385) [Abb.]: Zum Besuch König Ferdinands von Bulgarien bei der Armee des österreichisch-ungarischen Thronfolgers Erzherzog Karl, jetzigen Kaisers Karl I. (386) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (387) Die Bartholomäusnacht am Roten-Turm-Paß. (387) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen besichtigt von dem bulgarischen Thronfolger Kronprinzen Boris begleitet ein bei den Dobrudschkakämpfen hervorragend beteiligtes bulgarisches Regiment. (387) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zur Umklammerung Rumäniens. (387) [Abb.]: Im rumänischen Petroleumgebiet: Blick auf Petroleumquellen des Predealtales mit seinen unzähligen Petroleumtürmen (Sonden). (388) [Abb.]: Vorstoß deutscher Torpedobootstreitkräfte aus der Deutschen Bucht durch die Straße Dover-Calais bis zur Linie Folkestone-Boulogne im Kanal in der Nacht vom 26. auf den 27. Oktober 1916. ( - ) [Abb.]: Deutsche Flieger bewerfen die rumänische Hafenstadt Constanza am Vortage ihrer Einnahme mit Bomben. ([389]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die unter König Karl I. von Rumänien erbaute große Donaubrücke bei Cernavoda, die von den Rumänen auf ihrem Rückzuge zerstört wurde. (2)Ein Teil der zerstörten Donaubrücke bei Cernavoda. (390) Die Vorbereitung der Friedenswirtschaft. (390) [Abb.]: Ein Bataillon schottischer Hochländer auf dem Marsche durch gebirgiges Gelände bei Saloniki. (391) Der deutsche Vorstoß in den Kanal. (392) [Abb.]: Vor der bulgarischen Kommandantur in Veles am Wardar. Die Vorderseite des Gebäudes zeigt zahlreiche Geschoßtreffer. (392) [Abb.]: Die malerisch am Wardar gelegene Stadt Veles in Mazedonien. (393) Helden der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee. (394) [Abb.]: Kommodore Michelsen, der Führer der deutschen Torpedobootstreitkräfte, die in der Nacht vom 26. auf den 27. Oktober 1916 aus der Deutschen Bucht durch die Straße Dover-Calais bis zur Linie Folkestone-Boulogne im Kanal vorstießen, wobei sie eine Anzahl feindlicher Vorpostendampfer und Zerstörer teils vernichteten, teils schwer beschädigten. (394) Feldgeistliche. (395) [3 Abb.]: (1)Seekadett Johann Ritter Fritsch v. Cronenwald, Flugzeugführer bei vielen erfolgreichen Unternehmungen, so am 2. August 1916 gegen italienische Luftfahrzeuge bei Durazzo. (2)Der in den österreichisch-ungarischen Tagesberichten mehrfach wegen seiner kühnen und erfolgreichen Seeflüge genannte Leutnant Gottfried Banfield. (3)Leutnant Karl Kaiser, der Held vom Monte Interrotto, der mit einer sechs Mann starken Patrouille 266 Italiener, darunter vier Offiziere, als Gefangene zurückbrachte. (395) [2 Abb.]: (1)Beim Feldgottesdienst. (2)Deutsche Feldgeistliche evangelischer und katholischer Konfession. (396) [Abb.]: Eine deutsche Kolonne mit Feldküche zieht durch ein Dorf vor Verdun. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 123 (Heft 123) ([397]) [Abb.]: Besichtigung der Sommekämpfer. ([397]) [Abb.]: Eines der von den Franzosen an der Sommefront verwendeten schweren Geschütze, die auf fahrbare Gerüste aufgebaut sind und auf Geleisen schnell nach jeder beliebigen Stelle der Front geschafft werden können. (398) [2 Abb.]: (1)Verwendung farbiger Völker bei der Munitionsherstellung in Frankreich. (2)Verwendung farbiger Völker bei der Munitionsherstellung in Frankreich. (399) [Abb.]: Ein Opfer englischer Barberei. Kapitänleutnant Claus Hansen, Kommandant des deutschen Unterseebootes U 41, das am 24. September 1915 in der Nähe der Scillyinseln von einem englischen Dampfer unter amerikanischer Flagge vernichtet wurde. (400) [2 Karten]: (1)Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen nördlich von Perconne bis zum 4. November 1916. (2)Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen südlich von Perconne bis zum 4. November 1916. (400) [Abb.]: Störung englischen Fischfangs nördlich von Schottland durch ein deutsches Unterseeboot, das, plötzlich aus den Wellen auftauchend, die deutsche Kriegsflagge hißt und Befehl gibt, daß sich alle Fischermannschaften an Bord eines Fahrzeuges zu begeben haben, damit die übrigen sämtlich versenkt werden können. ([401]) [Abb.]: Feierliche Einholung der Leiche des Fliegerhauptmanns Bölcke. Die Eltern und Brüder begeben sich zur Totenfeier in die Kathedrale zu Cambrai. (402) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen am Karst. (403) [Abb.]: Eselkarren für den Wassertransport im Hochgebirge an der österreichisch-ungarischen Front gegen Italien. (403) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (404) Der Krieg in Ostafrika im August und September 1916. (404) [Abb.]: Mpapua in Deutsch-Ostafrika an der Usambarabahn, etwa 350 Kilometer westlich von Daresalam. (404) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Eingeborenendorf auf den Ulugurenbergen in Deutsch-Ostafrika. (2)Das Eingeborenenviertel von Kilossa in Deutsch-Ostafrika. (405) [Abb.]: Die Feste Mahenge in Deutsch-Ostafrika. Askari in Verteidigungstellung. (406) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Feste Tabora in Deutsch-Ostafrika. (2)Ein deutscher Militärkraftwagen in den Straßen von Daresalam in Deutsch-Ostafrika. (407) Die Grundlagen der britischen Seeherrschaft. (407) [Abb.]: Gefangennahme italienischer Truppen auf einem Berggipfel des Karstgebietes, der von österreichisch-ungarischen Soldaten im Sturm genommen wurde. ([408 409]) [Abb.]: Straßenverkehr in der von den deutschen Truppen besetzten russischen Stadt Lida. (410) [2 Abb.]: Auf dem großen Wochenmarkt von Lida in Rußland. (1)Deutsche Soldaten beim Einhandeln von Kälbern, in der Mitte die Marktpolizei (mit Armbinde). (2)In langen Reihen, wie ausgerichtet, stehen die Schlitten, auf denen die Landbevölkerung ihre Waren zu Markt bringt. (411) Leben und Treiben in der von den deutschen Truppen besetzten russischen Stadt Lida. (412) Französische Ritterlichkeit im Felde. (412) [Abb.]: Ein neuer Rettungsapparat für die Besatzung von Unterseebooten. (412) [Abb.]: Überfall des flüchtenden rumänischen Heeres am Roten Turm-Paß. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 124 (Heft 124) ([413]) [Abb.]: General der Infanterie v. Beseler, Kaiserlicher Generalgouverneur von Warschau. ([413]) [Abb.]: Eine Abordnung von Offizieren der polnischen Legion im Hofe des alten polnischen Königschlosses in Warschau am Tage der Verkündigung des neuen Königreiches Polen, am 5. November 1916. (414) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalmajor v. Woyna, unter dessen Führung am 9. November 1816 brandenburgische Truppen und das Infanterieregiment 401 in der Gegend von Skrobowa in etwa vier Kilometer Breite mehrere russische Verteidigungslinien stürmten und den Feind über den Skrobowabach zurückwarfen. (2)Blick auf Brzezany vom Kloster aus. (415) [Abb.]: Nach der Schlacht bei Brzezany. Der Zug der russischen Verwundeten wälzt sich unabsehbar über die vom Regen aufgeweichte Landstraße nach Osten. ([416 - 417]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Lazarettzelte auf der Paßhöhe des Prislop in den Waldkarpathen. (418) [2 Abb.]: (1)Beobachtender Offizier einer österreichisch-ungarischen Maschinengewehrabteilung während eines russischen Angriffs in den Waldkarpathen. (2)Feuernde Honvedfeldartillerie in den Siebenbürgischen Bergen. (419) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zerstörte Häuser in dem Kampfgebiet vor Predeal in Rumänien. (2)Deutsche Mörserbatterie beim Überschreiten der Grenzstraße vor Predeal. (420) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (420) Die Vorbereitung der Friedenswirtschaft. (420) [Abb.]: Die Erstürmung des von den Rumänen zäh verteidigten Bahnhofs von Predal am Nachmittag des 23. Oktober 1916. ([421]) [Abb.]: Gedenktafel des deutschen Alpenkorps am Eingang des Roten-Turm-Passes. (422) Die letzten Tage von Constanza. (423) [Abb]: Vogelschauansicht der rumänischen Hauptstadt Bukarest mit ihrem Festungsgürtel, der von einem deutschen Flugzeug mit Bomben belegt wird. (423) [2 Abb.]: (1)Übungen deutscher Artillerie auf dem Marsfelde von Konstantinopel. (2)Seine Exzellenz der türkische Kriegsminister Enver Pascha (X) und Admiral Souchon (XX), dem der Orden Pour le Mérite verliehen wurde, schreiten die Front türkischer Marinesoldaten ab. (424) [Abb.]: Einschiffung deutscher Truppen für die Suezkanal-Front im Goldenen Horn in Konstantinopel. ([425]) [Abb.]: Einige der von den Rumänen bei ihrer Vertreibung aus Constanza in Brand gesetzten Öltanks (der größte Teil der Anlagen blieb unversehrt). (426) Einschiffung am Goldenen Horn. (426) Die Franzosen an der Somme. (426) [Abb.]: Blick auf eine von türkischen und deutschen Soldaten belebte Landstraße in der Richtung nach Constanza. (427) [Abb.]: Vorbeimarsch deutscher Sturmtruppen an der Somme vor dem Deutschen Kaiser und dem Kronprinzen Rupprecht von Bayern. (428) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 125 (Heft 125) ([429]) [Abb.]: Die Hauptstraße der nördlich der Somme gelegenen Stadt Bapaume, die infolge der Beschießung der Franzosen von den Einwohnern völlig geräumt wurde. ([429]) [Abb.]: Aus dem Kampfgebiet der Somme. (430) [2 Abb.]: (1)Sturmangriff deutscher Truppen an der Somme in der Gegend von Peronne. (2)Kriegsrat im Schützengraben an der Sommefront vor einem Erkundungsvorstoß. (431) [3 Abb.]: (1)Die Trümmer eines bei einem feindlichen Fliegerangriff auf süddeutsche Städte in der Rheinebene vernichteten französischen Großkampfflugzeuges und drei Motoren und einer Einrichtung zur Mitnahme von 30 Bomben. Die Größe des Flugzeuges läßt sich an den dabei stehenden Peronen erkennen. (2)Generalleutnant v. Höppner, bisher Führer einer Reservedivision, wurde zum Kommandierenden General der Luftstreitkräfte ernannt, da die wachsende Bedeutung des Luftkrieges es erforderlich machte, den Befehl über die gesamten Luftstreitkräfte und Flugzeug-Abwehrmittel des deutschen Heeres nur einer Dienststelle zu übertragen. (3)Nahansicht der zertrümmerten Motore des vernichteten französischen Großkampfflugzeuges. (432) [Abb.]: Abschuß englischer Flieger bei ihrem mißglückten Angriff auf Zeebrügge und Ostende am 10. November 1916. ([433]) [Abb.]: Ein neuartiges italienisches Panzerautomobil. (434) [Abb.]: Ein von den Italienern eroberter Schützengraben an der Karsthochfläche wird im Gegenangriff von k.u.k. Truppen zurückgewonnen. ([435]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (436) Straßenkampf in Montigny. (436) [Karte]: Das serbisch-griechische Grenzgebiet zwischen Ochrida- und Doiran-See aus der Vogelschau. (436) [Abb.]: Wiedereroberung einer am 15. November 1916 von den Serben genommenen Höhe nordöstlich von Cegel. ([437]) Die Vorbereitung der Friedenswirtschaft. (438) [Abb.]: Im Sumpfgelände Wolhyniens. (438) Angriff der russischen transamurischen Division bei Kowel. (439) [Abb.]: Deutsche Husarenpatrouille in Wolhynien. (439) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen um Kowel: Attacke der Transamur-Division gegen die deutschen und österreichisch-ungarischen Stellungen bricht im Sperrfeuer zusammen. ([440 - 441]) Der Feldzug in Siebenbürgen. (442) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Reste eines abgeschossenen rumänischen Flugzeuges aus der Schlacht bei Hermannstadt in Siebenbürgen. (2)Besuch des Generalfeldmarschalls Erzherzog Friedrich (II) beim Armeekommandanten Falkenhayn (III) an der siebenbürgischen Front. General v. Morgen (I) hält dem Generalfeldmarschall Vortrag über die Kriegslage. (442) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte zur Schlacht bei Hermannstadt. (443) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte von Westrumänien. ( - ) [Rechnungsbeleg]: R. Pirngruber, F.S.L. Hof-Buch- und Kunsthändler, Linz, vom 22.VIII.1916 für 1 Ill. Geschichte d. Weltkrieges 101-110 über 3 K 80 h. ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

ILLUSTRIERTE GESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES 1914/15. ACHTER BAND. Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Achter Band. (Achter Band) ( - ) Einband. ( - ) [Abb.]:Deutsches U=Boot wehrt in der Otranto=Strasse den Angriff italienischer Wasserflugzeuge ab. ( - ) Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. ([I]) Impressum ([II]) Inhaltsverzeichnis. ([III]) Kunstbeilagen. (IV) Karten. (IV) Kriegskalender zur Origianl=Einbanddecke der Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Achter Band enthaltend die Ereignisse vom 1. Januar bis 30. Juni 1918. Verlag der Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft in Stuttgart, Berlin, Leipzig, Wien. ( - ) Januar. Februar. März. ( - ) April. ( - ) Mai. Juni. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 176 (Heft 176) ([1]) Österreichisch=ungarischer Vorposten auf der Höhe im Vallarfatal am Gardasee ([1]) [Abb.]: Auf einer Vormarschstrasse bei Flitsch. (2) [Abb.]: Abführung gefangener Italiener im Isonzotal. (3) [Abb.]: Durch brandenburgische und schlesische Divisionen von Norden her abgeschnitten und durch österreichisch=ungarische Korps von Süden umfasst, strecken östlich vom unteren Tagliamento mehr als 60 000 Italiener die Waffen. ([4 - 5]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch=ungarische Trainkolonne im Vormarsch auf einer der Passstrassen bei Flitsch. (2)Blick auf die Orte Pontebba (rechts) und Pontafel (links) in den Karnischen Alpen. Die Orte werden durch den Corsinbach voneinander getrennt. (6) [Abb.]: Die italienische Stadt Udine nach ihrer Einnahme durch die Verbündeten. (7) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (7) In letzter Stunde. (7) [Abb.]: Maulesel mit Geschützteilen und Schlitten für deutsche Hochgebirgstruppen. (8) [Abb.]: Flucht der italienischen Truppen und der Bevölkerung in der Friaulischen Ebene. ([9]) [Abb.]: Blick auf Venedig von einem Flugzeug aus. Der Markusplatz mit dem Campanile. Die Insel San Giorgio. (10) Einsetzen schwerer Geschütze auf einem deutschen Linienschiff. (10) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte von Norditalien. ([11]) Der Krieg in Ostafrika im August und September 1917. (12) [Abb.]: Das neue deutsche Schlachtschiff "Grosser Kurfürst". (12) [Abb.]: Einsetzen schwerer Geschütze auf einem deutschen Linienschiff (Neubau). (13) [Abb.]: Massaikrieger im vollen Schmuck. Die Massai gehören zu den kriegerischten Völkern Ostafrikas. (14) Plünderung der türkischen Stadt Ordu durch Kosaken. (14) [Abb.]: Frontkarte von Deutsch=Ostafrika. (14) [Abb.]: Das englische Fesselballon=Mutterschiff "Manica" lässt an der Küste von Deutsch=Ostafrika einen Ballon aufsteigen, um deutsche Batteriestellungen ausfindig zu machen (15) Die Feldapotheke. (16) [Abb.]: Das Innere einer deutschen Feldlazarettapotheke in Mazedonien. (16) [Abb.]: Plünderung der türkischen Ortschaft Ordu am Schwarzen Meer durch Kosaken. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 177 (Heft 177) ([17]) [Abb.]: Zum Gegenstoss vorgehende deutsche Sturmabteilung im Westen. ([17]) [Abb.]: Der Gipfel des Hartmannsweilerkopfes. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Jägerdenkmal auf dem Hartmannsweilerkopf. (2)Kriegsgepäckwagen in den Vogesen (19) [Abb.]: Essenträger an der Kampffront im Westen. (20 - 21) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Maschinengewehrposten in einem Granattrichter in Flandern. (2)Rast in einem Granattrichter in Flandern. (22) [Abb.]: Ein in den Schlamm einer flandrischen "Strasse" eingesunkenes englisches Artilleriepferd wird ausgegraben. (23) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (23) In letzter Stunde. Ein Erlebnis bei der Eroberung Libaus. (23) [8 Abb.]: Neue Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (1)Oberstleutnant Kraehe, Kommandeur d. Füsitier=Regts. Nr. 34 (2)Oberstleutnant v. Behr. (3)Generalleutnant Elstermann v. Elster. (4)Oberstleutnant v. Oven. Erfolgreiche deutsche U=Boot=Kommandanten. (5)Kapitänleutnant Rud. Schneider(†). (6)Kapitänleutnant Vikt. Dieckmann. (7)Kapitänleutnant E. Fr. Hashagen. (8)Kapitänleutnant Meusel. (24) [4 Abb.]: Erfolgreiche deutsche U=Boot=Kommandanten. (1)Kapitänleutnant Rud. Schneider(+). (2)Kapitänleutnant Vikt. Dieckmann. (3)Kapitänleutnant E. Fr. Hashagen. (4)Kapitänleutnant Meusel. (24) [Abb.]: Indische und englische Lanzenreiter im türkischen Maschinengewehrflankenfeuer im Wadi Hesi, einem eingetrockneten Flussbett nördlich von Gaza an der Palästinafront. In der Mitte des Bildes zwei durch schwere Grananten ausser Gefecht gesetzte englische Panzerkraftwagen. ( - ) [Abb.]: Ein feindliches Segelschiff wird von einem deutschen U=Boot im Sperrgebiet um England angehalten. ([25]) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser beim Besuch eines der Dardanellenforts auf Gallipoli. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)El=Kossaima, eine vorgeschobene englische, von den Türken besetzte Militärstation in der Wüste, von wo aus man einen weiten Blick in den wildzerklüfteten Djebel Helal hat. (2)Der Kampf um den Suezkanal: Türkische Maschinengewehrabteilung im Wüstensand. (27) Nikolaus II. (27) [Abb.]: Der Kampf um den Suezkanal: Türkische Maschinengewehrabteilung im Wüstensand. (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lenin, Vorsitzender des russischen Rats der Volkskommissare. (2)Trotzki, der russische Volkskommissar für auswärtige Angelegenheiten. (28) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte des Frontgebietes in Palästina. (28) [Abb.]: Die aufständischen Leninisten beschiessen den Winterpalast in Petersburg in der Nacht vom 8. zum 9. November 1917. ([29]) [3 Abb.]: Die Ausbildung von Sanitätshunden und Führern im Sanitätshunde=Ersatzdepot Fangschleuse bei Erkner, einem Vorort von Berlin. (1)Eine Abteilung von Sanitätshundeführern mit ihren Tieren auf dem Marsche. (2)Gehorsamsübungen: Die Hunde warten auf ein Kommando. (3)Eine Abteilung von Sanitätshunden mit ihren Führern bei Fliegergefahr. (30) [Abb.]: Aufnahme eines besonders klugen Sanitätshundes nach einer erfolgreichen Suche. (31) Die deutschen Sanitätshunde und ihre Abrichtung. (32) [Abb.]: Sanitätshundeführer mit ihren Tieren auf dem südlichen Kriegschauplatz (32) [Abb.]: Kaiser und König Karl beobachtet in Begleitung des Erzherzogs Eugen und des Prinzen von Parma (hinter dem Kaiser) den Übergang österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen über den Tagliamento bei Latisana. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 178 (Heft 178) ([33]) [Abb.]: 50 000 gefangene Italiener im Lager von Cividale, das ursprünglich für österreichisch=ungarische Gefangene bestimmt war. ([33]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Vor der deutschen Kommandantur auf der Piazza Vittorio Emanuele im eroberten Udine. (2)Erbeutetes italienisches 30,5=cm=Geschütz auf einer Gebirgstellung bei Cividale. (3)Eroberte italienische Geschützstellung an der Passhöhe von Cividale. (34) [Abb.]: General v. Below, der Führer der siegreichen deutschen Italienarmee. (35) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im eroberten Udine erbeuteter Flughörapparat französischer Herkunft, der Abwehrbatterien zur Feststellung von Fliegern dient. (2) Von einem italienischen Verwundetenhilfsplatz auf einem Bergvorsprung wird ein Schwerverletzter auf einer Drahtseilbahn zu Tal gelassen. (36) [Abb.]: Einbruch deutscher Truppen in eine italienische Batteriestellung. ([37]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (38) In letzter Stunde. (38) [3 Abb.]: (1)Die Panzerkuppen des italienischen Werkes Leone auf dem von österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen eroberten Cima di Campo. (2)Das von österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen eroberte italienische Werk Cima di Lan nach der Sprengung durch die Italiener. (3) K. u. k. Feldzeugmeister Generaloberst Graf v. Scheuchenstuel. (38) [Abb.]: Das von österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen eroberte italienische Werk Cima di Lan nach der Sprengung durch die italiener. (38) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte des Gebietes zwischen der Brenta und der Piave. ([39]) [Abb.]: Sammelstelle von Schlachtvieh am Skutarisee. (40) [8 Abb.]: Bilder aus dem besetzten Albanien. (1)Einmarsch in ein Dorf. (2)Alarm in einer Kaserne. (3)Erfrischung am Dorfbrunnen nach anstrengendem Marsch. (4)Aushebung von Freiwilligen auf einem Kasernenhof. (5)Eine Strasse in Skutari. (6)Tabakmarkt in Elbassan. (7)Offizierspatrouille überschreitet einen Gebirgsfluss. (8)Maultierkolonne auf der Strasse zum Lovcen. ([41]) [Abb.]: Das Sühnedenkmal in Serajewo zur Erinnerung an die Ermordung des österreichisch=ungarischen Erzherzog=Thronfolgers Franz Ferdinand und seiner Gemahlin. (42) Die englische Sommeroffensive in Flandern. (42) [Abb.]: Von den Bulgaren an der mazedonischen Front gefangene Schottländer. (43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von den Bulgaren an der mazedonischen Front gefangene Schottländer. (2)Feldgraue im Strassenleben von Üsküb in Mazedonien. (43) [Abb.]: Nächtlicher Angriff der Engländer auf Langemark in Flandern. ([44 - 45]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ankunft frischer deutscher Truppen (Kavallerie mit Stahlhelmen) für die Front in Flandern. (2)Aus dem Hafen von Ostende ausfahrendes deutsches Torpedoboot. (46) [Abb.]: Aus dem Hafen von Ostende ausfahrendes deutsches Torpedoboot. (46) Kriegsgefangenenfürsorge in deutschen Lagern. (47) [Abb.]: Verladen englischer Panzerkraftwagen. (47) [Abb.]: Gute Verpflegung der Kriegsgefangenen in Deutschland. In den Gefangenenlagern sind vielfach Küchen eingerichtet worden, in denen sich die Gefangenen ihr Speisen nach Belieben selbst zubereiten können. Von dieser praktischen und für die Gefangenen angenehmen Einrichtung wird reger Gebrauch gemacht. (48) [Abb.]: Deutsche Infanterie treibt in kühnem Gegenstoss die Engländer aus dem Dorfe Fontaine bei Cambrai. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 179 (Heft 179) ([49]) [Abb.]: Im feindlichen Granatenfeuer vorgehende deutsche Artillerie. ([49]) [Abb.]: Das Schlachtfeld südwestlich von Cambrai. (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Granatenwerfer in Flandern. (2)Verladen einer deutschen Batterie an der Flandernfront. (51) [Abb.]: Sperrfeuer über einer Ortschaft im Westen. (52) [Abb.]: Deutscher Gegenstoss in Flandern. ([53]) [Abb.]: Französische Artillerie im winterlichen Kampfgebiet der Vogesen. Schwere Geschütze in Deckung. (54) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (54) In letzter Stunde. (54) [Abb.]: Eine Munitions= und Proviantkolonne sucht in einer Waldlichtung Deckung vor dem Feinde. (55) [5 Abb.]: (1)Kapitänleutnant Treusch Freiherr v. Buttlar=Brandenfels, erfolgreicher deutscher Luftschiffkommandant. (2)Oberleutnant z. S. Wendlandt, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Boot=Kommandant. (3)Kampfflieger Leutnant Ernst Udet, Führer einer Jagdstaffel, einer der erfolgreichsten deutschen Flieger. (4)Kampfflieger Leutnant Buckler, wurde wegen seiner hervorragenden Kampfleistungen zum Leutnant befördert. (5)Österreichisch=ungarisches U=Boot mit dem Kommandanten v. Falkhausen kehrt von einem Ausflug in die Adria in den Heimathafen zurück. (56) [Abb.]: Das Schiff ohne Mannschaft. Wie sich die Engländer denken, durch den Bau von Schiffen ohne Besatzung, die von bewaffneten Dampfern geschleppt werden und durch ihre flache Bauart den spähenden U=Booten entgehen sollen, der immer drohender werdenden Frachtraumnot Herr werden zu können. ([57]) [Abb.]: Major Ludwig Graf v. Holnstein aus Bayern, Chef des Generalstabs des I. Bayrischen Armeekorps. (58) Aufruhr in Kasan. (58) Die Armeebekleidungsfabrik der k. u. k. 2. Armee. (59) [Abb.]: Schweizerische Haubitzenbatterie. (59) [Abb.]: Der Aufruhr in Kasan im September 1917: Meuternde Infanteristen durchbrechen den Kosakenring. ([60 - 61]) [3 Abb.]: Die Armeebekleidungsfabrik der k. u. k. 2. Armee in Freiberg in Mähren. (1)Zuschneidesaal der Konfektionsanstalt.Leistungsfähigkeit 2000 vollständige Uniformen in der Woche bei 30 Arbeitern. (2)Werkstätte der Konfektionsanstalt. Leistungsfähigkeit auf 64 Maschinen etwa 750 vollständige Uniformen in der Woche bei 150 Arbeitern. (3)Desinfektionsanstalt. Die in grossen Wagenladungen aus dem Feld einlangenden ausbesserungsbedürftigen Kleidungsstücke und Rüstungsgegenstände werden entgegengenommen und nach Gattungen geschieden. (62) [3 Abb.]: Die Armeebekleidungsfabrik der k. u. k. 2. Armee in Freiberg in Mähren. (1)Desinfektionsanstalt. Die Sortierhalle, in der die bereits desinfizierten Sachen nach Gattungen abgelegt werden. (2)Lederabteilung. Das Auswählen der Schuhe und Zusammenstellen der Paare. (3)Lederabteilung. Die Werkstätte II der Sattlerei mit dem Lager fertiger Sachen. (63) [Abb.]: Drei aus französischer Gefangenschaft entwichene deutsche Soldaten nach ihrem Wiedereintreffen bei ihrem Truppenteil. (64) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 180 (Heft 180) ([65]) [4 Abb.]: (1)K. u. k. Generalmajor Freiherr v. Waldstätten, Chef der Operationsabteilung des österreichisch=ungarischen Armeeoberkommandos, erhielt den Orden Pour le Mérite. Siegreiche Heerführer an der italienischen Front. (2)K. u. k. General der Infanterie v. Henriquez, erhielt von Kaiser und König Karl das Grosskreuz d. Leopoldordens m. d. Kriegsdekoration u. den Schwertern. (3) K. u. k. Feldmarschalleutnant Scotti, erhielt vom Kaiser und König Karl den Leopoldorden 1. Klasse mit der Kriegsdekoration u. den Schwertern. (4)K. u. k. Feldmarschalleutnant Freiherr v. Schariozer, erhielt vom Kaiser und König Karl den Leopoldorden 1. Klasse mit der Kriegsdekoration u. den Schwertern. ([65]) [2 Abb.]: (1) Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen an der unteren Piave.(2(Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen beiderseits der Brenta (66) [Abb.]: Der "aufgschlitzte" Kirchturm in Ponte die Piave. (67) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mit Schutzschilden versehene Italiener gehen über ein vom Feuer bestrichenes offenes Feld.(2) Italienische Maschinengewehrabteilung in einer Felsenstellung. (68) [Abb.]: Mannschaften des 3. Kaiserschützenregimentes vertreiben die Italiener aus ihren Stellungen am Monte Miela. ([69]) [Abb.]: Gebirgschlucht an einer der Vormarschstrassen gegen Italien mit ehemaligem italienischem Barackenlager. (70) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (70) In letzter Stunde. (70) [3 Abb.]:(1) Deutsche Kolonnen auf dem Marktplatz im eroberten Vittorio in der venetianischen Ebene. (2)Schlachtviehkolonnen im Vormarsch auf der Strasse Udine=Codroipo. (3)Die unermessliche Geschütz= und Materialbeute an einer der italienischen Rückzugstrassen nach dem Tagliamento. (71) [3 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Aufklärungstrupp in Mazedonien vor seinem Quartier, zum Aufbruch bereit. (2)Der mehrfach im bulgarischen Heeresbericht rühmend genannte deutsche Kampfflieger Leutnant v. Eschwege wurde nach seinem 20. Luftsieg vom feindlichen Abwehrfeuer getroffen und starb den Heldentod. (3)Leben und Treiben auf einem bulgarischen Bahnhof in Mazedonien. (72) [Abb.]: Gefecht auf dem Presenagletscher und dem Passo Paradiso im Adamellogebiet zwischen Ortler und Gardasee am 9. Juni 1915. Ein Bataillon Alpini wird von siebzig Kaiserschützen blutig zurückgeschlagen. ( - ) [Abb.]: Deutsche Reiterpatrouille im Gefecht mit rumänischen Kundschaftern. (73) Ein Gefecht auf dem Presenagletscher. (74) [Abb.]: Die Khalil=Pascha=Strasse in Bagdad. In der Mitte ein englischer Armeelastwagen. (74) Deutschland und die Türkei. I. (75) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Hetman der Donkosaken General Kaledin. (2)Blick auf Jerusalem, im Hintergrund der Ölberg. (75) [Abb.]: Ankunft der russischen Unterhändler bei der ersten deutschen Stellung zwecks Einleitung der Waffenruhe am 26. November 1917. ([76 - 77]) [Abb.]: Durchschnitt durch einen französischen Minenstollen. (78) Minenkrieg. (79) [Abb.]: Ein fahrbares Offiziersheim, das seinen Standort beliebig wechseln kann. (79) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten bei Arbeiten in dem grössten Steinbergwerk Frankreichs in der Nähe von Berry au Bac bei Reims. Das Bergwerk befindet sich in deutschem Besitz und wird instand gesetzt. Die gewonnenen Steine werden zum Ausbau der Schützengräben verwendet. Unser Bild zeigt, auf welche Weise die Wände der Stollen durch Birkenstämme gestützt werden. (80) [Abb.]: In den Ruinen von Apremont (Argonnen). ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 181 (Heft 181) ([81]) [Abb.]: Bei den Aufräumungsarbeiten in dem von den Engländern zwecklos zerstörten Cambrai. ([81]) [Abb.]: Der englische General Sir Julian Byng, der Leiter der misslungenen Cambraioffensive. (82) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abtransport englischer Tankmannschaften, die in der Schlacht bei Cambrai gefangen wurden. (2)Zerstörter englischer Tank bei Rumilly. (83) [Abb.]: Englische Truppen werden durch Maschinengewehrfeuer von den Dächern eines erbeuteten englischen Proviantzuges bei Cambrai zusammengeschossen. (84 - 85) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (84 - 85) Deutschland und die Türkei. II. (84 - 85) [3 Abb.]: (1)Joseph Caillaux, der frühere französischer Ministerpräsident, dessen friedensfreundliche Tätigkeit der französischen Regierung unbequem wurde. (2)Georges Clemenceau, der neue französische Ministerpräsident, der zur Fortsetzung des Krieges mit allen Mitteln schürte. (3)St. Mihiel, südlich von Verdun, mit Vororten. (86) [Abb.]: Trichtergelände in Flandern vor der Höhe von Passchendaele. ([87]) Minenkrieg. (88) [Abb.]: Am Steuer eines Marine=Luftschiffes in grosser Höhe. Der Steuermann trägt (wie die ganze Bemannung des Luftschiffes) eine Schwimmweste und einen Fallschirmgürtel und hat den Schlauch des Sauerstoffapparates im Munde. (88) [Abb.]: An der Towerbrücke über die Themse in London. Englische Anstrengungen zur Abwehr deutscher Luftangriffe auf London. Schweinwerfer leuchten den Himmel ab, der ausser von Mond und Sternen von unzähligen leuchtenden Schrapnellen erhellt wird. ([89]) [4 Abb.]: (1)Kampfflieger Leutnant Walter v. Bülow, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (2)K. u. k. Hauptmann Otto Indra, Kommandant einer österreichisch=ungarischen Fliegerkompanie, hat seit Januar 1915 219 erfolgreiche Feindesflüge unternommen und 8 feindliche Flugzeuge abgeschossen. (3) Kampfflieger Leutnant Hans Klein, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (4)Zwei französische Flieger, kenntlich an den Fliegerabzeichen rechts auf der Brust, die bei einem Angriff auf das deutsche Heimatgebiet zur Landung gezwungen wurden, inmitten einer Gruppe Franzosen, die bei einem Vorstoss am Hartmannsweilerkopf in deutsche Gefangenschaft fielen. (90) Unsere Front im Elsass. (91) [Abb.]: Deutscher Panzerkraftwagen auf einer Gefechtsfahrt. (91) Schwere Arbeit am Geschütz beim Anhalten eines feindlichen Seglers. (91) [Abb.]: Deutsche U=Boot=Tätigkeit im Sperrgebiet: Schwere Arbeit am Geschütz beim Anhalten eines Seglers ([92 - 93]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Schneeschuhläufer=Abteilung auf einem Erkundungsmarsch in den Vogesen. (2)Deutsche Posten an einer Wegsperre in den Vogesen. (94) [Abb.]: Eine deutsche Truppenabteilung zieht durch Ammerzweiler im Oberelsass. (95) Theatereröffnung. (95) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kartenskizze der Kampffront in den Vogesen. (2)Theatervorstellung im Ruhequartier. (96) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 182 (Heft 182) ([97]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Kletterpatrouille auf der kleinen Navois=Scharte. Im Hintergrund der Montasch auf dem sich die italienischen Stellungen befinden. ([97]) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zum Kampf um das Monte=Grappa=Massiv. (98) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Infanterie rückt in das besetzte Vittorio ein. (2) Deutsche Kriegsgepäckwagen am Lago Morto auf dem Vormarsch zur Piavefront. (99) [3 Abb.]: (1)Nächtliche Besichtigung in einem österreichisch=ungarischen Panzerwerk an der italienischen Front. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Drahtseilbahnstation und Unterkünfte im Tiroler Hochgebirge. (3)Österreichisch=ungarischer Artillerie=Beobachtungstand an der iatlienischen Front. ([100]) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des italienischen Panzerwerkes Leone auf der Cima di Campo. ([101]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das nach jeder Richtung drehbare Oberdeck eines der mit schweren Geschützen bestückten englischen Monitore, die im Adriatischen Meere zur Unterstützung der Landkämpfe an der italienischen Front verwendet wurden. (2)Erbeutetes schweres italienisches Riesengeschütz in einem Dorfe hinter Udine. (102) [Abb.]: General Diaz, der an Stelle Cadornas Generalstabschef des italienischen Heeres wurde. (103) [Abb.]: Deutscher Fesselballon zur Beobachtung feindlicher Artillerie über dem Piavetal. (104) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (104) Minenkrieg. (104) [Abb.]: Deutsche Fliegerabwehrkanone auf einem Kraftwagen an der italienischen Front. (104) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen der österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen an der Piave. ([105]) [Abb.]: Das seit dem deutschen Friedensangebot am 12. Dezember 1916 von den Heeren des Vierbunds eroberte feindliche Gebiet, das eine Ausdehnung von mehr als 50 000 Quadratkilometer hat. (106) [Abb.]: Verlauf der Demarkationslinie in der Ostsee. (107) Der letzte Appell. (107) [Abb.]: Verlauf der Demarkationslinie im Schwarzen Meer. (107) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Gebäude in Brest=Litowsk, in dem die Waffenstillstandsverhandlungen stattfanden. (2)Empfang der russischen Delegation auf dem Bahnhof von Brest=Litowsk. (108) Der Krieg in Ostafrika im Oktober und November 1917. (109) [Abb.]: Die Unterzeichnung des Waffenstillstandsvertrages zwischen dem Vierbund und Russland in Brest=Litowsk durch Prinz Leopold von Bayern, den Oberbefehlshaber von Ober=Ost. 1. Kameneff. 2. Toffe, Vorsitzender der russischen Delegation. 3. Frau A. Biecenko. 4. Konteradmiral Altvater. 5. Lipsky, Hauptmann im russischen Generalstab. 6. Sekretär Karachan. 7. Fokke, Oberstleutnant im russischen Generalstb. 8. Exzellenz Zeki Pascha, der Bevollmächtigte der Türkei. 9. Botschafter v. Mérey. 10. Prinz Leopold von Bayern. 11. Generalmajor Hoffmann, Chef des Stabes. 12.Oberst Gantschew, der bulgarische Bevollmächtigte. 13. Kapitän z. S. Horn. 14. Hey, Hauptmann im Generalstb. 15. Brinkmann, Major im Generalstb. 16. Major v. Kameke. 17. Rittmeister d. R. v. Rosenberg. 18. Major Frh. v. Mirbach, österreichisch=ungarischer Bevollmächtigter. 19. Delive=Dobrowolsky. (109) [ 2 Abb:]: (1)Um während der Regenzeit trockenen Fusses in Deutsch=Ostafrika vorwärts zu kommen, mussten englische Pioniere weite Strecken erst durch Bau von Brücken zugänglich machen. (2)Englische Kolonialtruppen setzen mittels einer Dampffähre über einen tiefen, in der Regenzeit angeschwollenen Strom in Deutsch=Ostafrika. (110) [Abb.]: Belgische Kolonialsoldaten erhalten in Deutsch=Ostafrika Unterricht in der Bedienung von Grabenmörsern. (111) Das württembergische Gebirgsbataillon in Italien. (111) Kampf um ein Gehöft bei Jakobstadt. (111) [4 Abb.]: Major Sprösser, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite (2)Generalleutnant Graf v. Schmettow, der Eroberer von Jakobstadt, erhielt den Orden Pour le Mérite.(3)Oberleutnant Rommel, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (4)Der deutsche Durchbruch bei Jakobstadt: Kampf um ein Gehöft. (112) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 183 (Heft 183) ([113]) [Abb.]: Schwerer deutscher Minenwerfer in gedeckter Stellung. ([113]) [Abb.]: Teil des Houthoulster Waldes in Flandern, aus einer höhe von 50 Metern von einem deutschen Flieger aufgenommen. Der ehemals dichte Wald ist in ein Trichterfeld mit kahlen Baumstümpfem verwandelt. (114) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Stellung in dem vollständig zerschossenen Houthoulster Wald bei Zypern. (2)Eine Drahtseilbahn in den Vogesen. (115) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kriegsgepäckwagen auf dem Marktplatz von Sulz im Oberelsass. (116) [Abb.]: Heerstrasse von Damvillers nach Azannes vor Verdun am Tage der Erstürmung von Fleury und Thiaumont im Juni 1916 ([117]) [Abb.]: Zwei in den flandrischen Kämpfen gefangene englische Fliegeroffiziere, deren Flugzeug unversehrt in deutsche Hände fiel. (118) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (119) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. 8. Caillaux=Clemenceau. (119) [Abb.]: Abführung gefangener Franzosen durch bayrische Reiter. (119) [5 Abb.]: Hervorragende Kampfflieger der deutschen Armee. (1)Leutnant Kissenberth, Führer einer bayrischen Jagdstaffel. (2)Leutnant Hess (+). (3)Oberleutnant Schleich. Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (4)Kapitänleutnant Hans Kolbe, Führer leichter deutscher Seestreitkräfte, die am 12. Dezember 1917 an der englischen Ostküste den Geleitzugsverkehr Bergen-Shetlandsinseln erneut angriffen. (5)Der von einem deutschen U=Boot (Kommandant Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose) am 5. Dezember 1917 im Ärmelkanal versenkte amerikanische Zerstörer "Jakob Jones". (120) [Abb.]: Abgeschlagener feindlicher Fliegerangriff auf ein Industriewerk. ([121]) [Abb.]: Das Schlussstück des Waffenstillstandsvertrages von Brest=Litowsk mit den Unterschriften der Bevollmächtigten der beteiligten Mächte. (122) Was das amerikanische Heer in Frankreich nötig haben wird. (123) [2 Abb.]: Generalmajor v. Hoffmann, Chef des Generalstabs des Oberbefehlshabers Ost, der bevollmächtigte deutsche Vertreter bei den Verhandlungen über einen Waffenstillstand mit Russland. (2) Zu den Waffenstillstandsverhandlungen an der rumänischen Front. 1. Generalleutnant v. Morgen, Leiter der Verhandlungen. 2. Generalmajor v. Hranilovic, Vorsitzender der österreichisch=ungarischen Abordnung. 3. Oberstleutnant im Generalstab v. Förster=Stressleur, österreichisch=ungarischer Delegierter. 4. Major im Generalstab v. Hempel, österreichisch=ungarischer Delegierter. 5. oberstleutnant Popow, der Vertreter Bulgariens. 6. Major Rasim Bei, der Vertreter der Türkei. 7. General Keltschewski, der Führer der russisch=rumänischen Abordnung. 8. Hauptmann Baron Tiefenhausen, russischer Kommissar der Armeeorganisationen. 9. General Lupescu, Führer der rumänischen Abordnung. (123) [Abb.]: Zu den Waffenstillstandsverhandlungen an der rumänischen Front. 1. Generalleutnant v. Morgen, Leiter der Verhandlungen. 2. Generalmajor v. Hranilovic, Vorsitzender der österreichisch=ungarischen Abordnung. 3. Oberstleutnant im Generalstab v. Förster=Stressleur, österreichisch=ungarischer Delegierter. 4. Major im Generalstab v. Hempel, österreichisch=ungarischer Delegierter. 5. oberstleutnant Popow, der Vertreter Bulgariens. 6. Major Rasim Bei, der Vertreter der Türkei. 7. General Keltschewski, der Führer der russisch=rumänischen Abordnung. 8. Hauptmann Baron Tiefenhausen, russischer Kommissar der Armeeorganisationen. 9. General Lupescu, Führer der rumänischen Abordnung. (123) [Abb.]: Holzkohlenbrand unter deutscher Militärverwaltung in Frankreich zwecks Versorgung der Schützengräben mit rauchlosem Heizmaterial Kohlenmeiler im Walde hinter Talmat in den Argonnen. ([124 - 125]) Generalmajor Hoffmann. (126) [Abb.]: Büffelgespann im Dienste des Roten Kreuzes auf dem Balkankriegschauplatz. (126) Des Köhlers Kriegsarbeit. (126) [Abb.]: Verschiedenartige Beförderungsmittel der österreichisch=ungarischen schweren Artillerie in der Türkei. (127) Das Kamel im Kriegsdienst. (127) [Abb.]: Bulgarischer Kamelreitertrupp. (127) Zum Stapellauf des größten deutschen Frachtdampfers. (128) [Abb.]: Stapellauf des für die Hamburg=Amerika=Linie auf der Bremer Bulkanwerft erbauten grossen deutschen Frachtdampfers "Rheinland". (128) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 184 (Heft 184) ([129]) [Abb.]: Nächtliche Patrouille ([129]) [Abb.]: Der erste englische Tank aus dem Westen in den Strassen Berlins, der vom Bahnhof aus mit eigener Kraft zu den Austellungshallen am Zoologischen Garten fuhr, in denen das unversehrte Beutestück im Betrieb gezeigt wurde. (130) [8 Abb.]: Aus der von den Engländern verlorenen Tankschlacht bei Cambrai. (1)Strassenbild aus Fontaine mit einem der erbeuteten englischen Tanke. (2)Durch englisches Granatfeuer völlig zerstörte Kirche von Fontaine. (3)Englischer Tank wirft auf dem Vormarsch einen starken Baum um. (4)Durch einen deutschen Volltreffer zerstörter Tank am Bourlonwalde. (5)Das Kommando der Tankbergungstelle Cambrai. (6)Abbeförderung unversehrt erbeuteter englischer Tanke. (7)Bei Cambrai erbeutete leichte englische Geschütze. (8)Bei Cambrai erbeutete schwere englische Mörser. ([131]) [Abb.]: Der schwere Zusammenbruch englischer Hoffnungen bei Cambrai. Durch dauernde deutsche Gegenstösse zermürbt, vermögen die englischen Truppen trotz Einsatzes stärkster Kräfte und zahlreicher Tanke dem deutschen Druck nicht mehr standzuhalten und wserden mit schwersten Verlusten zum Weinen gebracht. (132 - 133) [Abb.]: Blick auf ein Zeltlager in der ägyptischen Wüste. (134) [ 2Abb.]: (1)Türkische Telegraphentruppen warten auf ihre Beförderung durch die Bagdadbahn. (2)Englische Transportkolonnen ziehen an dem Bogen von Ktesiphon vorüber, einem grossartigen Bauwerk des Altertums in Mesopotamien. (135) [Abb.]: Das alte griechische Kloster Sveti Bogorodizia am Ochridasee in Albanien. (136) [Abb.]: Türkisches Lager in der Wüste. ( - ) [Abb.]: Ein Gegenstoss albanischer Freischaren vereitelt einen Angriff französischer Infanterie westlich von Korka. ([137]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (138) Lagerleben in der Wüste. (138) [Abb.]: Grenzschutz der Schweiz. Ein Beobachtungsturm an einer schweizerischen Grenze. (138) Die Räumung Deutsch=Ostafrikas. (139) [Abb.]: Italienisches Caproni=Grossflugzeug, das von einem deutschen Flieger zur Landung gezwungen wurde. Das Flugzeug hat zwei Motore mit drei Propellern. Unter der Gondel liegen die Bomben. (139) [Abb.]: Die italienische Besatzung auf dem Monte Castelgomberto streckt, seit 24 Stunden eingeschlossen, am 5. Dezember 1917 nach tapferer Gegenwehr die Waffen ([140 - 141]) [Abb.]: Leben und Treiben zwischen den deutschen und russischen Stellungen während des Waffenstillstandes im Osten. Russen beim Einkauf von Gebrauchsgegenständen. (142) K. u. K. Pferdespitäler im Hinterland. (143) [2 Abb.]: (1)Graf Czernin, der österreichisch=ungarische Minister des Äussern, und Staatssekretär Dr. v. Kühlmann, der Vertreter Deutschlands, in Brest=Litowsk. (2)Abgeordnete der ukrainischen Rada im Gespräch mit deutschen Offizieren vor dem ehemaligen Gouvernementsgebäude in Brest=Litowsk. (143) Ein deutsches Bombenflugzeug. (144) [Abb.]: Bombenabwurf von einem der neuen deutschen "Gotha"=Flugzeuge. Die Seite des Rumpfes ist geöffnet, um die innere Einrichtung des Apparates zu zeigen. (144) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 185 (Heft 185) ([145]) [Abb.]: Juden in Lida, einer Kreisstadt an der Eisenbahn Wilna=Rowno. ([145]) [Abb.]: General Krylenko, der russische Oberbefehlshaber. (146) [6 Abb.]: Zwischen den deutschen und russischen Stellungen vor Dünaburg. (1)Zusammentreffen deutscher und russischer Soldaten in der neutralen Zone.(2)Übergabe von Postsachen für Kriegsgefangene an einer der neutralen Verbindungsstellen. (3)Deutsche Posten an der Grenze der neutralen Zone beim Lesen der neuesten Nachrichten. (4)Deutscher und russischer Posten in der neutralen Zone an der Bahnstrecke Wilna-Dünaburg. (5)Rückkehr russischer Auswanderer aus der Schweiz in die Heimat. Ankunft der Heimkehrenden an der neutralen zone auf der Reise nach Dünaburg. (6)Rückkehr russischer Auswanderer aus der Schweiz in die Heimat. Übergang von der deutschen Kleinbahn in russische Schlitten vor der Fahrt nach Dünaburg. ([147]) [Abb.]: Untergang eines feindlichen Truppentransportdampfers nach der Torpedierung durch ein deutsches U=Boot in der Meerenge von Gibraltar. ([148 - 149]) [Abb.]: Karte der "Bundesrepublik Russland" nach den Plänen der Fremdvölker. (150) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine der vielgenannten, von österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen eroberten italienischen Svobba=Batterien. (2)Italienische Truppen im Frenzelatal. (151) [ 5 Abb.]: (1)Vizeadmiral Behncke, Chef eines Verbandes deutscher Linienschiffe, erhielt wegen hervorragender Leistungen bei den Unternehmungen gegen die baltischen Inseln den Orden Pour le Mérite. Erfolgreiche deutsche U=Bootkommandanten. (2)Oberleutnant z. S. Hors Obermüller. (3)Oberleutnant z. S. Lohs. (4)Korvettenkapitän Kophamel (5)Oberleutnant z. S. Steindorff. (152) [Abb.]: Vor einem deutschen Soldtenheim an der Westfront. ( - ) [Abb.]: Gefangene Russen, die in einem Boot nach Bornholm zu entkommen suchten, werden, bereits auf hohe See, von einem deutschen Wasserflugzeug an einer Stahltrosse nach Pommern zurückgeschleppt. ([153]) [Abb.]: Ein österreichisch=ungarischer 30,05=cm=Mörser in den Bergen der Pustertaler Alpen. (154) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (154) Ein deutsches Soldatenheim an der Westfront. (154) Einbringen entwichener russischer Gefangener durch ein deutsches Wasserflugzeug. (155) In den Ruinen von Apremont in den Argonnen. (155) [Abb.]: Anschrauben des Rettungsringes eines schweren österreichisch=ungarischen Geschützes auf dem italienischen Kriegschauplatz. (155) Gefangenenaustausch zwischen Deutschland und England. (156 - 157) [Abb.]: Das Trümmerfeld von Apremont in den Argonnen. (156 - 157) Gefangennahme der ersten Amerikaner an der deutschen Westfront. (156 - 157) [Abb.]: Eine Anzahl der ersten aus englischer Kriegsgefangenschaft in Rotterdam eingetroffenen Deutschen, die dem deutsch=englischen Abkommen gemäss in Holland interniert und zum Teil nach der Heimat zurückgeschickt werden sollen. In der Mitte Fregattenkapitän v. Müller (+), der Kommandant des kleinen Kreuzers "Emden". (158) Die französischen Kriegsziele in geschichtlicher Beleuchtung- (158) [2 Abb.]: Die ersten Kriegsgefangenen Italiener in Deutschland. Eine Gruppe von den etwa 2500 Mann im Gefangenenlager zu Merseburg. (2)Die ersten kriegsgefangenen Soldaten der Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika, die von bayrischen Truppen am Kapellbuckel bei Monhofen gefangen wurden. (159) [Abb.]: Deutsche Krankenpflegerinnen mit Gasschutzmasken leisten die erste Hilfe nach einem feindlichen Gasangriff im Westen. (160) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 186 (Heft 186) ([161]) [Abb.]: Abstieg einer österreichisch=ungarischen Abteilung auf dem Marsche zu einer Stellung auf der Cima di Presanella. ([161]) Übersichtskarte über die grossen Gebiete, die Italien auf Kosten Österreich=Ungarns vom Verband zugesichert erhielt. Die-.-.-.-Linie zeigt die bisherige Grenze Italiens. Die______Linie zeigt, wie weit die Grenze Italiens nach dem Berbandsabkommen auf das österreichisch=ungarische Gebiet ausgedehnt werden sollte. (162) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schwalbennester. Österreichisch=ungarische Unterstände auf der Marmolata.(2)Bosnisch=herzegowinisches Infanterieregiment begibt sich auf dem Vormarsch in Italien aus der Höhenstellung ins Tal. (163) [Abb.]: Stimmungsbild aus einem französischen Städtchen: Immer mehr Soldaten! (164 - 165) [Abb.]: Oberleutnant z. S. d. Res. Fr. Christiansen, erfolgreicher deutscher Marineflieger, der bei einem Flug über den Hoosden am 11. Dezember 1917 das englische Luftschiff "C 27" vernichtete, erhielt den Orden Pour le Mérite. (166) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Vernichtung des englischen Luftschiffes "C 27", das ein deutsches Marineflugzeug, Führer Oberleutnant z. S. d. Res Fr. Christiansen, über den Hoosden (Nordsee) in Brand schoss. Die Photographie zeigt den Augenblick, da das Luftschiff brennend in die See stürzt. (2)Das englische Luftschiff "C 27" aufgenommen vor dem Angriff des deutschen Marineflugzeuges. (167) [4 Abb.]: (1)Korvettenkapitän Heinecke, unter dessen Führung leichte deutsche Seestreitkräfte vor der Tynemündung ein erfolgreiches Gefecht mit englischen Vorpostenschiffen geführt haben. (2)Kapitänleutnant Wenninger, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Bootkommandant, versenkte im Ärmelkanal trotz beträchtlicher feindlicher Gegenwirkung rund 20 000 Tonnen Schiffsraum. (3)Kapitänleutnant Remy, der als deutscher U=Bootkommandant im Ärmelkanal und an der französsischen Westküste 10 Schiffe mit zusammen 28 000 Tonnen Raumgehalt versenkte. (4) Kapitänleutnant Otto Schulze, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Bootkommandant, der im westlichen Mittelmeer eine Anzahl feindlicher Dampfer versenkte. (168) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (168) Brückenbau deutscher Pioniere in Pont=a=Mousson. (168) [Abb.]: Die Lebensmittelknappheit in England, ein Erfolg des deutschen U=Bootkrieges. Eine Kartoffelpolonäse in London. (168) [Abb.]: Wiederaufbau der zerstörten Moselbrücke in Pont=a=Mousson durch deutsche Soldaten. ( - ) [Abb.]: Deutsche Hochseestreitkräfte auf der Streife nach der englischen Ostküste. ([169]) [Abb.]: Das Schlussstück des Friedensvertrages zwischen dem Vierbund und der Ukraine mit den Unterschriften der Bevollmächtigten. (170) Selige Augen. (170) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Grenzen der Ukraine. (2) Die Schlussitzung der Friedensverhandlungen mit der Ukraine in der Nacht vom 8. zum 9. Februar 1918 in Brest=Litowsk. 1. Graf Czernin, der österreichisch=ungarische Bevollmächtigte. 2. Staatssekretär v. Kühlmann, der deutsche Bevollmächtigte. 3. Ministerpräsident Radoslawoff und 4. Oberst Gantschew, die bulgarischen Bevollmächtigten. Im Vordergrund die türkischen Bevollmächtigten. 5. Major Brinkmann. 6. Generalmajor Hoffmann. 7. Rykola Lewytsikyi, ukrainischer Bevollmächtigter. (171) [Abb.]: Im Kampf um Udine. (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Reste einer von den Italienern vor ihrer Flucht mit Benzin übergossenen und in Brand gesteckten Schlachtviehstallung mit Haufen verkohlter Rinder. (174) Kämpfe um Udine. (174) [Abb.]: Von der österreichisch=ungarischen Artillerie in Brand geschossene italienische Eisenbahnzüge in Stazione per la Carnia. (174) [Abb.]: Auf einer italienischen Rückzugstrasse bei St. Daniele am Tagliamento. (175) Die französischen Kriegsziele in geschichtlicher Beleuchtung. (175) [Abb.]: Besetzungsmarken der Mittelmächte. (176) Die Besetzungsmarken der Mittelmächte. (176) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 187 (Heft 187) ([177]) [Abb.]: An die Front! ([177]) [Abb.]: Materialtransport mittels Ochsengespanns und Strassenbahn bis in die vordersten Linien an der Westfront. (178) [2 Abb.]: (1)Stapelplatz fertig geschnittener Hölzer zum Bau von Unterständen und Minengängen in den vordersten Gräben hinter der Front in Flandern. (2) Lagerplatz von Baustoffen hinter der deutschen Front im Westen. (179) [2 Abb.]: (1)General Sir Henry H. Wilson, der an Stelle des zurückgetretenen Generals Robertson englischer Generalstabschef wurde. (2)Die Versenkung des amerikanischen Truppentransportdampers "Tuskania" westlich von der irischen Küste durch ein deutsches U=Boot in der Nach zum 5. Februar 1918 trotz stärksten Schutzes durch englische Zerstörer. (180) [Abb.]: An der Westfront ankommender amerikanischer Truppentransport wird von deutschen Fliegern beschossen. ([181]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine italienische Seidenspinnerei unter deutscher Verwaltung in Vittoria, in der die Seidenkokons bis zum fertigen Seidenfaden verarbeitet werden. Innenansicht der Spinnerei: Die Bürstenanlage. Etwa 50-60 Kokons werden in 40 Grad heisses Wasser gelegt und ihre Fadenaufänge durch Bürsten losgelöst. (2) Abwiegen von Kokons. Eine Spinnerin erhält täglich 4 Kilogramm Kokons zugwiesen, die sie im Laufe des Tages verarbeitet. (182) [Abb.]: Erfolgreicher Angriff eines deutschen Fliegers auf einen feindlichen Fesselballon. 1. Das deutsche Flugzeuzg überfliegt den Ballon. 2. Der Ballon ist durch die Brandgeschosse des Fliegers in Brand geraten. 3. Die Überreste des Ballons stürzen brennend ab. (183) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (184) Selige Augen. (184) [Abb.]: Deutsche Fliegeraufnahme der Düna hinter Riga mit der von deutschen Pionieren geschlagenen Notbrücke im Vordergrund. (184) [Abb.]: Freudige Begrüssung deutscher Reiter auf ihrem Vormarsch in Livland durch die von der russischen Gewaltherrschaft befreite Bevölkerung. ([185]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus dem Cholmer Gebiet. (1)Oberes Bild: Strassenbild von Cholm.- (2)Mittleres Bild: Ukrainische Juden am Sabbat in Cholm. -(3) Unteres Bild: Ukrainische Bäuerin am Spinnrad. (186) [3 Abb.]: (1)Tschernow, Führer der russischen Minimalisten, ein erbitterter Gegener Trotzkis und Lenins. (2) Wsetwolod Holubovicz, wurde am 5. Februar 1918 zum Ministerpräsidenten der neugegründeten Republik Ukraine gewählt. (3)Gesamtansicht von Kiew, der Hauptstadt der Ukraine. (187) [Abb.]: Strassenkämpfe in Petersburg unter der Schreckensherrschaft der Bolschewiki. 1. Kampf um den Winterpalast mit Panzerwagen. 2. Wirkung eines Artilleriegeschosses. 3. Vernichtung von Zeitungen auf dem Newsky=Prospekt. 4. Strassenkampf. (188) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. 9. Leo Nikolaus Trotzki. (188) [Abb.]: Die Schreckensherrschaft der Roten Garde in Livland. Sie verbreitete sich über den ganzen, von den Deutschen bisher nicht besetzten Teil Livlands. Die meisten Hofbesitzer wurden ausgeraubt und von Haus und Hof verjagt. Wer sich widersetzte, wurde sofort erschossen. ([189]) [Abb.]: Nordteil der deutschen Front gegen Grossrussland vor Beginn des neuen Vormarsches nach Ablauf des Waffenstillstandes. (190) [2 Abb.]: (1)Südteil der deutschen Front gegen Grossrussland vor Beginn des neuen Vormarsches nach Ablauf des Waffenstillstandes. (2)Südteil der deutschen Front gegen Grossrussland vor Beginn des neuen Vormarsches nach Ablauf des Waffenstillstandes. (190) Der Vormarsch nach Livland. (191) [Abb.]: An der grossen Verkehrstrasse Riga-Petersburg durch die Hügellandschaft Livlands: Übergang deutscher Truppen über die Bahnstrecke Riga-Petersburg. (191) [Abb.]: Das neue Abzeichen für deutsche Fliegerschützen (in 1/2 Grösse), das für diejenigen Mannschaften bestimmt ist, die als Maschinengewehrschützen zur Flugzeugbesatzung gehören. (192) [Abb.]: Sie kommen! ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 188 (Heft 188) ([193]) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall v. Eichhorn (links) und General v. Bredow (rechts) mit Offizieren des Stabes bei der Besichtigung von Minsk nach der Einnahme der Stadt. ([193]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Gefangenentypen: Mohammedaner aus Astrachan. (2) Der Friedensplaltz mit der polnischen Kirche und dem Gouvernementsgebäude in Minsk. (194) [3 Abb.]: (1)Svinhufvud, finnischer Ministerpräsident. (2)Generalleutnant Freiherr v. Seckendorff, der Eroberer von Reval. (3)Vogelschaukarte der Festung Reval, die am 25. Februar 1918 von deutschen Truppen nach Kampf genommen wurde. (195) [Abb.]: Die deutsche Front zur Zeit des Friedenschlusses mit Grossrussland am 3. März 1918. (196) [Abb.]: Auf der Kleinbahn zur Front in den Argonnen. ([197]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte der Alandsinseln. (198) [4 Abb.]: (1)Fregattenkapitän Nerger, Kommandant des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Wolf". (2)Kapitänleutnant Franz Becker, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Boot=Kommandant im Mittelmeer. (3)Kapitänleutnant Sietz, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Boot=Kommandant im östlichen Mittelmeer. (4)Kapitänleutnant Brandes, Kommandant des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Iltis". (199) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (199) Das Deutschtum in den baltischen Landen. (199) [4 Abb.]:(1) Kapitänleutnant Spiess, erfolgreicher Führer eines deutschen U=Bootes. (2)Flugzeugbeobachter Leutnant Hans Jürgen Horn, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (3)Leutnant Bongartz, erfolgreicher deutscher Kampfflieger, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (4)Oberleutnant z.S. Karl Neumann, erfolgreicher Führer eines deutschen U=Bootes im Mittelmeer. (199) [Abb.]: Die Mannschaft des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Wolf" nach ihrer Rückkehr von fünfzehnmonatiger Kreuzfahrt durch den Atlantischen, Indischen und Stillen Ozean. ([200]) [Abb.]: Einlaufen des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Wolf" in den Kieler Hafen. (201) Kriegshunde. (202) [3 Abb.]: Aus einer Kriegsmeldehunde=Schule dicht hinter der deutschen Front. (1)Oberes Bild: Die Vorbereitung der Mittagmahlzeit durch die Köche. - (2)Mittleres Bild: Antreten und Appell der Hundeführer vor dem Ausmarsch zur Übung. - (3)Unteres Bild: Die Kriegsmeldehunde beim Mittagmahl in ihren Stellungen. (203) Von Riga bis nach Dorpat. (203) [Abb.]: Der Durchbruch der deutsch=ostafrikanischen Schutztruppe unter Führung des Generalmajors v. Lettow=Vorbeck über den Rowuma=Grenzfluss auf portugiesisches Gebiet. ([205]) [Abb.]: Eintreffen der deutschen und österreichisch=ungarischen Austauschgefangenen auf einem schwedischen Dampfer in Sassnitz. (206) Der Durchbruch der deutsch=ostafrikanischen Schutztruppe nach Portugiesisch=Ostafrika und die Kämpfe dort im Dezember 1917. (206) [Abb.]: Die neu eingekleideten deutschen Austauschgefangenen nach ihrer Ankunft in Sassnitz. (207) Deutsch=russischer Gefangenenaustausch in Sassnitz. (207) [Abb.]: Gefangenenaustausch in Sassnitz auf der Ostseeinsel Rügen. Die wohl aussehenden russischen Gefangenen gehen an Bord. (207) [Abb.]: Wiedereroberung des Castellaccio (Tonalegebiet). (208) Wiedereroberung des Castellaccio (Tonalegebiet) am 14. September 1915. (208) [Abb.]: Ein Blick über den vordersten Graben. Inmitten des zerschossenen Waldgeländes zieht sich in 75 Meter Entfernung der französische Graben hin. Im Vordergrund bezieht eine Kolonne Feldgrauer die Stellung. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. (Heft 189) ([209]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Meldereiter mit Gasmaske überbringt in feindlichem Feuer eine wichtige Meldung. ([209]) [5 Abb.]: (1)Kartenskizze zu der fortschreitenden deutschen Offensive in Frankreich. Ende März 1918. Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (2)Major Freiherr v. Schleinitz, Bataillonskommandeur des Garde=Grenadierregiments Nr. 5. (3)Oberstleutnant Freiherr v. Lupin, Kommandeur des württ. Grenadierregiments Nr. 123, der sich durch hervorragende Tapferkeit bei der Wegnahme von Fins auszeichnete. (4)Generalleutnant Oskar Freiherr v. Watter, Kommandeur einer Division, die sich bei Cambrai rühmlich hervortat. (5) Major Heinrigs, Bataillonskommandeur im Infanterieregiment Nr. 24. (210) [ 9 Abb.]: Hervorragende Führer der Grossen Schlacht in Frankreich. (1)General Walter Frhr. v. Lüttwitz. (2)General Ritter und Edler v. Ötinger. (3)General v. Conta. (4) General v. dem Borne. (5) Oberleutnant z. S. Walter Warzecha, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Boot=Kommandant. Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (6)Oberstleutnant Ernst Freiherr v. Forstner, Kommandeur eines badischen Grenadierregiments. (7)Königlich sächsischer Generalmajor Hammer, führte bei Kriegsausbruch das 104. Infanteriergiment. (8)Generalmajor v. Sabain, im Frieden zuletzt Kommandeur der 12. Infanteriebrigade in Brandenburg. (9)General v. Wedel, Führer einer brandenburgischen Division, die sich auf dem italienischen Kriegschauplatz hervorgetan hat. (211) [2 Abb.]: (1)Unversehrt erbeutetes englisches Munitionslager bei Aubigny vor Ham. (2) Vor Ham gestürmte schwere englische Batterie. (212) [Abb.]: Auffahrende deutsche Artillerie. ([213]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus der Grossen Schlacht im Westen. (1) Über die ersten gestürmten englischen Stellungen vorgehende deutsche Kavallerie. (2)Über gestürmte englische Stellungen vorgehende deutsche Pioniere. (3)Über die ersten gestürmten englischen Stellungen vorgehende deutsche Artillerie. (214) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus der Grossen Schlacht im Westen. (1)In St. Quentin bereitgestellte deutsche Reserven. (2)Deutsche Kolonnen auf der Vormarschstrasse vor Ham. (3)Eintreffen der ersten englischen Gefangenen in einer Sammelstelle bei St. Quentin. (215) [Abb.]: Wie sich der Flieger gegen Kälte schützt. Deutscher Flieger beim Anlegen von elektrisch geheizten Handschuhen. (216) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (216) Die Badener an der Wetterecke am 1. März 1918. (216) [Abb.]: Aufklärungsflug an der dalmatinischen Küste. (217) [3 Abb.]: (1)Alexander Marghiloman, wurde als Nachfolger Averescus zum rumänischen Ministerpräsidenten ernannt mit der Aufgabe, die Friedensverhandlungen zum Abschluss zu bringen. (2)General Averescu, der in der Übergangsregierung als rumänischer Ministerpräsident die Vorfriedensverhandlungen geführt hat. (3) Offiziere der 1. ukrainischen Division. (218) [2 Abb.]: (1) Aus russischer Gefangenschaft zurückkommende deutsche und österreichisch=ungarische Mannschaften in ihre Heimat. (2) Aus russischer Gefangenschaft zurückkommende deutsche Mannschaften bei der Abbeförderung in ihre Heimat. Die Soldaten tragen noch ihre Lagerkleider. (219) Die Eroberung Estlands. (220 - 221) [Abb.]: Verladung türkischer Kamele in Hidja Tschistchan an der Bagdadbahn. (220 - 221) [2 Abb.]:(1) Generalleutnant Adams. Führer der deutschen Truppen in Livland, die Dorpat besetzten. (2)Rast deutscher Truppen am Ufer des Peipus=Sees in Livland. (222) [6 Abb.]: Bilder vom deutschen Vordringen in Est= und Livland. (1)Blick zwischen den Narowafestungen durch auf den Fluss. (2)Die russische Festung Iwangorod bei Narwa. (3)Russische Soldaten melden sich auf dem Rathaus in Dorpat. (4)Die alte Deutschordensritterburg in Narwa. (5)Blick auf die Altstadt von Narwa von der Narowabrücke aus. (6)Die Schwedenfestung bei Narwa von der Narowabrücke aus. (223) Deutschlands künftige Weltwirtschaft. (223) [Abb.]: Das Eiserne Kreuz mit goldenen Strahlen, das Blücherkreuz, das bisher nur einmal, dem Fürsten Blücher nach der Schlacht bei Belle=Alliance, und jetzt vom Deutschen Kaiser dem Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg verliehen wurde. Der Orden ist die höchste Klasse des Eisernen Kreuzes und in nur einem Exemplar auf Anordnung des Deutschen Kaisers angefertigt worden. (224) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 190 (Heft 190) ([225]) [Abb.]: Eroberung englischer Langrohrgeschütze in der Durchbruchschlacht bei Bapaume. ([225]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Maschinengewehrkompanie geht in Stellung. (2) Deutsche Kolonnen auf dem Vormarsch durch das zerschossene Templeux. (226) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Batterie von deutschen 21=cm=Mörsern in den gestürmten Linien im Kampfgelände zwischen Bapaume und Arras. (2)Gestürmte englische Linien bei Bullecourt-Croisilles zwischen Bapaume und Arras. (227) [2 Abb.]: (1)Einschlagen einer Gasgranate.(2)Einschlagen einer Stahlgranate. (228) [Abb.]: Deutsche Feldbatterien jagen im Galopp über die gestürmten englischen Stellungen in die vorderste Linie zur Unterstützung der Infanterieangriffe aus nächster Nähe. ([229]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englisches Grossflugzeug (Typ Handley=Page) mit zurücklegbaren Tragflächen, das von den Deutschen unversehrt erbeutet wurde. Das Flugzeug ist 30 Meter breit, 20 Meter lang, 6 1/2 Meter hoch und hat 2 Motore zu je 260 Pferdestärken, die 2 vierflügelige Schrauben treiben. Bewaffnung: 3 Maschinengewehre; Besatzung: 5 Mann. (2) Von den Deutschen erbeuteter französischer Nieuport=Kampfeinsitzer mit einem Maschinengewehr, das an den oberen Tragflächen angebracht ist. (230) [2 Abb.]:(1) Verwundeter gefangener Führer eines abgeschossenen englischen Flugzeuges. (2)Unversehrt vorgefundene Wohnbaracken und Unterstände einer englischen Fliegerabteilung auf dem Flugplatz Favreuil. (231) [5 Abb.]: (1)Leutnant Röth, der am 1. April 1918 vor Arras vier englische Fesselballone vernichtete. (2)Vizefeldwebel Wagner, der am 1. April 1918 vor Arras einen englischen Fesselballon abschoss. (3)Vizefeldwebel Bäumer, deutscher Kampfflieger, der sich an der Westfront hervorgetan hat. (4)Oberleutnant Lörzer, erfolgreicher deutscher Kampfflieger, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (5)Bei einem deutschen Jagdgeschwader an der Westfront. Blick auf den Flughafen mit den Zelten und abfahrtbereiten Flugzeugen, unter denen sich einsitzige Fokker=Kampfdreidecker befinden. Von einem deutschen Flugzeuge aus geringer Höhe aufgenommen. (232) [Abb.]: Wiederherstellung einer durch sogenannte Masken gegen Sicht geschützten, hochgelegenen Argonnenstrasse, die täglich unter feindlichem Feuer liegt und durch eine Fliegerbombe aufgerissen worden war. Die Masken bestehen aus Binsen=Weidenruten mit Laubansatz. In der Eichengruppe links ein Artilleriebeobachtungstand. Im Nebel des Hintergrundes die Höhenzüge des Argonnenwaldes. ( - ) [Abb.]: Zerstörung englischer Fesselballone vor Arras am 1. April 1918. (233) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (234) Wiederherstellung einer durch sogenannte Masken gegen Sicht geschützten und durch Beschiessung aufgerissenen Höhenstrasse. (234) [Abb.]: Übersichtskarte über das Gebiet von Japan und den ostsibirischen Hafenstädten. (234) Die Badener an der Wetterecke am 1. März 1918. (234) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der neue Stahlhelm der Schweizer Armee (2)Die Wirkung des Aushungerungskrieges Englands in der neutralen Schweiz: Städtischer Kartoffelverkauf der Notstandshilfe in Zürich. In verschiedenen Stadtstreifen Zürichs sowie in anderen schweizerischen Städten werden Kartoffeln als unentbehrliches Nahrungsmittel zu ermäßigten Preisen an die bedürftige Bevölkerung abgegeben. (235) [Abb.]: Am Verbandplatz. (236 - 237) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarischer Soldat auf dem Markt von Winica in der Ukraine. (238) Die Befreiung der Ukraine. (238) [Abb.]: Von österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen auf dem Vormarsch nach Odessa gefangene Japaner. (239) [2 Abb.]: (1)May Senta Hauler, die Tochter eines auf dem italienischen Kriegschauplatzgefallenen österreichisch=ungarischen Offiziers, die sich als Schütze "Wolf Hauler" dem Württembergischen Gebirgsbataillon angeschlossen hat.(2) Die Vorhut der k. u. k. 30. Infanteriedivision (Feldmarschalleutnant v. Jesser) dringt am 13. März 1918 unter Führung des Generalmajors Alfred v. Zeidler von Norden her über den Frachtbahnhof in Odessa ein, während von Westen her zwei deutsche Bataillone die Stadt besetzen. (240) [Abb.]: Übergang deutscher Truppen über die Lys. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 191 (Heft 191) ([241]) [Abb.]: Der von den Franzosen gesprengte Oise=Aisne=Kanal, der über den Oisefluss führt. Rechts und links vom Kanal Sumpfgelände. ([241]) [2Abb.]: (1)Kartenskizze zu der Schlacht bei Armentiéres. (2)Kartenskizze zum Vorstoss der Armee Boehn zwischen Oise und Aisne. (242) [Abb.]: Das eroberte Chauny, das von den Franzosen vor ihrem Rückzug in Brand gesteckt wurde, aus 200 Meter Höhe von einem deutschen Flieger aufgenommen. (243) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Pioniere beim Überbrücken eines Minentrichters im Kampfgelände zwischen St. Quentin und Ham. (2)Zwei erbeutete englische Langrohrgeschütze auf einem Schienenstrang im Westen. (244) [Abb.]: Mit der Uhr in der Hand vor dem Sturm. Ein deutscher Sturmtrupp erwartet in einer Sappenkopfstellung den Befehl zum Vorbrechen. ([245]) [Abb.]: Aus der Hochburg des deutschen Kriegsmaterials: Lager von Rohgeschossen bei Krupp in Essen. (246) [3 Abb.]: Bei einer deutschen Batterie in Flandern. (1)Ein Geschütz wird gedreht. (2)Munition wird mittels kleiner Wagen zur Batterie gebracht. (3)Im Geschützturm einer schweren Küstenbatterie in Flandern. (247) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (247) Der Brigadier. (247) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kartenskizze zur Offensive in Finnland. (2)Russische Torpedoboote und Minenschiffe im Eis des Hafens von Helsingfors. Von einem deutschen Flieger aus 100 Meter Höhe aufgenommen. (248) [Abb.]: Landung deutscher Truppen im Hafen von Hangö in Finnland. ([249]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Soldaten beim Bau von Unterkunftsräumen an der mazedonischen Front.(2)Auf einer Strasse am Wardar in Mazedonien: Am Bergrücken ein altes Kloster. (250) Kraftfahrer voran. (251) [Abb.]: Kriegerisches Strassenbild aus einer mazedonischen Stadt. (251) [2 Abb.]:(1) Deutscher Offizier reitet zur Front im Orient. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Gebirgsartillerie auf dem Marsche im Tigristal. (252) [Abb.]: Deutsche Flieger bewerfen ein englisches Lager bei Jericho mit Bomben. Im Hintergrunde das Tote Meer und die Moabiter Berge. (253) [10 Abb.]: (1)General v. Eberhardt, dessen Truppen bei der erfolgreichen Umfassung von Armentiéres beteiligt waren. (2) General v. Quast, ein Führer der siegreichen deutschen Truppen in der Schlacht bei Armentiéres. (3)General v. Carlowitz, dessen Truppen mit denen des Generals v. Stetten den Feind in Richtung Baillent und Merville zurückwarfen. (4)Generalmajor v. Schippert, Führer einer württembergischen Division in der Grossen Schlacht in Flandern. (5)Generalmajor Höfer, der mit seinen Truppen den Übergang über die Lys bei Bac=St. Maux erkämpfte. (6)Leutnant Drebing, durch dessen schneidiges Zufassen der Übergang über die Lys bei Bac=St. Maux erzwungen wurde. (7)Oberleutnant z. S. Sprenger, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Boot=Kommandant im östlichen Mittelmeer (8)Leutnant v. R. Kroll, erfolgreicher deutscher Kampfflieger, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite (9)Oberleutnant Fricke, erfolgreicher deutscher Beobachtungsflieger, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (10)Oberleutnant z. S. Herm. Menzel, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Boot=Kommandant auf dem nördlichen Seekriegschauplatz. (254) [4 Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen in Livland. (1)Deutsche Radfahrerabteilung bei der Verfolgung raubender Bolschewikibanden. (2)Deutsche Radfahrerabteilung im Kampf mit raubenden Bolschewikibanden. (3)Ein nach Kampf mit den Bolschewiki erbeuteter russischer Panzerkraftwagen. (4)Deutsche Artillerie im Kampf mit einem abziehenden Panzerzug raubender Bolschewikibanden. (255) Krieg und Arbeitskräfte. (255) [Abb.]: Eine Kriegsauszeichnung für deutsche U=Boot=Besatzungen. Das aus patinierter Bronze hergestellte Abzeichen kann Offfizieren, Deckoffizieren und Mannschaften verliehen werden, die sich auf drei Fahrten gegen den Feind besonder hervorgetan haben. (256) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen bei Langenmark. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 192 (Heft 192) ([257]) [Abb.]: Eroberte englische Stellung vor Armentiéres; durch deutsche Artillerie stark zusammengeschossen. ([257]) [Abb.]: Übersichtkarte zur Schlacht in Flandern (258) [6 Abb.]: Bilder aus der Schlacht bei Armentiéres. (1)Deutsche 21=cm=Mörserbatterie beim Stellungswechsel vor Estaires. (2)Eine Batterie deutscher 21=cm=Mörser im Feuer. (3)Erbeutete schwere englische Haubitze in Armentiéres (4)Österreichisch=ungarischer 30,5=cm=Mörser wird in Stellung gebracht. (5)Während des Kampfes überlaufende englische Soldaten werden von den Deutschen zu einer Sammelstelle gewiesen. (6)Ein Trupp der ersten aus der Schlacht eingebrachten englischen und portugiesischen Gefangenen. (259) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser beobachtet auf einem Gefechtstande südlich von Armentiéres den Verlauf der Schlacht. Im Vordergrund ziehen Kolonnen mit Pioniergerät der vorstürmenden Infanterie nach. ([260 - 261]) [7 Abb.]: Hervorragende Kommandnaten deutscher Marineluftschiffe. (1)Korvettenkapitän Arnold Schütze. (2)Kapitänleutnant Flemming. (3)Kapitänleutnant v. Freudenreich. (4)1)RegimentskommandeurOberstleutnant Pohlmann, dessen Truppen in selbtstätigem Handeln die Höhe von Rossignol stürmten. (5)General Grünert, Führer deutscher Truppen in dem Kampfgebiet zwischen Bapaume und Peronne. (6)General Sieger, der Eroberer von Wytschaete, dessen Truppen auch an der Erstürmung des Kemmelberges beteiligt waren. (7)General v. Webern, siegreicher deutscher Truppenführer in dem Kampfgebiet zwischen Ham und Chauny. (262) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wie die Franzosen die deutschen Heldengräber schänden. Auf dem Holzkreuz eines Grabes auf dem Friedhof des wiedereroberten Nesle ist das Wort "Kameraden" vom Feinde mit schwarzer Farbe überstrichen worden. (2)Wie die Franzosen die deutschen Heldengräber schänden. Mutwillige Zerstörungen auf dem Friedhofe im wiedereroberten Nesle. Die Soldatengräber wurden von den französischen "Kulturträgern" vor ihrem Rückzug aufgerissen, die Holzkreuze gewaltsam zerbrochen, die Grabsteine absichtlich umgestürzt und die Inschriften mit den Namen der Toten und dem Zeichen des Eisernen Kreuzes vernichtet. Die deutschen Gräber wurden ausserdem von den übrigen durch einen Zaun aus Draht und Dachpappe getrennt. (263) [Abb.]: Deutsche Fliegeraufnahme der Kathedrale von Laon, die durch französisches Artilleriefeuer zerstört wurde. (264) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (264) Die Durchbruchschlacht in Frankreich. (264) [Abb.]: Deutsches U=Boot beschiesst Monrovia und Kap Palma in Liberia (Westafrika). ([265]) [Abb.]: Bau eines Bohrturmes in dem unter österreichisch=ungarischer Militärverwaltung stehenden rumänischen Rohölgebiet. (266) [Abb.]: Hochziehen eines österreichisch=ungarischen Fesselballons vom Meere aus. (267) [Abb.]: Eine Fahrt durch den Amanustunnel hinter der Palästinafront. (268 - 269) Darstellung der Befestigungswerke von Verdun. (268 - 269) [Abb.]: Reliefdarstellung der Befestigungswerke von Verdun in der Austellung "Die französische Festung und ihre Verteidigung" in den Austellungshallen am Zoologischen Garten zu Berlin. (268 - 269) Stosstruppen. Einbruch. Durchbruch. (271) [Abb.]: Fort Bauban, dritte Verteidigungslinie von Verdun. Im Relief wiedergegeben in der Austellung "Die französische Festung und ihre Verteidigung" in den Austellungshallen am Zoologischen Garten zu Berlin. (271) [Abb.]: Übung von Infanterietruppen im Zusammenarbeiten mit einem Infanterieflieger in einem hinter der Front dem Kampfplatz nachgebildeten Übungswerk. (272) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 193 (Heft 193) ([273]) [Abb.]: Die Volksabstimmungen für den Rat von Flandern. Kundgebung der Flamen für ein selbstständiges Flandern. Umzug durch die Strassen Antwerpens. ([273]) [Abb.]: Erbeutete englische Flugabwehrkanone auf der Strasse nach Bapaume. (274) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant v. Lindequist, einer der erfolgreichen deutschen Heerführer im Westen. (2)Ansicht des Kemmelberges mit Vorgelände. (275) [Abb.]: Die Eroberung des Kemmelbergs. (276 - 277) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (276 - 277) Die flämische Bewegung. (276 - 277) [Abb.]: Die Ruinen des Tuchhallen von Ypern und der Kathedrale St. Martin im Mondschein. (278) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die berühmte Jagdstaffel des Rittmeisters Manfred Freiherrn v. Richthofen, deren Führer nach Erringung von 80 Luftfliegen am 21. April 1918 einer feindlichen Kugel erlag. (2)Im Luftkampf an der Westfront aabgeschossener Sopwith=Kampfeinsitzer. In dem auffallend bemalten Rumpfvorderteil ist der Umdrehungsmotor sichtbar, darüber zwei starre Maschinengewehre. (279) [2 Abb.]: Zum missglückten englischen Handstreich auf Seebrügge und Ostende. (1)Fliegeraufnahme eines der versenkten englischen Sperrkreuzer , mit zahlreichen Spuren der Beschiessung durch die deutschen Küstenbatterien. (2)Fliegeraufnahme der versenkten englischen Sperrkreuzer "Brilliant" und "Sirius von denen der eine in Brand geschossen wurde. (280) Wehrhaft Kirche in St. Juvin. (280) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zum missglückten englischen Handstreich auf Zeebrügge. a) Deutsche Prahmsperre, b) Einbruch der versenkten englischen Schiffe. (280) [Abb.]: Die wehrhaft Kirche in St. Juvin. ( - ) [Abb.]: Der missglückte englische Handstreich gegen Zeebrügge: Der Kampf auf der Mole. ([281]) [Abb.]: Die deutschen Linienschiffe im Eise vor Finnland. (282) Das Los deutscher Gefangener. (282) [3 Abb.]: (1)Einzug der deutschen Truppen in Helfingfors, die von den Bolschewiki geräumte Hauptstadt Finnlands. (2) Der Magistrat von Helfingfors begrüsst den deutschen General Grafen v. d. Goltz beim Einzug auf dem Platz vor dem Dom. (3)Die Einwohnerschaft von Helfingfors bringt ein Hoch auf Deutschland aus. Im Vordergrund links der Magistrat der finnischen Hauptstadt, rechts General Graf v. d. Goltz mit seinem Stab. (283) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der gestorbene bulgarische Gesandte in Berlin, Dr. Dmitri Rizow, der sich um das deutsch=bulgarische Freundschaftsbündnis sehr verdient gemacht hat. (2)Die Radobilj=Passstrasse zwischen Gradiska und Prilep in Mazedonien, eine der längsten Kehrstrassen der Welt, durch die eine 40 Kilometer lange Drahtseilbahn von Prilep nach Drenowo führt. (284) [Abb.]: Ein Zeppelin=Luftkreuzer über Kreta. (285) [Abb.]: Übersichtskarte vom südöstlichen Russland. (286) Die Durchbruchschlacht in Frankreich. (287) [2Abb.]: (1)Das erste Kriegschiff des Vierbundes im Hafen von Odessa: Der türkische kleine Kreuzer "Hamidie". (2)Ukrainischer Train auf der Brücke des von österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen besetzten Ortes Kamenez Podolski in der Ukraine. (287) [Abb.]: Ein feindlicher Handelsdampfer sucht einem deutschen U=Boot zu entkommen, indem er einen Rauch entwickelnden Behälter ins Wasser gleiten lässt, der durch die erzeugte Rauchwand das Schiff den Blicken der Angreifer entziehen soll. (288) Künstlicher Nebel als U=Boot=Abwehrmittel. (288) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 194 (Heft 194) ([289]) [Abb.]: Nach der Schlacht am Kemmelberg: Verwundete Gefangene werden auf der Lys mittels Kähnen abbefördert. ([289]) [Abb.]: Meldung eine österreichisch=ungarischen Kommandanten bei seinem Eintreffen auf dem westlichen Kriegschauplatz (290) [ 3Abb.]: Bilder von der deutschen Beute im Westen. (1)Erbeutetes englisches Kriegsmaterial auf einer Sammelstelle. (2)Im Wasser stecken gebliebener englischer Motorschlepper für schwere Geschütze. (3)Ein unversehrt erbeuteter englischer 22=cm=Mörser (291) [Abb.]: Im Raume von St. Quentin-Noyon flüchtende Engländer werden von deutscher Artillerie unter Feuer genommen. ([292 - 293]) [Abb.]: Schematische Darstellung eines stark gesicherten englischen Geleitzugs. Die Frachtschiffe fahren in Doppelkiellinie und sind in der Mitte und an beiden Seiten - alles in entsprechenden Abständen voneinander - durch eine Anzahl bewaffneter Fischdampfer schützt. In Zickzacklinie seitwärts fahrende Torpedoboote sowie Spitzen= und Schlussschiffe mit Fesselballonen vervollständigen die Sicherung der wertvollen Transportzüge. (294) [5 Abb.]: Erfolgreiche deutsche U=Boot=Kommandanten. (1)Kapitänleutnant Hundius. (2)Kapitänleutnant Klasing. (3)Kapitänleutnant Neureuther. (4)Kapitänleutnant v. Glasenapp. (5)K. u. k. Offizierstellvertreter Kitz, erfolgreicher österreichisch=ungarische Kampfflieger, der 19 Gegner abschoss und dreimal mit der Goldenen, viermal mit der Grossen Silbernen, zweimal mit der kleinen Silbernen und mit der bronzenen Tapferkeitsmedaille ausgezeichnet wurde. (295) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (295) Die Durchbruchschlacht in Frankreich. II. Angriff. (295) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der ukrainische Hetman Pawel Petrowitsch Storopadski.(2)Der Führer der Bolschewiki=Organisation in Cherson am Dnjepr, der Matrose Wassiljew (in der Mitte sitzend), mit seinem Stabe. Nach einem beim deutschen Vormarsch nach der Krim in Cherson vorgefundenen Bilde. (296) [Abb.]: Einmarsch deutscher Truppen in Noyon. Im Hintergrund die Kathedrale ( - ) [Abb.]: Die Rote Garde in Finnland streckt nach fünftägiger Schlacht bei Tavastehus die Waffen. ([297]) Die Krim. (298) [3 Abb.]: Die Schweiz im Weltkriege. Schweizerische Grenzwacht an der elsässischen Grenze. Ein hochgebauter Beobachtungsturm auf einer die Umgebung beherrschenden Anhöhe mit starken Fernrohren. (298) [3 Abb.]: Die Schweiz im Weltkriege. Oberes Bild: Ablegen der Werkzeuge und Abmarsch nach Arbeitschluss im Stellungsbau. Mittleres Bild: Stellungsbau im Juragestein. Unteres Bild: Einfahren der Brückenkähne beim Bau einer Brücke. (299) [Abb.]: Das deutsche Abzeichen für Verwundete, das laut Kaiserlicher Kabinettsorder vom 3. März 1918 als besondere Anerkennung den im Dienste des Vaterlandes Verwundeten verliehen wird. (300) Die deutsche Getreidewirtschaft im Kriege. (300) [Abb.]: Einzug finnischer Truppen in die Festung Wiborg. ([301]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Teilansicht eines Musterraumes für eingelieferte Getreideproben. (2) Die Reichsgetreidestelle. Abteilung Mühlenbetrieb. (302) K. u. k. Sturmtruppen säubern eine von den Russen genommene Stellung in der südlichen Bukowina. (303) [2Abb.]: (1)Getreideuntersuchungsraum. (2) Die Reichsgetreidestelle. (303) [Abb.]: K. u. k. Sturmtruppen säubern in kühnem Gegenangriff eine von den Russen Tags zuvor besetzte Stellung in der südlichen Bukowina. (304) Das Tragtier in den Karpathen. (304) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 195 (Heft 195) ([305]) [Abb.]: Granatwerfer 16 beim Schiessen von Sperrfeuer auf dem westlichen Kriegschauplatz. Ein leichter, allgemein in der deutschen Armee eingeführter Minenwerfer, der der Infanterie beigegeben worden ist und es ihr ermöglicht, sich selbst ihr Sperrfeuer zu legen oder feindliche Stützpunkte niederzukämpfen. Die Leute im Vordergrunde des Bildes machen die Wurfgranaten fertig: der andere Mann ist im Begriff, den Werfer abzuziehen. ([305]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein bedeutsamer Wegweiser in Flandern: Nach Nieuw=Kerke und nach Kemmel. (2) Bau einer Feldbahn im Kampfgelände von Kemmel durch deutsche Eisenbahntruppen. (306) [Abb.]: Die freie Fahrrinne im Hafen von Zeebrügge. Unsere Aufnahme zeigt die Wracke der v ersenkten englischen Schiffe und die völlig ungesperrte Hafenausfahrt als klarsten Beweis für das Misslingen des mit so schweren Opfern durchgeführten englischen Flottenangriffs. (307) [Abb.]:Übergabe der russischen Festung Kars an die siegreichen türkischen Truppen. ([308 - 309]) [2 Abb.]:(1) Die im Frieden von Bukarest festgelegte neue Grenzlinie zwischen Rumänien und Österreich=Ungarn (westlicher Abschnitt). (2)Kartenskizze der von Rumänien an den Vierbund abgetretenen Gebiete. (310) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die im Frieden von Bukarest festgelegte neue Grenzlinie zwischen Rumänien und Österreich=Ungarn (östlicher Abschnitt). (2)Zur Unterzeichnung des Friedensvertrages von Bukarest: Blick in den Sitzungsaal vor der Unterzeichnung der Schriftstücke. Um Tische von links nach rechts: der türkische Minister des Äusseren Ahmed Nessimy Bey, der österreichisch=ungarische Minister des Äusseren Graf Burian, der deutsche Staatssekretär des Auswärtigen Amtes v. Kühlmann, der bulgarische Ministerpräsident Radoslawow. (311) [Abb.]: Türkische Soldaten in der Wüste. (312) [Abb.]: In das eroberte Batum einziehende türkische Truppen werden von einer Abordnung der Bürgerschaft begrüsst. ( - ) [Abb.]: Die englische Niederlage am Jordan. ([313]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (314) Erstürmung der letzten Forts von Batum durch die Türken. (314) [2 Abb.]: (1)K. u. k. Generalmajor Freiherr v. Zeidler, der Eroberer von Odessa. (2)K. u. k. Vizeadmiral Ritter v. Keil, wurde zum Admiral befördert. (314) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durchmarsch österreichisch=ungarischer Sturmtruppen durch Constanza am Schwarzen Meer. (2)Einschiffung österreichisch=ungarischer Sturmtruppen in Constanza zur Fahrt nach Odessa. (315) Die Eroberung der Krim. (316 - 317) [Abb.]: Einzug der deutschen Truppen in Sebastopol. (316 - 317) [Abb.]: Die von einem deutschen Infanterieflieger abgeschossene, mit einer Meldung versehene und Rauch entwickelnde Signalpatrone (Rauchmeldepatrone) wird von einem Infanteristen eingeholt. Die Rauchmeldepatrone ist eines der Mittel, wodurch der in 50-200 Meter Höhe fliegende Infanterieflieger die Verbindung zwischen der kämpfenden Infanterielinie und der Truppenführung herstellt, wenn bei schwerem Feuer alle anderen Nachrichtenmittel versagen. Er unterstützt die in den vordersten Gräben und Trichtern liegende Infanterie, beobachtet Angriffsabsichten des Feindes und kann hiergegen selbständig das Feuer der eigenen Artillerie anfordern. (318) Über die Verständigung zwischen Flieger und Truppe. (318) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. 10. Czernin. (319) [Abb.]: Die in der Rauchmeldepatrone enthaltene Meldung wird in der vordersten Stellung gelesen. (319) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wie die Franzosen den Krieg zu gewinnen gedenken: Ein in den deutschen Stellungen gelandeter französischer Werbeballon aus Papier, wie solche von den Franzosen häufig über die deutschen Linien abgelassen werden. Sie sind mit Zeitungen belastet, worin die deutschen Soldaten zum Überlaufen aufgefordert werden, da dann der Krieg bald beendet sei. Außerdem machen die Franzosen die verlockendsten Versprechnungen, weil sie einsehen, dass ihnen durch die Waffen der Sieg nicht zufällt. (2)Deutsche Soldaten belustigen sich an dem Inhalt der französischen Werbezeitungen. (320) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 196 (Heft 196) ([321]) [2 Abb.]:(1) Meldung des Kommandanten der bulgarischen Ehrenkompanie in Küstendil. 1. Kaiser und König Karl. 2. König Ferdinand von Bulgarien. 3. Kronprinz Boris von Bulgarien. (2)Das österreichisch=ungarische Herrscherpaar auf der Reise nach Sofia und Konstantinopel. Ankunft in Konstantinopel. 1. Kaiser und König Karl. 2. Kaiserin und Königin Zita. 3. Sultan Mohammed V. ([321]) [Abb.]: Schipperarbeit in den flandrischen Dünen. (322) [2Abb.]: (1)Im offenen Kampfgelände am Kemmelberge erbeutete schwere englische Haubizenbatterie. (2) Deutsches Lazarett am Kemmelberge unter englischem Feuer. (323) [Abb.]: Innenansicht einer deutschen Marketenderei in einem ehemaligen französischen Basar in Laon. Zu den besetzten Gebieten werden von der deutschen Militärverwaltung zahlreiche vorbildliche Einrichtungen zum Wohle der Feldgrauen geschaffen. In diesen Verkaufsstellen können sich die Soldaten zu erstaunlich niedrigen Preisen erwerben, was ihnen vom Heere nicht unmittelbar geliefert wird. So kostet hier ein grosser Eimer der besten Marmelade, die in den eigenen Obstverwertungsanlagen der Militärverwaltung hergestellt wird, nur 3 Mark. (324) [Abb.]: Bei der grossen Bagage in der Nähe von Dixmuiden. ([325]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (326) Rückeroberung der k. u. k. Feldwache II am Monticellohang im herbst 1915. (326) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. 11. Storopadski, der Hetman der Ukraine. (326) [8 Abb.]: Bilder von der deutschen Feldpost im Westen. (1)Ankunft der Heimatpost im besetzten Gebiet. (2)Im Sortierraum eines Feldpostamtes. (3)Ausladen der Heimatpost. (4)Abfahrt der Feldpost für eine Kompanie. (5)Eintreffen der Feldpostsäcke in den Stellungen. (6)Verteilung der Feldpost an die Gruppenführer der Kompanie. (7)Austeilen der Feldpost im Graben. (8)Beim Lesen der Heimatgrüsse. ([327]) [4 Abb.]: (1)Leutnant Löwenhardt, erfolgreicher deutscher Kampfflieger und Führer einer Jagdstaffel im Westen. (2) Oberleutnant z. S. Walter Schmitz, erfolgreicher Kommandant eines in Flandern stationierten deutschen U=Bootes (3)Leutnant Menkhoff, erfolgreicher deutscher Kampfflieger Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite (4) Korvettenkapitän Eckelmann, Führer des U=Kreuzers, der im Sperrgebiet um die Azoren 48247 Tonnen Schiffsraum versenkt hat. (328) [Abb.]: Rückeroberung der k. u. k. Feldwache II am Monticellohang. ( - ) [Abb.]: Das Heldenstück eines deutschen U=Bootes (Kommandant Kapitänleutnant Steinbauer ) im Hafen von Carloforte auf Sardinien im Morgengrauen des 29. April 1918 ([329]) [Abb.]: Die Kathedrale von Amiens, deren figurenreiche Eingänge durch Sandsäcke geschützt sind. Nach einer französischen Darstellung von Ende April 1918. (330) [Abb.]: Englands Hilfsvöker: In der Schlacht an der Lys gefangene Portugiesen in einem Lager hinter der deutschen Front. (331) Die Durchbruchschlacht in Frankreich. III. Die Schlacht an der Lys. (331) [Abb.]: Kurze Rast deutscher Truppen auf einem Platze in Armentiéres. (331) [Abb.]: Deutsche Pioniere beim Wegebau während der Durchbruchschlacht im Westen. (332 - 333) Krieg und Vermessungswesen. (332 - 333) [Abb.]: Die ersten amtlich ausgegebenen Flugpostmarken der am 1. April 1918 früh um 5 1/2 Uhr auch für den öffentlichen Verkehr eröffneten k. u. k. österreichischen Flugpost Wien-Krakau-Lemberg. Die erste Ausgabe besteht aus drei Werten zu 1,50, 2,50 und 4 Kronen. (334) 2 [Abb.]: (1)Der erste deutsche Flugpostdienst. Vor dem Hause des Kurierdienstes in Brest=Litowsk, in dem sich die Lufpost=Annahmestelle befindet.(2)Der erste deutsche Flugpostdienst. Verladen der Postsäcke aus dem Automobil in das Postflugzeug. (335) Das Flugzeug im Dienste der Post. (335) [Abb.]: Das ehemalige französische Unterseeboot "Turquoise", mit dem kurz nach seinem Stapellauf der damalige türkische Marineminister Oschemal Pascha eine Probefahrt machte, das infolge wohlgezielter Kanonenschüsse des türkischen Unteroffiziers Müstedjik Onbaschi in die Hände der Türken gefallen ist. Es wurde in Gegenwart des türkischen Kriegsministers Ender Pascha und des Admirals Souchon auf den Namen Müstedjik Onbaschi" getauft. (336) Das von den Türken eroberte französische Unterseeboot "Turquoise". (336) [Abb.]: Die Beschiessung Laons durch die Franzosen. Den Einwohnern der weit hinter der deutschen Front liegenden französischen Stadt verursachte die Beschiessung durch die eigenen Landsleute grossen Schaden. (336) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 197 (Heft 197) ([337]) [Abb.]: Fort Malmaison am Chemin des Dames; im Hintergrund im Aisnetal das brennende Vailly. ([337]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte zur Schlacht um den Chemin des Dames Ende Mai 1918. ([338]) [2 Abb.]:(1) Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg an der Spitze seines früheren Regiments. (2)Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg verteilt Auszeichnungen an Mannschaften seines Regiments. (339) [Abb.]: Die Einnahme von Vailly durch Sturmtruppen der deutschen Kronprinzenarmee. (340 - 341) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Berry au Bac am Chemin des Dames von einer deutschen Blinkerstation aus am Morgen des ersten Angriffstags. (2)Deutsche Minenwerfer überschreiten nach erfolgreichem Kampf die ersten englischen Stellungen bei Berry au Bac am Chemin des Dames. (3)Die ersten englischen Gefangenen aus dem Kampfgelände des Chemin des Dames werden bei Berry au Bac durch Laufgräben eingebracht. (342) [4Abb.]: (1)General v. Winckler, dessen Korps am 28. Mai die Beste überschritten. (2) (343) [Abb.]: General d. Inf. Fritz v. Below, Armeeführer der Heeresgruppe Deutscher Kronprinz. (343) [Abb.]: Karte zum Vordringen der Deutschen an die Marne. (343) [2 Abb.]:(1) Der Chemin des Dames wird von deutschen Truppen überquert. (2)Eines der bei Pargny am Chemin des Dames von den Deutschen erbeuteten schweren französischen Flachbahngeschütze, die durch ihre tägliche Beschiessung Laons schwere Opfer unter der französischen Bevölkerung forderten. (344) [Abb.]: Erstürmung von Soissons durch brandenburgische Pioniere. ([345]) [3 Abb.]: Bei einem deutschen Bombenflugzeuggeschwader. (1)Oben: Deutsches Grossflugzeug, abfahrtbereit. - (2)Mitte: Vorbereitung zum Flug, Prüfen des Maschinengewehrs und Einfüllen des Benzins. - (3)Unten: Aufhängen der Bomben unter dem Flugzeug. (346) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (346) Gedanken über die Ukraine. (346) [3 Abb.]: Bei einem deutschen Bombenflugzeuggeschwader. (1)Oben: Deutsche Fliegerbomben verschiedenen Kalibers (von links nach rechts 25 kg, 50 kg, 100 kg, 300 kg) - (2)Mitte: Eine 300=kg=Bombe zwischen zwei 50=kg=Bomben in der Aufhängewvorrichtung unter dem Flugzeug. - (3) Unten: Rumpfvorderteil eines Grossflugzeuges mit den Sitzen für Führer, Beobachter und Maschinengewehrschützen. (347) [Abb.]: Feltre in Oberitalien. Vor dem Stadttor zur oberen Stadt. (348) [Abb.]: K. u. k. Kaiserjäger werfen die Italiener aus ihren Stellungen auf der Zugna Torta. ([349]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Fliegerfunker bei der Aufnahme von drahtlosen Meldungen, die von einem schwebenden Flugzeug aus gemacht werden. Der Mann rechts gibt dem Flieger mit der Signalpistole das Zeichen, dass Verständigung erzielt ist. (350) Nachrichtenmittel im Felde. (350) [Abb.]: Deutscher Meldehund bringt in schwerem Feuer eine Nachricht aus der vordersten Stellung. (351) Generaloberst Freiherr v. Hazai. (352) [Abb.]: Generaloberst Samuel Freiherr v. Hazai, Chef des Ersatzwesens der gesamten bewaffneten Macht von Österreich=Ungarn. (352) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser und Generalfeldmarschall von Hindenburg begegnen am 28. Mai 1918 auf dem Rückwege vom Winterberg dem Deutschen Kronprinzen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 198 (Heft 198) ([353]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Munitionskolonne auf dem Vormarsch zur Marne in schwierigem Gelände ([353]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Posten mit Panzerhemd in vorderster Stellung an der Westfront. (354) [3 Abb.]: (1)Gefangene Franzosen und Engländer an einem amerikanischen Sanitätswagen in dem von den Deutschen erbeuteten Lazarett Mont Notre Dame im Kampfgelände um Fismes. (2)Einer der zwischen Aisne und Marne erbeuteten vollbeladenen Proviantzüge, von denen der Gegner infolge des überstürzten Rückzuges mehrere zurücklassen musste. (3)Massentransporte von Gefangenen in der Zitadelle von Laon. Vom 25. Mai bis zum 14. Juni 1918 wurden die Fochschen Reserven allein an Gefangenen um 55 000 Mann vermindert. (355) [Abb.]: Aus der Schlacht bei Soissons: Erstürmung der Höhen westlich von Chaudun durch die Truppen des deutschen Kronprinzen. (356 - 357) [Abb.]: Deutsches Sturmwagengeschwader in Bereitschaftstellung für die Schlacht bei Reims. (358) [3 Abb.]: (1)Das von deutschen Truppen eroberte Fort St. Thierry bei Reims. (2)Aus der grossen Beute: Beim Vormarsch der Deutschen zur Marne fielen bedeutende Viehbestände in ihre Hände. (3)Von den Franzosen in Brand geschossene Häuser in Soissons. (359) [4 Abb.]: (1)Oberleutnant z. S. Dönitz, erfolgreicher Kommandant eines deutschen U=Bootes im Mittelmeer. (2)Kapitänleutnant Prinz Heinrich XXXVII. Reuss i. L., erfolgreicher U=Bootkommandant. (3)Kapitänleutnant Werner, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Bootkommandant im Sperrgebiet um England. (4)Kapitänleutnant Freiherr v. Loe, erfolgreicher deutscher U=Bootkommandant im Sperrgebiet um England. (360) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (360) Die Versenkung des englischen Dampfers "Eyklops". (360) [Abb.]: K. u. k. Oberleutnant Arn. Barwig, der meistausgezeichnete Beobachteroffizier der österreichisch=ungarischen Luftfahrtruppen. (360) Der U=Bootkrieg an der amerikanischen Küste. (360) [Abb.]: Versenkung des englischen 9033=Tonnen=Dampfers "Eyklops" in dem durch Sperren geschützten und durch Flieger bewachten Hafen von Augusta (Sizilien) durch das deutsche U=Boot unter dem Oberleutnant z. S. Dönitz (siehe Bild Seite 360), das trotz feindlicher Gegenmassnahmen unbeschädigt den Hafen wieder verliess. Im Hintergrunde der Ätna. (361) [Abb.]: Rast einer türkischen Kolonne auf dem Taurus. (362) Die englischen Angriffe auf die flandrische Küste. (362) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von der Ausbildung türkischen Landsturms vor einem Zeltlager bei Drama an der Küste des Ägäischen Meeres. (2)Türkischer Landsturm auf dem Marsche zur Kaserne. (363) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der englische Angriff auf den Hafen von Zeebrügge in der Nacht zum 23. April 1918 in schönfärberischer englischer Darstellung , durch die eine englische Zeitschrift ihre Leser über den Misserfolg des Unternehmens zu täuschen versuchte. (2)Das italienische Motorboot Grillo, das in der Nacht zum 14. Mai 1918 in den Hafen von Pola einzudringen versuchte und durch das Artilleriefeuer der österreichisch=ungarischen Wachschiffe vernichtet wurde. (3)Das ehemalige englische Schlachtschiff "Vindictive", das bei dem zweiten misslungenen englischen Handstreich gegen Ostende von den deutschen Küstenbatterien zusammengeschossen wurde. (364 - 365) [Abb.]: Doppeldecker mit zwei Motoren und drei Mann Besatzung. Unter dem Rumpf Aufhängevorrichtung für Bomben. (366) Fliegerwaffen. (366) [4 Abb.]: (1)Oberhalb der Tragflächen eines englischen Doppeldeckers angebrachtes Maschinengewehr. (2)Auf einem französischen Voisin=Doppeldecker angebrachte 3.8=cm=Schiffskanone (3)Eine in Blech geschnittene Shilhouette eines deutschen Flugzeuges als Visiervorrichtung an einem französischen Flugapparat, die das Zielen beim Luftkampf erleichtern soll. (4)Beobachtersitz eines deutschen Zweisitzerdoppeldeckers mit luftgekühltem Maschinengewehr, das, auf dem Ring um den Sitz schwenkbar, mit einem auf eine Trommel gewickelten Patronengurt versehen ist. (367) [Abb.]: Ein Kaiserschütze stösst einen italienischen Alpino im Kampf in eine Randspalte am Corno Scuro im Tonalegebiet. (368) Ein Kaiserschütze stösst einen Italiener im Kampfe in eine Randspalte (Tonalegebiet). (368) [Abb.]: Rast deutscher Truppen in Soissons. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 199 (Heft 199) ([369]) [Abb.]: Zwischen Aisne und Marne von den Deutschen völlig unversehrt erbeutetes Riesengeschütz. ([369]) [3 Abb.]: Zum siegreichen deutschen Vorstoss zwischen Montdidier und Noyon und zwischen Aisne und Marne. (1)Deutsche Artillerie mit Maschinengewehrbedeckung auf dem Marsch durch Fismes. (2)Maschinengewehre werden von deutschen Soldaten in einem zerschossenen Hause in Stellung gebracht. (3)Deutsche Kavallerie auf dem Vormarsch. (370) [3 Abb.]: Zum siegreichen deutschen Vorstoss zwischen Montdidier und Noyon und zwischen Aisne und Marne. (1)Erbeutetes Kleinbahnmaterial in Bazoches, dessen Wegnahme eine empfindliche Schwächung der Fochschen Armee an Kriegsmitteln bedeutete. (2)Deutsches Regiment in Bereitschaftstellung dicht vor Tracy-le-Val. (3)Deutsche Munitionskolonne, deren Mannschaften und Pferde mit Gasmasken ausgerüstet sind, durchquert ein vergastes Waldstück. (371) [Abb.]: Der deutsche Vorstoss zur Marne. Stosstruppen und Flammenwerfer überrennen die feindlichen Stellungen (links deutsches Sperrfeuer). ([372 - 373]) [Abb.]: Beobachter Leutnant Eisenmenger (X) und Flugzeugführer Vizefeldwebel Gund (XX), die während eines Beobachtungsfluges am 23. Mai 1918 mit sechs englischen Kampfeinsitzern ins Gefecht gerieten und dabei vier Gegner abschossen (374) [2 Abb.]: (1)Flugzeugabwehrmaschinenkanone, die kleine Granaten verfeuert. Die Geschosse sind mit einem Gurtband auf die links sichtbare Trommel gewickelt. Die Mannschaft ist mit Stahlhelm und Gasmaske ausgerüstet. (2)Flugzeugabwehrmaschinenkanone. Man sieht in der Trommel deutlich die auf einen Gurt gereihten Grananten. (375) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (375) Über den Flugabwehrdienst. (375) [Abb.]: Die Tote=Mann=Mühle in dem Waldlager der Argonnen. Links französische Soldatengräber, von deutschen Landwehrleuten geschmückt. (376) Ein Beobachtungsturm im Argonnenwald. (376) [Abb.]: Der "Mudraturm". Beobachtungstelle in einem Truppenlager im Argonnenwalde. ([377]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalmajor Linder, erfolgreicher Führer finnländischer Truppen gegen die Rote Garde in Finnland. (2)Brand der Roten=Garde=Kaserne. Die Gebäude der Kaserne wurden von den darin untergebrachten gefangenen finnischen Roten Gardisten selbst in Brand gesteckt. (378) [2 Abb.]: (1)Einzug des finnischen Generals Mannerheim in Helsingfors. (2)Das Gefangenenlager Lahti für 20 000 Rote Gardisten mit ihren Frauen und Kindern und etwa 6000 Pferden und Wagen. (379) Finnlands Befreiung. (379) [Abb.]: Vertreibung plündernder russischer Roter Garden aus einem finnischen Dorfe. (380 - 381) Der Wetterdienst im Kriege. (382) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oberes Bild: Ukrainische Flugschüler beim Aufstellen eines sogenannten Böenmessers zur Ermittlung der Windgeschwindigkeit. (2)Mittleres Bild: Ausbildung ukrainischer Flugzeugbeobachter im Maschinengewehrschiessen durch Zielen nach kleinen Pilotballonen. (3)Unteres Bild: Prüfen der Wetterlage vor dem Aufstieg. (382) [ 5 Abb.]: (1)Ablesen der Temperatur und der Luftfeuchtigkeit an den Apparaten in der Thermometerhütte. (2)Beobachten des Windmessers (Schalenkreuzanemometers) auf der Erde. (3)Behelfsmäßiges Messen der Menge des Regens. (4)Beobachten des Pilotballons mittels des Anschneidegerätes. (5)Der Luftdruckmesser und =schreiber. (383) [Abb.]: Deutscher Landsturm in Strohmieten. (384) [Abb.]: Einbruch österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen in die italienischen Stellungen am Montello. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 200 (Heft 200) ([385]) [Abb.]: Feier des 30. Jahrestages des Regierungsantritts Kaiser Wilhelms II. im Großen Hauptquartier. Im Vordergrund von links nach rechts: Der Kaiser, Oberstleutnant Bauer, Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg und der Deutsche Kronprinz. ([385]) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser im Gespräch mit einem gefangenen englischen Brigadegeneral auf dem Winterberg. (386) [4 Abb.]: Rastende deutsche Kolonne bei St. Leger. (2)Lager württembergischer Truppen bei Irles. (3)Deutsche Lastwagen, sogenannte "Raupe". (4)Auf einem Verbandplatz im Westen während der Schlacht. (387) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen um Cháteau=Thierry. (388 - 389) [Abb.]: Das zerstörte Fort Condé, 8 Kilometer östlich von Soissons. (390) [Abb.]: Zerstörungen im Fort Condé (391) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (391) Die Schlacht zwischen Soissons und Reims. I. (391) [4 Abb.]: (1)K. u. k. Generaloberst Erzherzog Josef. (2)K. u. k. General der Kavallerie Fürst Schönburg=Hartenstein. (3)K. u. k. Generaloberst Freiherr v. Wurm. (4)Kartenskizze zur Schlacht in Venezien im Juni 1918. (392) [Abb.]: Die Truppen des k. u. k. Generalobersten Freiherrn v. Wurm (Heeresgruppe Feldmarschall v. Boroevic) erzwingen sich den Übergang über den angeschwollenen Piavefluss und nehmen die beiderseits der Bahn Oderzo=Treviso eingebauten Stellungen der Italiener. ([393]) [Abb.]: Der Piavefluss mit den Bergen Tomba und Pallone sowie den Höhenzügen gegen Bassano. (394) Kraftfahrer Matthias. (395) [Abb.]: Blick auf das Gebirge zwischen Brenta und Piave, den Monte Pallone. Monte Spinuccia und Monte Grappa. (395) Die neuen polnischen Briefmarken. (396) [Abb.]: General Knoerzer, dessen Truppen westlich von Taganrog 10 000 Bolschewiki vernichtend schlugen. (396) Die Minenwerfer. (396) [Abb.]: Bolschewistische Banden werden bei Taganrog durch deutsches Feuer nahezu vernichtet. ([397]) [Abb.]: Schematische Darstellung eines schutzfertigen Minenwerfers. (398) [3 Abb.]: (1)Durchschnitt durch das Geschützrohr mit Mine. (2)Zündvorrichtung (Durchschnitt). (3)Durchschnitt durch das Geschützrohr mit Mine, die mit einem Zünder für Zeit= und doppelte Aufschlagzündung versehen ist. (399) [Abb.]: Eingebauter schwerer Minenwerfer vor dem Abschuss. (400) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

THE « GETTYSBURG JBERGUHY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College Vol. XII. GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER, 1903 No. 6 CONTENTS THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATION'S PRINCIPLES . 174 JOSEPH E. ROWK, '04. ROOSEVELT AND MALTHUS 180 W. W. BARKLEY, '04. "THE RAVIN' " SCHOOLMASTER 1S4 B. A. STROHMEIER, '06. POLITICAL INDIFFERENCE 185 THE ANALYSIS OF A NURSERY RHYME . 188 JAMES G. DILLER, '04. A VISIT TO McKINLEY'S TOMB 191 BRUCE COBAUGH, '05. THE HOUSE WE BUILD i93 EDITORIALS . 196 EXCHANGES 199 174 'J'HE GETTYSBURG MEKCURV. THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATION'S PRINCI-PLES. JOSEPH E. ROWE, '04. TIME continues to roll on in its eternal course. Nations are only born under the doom of decay. Men rise to heights of greatness, are cut off in the twinkling of an eye, and pass forever from this earthly habitation. But there is one principle whose evolution the vicissitudes of fortune have failed to arrest. It is the development and growth of government. From time immemorial men have lived under some sort o f government; its genesis antedates all history. As far back as the great Aryan migrations there existed established laws, but even these were not the first in the history of the world. Many centuries had passed away since the mighty Nimrod or the queenly Semiramis held sway in Babylon; the Israelites had al-ready grown into a great nation, and the valley of the Nile had become both the "cradle and the tomb" of kings. Even the most primitive and most degraded peoples recog-nize some sort of leadership or control. From the Bushman of Australia, and the Hottentot, down to the American Indian, there is the same idea, though vastly different in degree, of rul-ing and of being ruled. Slowly has the evolution of government progressed, but, as surely as there is a God from whom it flows, no obstacle has impeded its steady advance. It has grown under the law of "the survival of the fittest," and its triumphs are but the re-sults of natural law. The civil ideas which have been evolved from a less complete to a more perfect and more practical sys-tem were as irresistible in their course as decrees of fate. There seems to have been that same great but awful force at work for the development of the ideal nation which, to a great extent, "shapes our ends, rough hew them as we will." When con-ditions favored the established principles, epochs of peace and prosperity ensued; when circumstances were adverse, wars and revolutions necessarily arose to restore the equilibrium. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 175 The path of their triumphal march down through the ages reeks with blood; where they have been opposed desolation reigns. The once glorious empires of the East are only dis-covered in their buried ruins; the pyramids are monuments of the dynasties which built them ; the crumbled statuary and art of Greece are but symbolic of her decay; and the ruins of Pompeii are the only vestiges of glorious Rome. Every at-tempt and apparent success to crush out the idea of further de-velopment in the governmental realm has virtually been a throwing of oil upon the fire glowing in the hearts of patriotic people. The pious Aeneas, exiled by fate, founded a nation greater than the victor of his fatherland. Carthage tried to crush aspiring Rome and only brought about her development. Pilgrims, deprived of liberty and exiled from the Old World, founded a mightier and freer commonwealth in the New. In this governmental evolution there have been two distinctly opposite principles warring against each other—Liberty and Unity. The spirit which has animated the heroes of liberty is active in its plans, uncontrollable in its measures and irresistible in reaching its goal; its doctrine is Radicalism. On the other hand, unity has been developed under the stern but careful plan of deliberation and statesmanship; its doctrine is Conservatism. Liberty is the harder to repress and was first evolved ; unity is the more difficult to maintain and its completion was last. The Goddess of Justice, determining the destiny of nations, holds in her hands a huge balance; on the one side is liberty, on the other unity. An uneven amount of either disturbs the equilibrium in the affairs of a nation; only a complete balanc-ing and blending of both can assure stability. The struggle which has shaken the world for so many centuries arose, first, from an excess of one and, then, of the other; the great beam rose and fell, and in turn the glory of nations grew resplendent or faded away. Every nation has been founded upon the plan of remedying one defect or the other. The people, furious at the remembrance of former injustice, drove Tarquin from the streets of Rome simply because he had been called king, but their freedom soon led to anarchy. Rulers of the Middle 1' 176 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Ages, fearing such outbreaks, kept the people in virtual servi-tude, and the French Revolution was the inevitable reaction. The momentum of hatred for tyranny had so accumulated that no earthly force could withstand it. The equilibrium of the French nation was disturbed and it did not regain itself until Napoleon arose, who tried to force the great beam to the oppo-site extreme of one-man power. But France was not the only country in the world to groan beneath the horrors of revolution. In England there had been an almost continual contest between the King and Commons. The Magna Charta and the Declaration of Rights were both proclamations of liberty. James I brought about the "blood-less revolution of 1688," and later, George III forced the American Colonies into rebellion. But our forefathers felt the great importance of freedom. They fought with an invincible determination for liberty. For-mer examples of oppressed liberties made them desperate, and they sallied forth to meet the foe with the battle cry, "Give me liberty or give me death !" Thus, the seed, implanted in the heart of man from the be-ginning of the world, blossomed forth into newness of life. It had at last fallen upon good ground, taken deep root, and brought forth the blessings of liberty to all succeeding genera-tions. The United Colonies of America became free and inde-pendent states—the goal of liberty's evolution was reached. But unity was lacking. So long as there was a common foe, the States were as impenetrable as a Macedonian phalanx. But now there was no longer a common cause, and it looked as if there would be many little nations, each trying to main-tain its own place in the great struggle for existence. The States were jealous of one another, and bitter quarrels soon arose. Under the Articles of Confederation, the nation had no head. Congress could indeed pass laws, but could in no way enforce them. Conventions were called, but the States even refused to send representatives. Conditions grew worse and worse; so much so that the historian declares, "Instead of be-ing a united and friendly people, the States were fast growing THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 177 to be thirteen hostile nations, each ready to draw the sword upon its neighbor." Finally, in 1787 a convention was held in Philadelphia, the object of which was to form "a more perfect union." But the difficulties to be surmounted were indeed perplexing. The populous States insisted that representation in Congress should be apportioned according to population; the smaller States were equally emphatic in maintaining that each State, large or small, should have equal power. They finally compromised. There were to be two houses embodied in Congress: the one, whose representatives were to be apportioned according to pop-ulation ; the other, whose delegates were to be two from each State, vested with equal power. Thus, it is a blending of prin-ciples which lies at the foundation of our government. Accordingly, under the new Constitution, our nation entered upon a career of great success and national development. Dur-ing this period the Louisiana Purchase more than doubled our area. The pirates of Tripoli were disposed of with impunity. The war of 1812 proved beyond doubt the great power of American arms, whilst not one battle was lost by us in the war with Mexico. There had come into the heart of every true American a common national pride and devotion to country. So long as the foe was external the States fought together like brothers. But, in the near future, there were times to come when the foe would not be common. From the very foundation of our republic an awful tempest had been gathering its threatening clouds. Eminent men no longer .feared destruction or dismem-berment by any European power, but looked forward with great anxiety at the inevitable causes of internal disorder. Even in Jefferson's time the storm was already so menacing that he said: "In contemplating the future welfare of my country, there are troubles which startle me as a fire-bell in the night." It broke forth in its fury in the year 1861. The South claimed the right to secede. She looked upon the election of Abraham Lincoln as-a great step toward the abolition of slav-ery which, as she thought, meant her ruination. Eleven States f 178 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. seceded and set up a government of their own under the title of "The Confederate States of America." But the integrity of the country had to be maintained. War was declared; not to abolish slavery, but to prevent the disasters of permanent sepa-ration. The first gun was fired from Fort Sumter on April 12th. It is said to have been heard around the world, for it heralded a conflict which concerned not only our nation but the world. Men on both sides were inspired, not only by the prestige of the principles which they upheld, but by the love of home, country and family. The one represented freedom in the ex-treme, the other unity or common welfare. Both realized the vast importance of victory; each knew that defeat meant utter failure. They fought with the desperate valor of a wounded wild hart, which turns once more to make a final and supreme effort against its foe. Four long years of war left the country in desolation and ruin, which before had been the peaceful habitation of ttscbild-ren. For a long time the destiny of our beloved republic hung in the balance. Bull Run raised the fervor of the combatants to a white heat. Antietam favored the non Unionists. But, led on under the heat of passion and by the glory of victory, their "vaulting ambition o'erleaped itself." The Mason and Dixon line was crossed and the cause of secession was fighting against fate. But the valor of her constituents was mighty, and their spirit invincible. The crisis came. Something had to be immediately done or all would be lost. Fifteen thousand men rushed forth on open ground to dislodge the Unionists. Cannon after cannon ploughed through their gallant ranks, but on they came unfaltering. Even the cannon's mouth—the High Water Mark was reached, but their ranks had been mowed down and the cause of secession forever lost. The evolution of the ideal governmental principles was com-pleted, and the stability of our nation proven by test. She had long since shown her shores impregnable to a foreign foe, but now it was proven to the world that America, unlike the na-tions of the past, was not to be rent or overthrown by internal THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 179 disorder. The civil world was at last given a breathing spell, for the combating forces seemed glad to discontinue the con-flict and forget their quarrels. And now there is no longer a North, South, East or West, but all are blended into one in-separable compact—the United States of America. Her principles have spread throughout the world. They have leaped across the Atlantic and modified, if not completely changed, the spirit of the mother country; they have given new life to the sturdy mountaineer of 'Switzerland ; they have brought peace into Italy's sunny climes, and have made Greece long for a second "Golden Age." And it is only a matter of time, of progress, and of civilization until the world will recog-nize the efficiency of America's governmental principles, which are, in the words of her greatest statesman: "Liberty and Union now and forever, one and inseparable!" • Ever judge of men by their professions. For though the bright moment of promising is but a moment, and cannot be prolonged, yet if sincere in its moment's extravagant good-ness, why, trust it, and know the man by it, I say,—-not by his performance; which is half the world's work, interfere as • the world needs must with its accidents and circumstances: the profession was purely the man's own. 1 judge people by what they might be,-—not are, nor will be.—BROWNING. "Sow a thought and you reap an act, Sow an act and you reap a habit, Sow a habit and you reap a character, Sow a character and you reap a destiny." 180 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ROOSEVELT AND MALTHUS. \V. W. BARKLEY, '04. The attitude which President Roosevelt has recently taken toward 'the increase of population in the United States, apparently challenging the theories of certain political econo-mists, particularly Mr. T. R. Malthus and his followers in Eng-land and America, puts before us a question worthy of our earnest consideration. Is it wise or unwise to advocate a con-tinuous increase in the population of our country ? In order to determine the wisdom of Mr. Roosevelt's position regarding this matter, we must go to our authorities, viz: Mr. Malthus and certain other political economists—to obtain a basis for our decision. The object of Mr. Malthus' investigations (1798-1803) were to find means for the improvement of society and to deliver it from its wretchedness and .poverty. He inquired into "the causes that had impeded the progress of mankind toward hap-piness," and offered a corrective for the same. Mr. Malthus advanced a theory (which is popularly known as the Malthusian Doctrine) in which he tried to prove that society could not hope to provide enough food to sustain all its members and that poverty, therefore, must be the inevitable outcome of a persistenee in increasing population, and that no blame could reasonably be attributed to society for its poverty. The Malthusians hold that population has a tendency to in-crease faster than subsistence, and that under such conditions some people, in the course of time, will not have sufficient food to maintain themselves, and poverty must be the inevitable re-sult, irremediable, unless the race in question adopts some means to prevent the possible increase of population. If the race fails to provide the necessary restriction, nature will step in and provide it for the race. Vice, disease, war, pestilence and famine—all these and more means may be adopted by na-ture to do her work of reducing numbers. In such a sifting process as this nature will make her selection and the fittest must ultimately survive. The above is a brief statement of the Malthusian Doctrine ^ THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. l8l It has been substantially adopted and supported by many mod-ern political economists whose opinions we have consulted. The Malthusians show that the birth-rate among any people, when procreation is allowed to run free and unrestricted, will always be in advance of the death-rate, hence, there will be a continual rise in population. The possibilities of this increase are very large, according to the law of geometrical progression. The probabilities are considerable. The facts of history indi-cate that the birth-rate is almost always in the advance, in a higher or lower degree, in an undisturbed state of society. Population then increases steadily. We said that it increases or has a tendency to increase faster than subsistence. This conclusion is based upon the great law of Diminishing Returns in Agriculture. This law needs no proof or explanation. Walker proves it conclusively in his Economy. Briefly it is this: "There is a limit to the amount of labor and capital which can be advantageously employed or expended upon a given area of land." Subsistence increases according to the law of arithmetical progression in contradistinction to the law of geo-metrical progression, according to which population increases. It is easily seen, therefore, that, as population increases, subsist-ence pet capita decreases. If population be carried beyond the limit of sufficient production lor the maintenance of the whole bod)' of society, poverty will ensue among a people. In a crowded community, such as the above continued in-crease in population will lead to, the pressure will come first upon the man with the large family and will force him to struggle hard against the scarcity of food and comforts; dis-ease and starvation must finally come. We have illustrations of this among barbarians and some modern Oriental nations, such as India and China, where they experience frequent fam-ines. Improvements in the arts of agriculture, domestic man-agement and government may withstand this pressure for a time, but, no matter in what direction, or how great the im-provement may be, population will ultimately, under the above circumstances, reach the point where the products of the soil will not support it adequately. So, the only sure and reason-able remedy for such a condition of scarcity, according to Mai- 182 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. thus, is prevention of reproduction to an extent sufficient to insureamplesubsistence/ifrcapita forall. Malthus wouldemploy rnan's reason and prudence and make it a moral restraint in-stead of reducing numbers by means of vice and misery, which, as we have seen, become inevitable results unless the former method is adopted. Evidently, France has adopted this Mal-thusian theory and practices it. The population of France is decreasing, and there is a growing sufficiency of subsistence and comfort for the whole nation. However, it is a question among many whether France is not doing this at the expense of her moral and physical well-being. It seems to be leading her into gradual degeneration. After all, France is hardly a good illustration of the practicability and good common sense of what Malthus taught regarding prudence and moral restraint as a means of checking the too rapid increase of population. Now returning to the question asked at the start, we may inquire again whether President Roosevelt is right in encour-aging the enlargement of families and the consequent growth of the total population of our country. What reasons can he produce? Has America yet reached the point in her econ-omic development where the Malthusian precaution is needed to check population ? If she has, how can we account for President Roosevelt's attitude ? There are reasons, perhaps, outside of the field of political economy that prompt Mr. Roosevelt to take the position he holds, but, assuming that he accepts the doctrine of the Malthusians, there is, nevertheless, sufficient ground to justify his attitude. He certainly would not advocate recklessness and imprudence in a matter of so great importance to the welfare of his country. In the first place, I do not believe that the United States has yet reached the point of Diminishing Returns in Agricul-ture, taking the country as a whole. That it is rapidly ap-proaching that point is not to be doubted. As it is, however, the prevention under consideration is uncalled for. With our present population, we have hardly reached the limit of our highest economic usefulness and the greatest returns per capita, with our vast areas of farm land under cultivation and still capable of much greater returns by the addition of more la- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 183 borers. I refer particularly to the broad expanse of arable land in our Great West. Undoubtedly, we have not yet reached the limit where we cannot advantageously add more laborers in agriculture. Surely there is no room for apprehension and fear. What poverty there is now in our country is largely due to shiftlessness, ignorance, laziness and vice. There is still a splendid chance for all who will take advantage of our educa-tional system and then go to work. Mr. Roosevelt is right from a moral standpoint also. The increase of population ought to be encouraged in our country. There are those among the wealthy and educated classes in the United States, holding erroneous ideas about "Social Standing," who deprecate large families and who consciously avoid them. This ought not to be true. It would be a blessing for our country if more children were born to the wealthy and cul-tured and fewer to the poorer classes, the ignorant and vicious. We need more citizens reared in the upper strata of society among our best people and fewer in the lower strata. Mr. Roosevelt is right and has given his country a splendid ex-ample in the honest pride he takes in his own large family. France is wrong. Without doubt she is carrying the Malthu-sian Doctrine to wicked extremes. We need to rid ourselves of the sinful tendencies abroad in France which are wasting her morals and reducing her national strength. We need to exercise prudence and reasonable restraint at all times and shun conscious and wicked checks to the increase of our population. The honor, hope and pride of a mother are her children. This is Mr. Roosevelt's opinion and he would have no father and mother consider them a disgrace, a dishonor or a burden. f» 184 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "THE RAVIN'" SCHOOLMASTER. B. A. STROHMKIKR, '06. ONCE upon a school-day dreary, As I waited weak and "skeary," 'Waited nervously the verdict from the teacher's judgment seat; While my eyes were nearly sapping, Suddenly there came a tapping As of something loudly rapping, Rapping on my breeches' seat. 'Twas the music of the raw-hide as it mercilessly beat Tunes upon my breeches' seat. How the dust flew out those patches, As I felt the raw-hide's scratches ! Yet I didn't necessarily have to skirmish or to dance. Strange the sound those whacks were making As the Prof, great paiiis was taking To appear to have me aching ; But he didn't have a chance, For the force of all the muscle he could use could not advance Past my armor-plated pants. Suddenly there came a silence, And I stood in grim defiance, While the goggle-eyed Professor squinted at me long and hard. He was tired out and panting. And I thought I heard him chanting Words that told that he was granting I his record sad had marred. Then he started, paused, and said these words which cut me like a sword, "Hand me out that weather-board !" Robbed of all my former po.wer, Like a nation's final hour— Like a Sampson with his hair off—I grew weak and weaker still. Then a bright thought struck me : "Mister, I know that you court my sister, And I'll tell Pa that you kissed her, Hit me even with a quill!" Fire flashed his eyes ; but that was all—he dared not do his will. Glory hallelujah Bill! W THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I85 POLITICAL INDIFFERENCE. SECOND only to the claims of religion are the claims of country. This does not mean that the Christian should desecrate holy places with political harangue, or that he should become the willing servant of a political boss, but that he should discharge his political duties to free government in a manner befitting a noble, religious life and consistent with the patriotic ideals of our forefathers. The government that maintains liberty of thought, word and deed as a fundamental principle, and recognizes education and Christianity as the only safeguards of public liberty, has a just claim upon every citizen for patriotic vigilance of all political rights. If it is true, as has been said, that "the standard of personal morality in America is higher than in England, that of com-mercial morality probably a little lower, and that of political morality quite distinctly lower," let it not be said that it is a defect in our system of government, or that it is wholly a fault of those who are faithless and incompetent in office, for, here, every citizen, no difference what his race or creed, has equal power with his voice and vote, and can claim no exemption from the just responsibilities for the evils of the body politic. Ours is, in fact as well as in theory, a government of the peo-ple, and its administration is neither better nor worse than the people themselves. It was devised by patriotic men who faith-fully gave it their wisest thought, and so perfectly is its frame-work fashioned that an accidental mistake of the people, or the perfidy of an official, or the enactment of profligate laws are all held in such wholesome check by coordinate powers as to enable the chief executive to restrain or suppress almost every conceivable evil for the welfare of the nation. To achieve the highest results in our system of government, it is necessary that the citizens throw aside the theories and idealities of the philosophers for the practical guidance of the ship of state. But alas! he who is best fitted for governing f» 186 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. men too often loves it least, and he who is least fitted for teach-ing men moral and political truths too often turns his back upon his duty for the sake of more pleasurable occupations of litera-ture, art or science. If the reputable citizen refrains from bearing a just responsi-bility in our political conflicts, and thereby voluntarily surren-ders the safety of his person and things, as well as the good order and well-being-of society, into the hands of those who are least fitted for governing men, turn and place the responsi-bility where it belongs and do not blame the thief and adven-turer, for they are but plying their trade, and rob public rather than private treasure because men guard the one and do not guard the other. How often have we not seen good men swiftly invoking the avenging arm of Justice for an injury done to private property, but who are criminally indifferent to the public wrongs done by those who, in the enactment and exe-cution of the laws, directly affect their happiness and pros-perity? Do not excuse the indifference of the good citizen by saying that politics have become polluted. Such a declaration would be a confession of guilt, and he who utters it becomes his own accuser. If it be true that the politics of a state or municipality bave become degraded, who is to blame for it ? Surely not the country or ward politician, for they are a small minority in every community and in every party. If they have gained control of the political organizations, and thereby have secured their election to offices of high trust, it must have been with either the passive or the active assent of the good citizens who hold the actual control of the government in their own hands. Does not the official, who shames his constituents with disgraceful acts, owe his election to the silent assent or positive support of those who claim to be patriotic and intelli-gent citizens, but who lay aside their political duties because of some private interest ? If incompetent appointments have been made through the influence of some political boss, it is due to the fact that honest and good citizens have not protested with a manliness that would point to a sure and swift retribution for such wrongs and, at the same time, have not demanded a per- THE GETTVSBURG MERCURY. 187 manent and practical civil service whereby all dishonor, dis-honesty and incompetency in office would end. Can our presi-dents and governors be wholly responsible for the low standard of our officials? No; for if good men concede primary polit-ical control to those who wield it for sdftsh ends, and thereby make the appointing powers depend tit i-ir both counsel and support upon the worst political eU iiient, u ho is to blame when public sentiment is outraged by the selection of unworthy men to important offices ? The fruits are but the natural, logical results of good citizens refusing to accept their political re-sponsibilities. There is not a blot in our body politic to-day that the better element of the people cannot remove whenever they resolve to do so. There is not a defect nor a deformity in our political administration that they cannot correct in the legitimate way pointed out by our free institutions. If our country is to reach the ideal pictured for it by the framers of the Constitution, it must have the active support of those upon whom the burden of government should rest. It must have behind it more men like Nathan Hale, who was sorry that he had only one life to give his country. It must have the influence and best thought of every American scholar and not the scheme of the demagogue or the trickery of the partisan politician. Three millions of men lie buried beneath American battle-fields to give us that which we seem to prize so lightly : Politi-cal Freedom. But "that these dead shall not have died in vain," that the Utopia of Thomas More's imagination may become a realization, and "that this Republic, under the guidance of A1T mighty God, will live and prosper through the ages," we must bear our burdens patiently, accept our responsibilities courage-ously, and discharge our duties intelligently and with fidelity. "NASHY." 188 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. H THE ANALYSIS OF A NURSERY RHYME. JAMES G. DIJ.LER, '04. OVV often, in the care-free hours of childhood, have we repeated that alliterative verse of linen-book poetry,. with its halting meter and quaint simplicity of language: "Hickory, dickerv, dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck one, The mouse ran clown. Hickory, rlickery. dock.'' And yet, how many of us have ever discovered in this bit of seemingly senseless doggerel the hidden story of an appar-ently triffling incident, with all its philosophical suggestiveness and condensed moralizing upon the great truths of life? Lest the casual reader should condemn this writing as non-sensical at the very outset, let us begin at once to interpret the jingling and apparently meaningless and disconnected lines. Have you not always considered the first line, "hickory, dick-ery, dock," as merely a mechanical contrivance of words to-rhyme with the word "clock" in the line immediately follow-ing? Doubtless you have, and have regarded it as a useless corruption of our language made to subserve a trivial end. Hut stop to think, and to your surprise you realize that that very mechanical meter, with its abrupt ending, is a most accurate adaptation of words to imitate the ticking of a clock. This ticking of the tireless time-piece attracted the attention of a diminutive rodent, and gives us material for a bit of mor-alizing upon the next line, "the mouse ran up the clock."' Frightened, no doubt, at first, he overcomes his trepidation and hesitatingly approaches in the direction of the monotonous sound. Alas ! how many of us yield, as did the little mouse, to misdirected curiosity and flee, as he did, affrighted from that which was not meant for us to know! Incidentally, we call at-tention here to another concealed bit of information. The clock must have been one of the old-fashioned variety, with long, pendant weights exposed to the open air, else our little THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 189 friend could not have reached it in the course of his investiga-tions. The next line is of special value in our analysis, inasmuch as it gives us the time of this historic occurrence, the narration of which has doubtless entertained the younger generation since the days of the horn-book A, B, C. It may have been either broad-daylight in the early afternoon when, we are told, "the clock struck one;" or it may have been the hour immediately succeeding that— "—very witching time of night. When churchyards yawn." Hut our insight has already become sufficiently keen by our experience of the first two lines, so that we readily conclude it must have been one o'clock at night when his mouseship pur-sued his nocturnal meanderings. Had it been one o'clock in the afternoon, the bustle of the kitchen in clearing away the remnants of the mid-day meal, together with the presence and wide-awake activity of the dog or cat, would have entirely pre-cluded the possibility of the mouse performing his perpendicu-lar tight-rope-walk on the rope or chain of the hanging clock weights. And, now, the last line of pure English in this classic bit of nursery lore gives, perhaps,a larger scope of meaning than any of those preceding. Having accomplished his perilous ascent, and explored the intricate labyrinth of wheels, pinions and oscillating pendulum, he hesitates whether to retrace his steps or to delve still far-ther into the unexplored mysteries of this queer contrivance. But suddenly, close to his velvety ear, there breaks upon the silence of the night a loud, jarring sound, half stunning him by its proximity, and throwing him into a state, of quivering terror as he crouches behind the farthest clock wheel and lis-tens to the ebbing, throbbing waves of sound vibrating with the detonation of the stroke through the metallic fabric of the works. Then, the innate instinct of self-preservation asserting itself, he makes a dash for safety, half sliding, half tumbling down 190 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. the clock-weights' chain and scurries away to his dark abode. Does he not typify all too well that over-ambitious spirit which strives to attain impossible ends, and to climb to heights where the atmosphere is too rare when the summit is finally reached, and the baffled, disappointed and heart-sick seeker is glad to return to his allotted place in the universe, just as the frightened mouse besought his subterranean retreat ? The last line, a repetition of the first, is intended to show how the clock went on ticking, in its accustomed manner, after the mouse had fled. Even so the great world goes on. Man is born—a diminutive mouse in the vast mansion of creation— he explores for a brief time, as the mouse did, mysteries too great for his feeble comprehension, and then returns to that place whence he came. And now, dear reader, have you not formed a better opinion of this doggerel rhyme which haunted your childish memory; and have you not conceived for it that appreciation which it so richly deserves ? 1 "A soul to fear its maker and to feel The finer things of life in their full measure ; A soul to hear God in the twilight calm And see him in the varied hues of dawn. A heart to hold some loves that closer lie Than aught of earth comparable ; a heart That spells its charity in words of deeds, A mind to commonsense, and those high acts That, welded, shape great Labor in its glory ; An arm to wield and mould all that these three Design, contrive—this constitutes a man.-' - ** # THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 191 ■*• A VISIT TO McKINLEYS TOMB. BRUCE COBAUGH, '05. AT the end of a short avenue which leads from the main wes-tern street of Canton, Ohio, lies the beautiful West-lawn Cemetery. To the many visitors it is of special interest as being the burial place of our late President McKinley, and it is for the purpose of visiting his tomb that we pass through the large gate at the entrance on a Sunday afternoon in July. On entering we are greeted by a pleasant surprise as we note the natural beauty of the place, for it is a veritable park. We cannot help but contrast it with other burial grounds we have known, many of whose chief characteristics are the long rows of cold marble and granite with their intermittent spaces laid out with mathematical precision, as if old Mother Earth were jealous of giving one man more than an alotted resting place in her spacious bosom. Nor do we experience that cold un-comfortable feeling that often passes over one on entering a cemetery. On the contrary, as we stroll along the winding avenue which leads through the cemetery, we pause as our attention is attracted to some new beauty of the place. To our left rises a ridge covered with trees. Here the stately oaks are sighing softly in the summer breeze. From their branches comes the songs of their feathered tenants in joyful melody as if inviting all to rejoice. We pause in the shade of a large oak and listen while nature speaks with an eloquence that can never be surpassed. Descending below, to the right, is a slope whose gently un-dulating surface is covered with green. It is bounded below by a brook whose clear waters sparkle in the sunlight The bank is covered with willows which dip their overshadowing branches into the stream. Here and there along its course are ponds in which swim the little sunfish among the floating lilies. We follow a short path from the main avenue and this brings us to the object of our visit. On the eastern slope of the wooded ridge is the exterior of the ** 192 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. large vault. In the .stone front with its solid arch and massive pillars, hangs the heavy iron gate that guards the entrance. It gives one an impression of stability and its general appearance is plain. We can approach no nearer than a distance of about fifty feet for it is guarded day and night by armed sentries who are pacing to and fro about the tomb. As we gaze on the walls which enclose his mortal remains, our thoughts turn back on McKinley's life. Thoughts of his public career come to our mind. We think of how he rose step by step from one position to a higher by proving himself worthy of promotion. His ability as a statesman, his election to the office of chief ruler of our nation and the integrity with which he served his country are among our thoughts. He seems to us a true American in the highest sense of the word. No less than these, however, is his great example of charac-ter. Again, we think of his death, his patience in suffering and the spirit of forgiveness which he showed for the man who gave him a mortal wound. And his calm resignation in the dying hour along with his trust in God make him a worthy example of a true Christian spirit. The sun is sinking behind the treetops and we have time to stay no longer. We return with thoughts of our visit that will ever be pleasant in our memory. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 193 THE HOUSE WE BUILD. IN the land of the East there once lived a king who gave to twelve of his subjects a sum of money with the command that each should build him a house. Each man took the allot-ted sum and set out to obey the command. Eleven bought the cheapest materials in the market and constructed their buildings on the simplest plan, so that they might save some money for their own use and complete their tasks; but the twelfth secured the most durable materials he could find and with painstaking care built his house as nearly perfect as pos-sible. When the buildings were finished, the king issued a de-cree that each subject, for the rest of his life, should live in the house which he himself had constructed. Imagine the chagrin of the eleven when they found that they must dwell in such unstable structures. Repairs soon became necessary as part after part gave way, and in a short time the buildings, too weak to stand the wear of time, collapsed. But the twelfth subject dwelt in his substantial home until the end of his days. Although this is only a legend, there is hidden vVithin it a truth which is applicable to mankind. Each individual must rear a building for himself—that unseen and uncomprehensible being or spirit—to dwell in. Perhaps we are carrying this on unconsciously, nevertheless, each day has its effect upon these structures. Either we are fashioning pillars and supports which will make our house a strong and beautiful one—fit to contain the noblest aims and purposes—or we are, by living lives of in-difference and ease, rearing such a structure as one finds on a neglected farm, which can contain nothing securely and which every adverse wind threatens to destroy. And there is no ex-change of property, no rental, sale or giving away. Each man must keep his own building and live in it as he himself has built it. Our acts, our thoughts, our feelings, our resolves, our aims and the influences which we receive from associates, books and surroundings are as really the material for our buildings as the t 194 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. lumber and nails for the carpenter. And just as essential for us is a plan. Each one should have a definite ideal as he takes up his work of art. For such an ideal, observe nature in her perfection as she manifests herself in the snowflake with its per-fect arrangement and whiteness, the globe of dew in its round-edness and purity, the new blown rose in its fresh beauty, the magnificent forests in their strength and grandeur,and the lofty mountains in their towering might. And the human body in itself, in its harmonious structure and workings, is a model for perfect symmetry and order. One of our writers speaks of it thus:— Not in the world of light alone, Where God hath built his blazing throne, Nor yet alone in earth below, With belted seas that come and go And endless isles of sunlit green, Is all thy maker's glory seen. Look in upon thy wondrous frame, Eternal wisdom still the same. One should carefully consider both the exterior and interior of the building which he erects. The exterior, while not most important, should receive some care. Have a good strong frame secured by temperate living and proper exercise, an erect form. A clear interior structure, with its furnishings, is import-ant, not only because it is the character, or at least what makes the character of the individual, but because it affects the exterior and makes it what it is to a very great extent. Our houses are more or less transparent, and one without can tell the nature of the man who lives within. On the outside we post the signs which describe the resident. Ruskin says on this subject: "There is no virtue, the exercise of which, even momentarily, will not impress a new fairness upon the features, neither on them only, but on the whole body." In the furnishings let a good strong individuality form the centre piece and let it secure for itself an appropriate setting; let it secure those qualities which make us noble and images of the divine. Let earnestness, enthusiasm, tenderness, a love for THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 195 beauty and harmony, observation, unselfishness and determina-tion be essentials in the equipments. If a man wished to build a perfect house, he would give his attention to every detail and try to make it complete. So in rearing our house, let us not polish and adorn one part to the neglect of another. The young girl who strives only for grace in a ball room and popularity in the social world, and the young man who develops only his muscles in athletics, are building very deficient houses. Symmetry and proportion are two qualities necessary to a beautiful building. In this work of building, we may often improve our own structures by helping our companions as they toil. While we are supporting a pillar or repairing a broken part for them, what is our surprise to find a new beauty in our own, while rough edges have become beautifully rounded curves. How delightful it is to live in a country that is adorned with beautiful and well constructed buildings ! In us lies the ability to adorn or mar the world by the structures which we rear in it. In addition to their improving our surroundings, they serve as incentives to others in perfecting their own buildings. The poet Holmes gives us an inspiration in the words: "Build ye more stately mansions, O my Soul, While the swift seasons roll. Leave thy low vaulted past, Let each new temple nobler than the last Shut thee from Heaven with a dome more vast, Till thou at length art free, Leaving thine outgrown shell, By life's unresting sea." "ORLANDO." THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffi.ee at Gettysburg as second-class matter VOL. XII GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1903 No. 5 Editor-in-chief LYMAN A. GUSS, '04 Exchange Editor M. ROY HAMSHER, '04 Business Manager F. GARMAN MASTERS, '04 Asst. Business Manager A. TY. DTT.LENBECK, '05 Associate Editors M. ADA MCLINN, '04 BRUCE P. COBADGH, '05 C. EDWIN BUTLER, '05 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, L-ITT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHI.EY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. What a great thing it is ! What a commendable TRUTH trait of character! What a power in everything! And yet how often debased, how often contaminated, how often distorted! It is our purpose to briefly set forth herein a few facts bear-ing directly on the welfare of this college; to reconstruct cer-tain distortions of the truth, which have been circulated by yel-low journalism to our detriment; and to assure our friends and supporters that Gettysburg is a college of gentlemen and not of "hoodlooms," as certain press manipulators, with clouded vision, would make us. During the past two months, there have been evil and ma-licious reports scattered broadcast, within no small radius of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I97 our college community, in which the boys of Gettysburg have been deprecated as a gang of rowdies, rogues and general roustabouts ; have been designated in all sorts of terms, border-ing on the villiainous; have had epithets, becoming anything but gentlemen heaped upon them in profusion; and have been characterized as an aggregation of degenerates. If these things were true, ours it would be to "grin and bear," but no individual, without a word of protest, much less a body of loyal college students, can see such maledictions afloat and such slander indulged in with impunity. We labor with righteous indignation under the knowledge that the good name of our college, undefiled for decades, is being vitiated without provocation. Therefore, we refute with vigor these monstrous prevarications. To the friends of Gettysburg we would say that the reports referred to above are not true, are utter falsehoods, and are not warranted. Instead of all kinds of devilment, which these vile, disgraceful recitals portray, such a state of affairs is non-exist-ent almost in totality. Class spirit, college spirit—all kinds of spirit, we are loath to confess, is at a lower ebb than it has been for a number of years, and, consequently, the real and only ex-cess, conducted by the student body, is thereby removed; for, be it known, that there by no means exists an organized quota of students in the college whose aim and object is the destruc-tion of property, and the debasement of their fellow-students. Such personalities Gettysburg does not support. To be sure, occasionally, a sudden outburst of college en-thusiasm does impel prudence a little beyond the limit, but never, within the time during which we have been flailed with the confounded misstatements of a debauched press, has it been carried to an end approaching that which these enlarged, in-flated, falsified and perverse specimens of a journal of the "yellow" type would have you believe. To the source of this polluted literature we consider it be-neath our dignity to directly refer. It suffices to state the facts connected with its origin and promulgation. These we offer to you as explanatory of these disseminated articles so liberally 198 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. savored with prevarication. We trust they may serve to right your estimate of our college; to reinstate you in your former attitude of good will toward us, if you have fallen therefrom by the great injustice done, and being done, us without cause, real or sham; to lead you "to believe that we are not "hood-looms," but men, such as Gettysburg has merited and owned in the past, and yet finds perpetuated in our persons. We ask you to discount these reports, which appear at our expense, with a reduction of one-half or three-fourths, which they will readily bear, and then the residue may, perhaps, be taken at par. These remarks may seem somewhat eulogistic, but we are given to self-laudation only in case of stringent necessity. This is one such case. What we want you to believe, alumni and friends, is that Gettysburg is a college, not composed of men of ideal character,but equally on a level basis with our contemporary institutions. We are not tainted and debased in character, in a class of our own, but whole and sound as any. The Pennypacker press muzzle was met with derision and denunciation when it became law. It was fairly paralyzed with a storm of opposition. And yet there is quality in that piece of legislation. While its operation, for the most part, is out of harmony with American principle, it could be made to operate with admirable results in specific cases. It is not our intention to justify the "muzzier," but would it not justify itself in our instance ? It would purge e\^il from the local press, perchance. Shall we try it? DIALECT 1'ne fed °f writing stories in various dialects, STORIES. particularly that of the Negro, the Irishman, the Westerner or Backwoodsman, is becoming very contagious. These stories, while they are comical and interesting and serve the purpose intended perhaps well enough, may become very detrimental to our language and especially so if they continue to multiply. The colloquial form of the English language is now ungram- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 199 matical enough, as every one will acknowledge, but what it might become if these corruptions are acquired, I should fear to state. For example the colloquy of the Westerner put into the speech of our fairly educated men of today would be unbecom-ing and distasteful, to say nothing of its effect. While this illustration may be an absurd one, yet it is not far in advance of the result of dialect writing. If we are given this species of literature we are going to acquire more and more of this kind of language. Another example only too realistic is that of the college student whose corrupt terms and phrases are understood only by himself and those associated with him. How often when speaking to an outside man does he find himself uttering these corruptions, which are, it may be, Hebrew to his hearer. This is an example of how easily we may acquire the lore of the different dialects if they are thrust upon us for our constant amusement or edification. Our tongues would be confused far more than the tongues of historic Babel. To the student of English, dialect stories, when they exceed the limit in number and quality, should be especially repulsive and, by heeding them with little or no regard, the student will be justified, the'offender punished, and the dignity of our English preserved. EXCHANGES. The most delightful bit of optimism, for it does seem to savor of the optimist, that we have noticed in our last month's reading, has been penned with regard to the college publica-tions. Hear some of the soul-cheering words of the Georgetown College Journal's ex-man, who has been so highly esteemed as to be re-elected to office: "They bring to us a message of the thousands of college men and women of this country who are giving their time to the study of letters and are becoming writ-ers of good English. We do most emphatically believe in col-lege journalism; and it is our firm conviction that out of the 200 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. humble efforts that the college editor is to-day making will come the great American novel, and the great American epic, and the great American essay; in short, will come the great American literature, a golden age, that will outshine all that have gone before it." May college journalism result in a de-velopment of our literature equal to the expectations of our sanguine friend. There is much in the college magazine that does not warrant such expectations. But there are some col-lege men who, although their literary efforts are now making but a feeble light, are, nevertheless, blazing a pathway for grander and nobler things in literature. The Carthage Collegia?i has this interesting preface to its last number, which is intended, no doubt, for critics who become cynical in their observations:— "Kind reader, ere you turn away From viewing this small booklet's pages, And judge, perchance, correctly too, That they who wrote it are not sages, Think well, before you place it on the shelf, You might have written it yourself. Forget the weak, the poor, and of the rest, Though it be poor, remember thou the best." If there were made a classification of the college magazines into those seemingly making a special effort to present college news, with one or more literary articles to fill up the space, and those devoted principally to literary work, we would, no doubt, place such magazines as Tlie Monthly Maroon and University of Virginia Magazine in the second class. They belong to the part of college journalism that will result in the "Great Ameri-can Literature." The Ursinus Weekly has just come out with its first Literary Supplement of the year. The essay on "Seventeenth Century Lyric Poetry" shows a knowledge of the spirit of that time. The writer compares the songs of the "light-hearted" Robert Herrick with the "deep, sonorous" notes of Tennyson in an in-teresting manner. The exchange editor seems to have a good word for every one.

Issue 58.3 of the Review for Religious, May/June 1999. ; f 0 r relig i ous Christian Heritages and ,Contemporary Living MAY-JUNE 1999 * VOLUME 58 ¯ NUMBER 3 Review for Religioug is a forum for shared reflection on the lived experience of all who J~nd that the church's rich heritages of spirituality support their personal and apostolic Christian lives. The articles in the journal are meant to be informative, practical, historical, or inspirational, written from a tbeological or spiritual or sometimes canonical point of view. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: foppema@slu.edu Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ° 3601 Lindell Boulevard ° St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP P.O. Box 29260; ~,rashington, D.C. 20017 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ° P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN ~5806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©1999 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library, clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Advisory Board David L. Fleming sJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Regina Siegfried ASC Elizabeth McDonough OP Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm Jean Read James and Joan Felling Kathryn Riehards FSP Joel Rippinger OSB Bishop Carlos A. Sevilla SJ David Werthmann CSSR Patricia Wittberg SC Heritages and Contemporary Lfiv~ng MAY-JUNE 1999 * VOLUME58 * NUMBER3 contents 230 251 women religious Charism or Deep Story? Towards Understanding Better the 19th-Century Origins of American Women's Congregations Margaret Susan Thompson suggests that emphasis on "charism" may not be helpful in explaining the ,founding experiences of many women's communities in 19th-century America, and identifies some of the reasons why "deep stow" may be a more usable concept. The Need for Self-Criticism: Affirmative Comments Elizabeth McDonough OP suggests that the time has come for United States religious women to initiate some possibly difficult but genuinely constructive self-criticism and some corrective change of course in various aspects of postconciliar renewal. 261 266 women and the church The Annuario Pontificio: The Vatican's "Pontifical Yearbook" and a Recent Editorial Decision Larry N. Lorenzoni SDB updates a bit of history about who are included in the Vatican's "Pontifical Yearbook." Women and Canon Law Joan A. Range ASC investigates the extraordinary recent history of women entering the field of canon law. Review for Religious 286 295 mary Five Faces of Mary Robert P. Maloney CM offers five Marian faces as a way of meditating on the rich, varied tradition surrounding the Virgin Mary. The Temple and the Journeying: Mary of Sorrows Joel Giallanza CSC draws directions for our spiritual life's journey from reflecting on the traditional seven sorrows of Mary. 3O5 314 witnessing Blessed Maria Droste: A Good Shepherd Motif in Sacred Heart Spirituality Juliana Devoy RGS tells the story of Blessed Maria Droste, which gives witness to her vision of God's merciful love reflected in Sacred Heart spirituality. Echoes from My Fifty-sixth Annual Retreat Robert F. Drinan sJ shares reflections on God!s grace stirring thoughts and feelings in a retreat. 228 32O 325 departments Prisms Canonical Counsel: Visitation by External Authorities Book Reviews May-.~une 1999 227- Whoever has seen me has seen the Father. --John 14:9 Wean talk about God in some very un-Christian ways. As we "dress up" God in the various cultural and time-bound categories of our human world, we are inevitably limited, in both our reasoning and our imagining. When we get swept up into a highly intellectualized philosophical approach, we find our-selves projecting a vague abstract and sometimes fright-ening power and a childishly understood world. God without a face. Although Jesus lived within human limitations of time and culture, he dared to speak "with authority" about the reign of God in images and parables that tore down the temple curtain of separation to let people catch some glimpses of God that are new. The synoptic Gospels--Mark, Matthew, and Luke--talk of a celebra-tory invitation to a banquet, of a shepherd doggedly searching out a lost sheep, so that we come to know and relate to God with fresh affective response. But the Gospel of St. John stands out as the Gospel of the God revealed to us by Jesus as "Father." Few are the chapters in John's Gospel that do not have explicit reference to God as Father. The qualities of this Father-God tumble out. This God is the God of life: "Just as the Father who has life sent me and I have life because of the Father." Jn 6:44. This is a God who works: "My Father is at work until now, and I am Review for Religious' at work as well" Jn 5:17. This is a God who teaches: "My doctrine is not my own; it comes from him who sent me" Jn 7:16; "I say only what the Father has taught me" Jn 8:28. This is a God who cultivates growth: "I am the true vine, and my Father is the vine-grower" Jn 15:1. Above all, this God is the one who loves: "The Father loves the Son and has given everything over to him" Jn 3:35; "the one who loves me will be loved by my Father"Jn 14:21. In retreat notes published as a book, The Ignatian Exercises in the Light of St. John, Cardinal Carlo Maria Martini SJ reflects that a way of considering the Fourth Gospel is to see it as a gospel of prayer, It is prayer not just from people responding to Jesus as we do so often in our prayer lives, but prayer also from Jesus to the one he lovingly calls Abba-Father. From Jesus We learn how we are meant to grow in our relationship with God. And so this Gospel, in teaching a way of relating to God for the mature Christian, is paradoxically the Gospel most insistent in remind-ing us that we are still "children" who have--and who need for our very existence--a Father. We are called, in imitation of Jesus, to relate to a God from whom we have everything--all that we are and all that we would call "our own." This is the God that Jesus describes as the One apart from whose words he himself has nothing to say, the God apart from whose works he has no work to do. As Christian evan-gelizers, then, we need to follow the example of Jesus so that what we say flows from our union with this God. As Christian ministers we need to strive that all our deeds and good works flow from the baptismal grace given by God that makes us all very special children, God's sons and daughters. It is from this God we have come--a Source we call by Jesus' word Father-- and it is to this God we direct our whole life as the One we, with John, identify as Love. If we let the words of St. John enter more deeply into our very being, we will find ourselves being shaped and molded by the reality behind our personally limited understandings of God as Father and God as Love. This is the revealed God of Scripture we seek to know and make known ever better in this year dedi-cated to God the Father. David L. Fleming SJ '229 May-June 1999 MARGARET SUSAN THOMPSON Charism or Deep Story? Towards Understanding Bett@r the 19th-Century Origins of American Women's Congregatigns Since the Second Vatican Council, the term charism increasingly has become associated with the identity, and .even the integrity, of religious congregations.1 Literally dozens of published essays explore the term's meaning and significance~ A substantial number of the community websites created in recent years contain a page about-- or at least an allusion to--the group's "charism," as do postconciliar constitutions, mission statements, and voca-tion paraphernalia. The hierarchy of the Catholic Church has not been silent either, particularly during the current papacy. For example, in its 1983 document "Essential Elements in the Church's Teaching on Religious Life 'as Applied to Institutes Dedicated to Works of the Apostolate," the Sacred ~Congregation for Religious and Secular Institutes used ~the term ten times, and it shows up a whopping eighty-six times in//Tta con-secrata, John Paul II's apostolic letter in response to the 1994 Synod on Religious Life. . Ironically, the word itself is not: to be found in Perfectae caritatis, the council document which treats the Margaret Susan Thompson PhD has written and lectured extensively on the history of women religious in the United States. She is associate professor of history and political sci-ence at Syracuse University; Department of History; 145 Eggers Hall; Syracuse, New York 13244. Review for Religious "Adaptation and Renewal of Religious Life." In fact, its first appearance in a magisterial treatise seems to be in 1971's Evangelica testificatio. Addressing religious themselves, Paul vI speaks of the "charisms of your founders" and the "charisms of the various insti-tutes" (§§11, 32), assuming, probably with justification, that the terminology would be familiar to his intended audience. But, for those in doubt about this nomenclature, Paul cites Perfectae cari-tatis §2b, which calls upon members of religious institutes to respect their "particular characteristics and work" and "their founders' spirit and special aims" as they proceed with their groups' renewal. Paul extends the discussion in Mutuae relationes (1978), using the term nineteen times and declaring, among other things, that "the very charism of the founders (Evangelii nuntiandi, §I 1) appears as an 'experience of the Spirit'" and that "every authentic charism implies a certain element of genuine originality and of special initiative for the spiritual life of the church" (§12). By now, therefore, one would assume that the meaning of a term so widely and authoritatively used would be clear, and one might also assume that the reality of the thing known as "charism" would be easily identifiable and inherent to religious life. Indeed, this seems to be implicit in various references from the two doc-uments of the current pontificate mentioned above. The first para-graph of "Essential Elements" refers to "the founding charism of a particular institute" and later even says that, through its appro-bation of a community's canonical status, the "God-given ministry of the hierarchy" has ratified the "authentic discernment of its founding charism" (§41):2 The references in Vita consecrata are too numerous even to summarize, but here are a few of them: "charisms proper to the various institutes," "fidelity to the found-ing charism," "[an institute's] Rule and constitutions [are approved] in accordance with a specific charism confirmed by the church," and "the uniqueness of their different ~harisms' (§§19, 36, 37, 53). Surely, then, "charigm" is intrinsic to religious life. Every con-gregation must have one, unique to that particular institute and traceable directly to its individual founder., But the rationale for this essay is precisely that none of the assumptions above seems necessarily to be the case. It is my con-tention that, in much of its current usage, charism is a term of such vagueness and ambiguity as to be almost meaningless. More impor-tantly, even if we can accept the connotations that John Paul II apparently regards as definitive (and he is hardly alone in this atti- May-~tune 1999 -231 . Thompson ¯ Charism or Deep Story? tude), I would argue that a good many of the women's apostolic congregations that ministered in the 19th and early 20th century in the United States have no such thing as a "charism" according to this understanding. Thus, if, as John Paul II suggests, "charism" is an "essential element" of religious life, the very legitimacy of these congregations seems to be east into question--surely a seri-ous, perhaps even disastrous, consequence for the groups involved. What is needed, therefore, is some alternative to charism, some concept that is more in accord with the historical reality of many institutes and legitimates their experience and continued existence. It is unlikely that my consideration here will arrive at any defini-tive conclusions, but I hope to suggest some alternative ways of thinking that may prove useful in framing the historical and cur-rent context of sisters' experiences and perhaps assist in the pro-cess of religious revitalization and renewal. At the very least, from my ongoing research into women's religious life in the 19th-cen-tury United States, I think I can explain why the emphasis on "charism" in contemporary thinking about religious life is prob-lematic and historically unjustified, at least as a universal norm. Before we proceed, a few assumptions need to be made explicit. First, I believe that some congregations do have a charism and that in some cases it is traceable, at least in some degree, to an individual "founder." In other instances, its origin may lie with a founding group of individuals (a "founding generation"), while in still others a charism may have emerged later in a community's history--or a buried, neglected, or even repudiated charism may be discerned or refurbished by subsequent generations. Second-- and in this I am confirmed by the usages of several scholars as well as by both Paul vI and John Paul II--I believe there is also some-thing generic that can be called "a charism of apostolic religious life." Third, the lack of a particular charism does not render an institute (or its members or ministries) less significant, "spiritual," or legitimate than those which do have such a "gift":--just as the existence of one does not indicate superiority or greater validity. Indeed, given that the use of the term charism in connection with religious life is of such recent provenance, its application to past experience--particularly if it is considered to be some sort of uni-versal norm--actually may be ahistorically anachronistic. The word charism, of course, is Greek and means "gift." In contemporary Christian usage, it refers specifically to a spiritual gift, that is, "a free gift of grace." Moreover, virtually all Catholic Review for Religious scholars agree that a charism is not solely for the benefit of its direct recipient; rather, "it is a supernatural gift bestowed by the Holy Spirit for building up the body of Christ" or, in simpler terms, a "divine spiritual gift to individuals or groups for the build-ing up of the community." Within the context of religious life, the charism presumably is received initially by an institute's founder, who transmits it on to her followers. It is this "gift of grace" which is to imbue the community with its unique character or identity; as Richard McBrien puts it, "the unique gift of the founder., is given to every member from one generation to the next."3 Between 1727 and 1917, at least 422 Catholic apostolic con-gregations of women religious were active within the United States.4 Some were short-lived, but four hundred of them contin-ued to exist in 1917, and the overwhelming majority are extant today. Of the 422, a total of 273 belonged to one of ten large reli-gious "families," each of which could trace its birth to a particu-lar founder or pair of founders (see Table 1). Thus, each of these could be presumed to be a beneficiary of the. "charism" of the per-son or persons with whom that family began. Moreover, many of these groups also regard themselves as having their own particular founders, who "re-visioned" the familial identity in some way that imparted a special or distinct character to it.s Table 1 U.S. Al~ostolic Women's Communities andTheir Religious "Families" . FAMILY FOUNDER(S) NO. OF COMMUNITIES Benedictine Benedict, Scholastica 32 Carmelite (reform) Teresa of Avila 3 Dominican Dominic 30 Franciscan Francis 54 St. Joseph Jean Pierre Medaille 27 Mercy Catherine McAuley 65 Presentation Nano Nagle 7 Ursuline Angela Merici 30 Vincentian Vincent de Paul and Louise de Marfllac 10 Visitation Francis de Sales and Jane Frances de Chantal 15 May-June 1999 233 Thompson ¯ Charism or Deep Story? No one can or will deny that these communities have---since their founding, in most cases--been known by one of these "fam-ily names." Still, this begs some important questions. How many of even these congregations can be said to have been "birthed" into the charism of their family forebears? How many incorpo-rated themselves into a particular family with explicit awareness of the spiritual and ecclesial consequences? How many can assert with confidence that their history is one of explicit and consistent acknowledgment of and fidelity to that charism? In other words, to what extent did "charism" traditionally play a part in shaping the identities of at least some of these institutes? Alternatively, how many of them became, in fact, "generic" apostolic entities doing good work, composed of good (even holy) people, but ~undistin-guished by any familial or "particular" spiritual identity that would differentiate them clearly from others of theoburgeoning number of women's religious orders that came increasingly to "do their thing" in the United States in, the 19th and 20th centuries? Finally, most of the nearly one hundred fifty other women's congregations I have studied also assert that they have particular "founders' charisms." Are all of them justified in their claims? It naturally is impossible to provide in one article definitive answers to any of these questions. Instead, I intend to offer some representative examples from the histories of the communities I have studied, examples that I believe will demonstrate some of the major problems with the assumptions about charism that charac-terize so much of what has been said about religious life in the past quarter century. Let me emphasize thavnone of these exam-ples is unique; rather, each is suggestive of all-too-typical congre-gational experiences. Each indicates some aspect of why I believe that the notion of a "founder's?' or "founding" charism is so prob-lematic and why the notion may, in fact, do more to obscure the realities of women's religious history than to illumine it. The Most Common Scenario: Instrumentalism Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Catholic population of the United States exploded. As early as 1850, Catholics constituted the largest single body of believers in the nation, a ranking they have maintained ever since. But, hardly monolithic, they consisted of an ecer growing number of proudly distinct (and sometimes mutually antagonistic) ethnic groups, many Review for Religious of which came to the New World specifically to escape religious persecution or to preserve their cultural identities. Most were poor when they arrived in their new nation; few except the Irish spoke English. Their secular and Protestant neighbors greeted them with suspicion and often with overt hostility. Clearly, these were peo-ple with numerous and diverse needs to be met, and church lead-ers, beleaguered and fearful of "leakage" from the faith, sought ways to respond effectively. It is not surprising, therefore, that dozens of institutes were started in or brought to the United States to provide practical ser-vices, often to specific subgroups of Catl~olics. Both individual community histories by the score and various more com-prehensive works attest con-vincipgly-- and, before 1965, unapologetically--to what I call the instrumental motivation for so many foundations: to teach the ever growing number of school-age children,6 to provide healthcareand relief (primarily, of course, but not only to Catholics), and, increasingly, to work with persons from partic-ular immigrant groups who needed ministers who understood both their languages and their traditions and could both foster cultural survival and ease the pro-cess of Americanization. Others were started for equally functional purposes: to do housework for priests or to offer catechetical instruction to children outside the parochial schools. Consider, for instance, the following accounts of foundings, taken almost randomly from the 1964 edition of Thomas McCarthy's Guide to the Catholic Sisterhoods of the United States-- perhaps the most successful comprehensive "vocation book" ever published in this country:7 [Sisters of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin:] A school, but no teachers, and none to be had from any religious commu-nity in spite of numerous requests by Father Jean Harper. ¯. He decided to act upon his curate's suggestion: "We can-not obtain nuns? Then, let us make some!" And so the con-gregation came into existence . . (p. 192). Dozens of institutes were started in or brought to the United States to provide practical services, often to specific subgroups of Catholics. 235--- May-~une 1999 Thompson * Charism or Deep Story? [Franciscans of Tiffin, Ohio:] Father Joseph L. Bihn . . . founded this Franciscan community to help him care for the many children orphaned as a result of the Civil War. Three of his parishioners, Elizabeth Schaeffer, a widow, and her two daughters, formed the nucleus of this congregation. (p. 271). [Sisters of Sts. Cyril ahd Methodius:] The early 1900s was a critical period for the many immigrants from Slovakia who setded in the United States. Father Matthew Jankola of the Scranton diocese was keenly aware that this adjustment required not only the building of schools but also of secur-ing sisters to staff them. As a result of his efforts, this dioce-san congregation was established in 1900 (p. 189). [Sisters of the Holy Family, San Francisco, California:] "I have another work for you to do," Archbishop Joseph S. Alemany OP said to young Elizabeth Armer when she came to consult him about entering a contemplative order. The archbishop unfolded to the future Mother Dolores his plans for an insti-tute to give religious instruction to children who could not attend Catholic schools. (p. 295). [Little Daughters of St. Joseph:] Father Antoine Mercier, a Sulpician priest., who desired to establish a congregation of nuns who would consecrate themselves to the spiritual and material welfare of the clergy and seminarians, founded this community with the assistance of Miss de Lima Dauth, the co-foundress. On April 26, 1857, both began this eminently apostolic work of helping priests and seminarians by means of a life of prayer, self-denial, and manual labor (p. 36). [Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word, Houston, Texas:] "A multitude of sick and infirm seeks relief at your hands" was the irresistible plea of Rt. Rev. C.M. Dubuis when he went to France to seek volunteers to help him in his missionary labors in Galveston, Texas. Three young women answered his appeal and with these he founded the congregation in 1866. The community, which built the first Catholic hospital in the state, has papal approval and conducts twenty-six insti-tutions. (p. 120). 236 Where, in any of these stories, can one discern a charism? Ministry, yes; inspiring service to needy people, certainly. But two obstacles to discerning a "charism of the founder" recur in each instance. First, the reason each community came into being was functional, not charismatic. And, second, at least as these accounts would have it, the initiating impulse came not from the women who would offer to respond, but from clerics--men who, by def- Review for Religious inition, were persons outside of the community itself and thus hard to recognize as part of the group's intrinsic "lived tradition.''s Random Rule Selection and the Problem of Charism Every autonomous congregation has its own constitution, but, properly speaking, only four Rules (St. Basil, St. Augustine, St. Benedict, and St. Francis) were approved by Rome, and every com-munity had to select one of these as the basis for its organization and gov-ernance. 9 This helps to explain, for example, why so many women's con-gregations belonged to the Franciscan "family"--generally speaking, it was considered the most "flexible" of the four and therefore the easiest to adapt to a variety of instrumental purposes. To assume, then, that every commu-nity designated as "Franciscan" also and intentionally embodied a Franciscan charism requires an enor-mous leap of faith; in fact, even some founders who wanted to be "Franciscan" sometimes began by organizing themselves by another Rule. Two contrasting examples will illustrate the problem. First, there is that of the Sisters of St. Francis of Perpetual Adoration, originally founded in Olpe, Westphalia, in 1859 (and eventually established in the U.S. in 1875). The founder, Mother Mary Theresia (Aline) Bonzel, had great devotion to St. Francis and wanted to be Franciscan, but one of her co-founders, Clara Pfaender, had previously belonged to a con-gregation which followed the Augustinian Rule. We may let the community's first historian, an unusually forthright individual, take the story from there: Aline Bonzel wanted the Franciscan Rule by all means. But seemingly she was not well acquainted with the basic Rule of religious orders . Clara Pfaender knew the Augustinian Rule from her convent days with the Sisters of Christian Charity. She felt she could write a constitution based on that Rule. Since she was the superior and responsible for admit-ting candidates into the community, it s~emed advisable, in this very beginning, that she have the liberty to employ her To assume that every community designated as "Franciscan" also and intentionally embodied a Franciscan charism requires an enormous leap of faith. 237 May-June 1999 Thompson ¯ Charism or Deep Story? full experience in religious life. Only on this basis can one explain how a community which uniformly desired to live according to the Franciscan Rule began with the Augustinian Rule, but with the intention of later converting to the Franciscan Rule. In this procedure the character of the times can readily be detec(ed. Many most likely saw basically lit-de difference whether one lived according to the Augustinian or the Franciscan Rule. The development of a specialized spirituality came later and in many instances vqry much later. As this author put it elsewhere: So many religious congregations came into being in the 19th century, and many chose their Rule by chance. Charitable activity called, and congregations were founded to fill the need to serve God and man. With some it seemingly made no difference what religious Rule was followed, for all were good and sanctifying~ . . . Foundations flourished which at first simpl); set up the aciivities and objectives of the apos-tolate and later wrote the rule and constitutions. Often enough at the very beginning it was purely accidental rather than a conscious effort that one or the other rule took hold.l° Contrast this with the experienqe of the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Third Order of St. Francis (SSJ-TOSF). Their history has been recounted superbly in two volumes by Josephine Marie Peplinski; basically, the group owed its origins to ethnic conflict within the School Sisters of St. Francis. The School Sisters were predominantly German, and the founding SSJ-TOSFs were Polish members who, after many incidents distressing to them, decided in 1901 to break off and found their own congregation. They took the Rule and name of "Franciscan" with them, but their self-claimed identity was fundamentally Polish. Indeed, as Peplinski has docu-mented, part of the problem was that, for its first few decades of existence, the community's leadership was passed back and forth between two very different individuals, one of whom (Mother Mary F~licia Jasku, lski) had a real devotion to St. Francis, while the other (Mother Mary Boleslaus Rybicki) "moved the congre-gation toward a popular Jesuit interpretation of obedience and authority--military in tone." As Peplinski puts it, "She exerted great influence in developing the spirituality of the congregation throughout her lifetime . . . and afterwards through those who adopted her ideals. It is ~v0rthy to note that until 1940, fourteen years after Mother Mary Boleslaus's death, almost all of the retreat masters invited to th~ congregation were Jesuits." Peplinski describes tlie congregation during its first sixty years as a Review for Religious "Franciscan sisterhood adapted to the post-Tridentine paradigm of religious life serving the American immigrant church . A basic problem was that canon law rather than the gospel law of love was set up as the ideal." In fact, not until after Vatican II, under Peplinsld's own leadership (she led the congregation 1968-1976), did the SSJ-TOSFs make a concerted and systematic effort to dis-cover what "bein~ Franciscan:' was all about. But, while they in fact embrace a Franciscan spirituality as they enter into their sec-ond century, is it at all accurate, despite their name, to regard it as their "founding charism"?II What Happened to the Benedictines? .Peplinski's congregation was not the only one "adapted to the post-Tridentine paradigm of religious life serving the American immigrant church." What happened to the Benedictines was equally dramatic and potentially of even more profound conse-quence to what they were supposed to be all about. It is a com-plicated story, ably told from somewhat different perspectives by Judith Sutera, M. Incarnata Girgen, and Ephrem Hollermann.12 The first nuns came to St. Marys, Pennsylvania, in 1852 from Eichst~itt, Bavaria, where they had lived in a way that permitted full cenobitic, monastic observance, including recitation of the Divine Office and solemn vows according to the Benedictine formulary: stability, conversatio ("conversion of life"), and obedience, However, within less than ten years after their arrival in the United States, a complicated series of events ensued, resulting in fundamental alterations to their tradition. Stated simply, the right to take solemn vows was abrogated (because the women were unable to observe strict enclosure), pressures of "life in mission territory" (as well as the elimination of solemn vows) led to "permission" to miti-gate the requirement to recite the full Divine Office (allowing substitution of the Little Office of th~ Blessed Virgin Mary, parts only of the Divine Office, or ~ven rosaries and other devotional practices), the jurisdiction of community leaders was made sec-ondary to that of diocesan, bishops (who could, among other things, approve or reject the election of prioresses and the admission of new members--something unheard of, normally, in Benedictinism). Even the simple vows the women now professed wer~ not neces-sarily the Benedictine ones. As Sutera explains, some took the tra-ditional vows, some took the three vows common to other May-June 1999 Thompson ¯ Charism or Deep Story? communities (poverty, chastity, obedience), Others took five vows and some four (not stability, because there were rumors that the women were to be reorganized into a large congregation complete with provinces, regional novitiates, and so forth). She summarizes the consequences this way: "What Rome had done was to create a canonical anomaly, a group of unenclosed monastic women who retained the right to the designation of 'O.S.B.' This right implied some recognition that they were nuns of the ancient order rather than sisters of a later congregation despite their simple vows. However, it left them as technically neither one nor the other. [Practically speaking,] they faded into the mass of apostolic orders." 13 Sutera and Hollermann's books, especially, are potent wit-nesses to the extent to which American Benedictines struggled over the following century both to respond 'to the ministerial and apostolic demands placed upon them and to remain as faithful as they could to their Benedictine heritage. Both accounts verify the existence and persistence of Benedictine charism, however "re-visioned" in the American context, despite the many and substan-tial obstacles put in the sisters' way. Thus, when Vatican II came along, with its call for renewal in the spirit of the founders, the Benedictines had a strong foundation on which they could rely. Nonetheless, the disparate experiences of the various autonomous foundations during the years between their foremothers' arrival in the U.S. and the postconciliar period raise important questions about how, and the extent to which, "fidelity to charism" shaped the historical reality of American Benedictine sisters. If one reads the descriptions of them in McCarthy's 1964 compendium, for instance, they seem virtually indistinguishable from the plethora of apostolic institutes that surrounded them.14 "Charisms" Buried, Repudiated, or Denied At least the Benedictines had a strong tradition, never com-pletely lost, that they could revitalize when called to do so by the Second Vatican Council, Others, however, were not so fortunate, The situations of those who chose their traditions randomly, or who were founded for largely instrumental purposes, have already been discussed. But what about those who did have more charismatic founders, whose legacies, for various reasons, were obscured or even rejected? Probably the most famous such case is that of the Institute Review for Religious of the Blessed Virgin Mary, founded by the remarkable Mary Ward in 1609; not until the papacy of Pius XI! were they able to claim her officially as the founder of their congregation. But other instances pertain more directly to the U.S. Catholic experience; here I will refer to just three of them (by no means the only ones). As late as McCarthy's 1964 Guide (p. 317), the sisters founded by Margaret Anna Cusack in 1884 were identified unqualifiedly as the "Sisters of St. Joseph of Newark" and were described as having been founded by "Bishop Bagshawe of Nottingham, England . . . in 1888." Then, we are told, Bishop Michael Wigger of Newark, New Jersey, "received the community into his dio-cese shortly after its establish-ment." The latter sentence, technically, is true, but the foundation was in 1884; by 1888 the controversial Cusack had left both Newark and the Catholic Church. The myth of Bagshawe's role, as well as the rather skewed chronology, evolved largely to bury the fact that this group's founder--a woman who did, I believe, have a charism and who had a very revolutionary vision for her community--was regarded at the time of her death as an "apostate." Dorothy Vidulich has provided a first-rate account of how Cusack's community rediscovered her in the aftermath of Vatican II, officially reclaiming her in 1970 as their founder and reclaiming, too, her original name for the congregation: the Sisters of St. Joseph of Peace. Since then, the group has devoted enormous effort to uncovering and taking ownership of her and their charism; nonetheless, the fact that her very connection with the institute was buried for eighty-five years (starting less than four years after it began) makes it difficult to discern the extent to which her charism ever played a meaningful role in its earlier historical expe-rience. Is the identity of this community primarily traceable to Cusack? Or, like an adopted child, must this group, like it or not, acknowledge that other "parents" may actually have been more significant in shaping their ongoing lived reality? 15 American Benedictines struggled both to respond to the ministerial and apostolic demands placed upon them and to remain as faithful as they could to their Benedictine heritage. May-June 1999 Thompson ¯ Charism or Deep Story? Which person or persons must be acknowledged as having contributed-- and how--to the congregation's actual history ? The founder of the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, of Monroe, Michigan, was never, stricdy speaking, denied; her central role in the congregation's founding was, how.ever, unde-niably minimized and obscured. Theresa Maxis Duchemin was the offspring of an unwed "woman of color." Both her "race" (her mother was an immigrant to the U.S. from what now is known as Haiti) and her "illegitimate" parentage were, of course, problem-atic. So was the fact that she obscured both of them when she came to Michigan in 1845 to found the congregation ("passing" as "white")--in doing so, she left the commu- 'nity she had belonged to since 1829, the Oblate Sisters of Providence. (This group was the first African American con-gregation in the history of Catholicism. Duchemin was one of its first ,four members, its only American-born founder, and was onetime superior gen-eral of it. In the 1830s her mother, too, joined the community.) What perhaps contributed most, however, towards her role in Monroe IHM history becoming "shadowy" were her ongoing con-flict with Edward Joos (an early spiritual father assigned to the congregation by the bishop), her decision to establish a foundation in Pennsylvania (which the bishop did not approve of, and which soon turned into two), her subsequent conflicts with the .authori-tarian bishop of Philadelphia who succeeded Duchemin's beloved John Neumann, and tier resultant eighteen years of exile in Canada, during which she was forbidden contact with any of the three IHM communities she had founded. Eventually Duchemin was allowed to return to the Philadelphia foundation; ironically, however, only the Scranton one has always acknowledged her role in its begin-nings, In Monroe, meanwhile, Mother Mary Joseph Walker, who succeeded Duchemin as superior in 1859, was becoming regarded as the group's "true foundress," while Joos, who served 'as its eccle-siastical superior from 1857 to 1901, was referred to as the "beloved father." 16 How is a grouplike this to return to the "charism of the founder"? Even in the 1990s the Monroe community is ambivalent Review for Religions as to how it should refer to Duchemin: was she their "founder," their "co-founder" (along with Louis Gillet, the Redemptorist who called her to Michigan in 1845 and departed' abruptly two years later), or simply one of the "first four"? What about the "found-ing" and "formative" roles of Walker and, especially, Joos? At the time of the latter's death, his loss was apparently considered so traumatic that the then general superior "had to assure the sisters that it was possible for the congregation to continue without him." True, Margaret Brennan IHM has documented the persistence of certain very specific elements of Duchemin's spiritual legacy, even through the decades when her contribution was denied, but impor-tant questions still remain.~7 As with the Sisters of St. Joseph of Peace, which person or persons must be acknowledged as having contributed--and how--to the congregation's actual history? "The Most Reverend Archbishop William Gross CSSR of Oregon City founded [the Sisters of St. Mary of Oregon] in Sublimity, Oregon, in 1886 . A vastly scattered flock, with . only a few religious to care for them, made Archbishop Gross determined to establish his own community of sisters."18 It seems a typical 19th-century story; unfortunately, it has almost no basis in reality. The real root of this community is a group of lay peo-ple who more than a decade earlier followed a schismatic priest of the Congregation of the Precious Blood, Charle~ Albrecht, out of Ohio into exile in Wisconsin and Minnesota (where Albrecht died) and then moved (with Albrecht's body) on to rural Oregon. There a young,girl in the group--who had been "bequeathed" to the cultish "trusteeship" of a trio of laymen ("devotees" of Albrecht, whose body during many months after his death,was kept in a cof-fin mounted above the dining table in the group's community room in Minnesota and then, quite ossified, was transported illegally to Oregon)--sought help from some Benedictine monks of Mount Angel Abbey, who put the future Mother Wilhelmina Bleily in touch with Gross, who eventually "regularized" the status of those who sought it and provided official recognition for the "sisters." Shortly thereafter he deposed Wilhelmina from the superiorship to which she had been duly elected, brought in a sister from Wisconsin to provide "formation" for the. community, and reshaped its identity completely. Although the original sisters had retained a strong devotion to the Precious Blood from their Ohio heritage, for instance, Gross refused to allow them to include this in the name of their congregation. By the 1960s, after decades of denial, May-June 1999 9A2 Thompson * Charism or Deep Story? Inappropriate reliance for spiritual grounding upon "a" founder and her or his significance can lead to a spirituality that is static or reactionary. Wilhelmina's contributions had been forgotten (and her diary, which recorded all that had happened, both before 1886 and after, lay gathering dust in the community's attic, not to be rediscov-ered until a new motherhouse was constructed in the 1970s), and the only things that remained from their roots were a red cord (on which they wore a crucifix around their necks) and a vague acknowledgment of a "devotion to the Precious Blood," one among many devotions that had been accepted without explanation for several generations29 More than either of the other two groups dis-cussed. here, the SSMO's decision to bury its past (not to mention Albrecht's body) certainly is understandable. It is also under-standable that, because of their "rescue" from the "trustees" by Gross, this really rather remark-able group has always prided itself on its loyalty to and reverence for the hierarchy. But how to imple-ment that loyalty whe, n the hier-archy charges one with "restoring the founder's charism"? In this case, what are they to do with Albrecht, with the trustees, with years of schismatic and extremely odd cultic spirituality, with the deposing of Wilhelmina, and with the clearly subordinate status that "in gratitude" the SSMOs were expected to tolerate in the Portland Archdiocese for most of the yea.rs of their existence? In this paper I have offered reasons why emphasis on the founder's charism--which has characterized so much of post- Vatican II religious renewal--deserves reexamination regarding its relevance and utility to the histories (and subsequent revitaliza-tions) of many religious congregations. Clearly, in many cases it is not something that can be easily identified, and, in some cases where it can be, that very recognition leads to problems of a dif-ferent sort. I could have discussed other issues as well: that certain congregations owe their origins to groups rather than to individ-uals, that emphasis on "formal" founders (founders who have offi-cial canonical recognition from the [male] prelates charged with 9rid "verifying" the "authenticity" of a congregation, and many of Review for Religiotts whom, for women's congregations, have erroneously been identi-fied as men) tends to obscure the cumulative and ongoing respon-sibilities that all community members have for their collective spirituality, and that inappropriate reliance for spiritual grounding upon "a" founder and her or his significance can lead to a spiritu-ality that is static or reactionary. All of these matters deserve explo-ration; unfortunately, constraints of space in the present circumstances prevent their serious consideration here. What I do offer for present consideration is an alternative approach to "charism" that may prove of value to communities that recognize some of their own histories in what I have been able to include in this essay. It is developed most fully, perhaps, in a 1989 article in Review for Religious by Bernard Lee SM.2° Lee begins with a clear assertion: The "recovery of charism" may be one of the most unsup-portable and unnecessary burdens a religious institution has ever been asked to bear, because it cannot be done. Charism is not a property. It is not a possession. It is not transfer-able, not transmittable, and not controllable. Charism is a deeply historicized social phenomenon. It cannot be dupli-cated in any other time or place. Charism has never been a movable feast. (p. 124) Instead, Lee suggests the notion of "deep story" as an alter-native to the emphasis on charism. He defines this as a category of interpretation that comes out of structuralism, which is a method for interpreting group identity. It pre-supposes that group identity is rooted in a narrative structure, that is, in recurring patterns of relationships and social activ-ities. The narrative structure of any complex and interesting group, however, is extremely elusive because it is instinctual and unconscious even more than it is deliberate and self-conscious . Deep stories are exhibited in rituals that cel-ebrate them (for example, rituals of profession), in special words and phrases that belong especially to them. Stephen Crites says that all of these things are elusive expressions of deep stories (he calls them sacred stories) "that cannot fully be told, because they live, so to speak, in the arms and legs and bellies of the celebrants. These stories lie too deep in the consciousness of a people to be directly told: they form con-sciousness rather than being among the objects of which it is directly aware." (p. 126)z' What Lee intends to suggest by all this, I think, is the con-tinuous and cumulative process of a community's identity forma- Thompson ¯ Charism or Deep Story? tion--its spiritual nature (my term), its history--which, of course, in sacred time and space, encompasses the present and future as much as the past. Thus, to turn to Lee once again, "the founder's or foundress's gift is not a community's charism. The real found-ing gift is a narrative structure that supported and reflected a charismatic event in the foundation's birth, and may do so again" (p. 129). But, as I understand this, it cannot remain static; instead, a "community of memory"--while "creatively rooted" in, or faith-ful to, its deep story--must always be on its way to the realization of a new charismatically gifted reality, one in which all members must participate and assume responsibility. I believe that the notion of deep story--as a paradigm--can help all of us cope with ongoing foundings and refoundings in religious life. Seen as participants in deep story, Wilhelmina Bleily, Charles Albrecht, and William Gross, Theresa Maxis Duchemin and Mary Joseph Walker and Edward Joos, Mary Felicia Jaskulski and Mary Boleslaus Rybicki, Margaret Anna Cusack, Theresia Bonzel, and Clara Pfaender, countless Benedictines, and tens of thousands of others, living and dead, can all find space and be "at home'--not comfortably, perhaps, or e~sily, but the Christian story, the deep story, is never easy or comfortable. It is, however, real, as real as the ongoing spiritual "gift" (dare I, after all this, say "charism"?) that has called so many over the centuries to fol-low the path of religious life. Notes ~ This essay was presented originally at the 1998 History of Women Religious Conference in Chicago. Though not every point is supported by refei'ences, this essay rests upon my decade-long research into the history of American women religious, including work in the archives of about seventy-five congregations and familiarity with virtually all the published materials on this subject, including historical and biographical works on over three hundred individual communities. On the subject of charism, I read all Vatican documents dealing with religious life, as well as approximately three dozen articles directly or indirectly on this sub-ject that have appeared in Review for Religious (U.S.A.) and Religious Life Review (Ireland). Many of the incidents and ideas recounted here are developed more fully in some of my previous publications; see, in par-ticular, "Discovering Foremothers: Sisters; Society, and the American Catholic Experience," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (Summer/Autumn 1986): 273-290; "To Serve the People of God: Nineteenth-Century Sisters and the Creation of an American Catholic Religious Life," Cushwa Center Working Papers, Series 18, no. 2 (1986); "Women and American Review for Religious Catholicism, 1789-1989," in Perspectives on the Catholic Church in America, 1789-1989, ed. Virgina Geiger and Stephen Vicchio (Westminster, Maryland: Christian Classics, 1989), pp. 123-142; "Sisterhood and Power: Class, Culture, and Ethnicity in the American Convent," Colby Library Quarterly 25 (1989): 149-175; "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History: Catholic Sisters as a Case Study," in Belief and Behavior: Essays in the New Religious History, ed. Philip VanderMeer and Robert Swierenga (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1991), pp. 136-163;."Cultural Conundrum: Sisters, Ethnicity, and the Adaptation of American Catholicism," Mid-America 74 (1992): 205-230; "The Validation of Sisterhood: Canonical Status and Liberation in the History of American Nuns," in A Leaf of the Great Tree of God: Essays in Honor of Ritamary Bradley SFCC, ed. Margot H. King (Toronto: Peregrina Publishing Co., 1994), pp. 38-78; and "Concentric Circles of Sisterhood," in Building Sisterhood: A Feminist History of the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1997), pp. 1-21. For their insights into this subject, I offer my thanks to Ritamary Bradley SFCC, Thomas J. Costello, Barbara Garland SC, James Hennesey SJ, Mary Ann Hinsdale IHM, Elizabeth A. West ICM, and many of the participants in the Sister-L internet discussion group 2 In this, SCRIS reiterates a point made in a document it issued five years earlier, Mutuae relationes: "Bishops, in union with the Roman pon-tiff, receive from Christ the head the duty (see LG §21) of discerning gifts and competencies, of coordinating multiple energies, and of guid-ing the entire people in living in the world as a sign and instrument of salvation. They, therefore, are also entrusted with the duty of caring for religious chariSms" (§9); and "It is .the duty of bishops as authentic teach-ers and guides of perfection for all the members of the diocese (see CD §§12; 15; 35, 2; and LG §§25, 45) to be the guardians likewise of fidelity to the religious vocation in the spirit of each institute . Bishops, along with their clergy, should be. firm guardians of the specific character of each religious family both in the spiritual and in the apostolic field" (§28). These passages, as well as that from EssentialElements (§41), raise some serious questions about the autonomy and integrity of religious charisms, since the implication is that they cannot be presumed to exist "authentically" until those in (external) hierarchical authority say they exist. Certainly, this is a matter deserving of substantial Consideration; but, unfoi'tunately, that is outside the scope of this paper. 3 Wilfrid Harrington, "Charism," in A New Dictionary of Theology, ed. Joseph A. Komonchak et al. (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1987), p. 180; The HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism, ed. Richard E McBrien (HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), pp. 299-300. 4 These figures, as well as information included in Table 1, are derived from a detailed listing of all Catholic women's apostolic communities that I have located to date that existed in the United States between 1727 and 1917. Included in this list are com.munities which, for most or all of their existence, engaged in some form of active ministry. Thus, for May-June 1999 247 24S Thompson ¯ Charism or Deep Story? instance, contemplative Benedictines are omitted, as are purely contem-plative Visitation monasteries. In compiling these data, principal sources were: Elinor Tong Dehey, Religious Orders of Women in the United States, rev. ed. (Hammond, Indiana, 1930); Joan M. Lexau, Convent Life: Roman Catholic Religious Orders for Women in North America (New York, 1964), pp. 209-387 (Index of Orders); and Evangeline Thomas, Women Religious History Sources: A Guide to Repositories in the United States (New York, 1983), pp. 169-176 (Table of U.S. Founding Dates). Some information came from other sources, which are identified on the comprehensive list in my possession. s In that respect, they bear a similarity to the rest of the 149 U.S. con-gregations that have more individualized origins and have "founders" that they share, if at all, with only a handful of others. I shall return a bit later to the question of charism as it affects them. 6 All eight of the first indigenous communities of women studied by Barbara Misner in her landmark work, "Highly Respectable and Accomplished Ladies": Catholic Women Religious in America, 1790-18Y0 (New York: Garland, 1988), devoted most or all of their early ministerial energies to teaching. So did the vast majority of foundations initiated from abroad-- including the first in what is now the United States, the New Orleans Ursulines (founded in 1727). By 1884 the U.S. bishops, gathered at the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore and extremely concerned about "leak-age" from the faith, paid tribute to the success of these pioneers (and to their belief that the education of youth was the best way to keep people within the church) by their declaration that every parish in the country should establish at least one school within the next two years. That, in turn, increased the demand for religious teachers (the overwhelming majority of them women, and sisters), just as the "new immigration" (c. 1880-1917) from heavily Catholic eastern and southern Europe was get-ting underway. See also Gerald Shaughnessy, Has the Immigrant Kept the Faith? (New York: Macmillan, 1925); "The Pastoral Letter of 1884," in The National Pastorals of the American Hierarchy (1792-1919), ed. Peter Guilday (Washington, D.C.: National Catholic Welfare Council, 1923), pp. 280-282; Thompson, "Women and American Catholicism," p. 125. 7 This Guide (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1964) appeared in six editions, the first in 1952 and the last in 1966. The 1964 edition was selected for use here because it appeared only one year before Perfectae caritatis called upon religious to renew themselves "in the spirit of their founders," thereby initiating the whole postconciliar emphasis on "charism." It should be noted that McCarthy acquired his information from the communities; therefore, these are the founding stories that the sisters themselves had identified and transmit-ted to him for inclusion. s I have written extensively elsewhere about the fact that many of these stories bear little or no resemblance to reality. That is, communi-ties which traditionally cited clerics as founders have, since Vatican II, in quite a number of cases, identified and reclaimed women as their prin- Review for Religious cipal initiators. Nevertheless, we cannot dismiss the significance of these founding stories (often recounted and thereby reinforced for several gen-erations) either. Whether or not men actually took the principal initia-tive in founding particular communities, it did affect the self-understandings of hundreds of sisters who were taught, and who believed, that the men had done so. 9 William Humphrey SJ, Elements of Religious Life, 2nd ed. (London: Thomas Baker, 1903), p. 164. 10 p. Lothar Hardick OFM, He Leads, I Follow: The Life of Mother Maria Theresia Bonzel, Foundress of the Sisters of St. Francis of Perpetual Adoration, trans. Sisters M. Honora Hau and M. Clarahilda Fischer (Colorado Springs, I971), pp. 23, 30-31, 185-186. Ironically, perhaps, Pfaender later separated and founded her own religious congregation, which also was Franciscan (known in the U.S. as the Wheaton [Illinois] Franciscans): M. Brunilde Probst, The Burning Seak Mother Mary Clara Pfaender, 1827- 1882 (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1960). n The founding of the community is recounted in great detail in Vol. 1 of Josephine Marie Peplinski SSJ-TOSF, A Fitting Response: The History of the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Third Order of St. Francis (South Bend, Indiana: priv. pub., 1982, 1992); material here is taken specifically from Vol. 2, pp. ix, 49-50, 239 (italics in the original). Jaskulski was superior general for 1902-1908, 1918-1928, 1940-1942 (when she died); Rybicki was superior general for 1908-1918. Both were perpetually in leader-ship, either as head of the congregation or on its council, from its foun-dation until their deaths (Ryb!cki died in 1926); their lives, spiritualities, and contrasting administrations are described meticulously in chapters 1, 4, and 5 of Vol. 2. I also have written about the SSJ-TOSF story; see esp. "Sisterhood and Power" and "Cultural Conundrum" (see note 1). 12Judith Sutera OSB, True Daughters: Monastic Identity and American Benedictine Women's History (Atchison: priv. pub., 1987); M. Incarnata Girgen, Behind the Beginnings (St. Joseph, Minnesota: priv. pub., 1981); Ephrem Hollermann, The Reshaping of a Tradition: American Benedictine Women, 1852-1881 (Vv'inona: St. Mary's Press, 1994). ~3 Sutera, True Daughters, esp. chaps. 4-5 and pp. 38, 42, 53-56. 14 McCarthy, 1964 Guide, pp. 195-197. ,s Dorothy A. Vidulich, Peace Pays a Price: A Study of Margaret Anna Cusack, the Nun ofKenmare, 2nd ed. (Washington, D.C., priv. pub., 1990; orig. 1975); see also Irene Ffrench Edgar, Margaret Anna Cusack (Dublin: Women's Press, 1979); Margaret Anna Cusack, The Nun of Kenmare: An Autobiography (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1891). 16 The Monroe IHM story is told in fascinating detail throughout Building Sisterhood (see note 1, above); see, in particular, Marita-Constance Supan IHM, "Dangerous Memory: Mother M. Theresa Maxis Duchemin and the Michigan Congregation of the Sisters, IHM," pp. 31-67; Suzanne Fleming IHM, "She Who Remained: Mother Mary Joseph Walker and the 'Refounding' of the IHM Congregation," pp. 69-92; and Thompson, May-Jutte 1999 Thompson ¯ Cbarinn or Deep Story? "Concentric Circles," esp. pp. 5-8, and "Part l:The Context," pp. 25-28. L7 Fleming, "She Who Remained," p. 91; Margaret Brennan IHM, "'No Two Exactly Alike': IHM Spirituality," in Building Sisterhood, pp. 95-109; see also Rosalita Kelly IHM, No Greater Service: The History of the Congregation of the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (Monroe: priv. pub., 1948), esp. p. 132. L8 McCarthy, 1964 Guide, p. 325. ~9 The SSMO story is told with honesty in Wilfred P. Schoenberg SJ, These Valiant Women: History of the Sisters of St. Mary of Oregon, 1886- 1986 (Portland: priv. pub., 1986)~ I also have read Wilhelmina's diary in the SSMO archives, Beaverton, Oregon. Three of the original members of the Ohio group left it during the days in Wisconsin and became found-ing members in 1869 (one of them first superior when the group was of officially established) of the Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity in Manitowoc; see M, Teresita Kit~:ell OSF, Refining His Silver: Pioneer Days of the Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity, Manitowoc, Wisconsin, 1866- 1911 (Manitowoc: priv. pub., 1979). This, among other things, serves to document the length of time that the: schismatic "cult" was in existence before the SSMO's "founding" in 1886. 20 Bernard Lee SM, "A Socio-Historical Theology of Charism," Review for Religious 48, no. 1 (1989): 124-135; see also Doris Gottemoeller RSM, "Befriending the Wind," Review for Religious 53, no. 6 (1994): esp. p. 811. n See also Stephen Crites, "The Narrative Quality of Experience," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 39 (1971). Open Wounds Be bold, twin brother. Probe the wounds doubt demands to see. The gash is but entrance to his heart. Pry it wide to penetrate the core. Review for Religious Demand and desire, too, are twins that seek to let his hallowed, hollow hands transform old hurts to quiet awe. , ~Eugene Cartier ELIZABETH McDONOUGH The Need for Self-Criticism: Affirmative Comments I n the United States the precipitous decline in numbers of postolic women religious since Vatican Council II will surely have far-reaching consequences for all segments of the church as the third millennium begins. Church-related educational and healthcare institutions will probably continue to be transferred to nonecclesial and sometimes for-profit auspices, and many Catholics may grow up unaware that apostolic congregations of women reli-gious exist as ways of life that could have appealed to them. ~ Recently, in commenting on the years of renewal in religious life since Vatican II, Sister Doris Gottemoeller RSM noted that "for the most part we have not identified and reflected on the learnings" from this experience and that "critical reflection on our present reality" has been lacking.1 She is currently president of the Sisters of Mercy of the Americas, is a recent past president of the Leadership Conference of Women Religious (LCWR), was a participant in the 1994 Synod on Consecrated Life, and is one of the original members of the Catholic Common Ground Initiative. Her comments may represent a pivotal change in perspective by someone in an influential leadership position. And, since critical self-appraisal has been neither prevalent nor popular among American women religious since Vatican II, her comments may also represent a significant change at this time. Elizabeth McDonough OP has written the Canonical Counsel column in this journal since our issue of July-August 1990 and has contributed several other articles as well. Her address is P.O. Box 29260; Washington, D.C. 20017. ,~'h~y-~une 1999 McDonougb * The Need for Self-Criticism Though voices of criticism have consistently been raised about the postconciliar renewal efforts of religious life--by members of the hierarchy, by diocesan and religious clergy, by lay people, and by sisters themselves--critical reflection from without or from within has frequently been openly excluded Or quietly ignored in many, and perhaps most, women's apostolic communities. Over the years, members of women's religious communities have, in both speech and writing, lodged various objections to the general direction the path of postconciliar change was taking, a path that people now see as leading to pos-sible demise. The objections made over the years concerned, among other matters, the tendency towards having women religious governed by groups or by intermediate administrative personnel rather than by specific individuals elected to particular offices; the steady move-ment towards (so-called) total-participation chapters, which fre-quently exclude actual participation for many sisters; the general abandonment of easily recognizable identity symbols, along with the failure to maintain various community practices that many found meaningful; the increased use of open placement regarding sisters' employment, with the concomitant results of expanded apostolic diversity, an inability of congregations to make or meet institutional commitments, and the lessening of opportunities for community living. But in many women's congregations such objec-tions have not been well received by leadership or by segments of the membership. Moreover, although explicit internal objections regarding prevalent renewal patterns seem to have diminished over the years and to be somewhat rare now, it seems that members who still wish to embrace a renewed but traditional form of religious life (and who may be in their sixties, seventies, or even eighties) now channel their efforts elsewhere because of their experience of func-tional or systematic exclusion from effecting changes in internal governance. Many now direct their energies to living the remain-ing years of their vowed life by witnessing simply to the values they have consistently embraced but felt circumstantially unable to practice during much of the course of renewal. That is, they now consciously seek opportunities to live in common, to share com-munity prayer, and to minister in an apostolate traditionally related to their charism. Meanwhile, younger members--that is, mem-bers mostly under fifty--have initiated regular intra- and inter- Review for Religious congregational gatherings and networking in search of mutual sup-port and deeper religious meaning. Regarding various community renewal policies and proce-dures, then, numbers of community members have voiced explicit criticism--and by their practice have made some implicit criticism unmistakably clear too. Beyond this criticism arising from within apostolic communities of women religious, critical assessments have come also from people outside these communities. These assess-ments have been met with a similar pattern of rejection. Comments that even border on being critical have been categorically discountenanced as arising variously from arrogant, intemperate, shallow, uninformed, traditionalist, or ignorant sources. Criticism from the hierarchy and diocesan clergy seems often to have been excluded because they are regarded as hopelessly embedded in patriarchy. Criticism from religious priests seems to have been judged unacceptable because they are con-sidered to be unduly influenced by their experience of clerical advantage. And criticism from lay people seems to have been readily rejected because many of them are viewed as harboring unrealistic expectations of a lifestyle in which they do not share. Indeed, a pattern of negative reaction to critical assessmentsof what has happened since Vatican II is evident in responses to a recent article concerning possible causes for the current dearth of religious vocations in some communi-ties) It often appears that only certain internal, ostensibly self-perpetuating authorities or select special-interest groups are judged as adequately expressing the renewa! process among women reli-gious. Any suggestion from any source that any viable religious life in the future might diverge from the direction envisioned by the prevailing progressive model seems to be all too readily con-sidered as patently reactionary, as categorically negative, as arro-gantly uninformed, as judgmentally ignoring women's unique lived Any suggestion from any source that any viable religious life in the future might diverge from the direction envisioned by the prevailing progressive model seems to be all too readily considered as patently reactionary. ;'~,lay-JuJle 1999 254 McDonough ¯ The Need for Self-Criticism experience, as unfairly critical, or as an emotionally immature attachment to a former way of life) Furthermore, as postconciliar renewal has continued, it is not only critical observations that have been shunned .by women reli-gious in this country. Significant research data and pointed rec-ommendations from comprehensi'be sociological studies have also been embraced only selectively and implemented only sporadi-cally. Results from the ongoing, multifaceted, and controversial "Sisters' Survey"--as formulated and conducted under the direc-tion of sociologist Marie Augusta Neal SNDdeN--were systemat-ically distributed to participating congregations, published in several books~ and regularly reported at national meetings of major superiors from 1967 through the late 1980s. In stark contrast, amazingly little attention has been given to the more recent findings of psychologists David Nygren CM and Miriam Ukeritis CgJ. These researchers surprised participants at a 1992 Chicago workshop when, in presenting data from their study on the Future of Religious Orders in the United States (abbreviated as FORUS), they announced that many religious communities in this country had only a "ten-year window" in which to alter the present course of decline if they wished to perdure many years into the third millennium. The conferences of major superiors (CMSM and LCWR) were directly involved in the planning and execution of the FORUS study, which rendered some startling results about reli-gious in the United States. Included in these discoveries were. a lack of role clarity among religious (especially in apostolic groups of women), a high degree of cultural assimilation by religious, a general ministerial invisibility of religious, a relative dearth of effec-tive leadership in most religious communities, an apparently less-ened inclination to sacrifice among religious, and a widespread loss of institutional commitments by religious congregations.4 More than half a decade has passed since Nygren and Ukeritis projected that there was only a "ten-year window" of opportunity for the viability of religious institutes in America. During this time the FORUS findings seem to have gone largely unheeded or to have been relegated to convenient oblivion. Could it be that this study was greeted with a less than enthusiastic response precisely because its findings were unpopular among the group being assessed? For, indeed, the FORUS results did not shower unbounded accolades on the postconciliar transformation of reli-gious life in America; did not unquestioningly advocate contin- Review for Religious ued pursuit of the progressive model of renewal, and did not offer unrestrained optimism for the future prospects of religious insti-tutes. Or could it be that the FORUS findings, perceived as being all too accurate, were simply too painful to accept and conse-quently were met with at least unconscious denial at individual and collective levels in most congregations, particularly those of women religious? Over the years, religious in several areas of expertise have also sounded calls for critical reassessment of current practices in light of the manifest patterns of continuing decline in religious institutes. These calls, too, seem largely unheeded. The historical and sociological analyses of Raymond Fitz SM and Lawrence Cada SM, which appeared in the mid 1970s, got little attention after several months of popular discussion. Their work said quite clearly that probably only a small fraction of the then extant communi-ties would successfully negotiate post- Vatican renewal efforts,s Might the brief notice that Fitz and Cada's anal-yses received.be due, at least in part, to their intimation that religious con-gregations over the centuries have had identifiable lifespans, that many con-gregations did not last long after a per-vasive experience of absolute doubt regarding purpose, and that this seemed to be precisely the situa-tion at that time for thousands of religious in America? In 1983 CARA (Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate) in Washington, D.C., published a translation of the 1972 land-mark monograph of Raymond Hostie SJ, Vie et mort des ordres religieux, on which the Fitz and Cada material was directly based.6 The introduction to this booklet, by historian Dolores Liptak RSM, explains its significance, its application to ~enewal among American religious and specifically women religious. But this, too, appears to have received only scant attention within women's communities in the United States. All through the early 1990s, Eleace King IHM, of CAR& pub-lished data about--and reasons for--the steady decline in voca- Religious in several areas of expertise have also sounded calls for critical reassessment of current practices in light of the manifest patterns of continuing decline in religious institutes. 255 May-,]une 1999 McDonougb * The Need for Self-Criticism tions to progressively oriented communities along with parallel data about the constant flow of vocations to traditional groups.7 Little note, however, has been taken of these results. At the beginning of this decade, David O'Connor ST offered a balanced and readable summary of the various cultura!, eccle-sial, theological, and ideological shifts that may be contributing to the (possible) disappearance of many religious institutes in this country; but his work is rarely cited or even referenced in reli-gious- life circles.8 In 1991 I myself published what the editor of America magazine referred to as a "trenchant critique" of the then prevailing trends in religious life, while the editor of First Things described it as "a first-rate analysis of what has gone awry in the many worlds of American religion."9 This analysis and critique received an overwhelming positive response from members of reli-gious communities around the world, but it was simultaneously greeted with resounding silence from those in leadership. Albert DiIanni SM has offered thoughtful considerations based on his experience of the renewal of religious life as it currently relates to religion, to modernity, to modern psychology, to com-munity, to decreasing vocations, and to certain laicizing trends in the post-Vatican II era; but his observations have been met with either studied unconcern or strident rejectionJ° And little heed has been paid to the recent, assessment of sociologist Patricia Wittberg SC that the future of most religious communities is severely limited--if not rather bleak---precisely because a coinci-dence of internal and external factors has resulted in a collapse of their ideological framework and a lessening or elimination of their functional supports.~ Regarding postconciliar religiousqife trans-formation, are only laudatory comments able to be perceived as having any meaning and value for communities of women reli-gious in America today? In many of these communities, a pattern of dismissing with studied disdain or even open derision any factual data that leads to disconcerting conclusions about their lives has been ill too evi-dent in the response to Ann Carey's recent book, a book (widely conceded to be well documented) that details decisions and actions taken in the decades since Vatican II within the conference of major superiors for women's institutes.~2 Note, hbwever, that Lora Ann Quifionez CDP and Mary Daniel Turner SNDdeN published a book earlier in the decade that traced precisely the same era of transi-tion and detailed most of the same topics, but from a different Review for Religious perspective and with less specific documentation.13 In contrast to Carey's work, the Quifionez-Turner book was well received and has been highly touted as an accurate portrait of renewal. Yet both books present renewal as deliberately intended and carefully planned. Both books address the influence of cultural context, the impa6t of the Sisters' Survey, the effect of feminist initiatives, the disruption from internal conference conflicts, the consequences of hierarchic confrontations, and other such topics in reference to postconciliar religious life. Both books name those who were instrumental in the renewal process at national and local levels in this country. And the authors of both books offer assessments of what has actually occurred. Could the disparity in recep-tion of these two works be due at least in part to the fact that the Quifionez- Turner book evaluates these happen-ings positively while the Carey book views the results as more than slightly wide of the mark envisioned by Perfectae caritatis? To be sure, journalist Carey is a laywoman who judged the evidence she amassed as anything but complimen-tary to the renewal process and those who directed it, and she called for critical reassessment of renewal results. On the other hand, Quifionez and Turner are women religious--both former executive secretaries of LCWR and both instrumental in effecting the postconciliar transformation--who judged the results thus far as entirely positive and urged further development along the same course of renewal. It is a truism of historical scholarship that those attempting an analysis of a set of events need a realistic broad familiarity with the historical context. But does this explain why the perspective on religious-life renewal presented by those who guided it should so readily be judged more accurate or more objective or more accept-able than the perspective of someone who has carefully pored over official documentation and verifiable data and has her own lived familiarity with post-Vatican II renewal? Could it be that negative assessments of religious-life renewal from whatever source are Could it be that negative assessments of religious-life renewal from whatever source are simply unacceptable to women religiousm for whatever reason ? 257 May-June 1999 McDonougb ¯ The Need for Self-Criticism t_g_ 1 simply unacceptable to women religious--for whatever reason? For an explanation of the present situation of decline and demise, are many women religious simply incapable of looking further than a speculatively fascinating and vaguely consoling convergence of sociological circumstances that impact religious life fr0m outside? Is none of the decline and demise of the past thirty-three years attributable to decisions made and actions taken within religious communities? Have dispersed ministries and secular attire (with lapel pins) and apartment living had absolutely no detrimental effect, whether expected or not? Are women religious able to look at none of the above? And, if so, why? Though the suggestion made ten years ago by sociologist Wittberg that the behavioral patterns among congregations of women religious might "actually be dysfunctional for organiza-tional survival" appears to have been effectively ignored, it may well identify a pertinent reality that needs to be at least acknowl-edged- if not directly addressed--by religious congregations of women today.14 And perhaps women religious would also do well to attend to the warning, offered in 1988 by psychologist Donna Markham OP, that the positive perception they had of themselves did not match the perception of others--something that did not bode well for vocations.~s Indeed, with rare exception, vocations have declined steadily throughout the decade since Markham's observation, and in most communities of apostolic women reli-gious the median age has gradually increased. " True enough, religious life is not merely a functional institu-tion, and it certainly ought not to be reduced to a numbers game. But is it unrealistic to suggest that a minimal number of members is needed for a community to perdure, to serve effectively, and to hand on a religious tradition? And, when women religious look over their shoulder for younger women walking in their footsteps and see no one there, is it really unfair to surmise that what they have been fashioning since Vatican II may not be a viable form of future religious life after all? Or, again, when congregations begin realistically to project that by the year 2010 fewer than ten percent of their members will be under sixty-five years of age, is it unduly critical to suggest that someone somewhere somehow may have made some decision(s) in the three-plus decades of post-Vatican II renewal that ought seriously to be reassessed and perhaps even altered? I think not. Review for Religious Indeed, on the part of women religious in America (and per-haps elsewhere in the world, too), some possibly difficult but gen-uinely constructive self-criticism and some corrective change of course in various aspects of postconciliar renewal ought to be hon-esdy welcomed.'6 And both may be long overdue, because the real-ity at issue has import far beyond the ever-dwindling numbers of ever-aging apostolic women religious themselves. Notes 1 Doris Gottemoeller, "Religious Life: Where Does It Fit in Today's Church?" in Review for Religious 57, no. 3 (March-April 1998): 146- 160. 2 Albert Dilanni, "A View of Religious Vocations," America 178, no. 6 (28 February 1998): 8-12. 3 See various responses to the Dilanni article (note 2 above) among letters to the editor in the March and early April issues of 1998. 4 David J. Nygren and Miriam D. Ukeritis, "The Religious Life Futures Project: Executive Summary," Review for Religious 52, no. 1 (January-February 1993): 6-55; also. Origins 22, no. 15 (24 September 1992): 257-272. s Lawrence Cada and Raymond Fitz, "The Recovery of Religious Life," Review for Religious 34, no. 5 (September-October 1975): 690-718. 6 Raymond Hostie, /,qe et mort des ordres religieux (Paris: Descl~e, 1972), translated for a limited English edition as The Life and Death of Religious Orders (Washington, D.C.: CAP, A, 1983). 7 See the CARA Formation Directory for Men and Women Religious (Washington, D.C.: CARA) as edited by Eleace King IHM for the years 1991, 1992, 1993, and 1994-1995. s David O'Connor, Witness and Service (New York: Paulist Press, 1990), pp. 145-162. 9 See, respectively, Elizabeth McDonough, "Beyond the Liberal Model: Quo Vadis?" Review for Religious 50, no. 3 (March-April 1991): 178-188; editorial in America for 13 July 1991; and "The Public Square," First Things, no. 17 (November 1991). ,0 Albert DiIanni, Religious Life as Adventure (New York: Alba House, 1994). " Patricia Wittberg, The Rise and Fall of Catholic Religious Orders (New York: SUNY Press, 1994). ,2 Ann Carey, Sisters in Crisis (Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor, 1997). ,3 Lora Ann Quifionez and Mary Daniel Turner, The Transformation of American Catholic Sisters (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992). ,4 Patricia Wittberg, "Outward Orientation in Declining 259 May-June 1999 McDonough ¯ The Need for Self-Criticism Organizations: Reflections on LCWR Documents," in Claiming Our Truth, ed. Nadine Foley (Washington, D.C.: LCWR, 1988), pp, 91-105. 15 Donna Markham, "The Decline of Vocations in the United States: Reflections from a Psychological Perspective," New Catholic World 231, no. 1381 (January-February 1988): 13-17. 16 See, for example, the recent comments of Doris Gottemoeller, "Religious Life in Crisis," Origins 28, no. 36 (25 February 1999): 634- 638. The Treasure Long ago a rainbow arc'd my storm-tossed sky, and the pot of gold I found then is still bottomless. Since that serendipitous moment, faith has claimed its reality. I see with clarity--over the clouds, beyond the rains--that joy and pain alike qualify to mine the treasure, provide the coin to buy the Kingdom, here on the green earth for a time, and there in the meadows of Eternity. Anna Marie Mack SSJ Review for Religious LARRY N. LORENZONI The Annuario Pontificio The Vatican's "Pontifical Yearbook" and a Recent Editorial Decision Fourteen years ago the Religious Life Review, edited in Dublin by Father Austin Flannery OP, published an arti-cle with the catchy title "The Single Sex Church of the Annuario Pontificio." Its opening paragraphs noted the almost total absence of women's names in the church's official directory. The same article was later reprinted in Sisters Today with a milder title: "The Annuario Pontificio and Women in the Church." The Annuario Pontificio is the 4.25"-by-6.5" 2500- page yearbook of the Roman Catholic Church. Bound in red cloth with a golden papal coat of arms on the cover, it contains annually updated information about the College of Cardinals, all archbishops and bishops (with basic facts about their respective dioceses), all prelates and abbots, the secretariat of state, the Roman tribunals, congregations, councils, and commissions, the Vatican Library, the church's worldwide diplomatic representa-tives (nuncios and pronuncios), all the ambassadors accredited to the Holy See, the administration of Vatican City, all officially approved religious orders of men and Larry N. Lorenzoni SDB, a Salesian priest, served in the late 1980s as director of the documentation, information, and press office of Caritas Internationalis in Rome. Currently director of development for his province, he may be addressed at Salesians of St. John Bosco; 1100 Franklin Street; San Francisco, California 94109. 1999 261 A former noteworthy feature of the Annuario was the almost total absence of females in its pages. 262 Lorenzoni ¯ Tlse Annuario Pontifido of women, academies, atheneums, pontifical universities (six: Gregoriana, Lateranense, Urbaniana, San Tommaso d'Aquino [Angelicum], Salesiana, and the new Santa Croce), a number of seminaries and colleges, and various other institutes and cultural organizations. The Annuario closes with a hundred pages of historical notes and six hundred pages of alphabetical lists: names of all the dio-ceses, prelatures~ and titular dioceses (in their Latin adjectival form, Latin noun form, and modern Roman-alphabet form) and the names and page references of some 25,000 persons. It is a fascinat-ing book. Of the 151 living cardinals listed in the 1997 Annuario (to cite a rather significant fact one can easily cull from its pages), 4 were created by Pope John xxIII, 31 by Paul vI, and 116 by Pope John Paul II. A former noteworthy feature of the Annuario--it used to distinguish it from virtually eve .ry other directory in the world--was the almost total absence of females in its pages. The alpha-betical list at the end of the directory was conse-quently 99.99 percent male. Historical, doctrinal, and traditional considerations are essential for a proper understanding of this situation. One page from the 1985 article (in RLR) found its way to the Vatican underground and quickly became the subject of some interesting conversa-tions during my four years (1986-1990) at Caritas Internationalis, the church's worldwide charity wing. In the penthouses of Palazzo San Callisto, where the Caritas offices are located (near Santa Maria in Trastevere), lived a number of active and retired cardinals (Roger Etchegaray, Bernardin Gantin, Paul Poupard, Ferdinando Antonelli, Francesco Carpino, and Francis Arinze). I came to know best Cardinal Francis Arinze, from Nigeria, the genial president of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. Occasionally I see him mentioned among the papabili and featured as a speaker on Mother Angelica's EWTN television programs. He is keenly intelligent and friendly, a good listener, articulate and ever an opti-mist. Open to new ideas, he weighs carefully all arguments against the truths of the faith and then follows them courageously t6 their logical conclusions. I remember in particular one conversation I had with him at Review for Religious Palazzo San Callisto, a conversation occasioned by some para-graphs from that December 1985 article (of mine) in RLR, which some friend had shared with him. The paragraphs are these: One glaring lacuna [in the Annuario Pontificio] is hard to understand, and even harder to accept, because of the anger it is likely to provoke today when everyone is being increas-ingly sensitized against all kinds of discrimination. I am refer-ring to the omission of the names of the superiors general of women religious where the individual congregations are listed with the address of the generalate and current information as to the number of foundations and of professed members. .This anomaly came to my attention when I needed to check the spelling of the name of the new mother general of our Salesian sisters. I had just looked up the name of the superior general of the Fathers of Mercy (whose ad I had seen in The Wanderer), so I turned instinctively to the Annuario for the answer to my question. It was not as sim-ple as I thought. For every male congregation, the name of the superior general is invariably given (and, in 99 percent of the cases, also that of the procurator general). One learns, for instance, that the Very Rev. John O'Brien is the superior general of the Fathers of Mercy (an order founded in 1808), even though the order has only seven members worldwide. Fifty-four religious orders of men have less than I00 pro-fessed members, seven have 25 or fewer, but in each case the name of the general is prominently displayed. I was chagrined to discover that in the case of the orders and congregations of women one looks in vain in the Annuario for the names of the mothers general. Some 120 of those congregations have a membership of over 1000 sis-ters. In vain did I look for the name of the superior general of the Salesian sisters, even though the Daughters of Mary Help of Christians, as they are officially known, have a worldwide membership of nearly 18,000. They are the sec-ond largest congregation of women in the church, after the 34,000 Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul. Such a discriminatory omission tends to reinforce all the worst stereotypes one hears about the institutional church and its treatment of women, since it conveys a number of admittedly unintentional but nonetheless inescapable mes-sages: (1) Women are of little consequence in the church. (2) The father superior of ten men is more important than the mother superior of I0,000 women. (3) Names of females, no matter how important, need not be listed in the Annuario because the church does not discuss matters of consequence with them anyway. (4)Male religious superiors are routinely consulted, and hence it is necessary to have their names listed May-June 199.9 Lorenzoni ¯ The AnnuarioPontificio in the Annuario, but listing the flames of the superiors gen-eral of women does not serve any useful purpose since very rarely does one need to know who they are and even less deal or correspond with them. (5) Sisters are supposed to accept obediently and without too many questions whatever Holy Mother Church says. Unfortunately, in the thinking of many, Holy Mother Church is often equated with male power structure. No dissenting voice was heard from those who had joined our conversation. Both retired Cardinal Francesco Carpino (a man of rare nobility, who died 5 October 1993) and Cardinal Francis Arinze agreed that the Annuario should at long last join the mod-ern age and list the names of women religious superiors alongside those of their male counterparts. But Rome moves slowly. The 16 December 1994 issue of Commonweal carried this item under its Et Cetera rubric: Speaking in support of requests by women's religious orders for an end to discrimination by the church against women, Archbishop Maurice Couture of Quebec pointed to the 1993 Vatican Yearbook (Annuario Pontificio); it lists the names of the superiors general of all institutes of men, but none of the names of the superiors general of women (Origins, November 3). Good for the archbishop, but he's ten years late. Writing in Religious Life Review for November-December 1985, our correspondent Larry Lorenzoni SDB [Correspondence, November 18] recalled turning to the Annuario to find the name of the superior general of the Fathers of Mercy, an order founded in 1808 which has seven members worldwide. The name was there: the Very Rev. John O'Brien. He also looked for the name of the superior general of the Salesian sisters, the second largest congregation of women in the church: nearly 18,000 members. No name. Some of the mes-sages conveyed (Father Lorenzoni, a kind man, says they are "admittedly unintentional but nonetheless inescapable"): "Women are of little consequence in the church; the father superior of ten men is more important than the mother supe-rior of 10,000 women; there's no point in publishing the names of women superiors because who needs to know them." I have before me the 1997 edition of the Annuario Pontificio. I see with some personal satisfaction that each religious congrega-tion of women now routinely carries, as an additional entry, the name of the mother general. The change can safely be labeled "routine" since it started with the Annuario's 1996 edition. Review for Religious No doubt, some gentle nudging by a few highly placed mem-bers of the College of Cardinals, as well as by bishops convinced that the previous practice was clearly discriminatory, helped level the field. Word eventually reached the offices of the Vatican sec-retariat of state, on which the Annuario Pontificio depends, and suitable action followed with the publication of the 1996 edition. A recent phone call to the secretariat of state enabled me to reach Angela Zanetti, a most personable and knowlegeable lady who was for twenty-six years connected with the production of the Annuario. Her new supervisor, Monsignore Fermenti, intro-duced her to me as a "walking encyclopedia on the history of the Annuario Pontificio." Here are some interesting facts from our con-versation: ¯ The first list of male religious orders (Istituti Mascbili) appeared in the 1838 edition of the Annuario. ¯ The first list of female religious orders (Istituti Femminih) appeared 98 years later, in the 1940 edition, without the name of the mother general. ¯ The two lists continued to be published (Ordini Mascbili first, Ordini Femminili second) in the years following, each order of men shouting prominently the name of the general, each order of women lacking that particular information. * At last, in the 1996 edition, for the very first time, the information concerning each religious order of women included also the name of the mother general, as had previously been done for even the smallest reli-gious orders of men. I am reminded of what Pat Paulsen, the late tongue-in-cheek presidential candidatei once said with his usual aplomb: "No one should be denied equal rights because of the shape of their skin." Subs'criptions to Review for Religious can flow b~ ordered,or renewedoby FAX; and paid forby Ma~terCard ~o'r Visd. FA~ the order form inside the back cover, or cALL our o~c~ ~wi~ "th your credit card number: IF~: 31z~-977~7362 0, ~'HONE: 314-977-7363 1999 JOAN A. RANGE Women and Canon Law Cbanon law, as a support for the life of the community of elievers, that is, the church, has a history almost as old as the community itself. Over the centuries, its formulation has not been the work of women, a fact that is readily understandable. Women did not have the status nor society the liberality for that kind of contribution. Women were, however, a vital part of the church and society: in the church as members of the various ordines that supported the living community and in society as wives and mothers2 History witnesses to this fact and those roles. Women's lives, moreover, were guided by the protection, pre-scriptions, and sanctiohs of the church's law. In church courts of the ¯ Middle Ages, women were parties to suits brought against alleged violations and also were sued for alleged violations of others' rights. The activity of women in the world of canon law is well attested to in the church's history.2 But as members who formulated the law or who addressed the church's courts (defending others or doing advocate work for oth-ers) or judged cases (even as collegiate judges), all this women never did until this century. In this century women have performed all these functions in their own right as members of the church and as canon lawyers. The future is clear for their continued func-tioning to be even more vigorous. This rather astonishing fact needs consideration. Given the absence of women in all these roles before this century, how did this change come about? Joan A. Range ASC is associate professor in the Department of Theological Studies at Saint Loui~ University. Her address is Humanities Bui_lding; 3800 Lindell Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63108. Review for Relig4ous Women's Status in Canon Law ~ Before this century, as a rule women's status was that of persons limited before the law. Mostly, women were considered--as were minors and the mentally incompetent--unable in their own person and name to bring a case before the court. This reflected Roman law, from which much of canon law is derived. When, however, asso-ciations of women became moral persons with rights and duties in the law, they were able to bring cases to court, as history shows. Besides bringing cases to the church's tribunals when their rights were being infringed or violated, women were also sued by others if the petitioner felt that his own rights were being infringed or violated by women. This was often a matter of property rights. As time progressed it might also be a matter of marriage rights as well, especially when it concerned the legitimacy of children and their right to inherit. Other than these cases, however, women's presence in~ the laws themselves usually had to do with their status within the church and society, that is, as daughters, wives, moth-ers, widows, nuns, or women of ill repute. Beginning early in the church's history, the protection of wid-ows and orphans was a great concern since these groups were socially the most vulnerable. As time passed and Roman law found its way into the church's mentality, other laws concerning women were developed to protect the virgin from marriage if she resisted, from abduction and rape, and later as a member of a community of consecrated women) Most of the legislation had to do with the women as wives and mothers, however, and especially with their ability to bear children. Laws agains.t adultery, contraception, and abortion were the most prominent since they infringed upon the husband's potency, paternity, or virility.4 Apart from these matters, women as individual persons were not dealt with in the church's laws. The 1917 Code did not always treat women equally with men, as studies testify.5 The 1983 Code, in contrast, states that the "there exists among all the Christian faithful a true equality with regard to dignity and the activity whereby all cooperate in the building up of the Body of Christ in accord with each one's own condition and function.''6 The excep-tion to this is when the nature of the case clearly indicates other-wise, such as the laws having to do with ordination.7 Women began to engage themselves in the activities of the Canon Law Society of America (CLSA) since about the middle of this century. It is that story upon which we now focus. May-June 1999 ,267 Range * Women and Canon Law Women and the Canon Law Society of America The pivotal event for the growth in female membership in the CLSA was the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965).8 Before that event there were clear hints that the status of women in the world and in the church needed to be addressed.9 The council documents, too, indicated those concerns,l° In the United States, women's professional involvement in canon law began in the mid 1960s. Clara Marie Henning, the first woman to become a member of CLSA, applied for membership in 1968. She was then a student in the School of Canon Law at the Catholic University of America, from which she later received the licentiate in canon law (JCL). Other women were members of the CLSA, but their reason for membership was their position as supe-riors of religious orders, not their status as canon lawyers. Even before Vatican II, beginning with Pope Pius XrlI, efforts had been made by the church to bring about a simplification and an updating within the various orders and congregations of women religious worldwide.~ This was a remote cause for interest in canonical matters and membership in the CLSA. After the documents of the council and the implementation decrees of Pope Paul vI had been issued, there was a need and desire to learn about canon law and its usefulness in the efforts of religious congregations toward adaptation and renewal. These efforts had a significant effect on the work during the 1970s toward formulating the new and revised Code. Initially, then, the impetus for women to become members of the CLSA was that congregations of women religious might derive more benefit from canon law. Another reason for women to begin studying canon law and to become members of the CLSA was an academic one. As Catholic universities opened graduate programs in theology for lay people, some women students became interested in pursuing degrees in canon law. This interest included both the relation of canon law to theology and the historical development of canon law. The membership records of the CLSA are limited in a number of ways. For many year~ the records were the responsibility of the coordinator and were not kept in a permanent office. It was only in 1980 that a full-time director and staff began to have an office (with a permanent place for records)at the Catholic University of America. The records up to 1979 were given to the Cushwa Center for .the Study of American Catholicism and are available there as archival records. The membership records are incom- Review for Religious plete, however, because they were not systematically kept, a not uncommon omission when an organization's importance is not understood in its early days22 Nevertheless, the records show a remarkable growth in female membership after the mid 1960s. In 1968 there were hardly five women members. In 1971 the first woman was elected to national office in the CLSA.13 This event witnessed to a movement within the society to include women as active members. In 1976 there were 38 women members; by 1984 there were 139. The 1990 directory lists almost 200 women members.~4 At' the time of the 1996 direc-tory, the female membership stood at 223 out of a total of 1557 members, or about 14 percent. The history of the growth of the membership of women in the CLSA is part of the growth of la~Yomember-ship. Already in1,37 the CLSA's committee on membership was concerned with appropriate criteria. The concern was not specif-ically about women, but about qualifications that would assure that interested persons, lay or clerical, would have knowledge about the science of canon law. Before this point a potential mem-ber was sponsored by a current member and his name given to the committee on membership for its approval before being voted on by all those gathered at the national convention. That this rather cumbersome way of enrolling new members needed to be revised was a common opinion at the time. Thomas J. Lynch,~5 chair of the committee on membership, wrote in a report to the board of governors that, in the proposed revision of the constitutions (1967), the CLSA will "rid our con-stitution of any unnecessary clericalism and will also insure that the active and voting membership of the society will be composed of persons whose professional qualifications give them a special com-petence in matters of renewal and revision of law." ,6 As executive secretary, after receiving increased correspon-dence from many interested parties, James Provost laid his con-cerns about qualifications for membership before the board of Initially, the impetus for women to become members of the CLSA was that congregations of women religious might derive more benefit from canon law. Mt{y-June 1999 Range ¯ l, Vomen and Canon Law governors.'7 In 1980 a constitutional amendment was finalized requiring a person to have a degree in canon law in order to be an active member. Others could be associate members, but without the right to vote at the conventions.~s In 1995 a survey was distributed to women members at the annual convention held in conjunction with the Canadian Canon Law Society in Montreal. Its purpose was to discover the experi-ence of women as members of the CLSA. One hundred three responses were returned, with seventeen women indicating asso-ciate membership, the rest active membership. The responses demonstrated a positive experience within the society; there were a few exceptions, but even they did not indicate major difficulties. One commented that the CLSA was "one of the best kept secrets of the American Church." A tone must have been set many years ago, another respondent speculated, to be inclusive of women.19 Although there is no documentation of a policy decision that ver-ifies that statement, the facts sifice 1968 attest to its reality. The inclusion of women on committees, their election to national posi-tions as officers and consultors, and their presentations at plenary sessions and seminars during regional and national conventions-- all this has been remarkable over the last thirty years. Already in 1971 a woman was a member of the religious-affairs committee; in 1972 a woman was on the legal-council committee as well.2° Twice women have been elected vice-president/presi-dent- elect and have assumed the full responsibility of that office. This office is a challenging one for its incumbent, whether male or female, and certainly for a nonordained female. In addition to chairing the board of governors, the president's responsibilities include communications with the hierarchy of the United States, with the various dicasteries of the Vatican, with the canon-law societies of other countries, and with the members of various dioce-san offices throughout the country. The leadership of the society is challenging internally also, since most of the members are still clerics, including bishops, archbi.shops, and cardinals. Besides the increased membership of women in the society and their activity within it, the agendas of the CLSA have been modified because of the interests of the women members and the" commitment of the leadership and membership to women's issues. Already in 1970, at the national convention in New Orleans, a resolution was passed that stated: "The Canon Law Society of America instructs the subcommittee of its task force on the revi- Review for Religious sion of the Code of Canon Law to study the canonical institutions concerning the dignity, freedom, rights, privileges, offices, and obligations of women in the church and to propose those changes necessary to ensure the equitable consideration of all persons regardless of sex by the law of the church.''2~ In 1973 the society cosponsored with the Adrian Dominican Sisters a meeting of canonists and theologians at their college, Siena Heights, to address the question of the ordination of women from a variety of per-spectives?~ In 1972 the board of governors established an ad hoc com-mittee on the status of women in the church; it became a regular committee in 1973.23 At the conven-tion of 1975, Margaret Brennan IHM presented a major address titled "Standing in Experience: A Reflection on the Status of Women in the church." In 1976 a symposium was held at Rosemont College in Pennsylvania on Women and Church Law; in view of the revision going on at the time, it studied how the law addresses women. It published a con-sensus paper, signed by the twenty-four participants, with sug-gestions concerning how the church in the United States might address some of the inequities from which women suffered.24 In 1987 the members of the committee on women raised the question of its future viability. Even though it regularly invited the society's membership to present it with significant issues, the committee had little business to deal with, This was the reason for the eventual elimination of this committee. Its concerns were taken up by a new committee on the laity in the church?5 From 1988 on, some members of the CLSA were involved with the canon-ical dimensions of the U.S. bishops' Letter on Women that was eventually published in 1990.26 A resolution was taken by the society in 1992 to study the question of the diaconate for women. In 1995 the report by the ad hoc committee, "The Canonical Implications of Ordaining Women to the Permanent Diaconate," was presented to the national con-vention and accepted by the membership.27 This document received a wide distribution to other professional societies and to the National Conference of Catholic Bishops (NCCB). A resolution was taken by the society in 1992 to study the question of the diaconate for women. 271 May-.Tune 1999 Range ¯ Women and Canon Law With the promulgation of Pope John Paul II's apostolic let-ter Ordinatio sacerdotalis stating that the church has no authority to ordain women, the activity of the society on some of these issues perforce ceased, and no new initiatives on this issue have been forthcoming. Some study is being done on the question of the laity sharing in the power of jurisdiction, obviously an important issue, for .lay people function more and more in various offices in the church, It remains to be seen, however, if gender-specific issues will continue to inform the society's agenda. Participation in the annual conventions also reflects the change in the presence of women. In 1967 there were no women at the national convention. In 1968 the female participants were superi-ors of religious orders. In 1969-1970 some women religious were present as well as some major superiors.2s In 1971 there were 9 women registered at the convention in Atlanta, out of 224 partic-ipants. As more and more women begame members of the CLSA, more and more of them have attended both the regional and national conventions.29 In the women's responses to the question-naire mentioned above, they noted the quality of exchange at both regional and national conventions. They are a continuing educa-tional experience for the female membership, as they are for oth-ers who attend these meetings. 272 Women's Education in Canon Law It is clear that many of the women members of the CLSA are active members with degrees in canon law. The obtaining of these degrees is a completely novel achievement in the history of women and canon law. In North America there are two schools from which a woman can receive a degree in canon law: the Catholic University of American in Washington, D.C., and St. Paul University in Ottawa. Most U.S. women have chosen one of these two schools for their canonical education. Among the European schools, most women have chosen the Angelicum, which teaches courses in English, and a few the Gregorian, which until onl~ recently taught its courses in Latin. In 1990 John E. Lynch CSP published an interesting and infor-mative article about the history of the Department of Canon Law at the Catholic University of America, "Laying Down the (Canon) Law at Catholic University.m° The occasion for the article was the centenary of Catholic University. In it he remarked that in Review Jbr Religious 1959 women were enrolling in canon law in Rome.3' That had not yet occurred in North America and not at Catholic University, but it would occur in 1967. The first woman to enroll was Clara Marie Henning, a native of Germany. After that, the numbers of women students increased gradually and now have remained con-stant for some time. The first women students, except for Ms. Henning, were women religious.32 The topics of their theses and dissertations represented the concerns of women in the early 1970s, after the close of the council: religious formation, authority, the LCWR, the legal status of women, the pastoral nature of canon law.3~ Besides this continued interest in the concerns of women religious, later tides indicate an interest in the position of lay people in the church: for example, participation in the munus sanctificandi, and ministry and the layperson.34 Still later tides indicate a broadening of inter-est: for example, the relation of canon law to civil law, and the relation of bishops to diocesan church institutions. Licentiate (JCL) theses usually presaged what those who con-tinued on to the doctorate in canon law (JCD) would write their dis-sertations about. Many of the topics arose from the first draft of the soon-to-be-revised Code: lay employees, rights and obligations of Christian parents, tribunal personnel. Also, a number of theses compared the historic 1983 revision with the 1917 Code. When women first entered Catholic University's Department of Canon Law as students, it could be presumed that they would make a difference in the classroom. After the early wave (women religious, all but one), a number Of lay women as well (and men, too) entered the ranks of students. To assess this presumption of difference, I seized an opportunity to interview the faculty of the department in December 1996: Father James Provost (chair), Father John E. Lynch CSP, Father Thomas Green, Father Edward Pfnausch, Sister Rose McDermott ssJ, and Father John Beal.3s Their reflections on the difference women make are interesting and substantiate what I consider an exceedingly important dimen-sion of women's contribution to canon law, that is, women's human-izing effect. Every one of the faculty indicated that the presence of women made the conversation within the class richer; the questions they asked and their observations were different from the ques-tions of the traditional clerical students.36 At first the women stu-dents did not know some of the vocabulary (nor did entering laymen). One of the faculty recalls mentioning the title "vicar May-ffune 1999 273 Range ¯ Women and Canon Law forane," a term completely unfamiliar to the women. But, when this and other technical phrases were learned, the difficulty was sur-mounted. Women and men, according to ~he faculty members inter-viewed, are equally intelligent. A number of them indicated that women seem to work harder, perhaps to catch up with the clerics because of the unfamiliar discourse, perhaps because of a greater personal commitment to learning the field. By and large women are eager students and indicate an appreciation for the dedication of their ifistructors. They suffered from some rather mediocre teaching, but the men suffered from them equally with the women.37 No resentment toward women students precisely because of their gender, however, seems to have marred their educational experience, Women have been elected to leadership within the student body and have functioned well in those positions. They quickly initiated social events that, rich in student exchange, aided schol, arly interests along with providing amiable relaxation. The male students in those same positions of leadership had not been as cre-ative in these important social dimensions of student life. The mission of the faculty in this department derives from their conviction that canon law is g/tided by its theological and pastoral nature. This conviction permeates the curriculum and challenges the students to understand it as an ecclesial discipline, a sister to scriptural, systematic, moral, and church-history stud-ies and influenced by the conclusi6ns of those studies, even as canon law has an influence on them. This understanding of the nature of canon law informs the entire curriculum and therefore shapes the intellectual formation of the students for their future careers as canon lawyers. In my discussions with the faculty, the question arose about the influence of feminism on canon law. In general, the faculty agreed that the agenda of feminism, as various as it is, does not signifi-cantly influence either the students or the classes. Earlier on, given especially the newness of women to the field, the place of women in the 1917 Code, and the questions about women's place in the revised Code, women's'issues had more sig-nificance than they currently have. At that time (through the 1970s) some of the female students manifested some anger due to these issues. Today, however, the nature of law seems to move the direc-tion of the students' questions and concerns much more than gen-der issues do. The women students are not angry, nor are their Review for Religious instructors. Rather, they are typical students focused on complet-ing their studies and finding positions that fulfill their educational goals. The question of secure employment in the church, with its attendant concerns, is more of an issue with them, women and lay men alike, than gender issues. However, as justice issues, gender concerns remain for both instructors and students, now usually subsumed in the issues of the role of the layperson in the church. Women's Involvement in. Writing Canon Law Perhaps the most original activity that women have engaged in regarding canon law is the actual writing of legislation intended to be incorporated within the revised Code of Canon Law. Whether or not the canons made their way into the final text of the 1983 Code is not the point here. Rather, it is the activity itself, utterly newin the history of the church as far as I have been able to determine. How did this creative effort on the part of women begin? Sister M. Luke Tobin SL, president of the CMSW from 1964 to 1967, was invited in 1964 to be an official observer at the Vatican Council during the 1964 and 1965 sessions. This invitation itself indicated that the council fathers wanted the participation of women in the process of developing the church's self-understand-ing in the modern world?8 The law of the church, canon law, needed to express this new self-understanding ,as well. In the United States, women religious felt that their experience of their own lives as women religious was an important contribution towards an appropriately revised Code of Canon Law. This activ-ity would engage many of the members of the CMSW during the late 1960s and the 1970s. The board of CMSW began in 1965 to consider writing the regulations for ~governing the lives of women religious in the Code of Canon Law)9 It initiated a project for accomplishing this. Committees were formed in the several regions to write proposed canons dealing with the various aspects of religious life: the vows, authority, community life, formation, apostolate, prayer, and so forth. At the annual conventions of the CMSW from 1967 to 1971, the committees gave reports about the progress of their work. Eventually the conference published a document containing the proposed norms. It received a wide distribution in this country May-June 1999 275 276 Range ¯ Women and Canon Law and abroad, going to all the religious congregations and to the bishops.4° As this endeavor continued, the confidence of the women grew; they recognized the possibilities of the project. Moreover, they sought assistance from canonical experts to assist them in this unique activity. The CLSA was instrumental in assisting the various committees in this endeavor. Father Paul Boyle CP, a canon lawyer, was out-standing in his leadership in this area for women religious.4' Already as president of CLSA, he had communicated his vision of including women in the revision process. Later, as executive sec-retary, he increased his activity along this line. The recognition by the canonists of women's lack of education in canon law led to the establishment of summer institutes for a number of them. Certificates were earned and credit gained for these educa-tional endeavors. Father Kevin O'Rourke OP assumed the respon-sibility for these institutes by sponsoring them, developing them, enlisting the faculty for them, and negotiating their locations. They were held in different Catholic colleges in the country. A number of the graduates of these programs later completed their education in canon law at pontifical schools of canon law. Besides this educational assistance, the CLSA, following Paul VI's Ecdesiae sanctae (1966) implementing the conciliar document Perfectae caritatis, developed institutes to assist women religious in managing the process of renewal in their congregations. Pope Paul's decree instructed communities to hold general chapters to write their constitutions and to somehow engage the entire con-gregation in that effort. Experimentation, too, was mandated. Experimentation and writing canonical documents were some-thing for which most religious communities needed assistance. These endeavors of the CLSA were empowering experiences for the women and their religious communities. Hitherto the women were by and large ignorant of canon law and canonical procedures. They were, however, well-educated, intelligent, competent leaders within their religious congregations and deeply committed to the renewal that the church had mandated. The assistance of the CLSA empowered them and many other women in their congregations. Enthusiasm to recover the origins of their congregations, to learn about the remarkable women who had founded them, to encounter the Word of God through a knowledge of the Scriptures, and to assess the needs of the world through a study of the "signs of the times" generated an enormous energy within these communities.42 Review for Religious The results of this monumental effort have not yet been com-pletely assessed. Many studies today record it, some positively, other negatively, but it is still too close chronologically for it to be judged adequately.43 The energy, however, remains within reli-gious communities, smaller and older though they may be. Initiatives in forming new kinds of religious communities con-tinue in the church as well.** The renewal enterprise conducted among the CMSW, the reli-gious communities, and the CLSA is one of the finest stories to come out of the post-Vatican II Church. It included not only these organizations, but also the hierar-chy of the United States. There was an extraordinarydemonstra-tion of mutual encouragement and support among these diverse orga-nizations regarding the revision of the Code of Canon Law. The pos-sibility of participating together in the revision of the canons that governed the life of women reli-gious was realized through this " effort. The Conference of Major Superiors of Men (CMSM) was obviously interested in the same endeavor.4s The Canon Law Society of America responded to the announcement by Pope John XXIII as professional canon lawyers whose expertise was not sim-ply in the practice of law, but in developing it through the proposed revision process.46 These three organizations joined in this endeavor with an unusual demonstration of cooperation. Besides these, the bishops' conference in the United States became the conduit through which the efforts of the organiza-tions were channeled to the Pontifi(al Commission for the Revision of Canon Law, whose responsibility it was to finally formulate the revision. Communication among these organizations was full of enthusiasm and respect. There was no hint of competitiveness, no turf war, no condescension toward women, who were at that time uneducated as canon lawyers. What was desired from the women was the expression of their experience of their own lives and their reflection upon that experience. The mutuality of this common endeavor is one of the finest examples of how women and men can work together to accom- Experimentation and writing canonical documents were something for which most religious communities needed assistance. 277 May-.~une 1.o99 Range * Women and Canon Law plish something for the benefit of all. As the process of revision continued, difficulties emerged, of course. When the canonical text, the Code itself, and the communities' constitutions were finalized and promulgated, the energy that had informed the orig-inal process waned. The vitality of experimentation, of developing powerful and inspiring texts, of consulting all the members of communities in that effort, of creating a vocabulary that resonated with the language of the documents of Vatican II and with the pat-rimony of individual communities--all this vitality wound down as perhaps it inevitably had to after final, authoritative texts were promulgated. As rdigious communities developed their constitutions during these years, their experience shaped their identifies in a remarkable way. The expressions within many of these constitutions were utterly original as documents for identifying and regulating the lives of women religious. In the process of havin~ their constitu-tions reviewed, both the Congregation. for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life and the individ-ual congregations had much to learn. Although by now most of the problems have been resolved, there are still some communities that do not have their constitutions approved. This phenomenon bears the marks of the encounter between creative initiatives, orig-inal expressions of religious life, and traditional modes of canon-ical expression. The Code defines the constitutions of religious communities as' their particular law. The universal law within the Code presents the guidelines for the constitutions, but does not provide their content. Nevertheless,.the originality of many of these documents from religious communities presented new difficulties for both the congregations themselves and the Vatican officials, who had never seen such documents before. This encounter has been very instructive for all the institutions involved. With the promulgation of the revised Code of Canon Law in 1983 and with the finalization of their constitutions, women are no longer engaged in writing the law that regulates their lives. Periodically constitutions need to be resubmitted to the church for approval. Calls for change and for dispensations are part of the regular communication between the Vatican and women's con-gregations. But creativity and initiatives no longer inform the legal expressions of women religious. Extraordinary documents, though, still emerge from congregational meetings addressing the issues Review Jbr Religio~ts that women religious face at the end of the second millennium. How these documents influence the legally binding texts remains a question for the future. Past, Present, and Future This article has investigated the extraordinary entrance of women into a

Issue 53.4 of the Review for Religious, July/August 1994. ; Christian Heritages and Contempora~ Living ~ JULY-AUGUST 1994 ¯ VOLUME: 5:3 . Nrt~MBER 4 Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-535-3048 ¯ Fax: 314-535-0601 Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP ° P.O. Box 29260 ¯ Washington, DC 20017. POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©1994 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library client~ within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. review for religious Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Assistant Editors Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Regina Siegfried ASC Elizabeth McDonough OP Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Joann Wolski Conn PhD Mary Margaret Johanning SSND Iris Ann Ledden SSND Edmundo Rodriguez SJ David Werthmann CSSR Suzanne Zuercher OSB Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living JULY-AUGUST 1994 * VOLUME53 ¯ NUMBER4 contents 486 feature LeadErship a New Way: If Christ Is Growing in Us Janet K. Ruffing RSM proposes that a task of religious leadership is to integrate a personally appropriated Christ mysticism with historical consciousness and liberationist praxis in a way that is consonant with feminine experience. 498 5O7 traditions An Introduction to Orthodox Spirituality Peter J. SanFilippo presents the doctorine of theosis, the deification of the human person, as the heart of the ascetical spirituality of the Orthodox Church. Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen Ovey N. Mohammed SJ compares the praxis of contemplation in yoga and Zen Buddhism with Christian prayer, especially the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius Loyola. 524 The Ignatian Spiritual Exercises and Jesuit Spirituality Frederick E. Crowe SJ presents an understanding of St. Ignatius's Spiritual Exercises that distinguishes them from Jesuit spirituality while clarifying their relationship to Jesuit spirituality or any other kind. 534 The Suscipe Revisited Joan Mueller OSF explores various applications of the Ignatian prayer "Take and receive" within the dynamic of the Spiritual Exercises. 544 holiness The Cross Yesterday and Today Robert P. Maloney CM presents a synthesis of the understanding of the cross in the spirituality of Vincent de Paul and Louise de Marillac in the light of contemporary theology. 482 Revieva for Religious 560 568 Fascination with the Holy--and Conversion Annette M. Pelletier IHM postulates a fascination with the holy which justifies religious life and which demands a response of conversion. Merton's Spirituality of Place Wayne Simsic explains the importance of stability of place as an anchor for spiritual growth in the writings of Thomas Merton. 584 prayer and direction The Future of Spiritual Direction Tad Dunne raises eight issues which need to be addressed if spiritual direction is to be an effective ministry in the church. 591 A Vision Revision about Distractions Harold F. Niedzwiecki OFM points out that a way of integrating prayer and our daily routine is to see God in our environment as well as beyond it. 597 6O5 ministry formation Nonviolence and Christian Moral Responsibility Pa~ricia McCarthy CND presents nonviolence as so integral to Jesus' way of life that it takes its place as a part of Christian moral responsibility. Holy Land Pilgrims and Ministry to Them Anne Hennessy CSJ makes some helpful suggestions for Catholic pilgrims to the Holy Land at~d identifies four situations .dxich call for ministry attention. 617 report Santo Domingo Assembly: An LCWR/CMSM Report departments 484 Prisms 622 Canonical Counsel: Religious and Human Promotion 629 Book Reviews a~ly-August 1994 483 prisms L its spring meeting, the Review for Religious Advisory Board raised some concerns that we hope interested writers might explore in future arti-cles. For example, there remains much interest in and rea-son for writing about charism. Besides the fundamental norm of gospel discipleship around Christ, the founders or inspirers of various consecrated lifeforms, their personal history and example, the original rule of life, and the spe-cial founding charism are still the essential sources for contemporary renewal. Often we image the charism spe-cial to each religious foundation as something that we have to recover in its original purity if we are to move forward while being true to ourselves. Yet many religious groups seem to have experienced that a return to such a pristine notion, of a founding charism may not be the most effective road to' renewal. When relig!ous men and women--after, in many instances, arriving in the United States from European foundations--received some of their formation from the needs and ethos of this land, some incarnate charisms began to look quite different from their European form. For example, monastic foundations, especially of women, were so drawn out into educational or other service areas that the actual lived grace (the charism) evident in the members' lives took a different cast. Certain aspects of monastic spirituality were blended into the later spiritu-alities called apostolic. Sometimes the blending was less like a healthy grafting than like two plants sharing the same pot. When Vatican II called for a return to the sources, some North American religious may have been too quick to seek a purity of charism instead of examining 484 Review for Religious the grafting or the twinned growth that distinctly showed life, however poorly understood or oddly proportioned. We would seem to have a good number of religious congregations that might better be described as having a "blended charism" of a couple spiritual traditions rather than the purity of, say, a Benedictine, Franciscan, or Jesuit charism. Perhaps part of the frustration of renewal is a religious group's attempt to identify a charism by its root rather than by its stalk, leaves, and full flowering evident in their lives. We believe that phenomena like.these might be prof-itably explored. Along the same line, articles which briefly explain how our various spiritual heritages respond to contemporary living have great interest for many people. Back in the early fifties, Review for Religious printed six or eight articles of this kind. The time appears ripe for a similar series. Another area that might bear examination is the apparent paralleling of 50- and 60-year-old Catholics being the active, committed parishioners and religious in contrast with the 20-, 30-, and even 40-year-old Catholics being "affiliative" persons (less flatteringly, "supermarket" Catholics and religious) picking and choosing among the prac-tices which incarnate our faith and its counterpart, religious life. We also might want to pursue these questions. Given min-istry's growing professionalization, do we need to examine more carefully the importance of an intimacy in the Christian-ministry relationship in place of "client-centered" imaging? When is incul-turation a surrender to a culture's racist, sexist, or otherwise dis-torted values, and when is it a demonstration of respect for a heritage that is opening itself to Christian values? At our April meeting we welcomed Brother David Werthmann CSSR to the Advisory Board. He has served as novice director for the Redemptorist provinces of the western United States for six years and as a member of the national board for the National Assembly of Religious Brothers (1987-1993). He is now director of Vincent House, an in-home volunteer program serving per-sons living with AIDS in St. Louis, Missouri. He is a contribut-ing author to the recently published book Blessed Ambiguity: Brothers in the Church. Our appreciation and gratitude go with Brother Se~n Sammon FMS, a founding member of the Board, as he begins service as vicar general of the Marist Brothers in Rome. ¯ David L. Fleming sJ .~ly-Aug.ust 1994 485 feature JANET K. RUFFING Leadership a New Way: If Christ Is Growing in Us As Americans we tend to privatize our religious expe-rience. Because we are schooled by our democratic and pluralistic society to conceal from public discourse the compelling religious vision and experiences that motivate us, some leaders of religious communities carry this reti-cence over into their role in community. In addition, some come from ethnic backgrounds which presume a bedrock of faith, but discourage talking about it. Leaders vary in their ability to express in their lives the faith by which they live. On the other hand, the entire purpose and meaning of religious life is to help those called to it to focus their lives totally on God. For apostolic communi-ties this response to G6d's call is accomplished through the love of our neighbor in compassionate service as well as through contemplation and a lifestyle organized to sus-tain this commitment. . Although the religious dimension of leadership is often neglected,, religious life itself is always and only a work of the fiery Spirit that inspires, empowers, and energizes our free response to this grace. The reflections on power and empowerment in the first part of this article show that one gift women religious offer the church in our pres- Janet K. Ruffing RSM is associate professor in spirituality and spiritual direction in the Graduate School of Religion and REligious Education at Fordham University. The first part of this article, "Women, Power, and Authority," appeared in our May- June 1994 issue. Her address is GSRRE, Fordham University; 441 E. Fordham Road; Bronx, New York 10458-5169. 486 "Review for Religious ent transition is the clear movement in many communities toward a communal life shared by equal disciples who are seeking to r~spond to God's leading. This evolution of empowering author-ity in religious life could indeed be a sign of hope to contempo-rary women. If religious life for women is a means for supporting our total transformation so that Christ be formed in us, it will institutionalize itself in ways that genuinely respect and nurture the deepest possibilities of our femi-nine discipleship. Following Caryll Houselander's words, we can say, "If Christ is growing in us,''~ we will be at peace because where we are Christ is. The entire context in which we seek to live this discipleship has changed. It is a time of chaos and new creation. God's. Spirit broods over these waters. Are we paying attention to these move-ments in our midst? Do leader-ship teams spend time reflecting together on what is happening in themselves, in their members, and in the various groups in the community that reveals what God is doing in their midst? How are sisters understanding themselves in the light of their central dedication to God in Christ? How are they being impelled in ministry? What do they describe as impeding or deflecting them from this central core of the religious-life project? What are the resistances of leaders to some new things? What are the group's resistances to or struggles with ongoing conversion? I believe that paying attention to such'questions is important for religious leadership. Leaders, consciously or not, nonverbally express in decisions and actions their operative vision of religious life, their sense of who God is, their Christology, and their atti-tude toward the women they lead. These are all interconnected. If a leader believes she is diminished in her personhood because God wills her to be powerless and dependent on external author-ity, her behavior will conform to that belief. If she believes that authentic discipleship of Jesus requires members to be compli- Leaders nonverbally express in decisions and actions their operative vision of religious life, their sense of who God is, their Christology, and their attitude toward the women they lead. ~uly-August 1994 487 Ruffing ¯ Leadership a New IVay ant to all requests, she will attempt to secure such compliance. If she believes the majority of members to be selfish and individ-ualistic in their choices, she will find this amply documented. However, if she expects discipleship of Jesus to lead to creative ini-tiatives, release of energy for mission, resistance to injustice, growth in compassion, and a deeply contemplative gaze at expe- ¯ rience, she will Welcome such creativity and action and notice its contemplative interiority. If leaders are not both conscious and critical of the theology they embody in their leadership style, they will fail to recognize how religious faith is functioning within the dongregation. I believe, and the research bea~s this out, that religious lead-ership is more than being conscious of and setting an example of grass-roots theology. The Nygren-Ukeritis study found not only that outstanding leaders of religious congregations were them-selves firmly grounded in their religious experience, but also that they demonstrated an ability to "find and express., the spiritual significance in everyday affairs." The study found, too, that out-standing leaders of religious congregations put greater reliance on God than other members do; generally the male leaders think of God as a "source of support," and the female leaders, as a "source of direction and energy." Further, the interviews showed that in "the spontaneous recounting of their experiences the out-standing leaders more frequently cite instances of actions consis-tent with the religious theory they would espouse." In the judgment of the researchers, these leaders "communicated a gen-uine awareness of God's presence in their lives" and acted accord-ingly. 2 The study concludes that organizations will survive only if their leaders can articulate the founding purpose in contempo-rary idioms and respond to pressing needs. We are experiencing a profound theological reinterpretation of religious life in the light of rapidly changing circumstances. For numerous reasons entire congregations find considerable dif-ficulty in coalescing around a new vision. While some members are stuck in the old paradigm, others propose only a limited view of the new reality. All of us act on old habits of thought and behav-ior. Leaders are reluctant to quench new initiatives since it is rarely clear which one might be leading to the future. Leaders also resist taking initiatives themselves since they are convinced these initiatives need to come from the group. Much of this can be described as a conflict of interpretations or a conflict of per- 488 Revietv for Religious spectives. The FORUS study recognizes that leaders strongly affect the outcomes of such conflicts. "Leaders can have a strong impact on the outcome of the conflict between perspectives. If they sup-port only one perspective, they are likely to decrease the creativ-ity of the transformational process and the active involvement of members whose perspectives are not taken into account . If they enable conflicting perspectives to interact with each other, they will increase the chances of paradoxical transformations, of new and creative shared understandings that emerge from the interaction of the competing perspectives.''3 It is a function of religious leadership to notice and articulate to the community the religious dimension of experience. This includes the team's view of affairs, but also that of the other mem-bers. If the group is assembled, leadership leads by creating an atmosphere in which conflicting perspectives can meet one another and be modified by the dialogue. If the group is not assembled, leadership needs to reflect the range of perspectives and call the group to respond to a religious vision that can be accommodated within this range. I am describing a form of grass-roots theological reflection in which leaders of communities keep before the consciousness of the group a way of sharing the religious heart of their shared reli-gious life. This is a delicate and important task, not just a form of pious exhortation, It requires careful listening, schooled in expe-rience, for what God is actually doing in the group. What form is discipleship taking? How well is it grounded in Scripture and in a sense of who Jesus is? Members will welcome this discourse if it is objective, respectful, and truthful. If this reality can be spo-ken of in narrative or thematic ways, it can foster into the future a sense of shared life, shared goals, and shared commitments. It can build the theological bridges for understanding one another and for a new form of co(porateness. The First Epistle of Peter describes s.omething of this pro-cess: "Venerate Christ in your hearts. Should anyone ask the rea-son for this hope of yours, be ever ready toreply, but speak gently and respectfully" (1 P 3:15-16). Such accounts of the hope that animates us draw the community together around its most central identity. Far more than they do, leaders need to concern them-selves with helping communities to do such spiritual accounting together if religious life is to move through this transitional and transformative time. j~uly-/lugust 1994 489 Ruffing ¯ Leadership a New Way Christological Models While the FORUS study highlights the singular impor-tance of the faith dimension in religious leadership, it neglects to examine in any significant way the content of faith, specifi-cally our understanding of Jesus. Since the conciliar teaching on religious life emphasized that gospel discipleship is the funda-mental norm for religious life, how we individually and commu-nal! y understand our following of Jesus constitutes the religious heart of our vocation. We live religious life in quite different ways with each new interpretation of our faith in Jesus. To help our reflection on the practical following of Christ in religious life, I propose three models of Christology that are oper-ative in contemporary communities. Although oversimplified, these three models might be described as an ahistorical/mystical model, a historical/liberationist model, and a feminist model.4 The ahistorical/mystical model is the largely monophysite Christology that preceded the council and informed much of the 19th-century spirituality many founders lived. In this Christology the one thing we are absolutely certain about is the divinity of Jesus, hence the term monophysite, meaning one nature. The one divine nature managed to obscure the other half of the Chalcedonian definition, namely, Jesus' human nature. Spiritual writers and meditation books emphasized a one-to-one relation-ship with Jesus. Greater emphasis was placed on the hidden life and the passion than on either the public ministry or the resur-rection. Few Catholics, including religious, actually read or med-itated on the texts of Scripture but rather used devotional manuals. The focus of these meditations was the interior attitudes of Jesus in his humiliation and suffering-=humility, obedience, suffering, patience, love, meekness, and so forth. The follower of Christ was to imitate these virtues in order to achieve holiness and to enter into the mysteries of Jesus. These meditations usually had a strong trinitarian flavor. Since Christ was God, the desired atti-tudes were adoration, reverence, and docility before the Mystery. The meditator was drawn into the Trinity itself through the mys-teries of incarnation and redemption. Frequently, the image of God the Father was rather harsh-- a just God who demanded the blood reparation of his Son for humanity's sin. Apostolic religious life in this model usually meant long hours of devotional prayers, use of a meditation manual, and the imitation of the virtues or inner states of Jesus in common 490 Review for Religious life and in ministry. What mattered was increasing conformation to the Christ mystery through prayer and virtue. Obedience and humility were valued over activity and originality. Obedience to superiors and the rule was equated with obedience to God's will. Just as the understanding of Jesus in this model failed to honor Jesus' human reality as much as his divine reality, so too this kind of Christology often led to a neglect of our own humanity and a loss of a sense of the sacra-mentality of human life. In many communities, women were not respected as individuals with differing gifts, histories, and abilities and were not encouraged to care for them-selves appropriately. Since this form of relationship to the Christ mystery was entirely inte-rior and ahistorical, it did not really matter what we did in our world so long as we did it with the proper interior attitudes. This Christology supports the consecration model of religious life. Consecrated to an intimate relationship with Christ, religious are set apart from mundane secular life by cloister, rule, and garb and seek the one thing necessary, namely, progressive contemplative assimilation to the Christ mystery. Much still remains valid in this Christology, especially the way in which Jesus does lead us into the deeper mystery of the Trinity. To become intimate with Jesus, to participate in his life does cultivate in us an entirely different perspective on reality. We are opened to transcendence; we discover the deepest reality of ourselves in the love which comes to us from the Divine Mystery. We never exhaust the need to penetrate to ever deeper levels of the divine and of our own graced reality. The second model is the historical/liberationist model. As one wave of Christology at the time of the council broke over our consciousness, we began to appreciate more clearly the full humanity of Jesus. As Elizabeth Johnson puts it, "if God became a human being, then it is very important to see what kind of human being God became.''5 This led to a full appreciation not only of Jesus' human experience, but of our own as well. As schol- To become intimate with Jesus, to participate in his life does cultivate in us an entirely different perspective on reality. ~uly-August 1994 491 Ruffing ¯ Leadership a New Way ars recovered more and more of the actual history of Jesus and the movement which he inspired, focus turned to a close examina-tion of his ministry, death, and resurrection. Jesus not only talked about the kingdom of God, but actually made it present in the way he was with people, by what he said and did. He embodied the reality of God in his concrete human history. When we began to contemplate this part of the story, we discovered incredible things. It became apparent that Jesus favored the poor, the marginalized, the outcasts. Women were a primary group among his disciples, and he seemed to enjoy their company. Jesus appreciated embod-ied life and drew most of his parables from nature and from com-mon human experience. The kingdom of God was already in our midst. For apostolic religious life the implications were significant. Much of the four Gospels was about Jesus' ministry--which gave us a clue about how we are to be in ministry. It became apparent that Jesus was killed because of the choices he made and what he said in his ministry. As Jesus expressed it, love is more important than law. The law was made for human benefit, not to oppress people. God's will is for abundant life, fullness of life as John's Gospel puts it; God's primary attribute is compassion rather than judgment. When Jesus was killed for upsetting the religious authorities of his day, God validated his ministry and his teaching by not allowing sin and evil to have the last word, but by raising him from the dead.6 As this reflection on Jesus' lived history continued, liberation theology began to develop among poor and oppressed peoples. Drawing on the choices Jesus made in his ministry to share life with the poor and to offer wholeness and liberation to the oppressed, poor and oppressed Christians added social critique and praxis to Christology. Thus, liberation Christologies begin in the context of the suffering of a particular oppressed group. The process of this reflection is communal. Oppressed people come together to reflect on their situation, to pray, and to seek actions that will change things for the better. These actions become the subject for further reflection. Thus, thought and action are intertwined. Liberation theologies emphasize the social nature of sin and grace by reflecting on how the community experiences them within their social structures. These theologies also consider how God and Christ are present in the community as it struggles for 492 Review for Religious justice. Typically there are three steps to this method. A situa-tion is recognized to be oppressive, is called sinful, and is ana-lyzed for its causes, including the way Christian tradition has contributed to the oppression: Has there been complicity in the church and its preaching? Has Christ been understood in a way that is helpful to the oppressor? In this step, liberation tMology is quite critical of the tradition. In the third step, guided by the experience of the oppressed, Christian tradi-tion is searched for elements that would yield new understanding and a new liberating practice. In liber-ation theology, discipleship always entails a change in praxis--activity on behalf of the kingdom of God, judged to be more a present real-ity than an entirely future one. It is out of this theology that Medellin developed the notion of the preferential option for the poor. Massive injustice is analyzed as social sin and not as God's will. There is a mystical side to this Christology, but it is more a spiri-tuality of a people than of individuals. Faith influences base com-munities as they reflect on the Scriptures, the concrete situation of the poor, and action taken to address it. Frequently, when reli-gious espouse voluntary solidarity with the poor, they discover a new experience of God, experiencing Christ in the poor them-selves. Poor people become the ongoing occasion for conversion. Elizabeth Johnson notes that this. theology is also conflictual. The powers within either church or culture do not like to be chal-lenged. To act and live in solidarity with the poor is to risk cer-tain conflict even as Jesus did in his ministry. In this Christology there is less an imitation of the interior attitudes of Jesus than a willingness to accept the consequences of a liberating praxis. What differentiates solidarity with the poor, in this theological per-spective, from involvement with the poor in the earlier mystical model is concrete social analysis. Rather than simply relieving the poor in a loving way, one joins them in their struggle. Frequently, when religious espouse voluntary solidarity with the poor, they discover a new experience of God, experiencing Christ in the poor themselves. July-August 1994 493 Ruffing ¯ Leadership a New Way In the third model, a feminist Christology, we find similari-ties to the historical/liberation perspective. Feminist theology is liberation theology done from the perspective of women's expe-rience. It draws inspiration from the historical material about Jesus' compassionate healing and liberating treatment of women and a discipleship of equals among the men and women who fol-lowed him in the early community. Women clearly understand that their oppression in all cultures is not willed by God. The same steps of analysis and action and prayer as described above are applied to the situation of women. Feminist theology in first-world countries recognizes the resources in Christology for women's liberation.7 The Jesus tradition is a powerful and important spiritual resource for Christian women in their struggle for full participa-tion and personhood in church and society. Feminist theologians in third-world countries pay attention to the situation of women everywhere. The God Jesus reveals cannot be hostile to the deep-est reality of women; women as well as men are fitting images of this God. Likewise, women disciples of Jesus are images of Christ, are every bit as much "altera Christa" as men are "alter Chrisms." Women recognize their suffering and oppression reconciled, healed, and overcome in the death and resurrection of Jesus fully as much as other oppressed groups. Women in religious communities probably lie along the entire continuum of these three Christologies. For some, their rela-tionship with Jesus is primarily a mystical/interpersonal one that has not been significantly changed by reflection on the actual his-torical situation of Jesus' life. Others have deeply appropriated this historical perspective and have assimilated it to their mysti-cal experience of Jesus. The Jesus they meet in prayer is the embodiment of God's compassion. To be involved with him is to be involved with all who suffer. If the FORUS study is correct in its conclusion that service with the poor is not a fully operative priority in communities, it is because a significant portion of the membership has not made the historical/liberation turn. Religious life is constructed on the dominant understanding of what the following of Christ entails in a given historical period. The larger church--both ordinary parishioners and the hierarchy--is more comfortable with religious doing good work motivated by a mys-tical Christology than it is with a stance of prophetic solidarity based on either a liberationist model or a feminist Christology. 494 Review for Religious Feminist Christologies are arising all over the world because even countries that began to address the structural causes of poverty were doing so from the perspective of men rather than women. As worldwide statistics on women become available, it is clear that in every culture women (with their children) constitute the masses of poor people and suffer additionally purely because of their gender. Religious institutes whose originating charisms focused on women and children can reappropriate those charisms in the contemporary context by adopting some form of Christian feminism.8 This is the development our constitutions and chap-ter statements document, but I suspect that they are not fully internalized because our operative Christologies have not yet caught up with them. Religious life has historically been lived longer from the mystical model, which did not necessarily entail apostolic life. Further, religious life has also been lived by women in contexts determined by masculine consciousness and explained in theologies rooted in masculine experience. As apostolic reli-gious and as women, our challenge is to integrate a personally appropriated Christ mysticism with historical consciousness and liberationist praxis in our postmodern context in a way that is fully consonant with our feminine experience. These are the Christologies that support both a prophetic and a contemplative religious life for women. Conclusion In her theological monograph commissioned by the FORUS study, Elizabeth Johnson points to what she calls a "new experi-ence of God emerging in the context of postmodern conscious-ness." The paradoxical experience so many of us have of presence in absence, the loss of familiar ways of experiencing God, and the emergence of something deeper or different are all of a piece. She asserts that a shift is going on in our understanding of the nature of God revealed to us in Jesus. In this essay I have described some of these changes through a Christological lens. However, these changes in Christology also initiate changes in our experi-ence of God. Johnson describes the features of this new experience this way: If there be a God at all, then this is absolute holy mystery that can never be fathomed. Not literally a male person writ large, the sacred can be pointed to by any created good: .~-uly-/lugust 1994 495 Ruffing * Leadership a New Way male, female, animal, cosmic. This mystery does not dwell in isolation from the world but encompasses it as the Matrix of its being and becoming. God in the world and the world in God--panentheism--describes the mutual relation. Thus related, the Holy One of Blessing is a God of pathos who participates in the suffering of the world in order to trans-form it from within. Divine power is the strength of love, rather than raw, monarchical omnipotence. Passionate for justice and peace and compassionate over pain, Holy Wisdom typically self-reveals in the fragmentary break-throughs of well-being that come about through human partnership with divine purpose. Forever God acts to cre-ate a fresh, new future: liberation is her signature deed. A God like this calls for an ethic of critical compassion. We are impelled so to utter the word of God that the world will be changed and renewed by it. She goes on to describe this experience of divine absence and presence as: an experience of the Spirit of God: radically transcendent, like the wind blowing where it will; and at the same time radically immanent, dwelling at the heart of the world to vivify and renew all things. Empowered by the Spirit in our age, people of faith who treasure the living memory of Jesus seek the hidden God of life (contemplation) and live out the passion of God for the world in need (prophecy).9 Rather than a return to the old securities that would quench the fiery Spirit moving in our midst, we need more profound prayer, more attentive listening to the experience of God break-ing through in our midst, and acting from its liberating energy toward a more just, more contemplative, and more novel future. One of the tasks of religious leadership is to contribute to this new naming of God in ways that unite contemplation and prophecy, compassion and action, women's well-being and that of the earth, nonviolence and conflictual change. This task can-not be accomplished without thinking theologically as well as psychologically, without the courage to articulate one's own core religious experience and that of the community, without a sus-taining hope grounded in God's faithfulness. Whatever the even-tual shape of the next form of religious life, it will both emerge from and disclose this new experience of God. It is the task of religious leaders to tell the new story of the surpassing gift of God's fidelity, love, and emancipating compas-sion. It is the task of leaders to uncover the foundational experi- 496 Review for Religious ence of God in every woman in the community and in every inter-action with one another. Religious leaders must forge a new vocab-ulary of the Spirit's presence that honors everyone's experience of God and also points to the "new experiences" emerging in our times and in many of our members. If religious life clearly man-ifests this profound rootedness in the Holy Mystery, "all will be well and all manner of things will be well.''1° Notes ' Lavinia Byrne, ed., The Hidden Tradition: Women's Spiritual Writings Rediscovered. An Anthology (New York: Crossroad, 1991), p. 23. 2 David Nygren, Miriam Ukeritis, John McClelland, et al., "Religious Leadership Competencies," Review for Religious 52, no. 3 (May-June 1993): 412. 3 Nygren and Ukeritis, "The Religious Life Futures Project: Executive Summary," Review for Religious 52, no. 1 (January-February 1993): 11. Interpretation theory also suggests a similar process by bringing the pos-sible interpretations together in dialogue, to arbitrate among, and to seek agreement. Paul Ricoeur, Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1976), p. 79. 4 For a readable survey of these contemporary changes in Christology see Elizabeth Johnson, Consider Jesus: Waves of Renewal in Christology (New York: Crossroad, 1991). 5 Johnson, Consider Jesus, p. 50. 6 Albert Nolan, Jesus before Christianity (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1992), is still the most accessible form of this insight into Christology. Originally published in 1976, it is being superseded by John Meier's and Dominic Crossan's recent works, A Marginal Jew and The Historical Jesus. 7 See Elizabeth Johnson, She Who Is (New York: Crossroad, 1992) and Consider Jesus, for ample bibliography of feminist theologies. 8 For an example of this process, see Janet Ruffing and Theresa Moser, "An Option for Women?" Way Supplement 74 (Women and Ignatian Spirituality in Dialogue, summer 1992): 89-100. 9 Elizabeth Johnson, "Between the Times: Religious Life and the Postmodern Experience of God," Review for Religious 53, no. 1 (January- February 1994): 22 and 23-24. 10 Julian of Norwich, Showings of Divine Love. .)~uly-August 1994 497 PETER J. SANFILIPPO An Introduction to Orthodox Spirituality traditions Editor's Note: Out of respect for his religious heritage, the author retains man and masculine reference when the theological roots of Orthodox faith and the tradi-tional expressions of its writers are being reflected. The Orthodox Church knows no dichotomy between her theology, spirituality, liturgy, use of Scripture, and even her iconography. The church experiences all these as inseparable components in an organic whole, which have as their common matrix a doctrine which stands at the very center of her ecclesial consciousness: theosis, the deification of man (for the inclusive meaning of the term man, see Gn 5:2, RSV) and, with him, of the whole created cosmos. Contemplating the masters of the incarnation, St. Irenaeus of Lyons wrote in the 2nd century that "God became what we are so that we could become what he is." This reached its ultimate conclusion two centuries later in the writings of St. Athanasius the Great, champion of orthodoxy at the anti-Arian Council of Nicaea in A.D. 3 2 5 and later archbishop of Alexandria: God became man so that man could become God/ Father Peter SanFilippo, ordained in 1988, is the founding pastor of St. Stephen the First Martyr parish in Roblin, Manitoba, Canada, where he resides with his wife, Joann, and their four children. He studied theology at St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary in New York. His address is P.O. Box 1397; Roblin, Manitoba R0L 1P0; Canada. 498 Review for Religious This is not to be confused with the Buddhist ~oncept of nir-vana, according to which complete union with the Transcendent ends in the annihilation of self. The goal of Buddhist spiritual-ity is sometimes described by means of an analogy in which a man made of sand progresses by stages into the ocean until he disintegrates, entirely swallowed up and ceasing to exist as him-self. In the final analysis, this is a hopelessly pessimistic spiritu-ality, for its aim is not the salvation but the destruction of the human person. On the contrary, the spiritual doctrine of theosis represents a powerful affirmation of the innate goodness of the human person as a whole--in the composite, trinitarian nature of spirit, soul and body--created in the image of God. Theosis neither obliter-ates nor even diminishes anything that belongs to human nature or human personhood: in other words, what I am and who I am. It is rather the eschatological manifestation of the children of God, experienced by degrees as a foretaste in this present life. This raises three points which require elaboration: 1. The Platonizing tendency borrowed by classical Western theology to regard man as a soul created in the image of God, "imprisoned" in a body which it longs to shed, is foreign to Orthodox theology. The inadequacy of this philosophical schema is that only a "part" of man (his soul) is thought to possess the divine image and to be destined for immortality, while the other "part" (his body) is bereft of that image, ultimately valueless and irreversibly mortal. This is not to say that certain writers in the Christian East did not lend prestige to such notions from time to time. But in the end they were condemned as a departure from the church's more holistic scriptural tradition. Orthodox theo-logical anthropology postulates the human person as a harmo-niously ordered, inseparable unity of spirit, soul and body, all of which participate in the image of God, all of which were created for eternal life, and all of which are engaged in the process of theosis. Death and the separation of the soul from the body are unnatural to man as God created him. 2. What is destroyed in the process of theosis is neither humanhood nor personhood, but sin. The patristic heritage of the East, in its assertion of the inherent holiness of all that is authentically human, does not view sin as intrinsic to, but contrary July-August 1994 499 SanFilippo ¯ An Introduction to Orthodox Spirituality to, human nature. Paradoxically, the deification of man reveals most brilliantly all that is genuinely human. 3. Theosis begins and is experienced in this present life, while its full manifestation awaits the resurrection on the last day. Theologians have debated for years whether eschatology is pres-ent or future and have even posited the two as if they were not the same reality. The late Father Georges Florovsky, eminent Orthodox theologian and author, merged the two concepts as they ought to be by coining the phrase "inaugurated eschatology": "Thou hast endowed us [already] with Thy kingdom which is to come" (from the Eucharistic canon of St. John Chrysostom). The deification of man does not add persons to the Holy Trinity so that God ceases to be Trinity and becomes "Multiplicity"! While man is admitted to full participation in divine life, he does not become "worshipable," for God remains eternally immutable in the divine essence. We begin to comprehend the nature of this mystery, if only imperfectly and in images, by bearing in mind St. Athanasius's maxim that the incarnation of God and the deification of man are reciprocal movements. According to the doctrinal formulation of the Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451) on the incarnation, the divine-human union in the person of the Son was accomplished with neither division nor confusion (or mingling), each of the two natures preserving the fullness of its properties and attributes intact and undiluted. This means that no hybridization or cross-breeding has taken place in the incarnation of Christ, while at the same time the union of the human nature with the divine in his person remains perfect, complete, and uni.mpeded. This sheds some light by analogy on our understanding of theosis. However, a critical distinction must be drawn between the incarnation and deification: God became man by nature, while man becomes God not by nature but solely by participation or by grace. This is why the Scripture refers to Christ as the "only-begotten" (or only "natural") Son of God, and to us as children of God "by adoption." Theosis begins neither at conception nor at birth, for the fall has rendered man incapable of attaining the divine destiny for which he was created. Something more is needed to set him on his 500 Review for Religiot~s way, and that is rebirth in the waters of baptism: "Amen, amen, I say to you, unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God" On 3:5). Baptism in the Orthodox Church, from the elaborate blessingof the water to the actual immersion, unfolds as a liturgical reenactment of creation which effects, not so much the juridical removal of the stain or guilt of original sin, but the total re-creation of the human person: a rebirth in the profoundest sense of the word, a putting off of the old man and putting on of the new, a mystical dying and rising with Christ in order to "walk in newness of life" towards the eter-nal destiny for which we were created. The white robe prescribed in most baptismal rubrics is com-monly taken to symbolize the virtues, or the virtuous life, to which the neophyte has been called, as if Christ had come for no other purpose than to produce well-behaved people. The Orthodox baptismal liturgy contains a rubric of immense importance for our topic, the full significance of which is nearly always over-looked: while the newly baptized is clothed with the white robe, the congregation, choir, or cantor sings: Grant unto me the robe of light, O most merciful Christ our God, who clothest Thyself with light as with a garment! The real meaning of the white robe, and indeed of baptism itself, is that God has come down from heaven and become incar-nate in order to clothe mortal human flesh in his divinity and immortality, the very "garment" in which he himself is "clothed" from all eternity (Ps 104:2). Immediately after the immersion and the putting on of the white robe, the Holy Spirit is conferred on the neophyte in the sacrament of chrismation (confirmation in the West). This is pos-sible because, in the Orthodox East, the administration of chris-mation has always been delegated to the priest and has never required the presence of the bishop (the consecrated chrism is supplied by the bishop, however). Baptism completes in each per-son what was inaugurated in the incarnation: human flesh is made receptive to the descent and .permanent indwelling of the Holy Spirit, received as a gift in chrismation as the firstfruits of deifi-cation and of the world to come. The Orthodox rites of initiation culminate finally in the Eucharist, in which the mystical union between God and man is SanFilippo ¯ An Introduction to Orthodox Spirituality consummated. The Eucharist is the summit of man's Godward ascent in this life, his fullest experience of deification as he becomes one with God, who became one with us, and the most perfect foretaste of the life to come: "Grant that we may more perfectly partake of Thee in the never-ending day of Thy king-dom" (from the prayer after Communion). (The Orthodox Church administers chrismation and Communion even to infants as soon as they are baptized.) The church expects iconographers to undertake their work in an atmosphere of prayer and fasting, together with confession and Communion. There is a cosmic dimension to all we have spoken of here. St. Paul writes that "the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God. because the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the children of God. We know that the whole creation has been groaning in travail together until now" (Rm 8:19-22). In another place he writes that God was pleased "to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven" (Col 1:20). Since the whole created order participated in the fall of man, it likewise awaits and shares in his redemption, being transfigured into the new heaven and the new earth filled with Christ, who makes all things new through the Holy Spirit. In the eucharis-tic canon of the liturgy, immediately pre-ceding the actual consecration of the gifts, the celebrant exclaims, "Thine own of Thine own we offer unto Thee, on behalf of all men and for all things"! Orthodox theology recognizes the intrinsic sacramentality of all things, which was lost however as a consequence of the fall. All things were given by God as an act of loving and life-giving communion with man, and in communing with God man was to have lived forever. But because of the cosmic reper-cussions of the fall, created things were stripped of their capacity to communicate eternal life to man, and he died. The holy mys-teries, or sacraments, are the firstfruits of the redemption of the cosmos, the restoration of creation to its Edenic function, for 502 Review for Religious through ordinary elements--water, oil, bread, wine, and even conjugal union--divine-human communion is reestablished and man lives forever once again. The connection between the sacra-ments and their respective "elements" is not at all extraneous: the sacraments are revelatory of the very nature of things. The restoration of created matter to its primeval theophorous (God-bearing) nature is manifested also in the church's iconog-raphy. The painting of an authentic Orthodok icon (much which is not authentic has crept into the church in recent centuries), unlike the typically Western, humanistic approach to religious art, is never an instance of artistic self-expression, but rather a deliberate act of ascetical self-effacement whereby the iconogra-pher surrenders himself to the promptings of the Spirit. The church expects iconographers to undertake their work in an atmo-sphere of prayer and fasting, together with confession and Communion. What is conveyed through the colors, shapes, and lines of the icon is a mystical Sense of presence, an otherworldly beauty devoid of all carnality, and a window into the transfigured world to come. The person embarking on the spiritual journey towards mys-tical union with God collides immediately with the grim reality of the fall and sin. The primordial triadic unity of man's nature has been torn asunder through his own transgression, creating an immense gulf of alienation on every level of existence: between man and God, man and man, man and the universe, man and his own self. This profound alienation is felt acutely in every sphere of life--whether spiritual, physical, emotional, psychological, social--culminating in the final horrific moment of death, what the existentialist ph!losophers have rightly called the "ultimate absurdity". "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" the Lord cries moments before his own de~ithl Perhaps nowhere are the full tragedy and pathos Of man's condition so poignantly expressed as in the shortest verse of the New Testament: "Jesus wept" (Jn 11:35). The God of the universe sheds human tears at the collective tomb of the human race, whom God had created in his own image for beauty and life, now reduced to a rotting, stink-ing corpse. And to all he issues the vivifying call: "Lazarus, come forth!" Orthodox spirituality lays out practically and concretely for monastic and laypersonalike a single path by which to "come j-~uly-August 1994 503 SanFilippo ¯ An Introduction to Orthodox Spirituality forth" from the "tomb" to the fullness of divine life in communion with God. The principle difference between the two lies solely in the degree of intensity. The path we are speaking of is that of asceticism. The "life in Christ" to which every Christian is called is essentially an ascetical life. There is simply no other kind of Christian life to be found in the Gospels. Asceticism comes from the Greek word meaning athletic training or discipline, implying the complete orientation of one's daily activities towards a single goal. It is neither a system of iuridically meritorious or propitiatory suffering, nor giving up something (usually something trivial) as "my sacrifice for God," nor finally a legislated (and repealable) religious obligation. Asceticism is rather an ontological spiritual necessity for the Christian, whose call it is to d~vest himself of every trace of ego-centrism and become limpidly transparent to Christ, whom he has put on in baptism, with whose Spirit he has been anointed, and on whose body and blood he has been nourished. The ascetic echoes the apostle Paul, "For me to live is Christ." Fundamental to the praxis of ascetical spirituality are prayer and fasting. At the heart of the Orthodox tradition of prayer stands the Jesus prayer: Lord ffesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner. With this the Orthodox ascetic strives to attain, by grace, to a state of "ceaseless prayer" (1 Th 5:17), purifying the chamber of his heart to make it into a fitting temple for the Lord to come and take up his abode. "The kingdom of God is within you." Enormous self-exertion is required at first to repeat the prayer continuously, during times set aside for this purpose and throughout the day's activities, with inner attentiveness. With time the prayer develops a certain cadence and becomes increas-ingly effortless. Finally, under the direct action of grace, the mind descends into the heart and the prayer begins to say itself, as if it had a will and action of its own, and becomes truly ceaseless, even during sleep. Orthodox spiritual writers understand the descent of the mind into the heart to mean the total reintegration of a per-son's inner faculties so that mind and heart become wholly united and focused in prayer. This is effected by grace alone and cannot be self-induced. In contrast to the Western approach to contemplative prayer, the person who practices the Jesus prayer rids his mind strenu-ously of all images, even images of Christ or episodes from his life, for these are inevitably the products of human self-will and imag- 504 Review for Religious ination. The task of the ascetic is to strip himself bare before God so that grace itself can act on him without intermediary. Fasting is the necessary corollary to prayer. This axiom of the spiritual life, widely recognized not only in Eastern Christendom but in non-Christian traditions as well, has van-ished oddly from Western Christian con-sciousness. In his fallen, unspiritual, and carnal state, man has become enslaved to an obses-sive preoccupation with his own needs, desires, comforts, and pleasures. His inner hierarchy, whereby the body is the servant of the spirit-- the two functioning in perfect harmony and complementarity--has been overturned and the spirit has been asphyxiated. Man is largely unconscious of the depth of his self-enslavement. The moral or virtu-ous person whose libido is under control and who lives moderately may even deny in all sin-cerity that he is enslaved at all. Yet every day of his life, his every thought is: "I am hungry. I am thirsty. I am hot. I am cold. I am uncomfortable. I want this. I want that." The deification of the person, inaugurated as we have said through his sacramental incorporation into the body of Christ, remains locked up within him as a dormant potentiality, in a state of suspended animation, so long as he is governed by his bodily impulses. There is question here not of combatting sinful incli-nations only, but of suppressing even normal bodily needs to the bare minimum, enabling a person's innermost spiritual self to move to the fore and flourish in an abundance of life, reasserting in stages its mastery over the flesh. Two heretical and spiritually disastrous tendencies threaten the ascetic. The first is the Pelagian notion that a person can, through his own efforts, achieve sanctity. Only through grace is a person saved, sanctified, deified. Prayer and fasting, combined with fidelity to all the other gospel commands, renders a person progressively more receptive to grace and provides the Holy Spirit with fertile ground in which to work. God and man work together to give birth to the new creation. Expressed in another way, "God does all the work, man does all the sweating." A person's most heroic ascetical efforts are puny and insignificant in comparison to the grace of God, but nevertheless indispensable because God At the heart of the Orthodox tradition of prayer stands the Jesus prayer. July-August 1994 505 SanFilippo ¯ An Introduction to Orthodox Spirituality respects human freedom absolutely and saves no one against his will. The idea of "merits" is entirely foreign to Orthodox theol-ogy and spirituality. The second is a Manichaean hatred of the body. The Orthodox ascetic, knowing that his body is destined for resur-rection on the last day, loves the body but hates "the flesh"--car-nality in all its manifestations. Through fasting the ascetic strikes a blow at the very core of his self-absorption: his need to eat, for food, for survival. "Man does not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceeds from the mouth of God." The ascetic has made this the motto for his life, not through bourgeois modulation, but through evan-gelical radicalism, the "violence" by which "men of violence" take the kingdom "by force." Finally, it is through prayer and fasting that the ascetic lives out his days in anticipation of the eschato-logical parousia, so that he may not be found "eating and drink-ing and making merry" when the Lord returns in glory. "Behold, the Bridegroom comes at midnight," the church sings during the first days of Passion Week, "and blessed is the servant whom he shall find watchful." Fasting.degenerates into a flirtation with the demonic in the absence of humility. Humility is the refusal to let others know one is fasting, or to sit in judgment over those who do not fast, or to believe one is doing anything commendable or praiseworthy by fasting. Asceticism must be grounded in the unshakable conviction of one's utter nothingness before God and man. "Let us enter the season of the Fast with joy," the church sings on the eve of Great Lent. The ascetical Christian is the joy-ful Christian, for he has exchanged the fleeting happiness which comes from the things of this world for the joy and peace which surpass all understanding. 506 Review for Religious OVEY N. MOHAMMED Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen lSican Council II's Declaration on the Relationship of the ~" Church to Non-Christian Religions (Nostra aerate, §2), says that "in Hinduism men [and women] contemplate the divine mys-tery., through ascetical practices or deep meditation" and that Buddhism "teaches a path by which men [and women], in devout and confident spirit, can either reach a state of absolute freedom or attain enlightenment." And Pope John Paul II, speaking on Christian dialogue with Hindus and Buddhists on 21 June 1991, observed that "dialogue with the great religions of Asia recalls for us the universal value of self-discipline, silence, and contem-plation in developing the human person and in opening hearts to God and neighbor." ~ These statements focus, not on doctrines and theology, but on the praxis of contemplation that leads to direct religious experi-ence. They recognize that the dialogue between Christianity and Eastern religions must be of a different kind from that with Judaism and Islam, which centers on theological issues. And indeed, because Hindus and Buddhists emphasize the priority of experience over faith, a dialogue with them may well be impossi-ble without a dialogue on contemplative prayer. However, as the pope's observation seems to concede, the church today is ill prepared to enter into such a dialogue. For though contemplative prayer has enjoyed pride of place in the history of Christian spirituality, since the Reformation it has not Ovey N. Mohammed sJ is professor of systematic theology at Regis College. His address is Regis College; 15 St. Mary Street; Toronto, Ontario; Canada M4Y 2R5. ~ly-dugust 1994 507 Mohammed * Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen been a primary conscious emphasis in the church. The fear that claims to an immediate experience of God would diminish if not challenge the teaching authority of the church, the memory of the havoc that false mysticism had created in the past, and the scientism and rationalism of the 19th century that esteemed con-cepts and ideas rather than ineffable experience have all con-tributed to the church's emphasis on dogmas, duties, and prohibitions rather than on religious experience. Understandably, when by the turn of the century people were more and more reacting against the mere acceptance of dogma and were search-ing for a faith that is living and personal, the church had diffi-culty in meeting this need out of its own spiritual treasury. At this very juncture, yoga and Zen methods of meditation and exercises for entering the contemplative state became known in the West, beginning with the World Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893. Because of the Christian interest in experience over doctrine, many began to turn to Eastern reli-gions for their contemplative education. By the time of the Second Vatican Council, even members of Catholic religious orders were in dialogue with yoga and Zen masters, not to convert them to the Christian religious outlook, but to learn attitudes and exercises which might be helpful to Christians in their own prayer life. The Jesuits were among those in religious orders who engaged in this dialogue on contemplative prayer because the spirituality of Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) also offers methods and tech-niques to those in search of a contemplative spirituality. Though much has been written by Jesuits on the dialogue with Zen,2 lit-tle has been written on the dialogue with yoga.3 This article com-pares the techniques of yoga and Zen Buddhism with Christian prayer, especially the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola. The aim is not only better understanding as dialogue demands, but also better ways of giving of the Exercises today, when the prac-tices of yoga and Zen have great appeal. It will be shown, too, that Zen methods of concentration which differ from those of Ignatius can be found in the Christian tradition. Yoga and Ignatius Etymologically, yoga is a Sanskrit word from the rootyuj (to hold fast, to bind together). In Hinduism it designates any asceti-cal technique or method of meditation.4 The rootyuj also governs 508 Review for Religious the Latin iugum, the Frenchjoug, and the English yoke as it appears in Matthew 11:29: "Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me." The word yoga, then, like the word yoke, connotes the need for discipline in the spiritual life.5 The techniques of yoga go back centuries before someone named Patanjali wrote his ~ga Sutras (Aphorisms), sometime between the 2nd century B.C. and the 4th century A.D. Hindus, however, acknowledge this work as the classical text on yoga. It also happens to be the exposition of yoga practices best known to Westerners. For both these reasons, then, we will rely on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras in our comparison of the techniques of yoga with those of the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius.6 According to Patanjali, yoga is a means of controlling the mind and the senses (YS I, 2), and its purpose is to lead one to a suprasensory and extrarational experience of God (YS I, 1). Yoga includes a number of angas (members, elements). They can be regarded as stages through which one must progress if one is to reach one's goal: (i) various forms of abstention from evil-doing (yama), (2) various observances (niyamas), (3) posture (asana), (4) rhythm of respiration (pranayama), (5) withdrawal of the mind from sense objects (pratyahara), (6) concentration (dharana), (7) meditation (dhyana) and (8) enstasis (samadht), a state of consum-mate interiority that is at once stasis and transcendental con-sciousness.( YS II, 29).7 The first member or element (yama) introduces us to the need for purgation in the spiritual life and aims at freeing us from the evils of social sin. It consists of five abstentions: "from harming others, from falsehood, from theft, from incontinence, and from greed" (YS II, 30). These abstentions parallel the last five com-mandments God gave to Moses (Ex 20:13-17): "You shall not kill" (harm), "you shall not commit adultery" (incontinence), "You shall not steal" (theft), "You shall not bear false witness" (false-hood), and "You shall not covet., anything that is your neigh-bor's" (greed). Ignatius, too, introduces us to the purgative way (SE §10) when he states that exercitants should begin the Exercises with a consideration and contemplation of sin (SE §4). And, like Patanjali, he focuses on the social consequences of sin (SE §§45- 71) and on the commandments relating to it (SE §§238-243). Patanjali's second element (niyama) is also purgative, but cen-ters on personal sin. It involves five observances--"purity, con- ~dy-August 1994 509 Mohammed ¯ Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen tentment, mortification, study, and devotion to God" (YS II, 32)-- aimed at suppressing the egoistic tendencies that impede the gen-erous offering of ourselves to God. Ignatius, like Patanjali, expects exercitants to attack the roots of their personal sins by getting to know the slightest disorder in themselves. He expects them to desire "a deep knowledge of [their] sins and a feeling of abhorrence for them; an understand-ing of the disorder of [their] actions, that filled with horror of them, they may amend [their] life and put it in order" (SE §63). Toward this end he advises them to recall the sins of their past life (SE §56) and examine their conscience twice daily (SE §§25-31). Elsewhere he instructs exercitants to enter the Exercises "with magnanimity and generosity," offering God their "entire will and liberty" and the disposition of their person (SE §5). He insists that people "must keep in mind that in all that concerns the spir-itual life [their] progress will be in proportion to [their] surren-der of self-love, and of [their] own will and interests" (SE §189). Patanjali's third element is posture (asana). In the Hindu tra-dition posture refers to two things: the place where one chooses to meditate and the bodily position in which one meditates. The place where one meditates should be free from external distrac-tions. Patanjali does not say that one bodily position is better than another, but he does say that the body should be "firm and relaxed" (YS II, 46). The purpose of maintaining a fixed and com-fortable position is to realize a certain neutrality of the senses so that consciousness is no longer troubled by the presence of the body. The following passage from the Bhagavad Gita illustrates the meaning of posture common among Hindus: Let the athlete of the spirit ever integrate [him]self stand-ing in a place apart, alone, his thoughts and self restrained. . Let him set up for [him]self a steady seat in a clean place. . There let him sit and make his mind a single point; let him restrain the operations of his thought and senses and practice integration., to purify the self. [Remaining] still, let him keep body, head, and neck in a straight line, unmov-ing; let him fix his eye on the tip of his nose, not looking round about him . [There] let him sit., intent on Me. . ; then will he approach that peace., which subsists in Me (6:10-15).8 Ignatius, too, recognizes the need for solitude in meditation, making much of withdrawing from friends and acquaintances and 510 Review for Religious from worldly cares to make the soul more fit to approach and be united with God (SE §20). Like Patanjali he does not claim that any one bodily position is to be preferred during meditation, but he does say that one should find a comfortable position and remain in it (SE §76). He agrees with the Gita that the restraint of the eyes is helpful in meditation (SE §81). The fourth element is rhythmic breathing (pranayama). As Patanjali puts it, "After mastering posture, one must practice con-trol of one's breathing" (YS II, 49). He gave this instruction because our respiration is generally unrhythmic, and unrhythmic breathing can hinder the mind's repose. Moreover, since the mind and the body act and react upon each other, rhythmic breathing can bring calmness and concentration of mind (YS II, 53). Practice is very elaborate, but on the whole it aims at slowing the breath, making the inhalation and exhalation even, and reducing the amount of air required. Ignatius also recognizes the importance of rhythmic breathing as an aid to deepening concentration (SE §258). The fifth element of yoga is pratyahara, that state in which the senses abide within themselves (YS II, 54). V~hen one remains motionless, keeps one's eyes and attention fixed on a single point, and breathes rhythmically, the mind is invaded by fewer distrac-tions and becomes more and more concentrated and unified. According to Patanjali, to test one's ability to concentrate at this stage, one must listen to the positive and negative echoes of one's being; for even with the withdrawal of the senses from exter-nal stimuli, difficulties arise, most of them produced by the sub-conscious. The trouble arising from doubt is the most dangerous of the obstacles that bar the road to concentration. Doubt "may be motivated by greed, anger or self-interest" (YS II, 34); "men-tal illness, lack of enthusiasm, sloth, craving for sense pleasure, false perception . and failure to concentrate" (YS I, 30). These distractions are often accompanied by grief and despondency (YS I, 31). To overcome doubt, Patanjali recommends implanting the contrary thought: "To free from thoughts tl'iat distract one from yoga, thoughts of the opposite kind must be cultivated" (YS II, 33). Ign~itius also says that the senses must be brought under con-trol and turned inward. Like Patanjali he observes that difficulties in concentration at this stage come from the subconscious, because of our +raving for "sensual delights and gratifications" (SE §314), our "inclination to what is low and earthly" (SE §317), or "because we have been tepid, slothful, or negligent in our exercises of piety" .~ly-August 1994 511 Mohammed * Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen (SE §322). Like Patanjali he notes that these distractions are often accompanied by "anxiety, . sadness," and "fallacious reasonings" which disturb the soul (SE §315). To cope with these difficulties, Ignatius says that every effort should be made to plant the contrary thought: "If the soul chance to be inordinately attached or inclined to anything, it is very proper that it rouse itself by the exertion of all its powers to desire the opposite of that to which it is wrongly attached" (SE §16; also §155 and §157). Patanjali's sixth element of yoga is concentration (dharana) to remove distractions (YS I, 32). He defines concentration as the fixing of the mind on a single idea or object by trying to visual-ize it (YS III, 1). Visualization calls for the use of the senses and discursive reasoning to focus the mind and so make the object of concentration present. An Indian image illustrates his point: just as an elephant's trunk sways to and fro and reaches out for nearby objects until it is given an iron ball to hold, so the wavering mind will settle down if given something specific to focus on. Ignatius promotes mental concentration in a similar way, rec-ommending in the first or second prelude of almost every medi-tation that we fix in the mind some scene, real or imagined, and try to make it present by visualizing it (SE §§47, 65, 91,103, 112, 138, 151, 192, 202, 220, and 232). He frequently directs the exercitant not only to see, but also to hear, smell, taste and touch in the imagination what is taking place in the meditation (SE §§66ff, 92, 103, 106, 121ff, 143ff, and 194ff). In pondering the matter and significance of the particular meditation, like Patanjali he expects one to apply one's intellect, will, memory, imagina-tion, and reflective ability (SE ~§3, 77, 78, 130, 206, 209, etc.). As concentration deepens, we arrive at the seventh element of yoga called meditation (dhyana). Meditation sweetens the dryness of intellectual discrimination and calls forth the highest form of love. Patanjali defines it as an "unbroken flow of thought toward the object of concentration" (YS III, 2), in which discursive and notional knowledge begin to give way to an experiential and intu-itive mode of knowing. For Ignatius, too, there is a progressive deepening from the discursive mode of knowing to the nondiscursive and intuitive. As he explains in SE §50, for example, one practices rational reflection on the subject matter so that the will may move the affections to a way of knowing beyond the intellect. That is, a deeper and simpler interiority leads to higher spiritual percep- 512 Review for Religious tions and an experiential knowledge of the truth. That is the aim of all true meditation, for as Ignatius explains, "It is not much knowledge which fills and satisfies the soul, but rather the inte-rior understanding of and relish of the truth" (SE §2). When one has intensified the power of meditation to such an extent that the totality of one's consciousness is indistinguishable from the meaning of the idea or object of one's meditation, one has reached the eighth and final step of yoga, samadbi, which Christians regu-larly refer to as a mystical union with God (YS II, 45; III, 3; III, 11). This mystical union is a state of contempla-tion in which one encounters God directly in an experience that is ineffa-ble- beyond words, beyond thought, beyond all conceiving. For Ignatius, too, meditation should lead to a mystical union with God, who can be found in all things (SE §235); the soul embraces divine things without any intervening agency. He seems to imply that this state of soul is the supreme end of prayer when he refers to a soul find-ing its Creator and Lord in a "consolation without previous cause" (SE §330 and §336). There is "direct" contact; God inflames the soul with "his love and praise" (SE §15; also §20), enabling it to "taste the infinite sweetness of divinity" (SE ~124). Ignatius describes this state of soul in his famous letter to Sister Teresa Rejadell: It frequently happens that our Lord moves and urges the soul to this or that activity. He begins by enlightening the soul; that is to say, by speaking interiorly to it without the din of words, lifting it up wholly to his divine love and our-selves to his meaning without any possibility of resistance on our part, even should we wish to resist.9 Meditation sweetens the dryness of intellectual discrimination and calls forth the highest form of love. The letter's wordless experience ("without the din of words") means that it is an experience "without concepts," "without par-ticular objects of thought."1° In other words, the person who obtains this direct experience of God has an ineffable experience of the divine. Ignatius empha-sizes this point at the end of the letter to Sister Rejadell when he 3~uly-Augus't 1994 513 Mohammed ¯ Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen says: "We have touched on a matter which can hardly be dealt with in a letter, at least without a much longer treatment. Even then there could be matters that could better be felt than put into words, let alone written down in a letter." ~i In his Spiritual Diary he writes that his own mystical experience can be compared only with the speech or music of heaven.~2 As we have seen, the eight elements of yoga given by Patanjali are paralleled in Ignatian spirituality. Let us now bring Zen Buddhism into our discussion, highlighting the techniques of Zen which differ from those of Ignatius but can be found in the Christian tradition. Zen, Yoga, and Ignatius To better understand Zen Buddhism, it may be helpful to know something of its background. Siddhartha Gautama (563- 483 B.C.) was an Indian prince who lived in what is now Nepal. Finding that religious truth based on the authority of others was at best a secondhand truth that can be called into question by competing truth claims, he renounced his kingdom to find through direct religious experience a way of salvation that is beyond words and creeds. One day while meditating near Caya, which is south of the present city of Patna, he received enlight-enment and became the Buddha, the Awakened One. Having found what he was seeking, out of compassion he spent the rest of his life teaching others how they, too, could find the truth first-hand. His teaching spread widely through two schools of thought: Theravada, which favored withdrawing into a monastery to pur-sue the path, and Mahayana, which maintained that the path to enlightenment is as applicable in the world as in the monastery. Zen Buddhism belongs to the Mahayana school of Buddhism found in Japan. In fact, the very word Zen is the Japanese coun-terpart of the Chinese word ch'an, which in turn is a translitera-tion of the Sanskrit word dhyan.a, meaning the meditation that leads to enlightenment. Thus the roots of Zen reach back into yoga, with its discipline of mind and body and its practice of med-itation. 13 The Zen Buddhist method of finding enlightenment can be found in a concise r~sum~ as given by Siddhartha himself: "Do not what is evil. Do what is good. Keep the mind pure. This is the teaching of Buddha." 14 514 Review for Religious The first step of Zen, "Do not what is evil," centers on social sin and corresponds to the first element of yoga given by Patanjali and found also in Ignatius. Avoiding evil is spelled out in the Five Buddhist Precepts (Pancha Sila) in terms of five abstentions: from killing, stealing, lying, illicit sex, and intoxicants. These absten-tions remind us of the Old Testament commandments and empha-size that the climb to enlightenment begins with purgation.'s The second step of Zen, "Do what is good," centers on char-ity and also parallels the second step of Patanjali and Ignatius. In the Buddhist tradition, doing what is good may be described as the practice of brotherhood in thought, word, and deed or compared to the love and good works of St. Paul (1 Co 13:4-7). It is a personal attitude and is purgative, too, inasmuch charity calls for detach-ment in the generous offering of oneself for the good of others. The third injunction, "Keep the mind pure"--or, in less poetic imagery, to discipline and purify the mind--again shows the influ-ence of yoga. Stages three to five in Zen parallel stages three to five in Patanjali (posture, breathing, and withdrawal of the senses), though there are differences in details. Stages six to eight (con-centration, meditation, and enlightenment) are so closely related that they form a unity, but in our discussion they will be treated separately, as in our comparison of Ignatius and Patanjali. Buddha's third injunction recalls one of the beatitudes of Jesus, "Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God" (Mt 5:8). Doubtless, St. Paul had some discipline in mind when he said, "Be transformed by the renewing of your mind" (Rm 12:2), and exhorted us to train ourselves in godliness (1 Tm 4:7). More con-cretely, Zen's third element, like Patanjali's, is posture and refers to the place where one chooses to meditate as well as to the bod-ily position in which one meditates. With respect to the place, one should select a quiet spot in which to sit. But with respect to the position of the body, one is not allowed--as in Patanjali and Ignatius--to experiment to find a position that is stable and relaxed. One should normally meditate while sitting. And whether one sits in the full-lotus position or the half-lotus, or on one's heels and calves, or on a chair, one should satisfy at least three requirements: keep the head and spine erect; lower one's gaze to a point a yard or so away without focusing on anything in par-ticular; and fold one's hands, thumbs and first fingers pressed tightly together, and res~ them on the lap. In Zen experience these requirements facilitate the unification of the mind.~6 Mohammed * Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen The Bible recognizes the importance of place and posture in prayer. In the Old Testament God takes Hosea into solitude to hedge up all the ways he used to run after the desires and thoughts of the world (Ho 2:6). Moses retires to the wilderness to better commune with God (Ex 18:5, 19; 34:27-28), as does Elijah (1 K 17:3-6), and Ezekiel lies on his side for a long time (Ezk 4:4-5:1). In the New Testament, too, Paul (Ga 1:17), John the Baptist (Mt 3:1-6) and Jesus himself (Mt 4:1-2) go into the desert to be alone. Contemplative prayer, has to be inward, and this calls for disci-pline. Hence the advice of Jesus to his disciples: When you pray, go into a room by yore:self, shut the door, sit, and then pray to your Father in private (Mt 6:6). The fourth lesson is breathing, but not in the controlled form prescribed by Patanjali. Rather, when one has established oneself in a stable sitting position, one should take a deep breath, hold it momentarily, and then exhale through the nose slowly and quietly. After doing this two or three times, one should breathe natu-rally. 17 The fifth element of Zen deals with the mind abiding within itself and with the distractions that come from within (makyo). It corresponds to Patanjali's fifth element of yoga (pratyabara). Motionless, with head and spine erect and eyes lowered, breath-ing naturally, one begi~ns to experience a certain detachment from the world, but thoughts, memories, feelings may bubble up to the surface of the mind from the subconscious)8 These obstacles to concentration are due to doubt, sense desire, sloth, and tor-por and are often accompanied by excitedness and worry.19 Unlike Pataniali and Ignatius, who suggest implanting a contrary thought to eliminate these distractions (makyo), Zen teaches that one should merely ignore them. The Bible acknowledges the need to cope with distractions in prayer so that only the still small voice of God is heard, soft and light as an exhalation (1 K 19:12). The sixth element of Zen is concentration. Because the human mind cannot rest inactive, it has to be prevented from dispersing itself among a multiplicity of thoughts and memories by being provided with some inner task to satisfy its need for activity. The task can be to focus on fi chosen topic or idea by means of images or discursive reasoning, as we saw in Patanjali and Ignatius. But even Patanjali and Ignatius recognize that this is not the only way of achieving one-pointed concentration. Another way recalls the saying of Matthew 6:7 that in praying we should not heap up 516 Review for Religious empty phrases, thinking that we will be heard for our many words. This other way, by contrast, consists in only one word or one short phrase repeated over and over attentively. To still the mind by thus restricting one's rational consciousness has a long history in both Eastern and Christian spirituality and is the method taught by the Hare Krishna and Transcendental Meditation movements. Patanjali, echoing Proverbs 18: i 0 that "The name of the Lord is a strong tower: the righteous runs into it and is safe," teaches that the attentive repetition of the name of God, like the use of images and discursive reasoning, can lead one into the intuitive consciousness of meditation in stage seven (YS I, 28). And Ignatius teaches, in his second and third methods of prayer, that the rep-etition of a single word or phrase, coordinated with one's breath-ing, can deepen concentration (SE §252 and §258). A 14th-century Catholic mystic explains this method of concentration in The Cloud of Unknowing: If you want to gather all your desire into one simple word that the mind can easily retain, choose a short word rather than a long one. A one-syllable word such as "God" or "love" is best. But choose one that is meaningful to you. Then fix it in your mind so that it will remain there come what may . Use it to beat upon the cloud of darkness above you and subdue all distractions, consigning them to the cloud of forgetting beneath you. Should some thought go on annoying you, demanding to know what you are doing, answer it with this word alone. If your mind begins to intellectualize over the meaning and connotations of this little word, remind yourself that its value lies in its sim-plicity. Do this and I assure you that these thoughts will vanish. Why? Because you have refused to develop them with arguing.2° In the history of Christian spirituality, John Cassian (360?-432?) was the first person to describe this practice of rep-etition, which he learned from the desertfathers. He does so in chapter i0 of his Tenth Conference, one of the most beautiful passages in Christian writing, using this verse: "Come to my help, 0 God; Lord, hurry to my rescue" (Ps 69:2).2~ John Climacus (579-649) attaches particular importance to the repetition of the Jesus Prayer.22 Later on, the standard form of this prayer, "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me," was widely prac-ticed in the monasteries of Mount Athos. This prayer, combined with respiratory discipline and bodily posture as a preparation j~uly-Aug.ust 1994 517 Mohammed ¯ Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen for entrance into meditation (techniques similar to those found in yoga), became the soul of the Hesychast movement in the 13th century23 and in recent centuries has spread widely among the Orthodox churches, whence comes that little gem of a book The VVay of a Pilgrim.24 A similar method of deepening concentration appears both in the repetition of the Hail Mary in the rosary and in Gregorian chants. In all these examples from Hinduism and Christianity, repetition is a way of restricting reflective consciousness. It is a kind of weapon for warding off discursive reasoning, thinking, and conceptualization. It narrows the horizon of rational con-sciousness and prepares the mind for a breakthrough into intuitive consciousness in stage seven. While Patanjali and some Christian writers teach a method for developing concentration that avoids a multiplicity of words, so concerned is Zen with the limitations of words and ideas that it makes transcending them the central point of its method. The two principal schools of Zen, the Soto and the Rinzai, teach meth-ods of concentration that try to get one unhooked from words and thoughts from the very start. The Soto school proposes con-centration on one's breath, inhalation and exhalation, instead of on any words, while the Rinzai school makes use of a koan (a puz-zle or paradox) to put pressure on the mind until the structures of ordinary thinking collapse completely, clearing the way for one's entrance into intuitive consciousness in stage seven and for the sudden flash of insight or enlightenment in stage eight.25 The koan functions in a manner not unlike the sayings of Jesus that oblige one to reach for insight beyond the normal conventions of thought: "Those who find their life will lose it" (Mt 10:39) and "Unless a grain of wheat falls into the ground and dies, it remains just a single grain; but if it dies, it bears much fruit" (Jn 12:24). Ignatius does not mention either of these methods (Soto and Rinzai) among his prayer suggestions. The Zen distrust of words as keys to concentration reminds us that the prohibition of images of God enjoined at Mount Sinai (Ex 20:1-5 and Dt 5:8-9) goes well beyond images engraved on stone or wood to include our words and concepts. Since no one has ever seen God (Ex 33:17-23; Jn 1 : 18), God is a mystery and so unknowable. Isaiah's confession of God's hiddenness implies that God lies beyond the range of the intellect (Is 45:15). Paul makes the same point when he says that God dwells in "unap- 518 Review for Religious proachable light" (1 Tm 6:16) and when he tells us that any expe-rience of God surpasses all understanding (Ph 4:7). For Paul, to be morbidly concerned over mere verbal questions and quibbles leads us to lose our grasp of the truth (i Tm 6:5). He and Jeremiah go as far as to say that clinging to images of God is an impediment to finding the living God and is a form of idolatry (Rm 1:23; Jr 2:11). The Zen attitude to words reminds us that not everyone who says "Lord, Lord" shall enter the kingdom (Mr 7:21-23) and that, to encounter God, we must be still and let God be God (Ps 46:10). Many Christian mystics teach a wordless nondiscursive path to God that resembles the teaching of Zen. For example, Dionysius in the early 6th cen-tury says that "as you look for a sight of mysterious things," you "must leave behind you every-thing perceived and understood" and "strive upward as much as you can toward union with him who is beyond being and knowl-edge.'' 26 In the 14th century the anonymous author of The Book of Privy Counselling gives this advice to his disciples: "When you go apart to be alone., reject all thoughts, be they good or be they evil.''27 The French Jesuit Jean-Pierre de Caussade (1675-1751) writes that we should pray "with a simple gaze., without using any reasoning" and "pay no attention to distractions.'2s John of the Cross (i 542-1591) advocates the abandonment of thinking in order to make way for intuitive consciousness in stage seven when he observes: "The attitude necessary., is to pay no attention to discursive meditation." All that is required is to liberate oneself "from the impediment and fatigue of ideas and thoughts and care not about thinking," for "desires disquiet the soul and distract it from the peaceful quiet and sweet idleness of the contemplation which is being communicated to it.''29 The Benedictine historian and exegete John Chapman (1865-1933) considers the spiritual-ity of John of the Cross to be Buddhistic;3° the Cistercian Thomas Merton (1915-1968) believes that "Zen is nothing but John of the Cross without the Christian vocabulary.''31 Many Christian mystics teach a wordless nondiscursive path to God that resembles the teaching of Zen. July-August 1994 519 Mohammed ¯ Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen The sudden coming of enlightenment at stage eight in Zen has many parallels in Christian spirituality: "The Lord spoke sud-denly to Moses" (Nb 12:4), and on the road to Damascus "sud-denly a great light shone about [Saul]" (Ac 22:6). The enlightenment experience, whenever it appears, is ineffable. When Jeremiah encounters God directly, he does not know how to speak (Jr 1:6). When Paul is "caught up into Paradise," he is unable to say what happened to him (2 Co 12:3). St. Thomas Aquinas, fol-lowing the Zen dictum that those who know do not tell and those who tell do not know, chooses to say nothing except that his enlightenment leaves the Summa Theologiae looking like so much straw. Enlightenment brings joy and a feeling of oneness with all things and a heightened sense of reality. It is an experience not unlike that which Ignatius had on the bank of the Cardoner: As he sat there the eyes of his understanding were opened, and though he saw no vision he understood and perceived many things, numerous spiritual things as well as matters touching on faith and learning, and this was with an eluci-dation so bright that all these things seemed new to him. He cannot expound in detail what he then understood, for they were many things, but he can state that he received such a lucidity in understanding that during the course of his entire life--now having passed his sixty-second year--if he were to gather all the helps he received from God and everything he knew and add them together, he does not think that they would add up to all that he received on that one occasion.32 Seeing reality more clearly and the cosmic feeling that all created things are bound up together belongs to the very essence of Ignatian mysticism, as it does to Zen. This accounts for the cry of the soul expressed early in the Exercises: "The heavens, sun, moon, stars, and the elements; the fruits, birds, fishes, and other animals--why have they all been at my service?" (SE ~60), and accounts as well for the Contemplation to Attain the Love of God at the end (SE §§230-237). Personal Prayer and Interreligious Dialogue Our study has shown that Patanjali, Ignatius, and Buddha all agree that, for religion to be personally authentic, it must involve some direct religious experience and not be merely an affirmation of propositions accepted on the basis of authority--a teaching 520 Review for Religious that seems to be alluded to in the Epistle of James. Moreover, in spite of certain denials, all three make it clear that a personal, direct experience of the ground of one's salvation requires some kind of prior discipline to establish oneself in silence, not just physical silence but a silence of the senses, a silence of the mind, until that silence is reached for which there is no word. Contemplative prayer is the usual name for such a discipline. There are at least eight elements in the praxis of contemplation, and these elements are common to yoga, Ignatius, and Zen. Elements three and four (posture and breathing) in all three spir-itualities insist that contemplative prayer is not exclusively a men-tal or inner activity, but is accomplished in unison with the body, though Zen emphasizes posture more than yoga and Ignatius do and yoga places more stress on breathing than either Zen or Ignatius. In element six, both Patanjali and Ignatius teach a dis-cursive method for deepening concentration, based on the use of images and reason, and a nondiscursive method, based on the repetition of a word or short phrase. Zen teaches only a nondis-cursive method aimed at emptying the mind of all thoughts and images. Patanjali acknowledges that the Zen method of concen-tration can lead one into intuitive consciousness, as do many Christian mystics, though Ignatius makes no mention of it. If today Zen and Hindu meditation movements, like Transcendental Meditation, have a wide appeal among Westerners, it is in large part due to the fact that they teach nondiscursive techniques for entering contemplation. This is a significant point, not only for the dialogue between Ignatian spirituality and Eastern religions, but also--inasmuch as many Christians ignore the contribution of the body to prayer and many others are disaffected with discur-sive prayer--for the directing of Ignatian retreats. Notes ~ "Address to the Staff Members of the World Council of Churches Sub-Unit and the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue," in The Bulletin of the Pontificium Consilium pro Dialogo inter Religiones 78 (1991): 26/3,307-308. z For example, Heinrich Dumoulin, A History of Zen Buddhism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969) and Christianity Meets Buddhism (La Salle, Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company, 1974); H.M. Enomiya-Lassalle, Zen Meditation for Christians (La Salle, Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company, 1974) and Zen--VVay to Enlightenment (London: Sheed and Ward, 1976); J.K. Kadowaki, Zen and the Bible (London: Routledge and d71~ly-August 1994 521 Mohammed ¯ Yoga, Christian Prayer, and Zen Kegan Paul, 1980); Daniel J. O'Hanlon, "Zen and the Spiritual Exercises: A Dialogue between Faiths," Theological Studies 39, no. 4 (December 1978): 737-768; William Johnston, The Still Point (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970), The Inner Eye of Love (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978), Silent Music (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), and Christian Zen (New York: Harper and Row, 1971). 3 O-bey N. Mohammed, "Ignatian Spirituality and the Bhagavad Gita," Thought 62, no. 247 (December 1987): 423-434. 4 Mircea Eliade, Yoga (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 4. s Dom Aelred Graham, Zen Catholicism (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1963), p. 123. 6 For references to the I~ga Sutras, see Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood, trans., How to Know God: The Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali (New York: New American Library, 1953), or I.K. Taimni, The Science of Yoga: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (Wheaton, Illinois: Theosophical Publishing House, 1975). Hereafter all references to the Yoga Sutras are indicated as YS. For references to the Spiritual Exercises, see Louis J. Puhl, trans., The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1951). Hereafter all references to the Spiritual Exercises are indicated as SE. 7 Eliade, pp. 48-49. 8 R.C. Zaehner, trans., The Bhagavad Gita (London: Oxford University Press, 1973). 9 Letters of St. Ignatius of Loyola, trans. William J. Young (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1959), p. 22. ~0 Karl Rahner, The Dynamic Element in the Church (Montreal: Palm Publishers, 1964), p. 153. ~ Letters, p. 23. ~2 The Spiritual Diary of St. Ignatius of Loyola, trans. William J. Young (Woodstock: Woodstock College Press, 1958), p. 44. ~3 For material on Zen written by non-Jesuits, see C.H. Hambrick, "Zen Buddhism," in The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religion (Washington, D.C.: Corpus Publications, 1979); Alan W. Watts, The Way of Zen (New York: Vintage, 1957); Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind (New York: Weatherhill, 1970); D.T. Suzuki, An Introduction to Zen Buddhism (London: Arrow Books, 1959) and Essays in Zen Buddhism. First Series. (London: Rider and Company, 1970); Christian Humphreys, Zen Buddhism (London: Unwin Books, 1971); Thomas Merton, Mystics and Zen Masters (New York: Dell Publications, 1967) and Zen and the Birds of Appetite (New York: New Directions, 1968); Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen (Boston: Beacon Press, 1967); Graham, Zen Catholicism (see note 5). ,4 The Dhammapada, trans. Juan Mascaro (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1973), verse 183. 522 Review for Religious ~s Christian Humphreys, Buddhism (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1975), pp. 111-115. ,6 On posture see Johnston, Christian Zen, pp. 105-109; Enomiya- Lassalle, Zen--Way to Enlightenment, pp. 103-109; Kapleau, pp. 18-20, 30-31, 34, 317-320. 17 On breathing see Enomiya-Lassalle, Zen--Way to Enlightenment, pp. 109-110; Johnston, Christian Zen, pp. 77-80; Kapleau, p. 32. 18 On makyo see Kapleau, pp. 38-41, 100-102; Johnston, The Still Point, pp. 9-10, 36. 19 Edward Conze, ed., Buddhist Scriptures (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1971), p. 246, "Hindrances." 20 William Johnston, trans., The Cloud of Unknowing and The Book of Privy Counselling (New York: Image Books, 1973), p. 56. 21 John Cassian, Conferences, trans. Colm Luibheid (New York: Paulist Press, 1985), pp. 132-140. 22 John Climacus, The Ladder of Divine Ascent, trans. Colm Luibheid and Norman Russell (New York: Paulist Press, 1982), pp. 45-47. 23 Eliade, pp. 63-65; Gaspar M. Koelman, Patanjala Yoga (Poona: Papal Athenaeum, 1970), pp. 195-196; J.-M. Dfichanet, Christian Yoga (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1960), pp. 173-183. 24 Translated by Helen Bacovin (Garden City: Image Books, 1978). 25 Dumoulin, A History of Zen Buddhism, pp. 135-13 6; Shunryu Suzuki, p. 33. 26 Pseudo-Dionysius, "The Mystical Theology," I, I, in The Complete Works of Pseudo-Dionysius, trans. Colin Luibheid (New York: Paulist Press, 1987), p. 135. 27 Johnston, The Cloud of Unknowing and The Book of Privy Counselling, p. 149. 28 The Spiritual Letters of P.J. de Caussade on the Practice of Self- Abandonment to Divine Providence, trans. Mgar Thorold (London: Burns, Oates and Washbourne, 1948), p. 39. 29 John of the Cross, "The Dark Night of the Soul," I:10, 4, in Selected Writings, ed. Kieran Kavanaugh OCD (New York: Paulist Press, 1987), pp. 185-186. 3°John Chapman, Spiritual Letters (London: Sheed and Ward, 1989), p. 269. 31 Thomas Merton, Springs of Contemplation: A Retreat at the Abbey of Gethsemani, ed. Jane Marie Richardson (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1992), p. 177. 32 Joseph N. Tylenda, trans., A Pilgrim's Journey: The Autobiography of Ignatius of Loyola (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1985), pp. 38-39. July-August 1994 523 FREDERICK E. CROWE The Ignatian Exercises and Jesuit Spirituality Tere is a tendency, noted more in passing remarks than in ematic studies, to equate Jesuit spirituality with the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola. I do not know whether anyone has ever made the equation in so many words, but one hears it said that the Exercises are the wellspring of Jesuit life, that Jesuit spirituality is to be found above all in the Exercises, that the Exercises are the basis of Jesuit spirituality, that Jesuits have a vision given them by the Exercises, and so on. There is a profound truth in all these statements, but just because the truth in them is so very profound and so very true, it seems to me all the more necessary to state explicitly that it is not the whole truth and to think out clearly the relationship of the Exercises to Jesuit, and any other, spirituality. Otherwise part of the truth is easily taken to be the whole truth, and so we come imper-ceptibly to identify two distinct elements in Jesuit spirituality: the Exercises, and the complex history that culminated in Ignatius's Constitutions for the Society of Jesus. Then, since innocently defi-cient ideas still have consequences, we arrive at two practical errors: pointing the Exercises toward a spirituality they do not intend and depriving Jesuit spirituality of its specific character, as found most notably in the Constitutions. Frederick E. Crowe SJ is well known for his books and articles on the thought of Bernard Lonergan SJ. He may be addressed at Lonergan Research Institute; 10 St. Mary Street, Suite 500; Toronto, Ontario M4Y 1P9; Canada. 524 Review for Religious Two simple lines of reasoning should, it seems to me, estab-lish the point I am making. The first is a thought experiment that makes the case in a more graphic way than my abstract assertion. Let us imagine two men with the proper dispositions who both make the Spiritual Exercises. One of them emerges from the thirty days with a decision to seek admission to the Jesuits. The other emerges with a decision to join the Carthusians. Is this an impos-sible scenario? Will anyone tell the Holy Spirit, "You cannot do that; the Exercises are identified with Jesuit spirituality; you really cannot use them to direct someone to the Carthusians"? Or would anyone say that the Carthusian vocation here is due to a failure of the exercitant to be guided by the Spirit, that the Spirit was directing him elsewhere, that he is in fact a Jesuit manque? I mean this, of course, as a reductio ad absurdum, for no one would dream of tak-ing such a position on what the Holy Spirit should or should not do, or of attributing a failure to respond properly if the exerci-tant does not decide to be a Jesuit. And a parallel statement could be made about two women emerging from their Ignatian retreat, one to become a Poor Clare, the other to become a social worker; or about a man and woman emerging with plans for matrimony. My other line of reasoning takes us to actual history. We might ask: What were the first companions of Ignatius doing in the years that followed their experience of making the Exercises, say between 1534 and 1540, a period in which they were steadily seeking the divine will? Why, if the Exercises had already deter-mined what the Jesuit spirituality and way of proceeding was to be, did they run through so many different options before they set-tled on that way? What, indeed, was Ignatius himself doing for nearly two decades after Manresa, wandering around Europe and the Holy Land before he found his destined way of life? And a still more pointed question: What was he doing in the dozen years of "blood, toil, tears, and sweat," during which he laboriously worked out the Jesuit Constitutions? The answer seems obvious in all these questions: Ignatius and his first companions were seeking some-thing the Exercises had not given them. Will anyone tell the Holy Spirit, "You really cannot use the Ignatian Exercises to direct someone to the Carthusians" ? July-August 1994 525 Crowe ¯ The Ignatian Exercises and yesuit Spirituality I believe that we need to face these questions and work out with all possible accuracy what role the Exercises may play in Jesuit or any other spirituality' and how that role may be complemented by the distinct and specifying roles that different spiritual tradi-tions may contribute--for Jesuits, in the way their Constitutions, above all, determine for them; for Carthusians, Poor Clares, and other religious institutes, in ways that they also have worked out for themselves and that I need not try to determine for them here. Is there then a spirituality in the Exercises? Yes, indeed, the very highest. If we leave aside the case of those who are not dis-posed to go beyond the First Week (§18),2 the aim of the Exercises is to bring exercitants, whatever their state in life is to be and wherever God will direct them, to choose to live under the stan-dard of Christ: "We shall also think about how we ought to dis-pose ourselves in order to come to perfection in whatsoever state or way of life God our Lord may grant us to elect" (~135)3- which means embracing the way of Christ, in the highest poverty, spiritual poverty certainly and if God wills it in actual poverty as well; in willingness also to bear opprobrium and injuries in order to imitate him the better (§147); and again, when God is served equally by either of the two alternatives, to choose poverty with Christ poor rather than riches, opprobrium with Christ covered with opprobrium rather than honors, to be counted vain and stupid with Christ so counted rather than wise and prudent in this world (§167); and so forth. The real question is: How does this spirituality relate to the various specific spiritualities to which various individual exercitants may be called? I will suggest a few ways of conceiving the relation, ways that follow more traditional lines of thought and shed some light on the matter, none of them quite satisfactory, but each adding an element of understanding. And then I will propose another approach to the whole question. The obvious pair of terms to define the relationship in ques-tion is generic and specific: the Exercises have a generic spiritual-ity, the following of Christ; then, giving more determinate content to this, we have the specific spiritualities of Jesuit, Carthusian, and so on. I have drawn on these concepts already to start dis-cussion; they contribute some clarity, but they use the language of logic, which seems simply inadequate for so spiritual a question. Another useful set of terms would be infrastructure and super-structure. To follow Christ is infrastructure for whatever way of life 526 Review for Religious we choose to follow; on this basis one builds a superstructure of, say, the Jesuit way of proceeding. These terms from the world of civil engineering clarify our question rather nicely. Still, they make the following of Christ the invisible element, or at any rate not the focus of attention--a situation that does not correspond to any voca-tion emerging from the Exercises. A third set might be the concepts of the compact and the differentiated that have now come into general use, mainly, I believe, through the influ-ence of Eric Voegelin. Bernard Lonergan also has some helpful pages on the process from the compactness of the symbol, where very profound truths may be contained and grasped, to the enucleated and analyzed differ-entiations of scientists, philosophers, and theologians. He illustrates the process by Christology and the "tran-sition from a more compact symbolic consciousness expressed in the New Testament to a more enucleated theo-logical consciousness expressed in the great Greek councils.''4 Once again we have a pair of terms that provide some understanding--certainly the various spiritualities are differentiated from one another (one has only to adduce again the example of Carthusian and jesuit)- but do they also contain the unwelcome hint that the various dif-ferentiations divide up something that the compact contained in its wholeness? A fourth pair, made familiar in social studies, is the communal or collective and the particular or individual. Our communal spiri-tuality is the way of Christ; our individual spirituality is the par-ticular way of life in which we follow Christ. This seems a promising line of thought, but working out the relation between the communal and the individual, we would need to see how the communal is explicit in the particular andhow the particular con-tains without loss the whole of the communal. No doubt we could add to this list and pursue similar paired meanings with considerable profit, but I wonder if in the end it We need to work out with all possible accuracy what role the Exercises may play in Jesuit or any other spirituality. July-August 1994 527 Crowe ¯ The Ignatian Exercises and Jesuit Spirituality would bring us to the heart of the matter. I wonder in fact if our aim here is not a bit off center, if we should not approach the problem from another perspective altogether. For in the various pairs we have considered, the first member seems to remain incomplete until the second is added, and the second has always to be concerned that it incorporates the whole of the first. Further, the second term in each pair is thought of as an end product with its meaning determined: what a Jesuit is, what a Carthusian is-- these are already more or less clearly defined, belong to an estab-lished order, are in some measure static. Does such thinking deal adequately with the dynamism of the Exercises? I would like to explore a somewhat different approach. In this line of thought it is the heuristic character and therefore the dynamism of the Exercises that will be the focus. But all dynamic movement, all searching, all heuristic activity suppose and take place within a horizon that determines the activity and defines the source of energy for the search; I therefore need to study first the idea of horizon. For both terms, horizon and heuristic, I draw directly on the work of Bernard Lonergan. For the meaning of horizon, it will be best simply to quote Lonergan's account of the matter: In its literal sense the word, horizon, denotes the bound-ing circle, the line at which earth and sky appear to meet. This line is the limit of one's field of vision. As one moves about, it recedes in front and closes in behind so that, for different standpoints, there are different hori-zons. Moreover, for each different standpoint and hori-zon, there are different divisions of the totality of visible objects. Beyond the horizon lie the objects that, at least for the moment, cannot be seen. Within the horizon lie the objects that can now be seen. As our field of vision, so too the scope of our knowl-edge, and the range of our interests are bounded. As fields of vision vary with one's standpoint, so too the scope of one's knowledge and the range of one's interests vary with the period in which one lives, one's social back-ground and milieu, one's education and personal devel-opment. So there has arisen a metaphorical or perhaps analogous meaning of the word, horizon. In this sense what lies beyond one's horizon is simply outside the range of one's knowledge and interests: one neither knows nor cares. But what lies within one's horizon is in some measure, great or small, an object of interest and of knowledge,s 528 Review for Religious It is easy to apply this idea to the world of the Spiritual Exercises. One enters upon them with a given horizon, vaguely or clearly conceived: "the range of one's knowledge and interests"; for example, maybe one is led by a spirit of repentance or by anxiety about one's salvation. One makes the First Week, remaining for the most part within such a horizon--with glimpses of something beyond, to be sure, in such passages as the colloquy at the end of the first exercise (§53). But if one responds to the call of Christ in the Kingdom exercise (§91), one pushes back the previous horizon to work within a new one, far wider, with far greater potential, a horizon that is all-encompassing, a boundary that is in fact no boundary for it encloses a territory that is boundless. Now it is this ultimate hori-zon, and not any relative and con-fining horizon, that I would equate with the spirituality of the Exercises. The horizon of those who should not be led beyond the First Week is narrow and con-fining. What happens when one enters the Second Week with the mind and heart of those who would "show greater devotion and . . . distinguish themselves in total service to their eternal King and universal Lord" (§95)? What happens is the discovery of a new horizon, the horizon defined by Christ the Lord. The horizon is established in the exercises on Two Standards (§§ 136- 148) and Three Ways of Being Humble (§§165-168); details are added in the Mysteries of the Life of Christ Our Lord (§261); and in the Third and Fourth Weeks communion with Christ (what the Germans call Mitsein) fortifies the attraction of the good with the power of love and the interpersonal. This does not happen without the grace of God and a con-version. For besides the ultimate horizon there are relative hori-zons. There are shifts in our relative horizon as we move, say, from school days to the work force, and this shift may occur as a normal development of potentialities. "But it is also possible that the movement into a new horizon involves an about-face; it comes out of the old by repudiating characteristic features; it begins a Communion with Christ fortifies the attraction of the good with the power of love. 3~dy-Aug~t 1994 529 Crowe ¯ The Ignatian Exercises and yesuit Spirituality new sequence that can keep revealing ever greater depth and breadth and wealth. Such an about-face and new beginning is what is meant by a conversion.''6 Against that background we turn to the idea of the heuristic, taking as our context the fact that the Exercises are a search. Thus, the first annotation tells us: Our purpose, after removing obstacles, is to seek and to find the divine will (§1), and the fif-teenth annotation has advice for those who during the Exercises are seeking God's will (§15). Or, as is repeated over and over, recurring like a refrain, we are to seek what gives glory to God (§16). In the key stage of the Election, "While continuing our contemplations of [Christ's] life, we now begin simultaneously to explore and inquire: In which state or way of life does the Divine Majesty wish us to serve him?" (§135). And still, at the heart of the Exercises, in the meditation on the Three Classes of Men, we are seeking to "desire and know what will be more pleasing to the Divine Goodness" (§151). We are, then, in an area in which the idea of the heuristic plays a central role. My Webster's dictionary defines heuristic as "serving to guide, discover, or reveal." A helpful point: the famous "Eureka" of Archimedes is from the same Greek root; it means "I have found [it]; I have discovered the secret." Now this line of thought is thoroughly developed in Bernard Lonergan, and I find his treatment of the idea helpful for understanding the process and dynamic of spiritual search that the Exercises are. In his usage a heuristic notion tries to give some advance notice of what we hope to find; it is an anticipation of the answer we seek to a ques-tion; it is not a determinate concept, like various concepts in physics or chemistry or biology; it is an indeterminate anticipation. The nearly perfect word for this way of conceiving in antic-ipation what we have not yet deter'mined in particular is what-ever, and the nearly perfect use of whatever we can find right in Scripture. Paul, writing to the Philippians (4:8), exhorts them to focus on "whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is just, whatever is pure, whatever is pleasing, whatever is com-mendable" (NRSI~ in the Douai translation, "whatsoever"). Well, what is true? what is honorable, just, and so on? That will emerge with each new day, and meanwhile we are guided by its anticipa-tion in that "whatever." To come, then, to the present point, Ignatius and Paul are at one in conceivin, g by anticipation what they do not yet determine 530 Revie~v for Religious in particular. Apropos of the Election, Ignatius writes that we are to "think about how we ought to dispose ourselves in order to come to perfection in whatsoever state or way of life God our Lord may grant us to elect" (§ 135). It is possible now to bring these two ideas together in a new understanding of the relationship of the Exercises and Jesuit or other spirituality. My brief statement of the case would be that the horizon of the Exercises and the spirituality they directly intend is established in the exercise on the Two Standards (§§ 136-148) and the exercises that directly relate to it; further, that the heuristic of the Exercises is epitomized in the Election (§§169-188), where we search for and discover and embrace the state of life God intends for us. And the relationship between the two is indicated in the Introduction to the Consideration of the States of Life: "We shall also think about how we ought to dispose ourselves in order to come to perfection in whatsoever state or way of life God our Lord may grant us to elect" (§135). Perfection as defined in the Two Standards and their retinue of exercises is the horizon; but "whatsoever state" God may direct us to is another matter: it rep-resents the heuristic element. The Exercises do not, therefore, intend any one spirituality; their objective ordination, what the scholastics would call their finis operis, is neither Jesuit nor Carthusian spirituality, nor any other; they intend what God will choose, and their finis operis is a "whatever." What we therefore first conceived as generic, as infrastructure, as compact, as communal, we now conceive as a horizon; and what we first conceived as specific, as superstruc-ture, as differentiated, as individual, we now conceive as the area within that horizon that we discover to be God's will for us. But in moving from one to the other we do not add some-thing specific that was not contained in the genus, for everything is contained in the horizon; and, for those who respond fully, the whole spirituality of the horizon enters every vocation and every state of life. The situation is more like that of the incarnation: as the fullness of the Godhead dwells in Christ (Col 1:19), so the fullness of the horizon of Christ is the world in which we dwell, Jesuit and Carthusian and all others that respond fully to the call of the Kingdom exercise. And similarly, the "superstructure" we conceived as our way turns out to be what we may call an "addition," but an addition to what is already complete (like the humanity of Christ added to the July-August 1994 531 Crowe ¯ The Ignatian Exercises and Jesuit Spirituality God's will is the supreme heuristic notion guiding the exercitant, and the Exercises are a heuristic device. eternal and infinite Word). The "differentiation" we spoke of is not a dividing off of a part, but the incorporation of the whole, and the "individual" contains the fullness of the communal. Thus, one is everywhere safe within the all-encompassing arms of the Christian horizon; one is never in exile, never outside the shores of home, never a wanderer like the prodigal son in dis-tant lands. One does not, therefore, go beyond this horizon to be a Jesuit or to be a Carthusian or to find some other particular vocation. There is nothing there beyond it. It is the all-encompassing. Just as within any rel-ative horizon of geography one can go north or south, east or west, with-out going beyond the horizon, so within the ultimate horizon estab-lished by Christ one can become a Jesuit or a Carthusian, but one cannot go beyond the horizon set by Christ; one can only contract that horizon by living an inauthentic Jesuit life or liv-ing an inauthentic Carthusian life. Further use of the ideas of heuris-tic and horizon is readily made. In Lonergan's thought one can speak of heuristic notions and heuristic devices. There is the notion of being, the notion of the good, and so on; but there are also the heuristic structures that promote the discoveries we seek (his rather famous scissors action of heuristic method). One could say that God's will is the supreme heuristic notion guiding the exercitant and that the Exercises are a heuristic device, an instru-ment par excellence for finding God's will, maybe with a kind of scissors action too. (I do not, however, call the Exercises the supreme heuristic device, for we do not limit God's creativity to what was divinely done in Ignatius, and we do not know what successor God may be preparing for Ignatius.) Again, still in Lonergan's thought, one can speak of interrelationships in the set of horizons, of their complementary, genetic, and dialectical differences. But that would add length to an article that is already 532 Review for Religious long enough, and introduce further specialized categories where they are already rather extensive. Notes ~ Eventually such a study should come to the details of particular spiritualities, but that is a further step. Here I intend the word in a broad sense: "spirituality" includes, therefore, elements of doctrine and practice, of vocation and way of proceeding, of tradition and orientation, of rules and constitutions, and so on, without specifying what these may be for Jesuit, Carthusian, and other vocations. 2 The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius: A Translation and Commentary, by George E. Ganss SJ (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1992), no. 18 in the numbering that is standard for all editions. All English quota-tions will be from this edition; numbers will be given in parentheses in the text. 3 In the Latin, "ut veniamus ad perfectionem in quocumque statu seu vita, quam Deus Dominus noster eligendam nobis dederit" (§ 135). The "quocumque" is the "whatever" I will presently discuss. 4 Bernard Lonergan, Topics in Education (The Cincinnati Lectures of 1959 on the Philosophy of Education), ed. Robert M. Doran and Frederick E. Crowe (University of Toronto Press, 1992), pp. 55-58. On Eric Voegelin see Kenneth Keulman, The Balance of Consciousness: Eric Voegelin's Political Theory (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1990), pp. 92-93: "What the pattern of symbolizations indicates is the development from compact to differentiated forms . The terms "compact" and "dif-ferentiated" refer not only to the symbolizations, but also to the charac-teristic forms of consciousness that generate them." s Bernard Lonergan, Method in Theology (2nd ed. reprint, University of Toronto Press, 1990), pp. 235-236. 6 Ibid, pp. 237-238. I add a few helpful quotations: "Horizontal lib-erty is the exercise of liberty within a determinate horizon and from the basis of a corresponding existential stance. Vertical liberty is the exer-cise of liberty that selects that stance and the corresponding horizon" (ibid, p. 40, with a reference to Joseph de Finance). "For falling in love is a new beginning, an exercise of vertical liberty in which one's world undergoes a new organization" (ibid, p. 122). "A horizontal exercise {of freedom] is a decision or choice that occurs within an established horizon. A vertical exercise is the set of judgments and decisions by which we move from one horizon to another" (ibid, p. 237). "Further, deliberate decision about one's horizon is high achievement. For the most part peo-ple merely drift into some contemporary horizon. They do not advert to the multiplicity of horizons. They do not exercise their vertical liberty by migrating from the one they have inherited to another they have dis-covered to be better" (ibid, p. 269). July-August 1994 533 JOAN MUELLER The Suscipe Revisited " J here~T~ is little doubt that one of the most famous excerpts .~- of the Ignatian Spiritual Exercises is the Suscipe--"Take, Lord, Receive." In recent years its popularity has increased through John Foley's musical rendition of the text? Those who have made a thirty-day or a nineteenth-annotation Ignatian retreat are likely to recognize this prayer: Take, Lord, and receive all my liberty, my memory, my understanding, and all my will--all that I have and possess. You, Lord, have given all that to me. I now give it back to you, 0 Lord. All of it is yours. Dispose of it according to your will. Give me your love and your grace, for that is enough for me.2 Directors of the Spiritual Exercises soon discover a variety of responses to the Suscipe. Some retreatants admit that they decide to what degree they pray it. The prayer feels like a radical, even reckless risk. Some, then, pray "to desire to desire" to enter into this prayer. Others simply decide to pray it with less intensity than they pray other prayers that feel less radical. Some retreatants report that the Suscipe begins to move through their consciousness like a mantra without their having any memory of deciding to pray it in this way; there is a passive, almost unconscious move-ment going on. Some people, however, pray the Suscipe with gusto, as if it is their greatest joy to make the words their own. Such people experience giving everything over to God as their true freedom. Joan Mueller OSF is assistant professor of systematic theology at Saint Francis Seminary and teaches in the summer spirituality program at Creighton University in Omaha, Nebraska. Her address is Saint Francis Seminary; 3257 South Lake Drive; Saint Francis, Wisconsin 53235. 534 Review for Religious Even though directors are well aware that the Exercises are designed to foster personal response to the gospel, we may won-der how one prayer can elicit such a variety of responses. We could probe this question by means of various methodologies: personality theories, enneagram numbers, prayer styles, and so forth. In this essay I propose examining the question through a consideration of the dynamics of the Exercises. A Dynamic Theory of the Spiritual Life The Ignatian Spiritual Exercises can be seen as a paradigm for spiritual growth. Many such paradigms exist in the Christian spir-itual tradition: St. Teresa of Avila's Interior Castle, St. John of the Cross's Ascent of Mount

Transcript of an oral history interview with Richard S. Schultz, conducted by Sarah Yahm at Norwich University on 8 April 2015, as part of the Norwich Voices oral history project of the Sullivan Museum and History Center. Richard Schultz was a member of the Norwich University Class of 1960; his interview focuses on discussion of his connections to Norwich University, his military service, and his law practice. ; 1 Richard Schultz, NU 1960, Oral History Interview April 8, 2015 Interviewed by Sarah Yahm SARAH YAHM: And you're bragging. (laughs) DICK SCHULTZ: That's what this is all about. SY: No, but it's not bragging, it's really just, but we'll, the whole point is it's sort of a casual conversation, so I'll ask questions and it's going to trigger your memory. And the point of oral history, too, is that it's not just like, you know, you've probably told the same stories a thousand times at dinner, you know. DS: Well, they get better as you -- SY: And you get better as you go along. But so, but maybe I'll ask a question that will make you rethink that story or remember another detail and things like that, you know. So that's kind of how it works. So anyway, so you're going to get, so for instance, you know, I interviewed somebody and, and I'm talking about, well, you'll get it back and you'll get to, you know, edit out things that are uncomfortable. So for instance, I've interviewed a bunch of the Iranian students who were here in the '70s, we're going to have to redact large parts of those interviews because if they ever want to go back to Iran, or their relatives in Iran, things need to be wiped out. Right? So there's that, which is serious, and then there's somebody who said something mean about her mother-in-law and was like, "You have to get that out of the tape!" right. So it spans the whole gamut. So let's get you close to this microphone, skooch in and close to the microphone. And then I have to test levels. So tell me what you ate for breakfast today. DS: Well, we had breakfast at the Capital Grill, I had two eggs, over light, some bacon, some good toast and several cups of coffee. SY: Oh my god, several cups of coffee. It's going to take me a lot to keep up with you. I haven't had my first sip of tea yet today. So you're going to be way faster than me, but that's okay. Hold on now, I'm checking my levels, okay, my levels are good. Your levels are good. okay. So I am here, what's the date? I should know that. But remember, you had the coffee. DS: Today's the eighth. SY: OK. So it's April 8th, I'm here at the Sullivan Museum and History Center with Richard Schultz, but you go by Dick, right? DS: Yes, I do. SY: With Dick Schultz, class of '60. DS: The great class of '60. SY: The great, so what made the class of '60 so great? DS: We're so active. Even the president, when he refers to us, we are the "great class of '60." SY: What do you think makes you so active? DS: Spirit, love of Norwich. SY: Yeah? So let's go back. So, well first of all, where were you born? DS: I was born in Brockton, Massachusetts. SY: OK, and when you were a kid, what did you want to be when you grew up?2 DS: An adult, I think. (laughs) I have no idea. I really had no idea as a very young child what I wanted to be. But this leads into Norwich because my father was a Reserve Army lieutenant colonel and I always saw the uniform. And I think as a kid, I wanted to have a uniform. And Dad was a Norwich graduate. And I'm a legacy. He was class of 1934. SY: Wow. Huh. And would he tell you stories about Norwich? DS: Not a lot. He would tell me that in 1934, before they marched to breakfast, they had to go down to the horse stable and take care of their horse. I remember that. SY: Yeah. So your dad was in World War II, I assume. DS: Yes. SY: Where did he serve? DS: He served in the States and in Europe. SY: Yeah. And so let's see, so you were probably a little kid when -- DS: Yeah, I was about seven years old when I really started to notice this. SY: How old were you when he was at war? Four? DS: Yeah, maybe four. SY: Yeah. Do you remember him coming home? DS: I remember coming home. I was, I think I came, after the war we came back to Brockton, Massachusetts, and I started the third grade. So what would you -- SY: But do you remember your dad coming home? Do you remember seeing him? DS: Not really. S: Not really? DS: No. S: Yeah, yeah. And did your mother move in with relatives while he was away? DS: Yes, yeah. SY: Yeah. That was a common thing to do, right? DS: Yep, common thing in those days, yeah. SY: OK, so your dad in uniform, so the military appealed to you. DS: It did, very much so. My dad was there. I had an uncle who served, saw a lot of combat in the Pacific theater and I had another uncle who died as a bombardier over Germany during World War II. SY: And did they talk about World War II, or was it not really discussed? DS: It wasn't discussed. SY: Because you know and again, we think a lot about PTSD nowadays. Do you think that the war, that your father struggled with memories -- DS: No, my father wasn't in actual combat. Not like my uncle who was in Japan, in New Guinea and Guadalcanal and that type of place. My father didn't see that type of combat. My uncle who did see a lot of combat never wanted to speak to it until I got to Norwich, then he would tell me some stories. SY: Really? What would he tell you? So he felt like you were sort of in the brotherhood? DS: Yeah, yeah. What would he tell me? Some of the atrocities that the Japanese committed upon the Philippines, the natives in the Philippines -- the rapes, the murders, the stuff that, that he saw. SY: Yeah, he witnessed that, yeah.3 DS: And he also saw, he also was a very lucky guy. Patrolling through the jungles of New Guinea, I think it was, he had a trained monkey that was on his shoulder and the monkey could somehow sense the Japanese in the area and would start to screech and give him, he was a lieutenant, give him some warning. And one day a Japanese sniper aiming for him shot the monkey off his shoulder. SY: No, he lost his monkey. He lived, but he lost his monkey. DS: He lived, the monkey died. SY: Oh. Happy but sad at the same time. (laughs) That was a good story. OK, so you're a kid, you're growing up in Brockton, Mass, and did you -- this is something I ask everybody -- did you play war as a kid? DS: Oh, I'm sure we did, absolutely. I'm sure we played war games. SY: But you don't remember them? DS: I don't remember them. I think we did, we played more than, war more than we played cops and robbers or Indians. SY: Cowboys and Indians, yeah. Well, it was a great generation post–World War II, it makes sense, yeah. OK. So tell me how you ended up choosing to go to Norwich. DS: Interesting story. I was not -- in high school I broke no academic records. I was just barely surviving. And Dad said, "I think it's time for you to go to Norwich," and in those days I think, I think it's probably not true, but I think as long as you had a pulse you could get into Norwich, OK. And I qualified with a pulse and not much more. And sure enough, I'm admitted to Norwich and I remember the first day I came here, Sarah. I drove up to the main gate in those days and I was 18 years old and I was driving the car, I'm a hot shot. Dad's in the front seat, Mom's in the backseat, kid sister is a couple years, three years younger, she's in the backseat. And I drove up to the gate and there was a cadet standing there and he had a couple of stripes on his arm. And I rolled down the window and I said, "Hey, where do you register?" he looked at me, no answer. And I said it quite, a lot louder, "Hey, where do you register?" no answer. Finally I whistled very loudly at him and he came over to the door and he put his nose through the door, right to my face and he said, "Mister, when you talk to me you call me 'sir,'" and my dad leaned over to me and he whispered in my ear, "I made it through this goddamn place and you'd better, too," my mother had tears in her eyes and my kid sister said that she thought that the cadet was very cute. (laughter) I remember that incident. SY: So you must have been, were you freaking out? Were you like, what the hell have I gotten myself into? DS: I was concerned. And at that point they separated us from our parents. (clears throat) They shaved our heads. And it's my recollection is they issued us an M-1, a rifle. SY: With no bullets. DS: No bullets. And we were told, "Never let it out of your sight," and "Say goodbye to your parents," and, "If you really behave yourself as a class and get recognized, maybe you'll get out of here for Thanksgiving, no guarantees," and then the parents were told to go down to the armory. And Ernie Harmon, Major General 4 Ernie Harmon was president of Norwich and my mother remembered that Ernie, who spoke with a real deep gravel voice said to the parents in essence, "Now why don't you all get the hell off my hill so that I can try to make men out of these pathetic boys." SY: Sounds like something Ernie Harmon would say. DS: That's exactly what he said. And that was it. They left and -- SY: Your father's like, what's going to happen to my little boy? DS: Absolutely, no question. That was my introduction. And I loved it. SY: Interesting. So when did you really start loving it? Right away? DS: I loved it the moment I got there. SY: Really? What did you love? DS: I loved the atmosphere, I loved the camaraderie, I loved the, everybody's doing the same thing, everybody's dressed the same way, nobody's different. SY: And what about that did you like? DS: I just liked the regimentation. I just felt that, this was made for me. And I also had the challenge. My father made it through, I could do it and I could have a better record than he did. SY: And do you think regimentation is part of why you didn't do so well in high school is that you didn't have enough regimentation? You think you were hungry for structure? DS: Oh, I'm a high school kid, you know, I'm chasing girls. I'm not interested in tomorrow's geometry assignment. That's no different than anybody is today, I think. But I loved Norwich. SY: So OK, so do you remember, OK, so you're getting your head shaved, right, so you're losing your precious hair. What are you thinking of while it's happening? Are you like, oh, I don't want to lose my hair? DS: I knew it was going to happen. It wasn't a surprise. SY: And then what about the first time somebody gets in your face and yells at you? DS: (laughs) It's all part of the orientation. You know, you know from day one that if you are a good cadet, a solid cadet, you're going to be in his shoes next year. You're going to have a couple of stripes on your sleeve and you're going to be yelling at next year's rooks. And it's all a big joke. SY: Yeah. Were there any kids who didn't make it? Do you remember? DS: Yes. Statistically, 51%, and I know this because I did some research on it, 51% of the cadets that entered with me in the class of 1960 did not graduate. SY: Wow, and did you -- DS: Now that is because of academics, because of military or because of honor code violations. So we lost 51%. SY: Did you lose any good friends? DS: Not that I can remember. I'm sure I knew them. Sometimes, I don't know if you, sometimes, I've bumped into my old roommate a couple of years ago at one of these reunions and he said to me, "Dick, do you remember the third guy that was in our room in Alumni Hall?" and I said to him, "Billy, we didn't have a third guy," he said, "Yes we did. He stayed only a couple of weeks and you and I woke up one morning and the bed was empty. He was gone," and I said, "You know, you're right."5 SY: You didn't know why, you didn't know -- DS: Just couldn't take it. SY: Yeah, just couldn't take it. So did you ever have moments of doubt, where you were like, am I going to be one of those kids? Or did you know you were fine? DS: I never dared to think that way. SY: Because your father would have killed you. DS: I was going to make it. It never occurred to me to leave. SY: Interesting. So what were your Norwich high moments and your Norwich low moments? DS: High moments, I think involved -- being here at Norwich, as a general thing, I was very proud of being here. I was very proud of the fact that all of the sudden I started to -- not immediately excel, but I started to handle my academic courses. I made good friends. That's something, Sarah, that I -- I think is so important about Norwich. The friends you make here in four years are lifetime friends. SY: Why do you think that is? DS: It's like no other college is, probably because of the fact it was a fulltime military school. Don't forget, in those days there were no women. Everyone, the draft was in, if you left Norwich your name, your deferment ended and you went right back into the draft. SY: So OK, but I'm confused. Because you're in that window post Korea, pre-Vietnam. Right? DS: Yes. SY: So there wasn't a draft (overlapping) -- DS: Oh there absolutely -- SY: There was? DS: There absolutely was a draft in 1960. The draft continued until just before Vietnam. Let's see, Vietnam blew up in 1963 or so. SY: Because that's, I've been confused about that, because I mean knew, and Korea ended when? Fifty? DS: Fifty-five, '56, no maybe '56. SY: So I thought there was a gap of, you know, I don't know, five some odd years where there wasn't a draft, but there was continually. DS: There was definitely a draft. And if you left Norwich, Norwich notified your draft board. SY: OK. And then you were going to go in without any control. DS: That's right. And you were not going in as an officer. SY: Right. Well that certainly makes leaving less appealing, too. So you were saying the friends you make at Norwich are the friends you make for life. DS: Yes. And that stayed, that's true as of today. We're a very, very tight group. Another high point, of course, would be graduation. My -- mother and father pinned my second lieutenant bars on. Dad gave me the first salute, I had to give him a dollar. Those are proud days. And academically I did well, I started to make the dean's list. SY: What was your major? DS: Business administration. I don't know if anyone's ever mentioned to you, but responsibility is something that they teach at Norwich. And cadet officers are 6 responsible for everything that happens or fails to happen under their watch. If a rook is not doing well academically, it's his captain's fault. And they would knock on your door during study hours and you'd better be seated at your desk reading a textbook and not a comic book. And there were certain hours that the upperclassmen were not allowed to bother you, academic hours, study hours. But once the study hours were over, then all hell broke loose. Then you're matched out into the halls and you're bracing and you're doing pushups and you're parading through the shower in nothing more than a raincoat and anything that the upperclassman can do to harass you. And then at a certain hour, get in your sack, go to sleep, it all starts again tomorrow morning. SY: Right, right. So did you end up taking on leadership positions in the Corps? DS: Yes. I was promoted my second year to cadet corporal. My third year I was cadet sergeant. My fourth year I was a cadet officer. SY: So what made, you think you learned how to be a good leader? DS: Absolutely. SY: So what made you a good leader? Do you remember a moment when you -- DS: No, there's not a moment. It's the combination of your training. The first thing a leader does is take care of his men. They're most important. Just because you have some stripes doesn't mean you can abuse anyone. And here at Norwich the rooks look at their cadet lieutenants and captains and majors and what have you and say, "That was me, they were me three years ago, four years ago," so that's something I have to aim for. SY: Mm-hmm. Yeah and did you feel, do you remember, I don't know, I was just thinking if there's a moment where you felt like you really excelled as a leader, and a moment when you felt like you failed as a leader? DS: I don't. I don't have specific instances. SY: OK, so we've talked about Norwich highs. And were there any Norwich lows? Failed tests to -- DS: Oh sure. But lows -- I'm hard pressed to tell you about any particular low. To me Norwich was just wonderful. I just could not have made a better choice, even though it probably wasn't my choice. SY: Did you get in trouble? DS: Everybody gets in trouble. Everybody walks tours. Everybody -- (laughs) I remember one time I, as a rook, I was coming up from the mess hall and rooks are not allowed to walk across the Parade Ground at that time. And I was in a hurry to go somewhere, I don't know. In any event, I started walking around, walking across the Parade Ground. And someone from a corner room in one of the, in the hall, I've forgotten the name of the, of it, right next to the -- the path, yelled at me and I turned around and I gave him the bird. And then next thing I knew there were two corporals escorting me up to the third floor room and I knocked on the door and I walked in and I never saw so many stripes in my life. This was a high-ranking junior cadet that I had just given the bird to. And he gave me demerits, that took me 10 hours to walk off. (laughs) Walk back and forth with a rifle. OK? And, but it's all in good spirit. SY: Yeah. What did you guys do for fun?7 DS: What did we do for fun? There were all kinds of clubs and activities. I'd have to go through the yearbook. SY: Were you a member of any? DS: Oh, yeah. And I don't remember, but I was a member of a number of clubs. And -- after the first year when you've got some freedom you could go to Montpelier. You'd grab a ride with an upperclassman, you didn't have a car. But you'd get to Montpelier and sometimes go to Vermont College, known as VC. SY: I was just going to say, what about the girls? DS: The girls, absolutely. Went to see the girls. And -- I don't know, we were so busy. SY: You didn't have much time for fun. DS: No. SY: Let's see. Who were your favorite professors? DS: By name? Oh boy. SY: Any that made an impression on you? DS: I liked most of the professors. I was a business major, I know I liked my English professor. SY: Was Loring Hart your English professor? DS: Yes. Yes, and subsequently president of Norwich. And I liked history. I liked the military professors. I won a prize as a freshman history, military history student. I was awarded a book as a prize, very nice. OK, that was about it. SY: All right. So it's getting to the end of Norwich, right, and you're about to commission. Right. So you know, where did you commission and what was that like? DS: Okay, okay. Let me back up a little bit. Before commission, in my class there were, some of us who thought we might like to go to graduate school. And we were ready to be commissioned and one of my buddies said to me that he was going down to Boston to take the law school admission test and I started to joke with him, I said, "What are you wasting your time for? You're not smart enough, you couldn't get into law school if you wanted to," he said, "I'll bet you $10 that you can't get into law school" and conditioned upon "if you do go down to take the LSATs, you've got friends at Boston University, you get us dates." I said, "Okay, you're on," so I called up my buddies at Boston University and I said, "Myself and a friend are coming down, we're taking the LSATs. We've got a three-day pass, we need dates," done, okay. So sure enough, we take the LSAT and both apply to BU and BC. We want to go to law school together. (clears throat) And he gets accepted at BC and waitlisted at BU. I get accepted at BU, waitlisted at BC. So that was the end of that. Also in my class another, two other guys went to law school, Doug Auer, who is now deceased, and Stan Brown, who is deceased. Stan and I roomed together in Boston. And we got our commissions with the rest of the class and we became what Alden Partridge who founded the school for, we became citizen soldiers. We had, we had, I was offered a regular Army commission, because I was a distinguished military student, which is a certain level of, of that and I turned it down, the regular Army commission, in order to go to law school. The Army said 8 to all of us who went to graduate school, there was also a couple of doctors and a dentist, out of our entire class that was it who went to graduate school, excuse me. And the condition was, yes, you can go to graduate school provided you're in the active Reserve while you're in graduate school. That means that each week you go to a meeting and you go to summer camp during the time you're in law school. Now we're second lieutenants. Which is fine. And that system worked out just great. Then I graduated from the law school. SY: Now hold on a sec. Hold on a second. Because it sounds like you sort of went to law school on a lark. You were like, I'll see if I can get in. DS: Yeah. SY: And then you're like learning tort law and was there a part of you that was like, why did go down and take those LSATs? Or did you discover that you really liked it? DS: Nobody likes law school. Anybody who tells you they enjoyed law school is full of baloney. SY: That is true. I've heard that before. DS: Okay. I think -- I did what was necessary to graduate from the law school. At that point I had no idea what I was going to do. I knew I could have my regular Army commission if I wanted it. And I -- I was just -- I didn't know what I wanted to do with the law degree. And I had to go in the Army, I owed the Army two years of active duty. The Army then came to me and said, "Well, Lieutenant Schultz, you are a Norwich guy, which we like, and a lawyer. You've passed the Massachusetts bar. We're going to make you an instant captain and we're going to put you in the JAG Corps, which is Army lawyers. And I said to them, "No you're not. I have had college right up to here. I don't want to be behind a desk. In the Pentagon or someplace like that. I am a commissioned armored officer and I want to be in tanks," and they said, "Well, it's up to you," I said, "That's right, it is," and so I said, "Where are you going to station?" and this is where the Norwich, what they call the "Norwich Ring Knockers Club" comes from, okay. Norwich takes care of Norwich. And they said, well, "I see that Norwich, well, we can make you this offer. You can stay at Fort Knox, Kentucky and be an instructor," I said, "That's not interesting to me," "Would you like to go to Korea?" I said, "Well, you know, that's a possibility, "Well, would you like to go to Germany?" I said, "Sold, OK, Germany sounds great, send me to Germany," and so a matter of a few weeks after graduating from law school, I reported to Fort Knox, Kentucky, I did some training in Kentucky and then they shipped me off to Germany. Which were, among, Norwich and my active duty time were the most formative years of my life. Both in a very positive sense. I reported to my commanding officer, who was at that time Colonel Frank B. Clay, son of Lucius Clay, who was a famous World War II general and in charge of Germany after the German surrender. Well, Colonel Clay, I went into his office and he has all my, he has my what they call a 201 file, he has my file on his desk and he said, "I'm so glad you're from Norwich," he said, "I am a very busy guy. The only officers I want in this unit are West Point, Norwich, VMI and the Citadel. I don't have time for the others," I 9 said, "Yes, sir," I'm assigned to what is called the Second Armored Cav which is a very, very prestigious outfit. SY: That's my phone. I'm sorry. DS: That's OK. I wanted to ask you if we're doing all right. SY: We're doing great, we're doing great. I'm getting really interested in hearing your stories in Germany. I just have my phone -- DS: Am I getting too detailed? SY: No, no, no, no. This is great. I want to hear about all this stuff. By the way, what did this, your commanding officer, what did he think Norwich grads had that other officers didn't have? DS: OK, we back on? SY: Yeah, yeah. I never actually paused it. Kept it going. Edit out. DS: Well, Colonel Clay, one of the most respected leaders I've ever met, I just loved him, he became a major general -- he wanted the training that came from a military college. He didn't want the ROTC. So anyway, I was about to tell you, the Second Armored Cav is a unit where in, where regular officers go to what is called "get their ticket punched for higher advancement." How in the world they took a reserve officer like me, with a law degree and put me in the Second Cav is beyond me, it belonged to somebody who was going to make a career out of the Army. And it was a wonderful assignment -- we were on what is called the, what was the East German / West German / Czechoslovakian border, known as the tri-zonal point. On one side is a minefield with watchtowers and East German / Russian soldiers looking at us through binoculars and we're patrolling a dirt path, fully armed, which made it a very, very unusual outfit after, in the Cold War. Fully armed, reading to protect ourselves and our only job as border patrol people was to give early warning in case they came over the border. We were much too small a unit to stop them -- our job was just to say, "They're coming, get the hell out," and -- it was so much more interesting than a garrison job because this is something that was very, very necessary and important in the Cold War. SY: So what was a normal day like? DS: Well, you went out on the border for a month at a time and you stayed, after a month you rotated back to your home, "concern" it was called. And you stayed there for two months and then you'd go back out again. What was it like? You lived out in the woods. You slept out there. You patrolled 24 hours, 24/7. You had listening posts. And -- you made sure that they didn't come over. SY: What was a listening post? DS: It was really very, very close to the border with microphones, to see if anybody was trying to sneak over the border. SY: So did you catch anybody sneaking over? DS: I never did. SY: You never did. DS: No. SY: So OK. So were there also any civilians attempting, they wouldn't cross at that point, that point to cross, there were tons of people with guns.10 DS: Yeah, yeah, but there's tons of crazy people. Don't forget, a border is a two-way street. It keeps them out and it keeps us in. So we didn't, we didn't have much of a problem. But we were ready in case there was a problem. SY: Was there ever a time when you thought you guys were going to -- DS: There was a couple of scary times. SY: Tell me about those. DS: One time, you've got to picture, you're in a Jeep. And you're not very well protected. You're patrolling this dirt path. And all of a sudden we heard (machine gun SFX) and we saw about 100 yards in front of us the dirt kick up. Well, if I'm going to, my grandmother, if she wanted to shoot us, wouldn't miss by a 100 yards. They had no intention of hurting us. It was harassment. But we were right there in so-called front lines. So we make a telephone call to Air Force jet fighters who are constantly monitoring the border and we give them coordinates and in a matter of a few minutes, along comes this jet fighter, zooms right over our heads and stays on our side of the border, but makes a ton of noise. And what does that do? One, it scared the daylights out of us, but we knew they were coming. He was coming. And second, it showed whoever fired on the other side that this is not just a Jeep, it's the United States of America. And we're going to protect our people. So this was the type of thing. And -- SY: Any other scary things? DS: Yeah, there was one other one. I was patrolling the border and there was a -- a train, a train trestle on top, a little bit of a tunnel, tunnel is just the width of a train and I came up on my side of the tunnel and my counterpart, an East German or a Russian, came on the other side and we just simultaneously looked at each other through the tunnel. And before I could do anything, my gunner, who was right over my head with a machine gun, turned the gun toward the Russian or East German and all I heard was click, click, click, he armed the machine gun and before I could say a word I was thinking, don't shoot, don't shoot, don't start World War III, and the Russian on the other side looked at me and yelled, "Amerikanisch cigarette? Amerikanisch cigarette?" and I yelled, "Nein, nein," and I told the driver, "Move," and that was the whole, the whole thing. SY: Interesting. So he was actually, he, huh, he actually thought you guys might be able to connect. DS: Oh, what we wanted me to do was throw him a pack of American cigarettes. SY: Cigarettes, for sure, but still -- (laughs) DS: Yeah, but he was not the good guy. SY: OK. So you're out in the field. You have a couple of incidents like this. DS: Yeah, but that's over a two-year period. SY: Right, most of it is probably boring. DS: It was fun. It was fun. SY: How did you guys entertain yourselves? DS: We were single. And the exchange rate was four to one. I think we were being paid somewhere around $230 a month as lieutenants, times four, makes us rich. We could buy anything. On the German economy. A Volkswagen cost $600. A Mercedes I think was somewhere under $2,000, maybe $1,800. OK? We were 11 very wealthy guys. I roomed with a fellow who's a West Pointer, we lived off base. We had a poodle dog who rode in our tank. We both had Volkswagens. SY: Wait, wait, wait. You had a poodle who rode in your tanks? DS: Oh, absolutely. He was the tank commander. (laughs) SY: That's hilarious. DS: Yep. And he came to work. And when we weren't out in the border, he came to work with me every day. He was very good. And toward about I would say -- oh, six, nine months before my tour ended, Colonel Clay came to me and he said, "I need an assistant S-1, which is a personnel officer at regiments. Would you like to come up to Nuremberg and work in the headquarters?" I said, "Sure," and he, I moved up from a town called Bamberg to Nuremberg and I was a regimental assistant S-1, which is personnel. And that's when my roommate and I lived together in Nuremberg and it was a good life. Yeah. SY: It sounds like it. DS: Oh, it was not roughing it. And after my time came up and I rotated home and that's when we get back to Brockton. SY: Yeah. And had you thought about staying in at that point? DS: Yes, I did think about it. This Vietnam had -- I couldn't point out Vietnam on a map, this was 1962, I'm sorry, mistake, 1965. And I -- we didn't even know where Vietnam was. Everything was nice and quiet, it was good. And I always thought of staying in, but then with the law degree and my parents were so happy their son was a lawyer, I came back to Brockton. And started a law practice. In those days, this was 50 something years ago, in those days you could do that, you could hang out a shingle and you could say, "Here I am, I'm a lawyer, I'm very well known," the name is known in Brockton -- I became an assistant district attorney. I prosecuted because of connections, that happens. I prosecuted some attempted murder cases, rape cases, things like that. And then I decided, time to go to work for myself. And opened an office and defended the serious felonies. And divorces and breach of contract and what a general practicing lawyer does. And I enjoyed it very much. SY: Yeah. What did you like best? Did you like being a prosecutor? Did you like being defense? Did you like? DS: I enjoyed both ends of it. I didn't stay a prosecutor very long. Just long enough to get what they call "experience at government expense," that's how you learned to try a case. Let the government pay you to screw up their assault case, rather than let the client pay you and say you're the worst lawyer he's ever had. SY: There you go. DS: So let the government pay for it. So then we start to practice law. And I'm still single. And now I've got, now I'm 28 years old. And I'm talking to my, about one of my very, very, very close friends, who's now married and I had met his girlfriend before I, while I was in law school, I said, "How about that girl you were dating when I was in law school? She married?" he said, "No, she's not married, I think I still have her number," then he gives me her number, I call her up, I make a date with her, she remembered having met me and we get married. And we've been married now for 49 years. Two children. One lives an hour from us in Massachusetts in Sharon, two grandchildren. And another one lives in 12 McLean, Virginia, which is an airplane ride. And he has two children. So that's jumping the gun, that's getting the children, but I think you probably want to know what I did in my law practice. SY: Yeah, I want to go back to Germany for a second. Because I think, you know, one of the benefits of getting someone from a place like Norwich, right, is in addition to the military training, you've also taken some history classes, right, taken some English classes and maybe taken a sociology class or two, so when you were in Germany, did you have a sense of like the politics or what was going on? Were you thinking about that? Or were you just kind of just keeping your head down? DS: The German politics? SY: No, the politics of the Cold War. Were you like sort of aware of the role you were playing in US foreign policy, were thinking about that when you were in Germany? DS: This was very much the Cold War and the answer to your question is definitely yes and it brings to mind a very serious incident that happened. I was there when President Kennedy was assassinated and I remember being in the officer's club after hours and don't forget, this is a time when there was no Internet, no telephone communication, no news that, you didn't know what was going on. And the officer of the day came into the officer's club and very dramatically, just almost like you would see in the movies, went to the bar, took a piece of silverware and banged on a glass for quiet. And I remember that he said, "Gentlemen, the president of the United States has been shot," we didn't even know if he was alive, OK, "Everybody man your battle stations," we did not know if this was a Russian conspiracy. We had no idea what had happened and we all got in our tanks and we all rushed to our stations on the border, the entire regiment went to the border. And our guns were loaded and they were pointed toward Russia, so to speak. And we sat there for three days not knowing what had happened to Kennedy and finally the word came out that Kennedy had died and that this was not a conspiracy from the Warsaw Pact and everybody returned to their base. Very scary. And just like in the movies. SY: Yeah. And did you sort of live with this fear that World War III was going to start? I mean, you're right on this border, you see everybody armed, the Cold War is quite literal to you and it's not so cold. DS: It's a terrible, psychological and dumb feeling when that happens. Because here you are trained to do a job and we sat out there and everyone had the feeling, we hope this is a war because we're Americans, we're the good guys, we're going all the way to Moscow, nobody can stop us, bullets will bounce off us, we've got the white horse. What an immature, dumb mindset. But that was the feeling. Let us go. We'll teach these sons of bitches that shot our president a lesson. SY: And you think that's just being 24? DS: That's being 24 and macho. SY: Oh, yeah. So it's interesting, it's sort of amazing to me thinking about this border with sort of armed kids on either side.13 DS: Eighteen year olds. SY: Both feeling that way and you know, it sort of seems like the Cold War could have gotten hot accidentally very quickly. DS: Oh, no question about it. SY: Why do you think it didn't? DS: Leadership. Leadership. At the officer level. The lieutenants knew that it would be their necks if they fired the first shot. And the training that the officers gave the enlisted personnel -- "You don't have to agree with me, but do what I say. And I'm telling you, you don't fire the first shot," and it worked. SY: Do you think you were a good leader? DS: The Army thought I was. I was promoted to captain. I was recognized as a good leader. SY: Sounds like you were a good leader. DS: I think I was. I did my best. I did my best. And when I came back from, when I came back and I decided to practice law, I still owed the Army some time, Reserve time. So I stayed in an additional Reserve unit and for a total of seven years commission time. Two years on active duty and five in the Reserves. Three during law school, two years active duty and two more. SY: And were you scared that you would have to go to Vietnam? DS: No. SY: No, because you were -- DS: No, they didn't need me at that point. SY: Okay, so let's talk about your law practice. How do you think your training at Norwich and your time in the service affected who you were as a lawyer? DS: Good question. How did it affect? I was very surprised that when I came back in 1965, you couldn't, a lawyer couldn't advertise. The rules have changed. You could put an ad in the paper saying you're opening an office, but that was the extent of it. So the only way a lawyer could get to be known as a practitioner was frankly to run for political office and hope to lose. (laughter) Because you don't want the job anyway. And that's what I did. There were -- three openings on the Brockton School Committee and there were six candidates, I was one. Being a candidate permitted me to advertise my credentials in the paper and to go to the League of Women Voters and this club and that club and talk to people. And at Election Day, thank goodness there were three openings, I came in fourth. Thank god, because I didn't want the job. But I advertised and I found that World War II veterans, Korean veterans were very interested in a Cold War veteran. And Norwich, to the military, whether you're a Norwich guy or an enlisted soldier, it means something. It's got credentials. Everybody goes to Boston University and Boston College and Harvard Law. In all my practice no one ever came into my office and said, "Before I hire you I want to know what law school you went to," never ever once asked that question. But if they saw my Norwich diploma on the wall and they wanted to talk about it. SY: Hm. Do you think it's that because lawyers have reputations at times for being like shysters, right? DS: Oh, absolutely.14 SY: So do you think they were like, okay, maybe this guy has integrity because he has this background (overlapping dialogue; inaudible)? DS: Maybe that was their thinking, I can't get in their heads, but I think to a lot of my clients, businessmen and defendants as well, the Norwich diploma on the wall didn't hurt. SY: Yeah. Hey, what case are you most proud of? DS: I can't pick one. I really can't pick out, that goes back too far, I've been gone a long time. But -- and I also, I'm also thinking in, you know, this idea of Citizen Soldier. SY: Yeah, let's talk about that. DS: I also became very involved in Brockton itself. I was appointed a member of the Brockton Planning Board, the zoning board, the Consumer Protection Agency. I was president of the Jewish Community Center in Brockton and it evolved into a larger geographical area, the South Area Jewish Community Center. I just volunteered my time, not only because it's the right thing to do, but it was the right thing to give back to the community. SY: So hold on. I didn't realize you were Jewish. So now I have some questions. So first of all, what was it like to be a Jew at Norwich in the late '50s? There weren't that many. DS: There weren't that many. Good question. SY: I should have -- Schultz, I should have -- I thought about German, yeah. DS: Yeah, no big. There weren't a lot but there were some. I can't remember a single incident at Norwich of anti-Semitism. As far as my friends were concerned, that never ever came up. I was extreme comfortable. SY: Interesting. And did you go, let's see, because on Sundays people go to chapel, but there's a synagogue in Burlington. DS: There also, in my time was one in Randolph. SY: Really? DS: Yeah. I don't know if there is there anymore. SY: I don't think so. DS: But there was a rabbi in Randolph and there were, I would say maybe 20, 25 Jewish students. And we arranged for the rabbi to come up here and conduct services for holidays, right here on campus. SY: So you would do like Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur. DS: Yeah, if we weren't home, the rabbi would come up. But specifically to answer your question, it never was a problem. SY: Now that's interesting. I also interviewed a woman in town, Phyllis Greenway, and she remembered a song that one of the fraternities sang. This wasn't an anti-Semitic song, it was a funny song, that sort of had like a vaudeville flavor that involved a Jewish student, I don't remember what it was, but you don't remember a song? DS: No, but she, what was her position? SY: Phyllis? Oh, she was the girlfriend and then the wife of a Norwich student, and I think he lived in a house off campus and they had a -- okay, so -- DS: Was he a civilian?15 SY: No, no. He was, OK, wait, hold on. So then I think you being in Germany has a whole different valence. This is post Holocaust, you're this Jewish kid, you're going to Germany, right? DS: Yeah. SY: I mean first of all your parents were probably like, what the hell are you doing? DS: No, the only instruction my parents had was, "Don't bring home the daughter of a Nazi." (laughter) SY: They said don't bring home a shiksa, don't bring home a Nazi shiksa, that's it. (laughs) DS: Right, right, right. SY: But here you are in Germany. You're dating all these German girls. You're enjoying the German life. Did you think about being a Jew in Germany? DS: No, no, no. It's a very interesting thing, no. We, my roommate and I visited Dachau. And we were, of course, he wasn't Jewish but he was from West Point and one of my closest friends to this day and it just, Sarah, was never an issue. SY: It doesn't sound like it was something you were thinking about that (overlapping) -- DS: I wasn't thinking about it. I was very aware of the fact that when an American officer, emphasize "officer," walked down the streets of Germany in 1963 and if the street was narrow, the German citizen would give way to the American officer. They're very conscious of a caste system. This is going to be very difficult to describe, I think in this oral history, but the other thing that I remember to this day is when we drove our tanks down some of the narrow roads of Germany in 1963 and there's still some damage, everything had not been built up, if the scene had been transposed from Germany to the United States, an American seven- or eight-year-old kid seeing a tank go by would wave to the tank, the tank would wave back to the kid. In Germany the 10-year-old kid doesn't wave, he raises his right hand to the tank. In the salute. And we were very conscious of that. How they get that -- SY: And it's the Sieg Heil salute, right? So did it -- DS: Yeah. It was a tank. Germans love tanks. They've got tank mentality. They'd rather have a tank than 10 Mercedes. Yeah, they didn't, we were very conscious that the German kid did not wave, he saluted. SY: So it was a militaristic society. Yeah, yeah. And did you, when you were sort of hanging out with German girls, did you mention that you were Jewish? Or was it something, did it not come up? You didn't think about it. DS: Never thought about it. If they knew, fine, who cares? SY: Interesting. And did you, you were there for nine months. Did you celebrate any holidays? DS: Oh, I was there for 18 months. SY: For 18 months. So did you celebrate any holidays there? DS: Oh, yeah. SY: So where did you go? DS: Right there on the post. SY: There were enough men for a minyan.16 DS: Oh yes, absolutely. Are you Jewish? Oh, I didn't realize that. How do you spell your last name? SY: Yahm, Y-A-H-M. DS: YHM? SY: Y-A-H-M. We don't know, we don't know where it comes from. Sea in Hebrew but, yeah. DS: So this must be interesting to you, then. SY: Oh yeah, very interesting. That's why I was like, wait a second. I didn't realize that. Yeah, yeah, so that's interesting. But there are no, I mean but you weren't worshiping out in the community, you weren't going to like a synagogue in the community, there weren't any. DS: No. There weren't any. I wouldn't have understood them anyway. They'd be in German. Yeah. I should have known, bring home a shiksa, I should have picked that up. SY: You said the shiksa, exactly. (laughter) DS: Okay. SY: And that's interesting, too, because your dad was in career military, that was -- DS: No, he was a Reservist. SY: He was Reservist, but still, that was unusual for a Jewish man in that era. DS: Yeah. SY: Yeah, so how did he -- DS: I don't think he had any trouble. SY: But I mean, how did he get into that path? Like where did your family come from? Did you immigrate? Like what was the deal? DS: The usual story from Poland, from Russia. He's first generation, I'm second generation. He came to Norwich on an academic scholarship, my dad did. And I don't think he had any clue what he was getting into. But I think he -- was of a mindset that nobody's going to throw him out of here. SY: So he was a public school kid who did well and got the scholarship? DS: Yeah. SY: And this is in Brockton? This is in Brockton? DS: Yeah, in Brockton, yeah. Class of 1934, look him up in the yearbook. SY: Interesting. Okay. So he gets a scholarship, he gets up here, he's being sent into the WASPy wasteland, right? And then here he is and he did well and then he stayed in the military. DS: Reserve. SY: Reserves. DS: Don't confuse them. Reserve. Yeah, and then he got called up right after Pearl Harbor. SY: Okay. And then what did he do for a living? DS: He was in the real estate business. And -- Brockton at that time was a town of about 55,000 people. Everybody knew everyone. Everyone knew everyone who was entitled to be known. You walked down the street, it was safe. Today it's a city of well over 100,000 people. If you walk down the streets of Brockton you'd better have a flack vest and a helmet on. Because it's a tough town. But it's changed, yeah.17 SY: Has that been sad for you? DS: I'm sorry? SY: Has that been sad for you, to see your hometown change? DS: Yeah, yeah, it was too bad. Good for business. A lot of criminal work. (laughs) SY: There you go. (laughs) DS: What are you going to do? (laughter) So, want me to continue? SY: Yeah, yeah. DS: OK. So anyway, I'm very, very proud and loyal with Norwich. I think these formative years here are just invaluable. I started a Norwich Club on Cape Cod, for Rook Sendoff, you've heard of those. We started the first year with about 15 people in attendance. We now have over 200 that come to, it's the largest sendoff in the country. Rich Schneider comes down, he stays at my house, OK. Or at General Sullivan's house. Gordy lives about five miles from me. SY: Oh, he's out on the Cape, too? DS: Yeah, he's got a summer home. SY: Oh, I didn't know that. And you guys were in school together at Norwich. DS: He was class of '59. He lived across the hall. SY: Hah. Were you buddies? DS: So much, not close. Became better friends later. Carlo D'Este, who I mention, Carlo, if you look up Carlo, he was class of '58, he runs the Colby Symposium. He lives five miles from me. And Rich doesn't always stay at my house. One time he couldn't stay at Sully's. But he and Jamie come down. SY: And this is Falmouth. DS: Falmouth. Yeah. So we start the club and we got so large a few years ago that we had to change venues because we were afraid the fire marshal was going to come in and close us down. We have a golf tournament. Good leadership. I formed this club, I got this club going and then I got a successor, so I'm no longer president. This is good leadership. Yiddishe cup. SY: I was just going to say, (laughter) you're using your noggin. (laughter) DS: So what else can I -- I served on the Board of Fellows at Norwich. SY: (phone rings) Hold on, it's going to pass in a second. We're just going to wait. Have to wait 30 seconds for it to pass. Dadadadada to my phone. I should have put it on silent but I forgot. There we go. Delegating. Yiddishe cup, that's where we were. DS: (laughs) Oh, I served two terms on the Board of Fellows. Loring Hart appointed me. And I come up here with the great class of 1960 for, every year we have a mini-reunion. And I am very, very honored. I'm only a captain. Everybody in my class is a colonel and I am the guy that leads them onto the Parade Ground, okay, with The Guidon. You've probably seen these parades. That's nice. We're very tight, we're a very close group. SY: What do you think a Citizen Soldier brings to society? Like what you do think, versus somebody who's a career military guy, like how do you think your perspective is different? Because Alden Partridge was like, "We don't want a standing army, we want citizen soldiers," right? DS: Yeah. SY: What are your thoughts about that?18 DS: I think we need Citizen Soldiers. The mindset is different. The Citizen Soldier in business can't simply say, "This is an order, do it," because he's going to get nowhere. He has to be probably a little bit more diplomatic. He has to remember who he's talking to. He has to cajole, beg, borrow and barter. The career army officer that's wearing eagles on his shoulder or stars might have a more difficult time coming back into business because he's not used to asking for anything. But yet they do very well. The smart career officer that retires, especially one who has been in the Pentagon, retires with his Rolodex and can work wonders in military business. And there's an old saying in business, that you know you're important when people return your phone calls. And people return phone calls to generals and colonels. They don't necessarily return phone calls to the lawyer. Because they don't know if they're being sued or what's going on. SY: Or if they're going to get charged for it. (laughs) DS: That's right, that's right. That's right. But I think in retrospect, if you had asked me, what would I change -- I think I would answer you by saying, "Not a damn thing." SY: Hey, that's a good way to view your life, huh? DS: I think that I wouldn't, I would not change anything. I am very, very proud of my association with Norwich. Excuse me. I am extremely proud of my children. They've done very, very well. They're college graduates with advanced degrees. Neither one decided, wanted any part of Norwich. Maybe because of the information that I've given you today. It's kind of tough for a legacy because you want to do better than your predecessor and this is very self-serving, but I think I would be a tough act for them to follow. And I think that was, that was -- grandchildren are doing very well, one's in college. Another one is a tremendous athlete that's never met a sport he doesn't like. The others are kind of young right now. We have a wonderful relationship. My marriage is wonderful. It's, in fact it's one of those situations where my wife was saying to me the other day, "Some days I'm mad as hell at you and could kill you, but I could never live without you," and I thought that was pretty nice. SY: That was very sweet. DS: Yeah. What else can I tell you? SY: I don't know, that's good. And I also, we've been, I want to make sure you can get up to the president's house. DS: Oh, he'll wait. (laughs) SY: Oh yeah, all right. Because you're from the amazing class of 1960. DS: No, I will be on time, I've got time. SY: Yeah, I know, you sort of -- DS: I have such respect for Rich Schneider. I think he is the best thing that has ever, ever happened at Norwich. I think we're going to hard pressed when he retires. And hopefully we can pressure him not to. (laughs) SY: I'm not sure that he feels that way. (laughs) DS: No, I don't either. SY: Let's see. We talked a little about Citizen Soldier, we talked a little bit about service. And it seems like you talked about service to your community in 19 Brockton. Do you think service was something you learned at Norwich? But it also was something you learned growing up. DS: Yes. Service to the community. I owe the community. The community was very good to me. The community -- the community not only was good professionally, but I think respected what I do, who I am, where I've been. Everybody knows that I was in the service, everybody knows I was a Norwich guy. Where I live now, I wear by Norwich sweatshirts. I'm a Norwich ambassador, I love talking to potential students. I go out of my way to meet with them. SY: What advice would you give a rook coming in now? DS: The advice I give them is if you haven't been up to the campus on the hill, call the admission office, arrange for a tour and see what it is. See what you're getting into. I do not have much contact with civilian students. I'm not a big advocate of the civilian population, which comes from, where I'm coming from. But not that I turn them down or anything, but I just don't go out of my way. I'm much more interested in the kid that wants to be a cadet. SY: I don't know. Any last closing thoughts? Are we? DS: A closing thought? I hope this has been helpful. SY: Very helpful. DS: I hope it's not too abstract. I can't imagine why anyone would want to listen to it. SY: Everybody feels that way. DS: Do they really? Okay. SY: I bet if General Sullivan were sitting here he'd be like, "Why does anybody want to hear about my life?" DS: He is so smart. He is so polished. When General Sullivan speaks, do you remember an old ad that used to be on television, people are in a dining room and one, one table over there says, "My stockbroker is Merrill Lynch and they say," and then the whole screen goes silent in the dining room. When Gordon Sullivan speaks, people listen. He is so smart, so polished and such a wonderful person. SY: Was he like that at 20? DS: Yeah, good guy, good guy. Everybody liked him. SY: Yeah. So you weren't like, he has the authority to -- DS: He was a buck private. SY: I know. DS: Okay? Nobody thought he'd make corporal. When he got commissioned there was a, "Really?" (laughter) SY: A nice guy, but I didn't think that was going to happen. DS: Right. SY: So funny, you never know. Right? DS: Right. SY: You never know. All right, well I think, I think that's about it for my questions. I enjoyed this. DS: Okay. SY: Are you eating wheat this week? Or are you not eating -- DS: No, I've got some medical problems. I have -- END OF AUDIO FILE

Issue 59.4 of the Review for Religious, 2000. ; )ULY: AUGUST 2000 VOLUME 59 NUMBER 4 to Gbd~s ,univerial call, to holiness by ~n~aking available :to tb~mJtbe~piritual legaHes }bat flow from tbe cbarism~ of Catbolic ~onse~ated life:, Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bimonthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: foppema@slu.edu Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP P.O. Box 29260; ~VVashington, D.C. 20017 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©2000 Re'biew for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (article~, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. LIVING OUR CATHOLIC LEGACIES Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Advisory Board David L. Fleming sJ Clare Boehmer ASC Philip C. Fischer sJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm James and Joan Felling Adrian Gaudin SC Kathryn Richards FSP Joel Rippinger OSB Bishop Carlos A. Sevilla SJ ¯ Patricia Wittberg SC JULY AUGUST 2000 VOLUME 59 NUMBER 4 contents 342 women religious Another Window on the Crisis in Women's Communities Mary Anne Foley CND presents the renewal of women's communities as a work in progress which faces the challenge to move beyond .present viewpoints in order to see a fuller truth. 358 A Path of Humility and Truth: Historical Reminiscence Bernadine Pieper CHM shares her experience of being in leadership at the time of Vatican II changes. 368 finding God Einding God's WiII--A Maneuver W. Henry Kenney Sj describes a process for finding God's will by popping loaded questions to God in prayer and noticing the pattern of desolations or consolations. 379 Consulting Your Inner Wisdom Hilary Ottensmeyer OSB guides us to the central core of ourselves where we hear the echoes of the voice of Jesus and of all the good people who have been examples of faith and good conduct for us. Review for Religious religious vocations Tell Them, Tell the New Members. Eileen P. O'Hea CSJ proposes the need to share with younger members of congregations hints about what is most central to religious life: the mystery of divine intimacy. 396 Sister Moms: Something Old, Something New Louise Cababe OP reports on the contemporary phenomenon of women, having been married and having raised a family, bringing a new and beautiful experience to religious congregations. 399 Vocational Confidence Donald Macdonald SMM sketches out an environment of vocational confidence whei'e vocations are invited, expected, challenged, and supported. 410 prayer perspectives Praying through Sleep A. Paul Dominic SJ explores various relationships between our sleeping and our praying. 420 Toward a Spirituality of Weariness Michael D. Moga SJ considers some of the paths that lead to spiritual treasures hidden in the areas of our exhaustion and weariness. departments 340 Prisms 430 Canonical Counsel: Exceptions to Duration of the Canonical Novitiate 435 Book Reviews July-August 2000 prisms Te jubilee year we are cele-brating provides us a challenge to our observance of the Sabbath. Sabbath has always been identified with the seventh day--the day of the Lord's rest after the six days' work of creation as depicted in chapter one of.the Book of Genesis. The Christian tradition reidentified the Lord's day with the resurrection victory of Jesus, bringing to fullness the work of redemption. The idea of refraining from work has often received greater attention even though the church has always identified "making holy" the Lord's day--Sunday--by the twofold obligation of celebrating the Eucharist and doing no servile work. Of course, there h~s been a lot of moral casuistry applied to the meaning of servile work, so much, perhaps, that the focus on God slipped because of the overwhelming emphasis on human activity--what was right, what was wrong, how long or how drudging could the work be, and so On. Pe.rhaps this year of jubilee can be a call to us to mov~ beyond the casuistry and to recapture the spirit of the Sabbath. Sabbath means, above all, a chosen awareness of spending time with God. If we are to spend time with God, then we have to take time for ourselves--not just time filled up with more "doing," even .with passive sporting events or active participations in games, but time which we describe so well today in terms of just "being." Sabbath is meant to be a deeply humane time because then God can become more active in us. Sabbath points to the movement of the oft-quoted expression of St. Irenaeus: "God's glory is the human being come fully alive, and seeing God is what human life is." Review for Religqous Eucharist belongs to the Christian Sunday observance because we celebrate God's glory shining out in the victorious risen Jesus, the firstborn of the new creation. But what else for us belongs to our Sabbath observance? What enhances our relationship with God? In other words, how do we devote time to making ourselves more humane--loving, compassionate, wise, generous, available, shar-ing- so that God's glory does shine out now through us? When we truly observe the Sabbath, we are more and more like the sacra-ments of God that our Christian vocation calls us to be. Another viewpoint. In the northern hemisphere, vacation time is upon us. Vacation, being personal rest time, shares in the sabbath notion. We sometimes refer to spiritual retreats as "vacations with God." Retreats, of course, take their focus from considering our relation with God. But would we be acting more Christian if we viewed ordinary vacation time through a prism similar to our Sunday observance? Vacation time does not need to be spent "reli-giously," performing devotional prayers and acts. But would it not be appropriate for us Christians to spend our recuperative and relaxing time with a more spiritual focus? Vacation means a time of "emptying out" (of mental cobwebs and secular preoccupations) and a "leaving space" (for attention to an ever present and loving God) in the ordinariness of our life. "Keep holy the sabbath day," then, should draw our attention not to what is to be avoided, but to what enhances our relationship with God, with ourselves, with our neighbor, and with our world. Those relationships are meant to be observed together, as a whole, when we speak of "keeping holy." Keeping holy deals with all our relationships viewed in the light of God and Jesus Christ. 'When we keep holy, we move with the Spirit. We let ourselves be moved by the Spirit--with all those with whom we converse, in all things we do. Jubilee, sabbath, and our secular vacation all find their mean-ing in the one reality of celebrating God in our life. This millen-nium year is the opportunity to remember thht jubilees, sabbaths, and vacations come to us not by some kind of law or right, but by gift--the gift of God. These time periods remind us to take stock and enjoy the God-with-us now so that we take from these "moments" the realized promise and consolation of our lifetime with God forever. ¯David L. Fleming SJ 37uly-August 2000 women MARY ANNE FOLEY Another Window on the Crisis in Women's Communities religious Last year I spent much of Holy Week working my way through Ann Carey's Sisters in Crisis: The Tragic Unraveling of Women's Religious Communities.l The book's reviews did not make me anxious to read it, but I felt obliged to do so. For some years most of my research has focused on the history of religious communities of women, and my concerns about initiating new members have forced me to confront questions about the future of this way of life. Moreover, having lived through the tumultuous past three decades of change in women's communities, I have wanted and needed to gain some perspective on the experience) Although not planned, the timing of my reading proved to be both appropriate and helpful. I felt pain and anger at seeing the women who were most instru-mental in leading the changes characterized as deliber-ately manipulative, bent on revenge, unfaithful, and heretical, and those who moved with the changes they advocated, as naive, foolish, or incapable of under-standing what was taking place. At another time I might have been inclined simply to dismiss Carey's work, but reading it in the shadow of the cross enabled me to lis- Mary Anne Foley CND, a member of the Congregation of Notre Dame of Montreal, is an associate professor of the-ology at the University of Scranton; Scranton, Pennsylvania 18510. Review fir Religious ten to what was being said under and through the words, and hence to become vulnerable to it. It was somewhat like the expe-rience of reading The Autobiography ofMakolm X. I knew I was not the "white devil" he came to loathe while in prison, but I began to see why he viewed me in that way and then to recognize my own complicity in his hellish situation. Carey's stated intention is simply to document the significant changes that have taken place within Catholic communities of women in the United States over the last forty years. She does so as a journalist, relying not on her own experience but on personal conversations and extensive archival research. The book's subtitle, however, reveals the perspective from which she writes. She is convinced that the changes have been an aberration, leading these groups away from genuine religious life. Carey belieyes that the sis-ters most disaffected as a result of the changes are afraid to speak for themselves, and so shehas chosen to speak for them. While always naming the "change-oriented" sisters she cites, she often identifies her sources among "traditional" sisters only by the name of their congregation or as Sister S., for example) One of these anonymous sources insists that many older religious are experi-encing "a time of martyrdom" as they risk being "cut off, threat-ened, and persecuted" if they challenge the directions their communities have taken (Crisis, 309). Whether or not this sister represents the views of many others, and even whether or not the threat she describes is real, it is important that she be heard, and Carey challenges the reader to listen. According to Sisters in Crisis, the reason for what emerged during the postconciliar years was, first of all, a program of mis-information concerning authentic Vatican Council II teaching, orchestrated prifiaarily by officers of the Leadership Conference of Women Religious (LCWR), known earlier as the Conference of Major Superiors of Women (CMSW). Carey traces the rebellion back to the Sister Formation Movement in the 1950s, which exposed young sisters to the social sciences and "controversial and speculative" theology. The Sisters' Survey of 1966-1967, con-ducted by the CMSW, is presented as playing a key role in "indoc-trinating" sisters about possible new directions for change. The definitive step in the process of "co-opting" and "stealing" the renewal is said to be the "coup" by which the officers of the CMSW altered the nature of their organization by arranging for a revision of its bylaws and changing its name from CMSW to LCWR. At var- July-August 2000 Foley ¯ Another Window on the Crisis ious points in the process, in Carey's view, the Vatican issued clear mandates to return to a more controlled process of renewal, but these leaders refused to obey. Opposing Perspectives Since Lora Quifionez and Mary Daniel Turner were among the leaders of the LCWR during the 1970s and 1980s, it is not sur-prising that their interpretation of the last forty years is diamet-rically the opposite of Carey's. As a result, reading their book, The Transformation of the American Catholic Sister, in conjunction with Sisters in Crisis was both fascinating and unsettling. According to Quifionez and Turner, the changes in women's communities are not the result of a plan devised by a few politically astute activists and then foisted upon an undereducated and unsuspecting mass of sisters. Rather, the transformation of these communities reflects a maturing of American sisters at large; that is, they have grown more conscious of their identity as Americans, as women, and as moral agents? Given this difference in interpretation, it is interesting to note the substantial agreement of these two works on the importance of the Sister Formation movement and especially the LCWR in shap-ing the last forty years of religious life in the United States. Both are clear that the Sisters' Survey went beyond its original purpose of assessing the readiness of American sisters and the availability of resources for the renewal mandated by Vatican II. Both con-clude that the survey itself affected that renewal. And both main-tain that underlying the changes was a new belief among sisters in the validity of their experience. As Carey describes it, "some women religious determined that their own 'lived experience' was more valid for defining religious life than were any of the direc-fives coming from the church" (Crisis, 75). Quifionez and Turner not only agree; they chart the emergence of that beliefi "Sisters began to notice that even long-held and never-to-be-challenged philosophical and theological premises lent themselves to the pur-poseful sounding of experience, personal and social. Experience possessed its own authority" (Transformation, 38). More significant still is the fact that neither work acknowl-edges the possibility that those whose perspective on renewal is different could contribute something toward a more profound renewal. This is more apparent in Sisters in Crisis. Although Carey Revie~v for Religious admits that at times ignorance may have played a role in the deci-sions that were made, for the most part she attributes baser motives to the main actors: "Some religious institutes purposely expanded the years between general chapters so that experiments could be stretched out. Others purposely incorporated items into their con-stitutions that they knew would never be approved by Rome so they could continue experimenting endlessly" (Crisis, 38-39). Quifionez and Turner are far more nuanced in their expression, and they do not impute motivation to such groups as the Consortium Perfectae Caritatis, which consisted largely of community leaders who had renounced membership in the LCWR. However, the absence of any critique of actions taken by the LCWR makes the reader suspect that their account may not be as objective as it first appears. This becomes particularly evi-dent in the concluding chapter of Tran~Corrnation, where Quifionez and Turner list questions to be resolved if religious communities of women are to have a future in the United States. They accurately iden-tify one of the key questions: Is it helpful or even honest to retain canonical status? But they proceed to a further series of questions, all of which imply that the only possible answer to the question of canonical status is no. Moreover, in noting that the hierarchy and the sisters must face the questions honestly, they assert that such a process "will exact a different price from each of them. For the hierarchy it will mean giving up dominative ways of governing; for sisters it will entail laying claim to rightful uses of power. For both, it will involve owning that they are peers, no matter how distinct their role in the church" (Transformation, 167). Tran~orrnation offers ample evidence of "dominative ways of governing" by members of the hierarchy, and even Carey admits that the church officials have been "obstinate" at times. These few words seem to imply that only the hierarchy has misused power and that sisters' only sin has been the failure to use it. This would surely be an oversimplification, of a sort that would tend to polarize further those who disagree about the direction the changes have taken. Underlying the changes was a new belief among sisters in the validity of their experience. July-Auffust 2000 S#ters in Crisis was published five years after Transformation and appears to be intended in part as a response to that work, a sort of revisionist history. While Quifionez and Turner did not have the opportunity to respond to Carey's assertions directly, the current leadership of the LCWR responded by claiming that the women in American religious, communities today are not "sisters in crisis," but rather "sisters in service."s There is truth in this assertion. Many of those castigated by Carey really are performing service of inestimable value, and for them to focus more on that service than on institutional survival does not call for the word "tragic" in Carey's subtitle. But that is not to say that I think there is no ~ri-sis. 6 It has been common in recent years to refer to the two Chinese characters that together convey the meaning of crisis, one referring to danger and the other to opportunity. Carey is right: there is a real danger that women's religious communities as we have known them in the United States will become extinct. But the LCWR leadership is also right in noting that the service which women's communities offer indicates a time of great poten-tial. Here I offer some reflections on how the opportunity pre-sent in this moment of crisis may be recognized and embraced. A Window of Opportunity The story is told of two men seated in the same room in a library. One was very hot and opened the room's only window. The other, afraid that his papers would blow all over, immediately closed, it, only to have it reopened by the first. The reaction of the other can be guessed. When the librarian saw the brewing conflict, she went into the next room and opened the window there, thus providing cool air without creating a disruptive, breeze.7 It seems to me that those who find themselves in deadlock on how women's communities have come to be where they are need to discover another window through which to view the last three decades. For this they may well be helped by James Fowle~:'s the-ory of faith development. For Fowler faith is a verb; it is how a per-son makes meaning of the world. We tend to "faith" in a particular way until that way of making meaning no longer works for us and compels us to make meaning differently; this he describes as a new "stage" of faith.8 During adolescence, for example, many peo-ple begin to base their faith on that of the significant people in their lives. They may have reflected deeply on what they believe Review for Religious and can probably describe the content of their faith, but it is largely tacit. Later the demands of adult life, particularly in a culture no longer homogeneous, often move people toward Individuative- Reflexive faith. Those in this stage can articulate the reasons for their faith. In addition, the source of authority for their faith has moved inward, so that they believe because they have chosen to believe. Even if the content.of their faith remains the same, it has become their own.9 Fowler notes that, as a result of midlife stocktaking, some adults experience yet another transition, to what he calls Conjunctive faith, in which they can peacefully hold their own belief while truly listening to another whose belief is different. No longer do they perceive difference as an attack on their hard-won faith that must be defended at all costs. Rather, the other person's faith becomes an invitation to deepen and refine their own belief. Such faith is not possible until one has fully moved to the Individuative-Reflexive stage by both internalizing authority and making one's belief explicit. (Otherwise what appears a willingness to allow one's own faith to be influenced by others may simply be a form of the tacit faith that allows others to define what. one believes.) The fruit of Conjunctive faith is real dialogue, which begins with the belief that each one comes to the table with a perspective on the truth and includes the humble acknowledgment ~hat each has in some way failed to serve that truth. Fowler's theory has been applied to the "faithing" process of groups as well as individuals. Of course, not all members of the group are at the same stage at any given time. But the theory can be helpful in describing a group's changing "corporate culture." In the years before the Second Vatican Council, for example, when sisters lived in an environment that exemplified one and the same faith perspective, many were able to make meaning of their world through the tacit faith that the environment supported. As Quifionez and Turner describe that time, "canonical definitions, legislated by church authorities, gave 'religious life' its existence, its legitimacy, and its value" (Transformation, 36). In asking women's communities to return to their sources and to read the signs of The other person's faith becomes an invitation to deepen and refine their own belief 3%dy-dugust 2000 Foley * Another I4andow on the Crisis the times, the council caused them to become more analytical. At the same time, both the changes sisters began to make and the movements in the church and in society around them weakened many of the structures which had reinforced their commitment, so that those who remained were forced to acquire personal reasons for doing so. The movement between external and internalized authority is well illustrated by the responses which the members of LCWR gave to actual and proposed canons of church law in 1968 and 1977. Quifionez and Turner note that these responses differed, not in content, but in the way they were justified: "While in the 1960s sisters invoked Vatican Council II to legitimate their view-points, in 1977 they relied on the authority of their own experience to ground their critique" (Transformation, 56). This suggests that Carey is mistaken in assuming that most changes were the result of a few very influential leaders imposing on the rest their way of seeing the world. That may have been true for some, but, by illus-trating the extent to which "change-oriented" sisters began to appeal to. personal experience, Carey herself provides evidence that in general these women had come to a personally appropri-ated faith?° In my view, profound as this kind of faith may be, it is limited by the tendency to exalt one's internal authority to the extent of being unable to allow one's belief system to be affected by oth-ers. This can make it almost impossible to move together as a group. At a chapter several years ago, it was proposed that the community as a group fast and abstain on Fridays as a sign of their hunger for peace. One person objected vehemently, not to the action in itself, but to committing the whole group to any practice. Her memory of practices imposed in the past seemed to make it impossible for her to accept such a limitation on individual free-dom, even when that limitation was chosen. I believe that the future of religious communities depends on their moving beyond such a stance toward the deeper openness that constitutes what Fowler calls Conjunctive faith. Over the years, many "change-oriented" sisters have looked at and tried on elements of what Carey calls "the latest theological, sociological, psychological--and eventually New Age--fads" (Crisis, 138). She condemns both this and what she considers an excessive tolerance for the views of everyone. It seems to me, how-ever, that for many sisters the opportunity presented by the pre- Review for Religious sent moment is the call to a still greater openness, by which they can allow themselves to truly listen, on the one hand, to new alter-natives and, on the other, to those who question their new ways of understanding and living. Carey does not provide evidence to sup-port her accusation that "change-oriented" communities have deliberately silenced their more traditional members, and yet I believe that in some cases the voices of these sisters have not been heard, or their views have been dismissed as reactionary, irrational, foolish. Any honest dialogue would have to begin with everyone admitting some failure to listen. Openness to dialogue is possible, though certainly most dif-ficult, when the other is not similarly open. Carey speaks of "dia-logue" as if it is often used like a ploy in a game,11 and her position throughout Sisters in Crisis suggests an unwillingness to concede that "change-oriented" sisters could possess a piece of the truth. That, however, does not free the latter from the need to continue discerning where the critique offered by more traditional sisters has its own truth that deserves to be faithfully responded to. Opening a different window on the future requires humble dialogue around many of the issues raised by Carey, among which are the mission and vowed life of sisters, their place in the church, and the impli-cations of "refounding" religious communities. Mission Even though she acknowledges that justice has played an important role in sisters' traditional apostolates, Carey maintains that "change-oriented" sisters have recently replaced their true, "spiritual" mission with social justice as "a new primary mission" (Crisis, 112). For example, she criticizes the choice of nonviolence as the theme of the 1996 LCWR conference, claiming that this reveals "the conference's continuing priority bf placing sociopo-litical issues ahead of spiritual issues" (Crisis, 242). In this.discus-sion she comes close to what Quifionez and Turner describe as the worldview of sisters before 1960, for whom the sacred and the secular occupy two different spheres. The coauthors contend that since then many sisters have moved beyond such a view and "increasingly frame the meaning of their life in terms of the church's evangelizing mission" (Transformation, 59). The bishops at the 1971 synod called "action on behalf of justice., a consti-tutive dimension of the preaching of the gospel."12 In light of that July-./tugust 2000 Foley ¯ ~lnotber Windo~ on the ~ teaching, Carey's apparently outdated perspective seems to have nothing to offer the women about whom Quifionez and Turner write. Indeed, seeing spirituality as somehow pitted against jus-tice is not helpful. This aspect of Carey's position, however, masks an important criticism that "change-oriented" sisters would do well to recognize. Quifionez and Turner state that dedication to mission has comd to encompass the meaning of many sisters' lives. They cite a "grow-ing tendency . to define religious identity as witness against cultural values and attitudes" and assert further that "work and identity are inseparably related" (Transformation, 79 and. 39). In my view, this comes perilously close to insisting not only that my work is my prayer, but that it is my life. This is indeed what our culture often proposes; I consider.it an area where sisters are called to take a countercultural stance. Surely there is a middle path between a spirituality that would have no relation to justice and a life that would collapse itself into work on behalf of justice or any other important value. Carey's articulation of the mission of sisters in apostolic com-munities is not satisfactory, but neither is that of Quifionez and Turner. Hence the need for dialogue around what Carey would call the "spiritual" .mission of sisters. Such dialogue could very well occur in the context of the vowed life. Vows Carey claims that many elderly sisters who disapprove of the directions in which their congregations have moved "take very seriously the vows they made, and they are not only disturbed that religious life has been fundamentally restructured in their own communities, but even more alarmed that in the restructured model it is difficult, if not impossible, for them to live out the vows they made to God" (Crisis, 306). Nowhere does Sisters in Crisis explain how the restructuring of communities could make it "impossible for them to live out the vows." Perhaps these sisters believe that, for them to fulfill the demands of obedience and poverty, there must be specific persons designated as superiors who give commands and permissions. If so, a system in which decisions about ministry and the use of goods are made commu-nally may never provide what they are demanding. As has already been noted, Quifionez and Turner maintain Review for Religious that the defining element of many sisters' lives is no longer the vows, but rather witness. This suggests that for these women the concerns of the sisters whose perspective Carey shares are irrel-evant. And yet Quifionez and Turner also say, "For a large num-ber of the women, their shared life has to be linked to ultimacy, to the values of the gospel, to the deepest insights of religious tra-ditions" (Transformation, 166). Just how their lives can be "linked to ultimacy" is an ongoing question that must be addressed if there is to be a future for women's communities. It seems to me that addressing it will be difficult as long as the expression is as vague as that given here. I suspect that the word God is omitted because of the desire to be inclusive. To be sure, speaking of God is dangerous, and moreover help on the journey toward God can come from various traditions, including those that do not name God. But one must begin a journey from some point. Sandra Schneiders has pointed out the danger when communities that consider themselves religious have highly indi-vidualized, and eclectic spiritualities unconnected to the Christian tradition in which the communities are rooted. For such groups, she suggests, "the quiet sidelining of Christian .identity believed and practiced in the church is not compatible with their ongoing life and self-renewal as a religious congregation." 13 Over the centuries Christian women and men have sought to link their lives to ultimate, reality, which they have named God, by means of the vows. They have done this not only and, in my view, not primarily as a witness to others, but because God has somehow reached into their lives, and so, in being true to them-selves, they structure their lives around their relationship to God.14 Certainly there is need to reconceive and even reformu-late what is meant by the vows,15 but this must be done with recognition of their connection to the divine and hence of their significance beyond that of any actions .they imply. Vows of this kind must indeed be taken seriously. Surely there is a middle path between a spirituality that would have no relation to justice and a life that would collapse itself into work on behalf of justice. July-duffust 2000 Foley * Another Window on the Crisis Church Quifionez and Turner say, "Central to their quest for mean-ing, we believe, is the identity of sisters as church women" (Transeormation, 166). But, as Eucharia Malone RSM pointed out as early as 1970, "this relationship with the.church seems to be the point on which we are divided" (see Crisis, 95). In fact, the very definition of church is often at the heart of the polarization within and between women's communities. At first glance it is difficult to imagine a rapprochement between the understandings of church espoused by Carey and by Quifionez and Turner. Sisters in Crisis assumes a church in which the initiative comes from the hierarchy. As a result, Carey implies that sisters' meetings held in 1964-1965 to discuss strategies for renewal were subversive because Perfectae caritatis had not yet been promulgated formally)6 What could she have to say to those for whom church is a discipleship of equals, each of whom is responsible for initiating change? Many traditional as well as "change-oriented" groups have claimed to be following the teachings of Vatican II in their very different approaches to renewal. But the council documents them-selves represent compromises between bishops of various per-spectives. They are often ambiguous concerning the church and hence concerning the role of women's communities within the church. The situation is not unlike what followed in the wake of the last reforming council, the Council of Trent. Like Vatican II, Trent carried its own contradictions within itself,, including both a call for widespread education and an insistence on cloister for women ready to dedicate themselves to the education of young women. The conflicts, that resulted were virtually inevitable. Indeed, the experience of the post-Tridentine church calls into question any notion of reform as neat or uniform in application. In general, Carey fails to place the events she narrates within a larger historical context. She takes the American experience of religious life in the first half of.this century as normative and con-sequendy disparages many of the changes that have occurred since then. Research into the foundations of many communities before this century has revealed considerable struggle, especially with members of the hierarchy, over the very issues of ministry and conformity to monastic lifestyle that so concern Carey?7 Her lack of attention to the history of women's communities appears to be related to her sympathy with the representatives of the Consortium Perfectae Caritatis, who wanted discussion with LCWR officials Review for Religious to focus on "absolute truths that would transcend., any age, any period of time, any period of history" (Crisis, 283). Quifionez and Turner, on the other hand, are well aware of the various forms in which what is called "religious life" has mani-fested itself over the centuries, accurately noting that it is always a "historically conditioned" phenomenon.~s They are less attentive, however, to the values sought by sizable numbers of contemporary women and their foremother~. For genuine dialogue to take place, it might be necessary to declare a moratorium on valuing things either as "absolute" or as "historically conditioned." It could go far toward healing not only some of the divisions in women's com-munities, but also some of the woundedness of the larger church. Refounding In her concluding chapter Carey addresses herself to tradi-tional sisters who find themselves in communities that have moved away from what she considers the essence of religious life. She believes that such women may be called to "refound" their com-munities, and so offers a number of recommendations for how that might take place: "This refounding must be accomplished by the sisters within those institutes themselves, for refounding of religious orders cannot be mandated or directed by hierarchy, clergy, or laity, though legitimate refounding efforts should be supported by these other groups of people. In the refounding pro-cess, some members of a religious institute may come to the real-ization that their concept of consecrated life really does not fit the church understanding of a religious institute, and so those women may wish to pursue one of the other forms of consecrated life defined by the church" (Crisis, 328). Carey does not clarify why refounding a community "cannot be mandated or directed by the hierarchy" even though that is precisely what she believes its role should have been during the postconciliar renewal. Equally surprising is the open-ended pro-cess she describes, which it cannot be assumed will conform to the standard definition of a religious institute. Of course she assumes that, if what emerges does not fit that definition, the alter-native is another already defined form. In contrast, Vita consecrata, among other documents, assumes that forms not yet defined are also emerging at the present time.19 . In these comments Carey sketches out, no doubt unwittingly, j~uly-/lugust 2000 Fole~ ¯ Another l~ndow on the Crisis what many perceive to have been going on during all these years since the council: initiatives taken by those within the commu-nity, support for those initiatives from (some) other constituencies in the church, and ~n honest confrontation of the questions that traditional understandings of religious life bring to the fore. The element that Carey believes was missing in so many attempts at renewal is "legitimacy," which she understands to be close con-fortuity to the document "Essential Elements of Religious Life," issued by the Vatican Congregation for Religious and Secular Institutes in 1983. Many "change-oriented" sisters and commu-nities consider that sense of legitimacy overly narrow, but in so doing they seem often to have acted as if all changes were equally legitimate. I believe that Carey and others have rightly criticized processes of experimentation that lacked mechanisms of evalua-tion. 2° Many are not fully satisfied with what has emerged in the. course of renewal, but are not sure how to name what is missing. Carey comments sharply on the failure of "change-oriented" communities to attract many new members. In her view, there are only two possible reasons for this, "unselfishness or pathological denial" of the imminent demise of their congregations, and she is quite sure that the latter interpretation is the accurate one. I think' these are false alternatives, though both no doubt play a role at times. A more significant factor in the decline in the number of women joining these communities seems to be a feeling of ambivalence, both among members of women's communities and in the church at large, ambivalence which results in part from massive change without evil-uation and consequently without general ownership. Carey, along with ~¢arious church officials, has declared the period of experimentation for women's communities to be over. But her proposal for refoundation suggests that a new, more pro-found kind of experimentation is just what is called for. The women who are coming to communities these days, particularly those young enough not to have lived through the years immedi-ately following the council, do not share the ambivalence of their older sisters. No doubt it is they who will lead the way in the founding and refounding still to come. Neither/Nor, Looking Anew, Nuancing In my opinion, the renewal of women's communities in the Catholic Church over the past forty years was not "co-opted" or Review for Religious "stolen" by their leaders, but neither has it been fully accom-plished. It is a work in progress, and in that work there has been considerable polarization between different approaches, and mutual recrimination as well. The challenge at this time may be to move beyond present viewpoints, to look through some other window onto those same issues and see a fuller truth. Those who wish to find such a window would do well to heed what Carey has written. Certainly Sisters in Crisis is flawed in its use of sources. Many are cited out of context, they are often listed without explanation or analysis, and generalizations are made on the basis of undisclosed and apparently meager evidence. But Carey's effort to speak in the nameof sisters whose views may have been ignored in the process of renewal provides a significant resource for those who are willing to look and listen. What has been said here about renewal within women's com-munities is true of the renewal of the whole church; in many ways it holds true as well for liberation movements within North America and across the planet. It is often asserted that communi-ties of men and women are called to take a prophetic stance. In my view, such an assertion requires careful nuancing. But, if sisters who represent different perspectives can learn to engage in gen-uine dialogue about their recent history and possible future direc-tions, I believe that could be prophetic indeed, not only for the church, but for all of humanity. Notes i Ann Carey, Sisters in Crisis: The Tragic Unraveling of Women's Religious Communities (Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Press, °1997). 2 The focus of my work is women's communities, and the sources for the present reflection deal specifically with women in the United States. Other groups, too, may find what I say relevant. 3 These are not my preferred terms, but since Carey uses them I will follow her lead. 4 Lora Ann Quifionez CDP and Mary Daniel Turner SNDdeN, The Tranyformation of American Catholic Sisters (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992). s "Book rebukes renewal; nuns rebuke book," National Catholic Reporter, 23 May 1997, p. 6. 6 Former LCWR president Doris Gottemoeller RSM agrees, but she believes that Carey has not named the crisis adequately. See "Religious Life in Crisis," Origins, 25 February 1999, pp. 634-638. ~uly-August 2000 Foley ¯ Another Window on the Crisis 7 One modern source for the story is Roger Fisher, William Ury, and Bruce Patton, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving In, 2nd ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 1991), p. 40. Walter Wink suggests that finding a third alternative in a situation that has reached an impasse is a gospel imperative. See his Engaging the Powers: Discernment and Resistance in a World of Domination (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992). s Fowler suggests that the pattern of stages he describes remains valid regardless of the content of one's faith. It is rather a factor of one's cognitive and moral development,.although the circumstances in which one finds oneself tend to propel one toward a new stage. His theory is quite pragmatic: no stage is better than another; it simply may be more adequate to the realities one has to confront. 9 Note that one of these elements can be present without the other. Persons with an analytical bent can ana!yze the content of a faith that is not personally appropriated. Similarly, persons who tend to be inde-pendent may formally reject the faith of significant others before being able to give a reason for their own belief, other than the fact that it is their own. 10 This is not to say that more traditional communities have not made the same transition. I simply do not have enough evidence to make such a judgment. II She maintains that, when their constitutions were not approved, "many institutes simply played the game of prolonged 'dialogue' with Rome, hoping to win approval for practices that already had been in effect for years" (Crisis, 314). 12 Justice in the World, §6. 13 Sandra M. Schneiders IHM, "Congregational Leadership and Spirituality in the Postmodern Era," Review for Religious 57, no. 1 (January-February 1998): 26. ~4 I am indebted to Edward Vacek SJ in "Religious Life and the Eclipse of Love for God," Review for Religious 57, no. 2 (March-April 1998): 118-137, for his description of the vows as'structuring one's life around the relationship to God. ~s Barbara Fiand SND has articulated a theology of the vows in keep-ing with an e~;olutionary, nondualistic worldview. See her Living the I~uion: Religious Vows in an Age of Change (New York: Crossroad, 1990) and Wrestling with God: Religious Life in Search of Its Soul (New York: Crossroad, 1996). 16 See Crisis, pp. 110-111. 17 HWR News and Notes, published by the Conference on History of Women Religious (ed. Karen M. Kennelly csJ; Mount St. Mary's College; 12001 Chalon Road; Los Angeles, California 90049), tracks current scholarship in this area, much of which is presented at that orga-nization's triennial conferences. Both the enormous variety of expressions and the common themes Review for Religious manifest in that variety are very evident in Jo Ann Kay McNamara, Sisters in Arms: Catholic Nuns through Two Millennia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996). ,9 See ~ta consecrata, Origins 25, no. 41 (4 April 1996); also in The Church and Consecrated Life (St. Louis: Review for Religious, 1996), pp. 323-436; see esp. §§12 and 62. The latter section is explicit about the pos-sibility that new forms emerging today may come to be approved offi-cially at a later time. 20 For example, Gottemoeller, "Religious Life in Crisis" (see note 6), p. 635. At the LCWR assembly in August 1999, there were a number of calls for evaluation of the processes of renewal. Musings of the Prodigal's Brother Look at him! The life of the party. Music, fatted calf, ring- all to celebrate my brother's return from a wasted life. Squandered inheritance, prostitutes, and hunger shared with swine. Look at my lathe!! Joy-filled, radiant, his long-awaited prodigal is home. Unconditional, all-forgiving love Lighting up the room with warmth and joy, my father - our father - now at peace. Look at me! Lonely, jealous, bitter. The son who did not squander - but gave my father only loyal, total service, What's this? My envy giving way? My inner blindness praying, "Lord, that I may see"? Maria Corona Crumback IHM ffuly-August 2000 BERNADINE PIEPER A Path of Humility and Truth: Historical Reminiscence T~ay, thirty-five years after Vatican Council II, many people nk that the changes in religious life arose spontaneously, somewhat like Athena springing from the forehead of Zeus. In fact, the changes took place because of intense preparation. That preparation happened in the contexts of the general culture and the individual religious communities. My community, the Congregation of the Humility of Mary, was a small congregation of approximately 430 members, and so most sisters knew one another. The sisters came from a variety of ancestral ndtionalities: Irish, German, Czech, Italian, Mexican, and others. Many of the sisters had rural backgrounds, had the experience of living with Protestants as well as Catholics, and had attended both public and Catholic schools at all levels including university. The congregation had moved from France to Pennsylvania to Missouri to Iowa and had experienced losing the motherhouse in Ottumwa, Iowa, in a 1957 fire. They were pio-neers, risk takers. Further, a remarkable group of women made up the leadership of the Congregation of the Humility of Mary from 1960 to 1966. In November 1964 the general superior, Mother Mary Nicholas, and the general council called for a congregation-wide Bernadine Pieper CHM was elected general superior of her congre-gation in 1966, shortly after Vatican Council ii. She writes from her experience of the past forty years. Her address is Humility of Mary Center; 820 West Central Park Avenue; Davenport, Iowa 52804. Review for Religious vote on a revision of the delegate selection process for the 1966 general chapter of affairs. That same month she and the council ¯ asked every convent to discuss renewal of religious life with spe-cial applications to our congregation. Background material sent for the study included Vatican II's Constitution on the Liturgy, chapters 5 and 6 of the Constitution on the Church, Pope Paul's discourse of 23 May 1964 to all religious, the original 1858 rules and regulations of the Sisters of the Humility of Mary, and Father Bernard H~iring's Christian Renewal in a Changing World. The sis-ters were also asked to study related sections of Scrip~re. The virtues listed in our original constitutions were to be studied along with the congregation's apostolate. The sisters were asked whether " we were meeting the spiritual and religious needs of the people of our time in the localities where we were working. This was a time of excitement and ferment. Discussion of these topics provided an opportunity for departure from the rather superficial conversation typical of specified recreation times. A 22 February 1965 letter from Mother Mary Nicholas states that the objective of our study was profound renewal inspired.by bib-lical, liturgical, and apostolic documents of Vatican II and by wis-dom from the congregation's experience. She said some changes would be decided by the congregation itself while others must await legislation expected in the future. "We realize that renewal of religious life will not be easy," she said. From each of four geo-graphical areas (east Iowa and Illinois, midwest Iowa, southeast Iowa, and the west), she and the general council appointed the following committees: liturgy, common life and discipline, poverty, obedience, works and apostolate, and formation and maturity. Committee members included every sister in the community. After a year of discussion, each of these committees sent a posi-tion paper, including reports and recommendations, for study by the congregation. From October 1965 to May 1966, sisters prepared proposals to present to the 1966 chapter of affairs. A total of 545 proposals on a variety of topics were prepared by the sisters, both by indi-viduals and by committees and groups. The recommendations included practically every facet of the sisters' lives and customs: elections, prayer, charity, social work, spiritual renewal, revision of rule and directory, companionship, cloister, letter writing, use of gifts, permissions, and other more mundane items such as swim-ming, ceremonies, appointments, and speeds at which to drive. ~uly-August 2000 Pieper ¯ ~t Path of Humility and Truth There were few proposals about chastity and friendship, pos-sibly due to the fact that no study group was assigned to this topic. During the previous fifty years, obedience had assumed priority for religious life. Three sisters were appointed to organize the pro-posals for presentation to th6 chapter of affairs in a logical way. After attending a workshop for religious superiors at the University of Notre Dame, the local superiors of the congregation met in the summer of 1965 to look at common life. They recom-mended a variety of changes to Mother Superior and the council. Among the changes approved were: talking at breakfast, walking outdoors after 6 p.m., eating with guests, retiring early, noncen-sorship of mail, elimination of the chapter of faults, yearly general permissions, and going without a companion to medical appoint-ments. Previously three other sisters were involved when one went to the doctor: one as her companion at the doctor's and two oth-ers to drive them there and pick them up again. In 1965, upon the recommendation of the liturgy committee, sisters began to use the breviary for morning and night prayers. A workshop on guidelines for renewal was held in spring 1966 with the cooperation of the Canon Law Society of America and the approval Of Davenport Bishop Ralph L. Hayes. The speakers were Father Paul M. Boyle CP, past president of the Canon Law Society of America; Father Kevin O'Rourke OP, coauthor of Canon Law for Religious Women; Sister Jane Marie Richardson SL, secretary of Sister Mary Luke Tobin SL, auditor at Vatican II; Sister Ignace RSM, province councilor of the Mercy Sisters' Chicago Province; and Sister Maristella (Elizabeth) Picken CHM, member of the Marycrest College religion department. Davenport sisters had also traveled to Aurora, Illinois, that spring for a speech by Sister Mary Luke Tobin. The membership for the 1966 chapter of affairs was entirely different from that of earlier chapters, which had been composed of almost as many superiors as nonsuperiors. Besides the seven ex-officio members--major .superior, council, former major superi-ors, secretary, and treasurer--seven superiors were elected from among 38, nine sisters from among 88 more than 50 years old, ten sisters from among 90 between 35 and 50 years of age, and four from among the 80 sisters under 35. All these sisters had per-petual vows. Sisters with temporary vows had only active voice. During the chapter the delegates voted to abolish all secrecy. Chapter delegates represented a wide variety of sisters. There was for Rdigious a wide spectrum of emotion--fear and impatience on the one hand, hope and excitement on the other. Everyone, however, cared for the congregation and worked hard to follow the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Relaxation of discipline and introduction of the breviary were not the only changes which took place before the 1966 chapter of affairs. The number of entrants into the congregation had already declined before 1966. The largest number of persons to enter the congregation came in 1959 and 1960:27 and 32 respec-tively. In 1965 only six women entered, and in the spring of 1966 only four had been accepted for entrance. Sisters were aware of and inter-ested in civil rights. Though no one went to Selma or other places in the South for demonstrations, they were deeply concerned and prayed particularly when Medgar Evers was killed. They also began to help with local problems. For example, some numbers went sandbagging along the Mississippi in Davenport during the 1965 flood. They tried to do this quietly; when a picture of the sisters appeared in the daily paper, not everyone in the CHM community was happy. Probably attitudinal changes were the most important. In the 1960s the culture implied that one was incomplete without a sex-ual partner. Vatican II taught that perfection was obtainable not just by sisters in community, but also by married persons. At Marycrest College, where over one-fourth of the CHM community studied during the summer, creative and critical thinking was a college goal. Sisters began to recognize that they were thinking creatively .and critically about everything exc.ept their own lives. They became aware that they had been founded as an apostolic community and were neither cloistered nor monastic, but had been trying to live as if they were. At the chapter of affairs, on 27 June 1966, I was elected the general superior. My experience as a superior was limited to sev-eral summers for the sisters who were students at Marycrest College. I had, however, taught a majority of members of the con-gregation. This was my first chapter of affairs. M6ther Mary In 1965, upon the recommendation of the liturgy committee, sisters began to use the breviary for morning and night prayers. Pieper ¯ A Path of Humility and Truth Nicholas Sheetz, who might have provided me some guidance, died in October 1966. Mother Mary Magdalen Wilmes, another potential source of information, asked to move to Phoenix. "You can make your own mistakes," she said. I retained the designation "Sister" and took the title president instead of mother superior, as have those who succeeded me. When Father Paul Boyle CP spoke at Marycrest College in April 1966, he assured the members of the committee which orga-nized the proposals that he would be happy to help at the chapter. He came to Ottumwa from Monroe, Michigan, and was invaluable in distinguishing among aspects of church law, community law, customs, and culture. He advised us tobegin with a discussion on prayer because that was the most important topic and further-more was likely to be less controversial than the others. After considerable discussion and revision at the regular June session and a short one in December 1966, about sixty motions were approved by the delegates, either unanimously or at least 10 to 1 in favor. Mass, lauds, vespers, and an annual retreat were the only requirements regarding prayer. However, the value of prayer was endorsed, and continuing past practices was recommended. In the area of poverty, the sisters were asked to be as poor as they wished and to provide community witness to poverty by sharing things. Minor finances were to be a subject for experimentation. Each sister was to be given $15 a month for clothes and personal needs, while housing, .meals, and travel were to be provided by the local house. One sister commented that her girdle alone cost $13. Investigating congregational health insurance was approved. Home visits, travel without companions, retention of baptismal names for those who so wished, eating with persons other than commu-nity members, and letters and phone calls without censorship were approved. Broadening our apostolic works was recommended, with particular emphasis on Latin America. The value of long-range planning was noted. The following commissions were described and set up in great detaili (1) the coordinating commission on apostolic works, with subcommittees in the various areas of work; (2) rule and directory revision; (3) formation and religious renewal; (4) finance and development; and (5) habit revision. The sisters were asked to participate in annual meetings of the whole con-gregation. No time limit for experimenting was set because Pe, rfectae caritatis allowed twelve years. Review for Religious In the letter I wrote to the congregation accompanying the record of the June 1966 chapter, I said: "Many of you have prob-ably read Michael Novak's 'The New Nun' in the July Post, in which he says, 'Press reports emphasize the shortened skirts, the briefer veils, the appearance of nuns on public beaches, but these are misleading superficial aspects of a deep-running revolution. In ever increasing numbers the sisters are creating new rules to define what tasks they may or may not tackle, what styles of life they may or may not adopt.'" Change in clothes was symbolic and probably the change most criticized by the sisters' publics. The original intent was to design and adopt a simple costume with a modified veil. The process, however, led to diversity. Sisters sent requests to the coordinating commission on habit revision, with the final decision to be made by the general superior and council. At first the sisters were expected to wear a veil and white, gray, black, brown, or blue clothing. Many sisters quickly adapted to the change, Next came . requests and permission to wear red and green and finally flowered blouses. Just before the 1967 summer school, the gen-eral council decided to allow sisters to go without veils, having noticed that sisters in some communities who were still asked to wear the traditional habit were surreptitiously wearing street clothes when they were ¯ away from the convent. We felt that honesty was the better policy. At first clothes were usually made out of habits and cloaks and often were ill fitting and not very well designed. Generally sisters wore blouses, skirts, and suits. Some sisters reverted to the hairstyles of their teen years; some bought wigs. Fairly soon, though, the sisters emerged as attractive women rather than neuter icons, and sometimes this incited the envy of other women. For example, one sister found a suitable coat with a small fur collar in the poor box for the parish. She was criti-cized by some parishioners as being too extravagant in clothes. The change to contemporary clothes, the sisters thought, necessitated some means for identification. For a while each sis-ter had a name tag; then we adopted a design for a medal. It is still being used. Change in clothes was symbolic and probably the change most criticized by the sisters' publics. July-August 2000 Pieper ¯ A Path of Humility and Truth This was a time of energetic hope and gloomy predictions as well. One priest "expert" predicted that within five years the con-gregation would be extinct. Before 1966 the vow of poverty implied permission for the use of material things. After the 1966 chapter, the meaning of being po.or as one wished and sharing material things was open to interpretation. General congregational'needs included care of retired sisters, administration, and the retirement of a debt on the motherhouse. Up to this time, each house had sent as much as possible to the motherhouse. In fact, sometimes superiors vied with one other to see how much could be sent, even at the expense of local needs. As sisters began to live outside established con-vents, the question arose about ensuring a balance of individual and congregational needs. Since CHM local houses had sent to the congregational fund the amount each determined, it seemed logical to continue this process. Hence, each sister was asked to deduct from her income what was needed for her individual or house costs and send the rest to the motherhouse. Little by little most of the sisters began to contribute as much as they could to the congregation's fund. Diocesan stipends were entirely too low. In the Des Moines Diocese the stipend set for each sister was $50-$100 monthly. In the city of Des Moines, all except one parish paid $50 per month per sister. I had to go to bishops and pastors to ask for an increase in the stipend. Frequently I was told that, if the sisters went back to their habits, they could get along on $50 a month! I prepared and distributed a budget so that the sisters could be informed about real congregational needs. Funds for retreats and education were budgeted. A study was made of average expenses for an indi-vidual. Many sisters responded favorably when they were informed about the needs, both for the congregation itself and for works to assist the poor. To free active sisters from increasing costs for sisters already in retirement, we enrolled in the social security program in 1972 when it became available for sisters. Using unclaimed interest on patrimony, we set up the CHM retirement trust in 1976. Until the summer of 1966, health expenses were cared for gratis by several related hospitals. One of these began charging the sisters for services. Then we initiated a health-insurance plan. Each sister in the congregation was asked to have an annual phys-ical examination. Revie~ for Religio~ The commission on rule revision met almost immediately after the 1966 chapter. Unable to decide what to call the first product of their efforts, it settled on "Spirit and Goals" until a better name could be found. After considerable discussion a state-ment of about a page and a half was sent to all the sisters for study and recommendation. After several revisions, a statement of spirit and goals was approved by a vote of the sisters in August 1968. The statement began, "We Sisters of the Humility of Mary are a group of women in the Catholic Church who have banded together to dedicate ourselves through a special common effort to the pur-suit of life's essential meaning and to a radical response to the Christian gospel of universal love." The Spirit and Goals document was intended as a basic state-ment explaining our spirit and the meaning of religious life for the Sisters of the Humility of Mary. The remainder of the rule was intended to be directives approved by succeeding chapters of affairs. After some years, and after the rules and regulations had been arranged according to topics and divided into Books I and II, the CHM president and I presented the document to the English-speaking committee of the Sacred Congregation for Religious (SCRIS) in Rome in 1982. The committee, finding several sections unacceptable, told us to make mandated changes and resubmit the document. Since the total congregation had already approved the 1982 document, it was necessary that they subsequently vote on SCRIS's mandates. This CHM approval was not forthcoming, so for seven years the congregation followed Books I and II without papal approval. In 1988 a new rule-revision committee attempted to integrate the directives of SCRIS, now called the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life (CICLSAL) in such a way that our identity would not be compromised. We con-sulted a canon lawyer working in the English-language depart-ment of CICLSAL. Her suggestions included moving as many items as possible to Book II, which did not require canonical approval. The main objection of CICLSAL had been our election process. After numerous revisions we were able to present the document to the CHM general assembly in the summer of 1990. It was approved by the Representative Assembly in that year and sent to Rome requesting the approval date of December 8. We distributed approved copies to the congregation in the summer of 1991. We are still probing self-determination versus community focus. ~uly-August 2000 Pieper ¯ A Path of Humility and Truth That sisters could choose their work had both positive and negative results. By 1968 we were sending openings for available positions to community members. That sisters could choose their work had both positive and negative results. Some felt insecure in having to find their own positions. Sisters who were not good teachers or who had no interest in teaching were able to go to school and train for and find occupations more in keeping with their talents. Justice was adopted as the congregation's priority. More sisters began working directly with the dispossessed, and the congregation supported their efforts. After the recommendation of Pope Paul VI encouraging American religious to go to Latin America, Father Louis Colonnese, director of PAVLA (Papal Volunteers for Latin America), rec-ommended about half a dozen places to the sis-ters. All of these were dioceses where the bishop had a pastoral plan to follow the spirit of Vatican II. Several of us went to visit Bishop Samuel Ruiz Garcia of the San Crist6bal de las Casas diocese in southern Mexico. He took us over mountains to see places where sisters had been working to show us what had been done and what the pos-sibilities were. We were so impressed that we decided not to look further, but rather to use for the program in Chiapas the money we might have spent on airplane fare to other potential sites. We were urged to send sisters also to Ambato, Ecuador. Four si~ters went to these two missions; two are still in the San Crist6bal diocese. Although the commission on formation devised an extensive plan for formation, very few women applied. Furthermore, a :great many, particularly among those who were in temporary vows, left the congregation. Perhaps they were still in the process of being integrated in the congregation in a pre-Vatican II mode. Of the many reasons for the mass exodus from religious communities, I think a good many were cultural. Quite a few young women said that, if they could be as holy living as married women with chil-dren as they could as celibates in community, there was no reason to remain as sisters. The sexual revolution implied that one could not be a whole person without genital experiences. Some sisters, particularly those working directly with the poor, found that their primary community was one, other than the ClaMs. Some who left were those who had been dissatisfied for years. On the other hand, Review for Religious some were sisters who had worked most diligently and effectively for the changes. Some were unable to identify with a patriarchal church. Without a doubt all of us made mistakes. It might have been better to have informed our public about proposed changes, but we were intent on our internal study. In any case, I doubt if the pub-lic would have approved of the changes if we had asked them beforehand. The Sisters of the Humility of Mary moved some-what faster than other communities at this time of. change. As I watched communities that made the changes later, I used to think that I could be a consultant, telling them what to avoid. However, all of us had to learn from our own mistakes even though many of them were similar. Not everyone was mature enough to take per-sonal responsibility. The changes in discipline, clothes, works, and so on were only the expressions of a hope for the inner renewal of each sister and of the entire congregation. Celibacy in community has replaced obedience as the defining vow for sisters. Since the early 1970s, associates have expanded the search and service aspects of com-munity. Among the sisters, responsibility for private prayer some-times meant temporary abandonment of prayer altogether. Inner renewal is difficult to assess and is known only to God and the sister. Bishops witl~ whom CHMs worked were supportive during this time. One said that he did not understand everything that we did, but trusted us. On one occasion he commented, "I would never presume to tell a woman what to wear." Today we are an older and wiser congregation. The renewal set in motion in the 1960s has, I think, resulted in return to the spirit of our founders and a steady love for God, people, and the universe. Father Richard Hill 'SJ died on 29 January 2000 in the Jesuit infirfna~ at,Los' Gatos,~ Cahfornia: " 'Fathei" ~li ~sed~tor for c~nonical ~ounsel from Janua~ 1985 to July.19~)0. ~ : Let us remember him in burp~ay~ers~ July-August 2000 w. HENRY KEN-NEY Finding God's Willm A Maneuver finding God My title, "Finding God's Will," purposely suggests a prior search. In an age when some prefer to think of God as havin~ no specific will for individuals, but only a general wish for us to use our freedom well, the whole concept of seeking and finding God's will seems out of place. But I do not think it is. The theological assumptions behind searching for and finding God's will are, I believe, not of this age. They have appeared in the spirituality of countless saints, and espe-cially in those who lived in the last four or five hundred years. My large debt to an acknowledged master of search-ing for and finding God's will, St. Ignatius of Loyola, I gladly own. I am also quite indebted to dozens of pray-ers (my preferred term for directees) whom I have accom-panied on many a search and in many a finding. So my basic assumption is: God has a specific will which can be searched for and found--in large, medium, and lesser matters. A very good case, I believe, can be made that this is the prevailing assumption of the Bible and that it shines forth especially in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. For instance, along with many scripture scholars, I see Jesus' desert temptations as part W. Henry Kenney SJ, founder of the Bluegrass Spirituality Center in Lexington, Kentucky, is now a free-lance "prayer coach." His address is 153 Barr Street; Lexington, Kentucky 40507. Review for Religious of his search for the Father's will on how to undertake and exer-cise his public ministry. Near the end of his life, we see Jesus in Gethsemane struggling to get beyond his aversion to an igno-minious death ~and coming finally to embrace his Father's will peacefully and courageously. Presuppositions for Fruitful Searching My first presupposition is that searching for and finding God's will is a gift, and God's best gifts most often come in answer to persistent prayer. Hence, the guiding light for a searcher is: Beg, beg, beg. That repeats in short compass the longest teaching of Jesus on prayer: keep on knocking, seeking, begging for God to reveal their (Father, Son, and Spirit) will (Lk 11:1-13). For those who are settled into a significant prayer life, recipients of one of its gifts--a strong desire to know God's will--persistent begging for the revelation of God's will strikes them as quite right. To be given the knowledge of God's will and the courage and joy to do it is perceived by such pray-ers as a most precious gift coming from God's Spirit, the gift. Happy are they who experience their begging turned into receiving--the knowledge and love of God's s, pecific will for them. The second presupposition is that the principal impediment to finding God's will is my own will, often enough so attached to X or so averted from Y that it is very difficult or nearly impossi-ble for Y to be revealed as God's will. Spirituality writers used to call that state "attachment" or "lack of indifference." Currently that state is described as insufficient openness to God's will or lack of spiritual freedom. If I am mildly or strongly attached to getting married or averse to becoming a priest or religious, it is more difficult for me to recognize that God's wisdom and plea-sure are calling me to the priesthood or religious life. When there is very strong aversion or attachment, it is nearly impossi-ble to know and accept God's willing the opposite of our own wills. Let us state this positively. A necessary condition for our finding God's will is our possession of indifference, detachment, real openness to God's will--spiritual freedom. St. Ignatius of Loyola's Spiritual Exercises (§157) supplies a soul-testing remedy for such "inordinate attachments": When we feel an attachment opposed to X [Ignatius instances actual poverty] . it will be very helpful in order ~ly-.4ug~st 2000 Kenney ¯ Finding God's Will to overcome the inordinate attachment, even though cor-rupt na(ure rebel against it, to beg our Lord. to choose us to serve him in X. We should insist that we desire it, we should beg for it, plead for it, provided, of course, that it be for the service and praise of the Divine Goodness. (Puhl translation) With some discomfort I own that I have seldom suggested that a praying person follow §157's recommendation. However, from directing pray-ers (and from my own seeking of God's will) I have happened on to a maneuver that achieves, almost by indirection, what §157 seeks straight on. The third (and, for some, shocking) presupposition is this: God's will is usually revealed not by words or images, but by feel-ings: feelings of peace, of increased or continuing peace (called consolation), or feelings of diminished peace, of distancing (called desolation). Novice pray-ers have usually not had enough prayer and life experience of consolation and desolation for those feel-ings to be without the assistance of a spiritual guide--true instru-ments for revealing God's will to themselves. Conditions for Finding and Choosing God's Will Here are four necessary conditions for finding God's will: The first is spiritual freedom or openness. Being reasonably "at balance" is necessary for being really open to God's alternatives. How cru-cial this is can be seen in Ignatius's Exercises, in the extensive instructions and reflections given to help a praying person come to a reasonable level of spiritual freedom. The second is homework. Suffic-ient investigation of the par-ticulars of the available options (who, what, where, when, for how long, at what cost, and so forth) is absolutely necessary. Some per-sonality types want to rush into choosing before they have done their homework, or done it well enough. Pray-ers will often have discerned, in the first place, whether to commit themselves to an in-depth investigation of the alternatives, that is, the pros and cons of each. The third is kairos. There is a kairos, an appropriate time, for the discerning process. Some times are inappropriate, for example, wanting to know if I should accept a job offer before I am offered the job. That is clearly quite different from discerning on whether I should commit myself to investigate some job possibilities or to Review for Religious make some applications. Further, for those given .to control, there is often the temptation to discern alternatives--to have closure-- long before there is reasonable need for a decision. A help in the searching process is to fix the actual date wl~en a decision is needed. Then the discerner can assign a reasonable number of days for discernment before the due date. The fourth is a discernment companion. If a pray-er is leaning to one alternative and strongly dislikes the other, the aid of a dis-cernment companion is usually essential. The companion can help the praying persons to follow the process correcdy and thereby get beyond their subjectivity. Novice discerners with strong attach-ments are astonishingly adept at fouling up the discernment pro-cess. A person who read this article in manuscript form was dumbfounded to find in it a finger pointing out an inclination to subvert true discernment of a touchy personal decision. Even mature pray-ers, at least in their earlier searchings for God's will, usually have need of human help to discern and interpret patterns of consolation or desolation in response to their continued search-ing for the Lord's will. There would, then, be great risk if non-pray- ers or novice pray-ers attempted such formal discernment without a discernment companion, and even greater risk in the maneuver suggested below. The~, would too likely get into magic, divination, or self-deception. A ManeuvermOne Way of Searching for God's Will Central to the maneuver is repeatedly asking a loaded question of the Lord in the middle of prayer. I call it "popping the ques-tion." Unfortunately, there are several gloriously wrgng ways of popping the question. First is popping an unloaded question, such as, "Lord, do you want me to marry Susie?" That sounds quite sensible. What is so unproductive about this Way of phrasing the question is that it demands a vocal answer: "Yes" or "No." The Lord, however, is not in the habit of giving such answers. Not a few pray-ers continue to be scandalized that the Lord's preferred way of communicating "answers" to us is through our emotions, through consolations and desolations. A second wrong way of popping the question is to pop a ques-tion that is loaded towards the alternative the pray-er wants. This, unsurprisingly, greatly muddies the spiritual waters; self-gener-ated "peace" tends to obscure any subtle message from God. If I j~ly-August 2000 Kenney ¯ Finding God's Will greatly desire quitting my job and I keep asking, ".Lord, you want me to quit my job, don't you?" my strong emotional bias will give me so much'comfort that a contrary response from the Lord will likely be blocked out. Third, pray-ers will often fudge the process by alternately popping questions loaded against and loaded for themselves. Once again, muddied waters will result. A right way to phrase discernment questions is to use a loaded question consistently, a question loaded against my inclination or aversion and thereby loaded in God's favor. For a young or not-so-young woman attached to her single lifestyle, the loaded phras-ing of "Lord, you want me to marry Stan, don't you?" will cause disturbance, negative feelings, the first several times she pops it. These initial affective responses will likely prove untypical of responses later on, but she needs to experience them now. I say this because I have quite often seen sincere discerners surrepti-tiously (without knowing it themselves!) try to bypass such dis-comfort and get approval of the alternative they want either by asking an unloaded question or by unconsciously switching to the loaded question that favors their own present inclination: "Lord, you don't want me to marry Stan, do you?" Pray-ers that "lean" toward a preference of theirs need to be assured more than once that it is just as easy for the Lord to "answer" no to a loaded question as to answeryes. Understandably, many "leaning" pray-ersfeel that the question is too loaded against themselves for the Lord to be able to say no. In phi'asing discern-ment questions, it has gradually and experientially ~ome clear to me that it is much better to formulate the questions positively. For example, if a pray-er pops "Lord, you don't want me accept this job offer, do you?" the negative tends to muddy the process. The right-ness of the positively phrased question, "Lord, you want me to con-tinue in my present job, don't you?" can be sensed by pray-ers who lean toward accepting a new job. They experience more dis-comfort with positive questions than with negative ones. When to pop? I ask discernment questions of the Lord only, only, only when I am prayerful, that is, when I am at peace and have some sense of being with the Lord. Never do I ask when I am even a little unpeaceful or lack some real sense of being with the Lord. Praying persons, indeed, are frequently tempted to do this. If they yield, it is like asking the wall and expecting a revela-tory response within themselves as a reaction to the wall's action! Review for Religious When one is consciously with the Lord, whether in formal prayer or at'liturgy or at another time, a question should usually be popped only once. Popping the same question several times in the same ,prayer experience usually comes from a control drive that tends to commandeer the discernment process. How to pop? When I am in the middle of being connected with the Lord, I pop the question, as it were, eyeball to eyeball. Then I wait a short time, seconds. If I wait longer, I am trying to manipulate the Lord or influence my reactions. After popping I need to notice what happened to my con-nectedness and consolation. Did it remain the same? Did it increase? Was it subtly modified? Often pray-ers say "Nothing happened" after they popped the question. My response is "Something always hap-pens!" If my connectedness and peace remain the same, that is a very revealing, though low-key, response. Hence we need to keep a record of our post-popping reactions so that we may discover a pattern. How often to pop? For a small matter, once usually suffices if there has been a clear enough affective response. For larger mat-ters-- a new job, undertaking a volunteer project or pulling back from one--five, ten, or a dozen times usually give a clear picture. Very large questions--marriage, religiou~ life, another child, major change in employment or lifestyle--may need months of discern-ing. What is always being sought is a clear pattern of responses from multiple poppings. Confirmation. When repeated poppings have yielded a pat-tern that tells us we very probably know God's will in a large or very large matter, it is good to supplement the discernment with a further process that may increase and strengthen our careful cer-tainty. Regarding marriage, the confirming question (in full detail, useful for the first popping) could well be "Lord, I think you have revealed to me that you want me to marry Stan. That is your will, isn't it?" Interpreting patterns. If pray-ers' first discernment efforts involve large or very large issues, I usually say nothing beforehand about htw to interpret their experience. Rather, I tell them they should pop the question "about X times," note carefully what hap- I ask discernment questions of the Lord only, only, only when I am prayerful. July-August 2000 Kenney ¯ Finding God's Will pens to their state of peace while and after popping, and record the experience of each discernment. At our next meeting we look at and interpret the responses together. The interpretation is very simple: The experience of consola-tion confirms the loaded question, whereas a lesser peacefulness or a diminished sense of being with the Lord negates the loaded ques-tion. In the example "Lord, you want me to marry Stan, don't you?" the results of the maneuver may be "muddied" by several years of attachment to a single lifestyle. The first few poppings will probably bring feelings of desolation, coming from pain at the thought of possibly losing certain blessings of the single life. But it is the pattern'of consolations or desolations, derived from many spiritual experiences, that reveals whether the alternative is in harmony or not with God's wisdom and love, and with what is deepest in herself as well. It is worth adding that in using the maneuver people may often experience desolation in new ways. They may sense a sud-den loss of contact with the Lord--no more disturbing than the quiet loss of a telephone connection during a conversation. Or they may sense the onset of a "vacuum" feeling, a severe feeling of emptiness, immediately after popping the question. Such feel-ings are often quite subtle, but are clear instances of desolation nonetheless. Sundry Choices Made by Means of the Maneuver Somehow it seems more appropriate to place this section at the end rather than near the beginning. My hope is that it will give some feel for the variety of discernments. I give some instances of choices that go ~ith the chooser's natural preference as well as againstdt. Understandably, I fictionalize to protect confidential-ity, but give enough details to suggest a "feel" for the shape of dis-cerned choices. First, four examples of big choices: a woman in her thirties who had enjoyed an active lifestyle met a man whom she feared God might want her tO marry and thus have her lifestyle signifi-cantly altered. Hers was a long discernment, spread over a num-ber of months, and she gradually became more open to marriage, especially through the use of "Lord, you want me to marry Stan, don't you?" Postwedding life has proved the fittingness of her def-initely not easy choice. There is a greatly loved child, and she Review for Religious found herself saying, "It's clear to me that I'm growing up now." A man in his early forties, increasingly uncomfortable with his military-connected job, sought first to know if God wanted him to give up his job and seek training and employment in some-thing more oriented towards human service. It was difficult to consider giving up a well-paying job without knowing what the next, step would be. His discernment was eased by his having a substantial amount of savings. In his case the discernment of per-haps five or six months gave him the certainty (and courage) to quit his job. This led to discernment about further education and eventually to a people-centered ministry. A young woman, thirty-two, who came with a strong prayer life and dedication to helping the poor, was not charmed when I asked if she had thought about religious life. "I want to get married and have children." "What if God wants you in religious life?" was a question she did not enjoy. In some-thing like a month of using the loaded ques-tion "Lord, you want me to be a religious, don't you?" she came to much more spiritual freedom for either marriage or religious life. She found herself eager to know God's will clearly, whatever it might be. That desire was fulfilled in another month and a half by a definite vocation to a missionary order. A woman in her forties taught'alternativ~ high school (possi-bly a universal euphemism for teaching students less than sixteen and expelled from regular schools). She heard of the possibility of becoming chief financial officer for a large God's Pantry opera-tion; she was both very qualified and very attracted. When, how-ever, she frequently asking loaded questions about whether God wanted her to continue in her present job, she came up with no clear sense of direction. Then, almost immediately after she was actually offered the CFO job, her prayer was filled with clarity that God wanted her to continue teaching "alternatives"--the very drift of her original popped question. Next are two examples of "medium" choices, but I flinch at such labeling because often the consequences are major. Probably the saddest accompanying I have done was with a man in his for-ties who was in a cult-like abusive relationship. In a discernment "What if God wants you in religious life?" was a question she did not enjoy. .~uly-Aug~st 2000 Kenn~y ¯ Findin~ God's W~ll which was long enough and clear enough, the answer was yes to "You want me to give up my relationship with X, don't you?" The sadness is that the relationship continued with great harm to him-self and to his family. Though I tried to persuade him to get coun-seling, the abuser convinced him that that counselors do the work of the devil. A man in his early fifties is a first-rate high school teacher. He got the idea that it would be good to get a Ph.D., but dis-cernment dictated otherwise. He continued happily and effectively teaching for several years. Because he is very gifted, he was asked to do all sorts of things at school, at church, and elsewhere. Before using formal discernment he was seriously fatiguing himself by undertaking too many projects. He began using a discernment notebook. When asked to do something, he noted it, carefully constructed a question for popping, used it in prayer,and logged the '~results." He says. no a lot more now, and notes the absence of fatigue. Out of the blue a department chair at the university asked him to supervise graduate students doing their summertime practice teaching. Not only did his discernment yield a clear "No," but also an unusual pair of words, "You're enough"--exactly what he needed to hear. He has no need for other and ever new achieve-meats to prove and feel his self-worth. Other Ways of Discernment The maneuver suggested here is one good way of seeking and finding God's will. There are many other ways. Experimentation vs. popping. In several areas of our lives where the prayer discernment process proposed here is not appro-priate, experimentation is a privileged way of finding God's will. It can be used for how long to pray, where and when to pray, what type of prayer is best for one's "daily diet," how much sleep, exer-cise, food, and drink to get, and so forth. Experimentation is not trying X one day, Y another, and Z on the third. Rather, it is try-ing one way five to seven times, then trying another way five to seven times, and afterwards reflecting on our experiences, espe-cially on the quality of our lives during the alternative experi-ments. St. Ignatius Loyola observes: "Now since God our Lord knows our [individual] nature infinitely better [than we do], when we make changes of this kind, [God] often grants each one the grace to understand what is suitable for [us]" (SpEx §89). Review for Religious There is another way that God answers sincere prayer--and, here, prayer to know God's will. My sister, her husband afflicted with Alzheimer's, knew they had to move into some form of assisted living because her heart condition was making her ever less able to care for him. She was more inclined to get care eight hours per day rather than 24-hour care--too pricey, she thought. Her earnest prayer that God reveal Their will was strikingly answered. The next two nights her husband had diarrhea and did not know what the toilet was for. Clearly, day care would not suffice. Another way of discernment is, I think, proposed by St. Ignatius, but unfortunately I cannot document this. This way involves offering the Lord different options as one would present different dishes to an honored guest, waiting to see which' he prefers. I mention, too, the experience of a Baptist minister who, faced with significant choices, would open his Bible to random passages and find in them helpful suggestions towards a particular course of action. He would say, "The Scripture came and grasped me." Summing Up First, the maneuver suggested here for finding God's will in larger and medium discernments centers on popping loaded ques-tions to God in prayer and noticing the pattern of desolations or consolations. By examining the patterns, the pray-er comes to suf-ficient certainty (especially if there is a confirmation process) that God's will has been found. This maneuver has been instrumental for scores of pray-ers in finding the peace of certainty about God's will for themselves even, sometimes, in small matters. The out-comes of decisions arrived at in this manner have been uniformly good (with one exception), and pray-ers have continued secure in their discernments, free from attacks by second thoughts. For persons who approached a decision leaning somewhat or strongly to one alternative, an unplanned and unexpected result of using the maneuver is that repeated poppings of a question loaded against their inclinations brought them--gradually, but more rapidly than I had dared hope--to equanimity about, or even real openness, to the unwanted alternative. With only one excep-tion, those who were led to "tough love" decisions were able to embrace them peacefully and live them energetically. Those who were led by the right use of the maneuver to embrace alternatives July-August 2000 L3-77-- Kenney ¯ Finding God's Will in accord with their initial preferences enioyed the special conso-lation, of knowing they had sought and found not merely their own will, but also God's. Magnificat I want to thank with all my heart the unknown man who, this summer, hacked back and burned the briars and unruly gorse which had covered that singing stream between Boolagh Bog and Bockagh Hill. And I will, because now eye can feast on the smooth black tables of rock down which clear brown water tumbles and bubbles and makes white foam. Ear had always heard the choir under the gorse-and-briar canopy. Body had always sat or stood there, soothed by sound. Now eye and ear heart and bone and soul and tumbling stream are humming their Magn~'cat in unison. Bernadette McCarrick RSM Review for Religious HILARY OTTENSMEYER Consulting Your Inner Wisdom Mnuch of our United States consumer-society mentality vades our quest for spiritual growth. We snatch up the latest acclaimed spiritual authors. We dash off to the latest popu-lar workshops. We try to take in more and more. The effort is laudable, for there is this hunger within us to know more about God's plan for us and to draw nearer to Jesus. All the restless searching, however, ignores the treasure that lies right at our feet. We look everywhere, but we do not see it. As Meister Eckhart wisely put it, "all people have a vintage wine cellar, but they sel-dom drink from it." What I propose here is a stop to all this chas-ing about and an invitation to look into ourselves at the inner wisdom that is already ours. We have access to it. Where the Treasure Lies Have you .ever noticed how easily we slip into states of total absorption, into trancelike states? I imply nothing "spooky" here. This is simply the way our minds work on certain tasks. In that state of absorption, of inner searching, we step out of time, away from the settings around us. We become so focused on a single idea that no other thought, no other emotion, intrudes. People who use their mind in this way experience vivid imagery and feel overall such bodily responses as muscle tension and sometimes Hilary Ottensmeyer OSB last wrote for us in our January-February 1997 issue. His address remains 1414 Southern Avenue; Beech Grove, Indiana 46107. July-August 2000 Ottensmeyer ¯ Consulting Your Inner Wisdom heightened blood pressure. Common occurrences: driving right past your own home, not hearing what people say and asking them to repeat, and not noticing that the phone is ringing insis-tently. Sometimes, by single-minded concentration on a prob-lem, we may come up with a "Eureka!" experience and have a solution. Most of the time, however, I suspect we choose this kind of intensive focus when someone's word or action has wounded us, and we retreat inwardly to chew on the bitter rind of our hurt pride. My suggestion here is that the mind's same powerful ability to focus, its intensity and bright-point targeting, can be used voluntarily in prayer--only this time the focus is on the inner wisdom we all possess through the grace of baptism and indeed all the sacraments and through our enriching experiences of striv-ing to be faithful followers of Jesus and reflective readers of the Gospels. In this way of prayer, we ask the Spirit of Jesus to guide and enlighten us. When we Christians go into the center of our minds and hearts, it is the indwelling Spirit who greets us there. There we hear the echoes of the voice of Jesus and of all the good people who have been examples of faith and good conduct for us. That central core of ourselves is the inner wisdom of which I speak. It is there, and it is available. But let me make a few distinctions. Some Clarifications I am not referring here to centering prayer or at least to what I understand by centering prayer. To quote Father Thomas Keating in his excellent book Open Mind, Open Heart: "A thought in the context of [centering prayer] is any perception that appears on the inner screen of consciousness. This could be an emotion, an image, a memory, a plan, a noise from outside, a feeling of peace, or even a spiritual communication. In other words, anything what-soever that registers on the inner screen of consciousness is a 'thought.' The method consists of letting go. of every thought dur-ing the time of prayer, even the most devout thoughts." ~ What I am referring to here about consulting your inner wisdom probably comes close to what Keating refers to, and dis-misses, as self reflection?. This, Keating says, is to be got over in order to reach pure cont.emplation. My own proposal is a delib-eratefocusing of thought as if one were using a magnifying glass to Review for Religious ' direct the beams of the sun to one spot. Such a tactic could pen-etrate steel. The discipline I propose is not behavior modification. That highly effective psychological tactic involves visioning an unde-sirable behavior of mine, such as becoming angry with the choir habits of a fellow religious, and then seeing myself calmly allow that person to do his or her own thing without my usual emo-tional upset. Consulting our inner wisdom means having in mind a specific goal (more on this later), then cleansing our mind of external dis-tractions by some relaxation exercise, and, in that calm and focused meditative state, inviting the Lord (or some other spiritual counselor) to help us understand and move towards atti-tudes and behaviors more consonant Jesus, unlike ourselves, with the obedient love with which a allowed himself to Christian wants to identify. This differ-entiates consulting our inner wisdom be angry only.when from simple behavior modification because it sees the change in ourselves the Father's honor and as inspired by the example of Jesus and glory were attacked. not simply as a personal social or emo-tional adjustment, helpful though that might be. Take, for instance, the ques-tion of boundaries. We are all aware how careful we are to pro-tect the spiritual frontiers of our Christan, Jesus-inspired integrity. Anger, rooted in pride, is one such protection effort. Jesus, however, unlike ourselves, allowed himself to be angry only when the Father's honor and glory were attacked. See, for example, the cleansing of the temple or the "woes" in Matthew's Gospel. At all other times, personal attacks did not seem to move him emotionally. When we honestly consult our inner wisdom, we may note boundaries of ours that we fail to protect enough. We may fail to caution ourselves regarding the sight or memory of a sexually attractive person. We may carelessly allow ourselves to recollect wounding words or actions that, even years later, cause us to tighten our fists or clench our jaws. Reflecting upon our inner wisdom, we can suspect or see the dangers of these reactions and thereby find ourselves protected against deep tenacities and inva-sive roots. "When you bury hate in your heart, you bury it alive" is a piece of liberating wisdom worth remembering. ~,~-~-~L~ ~ July-August 2000 Ottensmeyer ¯ Consulting Your Inner Wisdom Some Helpful Preliminary Disdplines Any relaxation exercise that suits our personality may be used to induce a meditative state. Relaxing the muscles from the head on down throughout the body is a common practice. The point is to pull the mind away from the leaping about that characterizes our ordinary mental activity. As one Eastern mystic put it, "the mind is like a tree full of chattering monkeys." Another approach, count-ing backward from thirty, demands just enough concentration to clear the mind of other thoughts. Paying attention to your breath-ing also slows down the inner agitation. The current enthusiastic practice of walking a labyrinth serves the same purpose--certainly this was the reason why many European cathedrals have a labyrinth carved in the floor near the entrance. Working through a series of yoga exercises, too, or focusing on a mantra helps some achieve the same end. Before entering into such a disciplinary exercise, it is impor-tant to have a goal in mind: "Jesus, I want to go into the place where you live in me, sit with you there, and talk about this com-pulsion to anger, to judgment, that spurts up so frequently, so involuntarily within me. Open to me your way of living with anger, for you felt it too. Help me draw on the many times I have given in, and the times I have restrained myself and 'stuffed' down my anger, only to see it blaze up in a trivial context once again, a con-text that was most inappropriate. Lord, I want freedom--to the degree my frail humanity allows--freedom from this compulsion. Lord, I am admonished by the wisdom you,.and others, have taught me. I have seen people mellow with the years, and others grow sour. Seeing someone act harshly, hearing another cut into someone's reputation, I react angrily at once, from the simple proud conviction that 'I wouldn't do it that way!' And I quickly find myself locked emotionally and mentally into scathing criticism." Jesus gently points out to us--after we wait silently for a while--that the only times he became angry were when the Father was attacked, ignored, impugned in some way. Our petty and obsessive responses melt before his gentle encouragement. Sometimes when we journey inwardly we become more acutely aware how often we fall into stubborn, addictive behaviors about which we feel helpless. Who is this "other" person who shows up within me, powerful, demanding, whom I watch with anguish as if it were a stranger? We have tried therapy, prescription drugs, behavior modification. The one.thing lacking to these tactics-- Review for Religious and I do not deny their value--is this: They rarely draw on that inner wisdom, that Jesus-centered encounter, where true change can take place. For instance, Alcoholics Anonymous has helped innumerable people, and indeed has an important spiritual com-ponent, namely, surrender to a Higher Power. But surrender in faith is only a beginning. There needs to be private self-ques-tioning that draws on the inner wisdom with which we are graced. Wl~en an addictive, destructive pattern has invaded our psyche so that a part of our life has become disconnected from the normal flow of life, we need to reach into the deepest resources within us: grace, the voice of Jesus, our inner wisdom. Within this intense, highly focused place in our mind, we call on Jesus to walk us through another pattern of behavior. Mental rehearsal is common to many forms of psychother-apy. Seeing yourself in the company of Jesus, however, and con-trasfing sad experiences of the past with "bright angels" of wisdom and true freedom, we choose a different, liberating pattern of action. We establish new boundaries, mentally and visually mov-ing away from the edges of danger. The mental rehearsal itself is now a new behavior that we can draw on when temptation returns. The hand retracts instead of reaching for the bottle, the eyes turn away from the stimulus to lust (maybe "custody of the eyes" was not just a life-depriving tactic after all!), the serving spoon is put down after one moderate portion. Psychologists continue to study how the mind visualizes behaviors and procedures. Imagination and imagery can be used in very sophisticated ways. In a recent New Yorker article, Malcolm Gladwell asks: "What do Wayne Gretzsky, Yo-Yo Ma, and a brain surgeon named Charlie Wilson have in common?" The answer: their practice of careful visualization before any action is taken. These men are virtuosi, and they exercise their great technical skills internally first. They mentally see an action through to the end before they perform it externally. Charlie Wilson, during his morning run, looks at each of the day's operations in his head, visualizing the entire procedure and its potential outcome. He says, "When I was actually doing the operation, it was as if I were doing it for the second time." Once, after finishing an operation, .taking off his gloves, and heading off down the hall, he suddenly realized that "the tape he had been playing in his head didn't match the operation that had unfolded before his eyes. 'I was correlating everything--what I saw, what I ~dy-August 2000 expected, what the X rays said. And I realized that I had not pur-sued one particular thing. So I turned around, scrubbed, and went back in, and, sure enough, there was a little remnant of tumor that was just around the corner. It would have been a disaster.''3 Consulting our inner wisdom involves a similar attention to detail. The skills to visualize here, however, are not the motor skills, but rather the spiritual skills we have accumulated over the years through prayer, scriptural study, and the counsels of wise Christians in spiritual reading and in the living church. It is all there inside, waiting to be drawn on like a rich bank account. Adding to the Inner Wisdom We sometimes feel empty, wandering endlessly in our private deserts. We feel locked into decades-old mental labyrinths. Our motivation flags. Dorothy Day once told a reluctant young friend that God "makes us understand this distaste, this recoil from reli-gion. The lethargy comes from a. consciousness of the immanence of the struggle, the fact that it is unceasing and will go on to death, and we often think that sheer thoughtless paganism would be a relief. ''~ But deep within we accept what the great John Cardinal Newman wrote: "Prayer is to the spiritual life what the beating of the pulse and the drawing of the breath are to the life of the body. It would be as absurd to suppose that life could last when the body was cold and motionless and senseless, as to call a soul alive which does not pray. The state or habit the spiritual life exerts itself consists in the continual activity of prayer.''5 Our task consists in never giving up on the faithful practice of prayer. How often we have heard that! And each morning we awake with renewed intention. But then we shoot through the day like a bullet, "busy about many things"--good things, too. When we finally bring ourselves to our inner wisdom, finally sit at the feet of Jesus just for a while, it seems we hear him say: "Until you are convinced that prayer is the best use of your time, you will not find time for prayer." And the sentence haunts us, but also frees us now for the best use of our time. It is as though a key has turned in a lock. Sometime~ it is helpful to have a favorite saint join you in that central place of peace. St. Joseph, who never ~ays a word in the Gospels, is delighted when you join him for an evening and sit with him on a bench just outside the little house in Nazareth. Review for Religious Perhaps Mary will come out, too, and rest awhile as the sun sets behind the Galilean hills. There is a beautiful view from Nazareth over towards the Roman city of Sepphoris, and even beyond to-the great sea. They will talk to you if you question them. When Problems Arise, When Hopes Surface When we go with Jesus into th~ place of our inner wisdom, we make starding discoveries. We may find problems we did not know we have. We are likely to become aware of wasteful, regrettable ways that our head and heart have been capable of, but cannot well afford. There are innumerable clamorous voices. There is the insistent voice of the Problem Solver. He wor-ries relentlessl~ about the future. The muscles around his eyes are taut because he is always peering ahead, looking for solutions there in the distance. He causes headaches and upset stomachs. The expectations of others are his con-stant concern as he tries to weigh a chance remark, interpret a fleeting facial expression. There is no center from which he acts. Life is one wrenching effort to get control of things and people. His bulky appointment calendar, like Marley's chain, gives him away. Another recognizable voice inside us is the Self-Accuser. Her skin gets hot, her hands become fists, as she recalls awkward words and clumsy gestures from years past. She plays memory tapes over and over in our head. No one is more persistent in tearing us down than she is: "You have been in religious life for fifty years now, but that is no proof that God loves you." Nothing so saddens, so pierces the heart like this cry, one we have all heard many times. The Self-Accuser has only to stop talking and thus give,us a quiet moment to lift our eyes to the cross or listen to Jesus' many words of love for us, or to hear Yahweh's endear-ments in the words of prophets and psalmists. But, beaten down by the Self-Accuser's words or shrinking from her grimaces, hear-ing we do not hear, seeing we do not see--because the Self- Accuser in us relendessly shares her deafness and blindness with us, and we chronically allow it. Sometimes it is helpful to have a favorite saint join you in that central place of peace. j~uly-Aug~tst 2000 There are other inner voices. Perhaps most persistent is the voice of the Lonely One. It does not let us forget that we long to love and be loved, to hold and be held, to whisper and be whis-pered to, to beclose to Another and not feel so alone. Sometimes we do feel consoled and calmed. The lonely restlessness at the center of our being, however, can never be completely quieted; perhaps it is not meant to feel so much peace. It is a reminder of" our desire for our heavenly home. How poignantly John of the Cross describes this quest for the Beloved in his Spiritual Canticle: "Where have you hidden, Beloved, and left me moaning?" In the hollow center of the soul where inner wisdom and grace live, there also dwells this urgent longing, We carry this wound in our heart. We become aware of it sometimes with hopeful anticipation, some-times with fear. In time, achieving greater integrity--the union between what we appear outwardly to others and what we know inwardly to be true--may calm us to some degree. Disturbing voices within us are balanced by "bright angels" calling us to. greater integrity. We long for inner peace, but only sometimes, with our inner wisdom, do we experience a joyous hope for it. Letting Memory remind us "of those splendid moments when we were touched by God, when we felt the reality of God deeply, is inner wisdom. Those blessed recollections remain when thought and emotions became as one with.an intensity that seems like an embrace. These are wells to which we can return time and again. Another support is Imagination: gathering together the way-ward impulses of our heart, humbly putting them before Jesus as the woman caught in adultery did during her brief moments with him after all the others had gone. And she heard him say, "Neither do I condemn you" (Jn 8:11). We long to hear such healing words, words of forgiveness that bring an offer of reconciliation. Unlike her, we may still hold out, failing to hear those words because of our pride and shame. St. Paul insists: "We entreat you on behalf of Christ, be reconciled to God" (2 Co 5:20). The repetition of per-sonally inspiring gospel texts (we all have our own)--in a mantra-like fashion, but more intentionally, until they infuse the heart--evokes and strengthens the inner wisdom. "The Father will give you whatever you ask him in my name" (Jn 15:16). "You did not choose me, but I chose you" (Jn 15:16). Allowing such words to soothe the heart steadies our resolve. As the Curg d'Ambricourt affirmed on his deathbed in Georges Bernanos's novel The Diary of a Country Priest: "All is grace." l~eview for Religious Jesus the Center of Our Being It helps to anchor our resolve in one basic' truth: Jesus is the center of our being, our very existence. Until we can accept that, we cringe when we hear Jesus uttering those breathtaking demands to his disciples: "Whoever loves father or mother more than me is not worthy of me; and whoever loves son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me; and whoever does not take up h.is cross and follow me is not worthy of me. Whoever finds his life will lose it, and whoever loses his life for my sake will find it" (Mt 10:37-39). Who does this Jesus think he is, pushing into our lives and taking them over? Presuming on our most instinctive loyalties! Preempting our deepest affections! Usurping our natural ties to father, mother, son, and daughter! Boldly proclaiming himself the most important person in our lives! This cross which he demands we take up daily disorients our whole lives, doesn't it? These demands are one way of forcing us to admit quite simply--and we are dazed by the thought--that we are not the center of our own life. Everything in our consumer culture tries to convince us that we are. If we can swallow and digest that one truth, many of the pieces in this vast jigsaw puzzle of our lives would fit together wonderfully. When we realize that Jesus made us the center of his life within his obedient love for his Father--these demands become acceptable, even desirable. My favorite image of intimacy with Jesus comes from John's Gospel. The beloved disciple, while re.clining at table on that unforget-table evening, leans back onto the breast of Jesus. Consulting the inner wisdom that God has put into our hearts, we know we are invited to do the same. Do we have the courage, the love, to do so? Notes ~ Thomas Keating, Open Mind, Opoz Heart (New York: Amity House, 1986), p. 35. 2 Keating, Open Mind, p. 112. 3 Malcolm Gladwell, "The Physical Genius," New Yorker, 2 August 1999, p. 63. 4 Dorothy Day, "Letter to an Agnostic," America (90th Anniversary Issue) 180, no. 13 (17 April 1999): 8. s Quoted in Saint Meinrad Archabbey's Community Bulletin, 4 July 1999, p. 2. ~dy-August 2000 EILEEN E O'HEA Tell Them, Tell the New Members. religious vocations A Mission is clear. That is, most if not all religious insti-tutes have spent days, weeks, months on mission state-ments for their communities. And they have done this bravely, wisely, prayerfully. These statements, coming from their lived experience as dedicated men and women, represent not only what they are doing now but also what they hope to do, or do better, or do more of. Concern for the poor, the marginalized, the disenfran-chised is a substantial part of communities' commitment to do whatever they can to facilitate the reign of God here on earth. A sister in my community, Elaine, one we all agree is charismatic in the true sense of the word, has been riding the chartered bus from New York City to the Bedford Hills Women's Correctional Facility every other Sunday. The bus is filled with inner-city children going to see their mothers. It is a two-hour ride. Elaine's con-cern for the women in prison and for their continuing relationship with their children has made these Sunday visits possible. For more than thirty years Elaine has worked in what she calls "the slammer." Eileen P. O'Hea CSJ, a decade-long contributor to our pages, had her third book published in May: In Wisdom's Kitchen: The Process of Spiritual Direction (Continuum). Her address is still 1750 Marion Street, #8; Roseville, Minnesota 55113. Review for Religiotts "The slammer" is an accurate term because, as Elaine enters, at least ten gates must open and slam shut before she gets to the room where she works within the razor-wired enclosure of this maximum-security prison. The room is now called The Children's Center. Elaine's job has been to do whatever she can to help the women keep in touch with their children. This article will not attempt to describe all that is involved in Elaine's ministry in prison, or to describe the eight convents (called Providence Houses) that she and others have reopened so that women leaving prison have a place to live and a chance to begin again in a new environment. Their children come too, of course. The sisters liv-ing in these houses with the women and children are quite clear about the mission-and-ministry statements of their congregation, the Sisters of St. Joseph of Brentwood, New York. Stories like Elaine's (or Eugene's, as the case may be) are true of individuals or groups in many communities--and are attract-ing new members. "Come and see," we say. Come, join us in try-ing to make a better world. Come, help to bring about systemic change. Every year a few do come. They are searching; they seek something worthwhile to give their life to. They want to make a difference, and they want to be with others, with communities that are facilitating the reign of God on this earth. For some new members, religious life seems to work for a while but then seems to be "not enough," not enough of what they looked for or hoped to find. "What do you get for doing this?" they ask, or "Why stay?" after the excitement of discovery fades; "I can do this without a vowed life of poverty, chastity, and obedience." And they are right; they can. Many women and men, ¯ married or partnered, hold the same values and are involved in the same types of ministry. When we invite new members into this little piece of the vine-yard, into participating with us in mission and ministry, we often forget a simple truth that might literally be underneath their skin. New members seem to be looking for three things: ° a lived expe-rience of gospel values through the mission and ministry of the community; ¯ intimacy, which is part of the friendship found within community; ° and intimacy with the Divine. It is this third one I am concerned about. Elaine and the Providence House sisters are, without a doubt, prayerful, God-centered, holy women. They reflect on the day's Scriptures together, talk about the meaning of the texts for their July-August 2000 O'Hea ¯ Tell Them, Tell the Nay Members. personal life and for their ministry, and they are committed to some personal prayer each day, usually some form of contempla-tive prayer. If we put prayer, community life, and ministry together, then why is it "not enough"? Admittedly, prayer or Scripture shar-ing sometimes means that those present share their personal strug-gles, philosophies, and theologies and thus can seem too intellectual, or too focused on the external ministerial needs, or too routinely self-focused. Most times, however, it is a heartfelt response to divine inspiration and the Gospels. Is this not "enough"? Perhaps not. Maybe those great mentors like Elaine and others are not sharing quite enough with the new member. We seem to do well at providing and accompanying new mem-bers in meaningful ministry. We also share community and friend- ~hip withthem, but we know, and hope they know, that we cannot supply what did not happen for them in their families of origin. Alice Miller, a leading psychologist of our time, states: "What you didn't get at age two, you will never get." Why? Not because we will not know love and affirmation, but because we will not know them as a two-year-old needed to know them. Intimacy and love is often an issue for new members, and they must work hard at discerning what they are meant to find within the community and what they must find within themselves. Frequently they feel there is not enough intimacy because deep friendships seem hard to find among the members. This is so because most of the members are much older, or are already bonded in relationships that have endured for years, or because the older members are so involved in their ministry that they do not have the time or the energy for anyone else. We probably will never resolve successfully all that is involved in the struggle for intimacy and love within religious communities, but we can do better. What remains after considering prayer, community life, and ministry is this: What do we get for doing all this? What has kept Elaine trudging up to the slammer each day for thirty years? What makes h6r such a holy woman? Is there some experience so sus-taining that makes it worth everything? Is it possible that you, Elaine, have experienced being grasped by Divine Love? Is there something that happens, intimacy with the Divine, that holds you, sustains you, makes you the very delightful and humorous person we all know? Did you encounter Christ in your ministry to the poor and is this what transformed you? Do you, Elaine, know, really know, intimacy with Divine Love or know you dwell in inef- Review for Religious fable Mystery? And is what you experience available to me, the new member? Can you tell me---if, indeed, it did happen for you-- whether it happened all at once, or gradually through the years, and what kinds of psychological, emotional, and spiritual ups and downs you have gone through? Was there one experience that was more formative for you than any other? Intimacy with Divine Love (and people experience it in a variety of ways) is what the human heart longs for, searches for. Our nature is such that we are all meant to realize union in and with the Divine even though each of us will experience it differ-endy. So, when we invite new members to "come and see," we must tell them what they get. In my novitiate days the sixty-four novices (thirty-two have remained these forty years) were told by a very wise and very Irish mistress of novices that, if we left all, we would receive back a hun-dredfold. Did we? I cannot speak for others, but my guess is that most (maybe not all) would say yes and that they would make the same life choice if they had the opportunity to live it over again. They just never say exactly why they would do this. Intimacy in any human relationship of true love is rarely spoken about in detail. The same is true of intim, acy in and with Divine Love. Mystics write about human and divine love because they break through egoeentricity and are no longer reticent or ashamed to speak of the wonder, the awe, the love they experi-ence. Poets write of human and divine love and tease our spiritual appetite by circling around some pro'found experience. They are like eagles riding the air current, then soaring so high we lose sight of them and what they are expressing. They stir up the embers of our hearts with their hints, but eventually leave us feel-ing tantalized by possibility. I do not think it can be any other way. Relationships of true love are intrinsically mysterious because the experience is beyond words, beyond intellectual constructs. The words of the poet point us to the moon, as the Zen saying goes, but once you see the moon the pointer is no longer neces-sary. In fact, it is an impediment. What remains after considering prayer, community life, and ministry is this: What do we get for doing all this ? July-August 2000 O'Hea ¯ Tell Them, Tell the New Members. What ke~ps us from at least giving hints as poets and lovers do? What can we say to new members if we are not poets? Some, like the poets, will use romantic language to describe their expe-rience of the Divine; others will be more concrete or more tran-scendent in expressing their experience. Recendy, at the end of a mission-and-ministry convocation, someone complained that he seldom heard Jesus referred to throughout the weekend. One of the participants responded by asking, "Is it more important to quote Scripture and refer explic-itly to Jesus or to do what he did and invite people to share the communion of table fellowship with us?" A good question, a great response. It has a familiar ring to many of us. It is the tension between doing works of justice and peace and theologizing about them, and then reflecting on them and integrating them as part of our own personal journey of faith. Simply naming God and Jesus as we talk about our lives and ministry is not what I am referring to. I want "hints" from Elaine and from the remaining thirty-two members of my novitiate. I think the reasons we hesitate to speak about our religious experi-ences are many. We do not all believe the same things about God or Jesus any more, and we do not want to offend, or we are afraid of exposing what is most sacred to us because it might meet with disdain and scoffing, or become the subject of theological combat. And so we are quiet. The pearl of great price is buried. Religious experience is always unique, different with every individual. Two categories, however, help to explicate distinct modes of experience. For those whose religious experience is the esoteric, God is the One beyond all names .and forms and is Mystery. There is nothing to say and nothing to tell because, over their years of spiritual searching, they have discovered this truth: God is ultimately an ineffable Mystery. Some not only take refuge in this discovery, but even collapse into it. They stop searching and ride on their limited knowledge, presuming that what they have discovered is all that can be realized. Consequently, their relationship with ineffable Mystery is rarely spoken of. I think some new members want to know that this experience of ineffable Mystery is not the dead end of the spiritual journey, but a realized source of joy in the one experiencing it; that this connection with the Divine, an experience beyond any human connection, makes a life of celibacy the only choice for them; and that it is this par-ticipation in divine life that impels them to minister to others and Reviev~ for Religious thereby have an experience, however fragile, of equanimity, integrity, wholeness. Esoterics must learn how to share their expe-rience of ineffable Mystery with the new members and admit to them that there is such a thing as the hundredfold. For some others, another type of religious experience is open, one frequently referred to as exoteric. It is the experience of a personal relationship with the

THE JUI ERCURV The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XVI GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1908 No. 8 CONTENTS. THE GOVERNMENT OF STUDENTS 2 E. VICTOR ROLAND, '07. A MISDIRECTED MESSAGE 5 T. T. COOK, '12. WASHINGTON THE FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY. .11 G. L. KIEFFER, '09. THE BOYHOOD OF LINCOLN 14 T. T. C. THE USE OF BEER IN GERMANY IS MRS. J. H. W. STUCKENBERG. WILLIAM McKINLEY 23 C. MCLEAN DAVIS, '11. EDITORIALS 28 BOOK REVIEWS 31 EXCHANGES 3£ THE MEBCURS Third, THE GOVERNMENT OF STUDENTS. E. VICTOR ROLAND, '07. RESIDENT HYDE, of Bowdoin College, says in one of his recent books, that there are six partners in college administration. This sextette is composed first, of the founders, donors, and benefactors. Second, the State, the trustees, regents, or overseers. Fourth, professors-and instructors. Fifth, the students. Sixth, the constituency of the college, that portion of the public from which money and students come, and to whom the institution must look for in-terest, guidance, and support. I presume that all will be quick to admit, that the most important element in this portion which President Hyde has seen fit to characterize as the constituency of the college, is the institutions' own alumni. It is not purposed in this article to assign to each of these six parties to college administration their respective rights and duties. Neither is it our purpose to speak of the comparative importance of any one in respect of the others. If the college does not have the proper support and, co-operation from all these sources, it is hindered, in a greater or less degree, in its mission of preparing and training men and women for efficient service-in the various avenues of life. We shall take it for granted that all are agreed that the welfare of an institution depends more on the discharge of duties on the part of some of these partners than others. Let us turn our attention to but one of these part-ners. That the student body of any institution is a most important factor in its welfare and success, is a truism. With a high class of men, intellectually, and morally, coming into a'n institution, men who have a high sense of loyalty, that will make them go out and talk about the superior advantages and opportunities their college offers, an institution of learning is bound to pros-per, and many will be the defects that will be eradicated on the-part of other agencies not giving their proper support. Thus we see that that phase of college administration which has to do with the student body is of very great importance, and must be-administered with much foresight and wisdom. THE MERCURY. How then shall a student body be governed? What method will yield the greatest results? In answering these questions two things must be taken into our consideration. First, the prestige and authority of those who rule must be maintained. In the second place, all discipline among students is pre-eminently .for the purpose of affording the general student body the greatest opportunity to obtain the best that the college can give. This is a fact that the student should always consider, and if such were the case, it would prevent many criticisms of the actions of the administrative authorities. Before stating our views as to what method will be most effi- -cient in the government of students, let us consider briefly the history of such government in the colleges of America. As one makes such a study he is impressed with the fact that the gov-ernment of students in American colleges is marked with in-creased liberality and orderliness. That of the colonial period was very similar to that of the civil government. It was most minute in its inspection of students, and likewise severe in met-ing out punishment. In the oldest university in this country, in 1674, students were fined and even whipped. The plan of .fining for a large number of offenses continued not only in Har-vard, but in most all of our American colleges, down to the mid-dle of the nineteenth century. It does not become us to criticise -wholesale this form of student discipline. Such government may have been as efficient in its time as that which is in opera-tion to-day. We know, however, that some of the worst rebel-lions on the part of the students occurred in those days of rigid -discipline. As a proof of such we refer to the rebellions at Har-vard in 1768 and 1807; the rebellion of 1808 at Williams; the .bread and butter rebellion of 1828 at Yale; and the rebellion of 1836 at the University of Virginia. All this resistence to power must be due to the fact that stu-dents and faculty view things in different lights. The problem •in discipline, then, is to utilize such methods as will best enable students and faculty to get the same viewpoint. In order to do this two theories have been advanced. Accord-ing to the first view, the relation of the college to its students is a sort of family relation—the college officers standing in the place of the parent, and the student in the place of the son. Ac- L '4 THE MERCURY. •cording to this theory the student must be guided by a set of rules and regulations laid down by the governing board. The second system is the very opposite to that of the domestic; the system is distinguished by its lack of government on the part of the faculty. In other words we may call it student government. This brings us to the important part of our discussion—the feasibility of student government. It may be remarked that these two systems seldom exist in the naked and bald form as outlined, and between these two sys-tems exist many practical modifications. Is student government a practical and feasible thing ? This de-pends very much on the size of the college, and the limitations -of this student governing power. In a large university or col-lege, student government must play an important part in admin-istrative affairs. In a small college where every student knows every other student, and where every student is known by all the professors there must be a limitation of such power. In every true college it will ever be essential to maintain a firm authority and circumstances may arise when the college should close its doors, rather than yield an essential point of moral character or intellectual efficiency to the student clamor and caprice. Yet this authority should be kept somewhat in the background, and used only when necessitated. The strong point in student government is that it places a re-sponsibility on the student. Because of this it would be a most 'effective means in maintaining proper decorum in the class-room and the morning chapels. It should also be made use of in'the maintenance of proper order and conduct about the dormi-tories. Just a closing word with reference to a very important factor in student discipline. One of the best methods for guiding the personal morals and proper actions on the part of students is through making and requiring severe intellectual demands on him. This always has been, and always will remain the very best method in maintaining uprightness of conduct, and if com-bined with a proper balanced student government, and a personal friendliness and intelligent sympathy on the part of professors, will make an ideal college life. THE MERCURY. THE MISDIRECTED MESSAGE. T. T. COOK, '12. VERY workaday morning since he had met Miss Johns, just two months and a week by the calendar, Joe Ab-bott from his desk in the Post Office Building, had tele-phoned "1836-Gernrantown." This morning as usual, the little morocco-covered clock in a pigeon hole of his roll top pointed to eight-thirty as he lifted the receiver. Instead of for-getting his business hours because of his little affair, it drew him to the office—and to the telephone—with such regularity that his clerks and demure young stenographer, already were dubbing him "Punctual Joseph." In a few minutes his bell tinkled and the operator reported. "I have Miss Johns for you." By which you will see that this operator was no ordinary soul, for she knew, long since, that "nice" Mr. Abbott wanted a particular party at "1836-German- 'town." With A low "thank you, put it on the booth, please," to the lady of the telephone, he began the morning service. "Morning, Sybil. How's the beautiful siren feeling this .morning ?" "That's good. No, indeed. Never felt more wide-awake in my life. Too much sleep doesn't agree with me, you know." And thus the little nothings flew back and forth over the wire for. several minutes. But it was a mighty satisfactory talk to at least one of the people concerned, for Joe Abbott had coaxed per-mission to call that evening at the home of his lady. And— significant fact!—this was the first time he had been allowed to ""act like a fool" two evenings in succession. He then emerged from the telephone booth and sat down be-fore a stack of correspondence to begin the day's work. On top •of the pile lay several unopened personal letters. Two of them he sized up at once as duns, and promptly swept them into an open drawer. The third he looked over with a degree of curi-osity. It was a large, perfectly plain white envelope with no advertising matter whatever on either side. •6 THE MERCURY. "This is about the eighth shoe catalogue I've received this Week," he thought. Suddenly he gave an exclamation of surprise and straightened up in his chair. A smile replaced the blank look on his face. "Well, I'll be ," fell from his lips. The cause of this sudden interest in things was evident on a close inspection of the envelope. The address, in black type- Writing, read "Mrs. Joseph Abbott, Philadelphia." "Phew! If Syb saw this there'd be a lovely fuss!" "Gad! I'm going to do it! I've got enough catalogues on hand to last me a year anyway. Here goes." And suiting the action to the words he scribbled a disguised "Try 5300 Germantown Ave." across the face of the envelope ■and tossed it in a basket bearing the legend, "Out." "I'd give a five to see Sybil's face when she sights that 'Mrs.' " Thereupon he dismissed the subject and dictated a stream of letters that met with the ever increasing disapproval of his sten-ographer. "Well, Miss Dennison, I think you'll have plenty to do this afternoon," he said, as the young lady finally arose and gathered up the armful of papers. "I'm going to lunch now. At four o'clock bring me what you have finished and I'll sign 'em. Leave the rest till to-morrow." So saying, he walked a half block to his restaurant, and buried himself in the sheets of a newspaper. When the waiter appeared, he carried the consomme in one hand and in the other a telephone, which latter instrument he connected to the nearest socket and placed it in front of the would-be luncher. "Call for you, Mr. Abbott;" he announced. Talk right here?" "Sure," he assented, while to himself he wondered if that stenographer would ever be able to get his letters straight with-out help. "Hello. Yes, he's talking to you." "Who? Miss Johns?' THE MEBCUEY. "Miss Johns' maid? Oh, I see. What can I do for you,. Anna?" 'What's that?' "Indisposed? Can't see me to-night? The Dev— er, is that all, Anna?" Bang! Up went the receiver. "Here waiter. Keep the rest." "No, I've had plenty. Yes, indigestion—that's it." Out in the fresh air again, he leaned up against a lamp post to think it over. "Lord, what a mess! Who'd have thought she'd take it so hard ? If I only had a car, like that young Van Ormer, I'd motor out there and see her right now. Well, I guess it's up to me to see-her anyway, car or no car. First thing is to get leave from the boss." And thereupon he hurried to the office of his superior, whom he was lucky enough to catch at leisure. Bather flustered, he blurted out his request to be excused for the rest of the day. Usually the old man had to know why and wherefore of the pe-tition of this kind, and the immediate and cordial nod of con-sent with which he now answered Abbott was a most unlooked-for surprise. As he hurried to the door the chief raised his head and called after the retiring shoulders—"I say, Joe. Be careful you don't celebrate too hard." "What in thunder," thought the bewildered fellow, "is the old bear talking about now." But too many other thoughts were crowding his brain as he swung to the platform of a trolley, and the boss's remark was shunted to the background. At last he alighted; walked a short distance to "5300 Ger-mantown Avenue" and ascended the familiar spotless steps. His feelings at this time closely resembled that accursed state called rattled. Moreover, "Anna," the same who had spoiled his lunch, opened the door. Anna was a splendid servant, but she had one affliction that was most disconcerting to a serious-minded caller. The nerves of her right eye were uncontrollable. Consequently THE MEECUEY. she winked; winked continually, and on occasions when even the slightest little wink was entirely out of order. The appearance of Anna, therefore, was quite ill-timed from the viewpoint of a man already on the verge of the rattles. He managed to withstand the fusillade, however, and after vainly trying to persuade her, with all the eloquence at his com-mand, to tell Miss Johns that he must see her, he did the next thing; brushed her aside and stalked majestically, if somewhat fearfully, into the library. Anna followed, her aggressive right eye still unconquered, and winking madly at-the back of Ab-bott's head. A dire foreboding filled her when she thought of the accounting that would come after her mistress rid herself of the "impid'nt young spalpeen." "Punctual Joseph" pierced the shadows of the library, only to realize that the much used room was empty. Hesitating but a second, he passed between the curtains toward a stairway which he knew led to Sybil's own sitting room, a combination of cozy corners which he had been allowed to enjoy on numerous de-lightful occasions. Foolhardy enough, he gained courage with every noiseless step on the carpets. He smiled as he thought—"I'll beard the lioness in her den." Bounding the turn he was forced to stop abruptly. A startled "Oh-h-h-h," struck his ear. Almost within arm's reach stood Sybil Johns. Something told him she had been listening, but had not heard his footsteps. A foolish feeling of exultation took hold of him, and in a flash his plan of confessing the miser-able joke and begging forgiveness faded and in its place he found a bold, yet apparently feasible idea. He would deny all knowl-edge of the letter that had caused the friction and thus make a beautiful proud girl feel the humiliation which he had been about to accept. And then Sybil was speaking, in a voice that now was fully composed, but utterly cold. "Mr. Abbott. This is—inexcusable." " My dear Miss Johns, it isn't half as inexcusable as your ac-tions." "Why Joe—Mr. Abbott, didn't you send that"—pointing ta an unopened white envelope lying on the table. » THE MEKODBT. 9 3 it?' vish he could play lidn't you say 'yes, a different forgive n» part. It But 'Send what ? What 'Joe!" said so plainly—"Wl it was too late now. Then her expression changed. Again she wore that "Justice" look. With "wait a minute, please," she stepped out of the room. When she came back she walked straight to him and placed in his hand a little leather bound volume. "Did you ever see that book before ?" She asked the question more with her eyes than her lips. "Tennyson's Idylls! Why to be sure, I sent it last Valen-tine —" "You did send it," she interrupted. The truth had rushed from the amateur lips in spite of him. Although he did not know how, something whispered a sinister warning that he was caught—caught fairly and squarely. "Look at the disguised writing on the fly-leaf," she com-manded, "and compare it with this." It was neatly executed. But her finger trembled the tiniest bit as she pointed to "Try 5300 Germantown Avenue." and then -to the "My Valentine." The inscriptions were identical. Mr. Abbott's stage career was ended. In a few well-chosen words she told him how small he had made himself appear. He tried to say something adequate, but the right words would not -come. What could he say ? He did the only remaining thing— started toward the door. At the portiers he turned and saw the fragments of the en-velope fall from her fingers. That settled it. The funeral procession (for Anna was bringing up the rear with a supply of winks) had reached the vestibule when some-thing happened. From the floor above he heard a sweet voice •calling, "Joe! Joe!" And then, while he stood there, unbelieving, it came nearer and nearer until a trembling girl appeared above him. She started down the stairs and he recovered his senses in time to rush to meet her. As he approached he saw that in her franti- 10 THE MEKCUEY. cally waving hands she held the remains of the letter. There was a new note in her voice. "Oh, Fro—I know I shouldn't have done it, but Joe, did you know—why didn't you tell me what was in that letter ?" "Why—why Sybil! Tell you? What was it?" "Look." She held up a torn portion of a sheet. He stared as if at an apparition. "It's the boss's signature," fell from his lips. "And what's this—'the right woman will soon be yours.' Syb! We must get it all. Quick. It's important. Help me!" Excitedly they pieced the bits together. Their hurrying fing-ers seemed all thumbs. Gradually, but all too slowly, each jag-ged piece of paper found its mate. At last the letter was com-plete. "Please read it to me." It actually was Sybil who spoke. Straining forward in the poor light he read the words, first huskily, then with a ring in his voice as the import of it all sank in his mind. "Just a line to advise you of your appointment to the recently vacated post of Special Postal Agent for the District of Penn-sylvania, to become effective on the first day of the coming month. I might add that I have been withholding my decision in this matter to discover, if possible, a suitable married man to fill the position. I need not tell you that it is the policy of this Depart-ment to appoint only men of settled character (which usually means married men) to the more important posts. However, from what I can learn, I am led to believe that the right woman will soon be yours. P. S.—I have instructed my stenographer to use a perfectly plain envelope, and to mail this letter, so as to prevent its being opened in mistake by one of your clerks." "Well." It was all he could say. "It's—its what you wanted, isn't it?" "Well rather. But I had given it up weeks ago." And then he looked at the girl, and what he saw in her eyes made him bold. Leaning toward her he whispered, "Sybil—am I forgiven ? THE MBKCUEY. 11 Think how independent we can be. — You darling! And I dare hope ? Tell me." "Why did you fib to me?" "And why did you say you were ill ? Shall we call it quits ?"' Silence—with the proper accompaniments—followed. WASHINGTON, THE FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY. G. L. KIEFFER, '09. 1HEN the American colonies were about to declare them-selves free and independent, they naturally selected the most representative man to lead the small number of men around Boston—the little band which they called the "Continental Army,"—the army through which they meant to establish their declaration. But why was George Washington selected as the commander-in chief of the so-called army? He himself declared that he had not sought the appointment and had done all in his power to avoid it because he considered the task beyond his capacity. In fact, it seems the hand of destiny had selected him, prepared" him for the task, and he could not refuse. There was none other in all the colonies equal to him in many respects. He was representative, being of the aristocracy of Virginia, and then,, no doubt, the richest man in the South. Carefully had he been trained for the very work that he now was to perform. Through noble service rendered to his native colony in many ways, he rose to honor and respect among his people. His ability manifested during the French and Indian War made him commander of the provincial troops and as such while serving with the royal army he had learned their tactics and now when he was to become-their antagonist in the person of commander-in-chief, he cer-tainly would be most dangerous to them. Why should not Congress naturally have selected this well-trained and disciplined man who had sat among them from the time of their first assembly, dressed in his uniform, all in readi-ness for the field of action? Then, too, they manifested their.- 12 L'HiS MEBCUBY. wisdom by selecting the most representative man from the South. which selection would tend to bind the South to New England, and thereby bring harmonious and unified action in the great struggle. Thus became Washington at the very birth of the nation its unifying and guiding, spirit. Quietly this man of common sense and sound judgment went to work and organized an effective army and then began to bring forth results even though hampered and misrepresented in every way conceivable. But the man who knelt in the snow in the grove at Valley Forge and prayed his God for success was at the helm, and even though he often himself became anxious there was no flaw in his devotion to his country and his cause, never even allowing himself to become despondent. At last he tri-umphed over the British army and the sovereignty of the Colo-nies was established. But now came his greatest task. He was the only source of authority and law that had more than a local force and, but for this governing influence mani-fested in the personality of this one man, the weak confederation might have been broken asunder into many petty and feeble states. Furthermore, but for his noble and unselfish principle and character the great American republic never could have been possible. The idea of making him king pained him and he warned his people to banish such thoughts from their minds for-ever. After he had secured the rights of his soldier companions he fondly and fatherly bade them farewell and returned to Vir-ginia. But even before retiring to private life' his guidance and solicitude for his country at large was manifested. To every state governor letters full of golden maxims and great wisdom were addressed ever advising the formation of an "indissoluble union of the states under one federal head," as one of the four essentials of the existence of the United States as an independent power. Again after retirement letter after letter was written emphasizing the necessity of' this union. When the constitu-tional convention met, naturally he was chosen its president. As the keynote of their deliberations he gave: "The consolidation of the Union." When a president of the new government was chosen, Wash-ington was the only logical choice. Reluctantly he left his home - THE MEBCUEY. 13, life. But duty to his people called and he accepted the inevita-ble difficulties before him. In his first inaugural he attributed. all success to "the Almighty Being." With this reverent spirit was his new task undertaken, and of the crises of his administra-tion it was said: "The president's amiable disposition, how-ever, smoothes and sweetens everything." He found out the people's needs and then with methodical precision guided all legislation, so as to fulfill those needs. Thus was life added to the skeleton of the new government and the frame work of the. whole political, social, and industrial systems erected. After having given his people a strong and righteous govern-ment he, on Sept. 19, 1796, bade them farewell and shortly after that retired to his estates followed by the love and admiration of a people who now fully recognized his public spirit, his staunch integrity and the extent of his intellectual resources. But once more was he to serve his nation. When war with France was threatened, as President Adams said, "his name would have more efficacy than many an army," so where duty called he again responded. Soon, however, events allowed him to retire again only to have death overtake him. On Dec. 14, 1799, he died, uttering the words: "It is well." Yes, his guiding hand safely piloted the ship of state until she-was anchored securely in port. Bancroft says: "But for him the country could not have achieved its independence; but for him it could not have formed its union; and, but for him is could not have set its government into successful motion." In the words of Gen. Henry Lee: "He was first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." His countrymen were his children for he had no other. He-truly was the Father of his Country. 14 THE MERCURY. THE BOYHOOD OF LINCOLN. T. T. C. JlOGIiAPH'EES usually skip lightly through the opening chapter of a man's life and, like a girl with the latest novel, hasten on to more stirring scenes. To say that we lose much by this practice is indeed putting it mildly. We are deprived of information that we really ought to. have. "Life is a minute; youth but a second," says the poet, and verily in that little "second" happen most of the pleasant affairs of our allotted span. In it are born all the thoughts, hopes and ambitions of later days. And while all this is true of great men as a class, it is particularly true in the case of Abra-ham Lincoln, savior of a nation. Abraham Lincoln was born the twelfth day of February, in the year eighteen hundred and nine. His birthplace was a log cabin of the rudest sort. He came into this world surrounded with all the privations incident to pioneer life in the wildest section of Kentucky. It would be foolish to enter the discussion which his biographers are continually waging as to whether his parents were or were not shiftless. It is sufficient that there is not the slightest doubt concerning their extreme poverty. Born as he was there would have been manifold excuses for any faults or failings which he might have developed. But instead of shortcomings we shall presently see that an account of his early life is one long list of virtues. Upon approaching the subject a question which is likely to prove distracting presents itself. The writer is to tell about the "Boyhood of Lincoln." "That will be easy," he thinks and off' he starts to the library to collect material. Of course there is no trouble about the starting point. So far, so good. But sud-denly he starts as if shot. He has found the puzzler. Listen. "I wonder when Lincoln stopped being a boy?" Over and over again the student turns the bristling interrogation point, and then at last a light disperses his cloudy thoughts. He has found the answer, and it is one of the greatest lessons we learn from our martyred president's life. It is this. Abraham Lincoln was a man from the cradle; he was also,.however, a boy 'till his THE MEUCUBY. 15 death. To illustrate. When eleven years of age his mother •died. She was buried, and what a funeral that must have been! Not a friend was present to comfort the husband, not a play-mate to sympathize with the son. Abraham saw his mother laid away in a rough, home-made, pine box. He was troubled, deep down in his young heart, to think that his mother was taken away from him without a minister's kind words, without a pro-per funeral service, almost without a prayer. He suffered si-lently until the thought became unbearable, then he sat down and wrote such a letter as to move an itinerant parson to ride fifty miles over the roughest roads, unpaid, to preach a sermon for the departed Mrs. Lincoln. Surely this was the thought and action of a man. On the other hand, when he was already quite a prominent personage, we hear this of him. He was the guest of honor at a large fair. After his speech, a proud committee took him about the grounds to see the various exhibits. They came to a professional strong man's tent, entered and at once Lincoln was ■enraptured. He was spellbound. Throughout the exhibition •of strength his only remark was frequently repeated, "By George!" At the close of the performance Mr. Lincoln met the strong man and tried to do some of his tricks. When he found that he was the weaker, he looked down on the professional with a curious mixture of mischief and envy in his ej'es, and said, "AH the same, I could lick salt off the top of your head." From the time he lived in that famous log cabin in the woods of Kentucky Lincoln showed a most versatile nature. On a cer-tain page in one of the most reliable of his biographies }rou will find these words: "Abraham Lincoln was melancholy by nature." Farther on these occur: "His wit, humor, physical strength and reputation of being a general good fellow, made him a favorite with all." At first these statements seem contradictory, but when one thinks of it, it is only an indirect way of saying that he possessed the greatest intellect of his age. A comparison of Abe Lincoln with the average poor boy of to-day is sure to reflect badly on the latter. It shows, however, the immensity of the difficulties under which the youth labored. It is actually amazing to think of what he accomplished. Think, for instance, of the fact that altogether Lincoln spent only six 16 THE MERCURY. months in school; while the average boy of to-day spends twice as many years. Think how he must have worked both day and night when he achieved the feat of mastering surveying in six weeks; when the boy of to-day considers himself bright if he knows something of the intricate subject in as many months. Think how he walked scores of miles to borrow books; while you and I are literally hemmed in by libraries. Think of all these obstructions—and many more—which lay thick along his path, and then, if you please, consider that his was the masterly hand that guided the ever-veering ship of state through the greatest storm she ever encountered. Lincoln never waited for "something to turn up." He had that kind of an eye which sees opportunity where others see un-opportunity. His perception was such that when he had seen an opportunity, he grasped its possibilities at the same instant, and then, with his indomitable energy, made the most of it. Sup-pose he had developed his mother's weakness of bewailing her lowly station in life. Probably no one but his mother would ever hate known him if such had been the case. Instead of de-ploring the trick Dame Fortune seemed to have played him, he picked up his axe, strode out into the forest, and chopped down trees, and split rails until physically he was able to cope with life's struggles with every advantage on his side. Abraham was that kind of a chap who does not wait for things to "turn up." He belonged to the small class of people who get under things and turn them up. All through his young life we see his mind was being shaped along the lines of thought he afterward carried out. His ideas concerning the slavery question, especially, were of early origin. To us have been handed down the words he uttered when first he saw human beings bought and sold. This event happened in the year eighteen hundred and thirty-one, when Abe was sent to New Orleans. It is said his entire soul was so stirred up by the sight that then and there the mighty resolve was formed, and from that time his every effort converged to that heaven-inspired climax, the freeing of the slaves. Much has been written about every stage in Abraham Lin-coln's life, from the time he first saw daylight through the cracks of his log home, until the moment when, mourned by a nation. THE MEEUUBY. 17 he lay on his stately bier. But of all the eulogies ever spoken or written of him, not one bears with it the weight of the words that fell from the lips of his mother. What better passport through life and the gates of heaven could one wish ? She said: "Abe is a good boy. I can say of him what scarcely one mother in a thousand can say; he has never given me one cross word or look, and never has refused, in fact or appearance, to do any-thing I requested him. His mind and mine—what little I have —always seem to run together. He is a dutiful son to me al-ways. I think he loves me." Abe's associates were exceedingly fond of him and proud of his prowess. One of them swore up and down that he knew his friend could lift more, throw farther, run faster, jump higher, wrestle better than any man in the country, not to mention such little accomplishments as those of story telling, "figuring," and bting the "smartest" and "likeliest" lad in the region. Coupled wivh these qualities we must remember that he was by all ac-couats big, poorly clad, awkward and shy. It is obviously hard to choose a phase of Lincoln's young life which may be called with accuracy the final one of his boyhood. But w* now have seen what events came to pass in his earlier days tiyt went to make Abraham Lincoln, the statesman, the leader, aid the man. We can realize how rare was the humor, how beautiful the character, how marvelous the intellect, and how amazing fine the spirit with which the Almighty endowed this gaunt, ungainly youth. It lifts one to a higher sphere to think of thl Power that could, and does, infuse divinely wrought qualities into weak mortal clay and then use the vessel in the doing of immortal deeds. 18 THE MEBCUHY. THE USE OF BEER IN GERMANY. BY MRS. J. H. W. STUCKENBEUG. ECEATT experiences in Germany have directed scientific methods of investigation to the alcohol question, includ-ing the sale of beer. An abundance of German litera-ture, thorough, impartial, now affords information con-cerning the history, the development in the use of beer, and its relation to the health, the intelligence and the morals of Ger-man people. Modern invention and concentration of capital have produced such floods of beer, seeking purchase, as to arrest thoughtful attention, especially from the professional men brought into contact with masses of men; in particular, the phy-sicians in hospitals, asylums and prisons, and the medical inves-tigators in universities. The use of beer has a long history in Germany. Martin Lu-ther in his "Table Talk" execrates "the first man to brew Veer, as the pest of Germany," and says, "I have often implored God •to destroy the whole brewing business." But neither befoic Lu-ther's time nor since, has habitual beer drinking been universal ■among his countrymen. Even yet, despite its comparative cheap-ness and recent accessibility, the great body of the peasants and the city proletariat still find beer too dear for their coirmon con-sumption, and seek temporary exhilaration in varieties >i Brannt-wein (whiskey). An authority on this question, Ir. Wilhelm Bode, reports in the article on drunkenness in the Jncyclopedia of Political Science (Handbuch der Staat's Wisenschaften). that "survey of the comparative drink tables of European lands shows that Germany consumes more distilled liqu>rs per capita than even Bussia, so notorious in this respect." Luther complained in his commentary on th Hundred and First Psalm, "Tippling is an almighty idol amAg us Germans. . The outrageous daily injuries, all manner >f calamities cer-tainly ought to frighten us out of the habit." But whatever the tipple used in various parts and by various passes in Germany, the history of its use shows fluctuations in is extent and reign. Far more in the past than in the present hs it been true that the common people were not able to male habitual use of in- THE MEKCURY. 19 toxieating drinks, as has been shown by Prof. Ganle of Zurich University. It was only on rare festivals and holidays that op-portunity offered to become "drunk as a lord." Again I quote Prof. Konrad's "Encyclopedia of Political Science," to indicate-something of the changes within the centuries with reference to. drink manufacture and general drink opportunity. "At the close of the Middle Ages the brewing interests of North Germany were in a flourishing condition, and at that time- North and Central Germany were the beer drinking lands, while in South Germany beer played a very significant role. After-wards, brewing declined in North Germany and began to flourish in Bavaria. "It was not until the latter half of the nineteenth century that beer drinking began again to attain great dimensions in North Germany. The most recent phenomenon in this connection is the astonishing increase in the use of bottled beer since the in-vention of the well-known patent self-sealing bottles." With regard to changes in the varieties of beer usage, Berlin furnishes a case in point. For a considerable period previous to somewhat more than a quarter of a century ago the common so-cial beverage in Berlin was Weissbier (white beer), so mild in alcohol that it was customary to use huge .glasses resembling our grandmothers' high-stemmed preserve dishes. In ordering it, the flipptnt demand "eine kiihle Blonde" (a cool Blond). la -appearance it resembled our lemonade when clear, was slightly-acid, scarcely bitter, pleasant only to an acquired taste. I have-heard old Birliners regret general adoption of stronger varieties: of dark beer^ including at times the heaviest quality from Ba-varia. As a We Berliners depreciate the drinking of lager beer as too strong. \ Even the Berlin dailies began sounding an alarm when some ten years ago beer palace after beer palace was being-erected in the splendid Priedrichstrass. They exclaimed, "Wo will das hinaus?^ (What are we coming to?). Are we in AmeiW making a mistake not to insist on the man-ufacture of such pVe beer as that whose production is so care-fully guarded by g both heart and rea-son and is indispensable to every cultivaid being, for reading he has no time." Dr. Binz, professor in fte University of Bonn. says in a pamphlet on alcohol drinking: "This daily beer drink-ing for hours at a stretch customary amog great numbers of the / / THE MERCUKT 21 lower and middle classes in Germany, I regard it all as a national evil, whether considered from the hygienic, economic or intel-lectual point of view." Prof. Carl Hilty in his book on "Gluck" has written: "Brewers are probably the worst wasters of time in our country." Virchow, the celebrated medical professor of Ber-lin, demonstrated "that the stomach trouble and near-sightedness of our contemporaries are related to beer and tobacco, and that in this case as in so many others, the children must suffer for the sins of their fathers." E. von Hartmann, author of "The Phi-losophy of the Unconscious," says in his book "Das Judenthum:" "Although of all nations the German has the greatest capacity for culture, the general culture of its higher classes is undergo-ing frightful retrogression because the beer consumption of its student youth is affording neither time nor sobriety to acquire more than is demanded by the advanced requirements to prepare for their professional life." As to the truth concerning drunkenness in Germany, Dr. A. Baer, of Berlin, pronounced the best axithority on the German drink situation, reports that in 1885, 11,974 cases of delirium tremens were treated in the hospitals of Germany. Prof, voni Bunge calls attention to the fact that only the minor of such, cases are sent to the hospitals, and states that chronic drunken-, ness antl delerium tremens are increasing there at a frightful' rate. Di. von Birch-Hirschfeld, professor in the university at. Leipsic, s*id in a lecture: "Based upon the anatomical and pa-thological experiences, I have come to the conclusion that in Leipsic, as in other large cities, a very great proportion of our laboring men, perhaps one-half of our male population twenty-five years old and upward, manifest more or less organic injury resulting from the use of alcohol Without exception they show a decrease in the number of tissue cells with a correspond-ing loss in power and endurance." In a temperance address to., students Prof. Forel expressed himself as follows: "This I can affirm, that in Germany, Switzerland, and Aus-tria, yes, and in France, a large part of the intellectual power off our academic youth is actually drowned in beer, wine and aibsih>- the. The ridiculous drink compulsion and idiotic vainglory at the drinking festivals German students have introduced, are un-doubtedly the most hideous deformity of our civilized century^ 22 THE MEBCUBY. At the same time they are a revelation of the mental deficiency than which they could hardly have invented one more silly. Students often poke fun at the Paris fashions in the woman-world; I also am heartily opposed to their unesthetic uniform aping of one another, according to change of season, which, by the way, has this in common with the drink custom: it puts money into the purse of a few speculators. But how much more stupid and unesthetic the students' drinking fashion! They call it jovial. Yes, a pretty joviality with its accompaniment of palsied tongues, staggering, fighting, vomiting, and the 'Kat-zenjammer', in which the most collosal imbecility is applauded and the most vulgar beastliness arjd misdemeanors are excused and glossed over. "Gentlemen, I believe there is only one way to work out of our academic degradation, by organizing total-abstinence societies among the students. How superbly organizations abstaining from all intoxicants could occupy themselves with the cultivation of the beautiful and the good, with what produces real courage and physical force; turners' societies, musical societies, botli vocal and instrumental, art associations, literary, dramatic, scientific societies, boating clubs, the cultivation of social science outside the realm of political party folly, furthering enlightenment among the people, etc. However, gentlemen, don't forget that the means is not the end. Don't let us make an idol of total-abstinence, a mere substitute for the drinking places, letting the mind run to waste. It should only serve as one of fhe means for extricating ourselves from this degradation and for attaining higher ideals. For that reason a student's' total abstinence so-ciety ought to engage in all departments of intellectual endeavor with great zeal, ambition and energy, in order to win as members not merely a few visionaries but all the studerts of the most in-tellectual promise. We do not want to becone gloomy ascetics. but joyous, active beings We do not wan: to repress natural. healthful impiilses and enjoyments, but to leep them within the bounds of the moral development of huma-iity which necessarily conform to the requirements of hygiene, aid to subordinate them to higher ethical and esthetic aims, the orly sort that affords life., real permanent joy." Recently the Accident Insurance Department of the South THE MERCURY. 23 Austrian Government published and distributed 100,000 copies of a pamphlet entitled "Weg mit dem Alkohol" (Away with Al-cohol). It is an able treatment of the subject of German drink-ing and contains a statement that "in Munich every sixteenth man dies of 'Beer Heart.'" It proceeds to relate that this esti-mate founded on revelations in the dissecting room, does not in-clude the deaths from other diseases, those of the liver, walls of the bloodvessels, etc., induced by the use of beer. An eminent Munich physician, Prof. Bollinger, has given it as his opinion that for one man in every seven in that city, death is caused by the use of beer. As is well known, Munich is pre-eminently the German beer city. "Wo will das hinaus?" WILLIAM McKINLEY. C. MCLEAN DAVIS, '11. [HEIST confronted by the life of William McKinley, and awed by the strength of his character and personality into affectionate esteem, we hear within us a still, small voice asking: "Whence the power of this man ?" Then follow the course of his life. Go to the smoke-reeking, flame-flashing sections of Ohio, where every town has its iron foundry and smelting furnace, and there in a soot-covered town filled with the roar of the furnace and the clangor of the foundry, darkened by day with clouds of smoke and lighted by night by flaring flames, single out a little school urchin distinguished only by a somewhat more studious mein than is ordinary in boys of his age. Follow him day in and day out as he studies in school, mastering every detail, and as he plays with his companions enjoying everj'thing thoroughly. When he enters the academy observe in him the same studious habits; and as postal clerk later the same clear-sighted, honest discharge of duty back of which is an unquenchable ambition to get fur-ther education. But here, stop ! Listen! To his ears comes the clear call of his country, and though a mere boy of seventeen he throws all 24 THE MEKCDKY. youthful aspirations aside and dedicates his life to the cause of freedom. • Need we follow him into the battle? Need we watch him as alone he rides in the face of the enemy to carry a message to a regiment that otherwise would have perished? Need we ob-serve that like the Father of his Country his horse was shot out from under him and he himself escaped unscathed? Is it not sufficient to say that he entered the army as a private and in four years was advanced to the office of major ? And what higher tribute can we pay to him than to say that his life purpose was so strong that at the end of the war he was able to refuse the offer of a permanent position in the regular army with all its promises of glory and achievement, and go back to his study of the law? His habits of concentration and mas-tery of details now told, we find him soon beginning the practice of law, and soon after the possessor of a wide reputation for eloquence and success. His natural interest in questions of government policy and x'hief of all in the tariff question now led him into politics. It -would be a long but interesting matter to follow his public career. He was first honored by the office of county prosecuting attorney. Then followed fifteen years in Congress in which he won for him-self recognition as an able and interesting tariff debater. He was taken from Congress to serve his state as governor for two terms; and quickly after this came the honor and office twice be-stowed upon him by his country, the office of its Chief Executive. Without the aid of political machines and questionable re-sources, he had risen round after round on the ladder of Ameri-can esteem and popularity, and though at first misunderstood and bitterly attacked by the people, his own name being used as a means of reproach, he maintained his policy because he knew it was right. His eloquence was the means of converting the people to his cause, but back of that eloquence was the spirit of the man, the burning zeal for the welfare of his country and countrymen that flashed forth in soul-searching flames which struck into the heart of eveiyone who heard him and fired them with his own enthusiasm for God, his country, and his fellow-men. But not eloquence alone could have secured him his glorious attainment. There was about him an air of quiet, approachable THE MERCURY. 25 dignity which attracted the masses and won their confidence and friendship. To see him was to create in one the feeling of hav-ing known him for years, and still of his being one who was su-perior to all other men, wiser, kinder, nobler and more congenial. He was pre-eminently an American among Americans, a. trust-worthy recipient of the heritage which Liberty here alone can grant. But to pass by his private life would be to miss the key to his public success, and the most beautiful side of his character. Wil-liam McKinley will always be present in the minds of the Ameri-can people as a devoted husband and true friend. His love for his wife was more intense, stronger, nobler, and more affectionate than that which only too often the honeymoon outlasts. They were united in bonds so strong that together they bore the over-whelming sorrows of bereavement, sickness and misfortune, and yielded submissively to the nation's call to duty though it meant much personal sacrifice. His mother, too, came in for a large share of his care and at-tention. In boyhood she had nurtured him and had given him his training, and all through his life she remained his gentle ad-viser. Though proud of her son and made happy by his achieve-ments, she always mixed with her commendation "a wee bit of admonition due," which was always received with filial affection. Moreover, William McKinley formed friendships which naught but death could rend asunder. He denied self, forfeited both his own and his wife's entire fortune, and frustrated the first attempt to nominate him for the presidency because of his loyal devotion to his friends whom he had pledged himself to support. Nothing seemed nobler to him than to be true to his friend. His life was the living of the motto: "To God, thy country, and thy friends, be true." Is it a matter of astonishment then that the sudden loss of this man caused such deep mourning throughout the land? As his body was borne through the country on its way to its last rest-ing place, millions of heads were bared and bowed, and the hearts of the people uttered their anguish in solemn silence. Millions filed past the bier to obtain one last look at the fea-tures of their tried and true friend. Statesmen whose faces were-rigid and cold as steel were moved to tears by this bereavement. 26 THE MERCURY. Soldiers who had seen the terrors of many battles and had wit-nessed many men die tragic deaths without flinching, stopped here and wept. Here was a nation's grief and well did the na-tion express it. The funeral services were almost ended. Softly the strains of "Nearer, My God, to Thee," rose upon the air. Slowly the fu-neral car proceeded through a parted sea of humanity. The bands played the funeral march and minute guns were fired from the heights of Westlawn cemetery as the solemn column approached the grave. The way was strewn with sweet peas and the mausoleum was a bower of roses. When the casket reached its resting place a salute was fired by the artillery. After the burial services were concluded, eight buglers of the G. A. E. sounded "Taps," and as the last notes still lingered in the air the mourners filed slowly homeward. At the same time throughout the country not a wheel moved. The nation stopped its work to honor the dead. Memorial pa-rades halted for five minutes. Street cars were stopped and motormen and conductors stood with bowed heads; railroad trains in their mad race across the continent ceased to move; telegraph instruments ceased their ticking; telephone bells si-lenced their ringing; business houses were closed and profound silence prevailed, only broken by the strains of "Nearer, My God. to Thee," which filled the churches of the land. Thus it was that amid weeping and regret the nation honored her dead. "Such was he, our Martyr—Chief, Whom late the nation he had led, With ashes on her head, Wept with the passion of an angry grief: Forgive me; if from present things I turn To speak what in my heart will beat and burn, And hang my wreath on his world-honored urn. How beautiful to see Once more a shepherd of mankind indeed, Who loved his charge but never loved to lead; His was no lonely mountain peak of mind,. Thrusting to thin air o'er our cloudy bars, A sea-mark now, now lost in vapors blind; THE MERCURY. 27 Broad prairie rather, genial, level lined, Fruitful and friendly for all human kind, Yet also nigh to heaven and loved of loftiest stars. Great captains with their guns and drums, Disturb our judgment for the hour, But at last silence comes; These all are gone, and, standing like a tower. Our children shall behold his fame, The kindly-earnest, brave farseeing man, Sagacious, patient, dreading praise, not blame, New birth of our new soil, the true American." I H E HERCU RV Entered at. the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Mailer. VOL. XVI GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1909 No. 8 Editor in-Chief P. F. BLOOMHARDT, '09 Exchange Editor H. REY WOLF, '09 Business Manager CHARLES L. KOPP, '09 Ass't Bus. Managers G. C. KNIPPLB, '10 PAUL B. MILLER, '10 Assistant Editor CHARLES F. V. HESSE, '09 Associate Editors SAMUEL FAUSOLD, '10 EDWARD N. FRYE, '10 Advisory Board PROP. C. F. SANDERS, A. M. PROF. P. M. BIKLE, PH.D. PROF. C. J. GRIMM, PH. D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contri-bute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. The four years of FAREWELL,. a man>s Ufe which are spent at college are, perhaps, the most enjoyable that he will experience. In them he develops from the boy into man-hood. He enters college with a boy's thoughts and ideas which are usually immature and lack-ing in wholesome judgment. By the Senior year discretion, wider and broader knowledge, experience among men should be his. THE MERCURY. 29 He should be able to decide better and more quickly, questions of thought and action. Perhaps at no other period of his life will he be able to notice so plainly this evident growth and de-velopment. He is easily able to realize the difference in his personal being between his first and last years, and feels himself a broader and bigger man although realizing that he is yet far from being experienced in the broader paths of the active world. With this issue the present staff concludes its official rela-tion with the MERCURY. It is with a mingled feeling of pleas-ure and sorrow that we lay down the editorial pen for others to assume. It has been the occasion of much labor and thought on the part of those who have had it in charge, but we have come to learn more fully that we care most for those things in life upon which we have bestowed the most care and effort. One year ago we felt our inexperience keenly when we first viewed our new duties and frequently throughout the year it has been very evi-dent. Many mistakes have been made but we can only claim indulgence through the fact that we tried to do our best. We feel thankful, however, for the opportunity for personal develop-ment which such relation to the MERCURY has afforded us, and hope that our successors will profit as much by the responsibili-ties incurred. We also wish to extend our heartiest thanks to all who have assisted in its publication, whether financially, or in contributions for its pages. A special word of thanks is due Dr. Bloomhardt for his continual interest in its success and the prizes amounting to twenty dollars which he has so kindly de-voted to the welfare of this paper. We hope that the winners can be announced in the near future. Often, when weary of the routine of college duties, it delights and edifies one to spend a little time in the college reading room, especially if that reading room be well conducted. Not onty this, for there are educational advantages which only a general reading room can afford the student who would do research work in his chosen department. These advantages are absolutely necessary, if we wish to be properly informed as to modern, ad-vances in art and science. Surely no one can fail to agree that this is true. 30 THE JIEECUKY. It is greatly to be deplored that we do not have the desired fa-cilities in this department. We can not attribute this need to the so-called conservative spirit. But, to say the least,, it must be due to gross indifference, and, to excuse this, we can only state that those who have the authority -tp act are not conveni-ently located for the purpose of directing^ A committee consisting of three members of the faculty was appointed to advise; but, this only conferred nominal authority, and tends to keep both the committee and others who are inter-ested from even suggesting improvements. This is the condi-tion of affairs that has hindered the much needed improvements. The management of funds has been sadly neglected. Two cus-todians receive pay for doing almost nothing, or for merely throwing out old newspapers. The rooms are dirty and improp-erly located, and the literature is merely such as many of the students subscribe for, or can read in the fraternity houses. These facts can not be hidden, nor do we wish to do so. The fee required from each man who lives in the dormitories together with that which should be paid by those living elsewhere, and who make free to appropriate all privileges, would be sufficient to maintain a large and well supplied room. As has been said, we need more professional periodicals, and, of course, these should be kept in the college library and bound at the end of each year. As it is they are lost or completely destroyed before many of the students can find an opportunity to use them. The daily news could be read in the same old loafing place, if it seems best. There are other and more grevious facts that could be men-tioned in this connection, but that is not our purpose. We have been compelled to recognize the fact that some change must be made, and we wish to express the hope that at an early date we may find our magazines increased in number and better cared for. We are sure that this can be done without increasing ex-penses. There is no reason why Gettysburg should not have an excellent reading room, or at least the best possible for the amount of money expended. THE MERCURY. 31 BOOK REVIEWS. ESPER, by Hamlin Garland, Philo, 11:7. The scene of action is in the western part of the United States among the mountains. The title of the story is the fanciful name given to the mountains of this region by Philip Bupert, the father of the boy who figures rather actively in the plot. The book serves to show the warm and animated spirit in contrast with the cold and formal; how the unresponding nature of a young woman is changed to the impulsive as the real mean-ing of life is revealed to her by the strong, manly character of Eobert Eaymond. The plot though somewhat complex, centers about these persons with the climax coming near the end. The characters used in this novel are life-like excepting that they may be somewhat overdrawn. They are of all classes of society but are treated in such a way that there is no confusion. The coarser elements form the background while the leading parts are-played by persons of a higher character. In this story there is-more interest in the characters than in the plot. In the narra-tion the author proceeds directly from one scene of action to-another, omitting all uninteresting details. There is no lagging. The style is clear, animated, well balanced and in no place is it confused or obscure. The language is pure and simple with as-little of the colloquial as possible. The author reveals his ani-mosity for colloquialism by making some of his characters cor-rect the speech of others. He evidently has a high ideal of life. He is earnest, broadminded, cheerful, and a lover of mankind, coupled with a keen appreciation of the beauty of nature. After reading the book, one will feel that it was time well spent. He will get some thoughts and inspirations from it that will be a benefit to him in his daily life. 32 THE MEhCUKY. EXCHANGES. |ITH this issue the present staff retire to give place for others. The work during the year has been very pleas-ant and it is with some reluctance that we take our farewell. In reviewing the year's contributions from a literary standpoint, we may say that while the usual amount of fiction and stories whose fundamental purpose is entertain-ment rather than mental development, have appeared, yet there has been a goodly number of contributions of a higher literary character. So then, let us not be in despair, but console our-selves with the thought that there are at least a few who are di-recting their energies along literary lines, striving after the tilings that are worth while, and which will ultimately make them more efficient servants in their respective spheres of life. In the December issue of the "Augustana Observer" we find an excellent article on "Othello," one of Shakespeare's tragedies. The author gives a very detailed account of the tragedy and fur-nishes a few diagrams showing the introduction, rising action climax, etc., of the tragedy. In the same magazine we have an account of "Grendel," the hero of the English epic Beowulf. Biography brings to our attention our great men and their deeds. The "Western Maryland College Monthly" gives three short character sketches. The first entitled "Lincoln as a States-man," shows Lincoln as he was in public life. "Darwin, the Scientist," and "England's Great Commoner," referring to Glad-stone, call our attention to two men of renown. It seems that the novel as a form of literature has come to stay. "Winston Churchill as a Portrayer of American Life and Character," is discussed in the "College Student." The author speaks of the political novel and cites "David Copperfield," "The Newcomers," "Bavenshoe" and "Adam Bede," as examples. He states further that "Mr. Crewe's Career," by Churchill, is prob-ably "the best specimen of the political novel written in our country." The plot and characters are then commented upon and intelligently discussed. "The Dangers of Freedom" is also worthy of perusal. We gratefully acknowledge the usual exchanges. PATRONIZE OCR ADVERTISERS. . GdlEGE M There's no pen that gives such all-round satisfaction i Conklin's Self-Filling Fountain Pen. It's the best pen for College Men. When an ordinary fountain pen runs dry in the middle of a word, it means you've got to stop right there, hunt up a rubber squirt gun, fill your pen to overflowing, clean both pen and dropper, wash your hands, and then endeavor as best you can to collect your lost Crescent If train of thought. It's different with Fill "¥ TftJ9© SELF-LJjIi\ \3 FILLING i "THE PEN WITH THE CRESCENT-FILLER" To fill, just dip it in any ink, press the Crescent-Filler, and the Conklin is filled and ready to write instantly. You can't over-fill it Hence no inky fingers, no loss of time, no ruffled temper. The feed of the Conklin is perfect. No waiting for ink to come—no jerking—no slips, balks or blots. Leading dealers handle the Conklin. H yours does not, order direct.' Look for the Crescent-Filler and refuse substitutes. Prices, $3.00 and up. Send at once (or handsome new catalog. THE CONKLIN PEN CO. 31 Manhattan Building, Toledo, Ohio. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FU^NTTU^E Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Eepair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. ZEE. B- IBend.ex, 37 Balllmort St., ettttytbnrg, fn EDGAR C. TAWNEY BAKER West Middle Street. J. B. WINEMAN, DEALER IN CHOICE FAMILY GROCERIES, PROVISIONS AND FRUITS, BOARDING CLUBS A SPECIALTY SUNDAY SCHOOL LESSON HELPS AND SUPPLIES, P. ANSTADT & SONS, Publishers, Book and Job Printing of all Kinds ttrUe for Prices. YORK, PA . PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EMIL ZOTHE COLI^EMS ENGRAVER, DESIGNER, AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER 722 Chestnut St., Fhila. SPECIALTIES : MASONIC MARKS, SOCIETY BADGES, COLLEGE BUTTONS, PINS, SCARF PINS, STICK PINS AND ATHLETIC PRIZES. All Goods trdered through G. F. Kiefler, CHARLES S. MUMRER. DEALBR IJV TSPTTT3 *M"n*TTT3 TT1 PICTURE FRAMES OF ALL SORTS * W ***N * * W £*\,+*&9 REPAIR WORK DONE PROMPTLY I WILL ALSO BUY OR EXCHANGE ANY SECOND-HAND FURNITURE NO. 4 CHAMBERSBURG STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA D. J. SWARTZ DEALER IN COUNTRY PRODUCE, GROCERIES, CIGARS AND TOBACCO. OEITXSHURO. NHOEs KE^AIKEI) —BY— j. H-i3akep. 115 Baltimore St., near Court House. GOOD WORK GUARANTEED. —TS— j. i y\uy[iPKf\ Your Photographer ? If not, why not? 41 BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. 8EFT0N 5 FLEMING'S LIYERY~ Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg,,Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arrange-ments by telegram or letter. Lock Box 257. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. W. T. BRUBAKER, Manager. Midway between Broad St. Station and Reading Terminal on Filbert St. A convenient and homelike place to stay while in the city shopping. An excellent restaurant where good service combines with low prices. ROOMS $1.00 PER DAY AND UP. The only moderate priced hotel of reputation and consequence in 3?Ib.ila,d.elp±iiei THE . . . . OF YORK . . Offers the COLLEGE STUDENTS first-class work at Special Low Prices. E. C. STOUFFER, Local Agt. C. D. SMITH, Prop. COMPILER IMPRINT ON JOB WORK MEANS TASTY WOEK CAEEFULLY DONE. MENU CARDS. LETTER HEADS, WINDOW POSTERS ENVELOPES, f'ANCE CARDS TICKETS, Programs of all kinds. Everything the College Man wants in Paper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper, done in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. Catalog and Book work. The Gettysburg Compiler will keep old and new students in touch with town and college life.

The Mercury December. 1895 ADVERTISEMENTS. Eagle H°tel, 0) >- IS si ♦ I e 9 ©©ttysburcj, IPa. W. T. ZIEGLER, PROPRIETOR. THE CHARLES H. ELLIOTT CO., Carriages for the Battlefield can be secured at the office. John fl. Minnigh^ onfeetionepxj ^|©e^peam, OYSTERS Stewed and Fried. No. 17 Baltimore St. S. A, Fl^OXEL'S •illiarcL M Wool WiOmtiB BdLTIMOQLE ST •*P©NSOSB MYBfiS,^ WAT6HMAKER AND rTEWELER, Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, College Souvenir Spoons, No. 10 Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PENN'A. ''{mm &C;0" Hats and Gent's Furnisher, 33 North Third Street, Opera House Block, HARRISBURG.PA. Latest Styles in ^£&v Sttj*»Mt, R M. ELLIOTT'S IT. B.—Stiff Hats undo to Fit the Head in two minutes. Eckenrode &* Earner, DEALERS IN Iptresto ieefc'Vealc (karat,, Pork5 Paddlteg,, Sa«o sag©» tCacrasj, B.aird!» &c" Chambersburg Street. i^lJII 60I2FE6TIOI2E^Y AND IGE 6REAM. ©YSTE&S IH SEASOT, NEWS DEPOT AND SUBSCRIPTION AGENCY. Main St. ITZIL}ILLEJ( NATS, CAPS, —~" BOOTS*SHOES. G^Satisfaction Gua ra nteed.Sja Afa. (5 J?. Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG. PA. -*LEVI REINECKER,^ DEALER IN FINE GROCERIES AND NOTIONS, » Nos. 16 and 18 W. German Street, BALTIMORE, Offer to the trade their large and well-selected stock of Make a specialty to have on hand everything required by Pharmacists. A complete stock can at any time be selected or wants supplied. ALQNZQ L. THOMSEN,^- BACK, WINDER, SHAEP AND LEADENHALL STS., p. O. Box 557, Baltimore, Md, I heg to call to tlie attention or the Trade tliat I have re-cently added to my Want a complete set of Drug Milling Ma-chinery ot the most Improved pattern. " G. ». SPMGLB8, ~ Successor to J. W. Eicholtz & Co., DEALEB IN VMMOS, ORGANS, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, STRINGS, Etc. No. 21 BALTIMORE STREET, Gettysburg. A temperance house. Pleasant and home-like. Teams and Guides to all points of interest on the battle-field. -StJggSQeY&B&B 2&$ZW£.=S2?0 No. 127 Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG, PA. JOHN E. PITZER, MEMBER POST 9, G. A. R. ABB' ic -DEALER IX-Hats, Shirts, Shoes, Ties, Umbrellas, Gloves, Satchels, Hose, (Pocket (Books, Trunks, Telescopes, (Rubber, Etc., Etc. AMOS ECKERT. H ( (LWY HOT Gettysburg, Pa. JOfil] E, HUSHES, PROFIT Tins Hotel is situated on Main street, one square from P. and It. and W. M. R. R. Depots and within one-half minute's walk of the Diamond. Every room is heated, and lighted by electricity. Parlors on first and second floors. Bath and Toilet rooms on second floor, gratis to guests. Rates $1 50 to $2.50 per day. Rooms without Board 50 cents and upward according to location. Excellent accommo-dations for 250 people. Electric cars stop at the door eveiy half hour. Livery Connected, with first-class Teams, and Battle-field Guides at Low Hates. Dinner with Drive over the Battle-field SI.35. The College Mefcufy. VOL. HI. GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1895. No. 8. THE COLLEGE MEHCUHT, Published each month during the college year by the Students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. STAFF. Editor: D. EDGAR RICE, '96. Associate Editors : EDNA M. LOOMIS, '96. GRAYSON Z. STUP, '96. HARLEN E. GLAZIER, '96. WEBSTER C. SPAYDE, '96. WILLIAM E. WHEELER, '97, HERBERT D. SHIMER, '96. ROBIN B. WOLF, '97. Alumni Association Editor: .REV. D. FRANK GARLAND, A. M., Baltimore, Md. Business Manager : WILLIAM G. BRUBAKER, '96. Assistant Business Manager: E. A. ARMSTRONG, '97. »"",,". /One volume (ten months). . . . $i.rn iLiiars. |slngle copies .15 Payable in advance All Students are requested to hand us matter for publication. The Alumni and ex-members or the college, will favor us by sending Information concerning their whereabouts or any Items they may think would be interesting for publication. All subscriptions and business matters should be addressed to the business manager. Matter Intended for publication should be addressed to the Editor Address, THE COLLEGE MERCURY, Gettysburg, Pa. CONTENTS. EDITORIALS, THE DUTIES OF THE WEALTHY TO SOCIETY, A FANCY, -- COLLEGE LOCALS, ALUMNI NOTES, FRATERNITY NOTES, ATHLETICS, --- TOWN AND SEMINARY NOTES, - - - - 128 129 132 132 135 136 137 139 LITERARY SOCIETIES, EXCHANGES, - 141 - Hi EDITORIAL. THE subject of student self-government has of late been receiving considerable attention from the students of various colleges, and the general sentiment seems to be that its adoption would effect a great improvement in college life. It is our intention to present the subject to the students of Gettysburg College, in the hope that they will at least think of the advisa-bility of its adoption here, and if it is consid-ered at all practicable, that they will use the columns of the MERCURY for its discussion. The plan originated at Amherst and has been in successful operation there for quite a number of years, and is briefly as follows : In addition to the Faculty there is a student Senate, selected by the students, and consist-ing of four Seniors, three Juniors two Sopho-mores, and one Freshman, to which matters of decorum, and all others pertaining to the stu-dents are referred. The decisions of the Sen-ate are passed upon by the Faculty, and of course may be reversed by it if considered ex-pedient, but such reversals would undoubtedly be infrequent. Such a system, being, as we believe, entirely practicable, could be adopted by ourcollege with great advantage to both the students and the in-stitution. Much is said about student honor, but oneis compelled to believe that under the present system of college legislation this quality of the student receives but little recognition and en-couragement. Instead of being left free to act of his own accord in a manner to which the training of a Christian home and his gentle-manly instincts would prompt him, he is met on every side with rules and prohibitions. He is compelled to attend public worship on Sun-day and chapel during the week, and required to promise that he will refrain from profanity, 129 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. Sabbath desecration, and in short the whole catalogue of sins to which young men are prone. While we readily admit that all these re-quirements are just and proper, yet we are not willing to believe that compulsion is necessary in order to have students observe them. Those who are naturally well disposed grow restless at being compelled to do what they would most gladly do of their own free will, while those who have no inherent regard for right or propriety will generally do as they please de-spite the rules and prohibitions. The result of this method of treating the student has been »to create in him the feeling that the Faculty is hostile to him rather than friendly, and chafing under the restrictions placed upon him, he loses the respect for his instructors which they really deserve, and which it is necessary for him to have in order to obtain the most satisfactory results of his work. The Faculty on the other hand, by the discontent and constant opposition of the stu-dents become more confirmed in the opinion that they are to be suppressed by stronger re-strictions, rather than pacified by the removal of the restrictions. It is gratifying to see that this feeling of un-friendliness between Faculty and students is generally growing less, but if the students were given a part in their own government, it would disappear entirely. As soon as they would realize that the Faculty are willing, in a practical wa}', to recognize the fact that stu-dents have noble motives which influence them more strongly than compulsion, their feelings toward the Faculty would be greatly changed, and they would take delight in doing that which is now distasteful, simply because it is compulsory. Another very important advantage of the co-operative system is that a stricter discipline could be enforced than the Faculty acting-alone, is able to maintain. We do not wish to be understood as saying that the discipline in our college is more lax than formerly, for we do not believe it is, but the fact is nevertheless evident that there is much room for improve-ment in the conduct of the students. There are numerous instances of misconduct which are disgraceful not only to those who commit them, but to the whole body of students, as well as injurious to the reputation of the col-lege. These acts are, indeed, strongly de-nounced by all the students who have a regard for the right, but as none are willing to incur the unpopularity attached to one who gives evidence against his fellow student, the Fac-ulty is in many cases unable to punish the offenders as they deserve. If, however, the students were giv.m a share in their own gov-ernment, they would take a greater interest in preserving the reputation of the college, and cases which would come before them would be almost sure to be decided justly and impar-tially. Being entirely in the hands of the stu-dents, no individual unpopularity would result from any decisions of the Senate, but they would be supported by the whole body of stu-dents, and their enforcement made more cer-tain. Of course this whole matter of self-govern-ment rests on the question as to whether our students wish to raise the moral standard of our college, or are willing to let matters re-main as they are. The expressions of dissat-isfaction with prevailing conditions are suf-ficiently numerous and general, but if it is to stop at this, nothing more need be said. If, however, some definite action is desirable to improve these conditions, the self-government system is at least worthy of consideration. * ** SUPPLEMENTING the remarks made in our last issue concerning the recommendation of the West Pennsylvania Synod to prohibit our intercollegiate foot-ball contests, we wish to give the following statements, which we think will serve to show that it is not the sentiment of the larger colleges that these foot-ball con-tests be prohibited. The first is from an address to the Senior class on Nov. 4th, by President Patton, of Princeton, and is a most decided approval of THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 1.30 intercollegiate contests. He said in substsnce: "I am well aware that many forces operate to make a college and no one appreciates the benefits arising from intercollegiate athletics more than I. Foot-ball is a factor that cannot be overlooked in building up a college, and I was heartily gratified to learn of the amicable ar-rangement for annual games with Harvard. I The intellectual and moral sides of college life are paramount, but going hand in hand with these are the healthy exercise of mind and body, and the attainment of physical culture." The evidence of a man of so great experi-ence in presiding over a college as Dr. Patton is deserving of much consideration, for it is in the larger colleges, if anywhere, that evil re-sults follow these intercollegiate contests. The second article is from President An-drews, of Brown University, and if we can be-lieve him to be a careful observer, the game which is generally spoken against as so very i brutal, is not as dangerous as other college athletics. In his annual report Dr. Andrews . says : "For those in perfect health and trained to it, foot-ball is safer than either rowing, ! yachting, gunning or running hounds. Row-ing appears to be many times as fatal. So is base-ball. Even tennis is worse." These statements, coming from the presi-dents of two of our largest institutions may be taken as the expression of the sentiment of all ! the larger colleges, and surely there is nothing in them to indicate that intercollegiate foot-ball is losing favor as a college sport. On the contrary, they show that its importance is be-coming more and more recognized. Disregarding the merits of the game itself, the Synod seems to show partiality or rather inconsistency in thus discriminating against Gettysburg College. Midland College, Kan-' sas, which is supported directly by the appro-priations of various synods, boasts of having one of the best foot-ball teams in the state of Kansas, and yet we have not heard of any reso-lutions recommending the cessation of foot-ball contests. Other Lutheran colleges also pay great ■ attention to their athletics without any objection being raised, and why Gettysburg is singled out is more than we can understand. * * * OUR foot-ball season closed early on account of the many difficulties with which the man-agement had to contend, but we hope that dur-ing the coming year these difficulties may be-come less instead of greater, and that next season we may achieve the success of which we are capable under favorable circumstances. AT Franklin and Marshall recently, Presi-dent Stahr announced that by a resolution of the Faculty every student not a member of a literary society must of necessity be a member of the classes in elocution, in addition to the extra work in composition, etc., before re-quired. It would be well if our Faculty would follow the example of the F. and M. Faculty, and enforce strictly the rules they have made in regard to joining literary societies. More interest must be taken in our societies if we do not wish them to decline, and as per-suasion and argument seem useless, the socie-ties ought to insist that the Faculty enforce the rules which have been made on this subject. * * * OUR students have been very fortunate within the past month, in having the oppor-tunity to hear the series of lectures on the social problem by Dr. Stuckenberg. This prob-lem is one of the most serious and important of the present time, and all who heard Dr. Stuckenberg's able discussion of it were very much enlightened and benefited thereby. THE DUTIES OF THE WEALTHY TO SOCIETY. Seldom does a wealthy man hear the injunc-tion, "Sell that thou hast and give to the poor." Once, long ago, a young ruler heard these words, and it is recorded that he "went away sorrowful for he had great possessions." It would seem that a rich man's first duty is to give to the poor. He has an abundance and can give, not with sparing hand, but roy i-31 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. ally. He is not compelled to limit charity to the beggar at his gates ; he can found institu-tions that shall bring knowledge or health or even life, to thousands, and his name shall be blessed by many. " Wealth brings power, and power always brings responsibility. The wealthy man may have neither a brilliant intellect nor unusual talent ; in this case he will be excused from moving millions by ''one ink drop on a single thought," he will be excused from making any great inventions, and he will hardly be expected to revolutionize the world by his startling discoveries in the realms of science and art. His duty lies in a different direction. Let him take care how he spends his money. There are plenty of brilliant intellects going to waste from lack of money to cultivate them. If the rich man invests some of his wealth in a poor man's brains he may be able to do great things in the intellectual world by proxy. This is the next best thing to doing them in person. There are plenty of college.? needing endowments ; it may almost be said of them that their name is Legion. What more last-ing monument can any man erect to his mem-ory than a fine college building ? And, pos-sibly, some of the students will enjoy their comfortable quarters more than the epic which the founder might have written, had he been a poet. Such is the depravity of human na-ture. Money means so much. As long as the soul dwells in the earthly body it longs for material comforts and luxuries. All these the rich man has at his command. If he does his duty, he will not keep them all to himself; life is un-certain, and he may enjoy them only a day. He will divide them up a little and find his greatest delight in the pleasure of others. But he need not stop with this. Money means far more than material enjoyment. The rich man with an average amount of brain power has no excuse for not knowing some-thing. He is released from the drudgery that wearies the rest of the world. His time is at his disposal, and if he wastes this, what can be said of him ? It is his duty to give to the poor, but it is also his duty to give something to his poor soul, and not let it go starving into eternity. God gives him the grandest oppor-tunities, and what can he say if these are neg-lected ? When the wealthy class are educated and cultured, it will be the fashion to be educated and cultured. They are the leaders in society and they can do more for its elevation than any one else. They can open their doors to those who are fitted, by nature and learning, to move in the best circles, and close them against those whose admission is only bought by money. Society need not be merely a show, a hollow pretense. It should be some-thing more satisfying than this. It lies with the rich to uphold the standards of truth and right ; yes, and the standards of purity and common sense. The wealth}' woman can, per-haps, do more for society than the wealthy man. The spending of her dollars has such an influence upon the spending of her poorer sisters' dimes. If her church dress is of silk or velvet, she may still gain a great deal of benefit from the sermon ; but how is it with her neighbors? Possibly, one whose plain gown is pretty and suitable feels a little stir-ring of envy in the depths of her soul. If if she could only array himself like that. Another one, perhaps, whose shabby gown is brought out in startling relief by so much ele-gance, firmly determines to stay away from that church in the future. Well is it, if she does not go further and pronounce church-goers a vain lot. Yet, the wealthy ought not to deprive them-selves of all beautiful, luxurious things. They are a part of the blessing of wealth. A wealthy man has a right to a beautiful home and to elegant surroundings. The)' tend to refine-ment and culture. There is no reason in the world why he should not gratify his tastes in this direction ; there is strong reasons why he should. If art, music, and literature are to be kept alive at all, they must be kept alive by the wealthy classes. The wise use of money THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 132 has nothing whatever to do with penury in the case of a man who has an abundance. If he has a wise, good heart, he may spend his money f.eely, even for self gratification, and 110 one will suffer thereby.' ;A woman who distinguishes between things temporal and things eternal may be attired elegantly without proving a stumbling block in the way of any one. It is hard to observe the fitness of things when pride comes in ; but things fall into their proper places of themselves when one remem-bers that "the glory of man is as the flower of grass." To the wealthy are given great responsibili-ties, but great privileges. The responsibility of power and influence and example ; the re-sponsibility of spending wealth ; of settling the standards of society, and of influencing their fellow men. They have the privilege of receiving blessings from many grateful lips and of hastening the day when social purity and justice shall reign. God gives to some his good things in keeping, and let them be care-ful how thev fulfill the trust. E. M. L., '96. COLLEGE LOCALS. GRAYSON Z. STUP and ROBBIN B. WOLF, Editors. A FANCY. Very early one Autumn morn. Before the first flush of coming dawn Had touched the sky with roseate hue, Or scattered the morning mist of dew, I saw—afar in the cloudless sky— Crescent-pointed, sailing high, The waning moon, like a tiny hoat, In a sea of boundless blue afloat; Just a slender, silvery, thread Sailing serenely overhead. Oh, where are you going, little boat. As through the azure dome you float? Where are you bound, as you sail along Thro' all the silent, starry throng. Is there some dim and distant strand Far, far away from this mortal land, Some celestial, glorious shore To which you are sailing evermore? And do you hope, some day, to reach The haven of that shining beach ? Sail on oh, little fairy boat Still onward thro' the azure float, Who knows what precious freight you bear, What wealth of heavenly treasures rare. Perchance some bright, angelic band You carry to that shining strand. We do not know, we only see Thee, sailing onward silently, And wonder at the silver boat In heaven's boundless blue afloat. A. R. W., '99. Thanksgiving ! Big dinners ! Institute ! School marms ! Get ready for examination, boys. Long vacation this Christmas. College closes on Dec. 20th at noon and opens again for the winter term on Jan. 7th, 1896. Thanksgiving day dawned very beautifully. It was an ideal day, and even the heart of the most ungrateful wretch must have felt like giving praise on such a ,day. The boys were especially happy, because the day was given as a holiday. Not even the first recita-tion was heard. Many of the boys went home. Those who stayed here lived off the fat of the land at their respective boarding places, and after their feasts were over many were seen on the streets and in the country, walking with friends and fair ladies—many of them modest little school teachers. While the Institute, with its many teachers, is fresh in our minds, we might notice some effects upon college life in general. No one would question that the Institute is a good thing for Gettysburg. It has proved so as re-gards the college boys. Many of them, who were never known to be out much with the ladies, have decided to take lessons under their instructions. Quite a few had courage enough to venture upon the campus with them, even though their fellows, from the dormitory win-dows, whistled that familiar march so well known. Their courage did not fail, even, when they were invited to bring back the col-lar and handkerchiefs they had borrowed. The college athletic field is about completed. The fence is being put up and, in fact, is nearly finished. It is eight and a half feet high, and is made entirely of chestnut. The grass seed is up nicely, and by next spring the field will present a first-class condition for base ball. We ought to have a strong team to initiate the work on the new field. Gymnasium work began on Nov. 4th, with Physical Director Wheeler, dressed in his best suit of tights, ready to take charge of the classes. He was a little nervous when he looked up and saw the gallery filled with spec-tators, among whom appeared some of the 133 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. co-eds. But in spite of all the eyes fixed on him Billy gave the command—"Attention"— and everybody obeyed. He is getting along very well with his work. About three weeks ago a glee club was formed, consisting of eight members. On ac-count of the number it is denominated "The College Octet." It originated out of an invi-tation extended to the musical clubs of the col-lege to furnish music at the Institute. There being no Banjo nor Mandolin clubs, some of the boys in the old Glee Club, with one new fnan, formed the organization. The members are as follows : Nicholas, '98, and Ott, '97, first tenors; White, '97, and Stup, '96, seco.id tenors; Lark, '98, and Koller, '98, first bass; Stamets, '99, and Manges, '97, second bass. The Octet furnished music on Monday and Tuesday evenings for the Institute. Many very favorable criticisms were passed on the songs. On Monday evening, Nov. nth, a good trick was played at College. Good, '99, was reported to have been stoned by those pestifer-ous town boys and it was said that his face was cut very badly. Naturally the boys' sym-pathy would be aroused and no very urgent invitation would be needed to get them to go to his room to see him. When they got there this is what they found. A number of boys in the study room, a dim light in the bed-room, and a form in the bed. The faces of the boys had that woe-be-gone expression that in-dicates the awfulness of something ; the light was so dim that it suggested the chamber of death ; and the form in the bed had the ap-pearance of a human being. However, when the sympathizing visitors were led up to the bedside silently on tiptoe, and the other long-faced boys were standing around, the dim light was suddenly turned up and the cover thrown back, then it was that the form of a good-sized pillow was seen. Then the longitude of those boys' faces standing around suddenly changed into latitude. From time to time the hearty peals of laughter that were heard told that another fellow, who had per-haps gotten up out of his nice warm bed, had been victimized. Just about a hundred boys, from every class in College, and some from Prep, were faked. So effectually did the trick work that Good, who was up town during the evening, was made a victim, his chum having been reported to be the unlucky one. Some of the Seniors were fooled so badly that they got sick, and flunks were quite in style the next morning. So it will not do to have many such experiences. One good trick goes a long dis-tance. The boys will have to get hungry be-fore they will bite on such bait again. A series of six lectures on Sociology by J. H. W. Stuckenberg, D. D., was given in Brua Chapel from Nov. 18th to 23rd. The lectures were given in the evening and lasted a little over an hour. The main auditorium of the chapel was well filled each evening, and much interest was manifested. Dr. Stuckenberg is an able speaker, and his reputation as a scholar brought many strangers to hear him discuss the great problem of society. The public is indebted to the Missionary Society of the Seminary tor Dr. Stuckenberg's stay with us. The balance of the money remaining after ex-penses are paid will go for the purpose of fit-ting up the new gymnasium in the Seminary. The following is a list of tlie subjects lectured upon : 1. What is the Meaning of the Social Prob-lem ? 2. What are the Causes of the Problem ? 3. The Social Problem in the United States. 4. Solution by Revolution : Communism, The Social Democracy, Anarchism. 5. The Solution by Evolution. 6. The Function of the State in the Solution of the Problem. The Lecture Course Committee takes pleas-ure in announcing the course of entertainments for this season. The course is an excellent one, surpassing that of last year in price. The committee, being very desirous of having Gen. Gordon, had to sacrifice the arrangement of the entertainments. This explains why they are in such close succession. The following is the course : Jan. 22—Lovett's Boston Stars. Jan. 27—Col. Copelaud. Feb. 22—Gen. J. B. Gordon. Feb. 25—New York Male Quartette. Mar. 17—Rev. A. A. Willets, D. D. Somebody said that he thought Bruby had very hopeful signs of being married before long. When asked why, he said: "I see that the arch is up." The boys must have seen the arch when they were out to the Battlefield Hotel fire. Prof. H.—What is the object of a minister? Ans.—Saving souls. Prof. H.—How does he do it? Ans. (after long reflection)—By not walk-ing on them. THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 134 Messrs. Brubaker, '96, and Lutz, '98, have purchased a graphophoue. About two weeks ago they gave an entertainment in Brua Chapel for the benefit of the Athletic Associa-tion. The instrument is an improvement over the phonograph and reproduces the music very nicely. The proprietors were well advertised on the bulletin board before the concert. A crowd of sympathizing Freshmen, wish-ing to aid in a charitable cause, recently sub-scribed the necessary amount for another scientific man to have his curly locks trimmed. The collection was gladly accepted, and now the curly-headed lad no longer gets late at church. Dr. H.—Whom did the Lord tell Moses to take along up into the mountain ? S., Jr., '99—His brother Exodus. M., '96; suprised the class in astronomy the other morning when he said that an eclipse has the effect of making birds and other ani-mals go to roost. Mr. W., '95, reading Bacon's essay on "Studies," said: "Reading maketh a man full." Even Prof. H. could not restrain his laughter. Mr. L-, '98, was lately seen strolling over Balto. Hill prominently exposing his suspend-ers. Many of the boys spent Thanksgiving day and the remainder of the week at their respect-ive homes. They can hardly know how good Adams county turkey is. Mr. S., '97, while at Mr. B.'s reception, spied the olives and asked one of the young ladies to pass him the pickled plums. Mr. Z., '98, had just passed the P. & R. depot and was telling a freshman how high the snow had drifted there last winter and how his whole class conspired to stay out of mathe-matical recitation the day of the blizzard. Just then Dr. N. loomed out of the darkness and said: "Yes, and I'll catch you some day." Very sad, indeed, was the disappointment of the boys who went to St. Mary's to see the foot-ball game when they found that the game had been cancelled. The class of '97 was royally entertained on Tuesday evening, Oct. 28th, by Mr. H. W. Bikle. It was our first reception and the boys looked forward to it with great expectations. Our expectations were not only realized but far surpassed. The class assembled at the home of the host about half-past eight. Great was our joy when we beheld some of the fair sex of G. 011 hand who were to share the hon-ors of our co-eds. Everybody was cordially received by Dr. and Mrs. Bikle who then re-tired, having given the young people full charge. The first part of the evening was spent in pitching bean bags. This game was enjoyed by all since some of the boys could not' even hit the board. The winning side then went out to the dining-room where a bountifully laden table awaited them. Every-thing was served beautifully and the refresh-ments were enjoyed by all. The winning side then retired to the parlor to give the losers an opportunity to enjoy the feast. While the losers were eating they were entertained by the melodious voices of the Avalon Sextette. After the party was again united in the parlor the}' were entertained Mr. S.'s jigs and piano music by the young ladies. Then we all sang —except Pearl, who has not acquired the art— till our throats and music were exhausted. The clock had passed the hour of midnight when we adjourned, thanking Mr. B. for his kindness and congratulating him on his capac-ity as a host. It was an event which will be long remembered by us all. Many of the boys attended Institute during the past week and had the customary good time with the school marms. Some of them were so much interested in the work that it seriously affected their recitations. Mr. E. of Prep., displayed the Persian fond-ness for strangers by sitting in church with his arm around one of our co-eds. The Juniors are hard at work on their Spec-trum. The Spectrum will be of special interest since it includes matter of the last two years. If any of the students or Alumni have not sub-scribed for it they should do so immediately. If Gettysburg College is to publish an annual it must have the support of all its friends. Mr. B., '96, who has lately been troubled with nervous fluctuations of the heart, finds it a wonderful restorative, when calling on young ladies, to keep on his overcoat and gloves. That's hard luck, Bruby. One of the most able men in the Junior class, after he had been out with the ladies all morn-ing, suddenly asked the boys at the dinner table whether a duck was the he of a geese. He must have been suffering from temporary aberration, his mind wandering after his duckie. '-35 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. While Mr. Bikle, '97, was working in chem- j ical laboratory recently, he had an accident by which he was seriously burned about the eyes by sulphuric acid. He has the sympathy of all his fellow-students. The following is a brief lesson in '97's nom-enclature. One Friday, when the Duck was out strolling, she was sud- , denly attacked by the Mange(s). She at once went to the \ Miller and asked him what she Ott to do to get rid of it. The Miller said he was not Abel to give her a remedy. But as the Duck walked along, it made her Sh(r)iver to see a White Wolf in the bushes eating (h)Erbs. The Wolf was just about to sieze the Duck when the Smith came riding down the road on his Bik(l)e, and he, being very Armstrong, slew the Wolf with his Kain. The Smith then got on his Wheel(er) and brought the Duck safely to her Stahl. BEFORE THE FRESHMAN-PEEP. GAME. Before you crash 'gainst Freshies' line Just think it over. The challenge, Sirs, do not decline, ■ But think it over. . It is not wise to be too new Because, before the game is through, Your bright prospects may all turn blue, So think it over. Don't spend your cash for painted signs, But think it over. The score towards you of course inclines But, think it over. We've heard of teams beaten before With a smaller difference in the score, And it might be done just once more. So think it over. We did not practice, Sirs, to lose. So think it over. We care not for a break or bruise So think it over. As soon as our men reach the field, It certainly won't be to yield. But henceforth shall the score be sealed. So think it over. H. M. C, '99. Y. M. C. A. NOTES. We were glad to see the interest taken in our meetings during the week of prayer. Al-though there were none who openly professed Christ as their Saviour, we are sure that none could have attended the meetings without re-ceiving much benefit. The topics for discus-sion during the week were : "For What has God Created Me?"—Dr. Valentine; "Christ our Righteousness"—Rev. Black; "An Invi-tation to All"—Dr. McKnight; "Excuses"— Rev. A. R. Steck ; "What Shall I do with Jesus Which is Called Christ?"—Dr. Bill-heimer. Our delegates to the Y. M. C. A. Conven-tion at Erie, brought home a very interesting and gratifying report. May the great Y. M. C. A. work go on. No one can estimate the value of good music. It perhaps exerts more influence in our meetings than the words which are spoken. Everybody come and help us sing. We shall appreciate your presence. The Missionary Bible Class is exceedingly interested in the study of God's Word. We would be glad to see interest in work of this kind more general. The Bible will admit of the profoundest stud5'. On Wednesday evening, Nov. 13th, Rev. M. S. Kemp delivered an address in the Pres-byterian church, on his summer's work in Adams county for the Bible Society. The fol-lowing are statistics given : Number of fam-ilies visited, 3250 ; number of families found entirely destitute of the Bible, and which he supplied by sale or gift, 230 ; number of fami-lies who had nothing but a large Family Bible, 519; number of families who, though not en-tirely destitute, needed the Bible, yet were too poor to buy, and which he supplied, 260 ; number of Roman Catholic families to whom he sold Bibles (King James Version), 25; number of Roman Catholic families who were supplied, 60; number of copies of the Bible sold and donated throughout the county, 419 ; number of Testaments and other parts of the Bible sold and donated, 744 ; total number of books sold and donated, 1163 ; amounting to the value of $400. ALUwiNl. H. D. SHIMER, Editor. '53. Rev. W. F. Ulery was in Gettysburg for a few days recently. '57. Rev. Dr. L. A. Gotwald, Professor of Practical Theology in Wittenberg Theological Seminary, was stricken with paralysis a few weeks ago. Dr. Gotwald's illness is a source of great anxiety to the entire church. Our latest intelligence is that his condition is im-proving. '57. Rev. Dr. H. Louis Baugher has lately returned from his western trip. '58. Rev. Dr. A. R. Home, whose cut was lately published in one of the leading papers, is editor of the National Educator. Dr. Home THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 136 is well known throughout the State as an educator, and is worthy of the position he holds. '63. Rev. Dr. E. J. Wolf assisted in the re-dedication of the Lutheran Church, at Seven Valley, York county, Nov. 17. '64. Dr. T. L- Seip, president of Muhlen-berg College, was appointed by Governor Hastings a member of the College and Univer-sity Council of the State of Pennsylvania, and by them elected chairman of the Council. '68. Rev. L. M. Heilman, D. D., of Chi-cago, now about to take charge at Harrisburg, Pa., was the recipient of very cordial expres-sions of love and good wishes from his Chi-cago people. '71. Mr. M. Allen Emory has located at Frenchtown, N. J., and is enjoying a lucrative law practice. '73. Rev. J. A. Singmaster, D. D., of Al-lentown, Pa., has received an increase of $300 per year 011 his salar3'. '73. Rev. Wm. S. Freas, D. D., of York, Pa., president of the Board of Church Exten-sion, was elected the principal speaker at the Luther League meetings, held in New York city and Brooklyn, on Nov. 10th and nth. '75. Rev. Dr. E. D. Weigle has decided to accept the call from the Lutheran congrega-tion of Mechanicsburg. It will be remembered that a call was extended him a few weeks ago, which he refused at the request of the people of the charge which he is now serving in Al-toona. '75. Rev. E. G. Hay was in Gettysburg during November, visiting Prof. Himes and family. '76. Rev. S. E. Smith, pastor of Punxsu-tawney, Pa., is hard-working and successful in his parish efforts. '79. Rev. Geo. S. Diven has been called to St. Paul's Lutheran church, Iredell county, S. C. '84. Rev. L. M. Zimmerman, pastor of Christ English Lutheran church, Baltimore, Md., recently preached upon the subject: "Who are Lutherans." The Morning Herald, of October 28th, contains an excellent extract from it. '88. On Thursday afternoon and evening, November 14th, the semi-annual meeting of the Central Lutheran Association of Pittsburg and vicinity, was held in Bethany church, East End. Rev. S. D. Daugherly was one of the speakers. '90. Rev. J. F. W. Kitzmeyer, of Davis, W. Va., has been called to the new English Mis-sion in New York city. '91. Rev. S. Griug Hefelbower's address is 'changed from 13 Emilien street to Floss Platz, Leipsic, Germany. '92. Dr. August Pohlman, of Baltimore, a graduate of Pennsylvania College, has been elected valedictorian by the graduating class oi the Baltimore Medical College. '92. Rev. George Beiswanger has changed his residence from No. 2233 Gough street to No. 1722 Fulton avenue, Baltimore, Md. '92. Emanuel W. Herman, Esq., of Luther-ville, Md., was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates at the election held in November. '93. We are glad to note that George C. Baum, who is a member of the Senior class in the School of Architecture at Philadelghia, re-ceived second mention from the Society of Beaux-Arts Architecture, awarded on the last competitions of that society. '93. Mr. D. Floyd Culler is pursuing a graduate course in Romance Philology at Yale University. '94. Margaret R. Himes is suffering from a severe attack of pneumonia. FRATERNuY NOTES. PHI KAPPA PSI. The Chapter will celebrate its fortieth anni-versary this month. . D. P. Forney, '57, has been elected presi-dent of the Adams County Farmers' Associa-tion. Rev. L. A. Gottwald, D. D., '57, was stricken with paralysis at his home, in Spring-field, O. John C. Bowers, '93, attended the wedding of a former classmate at Frederick last week. Keefer, '95, has entered a business firm in Reading. Witman, '95, attended the Seminary conven-tion at Lancaster last month. Graff, '97, has gone into the lumber busi-ness in Duluth, Minn. '37 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. Reitzell, Eisenhart, Kueudig and Lark spent Thanksgiving day at their respective homes. Weaver, '99, spent the holiday in Philadel-phia. PHI GAMMA DELTA. Bro. Meade D. Detweiler, '84, was re-elected District Attorney of Dauphin county at the last election. He managed the affairs of the office so satisfactorily to all that he was re-elected by a majority greater than the num-ber of votes cast for his opponent. Bros. Alleman and Garland attended the lectures delivered by Dr. Stuckenberg. Bro. H. M. Roth, of Bucknell Chapter, was a visitor to Gettysburg recently. Bro. Fite represented the Chapter at the 47th annual convention held at Eastou, last week. Bros. Rice and Shaar spent Thanksgiving at their respective homes. Bro. C. H. Smith, attended the reception at Irving, Thanksgiving night. Bro. Neudewitz preached at Rossville, last Sunday. Bros. Valentine, Ph. D., '80, Stabler, '82, and Bliut, '90, were recent visitors in town. PHI DELTA THETA. Bro. J. F. Seibert, '89, paid the Chapter a visit the beginning of the month. Bro. E. O. Grover, N. H. Alpha, '94, spent last week in town, in the interests of Kellogg &Co. Bro. Sloop spent Sunday, Nov. 17, with his parents, at Steeltou, Pa. Bro. Meiseuhelder spent Thanksgiving at his home, in Hanover, Pa. Bros. Smith and Friday spent election day at their respective homes. Bros. Kain and Meiseuhelder attended the Alpha Province Convention, held at Schenec-tady, N. Y., with N. Y. Beta, Oct. 31-Nov. 2. SIGMA CHI. Bro. Garnet Gehr, '91, was recently ap-pointed attorney for Wolf & Co., a large man-ufacturing firm of Chambersburg. Bro. Edwin J. McKee, '88, gave the address of welcome to the visiting firemen at Hagers-town, Md., on Thanksgiving Day. He is also a member of the board of directors of the Hagerstowu Athletic Association. Bro. Leisenring spent Thanksgiving with his parents at Chambersburg, Pa. Bro. Lawyer spent Thanksgiving with his parents at Westminster, Md. The Chapter recently- had their pictures taken in a group in front of the Chapter lodge. Brother William Hersh, '91, will be married on the nth inst. to Miss Edith Eunice Rahter. The best wishes of the Chapter are extended to him. C. E. Stable, '87, visited the Atlanta Expo-sition. ALPHA TAU OMEGA. W. B. Nipple, '97, spent Thanksgiving Day with friends at Harrkburg. M. R. Zullinger, '98, was home over Thanksgiving Day. C. W. Spayde, '99, spent some time recently at his home in Harrisburg. P. W. Roller, '94, of the Seminary, spent a week recently at Lancaster, Pa. Geo. W. Kyner, '89, of Chambersburg, was in town on business some time ago. ATHLETICS. WILLIAM E. WHEELER, Editor. The last game of foot-ball for this season was played with Swarthmore at Harrisburg, on Nov. 2nd. The Harrisburg papers, com-menting upon the game, said : It was one of the prettiest ever played here. Both teams played with a dash and brilliancy, surprising even the admir-ers of the game. The teams were about evenly matched, and it is out of the question to say one out-played the other. The ball was first put into play by Gettys-burg kicking well into Swarthmore's territory and downed there. S. lost on downs and Get-tysburg took ball, but was unable to advance it and lost it also on downs. By short, sharp dashes through lines S. rushed ball to 20-yd. line and there lost it. Gettysburg made some very fine runs around S.'s ends, and the ball was back on their 30-yd. line. Here it was lost on a fumble to S., who advanced it by massed plays through the line to Gettysburg's 25-yd. line; but Gettysburg held S., compell-ing them to kick. The ball was blocked and secured by Loudon, who had an open field be-fore him. He was overtaken by Hodge, after making a fine run of 45 yds. Swarthmore got the ball for holding in the line, and by runs THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 138 around end and massed plays carried ball up 1 the field, scoring first touchdown. Time was I called with the ball in Swarthmore's territory. Swarthmore kicked off in the second half and downed the ball on G.'s 35-yd. line. Brilliant j runs by White' and Loudon, and plunges [ through line by Sheely, carried the ball stead- i ily back to S.'s 15 yd. line, and then lost on a miserable fumble. S. kicked to midfield, and the ball moved backwards and forwards for some time. One of the most remarkable runs ever made on a field happened by Hodge secur-ing the ball and making a run of 80yds., scor-ing second touchdown. In the run the cap-tain of S. jumped clear over the head of one of G.'s men, who attempted to tackle him. The play called forth much applause. Hodge then kicked goal, and the game was ended with score 10 to o in favor of Swarthmore. The line up of the teams was as follows : GETTYSBURG. POSITION. SWARTHMORE. Moser, (Capt.1 left-end Wilson Manges left-tackle Firth Wierman left-guard Fouse Williams centre Morrison Tholan right-guard Clarke Menges right-tackle Wills Loudon right-end Cahill Carty quarter (Capt.) Hodge Shinier right-half Cloty White left-half Knauer Sheely full-back Kapplcr Umpire—Hickok. Referree—Beruheisel. Linesman—Fick-inger. Touchdowns—Hodge and Kappler. Goals—Hodge- Thirty-minute halves. In our last issue we spoke of the advisabil-ity of more intef-class spirit as far as athletics were concerned. The suggestion was favor-ably commented upon by the student body, and as a result several inter-class games of foot-ball were played, viz.: Freshmen vs. Preps, and Seniors vs. Freshmen. While these games do not affect the standing of the college teams yet they do, in a great measure, keep aflame the athletic spirit. Our place in the ranks with our sister institutions next year will, in part, be due to our interest and assist-ance this Fall. Show the spirit now and the work will surely manifest itself. The Freshman-Prep game was played Sat-urday afternoon, Nov. 16th. It was a very nice game and stubbornly contested. The Freshmen may have had the benefit of longer practice, but what the. Prep's lacked in prac-tice they made up in aggressiveness and weight. The Freshmen scored on a fumble in the first half, Devinney crossing the line for a touchdown and Spayde kicked goal. The second half was marked by quick, sharp play-ing on the part of the Preps. Determination to score showed itself in the play, and this they did in about twelve minutes after play was called. The score was now a tie and neither side was able to score again before time was called. The game was prettily played and both classes were elated over their, teams. The line up was as follows : FRESHMAN. POSITION. PREP. Weeter left-end Kahler Devinney left-tackle Young Cumbler left-guard Dielll Smith, J centre Williams Reisch right-guard Hollinger Brumbaugh right-tackle Mcllhenny Herman right-end Brandt Good quarter (Capt.) Huber Doty (Capt.) right-half Eberly Spayde left-half Lawyer Trimble full-back Wisotzki Umpire-Rudisill. Referee—Kump. Linesmen—White and Menges. Touchdowns—Divinuey, Eberly. Goals—Spayde, Wisotzki. The Senior-Freshman game was played the following Saturday, Nov. 23rd, and was quite a surprise to those who looked for an over-whelming deleat of the Freshmen. They played a much better game than was expected, preventing the Seniors from scoring in the first half. Several times the ball was lost to each side on downs, and time was called with the ball in the Freshmen's territory. The second half was even more marked by the efforts of each side to score. The Freshmen by repeated rushes and a pretty run by Doty got the ball within one foot of a touchdown. Here the superior strength and weight of the Seniors showed itself in preventing the ball from going over the line. They got the ball on downs and immediately rushed it down the field for a touchdown. This seemed to unnerve the Freshmen and the Seniors made two more touchdowns before time was called. Taking into account the greater weight of the Seniors and the fact that several of their men belonged to the college team, praise is due the Fresh-men for their well-played game. The follow-ing was the line up. SENIORS. POSITION. FRESHMEN. Moser (Capt.) left-end Weeter Shaar left-tackle Hoover Jlrubaker left-guard Cumbler Ritter centre Smith, J. Reitzell right-guard Hickman Shinier right-tackle Brumbaugh Wolf right end Herman Rice right-half (Capt.) Doty London left-half Spaj'de Menges full-back Trimble Carty quarter Good Umpire—Geesy. Referee—Wolf. Linesmen—Kitzmeyerand Meisenhelder. Touchdowns—Loudon 2, Rice. Goals—Menges. '39 THE COLLEGE MERCURY At a recent meeting of the Athletic Associa-tion the following were elected for the ensuing year: Manager of Baseball, Armstrong, '97; Manager of Track Athletics, Wheeler, '97; and Manager of Tennis Tournament, Lark, '98. The various managers, are at work dis-cussing'iplans and outlining the work for next season. Now that the foot-ball season is over, we very naturally turn to the next thing of inter-est and importance, namely, base ball and track athletics. Our record on the diamond is by no means bad, in fact it is here that we demonstrated our ability and worthiness to take our place in the ranks with other colleges. But we can't rest on past reputations and achievements. Everyone interested in base ball should be willing and ready to lend a hand. The places of the old players, now out of college, must be filled, and you can do it. Track athletics are not entirely unknown, since attempts have been made to organize a team, but without success. The fault lay not with the management, but with the students. We surely have the material out of which a creditable team can be made, and at the same time facilities for the training and practicing of such a team. Indifference to the need and importance of track work causes all the trouble. Once get the idea that we MUST have a team, and we will have it. The treasurer of the athletic association will call on all members during the next week who are in arrears for dues and fees. Be ready with your cash. TOWN /\ND SEWIINARY NOTES. WEBSTER C SPAYDE, Editor. TOWN. At the Missionary Convention of the Luth-eran Church, which met in Carlisle several weeks ago, Mrs. E. Breideubaugh was elected treasurer; Mrs. P. M. Bikle and Mrs. Baugher, members of the Literary Committee; Miss Maggie McClean and Mrs. C. H. Ruff on the Adams County Conference. The Veteran Association of the 76th Pa. Regiment held their re-union here on Wednes-day, Oct. 23rd. The party included twenty-six of the survivors, many of them accom-panied by their wives and daughters. Two magnificently illustrated lectures by the Rev. M. W. Hamma, D. D., of Washington, were given in Christ church, Wednesday and Thursday evenings, Nov. 6th and 7th. Sub-ject of first lecture: "Southern Norway—'The Wonderland of the North.' " Second lecture: "Through Denmark, Sweden and Northern Norwav to the North Cape under the Light of 'The Midnight Sun.' " On Wednesday, Oct. 23rd. General John Taylor, General j. P. S. Gobin, Colonel John P. Nicholson and Colonel R. Bruce Ricketts, with the artist, H. K. Bush-Brown, and other friends, among them Geo. Alfred Town'send, the war correspondent, viewed the statue of Major General Geo. G. Meade, and, owing to the delay in the granite pedestal, postponed dedication of this, as well as the Hancock statue, until next June. The Hancock statue was approved by the State Commission and an order given for the payment of its cost. The same gentlemen met at Harrisburg, on their way here, and inspected designs for the Rey-nolds monument, but no action was taken. The three massive granite blocks composing the base of the Meade statue are set and the imposing statue, which has been previously described in these columns, placed in position. On the one face are the words, "Major Gen-eral George Gordon Meade, United States Army, Commander of the Army of the Poto-lnac." On the other, "Born December 31, 1815. Died November 6, 1872." Rev. A. R. Steck, pastor of St. James Luth-eran church, assisted at the re-opening exer-cises of St. Matthew's Lutheran church, Han-over, on Sunday, Nov. 3rd. While the Skelly & Warner corner, form-erly the Fahnestock building, was being in part torn down recently, Mr. John M. Warner found an old paper which seems to be an offic-ial list of the men who formed Company E, 2d Regiment, Penua. Volunteers. Dr. J. H. W. Stuckenberg, of Cambridge, Mass., preached in Christ Lutheran church on Sunday morning, Nov. 17th. He also filled the pulpit of the same church on the morning of Nov. 24th. In pursuance of the general plan of restor-ing the battlefield as nearly as practicable to its appearance in 1863, the Government Com-mission has purchased a large number of trees, including leading varieties of oak, maple, ash, elm, and other indigenous trees with which to renew the portions of Ziegler's and Reynolds's groves, which have been cut away since the THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 140 battle. The work of planting them is in charge of Mr. Mclntire, representing Con-tractor O'Connell, of Philadelphia, who furn-ished the trees. About 2.30 o'clock Sunday morning, Nov. 10th, the Colonial Hotel was discovered to be on fire and the alarm was quickly given. The fire was first discovered by Mrs. Tate, wife of the proprietor, C. B. Tate, who noticed the smell of smoke. She aroused the family and the guests, all of whom escaped, but some were in extreme danger. The firemen quickly responded to the alarm but before they could get water the whole building was wrapt in flames. They turned their attention to the surrounding buildings, all of which were in imminent clanger, espec-ially those on the east and south. The resi-dence of J. A. Kitztniller, Esq., across the street, directly within the line of the wind, caught several times but a slate roof saved it. The ice-house, closely attached to the hotel, was destroyed, but the barn was saved. As to the cause of the fire nothing definite can be stated. Mr. Tate says that he has no idea how it could have started. Those who saw the fire early think that it began in or near the bar-room in the basement. All of the furniture and wearing apparel in the house was destroyed, and a small stock of liquors. The hotel was insured to the amount of about $8,000. A plan is on foot in Gettysburg to introduce a telephone system. Some of the business men have been approached, all of whom, we are told, think the plan a good one. It is pro-posed also, if the venture is a success in Get-tysburg, to connect with the surrounding towns. The anniversary exercises of the Women's Bible Society were held on Sunday evening, Nov. 17th. In the Presbyterirn church the services were conducted by Revs. Dr. Barkley and Black; St. James Lutheran, Rev. Gilchrist and Dr. Billheimer; Christ Lutheran, Revs. Steck and Carver and Dr. Stuckenberg. The Christian Endeavor Society of St. James Lutheran church held their seventh anniver-sary on Sunday, Nov. 24II1. In the morning Rev. C. C. Benson, of Williamsport, Pa., de-livered a very able discourse based on the text: "Thy Kingdom Come." In the evening ap-propriate services were held, conducted by the pastor, Rev. A. R. Steck. The St. James and Christ Lutheran congre-gations held a union Thanksgiving service in St. James Luthern church on Thursday morn-ing, Nov. 28th, at 10 o'clock. Rev. L. S. Black preached the sermon. Services were also held in the Presbyterian and Reformed churches in the morning. The firemen of this place had a parade on Thursday afternoon, Nov. 28th. The hose-carriage was drawn by some of the firemen, the engine and ladder truck were drawn by horses. Music was furnished by the Gettys-burg band. One of the most popular auxiliaries of the evening lectures at the Adams Count}' Teach-ers' Institute was the "Graphophone Exhibi-tion" by two of our boys—Messrs. Lutz and Brubaker. The audience was carried away; every selection was applauded. And so de-lighted were both audience and manager that their service was secured for a second night with equal success. We congratulate the boys on their splendid success in so large a hall and before so large an audience. SEMINARY. • Rev. J. Albert, on account of ill health, has given up his work at Seminary and has re-turned to his Mission in the West. Rev. A. Bredenbek and Rev. M. J. Killian preached at Good Intent on the 10th and 17th of November, respectively. On the 3rd of November, Rev. G. W. Enders, Jr., preached at Newport, Perry county. In the absence of Rev. Steck, Nov. 3rd, Rev. M. J. Kline filled St. James pulpit in the morning, and Rev. George M. Diffenderfer in the evening. Rev. A. A. Kelly preached in the Trindal Spring church, Mechanicsburg, Pa., Novem-rer 24th. Rev. Chas. P. Wiles preached for Rev. Hesse, New Oxford, Pa., Nov. 24th. The pulpit of the Second Lutheran church, Carlisle, Pa., was filled by Rev. H. B. Stock, Nov. 24th. Owing to ill health, Rev. M. J. Kline was advised to return to his home, Frederick, Md., for a short time. Rev. F. Hilton returned to Seminary several weeks ago. i4r THE COLLEGE MERCURY. On Nov. 24th, Rev. E. E. Parson preached at Freedom, Md. Rev. J. F. Crigler assisted Rev. M. P. Hocker, Steelton, Pa., Nov. 10th. Rev. J. C. Bowers preached at Rossville, Pa., Nov. 17th. The following 'Seminarians attended the meeting of the American Inter-Seminary Mis-sionary Alliance, which was held in Lancaster, Pa.: Messrs. Ehrhart, Diffenderfer, Kline, Rndisill, Stock, Heffner, Bare, Oberholtzer, Koller, Ibach, Cromer, Harms, Whitman, Cox and Killian. Each day during the week beginning Nov. 17th, Dr. J. H. W. Stuchenberg lectured to the Seminarians on Philosophy and Christian Sociology. Rev. W. A. Kump preached at Round-Top, Sunday evening, Nov. 10th. On November 24th, Rev. W. O. Ibach pre-sided at the pipe organ in Christ Lutheran church. LIJERARV SOCIETIES. EDNA M. LOOMIS, Editor. PHILO. The society has decided to make some needed improvements in the reading room. As Dr. Stuckenberg's lecture occupied the evening of Ncv. 22nd, and the Teachers' In-stitue the evening of Nov. 29th, no meetings were held on those dates. The new members of Philo are Brumbaugh, '99, and Bregenzer, 1900. The special program of Dec. 6th will be de-voted to Robert Louis Stevenson. PHRENA. Our special meeting on Nov. 1, which was in charge of our new initiates, was a grand success. The hall was filled to overflowing, and all went home well pleased with the even-ing's entertainment. Our new men deserve to be congratulated. The following new names were added to our roll during the past month: J. H. Straw, '99; David P. Deatrick, H. B. Ernest and Alex-ander O'Neal, of the Preparatory Department. On Wednesday evening, Nov. 6, our de-bating club elected the following officers: Pres., Woods, '9S; V. Pres., Staley, Jr., '99; Rec. Sec, Krafit, '98; Treas., Sprenkle, '98. Phrena will render a special program on Friday evening, Dec. 6th, entitled the "New Woman." Declamation, "A Dream of Possibilities," - - WOODS Essay, '"The 'New Woman' in the World of Sport," - CARNEY Declamation, "A Fearful state of Things/' - - LAUFFEH Oration, "The 'New Woman' in Politics," - - - OTT DEBATE: . "Which Makes the Better Wife, the 'New Woman' or the 'Conservative Woman?'" Aff (.FLECK, I MEISENHELDER, E. W., ' J STOCKSLAGER. .•»=»• J AJOSER. Declamation, "Will She?" . ROEHNER Oration, "The 'New Woman' in the Intellectual World," WOLF EXCHANGES. We are glad to add to our exchanges the Maryland Collegian, Lutherville, Md. It con-tains a good editorial department, and well written contributions, and is in every respect an excellent monthly. The Wittenberger among its foot-ball notes says of our former centre-rush : "Rank's cheerful voice is heard at all stages of the game. The darker the prospects, the more encouraging is our right guard's call." A recent number ot the same paper contains a good editorial on the honor system of gov-erning students. The Dickinsonian seems desirous of empha-sizing the fact, by mentioning it in several places, that the Dickinson students who wit-nessed the Buckuell-Gettysburg game, "root-ed" for Bucknell. It is fortunate they took this opportunity to yell for the winning side, as it is about the only one they have had this season. The Irving Skctch-Book begins its second volume with a very creditable number. This is one of the most attractive exchanges we re-ceive, and is always read with special pleasure. JTor all the latest styles in .uitini and Trousers, AND PULL LINE OF Cents' Furnishing Goods, Call on D. H. WELSH, York, Pa. (gO TO^ *H0m GETTYSBURG* TIMBER SHOP.*- Centre Square. <*^__B. M. SEFTON. ADVERTISEMENTS. A. G. SpaSding & Bros., roof BALL SUPPLIES A SPECIALTY. Every Requisite fop the Game. Jackets, Pants, Jerseys, Sweaters, Shoes, Caps, Belts, Stockings, Morrill's Nose Mask, Rubber Mouth-piece, Shin Guards, Head Harness. Spaldiiiy's Official Intercolle-giate Foot Ball Must be used in all Match Games. PRICE - - - ^s.oo Webster9s IM&ioaiary Invaluable in Office, School, and.Some Successor of the "Unabridged." Standard cf tho U. 0. Gov't Printing OGico, the U. S. Supreme Courfc,a:id of nearly all the Schoolbooka. SPALDING'S OFFICIAL FOOT BALL GU I DE~ N EW RULES-PICTURES OF ALL THE LEADING PLAYERS. Price 10c ttCUOSOttt WAUSTRMtO VOfM 6M_\_ CM\\_QQUt Sim TRtt NEW YORK. PHILADELPHIA. CHICAGO. Til HORACE PARTRIDGE CO. "Warmly commended by State Superintendents of Schools, and other Educators almost without number. THE BEST FOR EVERYBODY rt . . *. j ^. BECAUSE it is easy to find the word wanted. Words nre (riven their correct alphabetical placea, each one beginning a paragraph. [1 is easy to ascertain the pronunciation. The pronunciation is Indicated by the ordinary dlacrit. ically mariced letters used iuthoschoolbooks It is easy to trace the growth of a word. The etymologies nre full, unllhe different meanings are given in the order of 1 in ir development. It is easy t o learn what o word means. The definitions are clear, explicit, and full, and each 13 contained in a separate paragraph. G. & C. MEItRTAM CO., Publishers, Springfield, Mass., XJ. S. A. 03-Specimen pages, etc., Bent on application. BOj^R/JDIILTGh By Day, \A/eel< or Month. RATES REASONABLE. MOUSE EQUIPPED WITH ALL MODERN IMPROVEMENTS. 335 Washington St.,, BOSTON, WIASS. Grocery Store In same building. Full line of Goods kept and sold at small profits. House and Store located on Cor. of College Campus, opposite Brua Chapel. figj^Public Patronage Solicited. SAMUEL H. TAUaHINBAUSH, Prop'r. ifiiil M|iM| Isiliillfc Base Ball and % 9 & © Tgqqis Supplies : -t^fi -A SPECIALTY. 'T3-?i IVIr. \A/. H, MENGES, Our authorized agent at Gettysburg. N j Troy, N. Y., DANY, MAMOTACTOBBK OF SUPEfUOH BELLS. The 2,000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania College was manufac-tured at this foundry. ADVERTISEMENTS. I V A V [ \ I. Classical Course for the Degree of A. B. II. Scientific Course for the Degree of B. S. III. Pest-Graduate Course for the Degree of Ph. D. IV. Special Course in all Departments. V. Elective Studies in Junior and Senior Year.-. VI. New Testament Greek and Hebrew in English Bible Department. Observatory, Laboratories and new Gymnasium. Four large buildings. All buildings heated with steam from central plant. Libraries, 25,000 volumes. Fine Museum. Expenses low. Department of Hygiene and Physical Culture in charge of an experienced physician. Accessible by frequent railroad trains. Location, on BATTLEFIELD of Gettysburg; most pleasant and healthy. PREPARATORY DEPARTMENT, in separate buildings, for boys and young men preparing for business or college, under special care of the principal and three assistants, residing with students in the building. For full particulars, apply for catalogue to HARVEY w. MCKNIGHT, D. D., LL. D., PKES'T.

The Mercury December, 1909 HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard ALBANY, N. Y. Makers of CAPS AND GOWNS To Gettysburg College. Lafayette, Lehigh. Dickinson. State College, Univ. of Penn sylvania, Harvard, Yale, Princeton. Wellesley, Bryn Mawrand the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods of Degrees To The Class of '10. We have begun our college campaign for next Spring and Bummer. Over 25,000 employers look to Hapgoods for their men in sales, offices and technical positions in all departments. Most of these firms use college men. They arrange with us to cover the entire college world for them. We have a unique proposition o* immediate interest to any college man who will be open for a propo-sition. Let us tell you about it. Write to-day. !\\ITMOJVJMJ OttGJJVIZjlTlOJV UJf BltjiMJV ItUliKIillS. Commonwealth Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa. THE) RIGHT TAILOR IN THE) WRONG LEGATION J. W. B^etim 2ND STORY iST NATIONAL BANK BUILDING After April ist will occupy room now occupied by Gettysburg National Bank WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. ALLEN K. WALTON, Pres. and Treas. ROBT. J. WALTON, Supt. HUMMELSTOWN BROWN STONE COMPANY QUARRYMEN and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING and TILE. Waltonville, Duphin Co., Pa. CONTRACTORS FOR ALL KINDS OF CUT STONE WORK Telegraph and Express Address, Brownstone, Pa. Parties visiting quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station on the P. & R. R. R. HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Headquarters for BANQUETS. Electric Lights, Steam Heat, All Conveniences. Free Bus to and from station. Convenient for Commencement Visitors. RATES $2.00 PER DAY. £iver-y Qitacruecl. D. R Gqtftfo.ll, Proprietor. EXPENSES IN COLLEGE $250 cash or a 3'ear in College cau be earned by one young man or young lady in each county in the United States. Plan easy and does not interfere with other occupation. No money required. For particulars address M. H. PEMBERTON, Columbia, Missouri. IWYSSfi iMMENl[STORE Successors to the E. M. Alleman Hardware Co., Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of HARDWARE, OILS, PAINTS AND QUEENSWARE, GETTYSBURG, PA. The only Jobbing House in Adams County. ^^M PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. «««»*«#««*«»«»«»»«»««a«4He^»#«»««««#«««««#ftftft«« i • «* • « « «««« «* » »« » »» «« » « « ««« » « »»♦ * » « *«« ***« « **« ««« ** «« * **«««« Seligrqciri ARE GETTYSBURG'S MOST RELIABLE THJLO^S *£ And show their appreciation of your patronage by giving you full value for your money, and closest attention to the wants of every customer. <& Give Them Your Patronage ««« «« »• »«« « «« «««« * »«««« « «»» »*» »« ««»»««« »« ««*« »« « »««»*»««» » *«»«»«« *ft»«ft«»«tt*««#««aftfttf»ftft«»«»tt«ft«#«ft««*«««ftft«###« TATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. * innrFHS special I ^pasSS! ' i Is open for the fir I fe^ -- ^CsJJI munity who will * MUIS^SS^&I Piano or Organ. A Special Proposition rst person in an; com-deal with us for a WEAVER ORGANS AND PIANOS have no question mark to the quality. I I11I 1 I II 1 I MAIL THIS COUPON TO US. Send me special proposition for the purchase of a Piano. Name . Address WEAVER ORGAN AND PIANO CO., MANUFACTURERS, YORK, PA , U S A. ■j- "it ■I- "it *± nt 'M "it "it 't£it. w 'i- M/ tjt Wt * '•V 3t For Artistic Photographs Prices Always Right -GO TO— TjPTOjsr T|e Lutheran The Leader in PHOTO FASHIONS Frames and Passapartouts Made to Order. Come and Have a Good Shave or Hair Cut HARRY JL SEFTON'S BARBER SHOP 35 Baltimore St. Barbers Supplies a Specialty. \lso choice line of Cigars. Pulliciitioii Society No. 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything' and everything' in the way of Books for Churches. Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up ami develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. THE IUI ERCURV The Literar7 Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1909 No. 7 CONTENTS. THE IMPORTANCE OP HEREDITY IN DECIDING A MAN'S OCCUPATION 2 WM. A. LOGAN, '10. THE FIRST CHRISTMAS.—Poem ' 5 NEWTON D. SWANK, '11. THE MUNICIPAL BATHING BEACH AT WASHING-TON G D. E. A. K. HER REASON 8 JI. IT. KRUMRINE, '11. ART. II.—TENNYSON'S CENTENARY, AUGUST 1809- 1909 12 REV. CHARLES WILLIAM HEATHCOTE, A.M., B.D. THE HONOR SYSTEM SHOULD PREVAIL AT PENN-SYLVANIA COLLEGE 15 MARY M. BAUSCH, '11. THE AMERICAN BUSINESS MAN 17 HARVEY W. STRAYER, '10. NEITHER PESSIMISM NOR OPTIMISM 20 FLORENCE G. HEATHCOTE, '10. DOES SMOKING AND DRINKING INTERFERE WITH INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS ? 22 H. F. BAUGHMAN, '10. SPAIN'S CRIME 24 EARL S. RUDISILL, '12. THE POSSIBILITIES FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN GET-TYSBURG 26 HARVEY S. HOSIIOUR, '10. EDITORIALS 28 EXCHANGES 31 z. THE MERCURY. THE IMPORTANCE OF HEREDITY IN DECIDING A MAN'S OCCUPATION. WM. A. LOGAN, '10. jO consider the question of the importance of heredity in determining a man's occupation we must see what effect heredity has in general upon the life of a man, and since occupation is an outgrowth of imitation, we must determine the effect of heredity, in particular, upon imitation. But let us first see what heredity means in this connection. There are those who would tamper with the term "heredity" in its purity, corrupting it by making it cover its own natural ground and that-rightly belonging to "early environment." We prefer, and justifiably so, to look upon it in its own sphere and to exclude any contribution from this other factor. Hence, we define heredity as the name given to the transmission of gains or losses in organic development from parent to child. And upon this definition rests the solution of our question. Heredity, certainly, has importance, however limited, in de-termining a man's line of work—in fact it has importance as a determining factor in man's whole life. Taking our definition, we admit a transmission takes place in the generation of chil-dren, but note that it is a transmission of gains or losses in organic development, and hence, becomes a question of large or small capacity; for it is easy to understand that the parent who lias gained in organic development will transmit to the child an organism of superior development and therefore of greater ca-pacity. The reverse is also true of the parent who has lost in organic development. And now, although we admit this, at the same time we know from observation, that unless favorable con-ditions are brought to bear upon the life of that child of superior development, that superiority will be overcome, largely, by the lack of said conditions, and, by the time the person is ready for occupation the factor of superior development will be so subju-gated to the unfavorable conditions that it will be recognized as playing a very small part in determining the occupation which the person will take up. On the other hand, let the child of in-ferior organic development be surrounded by favorable condi- THE MERCURY. tions—what do we notice ? Simply this, that although it cannot exceed a certain limit of development, it can and will, by virtue of these favorable conditions, overcome its inferiority, and, again, we find it true that heredity plays a part, but a very small part, in determining the occupation the child will follow. This ex-plains the phenomenon of great, powerful men born of lowly and sometimes ignorant parents, yet by virtue of later environment they become the powers that they are. Now, that we may get the really vital factor which solves our question, we must consider the element, "conscious imitation." It is this, after all, which determines the occupation however true it is that it too, has its detriments. To be concise we shall quote Baldwin, who sets forth plainly the rise of conscious imi-tation, and heredity's part in this rise. He cites the fact of the late rise of conscious imitation: sixth or seventh month. This fact may be accounted for on the very evident ground of the distinction of congenital functions from the new accommo-dations of the individual child. The child's early months are taken up with its vegetative functions. The machinery of he-redity is working itself out in the new individual." And fur-ther: "In the main, therefore, there is instinctive tendency to functions of the imitative type, and to some direct organic imi-tations; but those clear conscious imitations which represent new accommodations and acquirement are not as such instinc-tive, but come later as individual acquirements." Here we see heredity limited to the determining of action in the early months of the individual's life, and giving way to that more potent fac-tor, conscious imitation which in turn is determined by environ-ment. But we have not said that heredity has no power in de-termining a man's occupation and it is for us to show now, how it limits environment. Tins has been indicated above, but not explained. Let us take the ease of transmission of losses. The parent is frail and weak and the child inherits a similar frame and weak-ness; then no amount of habit, custom or education will make that child capable to assume an occupation which requires a large, strong body. And so with the inheritance of weak organs of whatever name—a weak heart, brain, a diseased stomach, etc. —inheritance of any of these means that habit, custom or educa- THE MERCURY. tion, in a word, environment, can only succeed in making the individual fit for an occupation which will not involve any strains whatever upon the weak or diseased organs. On the side of the trasmission of gains environment docs not have this limiting influence, but, as was stated explicitly above, a favorable environment tends to produce further gains, while an unfavorable environment limits even the organism of su-perior development. To take a specific case, we know a man, born of strong, healthy, intellectual parents, whose life was somewhat in this order—school (where he ranked high) work, (first in a store then in a factory with his father, then at a trade); night school, college, seminary, and ministry. The observed facts show that the man was born with an organism of superior development which was favorably environed during his early years,—then a less favorable influence came to bear, and, (that he might have more money), he went to work. Here we see environment showing itself in two directions—from store down to factory, and from factory up to trade. But finally, en-vironment lets his organism work along favorable lines, giving him a continuous uplift through the stages from night school to college, to seminary, and to his occupation. To sum up briefly, then, we admit that a transmission of ca-pacity takes place in generation of children, but we contend that this capacity may be limited or increased according to the un-favorable or favorable environment of the individual. We say that heredity is replaced by conscious imitation, to a large de-gree and imitation is the performing of those things which we see being performed about us. And when it comes to the de-termination of an occupation wc, in choosing, imitate those whom we have found it pleasant to imitate in other matters, or we choose an occupation for which our habits, customs or educa-tion has made us adept. And all this leads to the truth: "Man is a creature of environment," however true it may be that lie himself determines largely, his environment. THE MERCURY. THE FIRST CHRISTMAS. NEWTON D. SWANK, '11. In snowy-white December's dreary days, There comes to mind that bright'ning tale of glory; Of how the angels chanted hymns of praise, And to the shepherds told the wondrous story. Good shepherds, keeping watch o'er flocks by night In that same country where the Christ was born, Were dazed as they beheld a glorious sight Ere they had caught a glimpse of waking morn. They, sore afraid, drew back with cries of fear From that great shining light sent by the Lord. Then God's own angel did to them appear; Above, in radiant brilliancy, he soared. The angel to the shepherds softly said: "Fear not, I bring you tidings of great joy, Which to all people shall be widely spread; For unto you the Christ, your king, is born! This new-born babe is Christ, the Lord of men; In manger lying wrapped in swaddling clothes, Him .you will find in David's Bethlehem"— Then suddenly a host of angels rose. They chanted soft in heavenly array, And then sang: "Glory be to God on high, And on earth peace, good-will toward men alway." The joyous shepherds were no longer shy. As these celestial angels went from them The shepherds spoke to one another thus: "Let us now even go to Bethlehem To see this Son that God hath sent to us." THE MEECUEY. They came with haste, and found sweet Mary mild, Good Joseph with the oxen standing by; Within the manger lay the Holy Child,— God's gift to man His Love doth verify. When they the babe had seen they spread abroad The saying, which was told to them about This child, the precious gift for man from God; And all who heard sent up a prayer devout. The shepherds, glorifying God, returned; With great rejoicing they left Bethlehem, Where they such wondrous things had seen and learned; But Mary kept these things and pondered them. THE MUNICIPAL BATHING BEACH AT WASHINGTON. D. E. A. K. |ASHIN"GT01ST, the city beautiful, home of great men and fair women, has like many other large cities come to realize that not only in the palaces of kings, but also in the homes of the poor, are brain and brawn, beauty and grace to be found, for although frequently styled, "the city of diplomats and politicians," she has within her confines many from the poorer classes to whom are denied many of the neces-sities, not to speak of the luxuries of life. The children of these poor, compelled to bear the sweltering heat of summer, suffered without any means of relief. Seaboard cities are fanned by cooling breezes and afford to the younger element all the bathing facilities the ocean allows. Country towns have woods and the inevitable swimming hole. Washington, although situated on the Potomac, is blessed with none of these natural bounties, for due to the depth of the water and the currents, the river has been shunned rather than sought. What was to be done in the face of such conditions? Action THE MERCURY. 7 followed swift on the heels of the realization of the necessity. The citizens of the district petitioned the commissioners and they readily granted to the committee appointed, the old Fish Commission pools and grounds and a money appropriation to make the necessary repairs and alterations. Thus one of the city's most beneficent charities had its beginning. It was but a beginning, and that only, for since this the labor expended has been almost herculean. Unused pools have been filled in, low ground has been graded, drainage has been put in, locker houses and office buildings have been provided and con-crete swimming pools built. Has it been worth while? For an answer I would ask you to go to the Bathing Beach grounds some afternoon about one o'clock. When one is a full half mile from the pools already the small boy with his bathing suit is in evidence. Although Wash-ington is a city of "magnificent distances," yet from the out-skirts they come, rich and poor, big and little, young and old, and all in a hurry. When they arrive at the grouds all willingly get in line to receive their free admission slips, for a record of the name, age and residence of all patrons is kept. At the small boys' hours the big fellow declares, "he's only a kid;" at the older boys' hours, the little one is a man grown, supports a family, "and has chewed tobacco for a year;" few such excuses however, are offered during the ladies' hours. If the troubled waters in the pools at Washington could work miraculous cures ,many would be the number healed, for from early morning to evening few are the minutes in which the pools are not "disturbed"—and not always by angels either. Splash! Splash! Splash ! All day long. One can see hundreds in the pools or waiting on the wharves. Here a senate page is having a game of tag with a "newsy" who for an hour has dropped his cry of "Sta'-Times- -Evenin' Pape," and is enjoying a dip; there "Tubby" Regan, winner of many races, paddles in his inevitable tub, joyfully ignorant of the fact that Johnny Shugrne is just ready to spill him from his slippery throne. There are shallow pools for waders, deep ones for swimmers,. "muddy" ones for the dusky patrons; all are accomodated, all are-happy, all are safe. Swimming instructors and life guards with 8 THE MERCURY. ceaseless vigil keep careful watch over the bathers, so accidents are few, fatalities none. And who is largely responsible for the instruction and con-tinuance of this factor which has proved to be an unspeakable blessing to many? Dr. Wm. B. Hudson, the present superin-tendent, "the swimmer's friend, looked Up to by the boys, re-spected by the men, asked for by the ladies; a "West Point man^ a University of Pennsylvania graduate who has entrusted to other hands his large profitable practice that he might for a mere pittance give his time and energy for the good of "the other man." All honor to such truly great men, who in a spirit of widest altruism forget self in their consideration for their fel-lows. ± ± HER REASON. M. H. KRUJIBIXE, '11. SJSPT this a grand night? Beyond description!" "It certainly is." "It is an ideal night to take a walk. Nothing would be quite as enjoyable to me as a walk. Will we take one?" Oh !— The t-t-ti—w-well! Let's take a walk." Such were the words exchanged between Jack Roberts, the big Sophomore class president and Miss Drew, the Freshman co-ed, respectively, as the former was leaving Miss Drew after having spent a most enjoyable evening in the company of the Fresh-man co-ed. It was at 11 o'clock and the walk came as a sur-prise to both. It was quite a novelty to these two representa-tives of hostile classes. True, Miss Drew had reflected on the time but the night was too grand to resist. Then, too, we must not forget that one was a class president and the other a class secretary and loyal Freshman co-ed. "Hustle on your wraps, Miss Drew, and we'll be out enjoying the glorious night," said Jack, his head in a whirl. The very fact that he had spent the evening with Miss Drew was enough THE MERCURY. to fluster him for a week and the walk in addition was enough to cause a brain-storm. He had eyed the Freshman co-ed with hungry eyes many a time as she appeared in chapel, on the campus, in dining hall or wherever she chanced to come within sight. Many a time had the rustle of her dress, the wave of her golden tresses or the sparkle of her beautiful, blue eyes caused his heart to take a sud-den leap and flutter beyond control. What this present occasion did we can only conjecture. Then, too, Mis Drew, the popidar and generally admired Freshman co-ed had not been entirely averse to the attentions paid her by the big Sophomore president. In fact, she had played several games of tennis with him, but never had Jack teen honored with her company as he was to-night. But the walk is not yet taken. "Oh! I am ready," was the quick reply, as Margaret, the co-ed, hastily donned her wraps. Soon they were off for a stroll in the country, under the open canopy of heaven, bestudded with countless stars. The silvery moon, too, was shedding its gor-geous light on the earth beneath. Thus they went forth to drink in the fresh air and beauties of the night. ISTor was their en-joyment of the walk unexpressed. "Isn't this evening perfectly charming. It is an ideal ni , I mean, it is an ideal evening. An evening such as poets love to describe. How grand it is and my enjoyment of it cannot be expressed." Such were the words of Margaret as they went along. "You have expressed my feelings exactly, Miss Drew," was the scant reply of Jack. He had other feelings to contend with. Feelings such as scarcely permitted him to open his mouth lest they give utterance,—to his sorrow—perhaps. He was perplexed and rather meditative. But he was well aware of all that hap-pened and was a very earnest audience to Margaret, reflecting carefully on all she said, which was much. Margaret apparently was enjoying the walk so much that she did not think of any-thing else. She was very talkative, as if for some specific pur-pose. As the walk was continued the perplexity of Jack did not cease, but rather increased. He was perturbed and it was only 10 THE MERCURY. a matter of time when it would become evident to his companion. '"Shall I say it ?—Will I tell her ?" mused the big class president. "How will she take it? No. I dare not, I must not, for when I mentioned Borneo and Juliet in connection with this night, she made a queer move and uttered an unexplainable sound. She objected to any such thought. Did she object? Perhaps she winced for another reason," mused Jack further. At this time the representatives of the two hostile classes were quite some distance from the college. It would take them about half an hour to get back and then they would have to walk briskly. Yet they kept on apparently unaware of the time and distance. All of a sudden an outrageous yell and din reached their ears. It was a din and it kept up for some time. Pres-ently Jack broke the silence caused by the din with the words, "What noise?" Margaret, innocent as a Freshman only can be, of course did not know. But all of a sudden, as if becoming suddenly aware of the time and distance from the college, she exclaimed rather excitedly, "Let's turn back. I fear the hour is growing late and we are some distance from the college—a good half hour's walk!" "Say a good hour's walk," said Jack as he turned to go back before he was aware of it. They journeyed back but the hideous noise and din marred their walk. How they did not know, but even Margaret was silent and Jack could not muse as before, with such an uproar going on. Furthermore he was afraid that he should be back at college, on the campus where the noise was made according to all indications. He was a class president and a Sophomore, too. What might not his class be doing. They were trained to "work" under him and without him they were as sheep without a shepherd. Perhaps the Freshmen are busy. He became alarmed the closer they came. His nerves were all a-tinkle. Just then they had come close enough to distinguish some words. "Sophomores! ""Sophomores!" "Freshmen!" "Freshmen!" "Freshmen!" burst upon their ears. "The Flagscrap!" burst forth Jack, as he made a sudden leap as if to run. THE MERCURY. 11 "Pardon me, Miss Drew, I—I forgot." "Merely class spirit," was the reply. The fact was only too well known to both now. The long looked for flag scrap had at last "come off." Then Jack did think. Here he was while the flag scrap was. going on, on the college campus. To him the walk ended in a tragedy, at least so he thought then. As they hastened back they wished their respective classes suc-cess as was only natural. Since the journey before them lasted about half an hour more, the former feelings of Jack came back. He had not said anything yet, but had come to the conclusion ihat Margaret was rather favorably inclined towards him. He gave that as her reason for taking a walk with him at such an hour. He could see no other reason. She surely must have had one and this to him seemed most plausible. Finally they reached their destination and in delicious pain Jack left the Freshman co-ed. He had not forgotten the class fight and so at the top of his speed he arrived on the college cam-pus. Yelling was at par now but it was all for the Freshmen for they had withstood the Sophomores for thirty-five minutes and their flag was still intact. Thus they had won the scrap since thirty minutes was the required time. The reason the Sophomores could not harm the Freshman flag-was because they lacked a leader—their president. No one knew where he was. That night Jack went to his room rather crestfallen. But then again he was happy for he had not forgotten the walk with one whom he idolized—yes that's what he really did. He still had hope, more strongly than ever, now, that he had left her and had time to reflect, that she had a good reason for taking the walk with him. "Yes, love was her reason" thought Jack. Next day one could see the Freshmen strutting about in high glee over the victory of the night before. After chapel, they all, at different times, and in small groups, congratulated Miss Drew, their secretary, on the noble part she had played in the flag scrap. Yes, the Freshman co-ed had a reason for taking a walk, at midnight, with the big, husky Sophomore president. 12 THE MERCURY. ART II.—TENNYSON CENTENARY AUGUST 1809-1909— Tennyson and In Memoriam. BY REV. CHARLES WILLIAM HEATHCOTE, A.M., Ji.U. IEOM the selections of Tennyson's poems you will notice his work is beautiful for its melody, and harmony. You notice that he possesses a true love for nature and has a noble Christian character. This is manifested in his friendship for Iiallam. There has been very few classic friendships in the history of the world that have come down to us. We know the story of the true friendship, Damon, a Pythago-rean, bore for Pythias. Pythias had been condemned to death by Dionysius I, of Syracuse. Pythias asked to be set at liberty for a short time to settle up his affairs. Damon pledged his own life for that of his friend, who he knew would return. Pythias did return before the day appointed for his execution. Diony-sius was so deeply impressed that he released Damon from his pledge and gave Pythias his freedom. Again we know the true friendship David bore toward Jona-than. In the account given in I Samuel, 23:17-18, we see this friendship manifested. "And he said unto him: Fear not for the hand of Saul my father shall not find thee; and thou shalt be king over Israel, and I shall be next unto thee; and that also Saul my father knoweth. And they two made a covenant before the Lord: and David abode in the woods, and Jonathan went to his house." Thus Tennyson had a true deep friendship founded on love for Arthur Henry Hallam. He reveals his friendship and love in "In Memoriam." Arthur Henry Hallam, the son of the historian Henry Hal-lam, was born Feb. 1, 1811, in London. At an early age he traveled with his parents in Italy and Switzerland. As a youth he was very precocious. After attending a private school, he was sent to Eton. Here he remained until 1827. In October, 1828, he matriculated at Trinity College, Cam-bridge. Here he became acquainted with Tennyson. There THE MERCURY. 13 was formed a friendship which was to iast forever and which was destined to be immortalized in literature. Thus should all friendships be made, not to be broken at will, but to last forever. Friendships should not be made with the purpose of using those friends for selfish motives, but that true communion of soul and spirit might exist here on earth and in the realms of eternal life. Thus the best friendships are made in mature years when one. understands the congenialities of human nature. Furthermore, the true friendships formed in college days last on through life. You know Cicero speaks of friendship thus: "Virtus, virtus inquam C. Fanni et tu Q Muci et conciliat amicitias et eonser-rat. C. De Amit XXVIII, 53 page. Emerson also says: "My careful heart was free again, 0 friend, my bosom said. Through thee alone the sky is arched, Through thee the rose is red; All things through thee take nobler form, And look beyond the earth, The mill—round of our fate appears A sim path in thy worth." Young Hallam did not distinguish himself in Greek, Latin or Mathematics while at college. His work in literature and essay writing was brilliant. He was an orator of strong ability, for he obtained a prize on declamation in 1831. He was well versed in history. He graduated from Trinity in 1832 and in October 1832, he took up the study of law. In August of 1833, Arthur accompanied his father on a trip to the continent from which he was not to return alive. He died at Vienna, Sept. 15, 1833, from an attack of intermittent fever. His remains were brought to England and interred on the 3rd of January, 1834, in Clevedin Church, Somersetshire. Hallam as a young man in his earlier college days wrote many poems which were graceful, and pleasing. We quote this one: 14 THE MERCURY. '"Alfred, I would that you beheld me now, Sitting beneath a mossy wild wall. On a quaint bench which to that structure old Winds an accordant curve." He also wrote several essays of a philosophic character, which show careful thought and preparation. Thus Tennyson as a tribute of honor to his beloved friend wrote "In Memoriam" which was first published in 1850. It is probable when Tennyson first wrote this poem that it was not his intention to publish it. There is no regular order in the poem. Tennyson wrote as his soul passed through its various states, conditions, and feelings. At one time Tennyson lost his note book. We can imagine the deep distress of the poet until it was recovered. Hallam had made a deep impression on Tennyson's life and character. He was a congenial, winsome fellow. Hallam's death was a double shock to Tennyson. In the first place his friendship was clear and indissoluble. In the second place Hal-lam was betrothed to the poet's sister Emily at the time of his death. Thus Tennyson depicts his sorrow, varied feelings, love, etc., in the poem. Prof. Genung says the theme of the poem is: "That love is intrinsically immortal." He also divides the poem thus: Prologue. Introductory Stage I—XXVII. First Cycle—XXVIII—LXXVI1. Second Cycle—LXXVIII—CIII. Third Cycle—CIV—CXXXI. Epilogue. Clianibersburg, Pa. THE 3IEKCU1SY. IB THE HONOR SYSTEM SHOULD PREVAIL AT PENNSYL-VANIA COLLEGE. MARY M. BAUSCH, '11. iX.tlic discussion of this subject, first it must be shown what is meant by the honor system. By this we mean that men and women are put on their honor, that they are pledged to perform all duties with truth, with hon-esty, and with, fairness. They are pledged not to cheat. When a man is put on his honor he is given an opportunity to prove himself a responsible being. The honor system should prevail at Pennsylvania College for two reasons. First, because the morality of the student body would be improved. Second, because the reputation of the institution would be raised in the eyes of the public. The question may be ashed, Is there any honor in our student body? The only way to prove that this exists is to have the honor system introduced into the college government. When once a student is placed on his honor he comes to realization of his position. He is no longer a mere high school boy. He is a man and must be responsible. If he is not responsible he must be taught to be. And the only way to teach responsibility is by placing the student in a responsible position. This in itself is Fufficient reason why the honor system should prevail. Our honor is our most highly prized possession. Can we en-trust our honor to another? Can we place it in the care of pro-fessors, while under his instructions and receive it at will when we pass through the portals of the institution? The four years passed here are to the average student the most formative period of his life. This is the time for you to learn to depend on your-self, to be a leader even if you have not acquired ability suffici-ent to do so. The honor system will help to accomplish these things. It will arouse in the student the desire to do right. The objection is raised that the honor system does not make all honest. This is true. No system can make a man do his work honestly if he is determined to cheat. But a public feeling is aroused against cheating, this public feeling has greater influ-ence than anything else in governing man's actions. 1G THE HEKCUKY. For the honor system to succeed at Pennsylvania College it is necessary for the student to be willing to undergo the conditions which the honor system demands. He must be ready to inform against anyone who cheats. The student must be wholly impar-tial. He cannot allow private friendships and claims to inter-fere with the discharge of his duty. This is one of the greatest principles in the training of the future citizens for our country. A keen sense of honor is especially in demand in piiblic and pri-vate life. It is even more important than education. The educated man who lacks high moral character is more at a disad-vantage than the honest man who is uneducated. The honor system is a stimulus to better work in general. It does not cover examinations only, but it also covers assigned tasks and private work. Besides the greatest cheating does not occur in examinations. It occurs more in written work done out of the class-room where the authority of the instructor does not extend. For example the writing of themes and in mathemati-cal problems. It has been said, "To cheat is one thing, to cheat a teacher is another." This especially applies to private work over which the instructor has no immediate authority. The only way to root out this fault is through the honor system. For only through the students themselves can any reform in this di-rection take place. I have said that the honor system would raise the reputation of the college in the eyes of the public. The most important part of the college is its student body. The student in a large sense makes the college. If he is dishonest, he causes a shadow of dishonesty to be cast over the institution from which he is graduated. The value of his diploma is lowered when the pub-lic once learns that by cheating he is able to pass his examina-tions. The standard of the college is made manifest by the standard of integrity and ability of its students and alumni. If the honor system prevailed at Pennsylvania College, the faculty, or rather the individual professors would be relieved of a very unpleasant duty. The duty of a spy. The imputation that the professor is a policeman would be removed. This is a very strong reason why the honor system should be adopted here. There are many students who have good impulses but lack moral strength. We all recognize the power, a strong personality . u THE MERCURY. 17 has over a group of minds. The boy upon entering college is most easily influenced by the older memebrs of the institution. Xow, if a high sense of honor were fostered in the college, the morals of the Freshman would be strengthened by the example of high honor existing among i\pperelassmen. The student who sees a high standard of honor in a fellow-student may in time be brought to adopt it for himself. Again, there are students who object to giving help, both in examinations and in private work from a sense of honesty to their professors and from principle. Consequently they are open to much criticism. If the honor system were established, they would be supported by the student body as a whole and freed from the charge of selfishness and stinginess. Finally the honor system would be the means for rooting out the idler, the man who will not work, the man who depends on getting through on somebody else's goods. Many of our institutions have established the honor system in all departments and a number of them in several departments. Among those institutions where the honor system has proven suc-cessful are Princeton, Cornell, Lehigh, Virginia, Washington and Jefferson, Washington and Lee, North Carolina, Williams, and Amherst. The methods of teaching at our college are simi-lar to those of the above named institutions, and since in general the character of students is much the same, there is no reason why the honor system should not be as successful here as in those institutions. The only to test its efficiency is to try it. THE AMERICAN BUSINESS MAN. HARVEY W. STRAYER, '10. HE American business man is one who makes an honest effort to earn a livelihood. He is the marvel of the world. He is the culmination of American industrial development. He is the one great, single, vital force responsible for America's supremacy in commerce and industry. To him we must bow our thanks for an hundred comforts which were but yesterday luxuries. 18 THE MERCURY. Through the energy, perseverance, imagination and ingenuity of the business man, feats can be performed undreamed of by the most optimistic ancestor. He has bound our country together by bands of steel; he has harnessed Niagara and a thousand other water-falls and lighted our cities with that indefinable something —electricity. He has laid the Atlantic cable and made Great Britain our own neighbor. He has united New York with San Francisco and made the State of the Golden Gate our door-mat to the Orient. He has braved the dangers of the subterranean depths and digs up for our use the precious stones and metals, and pipes to the surface the no less precious fluids. These things the American business man has done and more. He is no longer subject to nature's laws but defying even the power of gravity, sails through the air whither-so-ever he will. The American business man is above all a man of ingenuity. He harnesses nature and guides her in her own work of produc-tion. In our western country, the arid plains of yesterday are the gardens of to-day. By great engineering feats, water streams are coaxed from original courses and by proper care are made to make the parched and burned desert to bloom and blossom as the rose. In a word our business men have made living a pleasure when a century ago it was a positive pain. But our description of the business man lacks perfection until we see him in his home. See him there and you have the secret of his success. For it is there he receives encouragement and inspiration from that fount of American helpfulness—the American woman. To speak, further of the business man in his relation to the home is needless for an American reader. You may think my eulogy overdone, for I am painting the business man at his best in the home and in the industries. But even this superb creature has defects, the greatest of which it the utilization of ever moment of time for family and self at the expense of the State. For our business men too often neglect to give even a moment to the nation—to the State—to the city. They are pigmies in politics and state-craft and invite upon themselves the opprobium of the more patriotic citizens. Under these conditions of indifference the unscrupulous poli-tician springs up even as the mushroom in the night, but alas! his tenacity for life is a thousand times that of the tender and THE MERCURY. 19 short-lived mushroom. dies and never resigns. "The unscrupulous politician seldom This was the truism expressed by Jef-ferson and this fact makes it a double task to root out the American grafter, once he has attained his power. But let us thank Providence, the seat of the grafter is not al-ways unshaken. There are always some honest business men aware of the public dishonesties; always somebody ready to lead the people in their crusades against public evils; always some men ready with public confidence behind them to clean the legis-lative halls of their reeking political filth. Such men as Berry of Pennsylvania, Folk of Missouri, and Heney of California, are simply repaid for their herculean tasks by the public confidence—a thing not measured in dollars and cents. Yes, we want our business men to be honest and our honest business men to be politicians. Not until our business men be-come politicians and place politics on the high plane where it deserves to be, can we hope for continued good government. If our public officials are not honest and our business men not politicians enough to understand the public questions of the day, we tremble for the perpetuity of our country. But there is a better spirit abroad in the land. Politics is being cleansed and officials are learning the lesson that public office is a public trust. Slowly but surely we are evolving the American business man who finds time for his community and his country. This busi-ness man then, supreme in the commercial world; loving in the-home; and watchful in the State will be the hope of the future. Trusting in him in the days to come, we expect our offices to be filled with men of unimpeached integrity and the destiny of our country to be made secure. 20 THE SIEECURY. NEITHER PESSIMISM NOR OPTIMISM. FLORENCE G. HEATHCOTE '10. |MOJS"G the philosophers who have flourished during past ages the most varied theories of the universe have pre-vailed. Some have radically propounded the theory of optimism while others advocated that of pessimism. Schopenhauer's is a philosophy of despair. His belief was that the world, in which we live, with its social conditions, is the worst that ever could exist. Thus unhappiness was the inevi-table and moral rule of the human life. Leibniz's idea of this life was diametrically opposed to that of Schopenhauer's; for him happiness greatly overbalanced the pain of this world and the present world-order is the best possible. But these same two ideas exist among every class of men. The Europeans, as a whole, are rather pessimistic. This is probably on account of their less progressive condition. The Americans, on the other hand, are considered to be very optimistic on ac-count of being in a condition of prosperity. Yet America has to-day many "Schopenhauer's" as well as "Leibnizs" and their theories are just as radical as those of either of these philoso-phers. For the truly pessimistic man of to-day unhappiness is the prime element of life and the quicker death comes, the better for him. His religious, social, and business activities appear to him as only things of misery and torture. It is very evident that there is very little progress in anything a man undertakes when he upholds such a theory. "Despair is death," is a true saying. The pessimist can do very little, if anything, for the uplift of the human race, and especially for the progress of his country, with such a sombre view of life. His gloomy theory paralyzes effort. His theory, however, is only a misrepresentation, which is due to the magnifying of the various misfortunes and sorrows of this life which he has experienced. He sees no honor or justice in anything and thus he deliberately rales God out of his thoughts entirely. In such a state of mind no one is able to appreciate nature or to help others to see the right. On the other hand a radical optimist is just as far from real- THE MEitcuny. 21 izing what this life really is as the pessimist with his dark view of the universe. The optimist has, indeed, heen one of the main factors in the steady development of our land, but he, too often, forgets what true happiness really means. Everything is life and sunshine to him; misfortunes are immediately overlooked without affecting his character in the least, and thus he is car-ried on by the whirl of success, forgetting all and only looking for his own selfish joy and pleasure. Yet he is helping to pro-mote a rapid growth, perhaps, in the industrial world, but with no other thought in view except his own selfish end. Thus he has no sympathy for those who are his inferiors financially or socially and in the end he must discover that his is not the truly great happiness after all. "A man's lot is not really happy when all his desires are always and fully realized, but when he obtains a proper share of joy and sorrow, success and failure, plenty and want, straggle and peace, work and rest, and obtains it at the right time." But the truth is that there must be a blending of the opti-mistic and the pessimistic ideas, if life would appear to us reah There should be sufficient recognition of evil, so as not to ignore its presence, and a due appreciation of the good, to serve as an inspiration to high endeavor. "Life is hope" and what benefit can there be derived if one is continually in despair. The dangers and misunderstandings are well balanced by the numer-ous gifts in nature and the joy of good health. Our nation can advance only if its citizens have a "common-sense" view of life. It is by pain and persecution that their characters can be strengthened to fight the battles of life. Some great scholar has said, "This earth is dear to mortal men, not merely in spite of its tears and crosses, but also on account of them." It has been just through those men, who have held the "com-mon- sense" view that our nation is what it is to-day. Their foremost thought has been that the first thing to be done is to care for one's fellow-men. Through this noble thought there have been innumerable improvements along all lines. To make life pleasant and enjoyable for man, the construction of rail-roads, telephone, and telegraph lines have been accomplished. Useful arts and sciences have been inculcated; free schools and 22 I'll E .MI'.IICIJIIY. colleges have been opened; public libraries and churches have been erected all over the country. Even criminals of to-day are put into healthy and clean prisons where they are compelled :to do some work or to learn a trade. One of the great fruits of man's helping his fellow-men is very evident in the provision of free sanitoriums for curing various diseases and the preven-tion of epidemics. In a land where there is so much liberty offered to all and whose laws are so just, every citizen should endeavor to do his best for its welfare and advancement. To sit idly by and look at its darkest side or its brightest side will never be fruitful of any good, but let us be encouraged by the good and do our best in abolishing evil so that "this government of the people, for the people, and by the people may never perish from the earth." DOES SMOKING AND DRINKING INTERFERE WITH IN-TELLECTUAL PROGRESS. II. F. BAUGIIMAN, '10. NE of the most familiar terms used in athletic circles is the term "training." By it is expressed careful selec-tion of diet, early bed hours, clean morals and above all a strict abstinence from alcoholic beverages and to-bacco. The trainers and players all recognize the evil effects of these dissipations upon the physical system, so when football and track seasons at college come around, the candidates for these teams sign a pledge to "keep training." Perhaps after these di-versions have passed out of season, the same men who have trained faithfully for weeks may "break training" and drink and carouse as though attempting to make up for time lost. At least most men at college indulge in the use of tobacco, and a few in the use of intoxicants. 3Tow it is suggested that if such indulgences are not good for the physical system, are they not also detrimental to intellectual progress? From the statements given above it wovild appear that the majority of students think they are not, but we must remember that men do not always do THE MEBCUEY. 23 what is of the most advantage to them. We will consider the effects of each separately upon the mind, taking smoking first as it is most prevalent. Medical science shows us that smoking, especially cigarette smoking, is most injurious to the brain tissues. The smoker in-hales the poisonous nicotine and it is taken to the lungs where the blood is carried for purification, instead of receiving cleans-ing, it is acted upon by this freighted with poisonous matter. This blood is carried to the brain, there to feed the tissues with poison. Of course not all the poison is carried by the blood, be-cause the blood corpuscles and other scavengers act upon it to purify it, but they are taxed excessively by this extra task and sooner or later these organs lose part of their power and permit more poison to be carried to the brain to build up unhealthy tis-sues, which of course cannot perform their functions to any great degree, thus hindering intellectual progress. Men of experience have recognized the injurious effects of the poison, and legislators in many States are working for legisla-tion which will keep this cause of mental and physical degenera-tion from the boys in school; they recognize the fact that sound, healthy minds cannot develop in bodies that are poisoned by the same substance which must be carried also to the brain. Ke-cently in the "Philadelphia Press" there was an account of the case of a school boy whose excessive practice of the cigarette habit cost him his liberty. The account states that his mind was dulled and the boy was becoming incorrigible. This shows the effect of smoking upon one child, and its effects must be simi-lar, though not always to so great a degree, upon every smoker. Certainly the habit hinders greatly intellectual progress. Drinking is much more injurious and its effects are more plainly seen than the effects of smoking. Alcohol has a deaden-ing effect upon a man's mental powers which is well manifested while he is under the influence of liquor. He regains his pow-ers to a certain degree soon after the stimulant loses its power, hut he cannot forever do this. Gradually the brain must weaken, because a man cannot abuse any organ repeatedly without its having an evil effect upon that organ. I have seen performed an experiment with alcohol on the brain of a pigeon. When the alcohol came in contact with the tissues 24 THE MEIiCtfUY. the whole mass stiffened and congealed and remained so for quite a while. This is what happens to a less degree in a man's brain when he becomes subject to drink. The blood always carries the poison to the brain and there is does its harmful work. The ha-bitual drinker so impairs his mental powers that at last he loses 1hem entirely and becomes insane; there are perhaps more cases of insanity due to drink than to all other caiises combined. Now the liquor must have the same effect on every brain in propor-tion to the amount used and the strength of that organ for re-sisting, so no one can indulge in alcoholic beverages without im-paring his mind, and he must of necessity hinder his own men-tal progress. Smoking and drinking interfere most effectively with intel-lectual progress, and the man who wishes to always have a clear brain and do rational thinking to a point of supermacy must ab-stain from these indulgences. SPAIN'S CRIME. EARL S. RUDISILIi, '12. IING ALFONSO of Spain, in ten minutes rendered fruitless his country's ten-year diplomatic struggle for a place among the world powers when he permitted the execution of Professor Francisco Ferrer. Investiga-tions have shown that Ferrer was entirely innocent of the charge laid at his door and even if this had not been proven, the con-demnation of such a scholar against the will of all Europe, could not but reflect on the intelligence of the Spanish Government and impair its influence with the other powers. Professor Ferrer was a man of courage and great principles, a firm believer in democracy and the founder of the "Modern Schools" in Spain. It was his manly courage that spoke forth when he uttered his last words, "Aim straight; long live the Modern Schools." His democratic spirit was the indirect cause of his execution, for it was on account of this spirit that he was suspected of partaking in the outbreaks in Cataloma and Barce- THE MERCURY. lona. As the founder of schools, lie rendered the same service to Spain which our Thaddeus Stevens rendered to Pennsylva-nia and in both instances was it done in spite of strong opposi-tion. During the last decade Spain has been regaining much of the importance and influence which she seemed to have lost. Since she has been without colonial possessions she has been conserv-ing her resources for domestic improvements and great things have been accomplished. Railroads have been built, agriculture has become more important, commerce has increased and Span-ish influence at court has been doubled. Her relations with ■neighboring nations have become closer. The marriage of the king to the English Victoria has drawn England and Spain closer than ever while France also has become more closely con-nected with her. All this has taken place since the war with the United States and that conflict was largely responsible for it. Even Alfonso himself, has declared that the war was a blessing in disguise. ISTow in the midst of prosperity and improvement Spain has blighted her progress by a self-inflicted wound, and greatly im-paired her increasing prestige among the powers. Instead of friendly greetings she has received from all the world condemna-tion, and King Alfonso, who signed the death Avarrant, by shift-ing the blame on to his prime minister, caused the resignation of the entire cabinet. The government was demoralized. However, the king has appointed a new cabinet with Senor Moret at its head and it will act with a conciliatory policy but it cannot bring back to life the martyr.ed Ferrer, nor can it re-store the moral order of things so soon as it was broken. It will be an uphill struggle and one not soon over, for such a gross de-fiance of moral law will not soon be forgotten. May the future of Spain profit by the past. 26 THE MERCURY. THE POSSIBILITIES FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN GETTYSBURG. HARVEY S. HOSHOUR, "10. E it located where it may, there is no town in America which has been so honored and so revered, as Gettys-burg. This little village among the hills is known the world over. To the foreigner it is the scene of one of the world's most decisive battles; to the American it marks the turning point of the struggle which meant national life to our country; to the Gettysburg man it means all this and more. Four years' sojourn at Gettysburg cannot but add with a peculiar emphasis to our appreciation of the last full measure of devo-tion of those who fought here. But for us there is more than even this. Surrounded by the battlefield at the outskirts of town there is a little college which to every Gettysburg student is one of the dearest places on earth. This is our Alma Mater. It is a small college but there are those who love it. There is a certain atmosphere pervading the place, which seems to have taken the best from the ordinary college town life and happily blended it with the historical halo which surrounds all fields of battle. So far as the town is concerned there seem to be but few chances for improvements. It is not that the place is perfect, but it seems to me that development has already been made along the proper lines and that any departure from them in prin-ciple, would be detrimental. For example, the plan has been to make Gettysburg a residential place and not an industrial com-munity. Development along these lines is the thing needed, not any change in them. It may seem old-fashioned to argue in this strain and the objection would be justified in many places, but for Gettysburg there is a difference. Gettysburg may live behind the times of the modern factory community, but we live, not merely subsist, as is done in many such localities. To me it seems that residential growth is to be encouraged, the old tradi-tions preserved, and factory development discouraged, if Get-tysburg is to be really improved as a town. THE JIEKCUKY. 27 As a college the conditions are somewhat different. There are many radical improvements needed which do not seem to me to be a detriment to the spirit in which the institution has been fostered. The new science hall, the Y. M. C. A. building, the new gymnasium, and the newly arranged curriculum are all needed improvements. A better arrangement of the dormitory life should be attempted. The experience of other colleges seem to justify the efficacy of allowing the various fraternities to pro-vide their own sleeping departments. If this is not done, a new dormitory should be erected in the near future. While improvements in the college curriculum are strongly urged, a departure from the old classical standards is far from being desired. Gettysburg is first of all a school of classical traditions, which are too dear to every alumnus and undergradu-ate, to be discarded. We urge the addition of new courses, but not the abandonment of the old ones. This may seem to be an argument in favor of the life which lives behind the times and to a certain extent it is. Our traditions are dear to us and they last with a tenacity which only such a place as Gettysburg could develop. Every college man lores his Alma Mater, if he is worthy of her name, but the Gettysburg man has something more than this. With four years of such life as we live here, one forms a fabric-work of dreams so to speak, which, if it break or be shattered, was only an influence for good, and which if it lasts through one's lifetime is bound to be an acting force in every man's life. T^ ERCURV Entered fit the I'ostoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1909 No. 7 Editor in-Chief SAMUEL FAUSOLD, 'IO. Exchange Editor G. E. BOWERSOX, 'io Business Manager PAUL S. MILLER, 'IO Ass't Bus. Managers C. M. ALLABACH, 'II S. T. BAKER, 'II Assistant Editor RALPH E. RUDISILL, 'IO Associate Editors E. J. BOWMAN, 'II C. M. DAVIS, 'II Advisory Board PROF. G. F. SANDERS, A. M. PROF. P. M. BIKXE, FH. D. PROF. C. J. GRIMM, Pit. D. Published each month, from October to June-inclusive, by the joint literary Societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be ac-companied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. OF tilings worth while, we often consider whether it is worth the time and money for women to re-ceive a college education. When we glance at the Greeks, we find it was the disgrace and finally the ruin of their civilization that their wives were uneducated. There vir-tue and ignorance, vice and culture were hand in hand, but America has always been distinguished for judgment and justice accorded THE MERCURY. 29 to the gentler sex. Although there is great antagonism as to the co-ed idea, yet we, being thrust into the environment of them and seeing their scholarship and influence, are convinced of their ability to successfully compete with their brothers in every field of study and research. The alumni of our colleges are seeing to it that their hoys are being educated and are urging them to work for greater college facilities. It is such spirit that has created such female institutions as Barnard, Wellesley, Smith and Vassar. Glancingatthe co-ed educational training at Cornell as to their effect on young men, we find that they have cultivated the best traits and most chivalric characteristics of manhood. Their am-bition and success have stimulated every department of college and university to a more earnest effort and higher ideal. Ignorance is no longer an excuse for keeping others ignorant, and to-day college education fits the female for the field which needs her labor, and the world is made richer for her skill and fidelity and better, too, for the independence, that we can do nothing better but quote the words of Pope: "Tis education forms the common mind, Just as the twig is bent, the tree inclined." THE TRUE To-day we hear much concerning the meeaninar PERSPEC- ° TIVE. of that modest word, "success." What constitutes success? It all depends upon the viewpoint, upon the perspec-tive. Hence at one glance, we obtain a realizing sense of the im-portance of perspective. No two persons have the same perspec-tive. The educational and hereditary traits are different for each of us. Hence our perspectives are affected differently. We all see tilings through glasses more or less colored by prejudice and bias. Although our perspectives are very different, they are not necessarily wrong. The farmer boy from Illinois will have an entirely different perspective from the son of a New York millionaire, and yet the two perspectives may be legitimate in every sense. But, that these young men should have the true perspectives of life, they must have a true sense of values. 30 THE MERCURY. It is the same with us all. We must spend a great part of out-lives in attaining the right perspective. The success of one's college career depends largely upon his sense of values. Shall the college student bend his energies in one direction or shall he aim at becoming the "all around man?" Shall he be a recluse, neglecting the social life entirely? Shall he be a social butter-fly, without intellectual ambitions? Shall he strike a happy medium between these extremes? The college student who thinks of nothing but football is a pitiable spectacle. That student is narrow—narrow in every sense, and yet the student who cannot enjoy a lively energetic football game is also to be pitied. The true perspective of life as the world sees it is to work hard, play hard, and at the same time to practice the simple life. This is the aim of the small college—to give one the right per-spective ; to give him lofty ideals, and to place in his hands the means of attaining them. Let us, therefore, second the college in her efforts: let us learn what is worth while and then go after it. GOOD The contention as to what constitutes good reading READING, is an old one. The idea that "No book is so bad but that there is some good in it," has few ardent supporters to-day. There may be something of value in every book but too often that thing of value is neutralized by the baneful. Tell me, good reader, how much of good there is in a novel such as that one en-titled, "A Woman's Temptation," by Bertha Clay. To see a col-lege man read such a book would be ludicrous, were it not that the waste of profitable time has a serious side to it. We admit that the so-called light reading may sometimes be justifiable as a temporary diversion, but let that light reading be from the more admirable writers. Why not read something from Washington Irving, Dickens, or even Jules Vernes in pref-erence to the silly, contemptible, sensational novels which flood our country. To possess a taste for really good literature is a mark of cul-ture, and true appreciation of the masters of our language is not ___^^__ THE MERCURY. 31 attained by the perusal of second-rate productions. No college man can afford to be lacking in intimacy with such men as Mil-ton, Shakespeare, Burns, Emerson and all the others who form that brilliant galaxy of pensmen that has given imperishable fame to the English language. j* EXCHANGES. IHE November exchanges are especially attractive, many being special Thanksgiving numbers, and containing essays and poems suitable to the great national holiday. We notice in reading the various papers that much of the material is contributed by alumni of the various schools. In some instances the entire literary section of the papers are given to alumni productions. What does this indicate ? In one respect it shows a healthy alumni spirit which is indeed com-mendable and in many respects desired. But on the other hand it displays a lack of literary interest on the part of the present generation of students or a disposition on the part of some edi-tors to sacrifice the best interests of their fellow-students in order to fill the magazine with articles having a higher degree of polish. After all the college paper is primarily the students' pa-per, and when it once loses the interest caused by the personal touch given by student articles, its time of service to the college community is ended. We must therefore conclude that when-ever possible literary departments should be filled with good, live articles by those in direct touch with the college life. The literary department of "The Western Maryland College Monthly" is again well filled with interesting articles, the ora-tion, "The Submerged Truth," deals in a broad and clear man-ner with the great problem of the poor in our industrial divi-sions. "The American Home" pictures in a pleasing style, and with patriotic light this greatest of American institutions. "How They Changed Their minds," and "The Eeturn of the Wan-derer" are hardly equal to the usual standard of short stories found in your magazine. We consider "The Haverfordian" as among the best exchanges we receive. Its literary tone and pleasing style are necessary 32 THE MERCURY. characteristics of a good college paper. The numerous short poems always found in its pages, shows that the love and appre-ciation of poetry still exists at Haverford. "The Albright Bulletin" contains some literary productions of high order. Its leading article, "Beacon Lights of American Poetry," is of high merit. Its author pays a glowing tribute to the world-honored Bryant. Yet we believe too much praise can-not be given a poet, who has painted pictures such as has Bryant, or who has moralized as he has in his immortal "Thanatopsis." The mild and gentle Longfellow is fairly dealt with. Oft times we are inclined to think slightingly of Longfellow because he lacks that profundity of thought found in Bryant, Lowell, and Emerson, but we must never forget that "his life and work stand as a true poem." In the article, "A Crisis in Great Britain," a powerful argument in favor of our protective system is pre-sented. A GLIMPSE OF MOONLIGHT. The moon comes up with sudden light, And each star fades to a distant spark, And from the valleys, the gloom of night, And from the hills the dark. The mountains slumber against the skies, And fade in the distance far away- Arid the wind weaves beaiitiful mysteries On the mist where the moonbeams play. And far away, in the moonlight fair, Runs the thread of a silver stream; And (lie white mists float on the soft night air, As tin angel floats through dream. —From the •'•'Southern Collegian." PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. I"N this Drama of Four Year's Course, Play your part without dad's horse ; This to do is up to you With just a little tact between each yearly act, In some domain take a stroll And sell ALUMINUM for next year's Me (roll). Every summer Uuudreds of students make BIG MONEY selliug Aluminum Cooking Uteusils. For particulars address LOUIS HETZEL, Gettysburg College, GETTYSBURG, PA. THE STEWART & STEEN CO., COLLEGE ENGRAVERS, 1024 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA. MAKERS OF INVITATIONS, PROGBAMS, MENUS, VISITING CARDS, DANCE CARDS, MONOGRAMS, CLASS AND FRATERNITY STATIONERY. P. S. MILLER, 'to, Representative, Who has a full line of samples. (%;< 1 HI The times an ! the Schools demand that the best things shall be done and in the best manner. gai ±l\ accomplishes everything- that can be required of a good writing- in-strument. Made to last for years oJ service and give its owner the satisfaction which comes with owning "the best." From a31 dealers. TSie Globe trademark is our guarantee citco. 1.76 St. J«i 1 St., Monlrenl 12 I . I.0.I.1.' CRU- da Hi PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FU^NTTl/fp Mattresses, Sed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. H. B. BENDER. 37 Baltimore Street, Gettysburg, Pa. EDGAR C. TAWNEY BAKER West Middle Street. J. B. WINEMAN, DEALER IN CHOICE FAMILY GROCERIES, PROVISIONS AND FRUITS, BOARDING CLUBS A SPECIALTY. L, WEIGAND, DEALER IN FRESH AND CURED MEATS OF ALL KINDS-Boarding Clubs a Specialty. Soul's f^estaupcmt, Ice (sPeaEQ. aiyiC (^uicl^ ISIAI^CII, No. 7 Chambersburg Street. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EMIL ZOTHE, College Emblems, Engraver, Designer and Manufacturing Jeweler, 722 Chestnut St., Phildelphia. Specialti es: Masonic Marks, Society Badgs, College Buttons, Pi ns, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Atletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through E. J. Bowman. Charles S. Mumper, DEALS FURNITURE, DEALER IN PICTURE FRAMES OF ALL SORTS REPAIR WORK DONE PROMPTLY I will also BUY or EXCHANGE any SECOND-HAND FURNITURE No. 4 Charnbersburg street, Gettysburg, Pa. CULP'S RESTAURANT, First National Bank Bld'g. The place to eat the best Ice Cream. QUICK LUNCH and Oysters in season. D. J. Swartz, DEALER IN COUNTRY PRODUCE, GROCERIES, CIGARS AND TOBACCO. GETTYSBURG. —IS— J. I MUMPER Your Photographer, If not, why not? 41 Baltimore St., Gettysburg. FLEMMING X BAIR'S LIVERY, Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg, Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arrange-ments by telegram or letter. Lock Bock 257. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. WINDSOR HOTEL, Midway between Broad St. Station and Reading Terminal on Filbert St. American Plan $2.50 per day- European Plan $1.00 per day The only moderate prieed hotel of reputation and consequence in PHILADELPHIA. The Modern Steam Laundry . . OF YORK . . Offers the COLLEGE STUDENTS first-class work at Special L,ow Prices. E. C. STOUFPER, Local Agt. C. D. SMITH, Prop. The Baltimore Medical College Preliminary Fall Course begins September ist. Regular Winter Course begins September 20th. Liberal teaching facilities ; Modern college buildings ; Comfortable lecture hall and amphitheatres ; Large and complete equipped laboratories; Capacious hospital and dispensary; Lying-in department for teaching clinical obstetrics ; Large clinics. Send for catalogue. Address DAVID STREETT, M. D., Dean, N. E. Cor. Madison St., and Linden Ave., Baltimore, Md. COMPILER IMPRINT ON JOB WORI MEANS TASTY WORK CAREFULLY LONE. MENU CARDS WINDOW POSTERS LETTER HEADS ENVELOPES DANCE CARDS TICKETS Programs of all kinds. Everything the College Man wants in lJaper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper done in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. Catalog and Book work. The Cettysbuig Compiler will keep old and new students in touch with town and college life.