In July 2013, the World Bank Group launched its Strategy, outlining how it will partner more effectively with clients to help them achieve the ambitious goals of eradicating extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity through economic growth, inclusion, sustainability and resilience. In April 2014, the World Bank Group Corporate Scorecard was launched for the first time and the World Bank Scorecard revised to monitor the implementation of the strategy. The World Bank Group Scorecard provides view of the results and performance indicators of the three World Bank Group institutions: the World Bank (WB), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). This brochure presents the scorecards, updated with the latest data available in fiscal year 2015. The scorecards are structured in three tiers. A tier one and two presents indicators monitoring aspects of growth, inclusiveness, and sustainability and resilience. Tier three captures the progress in implementing the World Bank Group strategy and includes measures of both operational and organizational effectiveness.
Issue 8.5 of the Review for Religious, 1949. ; .-~ - -SEPTEMBER P~qcjress ~hroucjh Thankscji~.in~ d~m onsecrat=on to ar . -. -. . ,~ Robe~Li opp _ Books as SpirituDairl~ cfors_ . J.H. Dunn R i::VI i::W -!:::0 R I::: E I G IO US VOLUME VIII . SEPTEMBER, 1949. NUMBER CONTENTS SPIRITUAL PROGRESS THROUGH, ACTIVE THANKSGIVING -" Ciarence McAuliffe.'S.3 . " . . : 225, REPORT TO ROME--Adam C. Ellis. S.d~ . VOCATIONAL LITERATU"'~ ~R -E .~.,". . -: . ! 240 ADM~ISSION OF ORIENTALS INTO LATIN INSTITUTES " " doseph ~.~Gallen, S.d. ; . 241 ~O,TAL CONSECRATION TO MARY BY ~OW-- Robert L/. Knopp. S.M . ~ 254 BOOKS AS SPIRITUAL DII~.ECTORS--d. COMI~IUN I C A T I O N S " ~\ . ~., . ¯ . 268 QUESTIONS ANb ANSWERS-- 35. "Toties quoties" Indulgence in Convent Chapel . '~ . 270 36. Recdption and Profession on Same Caldndar Day ,. ." . . 2-71 ~-37. Safeguarding Secrecy of, Elections . ~ . * . -. .~ 271 "38.Changes in.Prayers and "Legal Articles" of Consutut~ons . "~. . 272 39. Right to Say Funeral Mass of Sister . ~BOOK ~ 'REVIEWS-- The Little Office of the 'Blessed Virgin: The Veil. Upon the Heart: ;., De La Safle. a Pi6neer of Modern Education' . BOOK NOTICES . : ¯ . ~'. . 277 'BOOK ANNOUNCE~MENTS .¯.' . ~ . 278 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September, 194'9, Vol.' VIII, No. 5. P.ublished bi-monthly : 3~nuary. March, May, July, September, and No,cember at ~thd College PresL 606 Harrison Street, Topekdi, Kansas. by St. Mary'sCotle.ge, St.-Marys0 Kansas," wi.th,ecclesiastical approbation.~ Entered as second ~:lass matter danu~.ry 15, 1942. at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas. under theact of March'3"~1879. " ~Editorial Board: Adam C.°E!I~is._S.J. G. Augustine Ellard. S.d. Gerald Kelly. S.J. Editorial Secretary: A~fred F. Schneider, S.d, CoPyright, 1949, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission ii~hereby granted40~ quota~io~ns of reasonable-length/ provided due credit be given~ this review': and the author. Si~bs,cription price: 2 dollars a y~ear~ ~ : Printed in U. $~ A. Before wrltincJ to us, please consult notice on 'inside b~ck cover . Spiri :ual Progress Through Active Thanksgiving ~ Clarence McAuliffe, S.J. THAT a spirit of thanksgiving is one of. the basic threads in the '| fabric of Christian virtues is clear.'from various theological sources, but especially from the let!;~rs of St. Paul. In thirty-five different ~exts the Apostle of the Gen files either expresses thanks to God for persohal favors received or urg, for benefits to themselves. He asks the "What hast thou that thou hast not re received, why dost thou glory as if thou admonishes the Colossians (Col. 3:15.) : rejoice in your hearts, wherein also you "be ye thankful." To the Ephesians he tion (Eph. 5:20): "Giving thanks ah name of our Lord ,Iesus Christ, to God th ~'s his readers to thank God '.orinthians (I Cor. 4:7) : rived? And if thou hast hadst not received?" He iAnd let the peace of Christ e called in one body: and aakes a sweeping exhorta-ays for all things, in the Father." Undoubtedly priests and religious do harbor in their souls an abiding spirit of gratitude to God. Moreover, they do not allow this virtue to remain in a purely passive condition, since they are ca'lied upon to exercise it every day. They make a thanksgiving after Holy Communion; another, after meals. They begin their examinations of conscience with an act of thanks. At every Mass they express their gra'titude to God, since gratitude is one of the four purposes that are infallibly achieved by every unbloody immolation of the Savior. Granted, then, that religious and priests d,o make certain acts of thanksgiving, even though they may be dulled by that common ene-my routine, it would, nevertheless, be conducive to spiritual advance-ment if those consecrated to God were more actively thankful. A few considerations may show why this is true and provide inspira-tion for its accomplishment. Even natural gratitude is a winning virtue, and we find its exer-cise praised and inculcated even bY pagans. Mothers are rare who do not, instruct their children to say "Thank you." How.ever, the gratitude with which we are concerned is supernatural. It is based on faith; it is activated by co-operation with actual grace, and it merits an eternal supernatural reward if the conditions for merit are veri-fied. But it-~does not conflict with natural gratitude. In fact, its 225 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Reoiew for Religious psychological effects and its outward manifestations will be very much the same, and this truth should be borne in mind. Yet it is radically and intrinsically superior to natural gratitude because it can be obtained and exercised only by God's helping hand, and it leads to a reward far transcending the natural capacities of man. The thanksgiving of which we speak, therefore, is a super-natural virtue that inclines us to acknowledge and recompense the gifts that come to us from God or from another person under God. The virtue becomes alive when we say prayers or perform acts. that are motivated by the virtue. It is true, of course, that this virtue is not as lofty in dignity as the virtue of perfect love of God. Since, however, .it is easier for the average religious to act from a spirit of thanksgiving than from perfect love, and since the exercise of thanks-giving is an open door to perfect love, this virtue is worth culti-vating for its own sake. By making acts of thanksgiving to God, we practice a form of the more general virtue of religion. When we make such acts to parents or other superiors under God, we exercise one species of the virtue of piety. If we render thanks to our equals, we exercise one aspect of the virtue of justice. It is worth remem-bering that when we give thanks to superiors or equals for their favors, we can nevertheless exercise the supernatural virtue of grati-tude. ¯ We thank God by thanking them because we know by faith that they themselves are gifts of God to us. In order to realize more vividly how the exercise of supernatural gratitude can promote spiritual progress, it might be well to rdflect briefly on the energizing effects of merely natural gratitude. Suppose we recall some definite occasion in the past when we were briskly stirred by the emotion of thanksgiving. At one time or another we may have been thoroughly mean and .cross-grained "towards someone who had a full right to our love. : If that person was a parent.or teacher or superior, he might have rightfully punished us for our meanness. But he did not. He passed it over, never mentioned it, treated us as though we had done nothing wrong. Gratitudh surged up spontaneously in our souls." Or we might remind ourselves of that occasion when death visited our home and we were consoled by the visits and condolences of so many people. We were stirred by an active gratitude to them." Or, if we have not had such experi-ences, we might remember any other: the time that the doctor or a neighbor, at great personal inconvenience, lent us assistance when we needed it badly; some occasion.such as Christmas or graduation, 226 8epternber, I ~4~ PROGRESS THROUGH THANKSGIVING when parents and friends showered us with gifts. All of us have had these or other experiences in our lives when our natural gratitude was stimulated to a high peak of activity. Having recalled some such occasion from the past, we need not make any profound study of psychology to recall also the natural concomitants of that active spirit of thanksgiving. In the first place. we certainly looed our benefactor or benefactors. They had been good to us, and we by a praiseworthy natural reaction wished good to them. We resolved never to forget their kindness. We would be loyal to them and they would be the objects of our praise, never ot~ our blame. Secondly, the gratitude we felt prompted us to refrain from criticism not only of our benefactors, but of others als0. It even prompted us to disregard various circumstances that chafed us in one way or another. It made us satisfied with our lot. Thirdly, ,are were conscious of a spirit of humility. We realized that we had been treated far better than we deserved, and this realization put us in proper focus towards God and all men. Fourthly, we found that our active gratitude enkindled a special reverence towards our bene-factors. Fifthly, we were drawn out of ourselves and were inspired to do,good to others, even to those to whom we were in no way obligated. Finally, we recall that. on these occasions of animated thanksgiving our,souls expanded with joy. The whole world took on a different hue, and our hearts beat faster. A mere superficial glance at the psychological effects of a living thanksgiving reveals the truth of all this, and, be it remarked again, the manifestations of supernatural gratitude will be substantially the same as those of the natural virtue. .If, then, at diverse times in our lives we were so thankful for single gifts bestowed upon us by mere human benefactors, what should be the extent of our active gratitude to God? The degree of gratitude due a donor is measured partially by the number and kind of gifts received. And is it not a fact that we owe every single thing we have or ever will have to the munificence of Almighty God? In the purely natural sphere, my very presence in this world as a living person, drawn from the chasm of utter nothingness, is the result of God's generosity. It is the sustaining hand of God that keeps my soul and body united at every instant. I oannot even take a breath or blink an eye without His help. Every talent of my soul, every power of my body is a present with God's name written on it. My friends, my country, all the circumstances of my past, present, 227 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Reoiew /'or Religious and future life are so many tokens of God's liberality. Even the physical and mental sufferings that come to me are His benefits and will redound to my good if I use them properly. Moral perversity is the only (hing that I can claim as my own. All this we know by our faith; we know it even by reason; but it has a hard time holding its footing on the slippery foreground of our consciousness. Moreover, these natural gifts are mere shadows when compared with the supernatural favors God has bestowed upon us. Our Catholic faith, our priestly or religious vocations are the result of God's thoughtfulness and labor. We have but a misty notion of sanctifying grace, but we know that it is in some ineffable manner a sharing in God's own nature. Besides, not an hour of the day goes by but God manifests His personal concern for each of us by enlight-ening our minds and fortifying our wills with His actual graces. Again, the sacraments are so many rivers flowing down from the cross on Calvary to irrigate the world with both sanctifying and actual graces. Indulgences, sacramentals, intellectual guidance, spir-itual consolations are but gifts of God delivered to us by the Cath-olic Churdh. Our dignity surpasses powerful monarch because we are the Ghost and the adopted children of liberality;. It is also worth remembering that, are conferred upon all or many men that of the world's most living temples of the Holy God Himself through His though some of God's gifts equally, most of them are decidedly individualistic, earmarked for me personally either by their very. nature or by the manner in which they are presented. For instance, the providence which God exercises towards me differs from that which He exercises' towards anyone else. I had fny own distinctive parents. I have my own distinctive qualities of body and soul, and my 9wn special circumstances of life. The touches of God upon my mind and heart by actual grace are adapted to my special needs and are tinged with His thoughtfulness of me personally. God worked out my vocation by a series of external circumstances and internal helps that were verified in no other case. Only in heaven will I realize the vast number of gifts that God addressed to me personally, but a little reflection will reveal some of them even now. This reflection will be time well spent since it will sharpen my active spirit of thanksgiving. So much f6r the number and kind of God's gifts. We are literally walking bundles of God's benefits. It should fill us with 228 September, 1949 PROGRESS THROUGH THANKSGIVING humility to realize that at times we are so briskly grateful to some human benefactor for a single favor whereas we are s.o sluggish in expressing our appreciation to God, the "Source of all blessings." However, gratitude should be m'easured not only by the number and kind of gifts received but also by the nobility of the giver. On this score also our thanksgiving to God should be intensified. Other things being in balance, we appreciate more a present from a superior than one from an equal. The modern craze for autographs rests upon this principle. We are not personal acquaintances of either the Holy Father or his secretary, but we would value more a rosary sent us by the Holy Father than we would the same rosary given us by his secretary. If, then, on various occasions we have been impelled to active gratitude because some other person has been generous towards us, what should be our active gratitude to God, the Lord and Ruler of the universe and the Father of us all? One other factor enters into the degree of gratitude that we owe another. It is the intention of the giver. The greater the love of the donor, the'more heartfelt should be our appreciation for his gifts. "The gift without the giver is bare." The nobleman who tosses his unfeeling coin to the'beggar at the castle's portal is a benefactor, but not a lover. He deserves thanks; but not very much, because he does not give himself in his gift. His coin, no matter how precious, does not symbolize any self-giving. So necessary is this disposition of love on the part of the giver, that a present bestowed out of unal-loyed selfishness, for instance, solely to obtain some favor from the recipient, really merits no thanks at all. It would probably be correct to say that those people who by their kindness really activated our natural gratitude in the past were motivated by a personal regard for us, a love more or less intense. But even so, their love cannot compare with God's when He com-municates His gifts to us. God is never ~imply a benefactor. He is always the supreme lover, and this spiritual truth is manifested strikingly in some of His gifts. Consider, for example, the gift of sanctifying grace. By it we are in some mysterious way made "sharers in the divine nature." It is the seed of the future flower of the beatific vision wherein we shall one day be enabled to perform in a finite way acts of knowledge and love that properly belong to God alone. No creature by its natural powers could ever behold God intuitively and experience the ineffable love and joy that follow upon that knowledge. In short, sanctifying grace is not only a symbol of 229 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Ret~ietO for Religious God's desire to give Himself, but it is an actual giving of Himself in as far as it is possible for Him to do so. It is evident that God could not possib!y assimilate us into His divinity. " The result would be paiatheism, Which would conflict with His infinite perfection. But by sanctifying grace He has conferred upon us powers that truly resemble His own. Again, this effort of God to give Himself to us as far as possible is revealed by His constant bestowal of" actual graces. These are outright gifts. By them God Himself stimulates our minds and wills. He illuminates our minds by endowing them with a bit of His own divine wisdom, and He spurs on our wills to do good by communicating to them a mite of His own power. If a blood donor saves our life, we are deeply.grateful. He has truly given up a part of himself. God is constantly renewing our spiritual forces by transmitting to us through actual graces tiny sparks of His own knowledge and might. Moreover, these visitations of God are frequent. They come many times every single day. They are directed to our welfare. They benefit only ourselves,.not God. No self-seeking mars God's activity in our souls. These graces are tokens of a perfect love that seeks only the good of the beloved, and by these graces we see with God's own light and we act with God's own power. Finally, we note God's loving intentions towards us in His gift of the Blessed Sacrament. By this marvel of God's omnipotence Our Lord becomes corporeally present, not merely in one place but in thousands throughout the world. He does not walk about now in His visible body to visit us in our homes, but He remains on the altar in an invisible manner so that we can walk to Him and con-verse with Him. Furthermore, not only has He blessed us with this gift of His abiding presence, but He comes to us daily in Hol'~" Communion, a tangible proof that He is not just a benefactor but an ardent lover. He literally gives us Himself for a short time every day in a union that transcends any possible union between mere human beings. Holy Communion, then, together with sanctifying grace and actual grace lends us some tiny ins.igbt into the flaming love that inspires God in all of His gifts to us. On all scores, therefore, we should be more actively grateful to God than to any human benefactor. We are indebted to God not for one gift or a thousand, but literally for everything. .Even the gifts of other people to us are in reality God's gifts. He is the 230 September, 1949 PROGRESS THROUGH THANKSGIVING ultimate source of all our blessings. Moreover, in dignity God the Giver excels infinitely all human donors. Then too, no human benefactor can possibly be motivated by the unbounded love of God as this is manifested particularly by His gifts of grace and the Blessed Sacrament. Yet despite all this we are at times deeply moved to gratitude by one trifling gift from another person, whereas our grati-tude to God remains ineit and lifeless. No doubt one reason for our lethargy arises from the fact that God does not visibly appear when He confers His gifts. We are so tied to our sense perceptions that our emotion of gratitude does not spontaneously react when we cannot sensibly perceive the donor. To counter this difficulty we should vivify our faith, since we know b.v faith (and also by reason) that God as a matter of fact does give us everything we have. A good reason for our failure to be more actively grateful springs from a selfish trait or quirk in human nature. When we recei~'e many gifts from another, our spirit of thanksgiving instead of waxing tends to wane. We tire of saying "Thank you." We begin to take favors for granted, or we even begin to look upon them as our right. We all know this from per-sonal experience, but we also realize that we should fight against this natural tendency not only in regard to God but also in regard to our human benefactors. Suppose, then, that by God's help we do manage to weave into our souls a rhore active spirit of thank, sgiving to Him. What bene-fits will accrue to our spiritual lives? To answer this we need only recall the benefits deriving from an active natural gratitude. First, an active supernatural gratitude will lead us to more intense love for God. In fact, such gratitude is one of the avenues that leads directlx." to perfect love for God, as all spiritual writers admit. Secondly, this energetic gratitude inspires us with humility towards God and towards our fellow meri. Realizing that we have been given so much despite the fact that we deserve absolutely nothing, we descend to our proper level with reference to God 'and our neighbor. Thirdly, such living gratitude, represses grumbling and criticism. The truly grateful man does not complain. He does not have his adverse com-ments to offer about every new regulation of his superior. He does not make the round of the community spreading cheap gossip about others. He is too grateful. This effect of gratitude is expressed by the poet, ,Josephine Pollard, in her poem "Grumble Corner": 231 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Ret~iew got Religious And man a discontented mourner, Is spending his da~ls in Grumble Corner: Sour and sad, whom I long to entreat, To take'a house in Tbanks-gi~ing Street. Fourthly, this energetic spirit of thanksgiving will give us the right perspective on the circumstances that enter our lives. We will evaluate them correctly. We will not allow our minds to focus attention on minor irritations which, if unchecked, may upset our peace of soul for days at a time. The grateful recollection of the uninterrupted series of benefits flowing to us every minute from God's liberality will reduce such irritations to their right size.and keep our minds in proper balance. Fifthly, this vigorous gratitude to God will not permit us to forget our fellow men. It will impel us to do favors for others, and it will guarantee that these favors will be supernaturally motivated. Sixthly, just as the expression of natural gratitude wins more gifts from a benefactor, so an active supernatural gratitude brings down more favors from God, especially by augmenting the flow of His actual graces. ¯Lastly, and very important, this brisk spirit of gratitude, just like its natural counter-part, fills the soul ~vih joy. The grateful man is always happy, and this atmosphere of happiness, correctly understood, is indispensable for spiritual progress. Since God is the ultimate giver of all things, we purposely emphasize the value of active gratitude to Him. However, the exer-cise of this virtue towards Him does not exclude the propriety of 'exercising it also towards our fellow men. In fact, it would be spiritually profitable for us to say "Thank you" to others much more often than we do, always remembering that we are really thanking God even when we address our thanks to others. Various people contribute to our welfare every day by their services for our spiritual, intellectual, social, and bodily needs. These benefactors should be thanked, at least on occasion. It would be detrimental to spirituai progress for a priest or religious to adopt the viewpoint either explicitly or implicitly that those who provide these services ¯ are merely doing their job. True enough, such benefactors may have an obligation in conscience to perform some duty for us, and in some cases we may have a right to their service. But it would be profitable to remember that even the rights we have are gifts of God to us and that-all those, therefore, who minister to u~ in any way deserve our thanks. Among those who merit special and lasting thanks are 232 September, 1949 PROGRESS THROUGH THANKSGIVING superiors since they more than others supply our spiritual, intellec-tual, and temporal wants. ~ Just as with all other virtues, if we wish to develop our spirit of thanksgiving, we must practice it. This means a fight against our natural inclinati6ns. By nature we take favors for granl~ed. Even the child, model of sanctity in a general way, has to be taught to express gratitude. In order to exercise this virtue more energetically we might, then, make it the subject of our particulaz examination of conscience. It would be helpful, too, since we are dealing with a supernatural virtue whose exercise depends on the grace of God, to pray often for a gradual increase of our active thanksgiving. Finally, we may make progress in this matter by pr~ayerful reflection on the fact that God is our loving Father. Father Faber in All for Jesus has a lengthy chapter on thanksgiving, and he attributes our lack of spirit in the practice of this virtue 'mainly to our failure to reflec( prayerfully on the truth that God is our Father. To conclude, we are aware that many motives urge us to advance in our exercise of thanksgiving. We know that God wants it, because we have read some of His words as contained in the writings of St. Paul. We know, too, the gospel story of the ten lepers in wbich Our Lord expressed His disappointment when only one returned to say "Thank you." We know also that the Church wants more gratitude to God. In her prayers during Mass she says in the Gloria: "'Gratias agimus tibi'" (We give thanks to Thee) ; in the verses before the Prefac,e she prays: "'Gratias agamus Domino Deo nostro'" (Let us thank God our Lord) ; and in the beginning of the Common Preface she sings: "'Vere dignum et justum est, aequum et salutare, nos Tibi semper et ubique gratias agere". (It is truly right and just, proper and salutary for us to thank You at all times and in all places). It is possible that we are urged to be grateful to God even by the rules of our order. St. Ignatius lays it down in his constitutions that his fol-lowers should "thank God in all things." Even reason tells us that we can never thank God enough. Prudence, of course, must regulate this virtue as it regulates all others, but most of us will probabl'! admit that we have not gone to excess in the exercise of thanksgiving. If there has been any imprudence, it has been in the dullness of our spirit of gratitude. The removal of that dullness will contribute substantially to our spiritual progress. 233 Report: !:o Rome Adam C. Ellis; S.J. "Introduction AS EARLY AS 1861 we find a clause put into the constitutions of congregations of religious women approved by the Holy See (Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars) pre-scribing that the superior general must send in an occasional report to the Sacred Congregation. For example, in the Constitutions Of the Sisters of Nazareth of Chalon (September 27, 1861) the obli-gation was worded as follows: "The superior general is bound every three years to send to this Sacred Congregation a report on the condition of her own institute. This report must cover both the material and personal condition, that is, the number of houses and of the Sisters in the institute and their disciplinary condition, namely, the observance of the constitu-tions, as well as whatever pertains to the economic administration.'" Gradually some such paragraph became a regular part 'of all constitutions approved by the Holy See. When the Normae were established in 1901, Article 262 covered this point: "Every three years the superior general shall give a report to this Sacred Congregation regarding the disciplinary, material, personal, and economic condition of her institute. The ordinary of the place where the mother house is located will certify this report by signing it." Left to th'emselves, superiors general of congregations app'roved by the Holy See wrote their reports on the four salient points as best they could. Sometimes minor matters were stressed and written up at great length while more important matters were either merely mentioned briefly or omitted altogether. As a result, in order to pro-cure uniformity and to be sure to get all the essential information desired in these reports, the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars issued an instruction on July 16, 1906, regarding this tri-ennial report and added a list of 98 questions to be answered. In 1917 the Code of Canon Law extended the obligation of sending a report to the Holy See to "the abbot primate, the superior of every monastic congregation, and the superior general of every 234 REPORT TO ROME institute approved by the Holy See" (canon 510) but made the concession that the report need be sent only every five years unless the constitutions prescribed that it be sent more frequently. With the increase in the number of reports sent to the Sacred Congregation by all institutes approved by the Holy See, the work of the Sacred Congregation became greatly involved. Hence it was not surprising that it issued a new instruction (February 23, 1922, approved by Pope Pius XI on March 8th) in which it divided all institutions into five sections--religious men according to the nature of their institutes, religious women according to their geogral3hicat location--Leach section being assigned a definite year in which to send in its report. The old questionnaire of 1906 was replaced by a new list of 105 questions to be answered when making the report. Only organized religious institutes approved by the Holy See and societies of men and women living in common without public vows were bound to make this report; independent monasteries of men and women as well as diocesan institutes were not bound. Meanwhiie a new form of religious, perfection had been devel- Oped in the Church. This new form was recently approved by Pope Plus XII, who officially applied the term "secular institutes" to societies which embrace it. These secular institutes may also receive the approval of the Holy See in due time. The aftermath of two world wars manifesting itself in modern life has made it necessary for religious institutes of all kinds to adapt themselves to the external circumstances in which they are living. A consideration of these modern problems which beset religious prob-ably induced the Sacred Congregation of Religious to issue a n~w instruction (3uly 4, 1947) regarding the quinquennial report. Two days later Pope Plus XII approved this new instruction which super-sedes all previous decrees on the subject. We shall give the provi-sions of this new instruction and then add a few brief comments. The Instruction "I. According to the Code (canon 510) the abbot primate, the abbot superior of a monastic congregatioia (canon 488, 8°), the "superior gen.eral of ever,y religious institute, of eve.r,y societyoof, comr mon life without public vows (canon 675) and of secular institutes approved by the Holy See, and the president of any federation of houses of religiou~ institutes, societies of common life, or secular 235 ADAM C. ELMS Review ior Re:igious institutes (or their vicars in default c~.~ tL'e above-named persons or if they are prevented from acting ]canon 488, 8°]) must send to the Holy See, that is to this Sacred Congregation of Religious, a report of the state of their religious institute, society, secular insti-tute, or federation every five years, even if the year assigned for sending the report falls wholly or partly w~:hin the first two years from the time when they entered upon the office. "II. The five-year period shall be fixed and common to all those mentioned above in n. I; a1:d they shall continue to be computed from the firs~ day of dzn:iary, 1923. "III. In making :he reports the following order shall be observed : "1. From among the religious institutes, societies of common life, secular institutes, and federations approved by the Holy See whose members are men the report is to be sent: "in the first year [|948] of the five-year period: by the canons regular, monks, and cnlitary orders; "in the second year [1949]: by the mendicants, clerics regular, and other regulars; "in the third year [I950] : by the clerical congregations; "in the fourth year [1951]: by the lay congregations; "in the fifth year [1952]: by the societies of common life, secular institutes, and federations. "2. From among the religious institutes, societies-of common life, secular institutes, and federations approved by the Holy See whose members are women the report is to be sent according to the region in which the principal house is .juridically established: "in tl~e first year~ [1948] of the five-yea~ period': by the supe-rioresses of religious institutes in Italy, Spain and Portugal; "in the second year [1949]: by the superioresses of religious institutes in France, Belgium, Holland, England, and Ireland; "in the third year [1950]: by the superioresses of religious institutes in other parts of Europe; "in the fourth year [1951]: by the superioresses of religious institutes in tlie countries of America; "in the fifth year [1952]: by the superioresses of religious insti-tutes in other parts'of theworld and moreover by the superioresses of societies of common, life, secular institutes, and federations throughout the world. 2.36 September, 1949 REPORT TO ROME "IV. In order that the Sacred Congregation may be able to obtain certain and authentic information regarding all those monas-teries and independent houses approved b~r the Holy See--both men and women--which are not bound by canon 5 10 to send the quin-quennial report, and regarding congregations, societies of common life, and secular institutes of.diocesan approval, the following are to be observed: "1. Major superiors of monasteries or independent houses of men which, although they" are approved by the Holy See, neither belong to any monastic cofigregation nor are federated with others shall send to the ordinary of the place, at the time and in the order mentioned above (n. HI, 1), a summary report of the five-year period signed by themselves and by their proper councilors. The ordinary in turn shall send a copy of. this report signed by himself, with any remarks he may see fit to add, to this Sacred Congregation within the year in which the' report was made. "2. Major superioresses of monasteries of nuns with their proper council, according to the order above prescribed (n. III, 2). for general superioresses, shall send a brief and concise report of the five-year period, signed by all of them, to the ordinary of the place if the nuns are subject to him: otherwise to the regular superior. The ordinary of the place or the regular superior shall carefully transmit a copy of the report, signed by himself with any remarks he may see fit to add, to this Sacred Congregation within the year in ~hich the report was made. "3. The general superiors of congregations, of societies of'com-mon life, and of secular institutes of diocesan approval shall send a quinquennial report, signed by themselves and by their proper coun-cil, to. the ordinary of the place where the prihcipal house is, at the time and in the order above prescribed (n. III, 1 and 2). The ordinary of the place shall not fail to communicate this report to the ordinaries of the other houses, and he shall within the year send to this Sacred Congregation a copy, signed by himself, adding his own judgment and that of the other ordinaries regarding the "congrega-tion, society, or secular institute in question. "4. Independent and autonomous religious houses and houses of a society without vows or of a secular institute which are not united in a federation, whether they be of diocesan or of papal approval, shall send a summary report of the five-year period to the ordinary 237 ADAM C. ELLIS Re~ieto for Religious of the place in the order above prescribed (n. III I and 2). The ordinary in turn shall send a copy of the said report, signed by him-self and adding any remarks hi may see fit to make, to this Sacred Congregation, likewise within the year. "V. In making out their reports all religious institutes, monastic congregations, societies of common life, secular institutes and fed-erati~ ns approved by the Holy See, even though they be exempt, must follow exactly the schedule of questions which will be made out by the Sacred Congregation and sent to them directly. "Monasteries of nuns, autonomous houses ot? religious institutes and of societies and secular institutes appproved by the Holy See, and congregations, societies and secular institutes of diocesan approval shall use shorter formulas which will be approved for them. "VI. The replies given to the questions proposed must always be sincere and as far as possible complete and based on careful inquiry; and this is an obligation in conscience according to the .gravity of the matter. If the replies are deficient in necessary .mat-ters or if they seem uncertain or not sufficiently reliable, the Sacred Congregation will ex o~cio see to it that they are completed and, if need be, will even itself directly conduct the investigations. "VII. Before the report is officially signed by the superior and by the individual councilors or assistants, it is to be carefully exam-ined personally and collectively. "The general superioress of religious institutes of women and 6f societies of common life, secular institutes, and federations approved by the Holy See shall send the report, signed by herself and by her council, to the ordinary, of the place in which the mother house is located, so that he according to law (canon 510) may sign the report; then in due time she shall see that the report signed by the ordinary of the place is sent to this Sacred Congregation. "VIII. If any of the superiors or councilors who has to sign the report has an objection of any consequence to make to it which he was not able to express in giving his vote, or if he judges that any-thing concerning the report should in any way be communicated to the Sacred Congregation, he may do this by private letter, and may even be in conscience bound to do so according to the case. However, let him be mindful of his own condition and remember tha, t he will gravely burden his conscience if he dares in such a secret 238 September, 1949 REPORT TO ROME letter to state anything which is not true. "IX. At the end of each year all religious institutes, societies of common life, and secular institutes and federations, whether of diocesan or papal approval, shall send directly to the Sacred Congre.- gation of Religious an annual report, according to the schedules contained in the formulas which will be made out and distributed by the Sacred Congregation, stating the principal matters which con-cern the state of persons, works, or other things which ~nay be of interest either to the Sacred Congregation or to superiors, "His Holiness Plus XII, in' the.audience given to the undersigned Secretary of the Sacred Congregation of Religious on July 9, 1947, .approved the text of this decree, and ordered that i~ be observed by all and that it be published, all things to the contrary notwith-standing." Comments I. Who must make the report?--All superiors general of orders, congregations, societies living in common without public vows, and secular institutes are bound to make the quinquennial report from now on. It makes no difference whether they are still diocesan or whether'they have received the approval of the Holy See. Superiors of independent monasteries or houses not attached to a monastic con-gregation are also bound to make the report. The term "'federation" refers to a union of independent houses which have the same family name, live according to the same spirit, and are grouped together under the direction of a president who is a visitor rather than a superior. 2. When the report must be sent.--Whe division into five sec-tions follows that already in existence since the decree of 1922. The one exception is the case of clerics regular who pass from the third to the second year. 3. Forms for the report.--These will be of two different kipds. The first (revised and extended over that of 1922) will be for all institutes of whatever nature which have been approved by the Holy See. These will be sent directly to the Sacred Congregation after the ordinary of the place where the mother house is located has authenti-cated the signatures of the general council by appending his own sig-nature. The second form for diocesan institutes will be shorter and will be given directly to the ,ordinary of the place where the mother 239 ADAM C. ELLIS house is located. He in turn must read the report and, after having added his own comments, forward it to the Sacred Congregation. 4. Annual short report.--Every religious institute and every ¯ independent community, whether papal or diocesan, will be obliged to fill out a one-page report rega.rding the number of members, houses, and works performed. 5. Forms to be sent from Rome.--Since the new forms or ques-tionnaires'are to be sent by the Sacred Congregation, superiors are not obliged to make their reports until they have received them. When the forms appear, we hope to publish them in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. In conclusion we may say that this entire instruction applies only to institutes which are directly subject to the Sacred Congregation of Religious. Institutes directly subject to the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith will be guided by the instruction published by that Sacred Congregation on June 29, 1937. VOCATIONAL LITI:RATURE Since many of our readers are engaged in various forms of vocational coun-seling, we make a special effort to. keep them.informed of any vocational literature we receive. Leaflets and booklets on religious and priestly vocations that we have recently received may be obtained from the following: Vocation Director, St. Paul's College, Washington 17, D.C. (An illustrated leaflet entitled, "'Whtj Not Be a Paulist Missionary!.") Brother Recruiter, St. Francis Monastery, 41 Butler St., Brooklyn 2, N. Y. (Script and pictures describing the life of the Franciscan Teaching Brothers.) Ft. Superior, St. Joseph's House. Graymoor, Garrison, N.Y. (An illustrated booklet entitled The Gra~jmoor Brother.) Mother General, Franciscan Sisters of the Sacred Heart, 372 N. Broadway, Joliet. Ill. (Script and pictures illustrating the life of the Sisters.) Mission Sisters, Mesa, Arizona. (An illusrated booklet describing the work oi the Mission Sisters of the Spouse of the Holy Ghost.) House of the Good Shepherd, 8830 W. Blue Mound Road, Wauwatosa 13, Wis. (The life of St.Mary Euphrasia Pelletier in a pamphlet entitled A Harvester of Souls.) , Mother Vicaress, Corpus Christi Carmel, Keatney, Nebraska. (An illustrated leaflet concerning the work of the Corpus Christi Carmelites.) 240 Aclmission oi: Orientals into Latin Insl:il:ul:es Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. THE Code of Canon Law forbids, but does not invalidate, the admission of Oriental Catholics into the novitiates of institutes -of the Latin rite. Canon 542, 2° reads : ""The following are illicitly, but validly admitted: Orientals in institutes of the Latin rite, without the written permission of the Sacred Congregation for the Oriental Church." This prohibition extends to all Latin reli-gious institutes, whether clerical or lay, of men or of women. The Code is speaking here only of Oriental Catholics. Oriental schismat-ics are non-Catholics, and their admission into a Latin religious institute is invalid, in virtue of canon 538. Oriental Catholics are commonly called Uniates; Oriental schismatics, Orthodox. It is evi-dent that the Catholic Oriental rites do not and cannot differ from the Latin rite with regard to the natural law, divine positive law, or revelation in general. The differences are in rites, ceremonies, laws, and customs that are purely of ecclesiastical origin. We may be inclined to consider the present impediment as one of little practical import. It is true that very many institutes in the United States have never received an application from an Oriental. Many institutes, however, have received such applications and on more than one occasion. In several of these cases the impediment was not discovered until after the candidate had been admitted into the noviceship and even only after final profession. This should arouse greater attention to the impediment. It is also true, as we hope to show in the following pages, that there exists a .very prac-tical problem of recognizing that the candidate is an Oriental. The principles for handling cases of this impediment are contained in the explanations that follow. I. The Impediment An Oriental in the sense of canon 542, 2° is a Catholic who is an Oriental at present. Evidently a Catholic, formerly an Oriental, who has already legitimately transferred to the Latin rite, is not an Oriental but a Latin Catholic and would not be affected by the impediment. The intrinsic reason for the necessity of the permission 241 JOSEPH F. GALLEN ,Review for Religious of the Holy See is that admission to a Latin institute" implies the entrance into a state of permanent and necessary conformity to the Latin rite. Therefore, the permission of the Holy See is not required in the relatively infrequent case of the admission of an Oriental can-didate who is destined either to establish Oriental houses or provinces of the Latin institute or to be affiliated with those already in exist-ence. II. Rite of Baptism of Children A child who has not attained the use of reason must be bal~tized in the rite of l~is parents (canon 756, § 1). 1. If both parents are Catholics and of the same rite (canon 756, § 1) and (a) both are Latins, the child is to be baptized in the Latin rite; (b) both are Orientals, the child is to be baptized an Oriental. 2. If both parents are Catholics, one a Latin and the other an Oriental, (a) the child is to be baptized in the rite of the father (canon 756, § 2). Therefore, if the mother is an Oriental and the father a Latin, the child is to be baptized in the Latin rite; if the mother is a Latin and the father an Oriental, the child is to be baptized an Oriental. (b) A contrary provision for a particular rite can change'the prece~.[ng general norm (canon 756, § 2). Such a contrary provi-sion exists: (1) in the Italo-Greek rite, in which the child of an Italo-Greek father and a Latin mother may be baptized in the Latin rite with the consent of the father; (2) for the Greek-Ruthenian rite in Gaiicia, in which sons follow the rite of the father, daughters the rite of the mother, but all children of both sexes follow the rite of a father who i~ a Greek-Ruthenian cleric. (c) A child born after the death of the father is more probably ro be baptized in the rite of the mother. ' 3. If one parent is a Catholic and the other a non-Catholic, the child is to be baptized in the rite of the Catholic parent (canon 756, § 3). Therefore, if the mother is a non-Catholic, the child is to be baptized in the rite of the Catholic father, whether the latter is a Latin or an Oriental; if the father is a non-Catholic, the child is to baptized in the rite of theoCatholic mother, whether she is a Latin or an Oriental. 4. If both parents are non-Catholics (either unbaptized or 242 September, 1949 ADMISSION OF ORIENTALS Oriental schismatics or heretics from birth), the parents may choose the rite, Latin or Oriental, of the Catholic baptism of their child. This favor does not extend to Oriental scbismatics or heretics who have apostatized from the Catholic faith, either in the Latin or an Oriental rite. Such a child is to be baptized in the Catholic rite from which his parents have apostatized, according to the norms given in 1-3 above. 5. Illegitimate children are to be baptized: (a) in the rite of the father, if. his name is to be legiti:natelv inscribed in the baptismal register (cf. canon 777, § 2) : (b) in the rite of the mother, if her name alone is to be legiti-mately inscribed in the baptismal register (cf. canon 777, § 2) : (c) in the rite of the place of birth, if the name of neither the father nor the mother is to be legitimately inscribed in the baptismal register; in the rite of the minister of baptism, if many rites are in existence in the place of birth. 6. Abandoned children are to be baptized in the rite of the place where they are found; if many rites are in existence in this place, they are to be .baptized in the rite of the minister to whom they are given for baptism. IlI. Rite of Baptism of Those Who Haae Attained the Use of Reason 1. A person who has attained the use of reason may rece'~ve bap-tism in the ri~e be cboc,~es, independently of the rite, whether Latin or Oriental. of his parcnt~. IV'. Title of A~liation to a Farticular Rite in the Church By baptism a physical pets,on is endowed with juridical person-ality in the Church, that is, be becomes the subject of rights and obligations in the Church (:.~non 87). The unbaptized are not sub-ject tc~ purely ecclesiastical la~vs, but all b~ptized are subject to such laws unless some are exempted by the Church in a particular matter. The ecclesiastical diriment impediment of consanguinity does not invalidate the marriage of two Jewish first cousins, but it does nul-lify the marriage of two Episcopalian first cousins since baptism sub-jects the latter to laws that are purely ecclesiastical. It is only natural, therefore, that the Church has enacted that baptism is also to determine the rite of a physical person, since affiliation to a particular rite in the Church implies subjection to distinctive laws and customs and thus produces distinctive rights and obligations in the individual. 243 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious Canc;n 98, § I states that a person is affillated to the rite in which he was baptized. Obviously this canon intends the rite in which the individual was legitimatel~! baptized according to the norms given in the two preceding sections. If baptism administered contrary to these norms determined the rite of the subject, there would have been no adequate reason for establishing such norms. Therefore, the principle that determines affiliation to a particular rite in the Church is the following: (1) a person belongs to the rite in which he was legitimately baptized; (2) if, contrary to the above fiorms, he was.!llegitimately baptized in another rite, he belongs to the rite in which he should have been baptized. The gdod or bad faith of the parents, the subject or the minister of baptism does not alter such a case of illegitimate baptism. For example, if two Maro-nite parents, thinking that their child may be licitly baptized in the Latin rite, offer the child to a Latin priest who does not even suspect the Oriental affiliation of the parents and baptizes the child in the Lati,n rite the child is an Oriental, not a Latin. Exactly the sam~ conclusion would be verified if there was bad faith or even deception on the part of the paren.ts, the priest, or both. A most noteworthy feature of this case is the difficulty it can cause religious superiors. The candidate will present a Latin baptismal certificate which will give no indication that he is an Oriental. There are two cases in which even a legitimate baptism in a p~r-ticular rite does not effect affiliation to that rite. The first is the case of serious necessity, when a person.is baptized in another rite becaus~e no priest of the proper rite can be secured (.canon 98, § 1). Such necessity is verified not only in danger of death but also when the baptism would be unduly deferred by awaiting a priest of the prdper rite. The consideration of the eternal salvation of the subject ren-ders the baptism in another rite licit in these cases of necessity. How-ever, the subject is not affiliated to the rite of his baptism but'to the rite in which he should ordinaril~t have boen baptized, according to the above norms. For example, if a Latin priest, with or without the request of two Melkite parents whose child is in danger of death, baptizes it in the Latin rite, the child is an Oriental, not a Latin. It is a well-known fact that these baptisms of necessity are of frequent occurrence in the United States, because of the scarcity of Oriental priests. The Latin.priest, in the example given above of the Melkite child, should have noted the Oriental affiliation of the child in the parochial bapt, ismal register of the place of baptism and should also 244 September, 1949 ADMISSIO~q OF ORIENTALS have sent a notification of the baptism to the proper Oriental pastor of the child. It is safe to assert that this law of annotation and notification with regard to an Oriental will oftentimes not be observed. It is not a law that is emphasized by the ordinary text-books of moral theology. We~ can thus again have the case of a can-didate for admittance into religion who Will present a Latin bap-tismal certificate that will give no indication of his Oriental affilia-tion. ' The" second case of a li~it aptism in a particular rite which does not cause affiliation to that'rit~e is a dispensation from the Holy See to the effect that one may be bfiptized in a particula~ rite xvithout, however, being thereby made ~i member of that rite. V. Transfer to Another Rite 1. Transfer from an Orielntal to the Latin rite, from the Latin to an Oriental rite, or the return to such a rite after a legitimate transfer is forbidden and is ilnvalid without the permission of the Holy See (can. 98, § 3). ' 2. When parents legitimatelly change their rite, the rite of children alread~l born is regulated by the following norms: ¯ (a) if the children have nlot attained the use of reason, they fo!- low the changed rite of the parents if both of the latter have changed their rite; if only one of the Iparents his changed rite, the children belong to the changed rite of tl4e father but not of the mother. (b) if the children haoe attained the use of reason, they have the choice of passing to the changed rite of the parents or of remaining in their present rite (c) if the children have completed their twent~l-first ~lear, they retain their own rite and are not affected by the change in rite of the parents. 3. There is one exceptio to the prohibition of passing to another rite. Canon 98, § 4 ,permits to a woman only, not before but at the beginning of or during marriage, to pass to the rite of her husband. She may also return to her former rite on the dissolution of the marriage. This latter right is limited by any contrary pro-vision made for a particular rite. Such a contrary prox?ision exists in the Italo-Greek rite, in which an Italo-Greek woman who had passed to the Latin rite of her husband is forbidden to resume the Italo-Greek rite on the death of her husband. 4. Oribntal schismatics and heretics from birth, upon their con- 245 JOSEPH F. GALL'EN Review [or Religious version to the Catholic faith, may .choose any Oriental rite they pre-fer. They have also the right of chooying to be affiliated with the Latin rite at their conversion. In the latter case they retain the right of returning to the Catholic Oriental rite that corresponds to their schismatical rite. If they are to be rebaptized conditionally, this rebaptism should, except in case of necessity, be in the rite they have chosen to follow. This favor, does not extend to Oriental schismatics and heretics who have" apostatized from the Catholic faith, either in the Latin or an Oriental rite, nor to occidental heretics dr schismatics. The former must return to the Catholic rite from which they aposta-tized, and the latter are to embrace the Latin rite. VI. Participation in Another Rite Does not Effect a Change of Rite Canon 98, § 5 affirms the principle that participation in another rite, no matter how prolonged, does not effect a change of rite. This norm follows clearly from the fundamental principles that one belongs to the rite in which he was or should have been baptized and that the permission of the Holy See is required to effect a valid change in rite. All the faithful, merely for the sake of devotion, may receive the Holy Eucharist in any rite (canon 866), may go to confession in any rite (canons 881, § 1; 905), and they may also attend Mass in any rite (canon 1249). All such participation in another rite, matter of what duration, does not effect a change in rite. Religious superiors in the United States will be compelled to exercise special care with cases that fall under this heading. It fre-quently happens that Orientals have been completely educated in schools of.the Latin rite or have for years participated in the Latin rite. They can readily believe that they are thereby Latins. They are Orientals. This¯ case is made more difficult when the baptism was also in the Latin rite (cf. section IV), for the Latin baptismal certificate will oftentimes contain no notation of the Oriental affilia-tion of the baptized. VII. The Permission The Holy See alone can grant the permission for an Oriental to enter a Latin institute. The competent congregation is the Sacred Congregation for the Oriental Church. The impediment is to admis-sion to the novitiate, not to postulancy. The common practice is to 246 September, 19 4 9 ADMISSION OF ORIENTALS apply for the permission 0nly before the noviceship and not before the postulancy. Since ecclesiastical authorities have .not objected to this practice, it may be safely followed. It has always seemed to the present writer that dispensations from any of the impediments of canon 542 as well as from those of the particular law of the institute¯ should regularly be sought before the postulancy. A sufficient reason for this doctrine is, to speak in general, that the refusal of a dispensa-tion is a practical possibility. A candidate who after several months in tbe postulancy should be compelled to leave because of the refusal of a dispensation would not be in an enviable state. This doctrine is more cogent in the case of lay institutes, whose superiors cannot be expected to know either the impediments or the conditions under which the Holy See is acct~tomed to dispense. It can be objected that the suitability of the candidate should be tested by the postulancy before a dispensation is secured for admittance to the noviceship. This argument does not appear to possess any great efficacy when it is considered that the Church does not impose the postulancy on all classes of candidates for the religious life. The petition is to contain the name, age, specific rite (not merely Uniate, but Antiocbene Marionite, Byzantine Rutbenian of the Philadelphia Ordinariate, Byzantine Ruthenian of the Pittsburgh Ordinariate, etc.), diocese of the candidate, and a statement that the competent superior is willing to admit him into ~he ~eligious insti-tute. A petition for a male candidate is to state whether or not he is destined for orders. A proportionate reason should be given for a dispensation or a favor that partakes of the nature of a.dispensation. The universal reason in the present case is the greater spiritual profit of the individual by religious profession to be made in a Latin insti-tute. 1 This reason does not have to be explicitly stated, since it is implicitly contained in the petition itself. The S. C6ngregation readily grants permission for an Oriental to enter a Latin institute. It has been said that the Holy See desires an Oriental to enter an Oriental province of the Latin institute he has chosen if such prov-inces exist in the particular institute. A study of several rescript, gives no indication that this desire has been urged. Furthermore, there are relatively very few institutes in the United States that have such provinces. Considerable variety is found in the manner in ~Religious profession as such constitutes the greater spiritual good, and in this case the profession is to be made in a Latin institute. 247 JOSEPH F. CIALLEN Review ~or Religious which the permission has been given, as will be clear from the fol-lowing : 1. If the candidate is not destined for orders (Brother, Nun, Sister).--Formerly a petition had to be made both before the nov-iceship and before first profession. The first rescript granted permis-sion to conform to the Latin rite during the noviceship, and the second definitively transferred the novice to the Latin rite at first pro-fession. In some of the rescripts it was stated absolutely that the subject was forbidden to return to his native rite without the permis-sion of the Holy See, while in others it was indicated that the sub-ject was transferred back to his native rite by the mere fact that he ceased to be ~i member of the Latin institute. In the present practice of the Holy See a petition is necessary only before the noviceship. The rescript does not transfer the subject to the Latin rite but merely grants permission to conform to the Latin rite. Obviously the subjedt who ceases to be a member of the Latin institute must return to the practice of his native rite, since the entire reason for granting permission to conf6rm to the Latin rite has then ceased to exist (canon 86). This is also explicitly stated in the rescript, as is the fact that the novice or religious retains his Oriental rite. Many of the latest rescripts also contain a clause that empowers religious superiors to permit the subject to use his native rite when-ever they judge this to be useful." The petitions for lay institutes are at least ordinarily being for-warded through the Apostolic Delegate. In this case the following 2The standard form now used by the S. Cong~'egation in granting the permission is: Prot. N . BEATISSIME PATER, rltus . dioecesis . ad pedes Sanctitatis Vestrae provolut . humiliter petit ut ad novitiatum admltti possit et dein in eodem . religiosam professionem emittere valeat, titui latino sere conformando. SACRA CONGREGATIO PRO ECCLESIA ORIENTALI, vigore facul-tatum a Ssmo D. N . Divina Providentia PP . sibi tributarum, benigne concedit ut Orat . in . de qu . in "precibus ad Novitiatum et ad religiosam professionem admitti possit. Eidem Orat . fit insuper facultas sese in omnibus conformandi ritui latino, ea tamen lege ut ritum nativum retineat ira ut si, quacuinque de causa, ad praefat . pertinere desierit, ritum originis sequi teneatur, quo interim legi-time uti potest quoties, Superiot?um iudicio, id utilitas suaserit. Contrariis quibuslibet non obstantibus. Datum Romae, ex Aedibus Sacrae "Congregationis pro Ecclesia Orientali, die . mensis . anno . 248 September, 1949 ADMISSION OF ORIENTALS formalities are required: (1) the petition in duplicate must be signed by the candidate: (2) the petitioner is to.state also the rite. place, and date of his baptism and that there are no Oriental provinc-~s in the Latin institute he wishes to enter; (3) the religious superior is to append a document in duplicate in which he states: (a) there are no Oriental provinces in his institute; (b) he is willing to admit the petitioner into his institute; (c) the date on which the noviceship of the petitioner is to begin: (4) all of the above documents are to be sent to the proper Latin local ordinary who will forward them to the Apostolic Delegate with his own approval in duplicate. 2. I[ the candidate is destined for orders.--The manner of giving the permission has varied also in this case. Foimerly one petition bad to be made before the novicesbip ~and another before first pro-fession. The subject was permitted to conform to the Latin rite during the noviceship and was canonically transferred to this rite b.y first profession. If he ceased for any reason to be a member of the institute, he was by that very fact transferred back to his Oriental rite. In some rescripts he was explicitly forbidden thereafter, with-out the permission of the Holy See, either to exercise any order he might have received in the Latin rite or to receive any higher order in his Oriental rite. From a study of several rescripts, it is clear that the present prac-tice of the Holy See is the same for a clerical religious as that for a lay religious described above. The rescripts read exactly the same. This is true also of the clause empowering the use of the native rite, which was mentioned above. This clause is written in on the stand-ard form, either by hand or typewriter, and it is difficult to account for its absence in some rescripts. If such a permission is given to some clerical and lay religious, it is not easy to see why it is not granted to all. Petitions for candidates destined for. orders are usually forwarded through the procurator general of the institute. If the petition is transmitted through the Apsotolic Delegate, the same for-malities are required as those listed above for a lay religious. 3. Urgent cases. Since the petition must be forwarded to the Holy See, it should be sent about three months before the beginning of the noviceship. If there is insufficient time to secure the permis-sion before the beginning of the noviceship or if the impediment is discovered only after profession, the petition is to be sent to the Apostolic Delegate, who in all likelihood can grant permission for a 249 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious temporary conformity to the L~tin rite. He will then forward the petition to the Holy See for the permanent conformity. VIII. An Oriental Admitted to a Latin Nooitiate or to Profession without'the Permission of the Holg Such an admissi6n does not invalidate the noviceship or profes-sion. The case, with an explanation for the failure to ask for the permission before the novic~ship, is to be presented to the Holy See. The petition is to contain the' same information and the same for-malities are to be observed as described in the preceding section. The case, as one of urgency, is to be bundled first as explained immedi-ately above. The reason why permissi6n must be asked even after profession is that an Oriental who is received into a Latin institute places himself in a de facto state of permanent and necessary con-formity to the Latin rite in the religious institute. This is the intrinsic reason for the necessity of the permission of the Holy See before the novicesbip, but the same reason is equally verified after the beginning of the noviceship or after profession. IX. Aids for Detecting the Impediment The difficulty of recognizing whether the candidate is a Latin or an Oriental has already been emphasized. Baptism and participation in the Latin rite.are sources of this difficulty. Or~e author has also called attention to our tende, ncy to rank all Italian-speaking Italians as Latins. They can be Italo-GreeksJ from southern Italy. The primary aid is the baptismal certificate if it is from an Oriental church or from a Latin church With a notation of the Oriental affiliation. Without such a notation the Latin baptismal certificate will be of no help unless the names of the parents suggest one of t'he Oriental countries. The same thing is true of the.confirmation cer-tificate. It is to be noted that in most Oriental rites the priest, as the extraordinary minister, a'dministers confirmation immediately after baptism. The Maronites do' not follow'this custom. Oriental priests may confirm in this way the members of their own rite and of other Oriental rites that enjoy the same privilege. The help given by the marriage certificate of the parents will depend on the same facts. The marriage certificate may be merely civil or non-Catholic, and an inquiry concerning such a marriage may bring out the fact that the parents are Orientals. If one of the parties in a marriage is a Latin or a Greek-Ruthenian, the marriage is invalid unless contracted 250 September, 1949 ADMISSION OF ORIENTALS before a competent priest and at least two witnesses. However, as a general principle, the other Oriental rites in the United States did not demand the presence of a priest for the validity of a marriage. Therefore, when such Orientals contracted among themselves or with a non-Catholic, the marriage was not invalidated by the fact that it was contracted before a civil official or a nbn-Catholic minister. The Holy See has recently promulgated new marriage legislation for the Oriental Rites. In virtue of this legislation marriages con-tracted from May 2, 1949, by members of all the Oriental rites are held to the same law as that stated immediately above for Latins and Greek-Ruthenians. The outline ofltheOrientalCatbolic rites appended to this article'~ is intended as something of an aid for detecting the impediment. The native country and language of the parents of the candidate, if they coincide with those of any Oriental rite, are indications that a reli-gious superior should make further inquiries about the rite of the candidate and "parents. This outline has been compiled from several sources, principally from Attwater, The Christian Churches of the East.'~Places outside the eastern countries, such as Canada, South America, France, Belgium, Australia, and Mexico are territories of modern immigration. This outline, as regards.the total number of the faithful of any rite and especially with regard to the number and places in the United States, is only a hazardous approximation of fact. It is sufficiently accurate to fulfill the present purpose, that is, to provide a working norm of caution. Lay religious who desire a general knowledge of the Oriental r'~tes can read: Attwater, Donald. I. The Christian Churches of the East. ll. The Dissident Eastern Churches. Milwaukee, Bruce, 1947. Fortescue, Adrian. The Orthodox Eastern Church. Catholic Truth Society, London, 1907--The Lesser Eastern Churches. Catholic Truth Society, London, 1913.--The Uniate Eastern Churches. ed. G. Smith. Burns, Oates ~ Washbourne, London, 1923. The Catholic Encyclopedia, under Rites. zSee pp. 252 and 253. 9 4Material from Attwater, The Christian Churches of the East, is used with the per-mission of the publisher, The Br,.uce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 25l RITE TOTAL NUMBER IN . FOUND PRINCIPALLY NUMBER UNITED STATES OUTSIDE U. S. IN I. ALEXANDRIAN RITE 1. Copts -. . 63,000 2. Ethiopians . 30,500 Egypt Ethiopia, Eritrea II. ANTIOCHENE RITE I. Malankarese 50,000 2. Maronites . 391,000 1 60,000 India Syria, Uruguay, South Africa 3. Syrians . 74,500 III. ARMENIAN RITE 150,600 IV. BYZANTINE RITE 1. Bulgarians . 5,500 2. Greeks . 3,300 3. Hungarians . 140,000 4. Italo-Greeks 60,000 5. Melkites . 173,000 6,800 5,000 1 1 10,000 20,000 Syria, Irak, Brazil, Argentina Syria, .Near East, " Russia, Greece, Galicia, Rumania, France, Belgium Bulgaria .Greece, Turkey Hungary Italy, Sicily Syria, Egypt, Pales-tine, Turkey, Australia, Mexico, Brazil FOUND PRINCIPALLY IN U. S. IN DIOCESES OF 1 VERNACULAR LANGUAGE Arabic Amharic, Tigre ~1 Malayalam Boston, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Cincit~nati, Arabic Cleveland, Detroit, Fall River, Hartford. Los Angeles, Mobile, New York, Phila-delphia, Pittsburgh, Raleigh, Richmond, St. Lot~is, St. Paul, Scranton, Seattle, Springfield, Mass., Syracuse, Trenton, Wheeling Boston, Brooklyn, Columbus, Detroit, Arabic, Syr;.~c Galveston, Hartford, Newark Brooklyn, Newark, New York, Spring- Armenian field, Mass. ~- Bulgarian 1 Greek o. Magyar Brooklyn, New York Italian, Albanian, Greek Boston, Brooklyn, Chicago, Cleveland. Arabic Detroit, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, New-ark, New York: Providence, Springfield, Mass., Toledo 6. Rumanians .1.434,000 8,000 Rumania 7. Russians . 22,500 1,000 Russia, Europe, Far East 8. Ruthenians .5,000,000 a. Galiciansa . 302,100 Galicia, Canada, Brazil, Argentina b. Podcarpath- Cleveland, Detroit, Fort Wayne, Rock-ford, Trenton Los Angeles, New York In states of I11., Md., Mass., Mich., N. 3. N. Y., Ohio, Pa. Rumanian Russian Ukrainian inns4 . 293,871 Czechoslovakia, In states of Conn., Ill., Ind., Mich, N. ,l. Rusin Bukovina (Rumania)," N.Y., Ohio, Pa., W. Va. (Ruthenian) Canada, Brazil, Argentina 9. Yugoslavs . 55,000 .o Yugoslavia __ u Croat V. CHALDEAN RITE I. Chaldeans . 96,000 800 Irak, Syria Chicago, Detroit, Hartford, Los Angeles, Arabic, Syriac New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco 2. l~Ialabarese . 632,000 __1 India __1 Malayalam 1There are either no Orientals of this group in the U. S. or no figures exist as to their number. ~The Hungarians and Yugoslavs in the U. S. belong to the Diocese of Pittsburgh, Greek Rite. There are 14 parishes exclusively . for the Hungarians, with a total of 8,000 souls. The others are mixed in with the predominantly Ruthenian parishes. There ard two exclusively Croatian parishes, with a total of 1,000 souls. The others are mixed in with the Ruthenian parishes. ,SThe Ruthenians of Galicia form the Diocese of the Byzantine Rite (Ukrainian Greek Catholic), Philadelphia, Pa. ~The Ruthenians of Car~atho-Russian,. Hungarian, and Crotian nationalities constitute the Diocese of Pittsburgh, Greek Rite, Homestead, Pa. The two preceding groups are frequently termed Greek-Ruth~nians. They are the only Orientals in the United States who have their own Ordinaries. All other Orientals in this country are under the jurisdiction of the Latin Ordinaries. Tot:al Consecra!:ion !:o ary by Vow Robert L. Knopp, S.M. IN THESE DAYS ~vhen the message of Fatima is at last fanning the world to flame, any form of consecration to Mary must immediately claim the interest of her children. Her revel~tion that the world can be saved only through consecration to her Immaculate Heart-~consecration complete enough to sustain prayer and penance--must increase this interest if the consecration in question is a total one involving .the whole being and activity of the one consecrated. And finally, the urgency of her request, attested by the divine stamp of a cosmic miracle, must still further intensify this interest if the consecration has itself been attested by the Vicar of Christ on earth. Papal approval and commendation have long been accorded the total consecration to Mary by which.Marianists (members of the Society of Mary) are perpetually professed in the religious state. This year, especially, seems a most fitting time to explain this reli-gious consecration, for the Marianists are celebrating their American Centennial and anticipating two more centennials for next year-- that of the death of their saintly Founder, Very Reverend William Joseph Chaminade, and that of the foundation of their first American school, the University of Dayton. A further appropriate circum-stance is the recent arrival in America of the Daughters of Mary, a congregation of Sisters also founded by Father Chaminade and sharing with the Marianists the same total consecration to Mary by the vows of religion. This article is a small part of the Marianist expression of grati-tude to God for those hundred years during which they have been privileged ~o make their contribution to religious life in America through the 'total consecration which Father Chaminade always called the "gift of God" to the Society. Certainly, on their part, the Marianists and the Daughters of Mary, through the wise choice of, their Founder, have received gratefully both inspiration and breadth from many other religious institutes, to the enhancement of their own religious consecration. They humbly hope that in their turn 254 CONSECRATION TO MARY they may contribute by their Marian spirit to the vitality of other religious, both men and women. It is a curious circumstance that Father Chaminade founded the Marianists one hundred years before the Fatima miracle, even to the month. He had been waiting twenty long years in Bordeaux for the sign evidently foretold in revelations granted him during his exile in Saragossa at the famous shrine of Our Lady of the Pillar. That sign came off May 1, 1817, when one of his most promising young sodalists, John Lalanne, put his future entirely at the disposal of Father Chaminade. In October, 'the first seven members, repre-senting quite different walks of life, formed the new Society. They had already been consecrated to Mary as sodalists: then, desiring to belong to her more completely, they had under Father Chaminade's direction dedicated themselves to her by private vows while still living in the world. Now they prepared to give themselves totally ' by a consecration that constituted them religious, whether as priests, teaching brothers, or working brothers--the diverse categories which this new religious consecration united in harmonious social equality. To grasp the true significance of this total consecration, we must see it in the setting of Father Chaminade's full concept of religious life. To delineate this concept in all its completeness has required a family document, The Spirit of Our Foundation, over 2,000 pages in length. Hence, only a brief idea of the underlying principles can be sketched here. In the following developme.nt, quotations from the writings of Father Chaminade are taken from this family document. Father Chaminade followed the traditional concept of religious life as the state of perfection--a state constituted by the three vows, a perfegtion consisting in the highest love of God, attained through conformity with Christ, the Model sent to"men by the Father. Con-formity with Christ is an inward union by grace, a union of bein;l, an incorporation into the Mystical Body of which Christ is the Head. It is bestowed through faith and baptism and perfected by the sacra-ments, by prayer (especially mental prayer), and by the practice of virtue. In all this, with a special emphasis on the role of faith as the foundation of conformity with Christ, Father Chaminade followed the general tradition of religious life. In addition to these channels of the supernatural life, Father Chaminade stressed a prior channel, but one that is really not to be separated from them since it flows into and through them and at the same time disposes the religious to use them more perfectly. This 255 ROBERT L. KNOPP Review for Religious channel is Mary, our spritual Mother find Mediatrix of All Graces, through whom ~hrist first came to us and through whom we must therefore go to Him. To unders~;and the strong emphasis Father Chaminade laid upon this concept, we must begin with his vital grasp of Mary's part in the Incarnation, a grasp which he owed largely to St. Augustine. One of Father Chambiade's favorite thoughts was that before Mary conceived Christ in the flesh, she had conceived Him in spirit-- not, of course, in the sense that she was the source of His spiritual power, but in the sense that by her Immaculate Conception she was given a holiness so vast that, as St. John Damascene declares (It~ Dormitionero, 1, 13), by her grace she exceeded the expanse of the heavens, encompassing Him whom the whole world cannot contain. At the moment of her Immaculate Conception, then, Mary was granted by her fullness of grace such a complete participation in the life of God that she might be said to have conceived the supernatural life among men. This complete union with God was the dawn of our own redemption. For God could look down upon our race and see among us a creature whose full-blown supernatural beauty was at last worthy of His infinite love. Or rather, already dwelling in her so completely by grace, He gave that intimate spiritual union physical expression by the Incarnation. Because God Himself in His infinite wisdom had conceived from all eternity this ideal of human purit;/ informed by the fullness of His own divine life, because He had cre-ated in the midst of our race this His Immaculate Conception, because he could now find an adequate response to His divine love in a crea-ture, God became one of our race in the womb of Mary. We had lost the union of grace by the sin of Adam, committed at the solici-tation of Eve. Christ, the new Adam, most fittingly chose to win us back to God by becoming one with us at the consent of His new Eve, having been Himself won by her humble, supernatural love. It is because the Son of God has become the Son of Mary that our human race, as a race, has been united again to God, so that it is now pos-s. ible, through conformity with Christ', for each individual of our race to attain to this union with God. It is because, as the Son of Mary, Christ has become one of us that We can now become one with Him. And He has completed the winning of this divine life for us through His. lifework of redemption. His whole life was a unity comprise.d of the two great mysteries of the Incarnation and the re- 256 September, 1949 CONSECRATION TO MARY demption. By His Incarnation He took upon Himself the state of Son of Mar~/. By His redemption He acted i,n that state even unto His death as Mary's Son. And to accentuate her role as the new Eve co-operating with Him in the whole unity of His lifework of regen-erating mankind, He associated her in that work at every significant step along the way. Thus, from her arms He revealed Himself to mankind in the person of shepherds and Magi. At the Presentation He offered Himself to His heavenly Father from her arms. He spent His thirty years of preparatio.n in her company at Nazareth. Although He said His time had not yet come, He inaugurated His public life at Cana at her mere suggestion. Finally, He united her sorrow-pierced heart with His own in consummating His lifework c.n Calvary. Because Mary has been so closely associated' with Christ in the 'mysteries of the Incarnation and redemption, it is through her that we are conformed to the incarnate Redeemer. At the very moment that the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity became man in. her womb, all of us became her children, for at that moment Christ embraced us all as members of His Mystical Body. Father Chami-nade, therefore, delighted in recalling St. Augustine's teaching that Mary is the Mother of the Whole Christ, of the Body as well as of the Head: "As Jesus Christ has been conceived in the virginal womb of Mary according to nature through the operation of the Holy Ghost, so all the elect are conceived according to the spirit through faith and baptism in the womb of the tender charity of Mary" (S.F., 456). It is, then, first of all through Mary that we have been conformed with Christ in grace: "It is by her transcending grace that this Virgin Mother conceived us; in her superabounding charity she communicated to us her being of grace, which is nothing else but a participation in Christ, that all things might be consum-mated in unity: "Consummati'in unum' " (S.F., 106). As by Hi~ physical conception in the Virgin Mary the Son of God conformed Himself to our nature, so through our spiritual conception in Mary we are conformed to Christ, made. partakers of His divine nature. Having once willed to unite Himself to us through Mary, God never "repents"; He always comes to us through her. Every new grace by which our conformity with Christ is perfected, He applies to us through her mediation and distribution. Just as her motherly care of Jesus did not cease at His birth, so her motherly office toward us does not cease with our spiritual birth: "Mary nurtured Jesus in 257 ROBERT L. KNOPP' Review [or Religious His infancy and was associated in all the various stages of His life, in His death and in His resurrection; the elect attain the fullness of age, as St. Paul terms it, only in so far as Mar~" becomes in their regard what she was for Jesus" (S.F., 10.9). Hence, the more perfectly we are sons of Mary, the more perfectly we conform to Christ. For Father Chaminade this was a cardinal principle of the spir-itual life. A Christian may receive grace through the sacraments, for instance, and thereby be united to Christ without even thinking of the spiritual Mol~her who distributes to him this sacramental grace. But how much closer to the full reality and therefore how much better disposed he will be for perfect reception of the sacraments if, conscious of Mary's role, he fully submits in filial love to her work of spiritual formation: "We have all been conceived of Mary.; we must be born' of Mary and formed by Mary to the resemblance with Christ, that we may live only the life of Christ, that we may, together with Christ, as so many Christs, be Sons of Mary: "Cure Cbristo unus Christus." Following up this principle, what devo-tion, what confidence in Mary will not the director inspire . . . in order to obtain ever more by Mary . . . resemblance to Christ oper-ated by the Spirit of Christ!" (S.F., 893.) Even as did Jesus, the religious must prove his filial love of Mary by a child-like abandon-ment of himself to her care: ". the Society intends to rear each of its members as Jesus was reared by her care, after having been formed in her virginal womb" (S.F., '115). The total consecration of the religious, then, consists in a com-plete surrender of self to Mary by which the religious participates spiritually in Christ's Incarnation. Like Christ, the religious "gladly intrusts to Mary both his person and his future" (Cons'fftutions, art. 4). In the practical order, he accomplishes this by his religious profession of vows made to God through Mary as a total consecra-tion of self in a Society entirely devoted to her service. If the Society itself is hers, i~s children form her family and abandon them-selves to her by devoting themselves in loyal "family spirit" to her Society. That is why Father Chaminade could identify the religious consecration and the consecration to Mary. Lived perfectly, this total consecration consists in complete detachment from all that is not Christ; for, by placing the religious voluntarily in the state of dependence on Mary that corresponds to reality, it removes the ¯ obstacles to her free maternal action in him, rendering him pliable in 258 September, 1949 CONSECRATION TO MARY bet hands so that she may form him, both directly through her power of mediation and indirectly through her Society, to the like-ness of the Model she knows so well---bet First-born: ". her entire ambition is that all the children whom her charity has brought forth after Him, be so united to Him, that with Him they may be but one Son, one and the same Jesus Christ" (S.F,, 440). But this total consecration demands of us not only the passivity of surrender; it also demands the activity of conquest. Christ, the Son of God become the Son of Mary, is our Model not only ~n being but also in acting, not only in His Incarnation, but also in His redemption. Since a man acts according to his nature, in the measure that he partakes of Christ's being he also partakes of His action. Religious life, then, especially as Father Chaminade con-ceived it, must also be considered a.s conformity to Christ in His activity through imitation of His virtues. Conscious effort to increase this conformity of action is also a meritorious means for perfecting the essential conformity of being. It is ordinarily in this area of imitating Christ's virtues that we find religious institutes differing in that wide and beauteous variety that fills up those things otherwise wanting to the Mystical Body of Christ. For as St. ~Fbomas quotes Abbot Nesteros: " . . . it is impossible that one and the same man should excel,in all the virtues at once, since if he endeavor to practice them equally, he will of necessity, while trying to attain them all, end in acquiring none of them perfectly" (II-II, q. 189, a. 8). Hence,. different religious institutes select different virtues of Christ upon which to center their attention. Since the teaching of Christ Himself, charity has been universally accepted as the greatest of the virtues. It is the tradition of religious-life, therefore, to see the charity of Christ's redemptive action as His outstanding virtue, manifesting first His love for His heavenly Father, then His love for all mankind. Differences arise from_~the various expressions of. this charity of Christ, whether through His obedience, His poverty, His mortification, or some other special virtue. It was typical of Father Cbaminade to see the most complete expression of these two loves of Christ in His filial love of Mary. She is for Him the embodiment of the divine authority, so that He can subject Himself to His Father only by being subject to her, and He can please His Father only by giving her the most complete filial 259 ROBERT L. KNOPP Reoiew for Reli'gious lo~'e; since Jesus owes "His body solely to her body from which alone the Holy Ghost formed it, she concentrates upon her Son the rights and the duties of both a father and a mother" (S.F., 119). And as the greatest of all mankind, she won from Him the greatest share of His infinite love for men. She won His love long before He became man. Back in eternity she was His Immaculate Conception, playing before Him at all times, even as He laid the foundations of the world. It was she whom He chose out of all mankind and filled with grace to become His Mother in the Incarna-tion and His Spouse in the redemption. Fundamentally, 'Christ's love for His Father and for man'kind finds its perfect expression in His. love for Mary not only because she is His own chosen Mother, but also because she is His chosen.means and associate for the who!e work of redemption. He was able to act as our Redeemer because' of her. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, became the Son of Mary for the salvation of mankin~l: "Qui propter nos homines et propter nostram salutem descendit de coetis, et incarnatus est de Spiritu Sancto ex Maria Virgine, et homo factus est." That is why Father Chaminade declared: "Jesus Christ prac-ticed every virtue in the highest degree of perfection. But of those virtues one which particularly entered into the accomplishment of His adorable mysteries was His love for the most holy Virgin, in whose bosom He was conceived and lived for nine months, and of whom He v~as born, who was associated with Him in all His mys-teries and who was made Mother of all those who were to be regen-erated in Him" (S.F., 440). .And therefore Father Chaminade found this filial love of Mary to be the "most salient feature" in Christ's life, the virtue by which Christ realized His desire for a life of activity devoted to His Father's Will for the salvation of man-kind. Redemption was the act of His state of Son of Go~(, but it was likewise the fulfillment of His being Son of Mary. For the man, then, who has embraced the religious state as son of Mary, zeal for the glory of God and the salvation of souls must embrace his whole activity. And therefore, in his filial love for Mary, he finds the perfect inspiration, expression, and embodiment of his love for God and for men. Father Cbaminade's deep conviction in the all-embracing value of this filial piety was rooted in his firm belief in Mary's central position in Christ's whole work of redemption. Moreover, like St. Grignion de Montfort, whose True Devotion to Mary was 260 September, 1949 CONSECRATION TO MARY unfortunately still hidden from the world, he was absolutely con-vinced that God had entrusted to Mary the leadership in the battle to overthrow Satan and re-establish the reign of Christ. On at least five solemn occasions he referred this mission of Mary especially to modern times. In 1839, for instance,, nineteen yearsbefore Lourdes, he ~nade this thought the very core of his long letter to the priests who were to conduct the annual retreats of the Society. Describing in vivid language the tremendous evils wrought in the world by ,religious indifference and secularism, so like those of our own day, be foresaw the loss of the masses that we are now trying to cope With, "a general defection and an apostasy really all but universal." But he was not discouraged: "Mary's power is not diminished. We firmly believe that she will overcome this heresy as she has overcome all others, because she is today, as she was formerly, the incompa-rable Woman, the promised Woman who was to crush the serpent's head: and desus Christ in never addressing her except by this sublime name, teaches us that she is the hope, the joy, and the life of the Church and the terror of hell. To her, therefore, is reserved a gre~t victory in our day: hers will be the glory of saving the faith from the shipwreck with which it is threatened among us.'" (S.F'., 101.). It was because of this firm faith in the leadership of Mary in the modern world, a faith that Lourdes and Fatima among a host of lesser apparitions have since strikingly vindicated, that Father Chami-nade enthusiastically called upon his spiritual children to realize in themselves the full valor of their knighthood: "We have enlisted under her banner as her soldiers., to assist her with all our strength until the end of our life, in her noble struggle against the powers of hell." (Ibid.) Such a dynamic ideal demands direct apostolic action, universal and intense, like the redemptive action of the first Son of Mary. Though the Society at present devotes itself chiefly to the education of youth, it is but applying Father Chaminade's principle of employing "means best adapted to the needs and spirit of the times" (S.F., 53). For such was the bigb dedication to which he called his children that they must labor with all their strength, not just to win Christians, b~t to "multiply Christians." And so, even as the knights of old dedicated themselves by their chivalrous vows, Father Cbaminade would have his modern knights. with ~'Maria Ducet." as their battle cry, vow a total consecration of themselves, to Mary their Queen and Mother: "She communicates to 261 ROBERT L. KNOPP Review for Religious us her own zeal and entrusts to us the projects ~vhich are inspired by her almost infinite charity, and we . . . vow to serve her faithfully till the end of our iife, to carry out punctually all that she'tells us. We are glad that we can thus spend in her service the life and strength that we have pledged to her." (Ibid.) To give this total consecration concrete expression in the religious profession itself, Father Chaminade added to poverty, chastity, and obedience, a fourth vow, stability, to which he specifically attached the meaning of consecration to Mary. This vow of stability, byl which the religious is constituted a Marianist forever, is officially described in the Constitutions as the vow by which the religious "intends to constitute himself permanently and irrevocably fn the state of a servant of Mary, of her to whom the Society is especially consecrated. This vow is, in reality, a consecration to the Blessed Virgin, with the pious design of making her known and of perpetu-ating love and devotion to her." (Art. 55.) This vow really expresses, therefore, the formal motive for embracing the Marianist life: ". it is in the name of Mary and for her glory that we embrace the religious life; it is in order to conse-crate ourselves, all that we h~ve and are, to her to make her known, loved, and served, in the intimate conviction that we shall not briw,~ men back to Jesus except through His most holy Mother, because with the hol~z Doctors we believe, that she is our only hope-- tota ratio spei no.~trae--our Mother. our refuge, our help, our strength, and our life" (S.F., 101). ' Consequently, by constituting the religious state itself, this vow of stability inspires, expresses, and effects conformity both with Christ's incarnate being and with His redemptive action, investing all the elements of re.ligious life with a special Marian significance. The three traditional vows, for instance, :partake of its character by stripping the religious, like another Incarnation, of all that he for-merly was or had. Thus, 'poverty imitates Christ who divested Himself of all His divine wealth to confide in Mary's care; it releases the religious from all l~aterial goods that he may be radically at the disposition of his spiritual Mother. .Chastity imitates the virginal integrity of Christ, Son of the Virgin of virgins; it releases the reli-gious from the ties of wife and family that he may present himself inviolate for the total service of his Immaculate Mother. Obedience imitates the loving subjection Of Christ to His Mother; by it the religious renounces his own will that he may follow hers, trans- 262 September, 1949 CONSECRATION TO MARY mitted to him by his superior, according to her word, "Do whatever he tells you." Since by these three vows the Marianist views the Soci(ty as Mary,'s property, its members as her sons, and its superiors as her representatives, he finds in his total consecration a very real counterpart of the Incarnation by which Christ completely sur-rendered Himself to Mary's motherhood. If he is wholly faithful to his state, he no longer lives, but Christ lives in him, returned again to earth, become again the Son of Mar'y for the salvation of mankind. And consequently, by acting according to his consecra-tion to Mary, loving her, obeying her, honoring her, confiding in her, living'with her, resemb!ing her, and especially assisting ~her ia her mission to .save the modern world, the religious finds his conse-crated activity a real counterpart of the redemption by which Christ sacrificed Himself entirely out of love for His Father and for mankind. If space permitted, the other elements of religious life by which the Marianist enters into this redemptive activity of Christ might be developed in great detail. Here, only a few indications of the practical implications of this total consecration may be presented. The Fatima visions suggest that cgnsecration to Mary must involve, special stress on prayer and sacrifice as redemptive instruments. It is not at all surprising, then, that Father Cbaminade should have laid great emphasis upon mental prayer, which he characteristically taught as union with Jesus and Mary in the mysteries of the Creed, the very goal of the rosar)~ as presented to Lucy in the final Fatima vision. He prescribed a full hour of formal mental prayer for all his reli-gious, no matter how actively engaged, and he constantly insisted on a "spirit of faith and of mental prayer" by which the whole day, encased between morning and evening meditations, is spent with Jesus and Mary in the presence of God and thereby becomes a con-tinual mental prayer, a prayer of the heart fixed in God rather than of the mind straining for considerations. With this in mind, be could write in the Constitutions: ". the more a, religious devotes himself to this exercise, the more he approaches his end . con-formity with Jesus Christ" (S.F., 247). And this prayer-life is so intimately bound up with the apostolic consecration that in the second article of his Constitutions Father Chaminade clearly stated his design to combine "the advantages of the active life with those of' the contemplative, to attain the ends of both." In that same article, he stressed the sacrifice that Fatima leads us 263 ROBERT L. KNOPP to expect: "The Society designs, 'as far as God will aid it, to unite zeal with abnegation . " Concerning this abnegation, or sacrifice, Father Chaminade was as emphatic as with prayer: i'.The Savior of the world came as a victim, He lived in privations, He died in sor-rows; the same sword pierced the heart of His . . . Mother. No better lot can befall the disciple and the child his Master and his Mother. The professed, as a victim, is not surprised at the privations to try him . he considers himself all than that of resembling regarding himself, then, by which it pleases God the days of his life as fastened to the cross, in order to continue., the oblation and sacri-fice of, desus Christ." (Art. 173-4.) aust as in the life of Christ the redemptive work itself was sacrifice, so the Marianist is to find his daily cross chiefly in the trials, fatigues, and difficulties inherent in a life of intense apostolic activity. Moreover, this self-sacrifice must consist principally in the interior self-denial of humility, simple and sincere, like that of ,lesus and Mary. Such, in briefest outline, is the conformity with Christ, S6n of God become Son of Mary for the salvation of mankind, that this total consecration of filial love for Mary expresses and effects. If. however, in order to be fully realized this consecration demands the religious profession, nothing prevents the faithful in the world'from embracing its spirit as completely as their state of life permits. It is to be expected, then, that Marianists hold as their "work of predi-lection" the spreading of this spirit of filial consecration to Mary among their own students, and through them to the world at large, by such means as the establishment and maintenance of sodalities, always intensely apostolic. Before Fatima and after it, Marianists have always held as their inmost conviction, the fruit of their own 'life-experience, that the world can be restored to Christ only through Mary. In this year of their American Centennial, they dedicate themselves anew to this work of bringing men to consecrate their lives to Mary, not merely in word but in being and in act-- in prayer and in sacrifice. 264 Books as Spirit:ual Direc!:ors J. H. Dunn, O.R.S.A. ~N PIONEER DAYS the early settlers of this country had a phrase which showed a nice blend of confidence in God and self-reliance: "Trust. in God and keep your po.wder dry." A religious of today might well make one small change, inspired by modern technological progress, and use that same phrase as a watchword in his own spiritual life: "Trust in God and keep your battery charged." Certainly one of the best means to keep the battery of zeal for increased perfection charged is spiritual reading. No one can deny its imperative necessity in the daily life of a religious; so much so, that progress in perfection is, to a large extent, contingent upon daily use of this important means of advancing in sanctity. Spir-itual reading is, then, one of the best means that a religious has for charging his spiritual batteries. But spiritual reading can be made to serve another end. When necessity demgnds, it can be used as a means of spiritual direction. Books can be substituted for men. About seven years ago, the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS published a series of articles on spiritual direction that gave rise to a discussion which furnished a very good survey of its state in contemporary American religious life. At that time, it seemed to be the consensus among religious that adequate spiritual direction was a felt need in many communities. No doubt, the situation has changed but little since those articles and letters were written. What, then, is the religious to do who with all the good will in the world cannot find someone to act as spiritual director? It is the opinion of the author that, when every opportunity for human help has been canvassed and found wanting, the religious may with a .clear conscience turn to the next most perfect means of spiritual direction--books. In such a case as this spiritual reading can be used not only as a battery-charging agent, but as a generator and, some-times, as a mechanic. Spiritual reading can be used to supply an incentive to higher things and to fix up a "stalled" religious so that he can go on. After all, the spiritual .director has a twofold task--to give advice that will help or keep a person out of difficulties and, What is 265 J. H. DUNN Review for Religious far more important, to spur him on to h!gher things. Now if there is no director at hand, spiritual reading can be used to fulfill both these ends. In the matter of difficfilties to be solved there is probably no religious who will think that his particular problems are unique. It stands to reason, therefore, that most questions are answered some-where in print. The only problem is to find the right book. Any large work covering the spiritual life extensively will serve such a need as this. Christiar~ PerFection by Father Rodriguez leaves little untouched in the matter of spirituality. Many difficulties can be solved by articles in back numbers of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Such works as these bare the one drawback--that it is sometimes hard to find what is needed quickly or easily because of inadequate indexing, dr because of improperly filed back numbers. On the other hand, such a work as Tanquerey's Spiritual LiFe is excellent in this respect. It.is sufficiently extensive to handle any problem that might arise in the. normal religious life, and it is well enough indexed to enable the reader to find a solution in a matter of seconds. It may be objected that such books as these will serve only for beginners in religion or for those who are not far advanced in per-fection but .will be of little or no use to those who have to contend with the complications characteristic of the higher reaches of sanc-tity. It is certainly true that the problems which arise in the later stages of the spiritual life are more personalized than earlier ones, but that does not mean that the broad general principles upon which such problems must be solved have not been fully .expounded in numerous spiritual books. Father Garrigou-Lagrange, for instance, in his Three Ages oF the Interior LiFe offers a sharply delineated plan of spirituality, extending as far as a man can hope to go and treating almost every difficulty that could arise. St. Teresa cannot fail to be helpful; and few problems are met in striving for the ultimate in divine union that have not been anticipated by St. John of the Cross. Besides, anyone who has progressed so far in perfection with-out a spiritual director may surely hope without presumption that God will continue to help him to bring the work to ultimate success. It is in the second phase of the spiritual director's work, that of spurring a person to higher striving arid keeping him going, that spiritual reading really comes into its own. In this respect there are some things that books can do even better than men; they can be more severe, for instance, and they are more patient at repeating 266 September, 1949 BOOKS AS SPIRITUAL DIRECTORS what needs to be said over and over. Nor can it be validly objected that many technical books will be needed if the printed page is to be used as a substitute for the living voice. A few good books will do the job and do it well. If in an ordinary novel the reader can find new matter at a second or even a third perusal, the same will certainly bold true of spiritual books. In this respect it_is important to note, even to insist upon, one point. However else a religious uses hi~ time for stfiritual reading, he must choose books which are a challenge. The time spent in spiritual reading should never be spent with books that might be called in Mark Twain's phrase, "flowers and flapdoodle." Espe-cially is this true if these same spiritual reading books must perform at least some of the functions of a spiritual director. Books that are to help religious souls to overcome their diffi-culties and urge them on to greater perfection--books that are to encourage them when they are in danger of stopping their progress through human frailty or going astray through ignorance of the way, must be carefully graded. A novice who could be helped by Gehon's Secret of the Saints wouldoonly be discouraged or bewil-dered by Tb~ Ascent of Mount Carmel. A person who might be helped immeasurably by Saudreau's Life of Union with God would no longer need Leen's Progrdss Through Mental Prayer. Each must choose for himself according to his own need, but it would certainly be folly to expect Saint Among Savages to be conducive to progress for someone who has long ago reached a measure of union with God. The book is fine, though, for a novice who must be weaned from comic books. A religious, then, who finds blmself without the help of a spir-itual director need not, because of that fact, give up all hope of spir-itual direction. That same religious would be the first to insist that God would take care of him somehow. What is more natural than that He should do so by means of help that is always at hand, the help of spiritual books? One who has tried by every possible means to get spiritual direction, yet, cannot find it, may turn with perfec~ confidence to those spiritual books which will keep his battery charged. 267 ommun{cal:{ons Who May "Follow Him"? Reverend Fathers: It is not without a coi~siderable degree of temerity that I even attempt a reply to Sister Mary Digna's scholarly article, "That God's Will be Better Known," published in the 3uly issue of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. However, as it deals with a subject of paramount importance to fill religious orders, I would like to express what is a purely personal'reaction to the article. Let me begin by saying that I definitely do not approve of any diagnostic tests being given to a candidate on admission to a nov;- tiate or at any time during the novitiate training period. In the first place, any of these tests--that is: I.Q., aptitude, per-sonality, or emotional reaction tests--are vary likely to defeat their purpose not only by failing to give accurate information about an applicant to religious life but also by conveying actual ~nisinforma-tion. What was this novitiate period for many of us? Wasn't it a time when our hearts almost broke with homesickness, when every fibre of our being was taut and strained in an effort to adjust our-selves to a mode of life different in almost every detail from the old one left bebin:d? Might not the score, of a diagnostic test be very different .just a few years later when, as a professed religious, one has achieved a serenity and poise that is seldom compatible with a period of grave adjustment? Secondly, should not even a reasonably' capable master or mis-tress of novices be able to know fairly accurately, after two or three years of constant companionship and supervision, something of the intelligence, aptitudes, and emotional reactions of the novices? But, one may object, this purely subjective opinion should at least be supplemented by a purely objective score. Maybe so, but remember that in this case the subjective verdict is frequently based on years of experience with young novices and also on a knowledge of the spe-cific needs and requirements of a particular congregation. In regard to that typ_e of emotional reaction test designed to convey information concerning impulses and emotions of the sex instinct, I will admit that there may be factors involved here with which I am not familiar. That any anomaly along this line cer-tainly makes one an unfit subject for religious life is unquestionable. But again, I am willing to place this too in the hands of a shrewd, 268 COMMUNICATIONS alert, and spiritually wise master, or mistress of novices. "I'o boil it all down--isn't this idea of injecting these various tests into our novitiates find religious communities merely an unneces-sary form of secularization? Doesn't it tend to overlook a little the tremendous power of divine grace operating in a soul seeking to serve God? The use of a "natural aptitude" test whiCh would tend to prevent a superior from placing a "round peg in a square hole" might also undervalue the tremendous power of a work done in simple obedience. Certainly the religious literally writhing under an unpleasant, distasteful employment has infinitely more-opportunity to follow the divine precept to "take up your cross daily" than she who is happily and efficiently employed in a work agreeable to nature. What were the requirements stipulated by the first Novice Master on the shore ~f Galilee? Just the briefly stated "Come, ~ollow Me." But oh, the infinite possibilities for courage, sanctity, and even ultimate martyrdom contained in those three simple" words! Would not a modern psychologist be rather gravely concerned over the prob-able I.Q. of James and John, who were obtuse enough to hope for an earthly kingdom from a carpenter's Son? What would a present-day psychiatrist think of the apparent emotional instability of Peter who in one exultant outburst cried out, "Thou art Christ, the Son of the living God," and then, not so long afterwards, muttered mis-erably to an illiterate barmaid, "I know not the Man"? But Christ knew what patient training could accomplish with His novices, and ¯ He took them for what they were Worth and in spite of their weak- ~esses. In conclusion, may I ask what one of us in religion would like to feel that a Mission a~ssigned or an employment given was in any way the result of tests administered perhaps years ago in one's novitiate days? What infinitely greater security there would be in knowing that an obedience had been given after a provincial or Other superior had knelt humbly before Christ in the tabernacle and with a fervent, heartfelt "Veni, Sancte Spiritus'" begged for guidance in placing her subjects. The religious then accepts her charge, whatever it may be, knowing it to be sanctified by obedience, fortified by faith, and ulti-mately made the "sweet yoke" and "burden light" because of that burning love for her Divine Bridegroom which had made it possible for her to "leave all things and follow Him." --SISTER MARY OF ST. GERTRUDE, R.G.S. 269 .uesE ons and Answers 35 Is it possible to gain ~he "tofies quoties" indulgence for the Poor Souls on November 2nd in a prlvafe chapel in which Mass is said daily but which is usedoonly by religious? This chapel is part of parish church It will be' well to explain the meaning of private oratory before answering our question. Before the Code of Canon Law was pro-mulgated in 1917, it was customary tocall the ordinary chapels of religious communities either domestic chapels or private chapels. Now the Code defines a private o'r domestic chapel ~s one erected in a pri-vate house in favor of a family or private lay person; whereas the chapel erected for the benefit of a community or group of the faithful is called a semi-public chapel. Of higher rank are public chapels and churches (see canon 1188). Generally speaking, the chapels in reli-gious communities are semi-public chapels. The officiai book on indulgences, Preces et Pia Opera, states spe-cifically under No. 544 that the indulgences for the Poor Souls may be gained by the, faithful on November 2nd "as often as they visit a church or public oratory or (for those who may legitimately use it) a semi-public oratory." Again, in an introduction which explains some general prin-ciples about indulgences, this same official text states under No. 4 that when a visit to a church is required it may be made "to a church, or to a public chapel, or (for those having the legitimate use of it according to canon 929) to a semi-public oratory." Religious, the.refore, may, make all "required~ visits t~ a church" in their own chapels according to the conditions laid down in canon 929: "The faithful of either sex who, for the pursuit of religious per-fection, or' for education, or for health's sake, live a common life in houses established with the consent of. the ordinaries, but which have no church or public chapel [of their own], and likewise all persons ¯ who live in the same place for the purpose of ministering to them, whenever a visit to any unspecified church or public oratory is pre- ~ scribed for gaining irli:lulgences, may m'ake the visit in :the~h~pel of their own house where they can legitimately satisfy the obligation of hearing Mass, provided that they duly perform the other works prescribed." 270 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS We may, therefgre, conclude that religious who legitimately enjoy the benefit of a semi-public chapel, may make whatever visits are required for gaining indulgences in their own chapel, even though there is a parish church nearby, provided that it is not required that a determined church be visited. If a specit~c church or public oratory is prescribed for the visit, then it cannot be made in the community chapel but must be made ifi the church or public chapel specified. m3b--. We have fwd years 'of novitiate. The reception is held on August !2th, and two years later, on the same date, the novices take their vows. Is this in accordance with canon law, or should the vows be fa~en on the 13th of August after the completion of the two years of novitiate? Canon 555, § 2 tells us that if the constitutions prescribe more than a year for the novitiate, the extra time is not required for valid-ity unless the same constitutions expressly declare otherwise. There-fore, unless your constitutions expressly declare t~at the second year of novitiate is required t~or oalidit~t of the subsequent vows, you need have no worries about the past. As for the future, it is a probable opinion, which may be fol-lowed in practice, that, if the constitutions prescribe two years of novitiate but do not expressly require the second year for validity, the profession of t.emporary vows may be validly and licitly made on the same calendar day on which the habit was received or the novi-tiate begun (See Larraona, Commentarium pro Religiosis, 1942, p. 16, note 973; Schaefer, De Religiosis, ed. 4, 1947, p. 513, n. 906). Hence you many continue your. practice of having the reception on August 12th and of allowing the novices to take their vows two years later on August 12th. According to our constitutions, to be elected superior general the candidate must obtain half the votes plus one. We have been following 3ardi's system of voffn9 (El Derecho de las Religlosas, Vich, 1927, articles 2:~0-242), namely, the name of the candidate is written in the cen-ter of the ballot. The ballot is then signed by the voter at the bottom: and the signature sealed. In case a candidate receives exactly one vote more than half, all the ballots in his favor are opened and the signatures examined in order to make certain that the candidate has not voted for h~mself'thus~ making the election null and vold. This method of procedure 271 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Reoieto for Religious has .been severely criticized as being contrary to the spirit of the law, if not contrary to the letter. Please give us your opinion in thematter. The manner of election suggested by Father Jardi, which you follow, is the manner prescribed by Pope Pius X for the election the Holy Father by the cardinals. There is one difference, however, to which Father Jardi obviously did not advert. In the papal elec-tion, each cardinal, after signing and sealing his name at the bottom of the ballot, put on theoutside of the sealed part a secret symbol (three numbers, three letter~, a drawn image, etc.) which is known to him, to the presiding officer, ~nd to the scrutators alone. Then in case a cardinal received exactly two-thirds of the votes, his personal oote alone would be opened to make sure that he had not voted for himself. It was not necessary to open all the votes of all those who voted for him, since his vote was recognized by his cryptic symbol. It would certainly be contrary to the spirit of the canons of the Code regarding elections to open all the ballots of those who voted for a candidate in order to find out whether the candidate had voted for himself, since to do so would embarrass at least half of the voters. I do not think that it wc.uld make the election invalid, becausethe informaticn is given to those who are bound to secrecy. As a matter of fact, in a recent constitution of December 8, 1944, Pope Pius XII revised the method of electing a pope, especially the r~oi~t in ~,uestion. A vote of two-thirds of the ballots plus one is now required for a valid election; and the cardinals are no longer obliged to sign their ballots, since this provision makes it unnecessary to inquire whether the person elected voted for himself or not. In conclusion I would suggest that you change your constitutions by dropping the obliga~.ion of .having the members of the chapter sign their ballots, annd by requiring that the candidate must obtain two votes more than half the ballots cast. In this way it will always be certain that the candidate received at least one more than half the votes, even though he voted for himself. These changes will have to be approved by the Holy See, if your congregation has papal approval; or by all the bishops in whose territory you hav~ houses, if you are a diocesan congregation. .38 when it is found necessary to change some of the "legal articles" in the constitutions of a religious community, does that give the liberty fo 272 September, 1949 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS make changes in the prayers and other spiritual articles confMned in the same consfifutions? Some think that it does; others maintain that the original constitutions should be adhered to as much as possible. When the Code of Canon Law was promulgated in 1917, it became necessary for all religious institutes to revise their constitu-tions to bring them into conformity with the new laws of the Church. I.suppose that is what our questioner refers to when he speaks of "legal articles." As a matter of fact, the Sacred Congrega-tion of Religious issued a declaration on October 26, 1921, stating that "the text of the constitutions is to be amended only in those things in which the constitutions are opposed to the Code; or, if it is a case of deficiency, additions may be nhade; and as far aspossible the words of the Code itself are to be used." The same declaration, how-ever, made allowance for other changes also, provided that "the pro-posed changes have been discussed and approved by the General Chapter." In the new Normae (A.A.S. 13-317), which the Sacred Congre-gation has drawn up for itself as a guide in the approval of new constitutions, it recommends that all formularies of prayers as well as longer ascetical instructions, spiritual exhortations, and mystical considerations be put into the directory or some other such ascetical book, "since the constitutions shduld contain only the constitutive laws of a congregation as well as the directive laws of the actions of the community, whether those pertaining to government, or those pertaining to discipline and the norm of life." This does not mean that all ascetical articles are to be excluded, because the Normae state explicitly that "brief statements regarding the spiritual and religious life are opportune" in the constitutions. To answer our question: For all changes in the constitutions of a religious institute: the permission of the Holy See is required in the case of a pontifical institute; that of all the bishops in whose diocese the institute has houses in the case of a diocesan institute. These changes should be discussed and voted upon in a general chapter before being submitted to the proper authority for approval. The mind of the Church is that the constitutions of religious institutes should not contain formularies, such as prayers, daily order, and so forth. These should be put into the custom book or director3~, or some such similar book. 273 BOOK REVIEWS Religious Does the chaplain have the r;cjht fo say the funeral Mass and hold the exequles for a deceased religlous Sister of the house where he is chaplain? The common opinion, both before and after the Code, held tha~ nuns ("rnoniales") were exempt from parochial jurisdiction; hence, before the Code the chaplain alone had all the parochial powers in their behalf; but after the Code these powers were divided between the chaplain and the confessor (see canons 514, § 2 and 1230, § 5). In the case of nuns not exempt from the local o~din, ary's jurisdic-tion, the chaplain's powers under canon 1230, § 5 were questioned: but the Code Commission, on January 31, 1942, decided that even in this case the right to conduct the funeral of the nuns belonged to the chaplain, and not to the parish priest. Other lay religious (Sisters---not nuns)are subject to canon 1230, § 1, that is, the pastor has the right to conduct their funerals unless the local ordinary has granted the community exemption from the jurisdiction of the pastor in conformity with canon 464, § 2. In this latter case the chaplain, not the pastor, has the right to conduct the funerals of the members of the community. took Reviews THE LITTLE OFFICE OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN. By a Master of Novices. Pp. x -}- 431. The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland, 1948. $3.50. Priests, religious, and laity alike will welcome this new edition of The Little ONce of the Blessed Virgin. In this ~-olume is contained an explanation of the origin and history of the Office, a chapter on attention and intention, and one on the rubrics. This latter chapter is especially helpful in solving the difficulties that may arise in the recitation of the Office. The procedure to be followed for each of the hours is carefully outlined in detail. Following these introductory chapters, the Office itself follows. On one side of the page the Latin text is given, and parallel to that on the opposite page is an English translation. Directions are given at the beginning of each hour. It is to be regretted that in making this new edition the publishers did not avail themselves of the new approved translation of the Psalms and that the Pater, Ave, and 274 September, 1949 BOOK REVIEWS Credo in Latin were omitted. Surely everyone knows the English version of these prayers; but for those who are required to recite the Office in Latin, the Latin version is essential. One of the finest parts of the.book is the commentary that fol-lows the Office proper. The greater part of the commentary is taken from the Mirror of Ot~r L'adg. This commentary not only sup-plies an explanation of the prayers of the Little Office, but also provides excellent topics for contemplation. It is full, complete, beautiful, and reverent. Explanations in praise of the Blessed .Vir-gin by the great St. Bernard and many of the other outstanding saints are interspersed throughout the commentary. Finally, in an appendix, is given the Office of the Dead, and also the new Office for November 2. This little book is certainly to be recommended to those religious who must recite the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin according to rule. It will certainly help one to acquire a deeper understanding of the Office, and lead to greater reverence and devotion. -~L. 3ANSEN, S.J. THE VEIL UPON THE HEART. By George Byrne, S.d. Pp. viii -f- 103. The Newman Bookshop, Westminster, Maryland, 1947. $2.25. This booklet of essays on prayer from the penetrating pen of an Irish ,lesuit will be read with relish by saint as well as by sinner. Scripture texts worn from use take on a newness that only a man of prayer can put into them, for example: "There is no better commen-tary on the nature of prayer and its efficacy than the meeting of the virgin disciple and the impure woman in a supreme act of divine faith: 'T
PEBRUARY, 1901 ooTheoo ettysbiir Mercury CONTENTS The Flight of the Birds 239 The Taking of a United States Census 240 Pan-American Sports 243 A College Romance 244 The Treatment of the Skeptic 246 A Glimpse of Byron 248 Giving 254 Exchanges 255 Editor's Desk 258 The Past Our Present Pilot 259 A Financier (Continued) 263 A Twilight Reverie 266 "Taps" 266 An Era of Progress 268 G'BURG C. LIB. pUPLICATE FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. For Fine. Printing go to Tk Jo Eo Wile ftkilm Staff CARLISLE ST. GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. Kitzmiller Dealer In Hats, Caps, Boots and Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. R. M. Elliott Dealer in Hats, Caps, Shoes and. Gents' Furnishing Goods Corner Center Square and Carlisle Street GETTYSBURG, PA. EDGAR S. MARTIN, ^CIGARS AND SMOKERS' ARTICLES Chambersburs St., Gettysburg Leadership IN THE CLOTHING and MEN'S FURNISHING Business It is strictly here—everybody knows it. Testimony? The stock itself. The pen suffi-ciently nimble to tell all the good points of our ::::::: PALL AND WINTER. SUITS AND OVERCOATS has not been found. We will keep you dressed right up-to-date if you buy your Clothing and Furnishings here. : : : : STINE McPherson Block. No. II BALTIMORE STREET THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The Literary Journal of Pennsylvania College. Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter% VOL. IX. GETTYSBURG. PA., FEBRUARY, 1901. No. 8. THE FLIGHT OF THE BIRDS. MARGARET (HIMES) SEEBACH. Not one by one on lonely wing, They seek afar a sunny clime, When winds a chill from ice-fields bring The sombre Autumn-time; But when the cold rain comes to beat On tattered nest and drooping feather, They rise in rushing flocks, to greet The South-land all together. Not one by one, as single souls, We seek thy sunshine, Land of Light, When o'er our love-lit sky uprolls The first black shade of flight. When Pain comes whispering, " Rise and go I I bring the heart's bleak winter weather," Our pilgrim souls clasp hands, and so We journey home together I 240 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY THE TAKING OF A UNITED STATES CENSUS. C. W. WEISER, '01. HPHE book-agent or peddler may meet with a door slammed in * his face, a couple of cross dogs let loose, or an angry and citrous tongue set wagging ; he may even meet with the toe of a boot, or some missile hurled violently at him—poor man ! But the enumerator who is discreet and courteous has none of these weapons of local warfare to fear. His way is paved by the an-nouncement in the local papers of his coming. All the cross dogs seem to be away on a visit, or else tied. The people greet you with, " I knew you'd be along ; I saw it in the paper.'' He, unlike the wretched book-agent, starts out knowing that he is going to succeed. He is not asking the people, in an indirect way, for dollars ; all he wants is their census. "Well, you hain't a going to get any of my senses," replied one woman. The census enumerator learns lessons and acquires experience which could be obtained in no other way. He comes in contact with all sorts and condition^ of men. Some of his experiences with these people are indelibly fixed in his memory. Many of them, indeed, are pleasant, and some of them ridiculously humor-ous ; while some of the scenes and tales of woe which incidentally come to his knowledge are pitiable in the extreme. It is our purpose to relate some of these experiences in the active service. In town the work was pleasant, and progressed rapidly, until I came to the manufacturing establishments, where it went slow. It was necessary to make a complete inventory of the books and property, which took much time. The proprietors, however, acted in a very courteous manner. In the country the work was more troublesome, owing to the distance between the different farms, and the rough roads I had to travel over. It was not an unusual occurrence to be seen pushing a wheel up a hilly road, which was almost too rough even for a buggy. The farmers were usually to be found in a back field at their corn. This meant a long tramp, and some-times several hours spent standing out under a scorching hot sun filling out the Agricultural report, for no one kept a book ac-count. But this was amply atoned for by a cordial invitation to a farmer's dinner. The required statistics were freely given, except in the case THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 2A\ of a few illiterate people, who thought that this was only a scheme for increasing taxation. I met one man only who was unreason-able. Him, no amount of explanation would satisfy, until fright-ened into answering by the presentation of my census badge. All in all, the farmers proved themselves to be a well read, intel-ligent, courteous and hospitable people. It was, however, among the poor classes in or along themoun-tain side where one met with the most varied experiences. We came in contact with poverty and illiteracy of the most flagrant kind. The lack of suitable food and clothing was most evident. Some of the narratives were heartrending. I rapped at the closed door of a little shack one June morning, and soon saw the hag-gard and disheveled head of a distracted woman peer through a sidewindow. Soon the bolts were drawn and the door was opened. After I had completed the Population Schedule, and asked for the cause of the death of her child, the poor mother answered in tones of despair that it had frozen to death in bed one cold mid-winter night. Perched in an agony of physical and mental torment, in a lit-tle black hovel, through whose single window peered the dim light, I found a murderess—an ex-penitentiary convict. The look of despair, and fear, and torment, mirgled with every sign of the wildest passion, were sufficient to make one shudder. After a long and lonesome journey on horseback, through the wildest and most picturesque mountains in the state, I arrived one mid-day on the top of a lofty mountain. Far below lay a deep, narrow vale, wooded with the verdant forest. On the op-posite side loomed up lofty crags and peaks, proud sentinels of a scene of native grandeur which few have ever beheld, and which brought tears of rapture to the eye. In all this grand and lonely fastness there were but four families, for two of which I had to make this long trip. They had never been to school. Had no-where to go to church. Creeping in among the bushes I came across some rude hovels, in which dwelt gnome-like creatures, who spoke a dialect scarcely to be understood. The chief object which showed of any com-munication with the outside world, which I saw in one hovel, was a tin cup filled with tobacco standing in the centre of a rough table. Of this both men and women smoked and chewed. I suppose it was their only consolation. When asked the date of 242 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY their birth, the one replied that she was born in "the corn husk-ing time," another in the " huckleberry season." When asked their age, they simply couldn't tell; they hadn't the faintest idea. At another house I rapped at the door. A woman answered, and after I had stated my business she simply turned her back and walked away. I followed her into the house, opened my portfolio, and began work. When I asked the date of her birth she studied awhile and finally drawled out, "Why—m—1749." (She was about thirty years of age.) Another woman said she was born in 1896. One old man replied, " My mommy hut mir net gesat" (His mother hadn't told him). No doubt you will ask whether the condition of these people of the mountains cannot be helped. It cannot, at least in this generation. It has been tried. Some of the children have been brought out to the town schools, and after years of hard toil and unceasing, patient effort 011 the part of the teacher, these chil-dren have gone back as ignorant as when they came. They could not spell d-o-g or c-a-t. When given warm clothing they could not be induced to wear much of it. Habits of thought and neat-ness could not be taught to them. When they spoke to each other it was in such guttural, and so rapid, that no one else could understand. And is it any wonder that these people have become so de-praved and mentally estranged ? Isolated from the world, amidst wild and lone surroundings, they have always lived in the same spot where their ancestors lived for two hundred years back. Under such conditions the natural condition would be for these people to drift back towards a wild and animal state. Thus, coming in contact with the high and the low, the rich and the poor, it will readily be seen what a wide range for the study of humanity the enumerator has. Much of the social and moral condition of our country cannot be conveyed by the great round numbers of a census report. It remains buried in the heart of the enumerator. 'Many a dream has vanished away, Many an ideal turned to clay ; Many a friendship proved untrue— Constant and lasting, Oh, how few !" THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 243 PAN-AMERICAN SPORTS. '"PHE President of the Pan-American Exposition recently appoint- *■ ed a Committee on Sports, as follows: Jesse C. Dann, Chairman, Dr. Chas. Cary, J. McC. Mitchell, John B. Olmsted, Chas. M. Ranson, Seward A. Simons, Wm. Burnet Wright, Jr. Soon after its appointment the committee invited the follow-ing named gentlemen to act as members of an Advisory Committee on Amateur Sports: Hon. Theodore Roosevelt, Walter Camp, C. C. Cuyler, C. S. Hyman (Canada), C. H. Sherrill, A. A. Stagg, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, Casper Whitney. The appointment of this Advisory Committee emphasizes the desire of the Committee to have all amateur competitions occupy the highest possible plane. The Stadium, with a seating capacity of 12,000, is beautiful in design and promises to be one of the most successful architect-ural creations of the Exposition. It will surround a quarter-mile track with ground area ample for the requirements of all the events proposed. As to the nature of the athletic events planned, it may be said that amateur sports of all kinds will be encouraged as representing the most desirable of athletic competitions, and the members of the Committee on Sports, being college graduates, particularly wish to make a special feature of college sports. In the manage-ment of inter-collegiate events, it is the desire of the Committee that the various college associations be invited to undertake as far as possible the arrangement of the necessary details connected therewith. Although amateur sports will comprise a large part of the program, it is proposed to have such a number of professional events as will allow visitors an opportunity to witness the athletic skill of the best professionals. The character of prizes that will be offered has not yet been definitely determined upon, but the assurance may be given that prizes will be awarded of value as lasting souvenirs of athletic success at the Exposition. It is proposed to arrange a number of college baseball and foot-ball games, and it is especially desired by the Committee that the Eastern Inter-Collegiate (I. A. A. A.) Track Meeting be held in Buffalo next year. An ideal program might be to hold in the Stadium the East-ern Inter-Collegiate Meeting, then the Western Inter-Collegiate 244 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Meeting; these to be followed by a Pan-American Meeting open to competitors in the two previous meetings and to representatives of other Inter-Collegiate Associations. Other Inter Collegiate events have been considered, such as La Crosse, Cross Country Running with start and finish in the Stadium, etc., etc. The Committee on Sports hope that the Exposition may have a full college representation. It is proposed to hold many other sports in the Stadium, the A. A. U. Championship, Lawn Tennis, La Crosse, Cycling, Association Football, Water Sports, Trap and Target Shooting, etc., etc. All communications should be sent to Jesse C. Dann, Chair-man; 433 Ellicott Square, Buffalo, N. Y. c*p A COLLEGE ROMANCE. '99. Thro' a painted window Soft the sunlight falls, With a rainbow beauty Lighting- up the halls— With a touch of glory, Gilding dim, old walls. Stately arching pillars Rise above the stair, On the carven columns Stone-cut faces rare; Here a laughing satyr, Tearful naiad there. Graven deep, long ages Each has filled its space, Keeping watch in silence O'er the classic place. Time has laid no finger On each cold, still face. Motionless in sunshine, And in shadow so, Heeding not unnumbered Feet that come and go. Oh, what fiue romances Must these statues know! THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 245 Could each sculptured image Open lips of stone, Tell to eager listening Secrets it hath known, Bits of lore and legend, Of the days long gone! Once a dark-eyed maiden Lingered near the stair, And a fair-haired Junior Stood beside her there, With one strong arm resting Strangely near her hair. Eyes of brown are meeting Eyes of tender blue, Hearts are closer beating— Lips are Hearing, too, How it came to happen Neither ever knew. Just a hurried pressure, One keen moment's bliss, But the face above them Saw the stolen kiss. When had graven image Looked on sight like this? Years have closed the lashes Over eyes of brown; One page in life's story Folds forever down. Thro' the classic hallway Others trail the gown. Tho' the silent statue May recall full well That romantic moment, Yet a magic spell Ouardeth still the secret— It can never tell! c*P Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 'Tis only noble to be good ; Kind hearts are more than coronets, And simple faith than Norman blood. —TENNYSON. 246 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY THE TREATMENT OF THE SKEPTIC. J. B. BAKER, '01. TVTHAT the world is to-day, she owes to the skeptic. Before " he walked among men, the race was inert and drowsy and dull. No systems of thought were conceived, no rational explanations sought. It does appear sometimes, however, in going back to mythic lands and mythopceic days, that they must have been, indeed, an active state. The grotesqueness of their various colored myths is sometimes taken as a proof of mental keenness. The multiplicity of their beings, and the variety of their functions, connected as they are with almost every conceivable phenomenon of nature, is said to augur a deep measure of mental acumen on the part of the authors, as well as the people who believed in them and honored them. But they are not the product of a mature analysis ; only the fancies of a dreamy childhood. Their golden fables were nothing more than the gyrations of splendid color to the yawning child who is just rubbing the scales of sleep away from his eyes. They are the capricious imaginings of an awakening mind. In this setni-somiioleut condition the sons of men were long enwrapped, and cared little to abandon it. When Thales, Anaximines, Diogenes and others appeared with their various creeds and myth-dispelling dogmas, they dis-turbed the lethargy of their fellows, and incurred the hostility of many. Their names became the targets of false accusation, and their teachings were branded as dangerous. But the world of philosophy is not unique in its antagonism to the independent thinker. The realm of science is its kin. There was a time when scientific men believed the world to be fiat. Columbus said it was round, and instantly the tongues of ridicule were loosened on him. Yet upon his hypothesis rest the important calculations of to-day. There was a time when the sage men of the world held that "lightning was an almost infinitely fine combustible matter, that floats in the air and takes fire by sudden and mighty fermenta-tion; also, that it was a physical expression of God's wrath against the insects He had created." Benjamin Franklin was too practical a man for such idle spec-ulation, and showed them their folly by the flying of his kite. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 247 No sooner had he seized the bolts of Zeus, however, and shat-tered their theory to the good of mankind, than he was charged with an affront to the Almighty himself. Protecting houses against lightning was said to interfere with the prerogatives of Deity, and when, three years after the experi-ment, New England was shaken by an earthquake, a Boston divine contended, in a sermon preached on the subject, that light-ning rods, by gathering the electricity from the clouds and ac-cumulating it in the earth, were the causes of the upheaval. There was a time, even later than that, when the stage-coach was the fastest mode of transportation, when steam locomotion was unknown and little thought of. George Stephenson went to work to construct an engine, and this is what the Quarterly Re-view had to say: "What can be more palpably absurd and ridicu-lous than the prospect held out for locomotives traveling twice as fast as stage-coaches. We would as soon expect the people of Woolwich to suffer themselves to be fired off in one of Congreve's cannons as to trust themselves to the mercy of such a machine going at such a rate." Another authority of equal prominence said that " the poisoned air of the locomotives would kill the birds." Waile still another insisted that " there would be no further use for horses." Such examples might be added to an almost infinite number, but would only strengthen a truth already quite patent. There is yet another sphere of activity in which the skeptic, or man of thinking, figures prominently, and that is the world of religious thought. Nowhere does dissension touch such a vital point in man's destiny, and nowhere has it been punished with greater severity. The men of courage, who gave us the heritage of a pure gos-pel, were men who felt the hand of inquisitional torture. They were men whose flesh and bones were blistered and charred by the fagots of fire; men who were driven about like the master they followed, with nowhere to lay their heads. We honor them, and mention their names with oracular reverence. But we are judging them all from the vantage ground of tested history. What shall be our attitude toward the skeptic of to-day ? Con-servatism might advise us to shun him as we would shun a ser-pent. Radicalism might tell us to be fearless and read his works. We shall not presume to answer the question, but consider it wise 243 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY to resort to that sage old philosopher, who said, "Know thyself," and to a still higher authority, which says, "Know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." Above all things, whether we believe him or not, whether he is right or wrong, it is due to us to respect him for his independent thought and candor. "Honor the honest man. Earth rears but few. Only at God's white forge are such souls wrought. Rare honest man. His mind perchance sees truth In different forms from thine, yet honor him. Perchance his vision thy dim sight transcends And what to thee appears sublime and sure As the eternal hills, to him is but A bubble in the air. Perchance when thou Hast found the crystal spring whereof he drinks Thou, too, wilt quaff, and own the light divine." A GLIMPSE OP BYRON. HTHE meteoric career of this celebrated, but ill-starred poet has * been a subject of study for all lovers of literature and its makers. Meteoric, both because of its brilliancy and short dura-tion. Byron's popularity, in his day, was greater than that of any of his contemporaries, but it was much briefer and more in-constant, and to-day the general verdict pronounced by the read-ing public and literary reviewers, is against him. To-day men praise the highland ruggedness and simplicity of Scott's poetry; its bold irregularity and indifference to minor imperfections, claiming all to be the highest attributes of genius; they speak with unchilled ardor of Wordsworth: his great and sympathetic heart; his tender but manly verse, always sincere, often profound and ever, the genuine utterances of a true priest of the spirit; Southey and Coleridge are both loved and lauded for their large-ness of vision and poetic truth; but Byron who was hailed as he rose over the horizon in the artlessness and inexperience of his youth, as a star of the first magnitude, as the brightest orb in the firmament, is now almost universally despised and deserted; an outlaw under the ban of moral reproach and literary censure, he stands friendless in the gloom of his solitary exile. That Byron was endowed with rare natural gifts, that his poetry bears the evi-dence of exceptional powers are denied by no impartial reviewers; THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 249 that his poems lack energy, emotional colouring, daring in in-vention and many of the less definable qualities of poetry cannot be rationally insisted upon; bat that his poetry is unfit for the hands and hearts of innocent and impressionable youth and that it revolts the moral sensibilities of the more mature in years and experience, as well as offends the literary taste of the cultured, are matters of fact, known to all students of English literature. This apparent paradoxical fact must be accounted for by the unfortunate accompaniments that attended and marred his genius. His powers were of the first order, but they were accompanied by a pessimistic and envenomed spirit, a haughty egotism—though this he endeavored to conceal,—and at last, what reversed his early successes, a growing affectation of contempt for public opinion or private regard. There was a mixture of literary and moral virtues with literary and moral vices in which the propor-tion of vice became predominant, and eventually prostituted his genius to the service of shame and folly in their most attractive and insidious forms. Censorship should not be unjust, not even unsympathetic towards this most to be pitied of poets. His works to be properly appreciated, and his unwholesome sentiment and thought to be viewed in a fair light, must be traced back to his sad life as their source of inspiration, and there though the works may justly be reprobated as unchaste and injurious,we cannot help, at least but partially exonorate their author, when we view the circumstances that gave them birth and determined their character. Born into the world with a tender but impetuous and some-what petulant nature, he was alternately visited with passionate caress and indiscriminate and vindictive disfavor by his mother, —caressed into self-will and pride, he was upbraided and scolded into ill-temper and defiance; his sensitive young nature was embittered; his strong propensity to love and crave it in return was here first disappointed and thwarted; here his spirit began to be discolored with that tinge of hatred and haughty contempt for human kind that disfigured his poetry and ruined his life. Leaving home with scarce a regret save that at the expiration of the school term he would have to return, he hoped to enter a more wholesome social atmosphere, to mingle among more active and congenial spirits, and there find that sympathy, trust and esteem for which his ardent young nature panted. His friendships, 250 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY as may be imagined, were few but fast, nearly always broken, if broken at all, through his own petulance upon the most trivial occasions, but generally soon renewed with ties of stronger affec-tion and mutual respect. Precocious emotional susceptibility exposed him at a very early age to the vexatious experience of unreasoning loves. The mistresses of hisyouthful passions uniformly repelled his advances, little knowing that they were crushing a heart that would bleed, not for a day, or a week, or a month, but for a lifetime; that they were rejecting a passion, which, exalted by a sanctified home-life, would have provided and enriched every endearment of wedded felicity; but spurned with indifference in its first ventures, would turn to the madness of despair. The haughty pride of his untamed spirit was insulted at every turn; his keen sensibility to neglect or offense kept his resent-ment, against somebody or other, at white heat the greater por-tion of his life, making him new enemies, and decimating fre-quently the ranks of his friends—those who generally endured his eccentricities, and enjoyed his confidence and esteem. His first effort in poetry was a juvenile performance, with meagre promise of his later fame in it, written at school and pub-lished when he left the University under the title, " Hours of Idleness." It was assailed at once by Francis Jeffreys, the most celebrated critic of his day, in the Edinburgh Review. The poem, prefaced with a disavowal of all poetical aspira-tions and a cleverly written appeal to the clemency of the critics was condemned without reserve, its faults exposed with relent-less accuracy, and, in general, treated with so much ridicule and contempt that Byron was aroused, the latent powers of sarcasm and irony that lay sleeping within him were awakened, and he seized the pen and wrote with the energy and inspiration of a demon, "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers," venting indis-criminate calumnies upon all writers and critics of his day. This poem, though written in the rashness of youth, and in some re-spects inviting severe censure as " misplaced anger and indis-criminate acrimony," for the first time announced his real power. His skill in versification, the vigor of his thought, the terrible energy of his feelings, and brilliancy of sarcastic wit, proclaimed at once to England that no common man had risen, and prophe-cies were many and sanguine of his future fame. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 251 After having been rebuked by every journal, by critic and even friends for his unjust assault upon men of genius and merit, some of established reputation and venerated name, he became dissatisfied at home, and, conceiving his talents not duly appre-ciated, and himself slighted, he sailed from England and traveled throughout the continent, visiting Spain, France, Switzerland and Italy. During his tour he wrote the first two cantos of " Childe Harold." This poem, written in the verse of Spencer's " Fairie Queen," though often affectedly antiquated in style, and always darkened by skepticism and misanthropy, is energetic and manly in thought always, in spirit often, and his language is picturesque and expressive, conjuring from the world of fancy the weird but vivid and copious imagery that so uniformly characterizes all his poetry. This rhythmic tale is regarded as a poetical version of his own life, the central figure throughout the narrative no other than the haughty Byron himself, masquerading in an imperfect disguise. The spirit, the pictured career and dismal sentiments of the self-exiled hero, are all paralleled in Byron, though he strenuously denied their identity, alleging that Harold was wholly an inde-pendent creation, without an existing prototype, at least under his observation. The poet, however, in the fourth canto identi-fies himself with the gloomy pilgrim visiting earth's historic scenes, as if no longer caring to maintain his false character. All the poetry that followed was animated by the same spirit; characters were changed in name, but not in essence ; scenery was altered; the tale diversified by fresh incident; yet through it all stalked Harold's sombre ghost casting a shade of gloom and sadness over it, and breathing into it his philosophy of despair. Frequently Byron was bitter, but that in his attacks upon so-ciety, upon the virtues and excellencies of character, which most men admire and magnify, he was insincere, and did not give utterance to sentiments actually his own, only unsympathetic and misled readers dare assert. His poetry above any other of his age bears the stamp of its author's character, the seal of his spirit, though often gracefully concealed, and impresses the reader that whatever the scenes, whatever the characters, Byron is there and speaks from the innermost depths of his heart. "From the in-nermost depths of his heart," for in all his works the energy of his 252 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY spirit burns with a blazing heat and like a kindled furnace throws its wild glare upon the narrow scene it irradiates; little difference whether he wrote of angels or villains, of princes or beggars, the torch of his thought and feeling was lighted at the same flame. This sombre color and despairing energy of his genius, though admirable in the proper place and proportion, makes it impossible for him to sympathize with the ordinary and more generous feel-ings of humanity. He could not elevate the simple and obscure life, the pure love, the trials, the sorrows, the tradegy and comedy of those low in station and humble in fortune, into the realm of poetic beauty as Burns; Nature had denied him the tender respon siveness of heart to song of bird, ripple of brook, the sigh of wind, which it so richly bestowed upon Wordsworth. Byron was fasci-nated by rugged scenery, by nature in her violent moods but never loved her for herself, and though his poetry abounds with allusions to and descriptions of mountain and lake, ocean and forest, they serve but to suggest by analogy some mood of man—and that mood how monotonously the same ! What a sublime range of character, what inexhaustible re. sources of human feeling, what a wealth of poetic mystery, beauty and truth investing diversified nature and human life were left un-touched by his master pen. Had his energy of spirit not been perverted and confined to the narrow channels into which it was forced, had his harp been tuned to more numerous and pleasing chords, who can say that with his exuberance of imagination, ca-pacity for reflection and poetic insight and art, Byron would not have been the chief ornament of his day and generation, his mem-ory cherished with fondest admiration, and his poetry a more per-manent and vastly more desirable addition to our literature. Of this sad fact Byron was not ignorant and often took occasion in his verse to rebuke his impetuous and monotonous strain of feeling and ardently prayed for tranquillity of spirit and soberness of mind. Serene landscapes, peaceful waters, inspired longings "to forsake earth's troubled waters for a purer spring." "Clear placid Leman," he cries, "once I loved Torn ocean's roar but thy soft murmuring' Sounds sweet as if a sister's voice reproved." During the early stages of his literary career he resolves but in vain to tame his wild passions and to think and feel as other men: THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 253 "Yet must I think less wildly; I have thought Too long and darkly, till my brain became In its own eddy boiling- and o'erwrought A whirling gulf of phantasy and flame, And thus untaught in youth my heart to tame My springs of life were poisoned,—"Tis too late." The tragedy of a soul here seems to reach its catastrophe in the utterance of the concluding sentence: '' 'Tis too late !'' Byron here appears to stand on a commanding eminence and view with retrospective survey the irredeemable past, lamenting the errors of his way, but all "too late," and theu with sublime heroism to submit to the doom prepared for him, "to feed on bitter fruits without accusing Fate;'' to chide himself with the guilt of his own desolation: "The thorns which I have reaped are of the tree I planted—they have torn me and I bleed, I should have known what fruit Would spring from such a seed." His poetry thus is the musical wail of a proud yet broken spirit; a life with many shattered yet many vibrant strings; it is a feast of beauty attended by the unclean spirits of an unchaste mind, a song with the vigor and spirit of a march and the sadness and gloom of a dirge; the tuneful philosophy of a man who knew both too much and too little of himself and his fellow mortals, who in tempest and calm sailed life's pathless sea without chart or compass; a man with more than the usual powers of men, but destitute of their most common possession—character. "A wandering mass of shapeless fame, A pathless comet and a curse, The menace of the universe, Still rolling on with innate force Without a sphere, without a course." —TID BITS. Oh, many a shaft at random sent Finds mark the archer little meant; And many a word at random spoken May soothe or wound a heart that's broken. —SCOTT. 254 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY GIVING. When God brought forth the world we're told, He did it by decree, , Just spake the word, and chaos rolled Into consistency. But when the race of human-kind To sin became a slave, Not all the words in Perfect Mind Could ransom, so He gave. He gave his child, the anointed One, The best in Heaven above, That man might learn through His dear Son How God indeed is Love. And so must we, if we would be Found walking in His ways, Show to mankind that sympathy, That gives as well as prays. A word well said may often thrill, A happy song may cheer, But souls will ne'er be won, until Kind deeds with words appear. They are the vessels that contain The oil of healing grace, And they alone can free from pain The deep-scarred human race. Then let our eyes be e'er alert, Our neighbors' want to see, Our hands and feet grow more expert To bear them sympathy. For thus it is, each little chance Improved, becomes a gem, Whose lustre shall fore'er enhance Our heavenly diadem. —ERNIE. e$P Three poets in three distant ages born, Greece, Italy and England did adorn ; The first in loftiness of thought surpassed, The next in majesty, in both the last. The force of nature could no further go; To make a third she joined the former two. -DRYDEN. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Entertdat the Postojfice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. VOL. IX. GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1901. ' No. 8 Editor-in- Chief, . A. VAN OR.MER, '01. Assistant Editors, W. H. HKTRICK, W. A. KOHLER. Business Manager, H. C. HOFFMAN. Alumni Editor, REV. F. D. GARLAND. Assistant Business Manager, WILLIAM C. NEY; Advisory Board, PROF. J. A. HIMES, LIT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD. D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, One Dollar a year in advance; single copies Ten Cents. Notice to discontinue sending- the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors, and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EXCHANGES. [From the January TOUCHSTONE, Lafayette.] Our Contemporaries. I HAVE heard it said that we never have original thoughts; that even those which we consider original have been worked over in the minds of others who have gone before. It seems impossible, however, that two college men, apparently far sepa-rated, should have had thoughts so exactly similar, and above all, that they should have expressed them in language so similar, as have two men representing two of our prominent colleges. This is an age of psychological phenomenon, and the power ot one mind over another is unquestioned ; but, if the case under consideration comes under this head, there evidently remains a field of psychological research yet unfathomed. 2S6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY We ask the aid of those interested in honest college literary work, in the solution of the following mystery : In the Nassau Literary Magazine for October, 1900, was printed the MacLeau prize oration, entitled "An Ideal of American His-tory." In the Gettysburg Mercury for November, 1900, appeared an oration, entitled " Abraham Lincoln." We quote from these two articles, and print them in parallel columns. AN IDEAL OF AMERICAN HISTORY. Thirty-five years have gone by and the Republic is stronger than ever. The battle smoke of the civil war has rolled away, and to-day when we look into the clear past, our first glance meets the colossal figure of Abraham Lincoln. He is an American mountain—when you view minutely and examine care-fully each particular crag or fea-ture, how homely he seems ! But stand back half a century, behold the entirety—do you not see an Al-mighty hand ? We say an Ameri-can mountain, for you cannot think of Lincoln as a Grecian or a Roman, he is not English and certainly not French—he is ours, the man be-longs to. us alone, while his fame is the world's. Our broad country can no more contain that, than the present race can compute its dura-tion. Ages are the units which shall measure its extent, and eter-nity shall not behold it9 comple-tion. Let us for a while then con-sider him who, under God's provi-dential hand, more than any other, preserved our liberties and main-tained for us our national govern-ment. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. Thirty-five years have passed and the Republic is stronger than ever. The battle-smoke of civil war has rolled away, and as we louk into the clear past, our first glance meets the colossal figure of Abra-ham Lincoln. He seems a moun-tain— when you examine each par-ticular crag and feature, how home-ly he appears; but stand back half a century, behold theentirety—Do you not see the hand of God ! We wonder at him for his greatness, and we are proud of him that he is ours. We cannot imaging Lincoln as a Grecian or a Roman; he is not English and certainly not French —he belongs to us alone, but his fame is the world's. Our broad land can no more contain that than the present generation can esti-mate its duration; ages are the units which shall measure its ex-tent, and eternity shall not behold its completion. Let us for a while then consider him who, under God, more than any other, preserved our liberties and kept us as a peo-ple what we are. The Nassau Literary Magazine Princeton University Princeton, N. J., Jan. 29, 1901 Editor Gettysburg Mercury, « Dear Sir: You have probably noticed in the Lafayette Touchstone for January, 1901, in the department headed Our Contemporaries, that attention is called to two orations, one entitled "An Ideal of American History," which was published in this magazine in the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 257 October number and another, entitled "Abraham Lincoln," which appeared in your magazine for November. The opening para-graphs of the two orations are printed in parallel columns and are so similar that it leaves no doubt in our mind that either one was copied from the other or else both were taken from a common source. If you will read what the Toiichstonc says you will prob-ably come to the same conclusion. Now this matter should be sifted to the bottom and it is to the interest of both magazines to see that it is done. I send you a copy of the Lit. which contains "An Ideal of American History" and request that you send us the November number of the Mercury. Will you also state who wrote the oration on "Abraham Lincoln," when it was delivered, and when probably written. Also the home residence of the man who wrote it. "An Ideal of American History" was delivered here last June and won the Junior McLean Oratorical prize of $ioo. I trust you will appreciate the seriousness of this for both of us, and help me to find out the truth of the matter. Awaiting an early reply, I am, sincerely RALPH P. SWOFFORD. The above are self-explanatory. It but remains for the MER-CURY to clear away the accumulated mist, thus vindicating Mr. Heilman and his alma mater as well as the MERCURY. For this purpose we find sufficient testimony in Mr. Heilman's Statement. "March 9, 1900, I delivered the oration at Collegeville before the Pennsylvania Inter-Collegiate Oratorical Union; March 10, joined Glee Club on trip at Carlisle; March 19, returned to Get-tysburg from Glee Club trip and found awaiting me a letter from Princeton, written by a '97 alumnus of the Harrisburg High- School, whose classmate I had been for about 9 mouths. The letter asked me to send a copy of my oration for a few hints and ideas, as the '97 alumnus was preparing an oration soon to be de-livered. Sent copy of oration to Princeton March 20th or 21st. Handed oration to Dr. Himes in competition for Geis Prize— third number. [The third production for the Geis prizes is due May 1st.—Ed.] Have not seen the manuscript since." The oration came into possession of the MERCURY from the Geis prize committee through Dr. Himes, before the close of 258 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY college in June. We published it in the November MERCURY, and the original manuscript is still in our possession. We hope the above is a satisfactory explanation—that it is not necessary to ramble through that "field of psychological research yet unfathomed." It is to be hoped, further, that this, as a warn-ing to college men, may prove beneficial. Gettysburg does not suffer from the "mix up;" indeed we may feel complimented that one of our men wrote the oration that won the MacLean prize of $ioo at Princeton University, knowing that it was not sent for the use made of it. Princeton, come out. Lafayette, give us due credit. S. A. VAN ORMER, Ed. MERCURY. EDITORS' DESK. Following the custom of former years, no January number of the MERCURY was issued. The question of special programs in our literary societies is be-ing discussed. That they have merit no one will doubt; but whether they should occur so frequently is, indeed, a question. The object of the societies is to train their members for the duties that shall rest upon them in years to come by assisting in and completing that harmonious development that shall send the col-lege student into the world well-rounded. Our discoveries in science have been made by men who worked in seclusion; our masterpieces in literature and in art have not been wrought before the gaze of cheering throngs; the men who have "moved the masses" in days agone have frequently talked to the ocean's waves and the forest's trees. Young men, that they may be successful, must cultivate the habit of working with-out artificial stimulus. As this is the last issue of the present staff, we desire to ex-press our appreciation of the hearty support we have received from those interested in THE MERCURY. We have at all times had sufficient material on hand. Whether or not we have selected wisely the material used, others must determine. We have tried THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 259 to maintain the standard formerly held by THE MERCURY among the college journals of the State. In conclusion, we remind the Professors, Students and Alumni of Pennsylvania College that the standard of her journals have much to do with her success ; and we bespeak for the new staff the same hearty support given us, that the literary journal of the institution may be worthy ot Pennsylvania College. THE PAST OUR PRESENT PILOT. CHAS. LEONARD, '01, Reddig Junior Oratorical Prize. ■CAR back through the dim, dim vistas of the ages, when chaos, ■*■ darkness and void had receded in obedience to the eternal fiats of the Omnipotent, to give place to cosmos, light, and cre-ation, there appeared in that creation a creature whose progress and destiny have been the objects of the concern of two worlds. The earth was man's birthday present. "Go forth and subdue it" was the divine commission, and the history of the race is the story of the warfare that has been going on ever since that com-mission has been received. As the nineteenth century gates swing on their hinges, soon to shut into the hoary past another century, we feel like one who is leaving the harbor to sail an untried sea; in whose vision friends throwing kisses of good-by, and waving handkerchiefs for a suc-cessful voyage, are fast fading from view, and from whose sight the well beloved shore is receding and has at last merged into the misty horizon overhanging the deep. In the stately ship of civilization we are about to launch on a trackless ocean. Farewell to the past—only its lessons are any longer ours. Welcome the future, in which we are to live and act! I^et our prayers be united that our majestic ship may clear all the dangerous rocks that lie just beneath the surface, any one of which may prove fatal to the progress of the "Ship of State." As we stand at the stern of the vessel, looking out upon the watery expanse stretching into eternity on either side of the wake, with our mind's eye we take a retrospective glance into the history of the past. We look into the realm of discovery and we note that the most important contribution of this realm to civilization has been the discovery of laws in the moral and the physical universe. 260 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Ages ago the minds of men craved to understand the laws of the heavenly bodies, and the skies did speak to the old Chaldean shepherds, but in an unknown language. They were transported by the rich melody of the spheres, but could not appreciate or understand the celestial anthem. Ptolemy listened and caught a few scattered words; Copernicus hearkened and caught the first full sentences: Kepler and Newton gave us the first translation of the rythmical language of the heavenly orbs. Thus we see the gradual development of the scientific spirit in the presence of which truth has always unveiled her face and made herself known, as she has come to answer the everlasting "Why?" of science. In philosophy the same development is strikingly real. Man in his eagerness to answer the two questions concerning himself of "Whence?" and "Whither?" at first indulged in speculations that seem to us to the last degree chimerical. Twenty-five centuries have made but comparatively few changes on the face of the material world. A Greek of the fifth century B. C. might still find his way without difficulty from town to town of his native Hellas, and recognize at a glance the scenes of his childhood days, but he would find the world of thought a new creation or rather the old so transformed as to be unrecognizable. We have emanated from the mist and fog which enveloped the old Pagan philosophers. We have transcended the highest thought of grand old Socrates. Thought can no longer be said to be "An infant crying in the night, An infant crying for the light, And with no language but a cry." In the sunlight of truth this infant of thought has grown to a great stature, though it has not yet attained the perfect symmetry of maturity. The discovery of laws has been just as important and extensive in the social and political world as in the realm of philosophy. Every century has been an improvement over the preceding. Nations have been born, grown up, and died, while history, the coroner of the fallen empires of the past, has declared at the autopsy, "The cause of death was the result of a departure from law, either undiscovered or disobeyed" and standing, a silent sentinel, in the ashes of their former glory, pointing her finger toward the future she says in prophetic voice to all surviving nations "Beware!"— THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 261 a word so full of meaning when uttered by such an authoritative voice. Are we heeding this long sounded warning? Shall we dare say that the past is meaningless? Shall we not profit by the wise instruction it has to give? The Mu
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 613 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 211 ha (35%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 376 ha (61%) in the microwatershed is covered by rock outcrops and about 25 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 9 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. An area about 35per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 12 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to deep (75 - 150 cm) and 23 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available manganese (>1.0 ppm) and copper (>0.2 ppm) are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 70(11) Guava - 63(10) Maize - 46(7) Sapota - 63(10) Bajra - 80(13) Pomegranate - 63(10) Groundnut - 72(12) Musambi 1(<1) 62(10) Sunflower - 62(10) Lime 1(<1) 62(10) Redgram - 63(10) Amla - 79(13) Bengal gram - 8(1) Cashew - - Cotton - 8(1) Jackfruit - 62(10) Chilli - 71(12) Jamun - 1(<1) Tomato - 71(12) Custard apple 38(6) 41(7) Brinjal - 80(13) Tamarind - 1(<1) Onion 39(6) 41(7) Mulberry - 71(12) Bhendi 38(6) 42(7) Marigold - 71(12) Drumstick - 72(12) Chrysanthemum - 71(12) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed among them 6 (17.65 %) were landless, 14 (41.18 %) were marginal farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were small farmers, 4 (11.76 %) were semi medium farmers and 3 (8.82 %) were medium farmers. The data indicated that there were 91 (54.49 %) men and 76 (45.51 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.33, marginal farmers' was 4.92, small farmers' was 4.28, semi medium farmers' was 5.5 and medium farmers' was 6.66. The data indicated that, 36 (21.56 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 61 (36.53 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (32.93 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (8.98 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Yadgiri Rf-2 had 70.06 per cent illiterates, 10.18 per cent of them had primary school, 1.80 per cent of them had middle school, 8.98 per cent of them had high school education, 2.40 per cent of them had PUC, 0.60 per cent of them had Masters education and 1.20 per cent of them had Degree education. The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 67.65 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 cent of the household heads were General Labour. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 7.19 per cent of the household members, 67.66 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.60 per cent were in general labour, 0.60 per cent were private service, 16.77 per cent were students, 1.20 per cent were housewives and 5.99 per cent were children. The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 14.71 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 67.65 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 20.59 per cent of them possess Pucca/RCC house. The results show that 47.06 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.82 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 14.71 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 20.59 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Tempo and 82.35 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,343, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,166, Bicycle was Rs. 1,500, motor cycle was Rs. 34,714 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,864. About 23.53 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 50 per cent of the households possess plough, 38.24 per cent of them possess Seed/Fertilizer Drill, 2 14.71 per cent of them possess sparyer, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler and 41.18 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 12,875, plough was Rs. 4,047, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 3,492, sprayer was Rs. 2,540, sprinkler was Rs. 1,166 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 132. The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 17.65 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 14.71 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 2.94 per cent of the households possess Poultry birds. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.03, average own labour (women) available was 1.79, average hired labour (men) available was 9.61 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.70. The results indicate that, 70.59 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed possess 28.32 ha (75.42 %) of dry land and 9.23 ha (24.58 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.43 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 8.81 ha (90.44 %) of dry land and 0.93 ha (9.56 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.86 ha (58.54 %) of dry land and 3.44 ha (41.46 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.22 ha (56.14 %) and 4.86 ha (43.86 %) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 370,658.86 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 411,666.67. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 602,092.13 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 376,683.51 for dry land and Rs. 859,130.45 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 267,583.33 for dry land and Rs. 348,705.88 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 128,645.84 for dry land and Rs. 370,500 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 1 De-functioning and 2 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning open wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.88 per cent of the farmers and Canal and Open Well were the irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.94 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.29 meters. The results indicate that, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.93 ha and 3.36 ha respectively. 3 The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (2.83 ha), green gram (7.91 ha), groundnut (4.25 ha), Paddy (1.21 ha), Jasmine (2.11 ha), red gram (16.23 ha), Onion (0.81 ha) and sorghum (2.02 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, groundnut, Jasmine, sorghum, cotton and green gram. Small farmers have grown red gram, green gram, onion and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram, green gram and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown red gram, green gram, Jasmine, cotton and sorghum. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed was found to be 73.97 per cent. The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households have bank account and 64.71 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 8.33 per cent of the households have borrowed from Friends/Relatives and 41.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from Grameena Bank. The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs. 55,000.08. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from private sources for the purpose of Household consumption. The results indicated that, 87.50 per cent of the households Un paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources and 12.50 per cent of the households Partially paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources. The results indicate that, 75 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 12.50 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from easy accessibility of credit and Higher rate of interest. The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 32406.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54751.67. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 22344.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.69. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 37433.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42691.58. The net 4 income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 5258.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.14. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 27567.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 94209.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 66641.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 3.42. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 33006.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54609.16. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 21602.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.65. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 39494.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33417.64. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -6076.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.85. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 39803.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82333.33. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 42530.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.07. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 34350.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 85913.05. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 51562.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.5. The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 67,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 166,778.57, for small farmers it was Rs. 242,715.43, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 192,500 and medium farmers it was Rs. 191,666.67. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 12,459.04. For landless households it was Rs. 5,277.78, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,194.87, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,068.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 29,600 and medium farmers it was Rs. 34,111.11. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut, 29 Custard apple, 4 lime and 7 mango tree in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 50 Eucalyptus, 53 Neem, 4 Acacia, 3 Banyan and 10 tamarind trees in their field. The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,441.18 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,294.12 for Irrigation facility, households have an average investment 5 capacity of Rs. 1,470.59 for improved livestock management and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,470.59 for Subsidiary enterprises. The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development, 8.82 per cent for irrigation facility. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 2.94 per cent for subsidiary enterprises. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development. The results indicated that, cotton and paddy was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, Green gram was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, Onion was sold to the extent of 97.5 per cent, Paddy was sold to the extent of 91.67 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 91.95 per cent and sorghum to the extent of 84.62 per cent. The results indicated that, about 23.53 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 76.47 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Regulated Market. The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation and 11.76 per cent of the households have used Truck as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 38.24 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent have adopted Field Bunding, 5.88 per cent have adopted Farm Pond and 2.94 per cent have adopted Bore Well Recharge Pit. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the Bore Well Recharge Pit structures were good, 50 per cent each of the Farm Pond structure was good and slightly damaged and 100 per cent of the Field Bunding structures were good . The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent of the conservation structures were constructed with own funds and 8.82 per cent of the conservation structures were used govt funds. The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel, 20.59 per cent of the households used Kerosene and 23.53 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 58.82 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households in micro watershed and Solar Lamp was the major source of light for 2.94 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. 6 The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards and 2.94 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL cards and Not Possessed. The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 67.65 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 79.41 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 32.35 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 8.82 per cent and Milk and were adequate for 17.65 per cent. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 29.41 per cent of the households, Pulses were inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 67.65 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82.35 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 91.18 per cent, Milk were inadequate for 76.47 per cent, Egg were inadequate for 97.06 per cent of the households and Meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 79.41 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (70.59 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases and High cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.35 %), Inadequacy of irrigation water (58.82 %), High rate of interest on credit and Low price for the agricultural commodities (79.41 %), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (64.71 %), Inadequate extension services (44.12 %) and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (61.76 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nagalapur-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 677 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 598 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 78 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 15 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 61 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 26 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 4 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 47 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 16 per cent area very low (0.75%) and 85 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content. About 33 per cent area is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area 44 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 47(7) 143(21) Guava - 28(4) Maize 23(3) 192(28) Sapota - 28(4) Bajra 28(4) 162(24) Pomegranate - 55(8) Groundnut 8(1) 32(5) Musambi 27(4) 28 (4) Sunflower 27(4) 28(4) Lime 27(4) 28 (4) Redgram - 117(17) Amla 28(4) 100(15) Bengal gram 27(4) - Cashew - 25(4) Cotton 27(4) 25(4) Jackfruit - 28(4) Chilli 23(3) 105(15) Jamun - 27(4) Tomato 23(3) 78(12) Custard apple 55(8) 73(11) Brinjal 23(3) 78(12) Tamarind - 27(4) Onion 23(3) 78(12) Mulberry - 28(4) Bhendi 23(3) 105(16) Marigold 23(3) 105(16) Drumstick - 55(8) Chrysanthemum 23(3) 105(16) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 105 (61.40%) men and 66 (38.6%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 4.3, small farmers' was 5.2 and semi medium farmers' was 4.5. The data indicated that, 39 (22.81%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (42.11%) were in 16-35 years of age, 53 (30.99%) were in 36-60 years of age and 7 (49%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Nagalapur-1 had 50.88 per cent illiterates, 11.70 per cent of them had Primary School, 72 per cent of them had Middle School, 16.37 per cent of them had High School, 4.68 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.75 per cent of them had diploma education and 2.34 per cent of them had Degree education. The results indicate that, 5.56 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 91.67 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and 2.78 per cent of the household's heads were trade and business. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 6.43 per cent of the household members, 65.50 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.58 per cent were in Household trade and business and dairy farm, 18.71 per cent were students, 2.92 per cent were housewives and 5.26 per cent were children. The results show that, 0.58 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in grama panchayat and 99.42 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in local institution. The results indicate that 52.78 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 16.67 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 22.22 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 8.33 per cent of the households possess semi pacca house. The results show that 72.22 per cent of the households possess TV, 58.33 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 2.78 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and car/four wheeler, 41.67 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 91.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8,830, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,976, refrigerator was Rs. 1,500, Motor Cycle was Rs. 37,366, car/four wheeler was Rs. 30,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,774. About 27.78 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 38.89 per cent of them possess plough, 2.78 per cent of them possess seed/ fertilizer drill, irrigation pump and thresher, 11.11 per cent of them possess Sprayer and sprinkler and 69.44 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 14,580, plough was Rs. 20,078, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 4,000, irrigation pump was Rs. 7,000, 2 Sprayer was Rs. 3,800, sprinkler was Rs. 4,300, weeder was Rs. 252 and the average value of thresher was Rs. 180. The results indicate that, 41.67 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 25 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent of the households possess cross breed cow and sheep, 11.11 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 5.56 per cent of the households possess goat. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.19, average own labour (women) available was 1.5, average hired labour (men) available was 10.61 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.42. The results indicate that, 88.89 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 11.11 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results show that, 2.34 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has migrated. The results show that, average distance of migration was 500 kms and average duration of migration was 11 months. The results show that, 50 per cent of the population has migrated for the purpose of job/wage/work and business. The results indicate that, households of the Nagalapur-1 micro-watershed possess 14.31 ha (28.80%) of dry land, 34.98 ha (70.38%) of irrigated land and 0.4 ha (0.81%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 5.9 ha (87.68%) of dry land, 0.42 ha (6.31%) of irrigated land and o.4 ha (6.1%) of permanent fallow land. Small farmers possess 7.39 ha (59.9%) of dry land and 40.91 ha (40.91%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 12 ha (6.86%) of dry land and 13.79 ha (93.14%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 15.64 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 583,107.15, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 429,813.72 and the average value of permanent fallow land was Rs. 1,235,000. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 550,205.61 for dry land, Rs. 1,881,904.85 for irrigated land and Rs. 1,235,000 for permanent fallow land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 554,296.67 for dry land and Rs. 671,683.80 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 984,063.75 for dry land and Rs. 489,216.55 for irrigated land. Medium farmers, the average land value were Rs. 258,822.77 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 19 de-functioning and 23 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 63.89per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 4.68 meters. 3 The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.43 ha, 3.40 ha, 13.41 ha and 12 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown groundnut (21.08 ha), cotton (10.48ha), paddy and red gram (3.79 ha), green garm (22 ha), sorghum (0.81ha) and sweet potato (42.1 ha). The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Nagalapur-1 micro-watershed was found to be 97.14 per cent. The results indicate that, 88.89 per cent of the households have bank account and 41.67 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 27.78 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 46.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 6.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative, grameena bank and money lender and 20 per cent of the households have borrowed from friends/relatives. The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 61,666.67. The results indicate that, 90 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production and 10 per cent of the households from institutional sources for purpose of social functions like marriage. The results indicate that, 75 per cent of the households borrowed from private sources for the purpose of agricultural production and 25 per cent of the households from private sources for the purpose of household consumption. The results indicated that 10 per cent of the households partially paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources and 90 per cent of the households not paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources. The results indicate that, 60 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 30 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from higher rate of interest and 10 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time. The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 52355.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49965.31. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. -2390.43. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.95. 4 The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 21594.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 43225. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 21630.68. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2. The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50657.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41762.31. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -8895.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.82. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 487325. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76436.68. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 27704.63. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.57. The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 33099.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 3950.73. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.12. The total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 29179.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80363.79. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 511847. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.75. The results indicate that, 41.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 30.56 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 121,055.56 marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 98,545.45 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 130,930 and medium farmers it was Rs. 161,166.67. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 115,444.47. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 11,544.44, for small farmers it was Rs. 3,776.86, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 20,332.22 and medium farmers it was Rs. 11,138.89. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 5 coconut, 22 lemon and 19 mango trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 9 Teak, 72 neem, 8 tamarind, 10 acacia, 4 Banyan and peepul trees in their field and also 1 neem trees in their backyard. The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 11,361.11 for land development; households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,277.78 for irrigation facility, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2,583.33 for improved crop production, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,055.56 for improved livestock management, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.166.67 for orchard development/ maintenance and households have an average investment capacity of Rs.55.56 for purchase of farm machinery. The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.78 per cent for irrigation facility and improved livestock 5 management. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 2.78 per cent for land development and 5.56 per cent for irrigation facility and improved livestock management. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 22.22 per cent for land development, 5.56 per cent for irrigation facility and 5.56 per cent for improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 22.22 per cent for land development, 19.44 per cent for irrigation facility, 16.67 per cent for improved crop production and 5.56 per cent for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, Cotton was sold to the extent of 72.38 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 78.96 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 82.86 per cent, Sorghum was sold to the extent of 80 per cent, and red gram to the extent of 88.24 per cent. The results indicated that, about 77.78 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 8.33per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets and 11.11 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that, 13.89 per cent of the households have used head load, 5.56 per cent of the households have used Cart, 58.33 per cent of the households used tractor and 19.44 per cent of the households used truck as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 94.44 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 91.67 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 19.44 per cent of the population adopted field bunding, 5.56 per cent of the population adopted summer ploughing and dead furrow. The results indicated that, condition of field bunding was 71.43 per cent of good, 14.29 per cent were slightly damaged and severely damaged. The results indicated that, 8.33 per cent of the population involved own and government agency, 2.78 per cent of the population involved farmer's organization in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, 80.56 per cent of the households used firewood and 33.33 per cent of them used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 36.11 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and Bore Well was the source of drinking water for 41.67 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 38.89 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. 6 The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards. The results indicated that, 80.56 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, oilseeds were adequate for 8.33 per cent, vegetables and meat were adequate for 41.67 per cent, fruits were adequate for 11.11 per cent, Milk were adequate for 52.78 per cent and Egg were adequate for 47.22 per cent. The results indicated that, oilseeds and fruits were inadequate for 88.89 per cent of the households, vegetables and meat were inadequate for 58.33 per cent, milk were inadequate for 44.44 per cent, Egg were inadequate for 52.78 per cent. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 80.56 per cent of the households, Wild animal menace on farm field, frequent incidence of pest and diseases and Lack of marketing facilities in the area (91.67%), inadequacy of irrigation water and high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (72.22%), High rate of interest on credit (75%), Low price for the agricultural commodities (97.22%), Inadequate extension services (27.78%), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (94.44%), Less rainfall (5.56%) and Source of Agri-technology information (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Bacillus cereus sensu lato comprises Gram-positive spore-forming bacteria producing toxins associated with foodborne diseases. Three pore-forming enterotoxins, nonhemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe), hemolysin BL (Hbl), and cytotoxin K (CytK), are considered the primary factors in B. cereus sensu lato diarrhea. The aim of this study was to determine the potential risk of enterotoxicity among soil B. cereus sensu lato isolates representing diverse phylogroups and originated from different geographic locations with various climates (Burkina Faso, Kenya, Argentina, Kazakhstan, and Poland). While nheA- and hblA-positive isolates were present among all B. cereus sensu lato populations and distributed across all phylogenetic groups, cytK-2-positive strains predominated in geographic regions with an arid hot climate (Africa) and clustered together on a phylogenetic tree mainly within mesophilic groups III and IV. The highest in vitro cytotoxicity to Caco-2 and HeLa cells was demonstrated by the strains clustered within phylogroups II and IV. 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ENGLISH ABSTRACT My argument, that draws heavily on the works by scholars of social and welfare policy as, among others, Gosta Esping-Andersen (2002, 2013), Bruno Palier (2010, 2012), Brian Nolan (2013), Bea Cantillon (2011, 2012, 2013), Anton Hemerjick (2011, 2012, 2013, 2013, 2015), Maurizio Ferrera (1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2000, 2012, 2013), and Chiara Saraceno (2011, 2013) regards social investments as a twofold product of the neoliberal workfare model (Jessop 1990). On the one side, social investment prescriptions are to be understood as a counter-reaction to the neoliberal project of "rolling-back" the public sector involvement in social security. Social Investment infuses public intervention of a new centrality, one that finds its raison d'être in the need to mitigate the disruptive impact of market forces on social cohesion, as well as in the potential of welfare programs to foster individual productivity and sustain growth in post-industrial economies. On the other, social investment demonstrates a degree of continuity with elements of the neoliberal ideology, with particular respect to the stigma placed by the latter on unproductive, 'passive' entitlements, but also concerning the favor accorded to principles of welfare governance such as customer's choice, multi-level provision, and accountability The welfare system intended by proponents of the social investment model is meant to function in a radically different socio-economic context from those of the 1950s or even the 1980s. During the last three decades, along with demographic changes, European countries have witnessed the consolidation of a new service economy marked, as Andersen observed, by an increasing correlation between prosperity and the 'diffusion of knowledge and innovation' (2000). In the post-industrial knowledge society, goes the adage, human capital has become the prime engine of growth – a doctrine crystallized by the European Council in the Lisbon Agenda's notorious passage 'people are Europe's main asset' (European Council 2000). This PhD research project takes issue with the social investment paradigm, in particular the claim that a functionalist childcare strategy constructed upon the needs of currently employed individuals can prove effective for decreasing inequality in educational opportunity across socio-economic groups (SEGs). I advance the view that recent efforts to recalibrate welfare states towards activation policies have generated irregular dynamics of early childhood services expansion. Whereas over the last two decades both the number of day-care centres and overall participation rates in formal childcare have increased across the European Union (EU), this broadening of provision has not been accompanied by an equally broad commitment to create a universal legal entitlement to childcare. Likewise, EU countries have often been found wanting in enacting adequate measures to remove financial and cultural barriers preventing families with low socio-economic status from taking up more hours of formal early education. The PhD focuses on the case of early childhood governance in the Autonomous Province of Trento / APT (Italy) throughout the 1995-2015 period, which makes for a paradigmatic example of social investment-inspired childcare strategy. Over the period in question, renewed public investment has raised childcare participation considerably in the APT, but concurrently it fell short of setting the foundations for a universal model, capable of ensuring access to all SEGs. Overall, the research points to the emergence in the APT of "twin fault lines" of childcare fragmentation, between socio- economically distinct groups and between providers. The socio-economic fault line refers to the unequal distribution of childcare across SEGs, telling apart affluent families from those that struggle to shoulder childcare costs. The second line touches upon the remarkable cleavage in training and qualification requirements that separates the staff employed in day-care centres under public jurisdiction and private providers that are exempt from compliance with these norms. With respect to the 'socio-economic fault line', childcare policies in the APT have followed a choice- increasing pattern, which ensued the rise of para-public and private day-care centres, as well as of family-based services. Whereas the Regional government has attempted to ensure equal access through means-tested subsidies and voucher schemes, both public and non-public centres still present flat fees and higher tariffs that run the substantial risk of crowding out low-income families. In general, the distribution of childcare remains dramatically skewed along socio-economic lines, with higher-income families recording much higher participation rates. Concerning the 'professional fault line', over the same twenty-year period, a concurrent trend of increasing staff professionalism has run parallel to the expansion of services in the APT. Since the late 1990s, both minimum qualification and training requirements for childcare staff have been raised from secondary school to a bachelor's degree in a field related to psychology or education. Applicants are also required to have undergone a minimum of 200 hours of training/practice. Whereas such reforms have translated into a significant upgrade of entry level qualifications for early years practitioners, pointing to a shift towards increasing professionalism in the sector, these regulatory changes have only applied to the public and para-public sectors, leaving fast-growing private and family-based services largely unaffected. ABSTRACT ITALIANO Background Il tema centrale di questo progetto di ricerca, che prende le mosse dai lavori condotti da studiosi di politiche sociali e sistemi di welfare quali, per citare i più noti, Gosta Esping-Andersen (2002, 2013), Bruno Palier (2010, 2012), Brian Nolan (2013), Bea Cantillon (2011, 2012, 2013), Anton Hemerjick (2011, 2012, 2013, 2013, 2015), Maurizio Ferrera (1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2000, 2012, 2013) e Chiara Saraceno (2011, 2013), è un'analisi del graduale processo di consolidarmento di un nuovo paradigma welfarista, conosciuto come 'social investment', o 'welfare dell'investimento sociale'. L'emergere di questo approccio, che ha investito tanto la sfera della governance quanto quella relativa alla sostenibilità finanziaria della spesa sociale, ha acquisito forza in Europa a partire dalla seconda metà degli anni Novanta, ed è stato definito come un duplice prodotto di quella che Jessop (Jessop 1990) ha definito la natura lavorista del welfare neoliberale, il così detto workfare state. Alla stregua di questa intuizione, il paradigma del social investment può essere considerato, al contempo, come un contraccolpo, una reazione, all'idiosincrasia liberista verso il dominio pubblico della sfera sociale, affermatosi con prepotenza nei decenn successivi alla Seconda Guerra Mondiale, e come una manifestazione di continuità con alcuni dei principi cardine che, invece, caratterizzarono dal punto di vista organizzativo il sorgere negli anni Settanta e Ottanta di un'alternativa ferocemente anti-keynesiana all'amministrazione del welfare. Se dunque, da un lato, il paradigma del social investment ha infuso di una nuova legittimità l'intervento pubblico nel campo socio-assistenziale (ma anche educativo), legittimità che trova nella tutela della coesione sociale e nella protezione del cittadino dalle forze centrifughe del libero mercato la sua raison d'être essenziale, esso ha comunque mantenuto un alto grado di scetticismo verso la 'passività' degli strumenti di protezione tradizionali, caratteristici della fase espansionista nota come Trentennio Glorioso (1945-1975) e giudicati gravemente inadeguati alla realtà post-industriale del XXI° secolo. Contrariamente al modello welfarista post-bellico, lo Stato dell' investimento sociale ha infatti quale focus d'interesse primario le politiche di attivazione, conciliazione e, in termini più generali, i programmi funzionali ad incrementare lo stock di capitale umano a diposizione dell'economia nazionale, ritenuto fondamentale per sostenere la crescita, sempre più vincolata a settori ad alta intensità di competenze ('skill-intensive'). Ma, se il superamento dei vecchi paradigmi è una mossa dettata da esigenze di adattamento, o di ricalibrazione, a un contesto europeo in profonda trasformazione, la transizione iniziata negli anni Novanta ha anche ridisegnato, in chiave produttivista, il rapporto esistente tra Stato e cittadini, i quali, non più beneficiari garantiti di un regime di sostegno, si sono visti trasformare a tutti gli effetti in attivi fautori della propria dimensione di sicurezza. A cambiare è stata la ratio profonda dello stato sociale europeo, che da "rete protettiva", tesa a tutela di lavoratori e famiglie dai rischi intrinseci al sistema economico industriale (disoccupazione, infortunio, malatia, vecchiaia), diveniva un "trampolino di lancio" nell'economia della conoscenza ('knowledge economy'), una complessa rete di programmi e policies "capacitanti", o di empowerment, orientata a fornire pari opportunità di ingresso e permanenza nel mercato del lavoro a qualsiasi individuo abile, indipendentemente dal genere o dalle condizioni socio-economiche di partenza. Il paradigma dell'investimento sociale si regge, dunque, su tre ipotesi centrali: (i) nel contesto economico post-industriale un ampio bagaglio di competenze (cognitive, sociali, comunicative) rappresenta la più efficace risorsa sulla quale il cittadino possa contare, ai fini di assicurare la propria sicurezza economica; (ii) responsabilità dello stato sociale moderno non è più quella di gararantire il soddisfacimento di una filiera di bisogni essenziali, o diritti sociali acquisiti, bensì creare le condizioni per le quali i cittadini possano, in autonomia, sviluppare le competenze necessarie a raggiungere una condizione di sicurezza; (iii) una società composta da cittadini competenti, equipaggiati degli strumenti appropriati a prosperare nell'economia della conoscenza, è anche una società inclusiva ed egalitaria, e dunque operare per incrementare il capitale umano di un numero sempre maggiore di cittadini significa, implicitamente, muovere verso una riduzione delle disuguaglianze sociali esistenti. In questo nuovo contesto, come è evidente, i sistemi di istruzione e formazione hanno acquisito una rinnovata centralità. I servizi socio-educativi per la prima infanzia, in particolare, sono stati oggetto di una radicale riconfigurazione: da strutture profondamente connotate in senso conciliativo-assistenzialista, finalizzate primariamente a favorire la permanenza all'interno de mondo del lavoro di un numero, relativamente esiguo, di madri lavoratrici, a settore strategico per lo sviluppo precoce di competenze, passaggio imprescindibile per il raggiungimento di quegli obiettivi di crescita economica ed inclusione intrinseci alla strategia dell'investimento sociale (Heckman and Carneiro 2003, Heckman, Stixrud et al. 2006, Cunha and Heckman 2010) Ipotesi e domande di ricerca Questo progetto di prefigge un duplice obiettivo d'indagine. Il primo, in linea con l'approccio discorsivo-istituzionalista definito da Vivienne Schmidt (2006, 2008, 2011, 2015, 2016), consiste nel fornire una ricostruzione della traiettoria di istituzionalizzazione seguita dai servizi socio-educativi per la prima infanzia, in Italia e in Trentino, nel corso degli ultimi 50 anni; un resoconto storico capace di mettere a fuoco i momenti chiave nella lenta e frammentata transformazione del settore da servizio residuale ai margini della tradizionale architettura welfarista, a sfera strategica del progetto di investimento sociale. Nel contesto di questa ricostruzione diacronica si vuole dare risalto non soltanto alla concatenazione di documenti, programmi e decisioni politico-strategiche messe in atto dagli attori istituzionali, quanto sottolineare la corrispondenza tra cambiamenti di strategia e il graduale processo evolutivo che, nel corso dei decenni, ha sostanzialmente modificato il modo di guardare alla prima infanzia. Il secondo obiettivo della ricerca, in linea con la direzione d'indagine indicata da studiosi come Bea Cantillon (2011, 2013), Wim Van Lancker (2013, 2017) ed Emmanuele Pavolini (2008, 2014, 2015), è quello di testare la validità di una delle premesse ipotetiche fondamentali alla base dell'approccio social investment ai servizi socio-educativi: la previsione secondo la quale un incremento degli investimenti nel settore della prima infanzia costituirebbe una leva di inclusione, capace di "rompere la trasmissione intergenazionale della disuguaglianza" (European Commission 2013) intervenendo, in età precoce, sulle competenze di base dei bambini di condizione socio-economica più debole. La ricerca si concentra sul caso della Provincia Autonoma di Trento, la regione italiana che, insieme al Friuli Venezia Giulia, ha registrato tra l'anno 2000 ed oggi i più significativi incrementi nel livello di partecipazione ai servizi socio-educativi. Il progetto si propone di analizzare la distribuzione sociale degli esiti sortiti da questo profondo processo di riforma, che ha investito non solamente la dimensione dell'offerta di asili nido e servizi integrativi, ma anche, e in misura sostanziale, la sfera della formazione del personale educativo. Il quesito che la ricerca, nel quinto capitolo, si propone di affrontare è se, in seguito ad un consistente aumento delle risorse a disposizione, il settore socio-educativo trentino sia oggi più vicino ad erogare un servizio di carattere universalista capace di erogare cura ed educazione di qualità a tutti i cittadini della Provincia, indipendentemente dalla condizione economica e dall'area geografica di residenza; o, viceversa, se il fenomeno riformista a cui si è assistito nel corso degli ultimi decenni sia ascrivibile ad un modello di espansionismo "selettivo", teso a colmare un gap nell'offerta di servizi ma senza riguardo per la costruzione di un sistema effettivamente equo. Strumenti teorici e metodologici. La ricostruzione storico-politica poggia su un framework metodologico di carattere discorsivo-istituzionalista. In termini estremamente generali, l'istituzionalismo rappresenta una prospettiva analitica di meso-livello, che riconosce nell'evoluzione delle istituzioni la variabile decisiva per comprendere e spiegare i processi di cambiamento politico (interessata, dunque, a variabili differenti dalla razionalità individuale, o dai macro-interessi strutturali). Le istituzioni, in questa dimensione di analisi, sono considerate come insiemi multi-livello di regole formali ed informali, capaci di esercitare un'influenza sostanziale sul processo e sugli esiti del policy-making, influenza che si manifesta primariamente tramite la capacità di assetti e strutture organizzative di limitare il numero, o lo spettro, di decisioni e comportamenti a disposizione degli agenti politici. Vincoli istituzionali definiscono il numero di soggetti che possono partecipare alla costruzione di un'agenda politica, dettano il numero di opzioni strategiche a disposizione degli attori, organizzano l'esercizio del potere politico all'interno di sequenze implementative predefinite, financo indicano gli strumenti necessari alla valutazione d'impatto delle decisioni maturate. Analisi di carattere istituzionalista hanno ottenuto un ampio successo nello spiegare le traiettorie evolutive dei sistemi di welfare europeo. L'approccio discorsivo si distingue dalle altre correnti istituzionaliste per il focus che pone su fattori e dinamiche endogeni alle organizzazioni: una postura metodologica che si traduce in attenzione all'evoluzione delle strutture discorsive interne alle organizzazioni (le strutture del linguaggio e degli 'atti comunicativi', i sistemi di percezione, idee e convinzioni degli attori), Questa logica interpretativa considera il cambiamento delle politiche come l'esito di processi evolutivi complessi, mai lineari e spesso prolungati nel tempo, che toccano la costruzione di quelle strutture di significato ('structures of meaning') tramite le quali gli attori interni alle istituzioni interpretano ed attribuiscono senso alle proprie azioni, organizzano il proprio comprotamento e definiscono priorità strategiche. L'analisi del processo di "istituzionalizzazione" dei servizi socio-educativi per la prima infanzia, dunque, fa ampio ricorso a documenti ed atti ufficiali, che forniscono testimonianza della parabola evolutiva compiuta da agenti interni alle istituzioni politiche dell'Unione Europea (nel capitolo terzo), e italiane (nel quarto). Lo scopo dichiarato rimane quello di descrivere come un principio fondamentale del nuovo paradigma welfarista del social investment, la centralità strategica di investire precocemente nel capitale umano tramite i servizi socio-educativi, abbiano progressivamente penetrato i confini delle istituzioni politiche, provocando un profondo cambiamento nelle strutture di significato che esse adoperano per amministrare e governare il settore della prima infanzia. Il secondo obiettivo di ricerca, testare sulla Provicia Autonoma di Trento la validità della "promessa egalitarista" del social investment, si articola nel corso del quinto capitolo nell'analisi di un disposto combinato di dati quantitativi, estratti da database statistici nazionali (ISTAT) e provinciali (ISPAT), e interviste qualitative raccolte nel corso di uno studio di campo condotto tra il mese di Agosto 2016 e Febbraio 2017. I dati quantitativi sono trattati in funzione di semplici analisi descrittive, capaci di catturare la ricaduta degli investimenti compiuti in Trentino tra gli anni 2002 e 2015 su differenti fasce sociali e aree territoriali. I dati raccolti – relativi all'accesso ai servizi per fascia di reddito, tipologia di servizio, e comunità montana di residenza – risultano decisivi a costruire un affresco dettagliato della realtà trentina. La dimensione qualitativa dell'analisi, costruita sulla base dei dati raccolti in più di 30 ore di interviste semi-strutturate con educatori, coordinatori pedagogici, dipendenti dell'Ufficio comunale di Trento per l'infanzia e funzionari provinciali, arricchisce l'interpretazione del processo politico oggetto dello studio di caso con una importante prospettiva "interna" alle istituzioni, aiutando a confermare, sostanziare e spiegare le ipotesi che sorgono dalla rielaborazione dei dati quantitativi. ; open
La relación entre el emprendimiento, la globalización y la libertad económica ha vuelto a situarse en el centro del debate acerca de la contribución de la globalización sobre el desarrollo económico de las economías modernas. Tras experimentar décadas de una excepcionalmente fuerte globalización, el mundo está asistiendo a un resurgimiento del proteccionismo. Esta tendencia no solo está afectando a los acuerdos de libre comercio sino también a la integración económica que se había alcanzado en algunas áreas como la de la Unión Europea. En este contexto, las empresas menos competitivas y los desempleados con menor empleabilidad, son grupos que tratan de ejercer su poder de influencia sobre las instituciones y votar a opciones políticas que incorporen las preocupaciones de estos grupos (por ejemplo acciones proteccionistas o de endurecimiento de la política migratoria. La consecuencias de este proceso son una de las cuestiones calientes de la agenda de actuación política en el momento actual tras la Gran Recesión, dado que algunas industrias y grupos de población culpan a la globalización de ser la causa última de sus problemas y presionan para provocar una vuelta al proteccionismo y a la contención de los flujos migratorios, Para ellos, la expansión de la eficiencia y productividad que parecía prometerse como asociada a ia globalización parece no estar garantizada si las diferencias entre las instituciones de as diferentes naciones alteran la productividad y competitividad relativa. Así, podríamos argumentar que el ecosistema empresarial, esto es, el conjunto de instituciones para el desarrollo de los negocios es el principal determinante no solo de la contribución del entrepreneurship al crecimiento económico sino también a la creación de empleo e innovación. Por tanto la libertad económica en sus diferentes dimensiones (tales como el imperio de la ley, la eficiencia regulatoria, y en especial la libertad de empresa, las instituciones del Mercado de trabajo y el grado de integración de la economía (grado de apertura comercial) y el peso de 1 sector público, pueden ser considerados factores clave para determinar si una sociedad es "empresarial" o no. La única forma de resolver este tipo de controversias es proporcionar sólidas proposiciones y hallazgos empíricos para evaluar los efectos de la globalización sobre el crecimiento económico, la innovación, la creación del empleo y el entrepreneurship. En este contexto, el estudio de la relación entre la integración económica y el entrepreneurship es especialmente interesante, dado que el entrepreneurship es un determinante principal del desarrollo económico. En principio, la relación entre la globalización, la libertad económica y el entrepreneurship es ambigua, dado que podríamos encontrar explicaciones tanto para esperar relaciones bidireccionales y de diferente signo. Por un lado, y con respecto a la relación entre el entrepreneurship y la integración económica, podríamos suponer que la integración abre nuevas oportunidades de beneficio, propicia el aumento de las escalas gracias a la extensión de la demanda potencial que emerge gracias a la entrada en nuevos mercados. Desde esta perspectiva, más apertura es un factor positive no solo para promocionar el entrepreneurship sino también para aumentar la probabilidad de supervivencia y éxito. Por otra parte la globalización, aumenta la intensidad de la La relación entre el emprendimiento, la globalización y la libertad económica ha vuelto a situarse en el centro del debate acerca de la contribución de la globalización sobre el desarrollo económico de las economías modernas. Tras experimentar décadas de una excepcionalmente fuerte globalización, el mundo está asistiendo a un resurgimiento del proteccionismo. Esta tendencia no solo está afectando a los acuerdos de libre comercio sino también a la integración económica que se había alcanzado en algunas áreas como la de la Unión Europea. En este contexto, las empresas menos competitivas y los desempleados con menor empleabilidad, son grupos que tratan de ejercer su poder de influencia sobre las instituciones y votar a opciones políticas que incorporen las preocupaciones de estos grupos (por ejemplo acciones proteccionistas o de endurecimiento de la política migratoria. La consecuencias de este proceso son una de las cuestiones calientes de la agenda de actuación política en el momento actual tras la Gran Recesión, dado que algunas industrias y grupos de población culpan a la globalización de ser la causa última de sus problemas y presionan para provocar una vuelta al proteccionismo y a la contención de los flujos migratorios, Para ellos, la expansión de la eficiencia y productividad que parecía prometerse como asociada a ia globalización parece no estar garantizada si las diferencias entre las instituciones de as diferentes naciones alteran la productividad y competitividad relativa. Así, podríamos argumentar que el ecosistema empresarial, esto es, el conjunto de instituciones para el desarrollo de los negocios es el principal determinante no solo de la contribución del entrepreneurship al crecimiento económico sino también a la creación de empleo e innovación. Por tanto la libertad económica en sus diferentes dimensiones (tales como el imperio de la ley, la eficiencia regulatoria, y en especial la libertad de empresa, las instituciones del Mercado de trabajo y el grado de integración de la economía (grado de apertura comercial) y el peso de 1 sector público, pueden ser considerados factores clave para determinar si una sociedad es "empresarial" o no. La única forma de resolver este tipo de controversias es proporcionar sólidas proposiciones y hallazgos empíricos para evaluar los efectos de la globalización sobre el crecimiento económico, la innovación, la creación del empleo y el entrepreneurship. En este contexto, el estudio de la relación entre la integración económica y el entrepreneurship es especialmente interesante, dado que el entrepreneurship es un determinante principal del desarrollo económico. En principio, la relación entre la globalización, la libertad económica y el entrepreneurship es ambigua, dado que podríamos encontrar explicaciones tanto para esperar relaciones bidireccionales y de diferente signo. Por un lado, y con respecto a la relación entre el entrepreneurship y la integración económica, podríamos suponer que la integración abre nuevas oportunidades de beneficio, propicia el aumento de las escalas gracias a la extensión de la demanda potencial que emerge gracias a la entrada en nuevos mercados. Desde esta perspectiva, más apertura es un factor positive no solo para promocionar el entrepreneurship sino también para aumentar la probabilidad de supervivencia y éxito. Por otra parte la globalización, aumenta la intensidad de la competencia pero también las oportunidadesde empleo asalariado en el sector exportador hacienda que aumenten las transiciones desde el autoempleo al empleo asalariado., al menos entre ios empresarios marginales. Así a medida que la competencia global se intensifica, las empresas y empresarios más ineficientes cerrarán. Por otra parte a medida que aumenta la exposición a la competencia internacional, un menor número de ocupados eran autoempleados, tal y como el modelo de Diez and Ozdagli sugiere. Además, deberíamos considerar cómo todo este proceso afecta a la productividad del autoempleo es decir, a la distribución relativa del entrepreneurship entre autoempleo formal e informal. Sin embargo, la cuestión clave pasa por conocer si el efecto de una mayor exposición al comercio internacional, genera una reasignación óptima del trabajo entre el empleo y el autoempleo y entre las empresas menos productivas y las más productivas que contribuya al crecimiento económico la innovación y el empleo. Por tanto, el reto es proporcional evidencia empírica que arroje nueva luz acerca a este debate y a las actitudes hacia la globalización. Para lograr este objetivo, es importante no solo conocer los efectos de una mayor apertura sobre la intensidad exportadora del autoempleo sino también conocer si este proceso es mutuamente beneficioso tanto para los países más y menos desarrollaodos. Para abordar estas cuestiones esta tesis aborda una segunda cuestión de investigación. Una indagación sobre las razón del porqué los efectos de la globalización sobre el sector empresarial se abordan solo de manera cuantitativa y no también de forma cualitativa. En concreto, trataremos de proporcionar nueva evidencia empírica sobre la base de la aportación teórica de Acs and Sanders (2007). Para ellos la globalización no solo no destruye autoempleo sino que promoeve el modelo de producción entrepreneurial, con una trabnsición desde grandes corporaciones a pequeñas configuraciones empresariales (Acs and Audretsch, 1993; van Stel, 2006) lo que se traduce en una reducción del tamaño medio gracias a las nuevas oportunidades en el sector servicio que ha aparecido gracias al desarrollo de las Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación (ICT), dos factores que probablemente se encuentren detrás de la sorprendente evolución de las tasas de autoempleo en los países más desarrollados. Audretsch and Sanders (2007) refuerzan esta idea al sugerir que la globalización y el desarrollo del sector ICT han supuesto una nueva división internacional del trabajo en la que las economías más avanzadas son ahora entrepreneurial driven, con más trabajadores de altos skills especializados en los procesos de innovación mientras que los países menos desarrollados y emergentes y con trabajadores menos cualificados se especializan en las etapas de la producción que han sido offshored. En definitiva, esta tesis tratará de analizar el triángulo entre entrepreneurship, globalización y libertad económica para ofrecer una mejor comprensión del cómo y el porqué de la contribución del sector empresarial nacional al crecimiento, la innovación y el empleo con diferente intensidad y características. ; The interplay between entrepreneurship and globalization and economic freedom backs into at the heart of the debate about self-employment contributions to the economic development of modem economies. After experienced a process of exceptionally strong globalization, the world is witnessing to an upsurge of protectionism. This new trend is threating not only free trade agreements but also the levels of economic integration achieved in some economic areas like the European Union. In this framework the less competitive firms and unemployed with low employability, are groups that will treat to lobby and to vote political options that incorporate the concerns of these groups (i.e. protectionist actions like less trade openness and restrictive migration policies. The consequences of this process are a hot policy issue at the time of writing after the great recession, since some industries and large sectors of the population considers globalisation as the ultimate cause of their problems, and advocate by any return to protection for national business and domestic employees against foreign firms and migrant workers. For them, the expected promotion of efficiency and productivity associated to globalisation is not guaranteed if the differences between institutions across countries alter the relative productivity and competitiveness. Thus, one could argue that the entrepreneurship ecosystem i.e. the institutional framework for business is the main determinant of the capacity of contribution of entrepreneurship to economic growth, job creation and innovation. Therefore, the economic freedom in its different dimensions, such as the rule of law, the regulatory efficiency and in especial business freedom and labor market institutions, the degree of integration into the global economy -i.e. the openness to trade- and the weight of the public sector on the overall economy might be considered as key factors, for determining whether a society is an entrepreneurial one or not The only way to resolve this type of controversies is providing solid economic propositions and empirical findings in order to evaluate the globalisation impact on economic growth, innovation, job creation and entrepreneurship. In this context, the study of the relationship between economic integration and entrepreneurship is particularly interesting, since entrepreneurship is a determinant of economic growth and job creation. In principle, the relationship between globalization, economic freedom and entrepreneurship is ambiguous, since one can argue that we can find plausible explanations for expecting both a positive and a negative relationship. Starting with the relation between entrepreneurship and economic integration, we all agree in that economic integration opens new business opportunities and encourages the self-employed firm size, since sales to foreign markets expands the potential demand. From this perspective, more trade openness is a positive factor not only for fostering entrepreneurship but also for enhancing the probability of survival and success. On the other hand, globalization increases the intensity of competition the opportunities of jobs and wages in the export sector leading a raise in the number self-employed workers due to the confluence of two phenomena: i) as global competition continuous to intensify some of them, the less competitive ones, could not withstand this competition, thus triggering the shutdown; ii) the greater the exposure to foreign competition, the smaller the fraction of self-employed people as the Diez and Ozdagli's (2011) model suggest. In addition we should also consider whether more openness influences on the relative distribution of entrepreneurship between productive and unproductive activities, i.e. between the so-called formal and informal self-employment. However, the key question is to know whether the effect of a higher exposure to international trade, leads, in any case, an optimal reallocation of labour between paid-employment and self-employment and between less productive firms to more productive exporters, and even across countries with positive effects on economic growth, innovation and job creation. Thus, the challenge is to provide empirical findings in order to shed light to the debate and attitudes towards globalization. To this end it is important to know the effects of more trade openness on the export intensity of self- employment is mutually beneficial, not only for higher-income countries but also for lower-income countries. In order to address these questions this dissertation also includes a second research question. In particular it presents an inquiry about the reasons of why the effects of globalization on national self-employed sectors should be analyzed not only in quantitative terms but also in qualitative ones. In particular we will treat to provide empirical findings for supporting the theoretical view of the effects of globalization on national entrepreneurial systems, provided by Acd and Sanders (2007). For them, globalization does not destroy self-employment but encourage the entrepreneurial model of production (Acs and Sanders, 2007. The shift away from large corporations and towards smaller entrepreneurial activity (Acs and Audretsch, 1993; van Stel, 2006) with the associated reduction in the average self-employed firm size, as well as the new business opportunities in the service sector for entrepreneurship thanks to the improvements in the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are the two potential factors behind this surprising performance of the self-employment rate. Audretsch and Sanders (2007) reinforce this idea suggesting that globalization and the development of the ICT sector are leading a new international division of work, the advanced economies endowed with high skilled workers are specialized in early stages of the product life cycle introducing innovations in products or process, while the less developed economies endowed with low skilled workers are specialized in the off-shored production stage. In sum, this dissertation will treat to analyse the triangle entrepreneurship, globalization economic freedom, for providing a better understanding how and why the contribution of a national self-employed sector on economic growth, innovation and job creation can show different intensities.
De forma general, la medición de productos, investigadores o grupos es un proceso que puede generar tensiones, más aún si se tiene en cuenta que estas mediciones tienen implicaciones económicas e institucionales. El proceso de medición en el caso de la producción académica pasa en primer lugar por enlistar el tipo de productos que pueden dar cuenta de la actividad académica y que pueden ser objeto de indicadores de medición. Así se encuentran dentro de estos productos libros, capítulos en libro, artículos científicos, artículos de divulgación, materiales de intervención psicosocial, patentes, modelos, normas, software, artefactos de intervención social, acciones de apropiación social del conocimiento, participación en escenarios académicos y sociales de los productos de investigación, las acciones de transformación de política pública, como otros productos de innovación social y los procesos de formación asociados a la producción de investigación. Luego, en este proceso de medición es necesario evaluar los productos y esto presenta un alto nivel de complejidad. Por ejemplo, en el caso de los artículos publicados en revistas tienen una evaluación más clara por cuanto los mismos deben pasar por procesos de valoración de pares y además, las revistas visibilizan la calidad mediante el reconocimiento que los investigadores dan a su trabajo expresado en los usos de estos contenidos. En este sentido, una revista con una alta citación de sus contenidos puede generar un indicador de la calidad de los artículos de la misma y los sistemas de información de citación o de descargas pueden darnos indicadores de esta dinámica de evaluación de la calidad de estos productos. Pero esta información no solo es utilizada para valorar los productos sino que además hay estudios que muestran el uso, validez de técnicas, tráfico de videos o impacto de ciertos contenidos sobre una comunidad (Haran & Poliakoff, 2011; Sugimoto et al., 2013; Thelwall, Haustein, Larivière, & Sugimoto, 2013). Por otro lado y con un grado de complejidad mayor, la evaluación de los libros y capítulos en libro no pasan por los mismos sistemas de valoración y edición previa, lo que añade una distancia en términos de calidad percibida. Sin embargo, las editoriales se han dado cuenta hoy por hoy de la necesidad de contar con procesos transparentes y exigentes) de valoración por pares de los contenidos. Es por esta razón que en gran parte de los sistemas de valoración de productos que los artículos y los libros no tienen la misma asignación de valor. La valoración de otras formas de producción como la presentación en eventos académicos o la presentación en medios de difusión puede resultar un poco más difusa, pues no todos los eventos académicos hacen evaluación por pares y los medios de comunicación no necesariamente deciden sus contenidos en relación con la calidad de la investigación si no por las dinámicas mediáticas que se escapan de la dinámica de la valoración académica. No obstante, estas actividades podrían tener una valoración en relación con la difusión y las descargas en la red a este tipo de contenidos y en las citaciones que se hacen de ese contenido no solo en el ámbito académicos, si no social (Thelwall et al., 2013). Además, dado que ha sido un campo creciente, debido a la facilidad en el acceso a la información, se han creado páginas que intentan evaluar los contenidos generados por fuera de sistemas tradicionales de producción textos escritos, como por ejemplo los blogs (Zivkovic, 2011). Por otro lado, otros productos que pueden ser fácilmente valorables son las patentes; por cuanto pasan por procesos de evaluación y reconocimiento de pares. Por el contrario, es un poco más complejo valorar las intervenciones o las innovaciones sociales como las que se expresan en leyes o en documentos de política pública, ya que deberían tener un reconocimiento importante por el impacto que generan en la sociedad. No obstante, las dinámicas políticas no necesariamente toman en cuenta estos contenidos de incidencia social solo por la fuerza de los hallazgos académicos, sino por las consecuencias políticas o económicas de las mismas. En este sentido, informes de política pública o leyes que se logren con base en hallazgos de investigación deberían tener un peso significativo en la evaluación. Por otro lado están productos un poco más complejos de medir como los que están asociados a incorporar resultados de investigación a cambios en las dinámicas sociales en comunidades. Éstos son más difíciles de medir y valorar ya que no es posible dar cuenta de la calidad de los mismos y de sus impactos. Por lo anterior, es claro que estamos ante el reto de encontrar formas de medir su utilidad, impacto y calidad. Los procesos de formación pueden ser evaluados midiendo a los estudiantes en los proyectos y grupos de investigación y en el caso de procesos de formación en doctorado seguramente las tesis de maestría y doctorado pueden dar indicadores, tanto a corto como a largo plazo. Por ejemplo, algunos de estos tipos de productos terminan en libros y artículos en revistas generando más indicadores menos inmediatos. Pero, es necesario pensar el tema por cuanto la formación doctoral en contextos como el colombiano es incipiente y pueden existir centros de investigación que no están orientados a la formación y no podrían dar cuenta de su actividad en esta dimensión. También, es necesario tener en cuenta que estos sistemas de medida deben compararse contra las dinámicas propias de cada una de las áreas de conocimiento. En este sentido, no es lo mismo evaluar los impactos de la biomedicina, que de la astronomía o de las ciencias sociales que de las humanidades. En el caso colombiano la producción de artículos en ciencias sociales registrados en Scopus es grande y está en crecimiento con relación a otras áreas del conocimiento , por lo tanto, no puede compararse si no contra sí misma. Así, las herramientas de contabilizar y visualizar la producción (en este caso Scopus) permiten ver este crecimiento contrario a lo que algunos académicos sin evidencia pueden llegar a afirmar. La estrategia de Scopus de inclusión de revistas de América Latina en forma exponencial y en especial de abrirle la puerta a las revistas de ciencias sociales y humanidades permite dar cuenta de las dinámicas de citación de estos productos en forma cada vez más fiable. Por último y como una forma de recoger en muchos casos la discrepancia ante los sistemas de medición, es necesario que se evalúen los sistemas de ponderación de los productos y los pesos de los mismos. Al igual que las ventanas de evaluación temporal y de las limitaciones de los sistemas de registro, pues las fallas en estos sistemas de registro y ponderación pueden deslegitimar el sistema de valoración. En el caso colombiano, estas fallas, por lo general, han generado desconfianza y el sistema debería definir estrategias de ajuste y de mejoramiento en el proceso hasta que el mismo sea suficientemente robusto y confiable. Otro elemento adicional debería ser el comparar estos modelos de medición entre países (mediciones comparables a nivel internacional) para identificar las debilidades y las fortalezas como los impactos que ellos tienen sobre las dinámicas de producción académica. Con todo lo anterior, lo que sí parece evidente es que no podemos escapar de los procesos de evaluación y que debemos contribuir a mejorar los mismos a estudiar sus impactos y a asegurar la calidad de los mismos, justificando y valorando su uso al interior de la comunidad académica y social. Referencias Haran, B., & Poliakoff, M. (2011). SPORE series winner. The periodic table of videos. Science (New York, N.Y.), 332(6033), 1046–7. doi:10.1126/science.1196980 Sugimoto, C. R., Thelwall, M., Larivière, V., Tsou, A., Mongeon, P., & Macaluso, B. (2013). Scientists popularizing science: characteristics and impact of TED talk presenters. PloS One, 8(4), e62403. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062403 Thelwall, M., Haustein, S., Larivière, V., & Sugimoto, C. R. (2013). Do altmetrics work? Twitter and ten other social web services. PloS One, 8(5), e64841. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064841 Zivkovic, B. (2011). What is: ResearchBlogging.org | The Network Central, Scientific American Blog Network. Scientific American blogs. Retrieved April 16, 2014, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/network-central/2011/10/19/what-is-researchblogging-org/ ; Generally speaking, the measurement of products, researchers, or groups, is a complex process that may give rise to tensions, especially when considering that these measurements have economic and institutional implications. The first step in the measurement process, in the case of scientific output, is to list the type of products that can account for academic activity and that may be subject to measurement indicators. These include books, book chapters, scientific papers, divulgation papers, psychosocial intervention materials, patents, models, guidelines, software, social intervention artifacts, social knowledge appropriation actions, participation in academic and social events with research products, actions of public policy transformation, other social innovation products and the processes linked to the production of research. The next step is to assess those products, which is a very complex matter. For example, clear evaluation criteria are available for journal papers, since they need to undergo peer review and journals transform quality into visibility by taking advantage of the recognition that researchers give to them in terms of citations. A journal with a high citation count can provide an indicator of its quality and information systems can also provide indications of these quality assessment dynamics. This information is not only used to assess products but has also been used in studies about usage, techniques, video traffic or impact of certain contents in a community. (Haran & Poliakoff, 2011; Sugimoto et al., 2013; Thelwall, Haustein, Larivière, & Sugimoto, 2013). On the other hand, and with a greater degree of complexity, assessing books and book chapters do not have the same systems of evaluation and edition, which decreases their perceived quality. Nevertheless, publishing houses have realised that transparent and demanding assessment processes are needed. This is why both assessment systems are not assigned the same value. Giving value to other forms of production, such as presenting in academic events or in general mass media, may be a little more difficult, because not all academic events have peer reviewing processes and mass media do not necessarily choose what contents to publish based on the quality of the research but on their own dynamics, which are completely different from those found in academia. However, these activities could be assessed by using download, diffusion and citation indicators both in academic and social settings (Thelwall et al., 2013). With the associated growth in this field, new websites that attempt to assess the quality of the contents created outside traditional written production settings, such as blogs, have been created (Zivkovic, 2011). Another type of product that can be easily evaluated is patents, since their assessment has a peer reviewing component. Social interventions or innovations expressed in laws or public policy documents, however, are more difficult to assess, despite the important potential recognition they should have due to their impact on society. Political dynamics do not necessarily take into account the research value of these contents despite their social incidence, but also their political or economical consequences. In terms of assessment, reports on public policy or laws based on research findings should have a more significant weight. Even more difficult would be to measure the impact of research findings on social dynamics within communities, since it is not easy to assess their quality and impact. The challenge clearly is to find those ways of measuring usefulness, impact, and quality. Educational processes can be assessed by measuring the performance of students in projects and research groups, and associated documents (master's and doctoral theses), both in the short and long term. Some of these products end up being part of books and journal papers, but the difficulty lies in the weight and maturity of these processes in certain contexts: for example, in the Colombian context, doctoral training is still incipient, and a number of research centres are not geared towards training and could not, therefore, account for their own activity in this dimension. These measurement systems should compare their results within each field of knowledge and taking their own dynamics into account. It is not the same to assess the impact of biomedicine or astronomy or social science, or the humanities. In Colombia, the production in the field of social science recorded by Scopus is strong and growing more than other knowledge areas, and thus cannot be compared against any other field than itself. The tools used to tally and visualise production (Scopus in this case) allow us to observe this growth and counter the arguments of some academics that state otherwise without evidence. Scopus' strategy of covering Latin American journals, and especially of opening its doors to the Social Sciences and the Humanities, enables us to monitor their citation dynamics in an increasingly reliable way. A final step would be to revise the processes of weighting products, the assessment windows and the limitations of recording systems, because failures in these systems and in the weighting process may contribute to reduce the perceived quality of the assessment system. In Colombia, these problems have created a lack of trust in the system, and adjustment and improvement strategies should be implemented until the whole process is robust and reliable. Another element is to compare these models of measuring the performance of countries to identify strengths and weaknesses, along with the impacts on academic output. What is ultimately self-evident is that we cannot seem to escape assessment processes and that we need to contribute to improve them, to enhance their impact and their quality, and to justify and value their use within academic and social communities. References Haran, B., & Poliakoff, M. (2011). SPORE series winner. The periodic table of videos. Science (New York, N.Y.), 332(6033), 1046–7. doi:10.1126/science.1196980 Sugimoto, C. R., Thelwall, M., Larivière, V., Tsou, A., Mongeon, P., & Macaluso, B. (2013). Scientists popularizing science: characteristics and impact of TED talk presenters. PloS One, 8(4), e62403. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062403 Thelwall, M., Haustein, S., Larivière, V., & Sugimoto, C. R. (2013). Do altmetrics work? Twitter and ten other social web services. PloS One, 8(5), e64841. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064841 Zivkovic, B. (2011). What is: ResearchBlogging.org | The Network Central, Scientific American Blog Network. Scientific American blogs. Retrieved April 16, 2014, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/network-central/2011/10/19/what-is-researchblogging-org/
Minority and community are concepts that have dominated the analysis of Christians in the Arab world, leading to a perception of Middle-Eastern societies as confessional or sectarian mosaics. This paradigm posits that religious and political identities and dynamics are closely intertwined in countries where the dominant culture is Islam, and that religious and ethnic groups live side by side, maintaining limited interactions while their immutable identities offer a strong potential for conflict. This work questions the paradigm of the mosaic by focusing on identity formation and interaction across religious boundaries over a period that extends from the later decades of Ottoman rule in Transjordan (1870) to present Jordan (1997). It asks whether confessionnal identities are by nature conflictual and if the 'minority' concept is the only relevant one to evaluate the degree of social, political and economic participation of non-Moslems in countries where Islam is the dominant culture. The approach is inductive and historical but mobilises concepts from the disciplines of social and political anthropology and political sociology. The dissertation comprises of 10 chapters set chronologically and covering the period 1870 to 1997. Taking a historical approach, it focuses on the modalities of exchanges, transactions, cooperation and communication (looking at kinship, mariage patterns, the role of women, economic cooperation, and various aspects of local and national politics) between Christians and Moslems and between several Christian denominations in Jordan (Orthodox and Roman Catholic, or Latin, in particular), more particularly in the town of Madaba however set within a broader national and international context. These broader contexts (that encompass the politics of states and of transnational Church actors over time) allow to bridge between the local and other levels to document how institutions regulate identity formation and cross-communal interactions. Over a century, Madaba provides the background, widely open to the rest of the country and the world, of a social, religious and political history of Arab Christian families. The work combines historical and anthropological approches and sources (in particular so far unexploited parish and Vatican archives, together with other archival sources). It questions the nature and the maintenance of the social and political link between Christians and Moslems in Madaba and in Jordan, and the changes that have affected identity boundaries between groups: both as Christians and Moslems, but equally as members of different Christian denominations, particularly in the context of missionary activities. The thesis defended here is that it is time to 'break the mosaic' so as to cast light from the inside on the societies and polities within which Christians in the Arab world are inserted. The title of the dissertation refers both to this paradigm and to the Byzantine mosaics that have made Madaba famous as an archaeological site. In place of the static image of the mosaic, the dissertation offers successive episodes of a moving picture where political powers, Churches (missionary or not), those local families that transfer their assets to Amman, the Jordanian capital, and the national arena, negotiate the organisation of local social interactions. One important contribution of the dissertation is to document how the tribe, over more than a century, remains a central social form to express identities, regulate economic and political interactions, and manage conflict both between Christians and between Christians and Moslems. Communal identities, however central they have become since the inception of the modern state, do not appear to threaten the cohesion of the society and the polity, either at the local or national levels. The maintenance of tribal identities is dealt with throughout the dissertation as a dynamic process in which both successive states, regimes, social actors at the national and local levels play a part, in particular in the historical context of the arrival of the Palestinians in Jordan and in the town of Madaba. At another level, the dissertation deals extensively with the institutional relations between the Greek Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches and the Jordanian state, bringing a new insight into a previously under-studied domain. Finally, this work offers an argument about the relationships between state and society in contemporary Jordan by interrogating the changing nature of the social pact between the Hashemite regime and local constituencies, more specifically with non-Moslems but also with Transjordanians as opposed to Palestinians. This work is therefore not a mere monograph about Christians in the town of Madaba: looking at a 'marginal' and local phenomenon, it enlightens broader social, political and historical dynamics. ; En partant d'un phénomène observé 'à la marge' afin de mieux illustrer ce qui se passe au centre, ce travail aborde des questions fondamentales pour la compréhension des sociétés du Moyen-Orient en déconstruisant notamment la catégorie de 'minorité', en s'interrogeant sur la nature du lien social entre chrétiens et musulmans dans l'agglomération de Madaba et au-delà dans la Jordanie contemporaine et en analysant la construction des identités collectives sur plus d'un siècle (1870-1997). Sont proposés d'autres paradigmes que ceux des traditions orientaliste et développementaliste pour l'analyse des minorités en pays musulmans. Ces traditions postulent la primauté du facteur religieux dans la formation et l'expression des identités sociales et envisagent les sociétés arabes comme des 'mosaïques' formées de groupes ethnoconfessionnels homogènes, relativement hermétiques les uns aux autres et inscrits dans une hiérarchie de statuts. On s'est plutôt inspiré ici de l'approche sur les frontières et les interactions entre groupes ethniques proposée par F. Barth en lui adjoignant une certaine profondeur historique et en intégrant une analyse des rapports entre le pouvoir politique et les groupes sociaux. Il s'agit de poser les affiliation religieuses et confessionnelles comme des constructions sociales et historiques dont on peut étudier le développement, les méandres et les interactions avec d'autres types d'affiliation. S'inspirant de tous les travaux récents portant sur la construction des identités collectives, qu'il s'agisse de nations ou d'ethnies, l'approche choisie défend une conception plurielle et mouvante des identités décrites en termes de processus dynamiques et interactionnels en s'interrogeant sur les temporalités et les facteurs de continuité/changement et en montrant des continuité beaucoup plus longues que celles qui posent la période coloniale comme période charnière de fixation des identités collectives. En plus d'une méthodologie d'observation anthropologique du terrain et des acteurs, quatre types principaux de sources ont été exploités : la littérature des voyageurs occidentaux, les archives paroissiales et missionnaires (en particulier celles de la Propaganda Fide à Rome), les témoignages oraux, la littérature d'histoire locale produite à Madaba. On a adopté un plan chronologique découpé en trois périodes principales. A l'intérieur de chaque partie, l'analyse thématique a été privilégiée en suivant, dans l'agglomération de Madaba depuis sa fondation en 1880, les alliances matrimoniales, politiques et économiques entre chrétiens et musulmans et entre groupes de différents rites chrétiens (essentiellement orthodoxes et latins) afin de déterminer où passent les frontières de l'identité et comment elles changent. Une variété d'acteurs institutionnels et individuels, dont certains apparaissent à un moment historique donné, influent sur la forme de ces frontières : les administrations des États qui se succèdent et leur personnel, les hiérarchies ecclésiastiques, les prêtres, les Grandes Puissances occidentales et leurs représentants locaux, les intellectuels de formation moderne, les partis politiques, les notables traditionnels et modernes, les organisations de la société civile, les émigrés et les immigrés, les tribus et leurs membres. Centré sur l'agglomération de Kérak, dont sont issus les chrétiens qui fondent Madaba en 1880, le prologue fait apparaître que, dans la Syrie du Sud (Transjordanie) du milieu du XIXe siècle, les institutions ecclésiastiques (grecques orthodoxes) et impériales (ottomanes) n'ont que très peu d'influence sur ce territoire situé à l'extrême périphérie de l'empire. Minoritaires sur le plan démographique et dispersés sur le territoire, les chrétiens ne sont pas marginalisés du fait de leur appartenance religieuse car l'ordre tribal des relations sociales assure différents niveaux d'intégration sociale et de coopération politique et économique entre lignages chrétiens et musulmans en fonction d'autres critères que ceux de l'appartenance religieuse. Les chrétiens sont fragmentés en plusieurs clans et tribus sans que l'on puisse repérer de cohésion confessionnelle. Sur le plan de la pratique religieuse, c'est une forme de syncrétisme qui prévaut. L'impossibilité des échanges matrimoniaux entre chrétiens et musulmans n'est pas nécessairement perçue comme témoignant d'un frontière religieuse infranchissable mais s'inscrit dans le contexte plus vaste des règles qui régissent les alliances matrimoniales entre tribus. L'appartenance religieuse est avant tout un marqueur d'identité tribale. La première partie analyse comment l'ordre communautaire religieux apparaît dans les dernières décennies du XIXe siècle, sous l'action conjuguée des organisations missionnaires (protestantes et catholiques) et de l'administration alors que les Ottomans entreprennent de rétablir leur autorité sur la Syrie du Sud. Autour de la fondation du village de Madaba par des lignages chrétiens immigrés de Kérak sous l'impulsion des missionnaires latins, on montre comment de nouveaux acteurs religieux et civils entreprennent d'imposer un ordre communautaire des relations sociales à travers l'éducation missionnaire, le marquage d'espaces chrétiens, le contrôle des alliances matrimoniales, de nouvelles pratiques cultuelles, l'accès aux instances de représentation administratives et juridiques ottomanes. Les modalités d'insertion des tribus chrétiennes qui fondent Madaba dans leur environnement permettent de mettre en lumière les résistances à l'ordre communautaire par l'établissement de partenariats économiques et d'alliances politiques avec les tribus musulmanes du lieu selon des logiques lignagères persistantes où les acteurs instrumentalisent à leur profit les nouvelles ressources communautaires fournies par les Églises ou les consulats européens. Au cours du XXe siècle, la Transjordanie, d'abord sous mandat britannique, accède à l'indépendance. Malgré ce changement politique, le régime monarchique se perpétue sans que les modalités d'insertion sociale des chrétiens ne soient bouleversées au niveau du pays dans son ensemble ou au sein de l'agglomération de Madaba. La deuxième partie se penche alors sur la manière dont l'État hachémite et les Églises majoritaires (grecque orthodoxe et romaine catholique) négocient les frontières des espaces communautaires à travers la législation sur les communautés confessionnelles et leurs prérogatives religieuses, éducatives et caritatives. Le traitement différencié accordé par l'État aux différentes Église en présence ainsi que des relations diverses entre les hiérarchies ecclésiastiques et les laïcs des communautés sont deux dimensions qui contribuent à empêcher la cohésion des chrétiens pris comme un ensemble. Le statut politique des chrétiens est ensuite étudié non en isolation mais en parallèle avec celui d'autres groupes sociaux, Circassiens, bédouins, réfugiés palestiniens, familles musulmanes transjordaniennes du nord et du sud, etc. afin de poser question quant à la réalité d'un statut minoritaire et à l'existence d'une majorité politique dans le royaume hachémite. Il ressort que le régime octroie aux communautés chrétiennes et aux familles chrétiennes de notables (anciens ou modernes) un espace privilégié d'expression et de représentation qui leur permet d'occuper une place centrale, et non marginale, dans la société. Dans le même temps, il est difficile d'identifier une norme identitaire autre qu'hachémite et il apparaît qu'une des modalités d'exercice du pouvoir monarchique repose sur la cooptation d'individus et de familles appartenant à tous les groupes de la société. Dans un second temps, recentrer l'analyse sur l'agglomération de Madaba permet d'observer comment les acteurs locaux relaient les efforts de l'État qui visent à maintenir une fragmentation sociale selon des clivages communautaires et lignagers afin de résister à la formation d'identités politiques transversales qui mettraient en danger sa stabilité. La modernité politique et économique n'en engendre pas moins un système de relations multiples entre chrétiens et musulmans que l'on peut repérer à travers les alliances politiques lors d'épisodes électoraux, dans les mouvements associatifs, dans les partenariats économiques, dans les partis politiques ou lors d'épisodes de conflit aigus tels celui de Septembre noir. En parallèle, les logiques tribales continuent à ordonner conflit et coopération entre groupes de religions différentes qui se définissent d'abord selon leur affiliation lignagère. C'est le cas, en particulier, dans les domaines de l'économie agricole et pastorale traditionnelle, dans les épisodes de règlement de conflits de sang ou d'honneur où prévaut encore le droit coutumier, parfois à l'encontre des prescription du droit musulman. La fragmentation des chrétiens en groupes lignagers est ainsi préservée sans que ne s'effectue une communautarisation incluant une dimension politique. De même, les valeurs qui permettent aux chrétiens de participer pleinement à l'échange social, telles l'honneur individuel ou collectif, le prestige familial, la limitation de l'autonomie des femmes, ne sont pas menacées par l'imposition de normes islamiques. A partir des années 1970, la polarisation de la population du royaume hachémite entre Jordaniens 'de souche' et Jordaniens 'd'origine palestinienne' amène un processus de différenciation identitaire dans lequel l'organisation tribale en vient à symboliser l'identité jordanienne. Dans le même temps, les islamistes deviennent la principale force d'opposition que le régime tente d'endiguer en réaffirmant son propre caractère musulman et en islamisant de nouveaux espaces de la vie publique. Ces changements de paradigmes de la société politique jordanienne touchent Madaba, ville mixte où cohabitent Jordaniens des tribus et Palestiniens réfugiés, chrétiens et musulmans. De plus, les équilibres démographiques et politiques de la ville penchent de plus en plus en faveur des musulmans. Les chrétiens, autrefois majoritaires, entreprennent alors de défendre leur position de prééminence dans la ville. Les stratégies qu'ils mettent en place pour combattre une double logique de minorisation (en tant que chrétiens et Jordaniens 'de souche') font l'objet de la dernière partie de ce travail. On montre tout d'abord comment les chrétiens résistent sur le terrain à un recul de la neutralité religieuse de l'espace public et à leur mise en minorité démographique et politique (conseil municipal) dans l'agglomération et comment ils se redéploient dans l'espace urbain, créent des réseaux de soutien financier avec les immigrés, amorcent un rapprochement entre Églises, compensent dans le champ politique national la perte de leur hégémonie locale. Dans un second temps, on se penche sur la littérature d'histoire locale que produisent les chrétiens de Madaba afin d'analyser comment ces derniers, en reformulant leur histoire ancienne et récente, se construisent à la fois des identités confessionnelles, ethniques et lignagères et comment elles sont rendues compatibles afin de lutter contre une marginalisation symbolique. Le dernier chapitre se penche sur les élections législatives de 1997 afin d'illustrer la manière dont les chrétiens utilisent leurs imaginaires identitaires comme vecteurs de mobilisation politique à l'occasion des élections législatives, nouvelle arène de compétition depuis la libéralisation de la vie politique intervenue en 1989. Malgré l'existence d'un siège chrétien réservé pour la circonscription de Madaba, ce n'est pas la mobilisation communautaire qui apparaît comme efficace mais bien plutôt le discours des solidarités tribales, éventuellement (mais non nécessairement) en conjonction avec l'appartenance partisane ou confessionnelle. On peut alors avancer que les chrétiens participent pleinement aux dynamiques de la société dans son ensemble. Tout au long de la période étudiée, la parenté joue un rôle central comme vecteur essentiel de l'identification des groupes, que ceux ci soient dans un espace rural ou urbain. Les chrétiens de Madaba mobilisent les mêmes ressources symboliques que les autres groupes avec lesquels ils sont en contact. Comme l'ensemble de la société, les chrétiens participent à une multitude d'échanges et d'interactions et se positionnent en fonction de ces interactions. Au-delà de l'étude de cas qui s'ancre dans une ville moyenne de la Jordanie centrale, ce travail s'interroge en conclusion sur le système politique jordanien et sur les modes de légitimation de sa monarchie. Les analyses en termes de construction nationale sont critiquées, le terme de 'minorité' est mis en question tout comme le présupposé classique d'une imbrication nécessairement étroite du religieux et du politique dans les pays dits, ou qui se disent, musulmans.
The Haiti Productive Land Use Systems (PLUS) Research Project continued and expanded the work of the Haiti Agroforestry project. It was intended to encourage Haitian farmers to plant trees as part of an overall plan by USAID to curb the devastating erosion which was washing the top soil into the sea. This project also investigated the effects on other crops as a result of tree planting. ; Haitian oak (Catalpa longissima) is one of the most popular and expensive woods in Haiti. Its lustrous and durable wood is used for cabinetry, boat and house constructin, and sculptures. The species is native to the Greater Antilles, but it also found in other countries of the Caribbean and Central America where it has been introduced as an ornamental selected for the seasonal mass of showy, white flowers and the elegant, fine texture of its crown. The tree is managed by farmers in the rich alluvial plains and ravines, associated with food crops of plantain, coffee, fruit trees, sweet potatoes and beans. A program was established in 1989 under the USAID-funded Agroforestry II project to begin selection of plus trees and establish their progeny in a series of orchards and progeny trials throughout Haiti. This report summarizes the performance of the C. longissima orchards and progeny trials established during 1988-1990 at 6 sites in Haiti. Survival: The trials in this study exhibited high 5-year survival rates, ranging from 60-98% and averaging 85% on 6 sites. These rates are much higher than those reported for the species by PADF and CARE, primarily due to better seedling quality and more intensive site management. The data suggest that it is not genetic quality per se that is responsible for better seedling quality, but rather environmental factors. Though differences were observed among families at the Lapila progeny trial, these differences are attributed to seedling age rather than family differences. It should not be expected that selection of plus trees will have a significant effect on field survival. Height Growth: Site means ranged from 1.5-6.1 m after 5 years, highest and lowest means occurring on two sites in the Cayes Plain. Differences among families were statistically significant at the Lapila progeny trial and the Terrier Rouge orchard after 5 years. The remaining sites showed either weak or not differences in height growth among families. If differences were shown, these differences decreased with tree age and ranged widely across sites. There was no consistent pattern in family ranks showing that matching of a superior genotype with site conditions is not effective for height growth. There is little evidence that significant gains in height growth can be achieved by selecting at the individual tree level. The slowest growing family at the Terrier Rouge orchard originated from a plus tree selected near the site, whereas the fasted growing families originated from plus trees selected in southern Haiti. Proximity of seed source to planting site does not insure adaptability and vigor as indicated by height growth. Stem Diameter Growth: Overall, there were greater differences among families for stem diameter growth than for height growth. Site dbh (diameter at 1.3 m) means ranged from 1.6-11.1 cm after 5 years. The variation among family means for dbh (diameter at 1.3 m) was significant at all sites except Crocra. Differences between the top family and the site mean varied widely depending on site, from 8% at Laborde to 145% at Haut Camp. Differences appeared to be related to site conditions - more extreme site conditions resulted in a greater spread among family means. Merchantable Volume: Large differences in wood volume considered for saw lumber or poles was exhibited at the Laborde progeny trial. Differences between the top three families, averaging 51 m[superscript]3/ha, and the site mean of 36 m[superscript]3/ha ranged from 37-44%. Compared to the least productive family, these differences ranged from 150-163%. Quantitative traits such as stem form and usable height are more likely to be inherited, with the genetic gains effectively captured through a program of vegetative propagation and recurrent selection. Conclusions: The seed orchards and trials reported here represent a valuable resource for perpetuating the species in Haiti and providing income to farmers. The orchards contain the broadest genetic base of the species in its native range and have the best chance to date of producing a seed mix that is broadly adapted for providing superior genetic material to small farmers. Both vegetative reproduction and recurrent selection should be used to improve the yield and profitability of this popular tree species on site where farmers have already integrated the tree in their cropping patterns. Production and sale of certified seed from the orchards should also be explored, particularly for expanded markets abroad. C. longissima is part of the natural resource base that must be conserved through continued investment in both genetic conservation and improvement with seed orchards and progeny testing. Recommendations: (1) Producer Groups. PLUS should target most of the improved germplasm to farmers with sites where C. longissima grows best and is already integrated into local agroforestry systems - the agricultural plains and ravines. (2) Role of Government. Collaborate with the Ministry of Agriculture in seeking funds for genetic conservation and improvement of economically important tree species. Focus on a long term strategy and short term benefits that include certified seed production, seed export and marketing, public and private sector forestry investment, forest genetic resource policy and extension education. Determine incentives and enforce policy that encourages farmers to manage tree crops, including C. longissima. (3) Species Awareness. A system needs to be put in place for production, distribution and marketing of Haitian oak. The orchards and progeny trials must be managed by trained individuals committed to tree improvement. Seed production from the orchards should not be overlooked as a commercial product to be marketed through seed companies or directly to nurseries worldwide. (4) Tree Improvement. The existing orchards and trials should form the basis of a seed production and distribution to farmers in Haiti. Improved seed from the orchards should be channelled to farmers nationwide through an efficient production of containerized seedlings. (5) Farm-Level Tree Management. Information on vegetative propagation procedures should be disseminated along with improved genetic material to farmer groups who understand the management of C. longissima. (6) Long Term Adaptability. The progeny trials should be monitored for disease resistance, pests, tree form and other parameters that affect its potential economic impact to Haitian farmers for at least half the time required to produce lumber. The final analysis should be in terms of market values and should be based on actual recovery volumes. Selections can be made in the progeny trials at both the individual and family levels to improve the genetic quality of seed produced from the trial for second generation production. (7) Applied Research. Determine ways that Haitian farmers select, propagate and manage C. longissima as an asset. Study improved silvicultural practices (propagation, thinning, pruning and harvesting) of C. longissima specific to the major agroforestry models (i.e., wood lots, boundary plantings, shade trees) in Haiti. (8) Develop volume tables for a larger diameter range than that determined for the species by Ehrlich et al. (1986). These tables are an important management tool, allowing for an accurate estimation of volume at both the individual and stand levels. (9) Study phenology and pollination biology of species for breeding and selection strategies. Determine the conservation status of the species on a periodic basis. ; Le chêne haitien (Catalpa longissima) est l'une des espèces de bois les plus populaires et les plus coûteux en Haïti. Son bois lustré et durable et durable est utilisé dans l'ébénisterie, dans la construction de maisons et de bateux et dans la sculpture. L'espèce est orginaire des Grandes Antilles, mais elle se trouve aussi dans d'autres pays de la Caraïbe et d'Amérique Centrale où elle a été introduite comme un arbre ornemental pour son abondante production saisonnière de fleurs blanches voyantes et sa couronne élegante de fine texture. L'arbe et géré par les planteurs dans de riches plaines et ravines alluvialles, et est associé à des cultures comme la banane, le café, les arbres fruitiers, la patate et les haricots. Un programme a été institué en 1989 dans le cadre du Projet Agroforesterie II financé par l'USAID pour entreprendre la sélection d'arbres supérieurs et installer une série de vergers et d'essais de leur progéniture à travers Haiti. Ce rapport résume la performance des vergers et des essais de progéniture de C. longissima établis sur 6 sites en Haïti durant la période 1988-1990. Survie: Les essais de cette étude ont indiqué des taux de survie élevés, de 60% à 98%, avec une moyenne de 85% pour les 6 sites. Ces taux sont beaucoup plus élevés que ceux indiqués pour l'espèce par PADF et CARE, principalement à cause de la meilleure qualité des plantules et une gestion plus intensive du site. Les données recueillies suggèrent que ce n'est pas la qualité génétique en soi qui en est responsable, mais plutôt les facteurs environnementaux. Bien que des différences aient été observées entre les familles dans l'essai de progéniture à Lapila, elles ont été attribuées à l'âge de la plantule plutôt qu'à des variations entre les familles. Il ne faut pas s'attendre à ce que la selection d'arbres supérieurs ait un effet significatif sur le taux de survie sur le terrain. Croissance en hauteur: Les moyennes en hauteur ont varié de 1,5-6,1 m après 5 ans, les moyennes les plus basses et les plus élevées ayant été enregistrées sur deux sites dans la Plaine des Cayes. Des différences significatives entre les familles ont été observées dans l'essai de progéniture à Lapila et dans le verger de Terrier Rouge, après 5 ans. Dans les autres sites, les différences de croissance en hauteur entre les familles ont été insignificantes ou nulles. Les différences ont ensuite diminué avec l'âge de l'arbre et ont largement varié entre les sites. Il n'a été détécté aucune tendance cohérente dans le classement des familles montrant que la correspondence d'un génotype supérieur aux conditions de site n'a pas d'effet sur la croissance en hauteur. Il existe peu de preuves pour affirmer que des avantages significatifs, en ce qui concerne la croissance en hauteur, peuvent être obtenus par la sélection d'arbres individuels. La famille qui a accusé la croissance la plus lente dans le verger de Terrier Rouge provient d'un arbre supérieur sélectionné près du site, alors que les familles à croissance plus rapide sont issues d'arbres supérieurs sélectionnés dans le sud d'Haiti. La sélection d'une source de semences à proximité du site de plantation ne garantit pas l'adaptation et la vigeur exprimées à travers la croissance en hauteur. Croissance en diamètre de tige: Généralement, il y a eu des différences plus importantes entre les familles pour la croissance en diamètre de tige que pour la croissance en hauteur. La moyenne de dhp du site (diamètre à 1,3 m) a été significative pour tous les sites, excepté Crocra. Les différences entre la famille la plus performante et la moyenne du site on considérablement varié dépendant du site, de 8% à Laborde à 145% à Haut Camp. Il paraît que les différences sont liées aux conditions de site - plus les conditions de site sont extrêmes, plus l'écart entre les moyennes de famille est grand. Volume marchand: De grandes différences dans le volume de bois, bois de sciage ou poteaux, ont été observées dans l'essai de progéniture de Laborde. Des différences entre les trois familles les plus performantes, avec une moyenne de 51 m[superscript]/ha et la moyenne du site de 36 m[superscript]3/ha, ont varié de 37% à 44%. En comparaison à la famille la moins productive, ces différences ont varié de 150% à 163%. Des caractéristiques qualitatives comme la forme de la tige et la hauteur utilisable, viendraient plutôt de l'hérédité. avec des avantages génétiques effectivement retenus à travers un programme de propagation végétative et de sélection récurrente. Conclusions: Les vergers à graines et les essais rapportés ici représentent une ressource de valeur pour perpétuer l'espèce en Haïti et fournir des revenus aux planteurs. Les vergers contiennent la base génétique la plus large de l'espèce dans son habitat d'origine et représentent la meilleure opportunité jusqu'à présent de produire un mélange de semences largement apte à donner un matériel génétique supérieur aux petits planteurs. La reproduction vegétative et aussi la sélection récurrente devraient être utilisées pour améliorer le rendement et la rentabilité de cette espèce populaire de bois, là où elle est déjà integrée dans les systèmes de cultures en Haïti. La production et la vente de semences certifiées provenant des vergers, devraient aussi être explorées, particulièrement pour l'exportation vers des marchés extérieurs. C. longissima fait partie des ressources naturelles qui doivent être conservées par un investissement continu dans la conservation et l'amélioration génétiques à travers des vergers à graines et des tests de progéniture. Recommandations: (1) Groupes de Producteurs. PLUS devrait avoir pour objectif de mettre à la disposition des planteurs la plupart du germoplasme amélioré sur des sites où le C. longissima croît le mieux et est déjà intégré dans les systèmes agroforestiers locaux - les plaines et ravines agricoles. (2) Rôle du Gouvernement. Collaborer avec le Ministère de l'Agriculture dans la économique. Mettre l'accent sur une stratégie à long terme et des bénéfices à court terme dont la production de semences certifiées, l'exportation et la commercialisation de semences, l'investissement du secteur public et privé dans la foresterie, la politique de ressources génétiques forestières, et la vulgarisation/éducation. Trouver des stimulants et appliquer une politique qui encourage les planteurs à gérer les arbres plantés, y compris C. longissima. (3) Promotion de l'espèce. Il est nécessaire de mettre en place un système pour la production, la distribution et la commercialisation du chêne haitien. Les vergers et les essais de progéniture devraient être gérés par des individus entraînés, dédiés à l'amélioration des arbres. Il ne faudrait pas exclure la possibilité de produire des semences à partir des vergers pour la vente à des compagnies commerciales de semences ou directement aux pépinières à travers le monde. (4) Amélioration de l'arbre. Les vergers et les essais existants devraient constituer las base d'une production et d'une distribution de semences aux planteurs en Haïti. Les semences améliorées issue des vergers devraient être distribuées aux planteurs à travers le pays en organisant une production efficace de plantules en pots. (5) Gestion de l'arbre au niveau de l'exploitation. Des informations sur les procédures de propagation végétative devraient être disséminées avec le matériel génétique amélioré aux groupes de planteurs qui comprennent la gestion du C. longissima. (6) Adaptabilité à long terme. Les essais de progéniture devraient être suivis pour résistance aux maladies, pestes, forme de l'arbre et autres paramètres qui affectent son impact économique potentiet pour les fermiers haïtiens pendant au moins la moitié du temps requis pour produire du bois. L'analyse finale devrait se faire en termes de valeurs commerciales et se baser sur les volumes de recouvrement réel. Les sélections peuvent être faites dans les essais de progéniture tant au niveau de l'individu qu'à celui de la famille pour améliorer la qualité génétique des semences produites dans l'essai pour la production de la seconde génération. (7) Recherche applicquée. Investiguer les moyens utilisés par les planteurs haïtiens pour sélectionner, propager et gérer C. longissima en tant que capital. Etudier les pratiques sylvicoles améliorées (propagation, eclaircie, taille et récolte) de C. longissima, spécifiques aux principaux modèles agroforestiers (i.e. lots boisés, plantations en bordure, arbres d'ombrage) rencontrés en Haïti. (8) Développer des tables de volume pour une gamme plus large de diamètres que celle déterminée pour l'espèce par Ehrlich et al. (1986). Ces tables représentent un important outil de gestion, permettant une estimation précise des volumes tant au niveau de l'arbre individuel qu'au niveau du peuplement. (9) Etudier la phénologie et la biologie de la pollinisation de l'espèce pour déterminet les stratégies de croisement et de sélection. Evaluer la situation de la conservation de l'espèce sur une base périodique.
The climate crisis and loss of biodiversity, two closely related threats to human and planetary health, meet the criteria for the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare an international public health emergency, as occurred with COVID-19 (1), and urged by numerous scientific journals (2). Attaining decent work, understood as "opportunities for women and men to work in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity" (3), in the context of the climate emergency, creates a paradox for worker health. Outdoor workers (notably those in agriculture and construction), many of them informal workers, are among the populations most vulnerable to climate-related hazards. Simultaneously, they are inevitably at risk of exposure due to their role in maintaining the economy and functioning of society. A similar situation happened during the pandemic with essential workers (4). The WHO declaration of a public health emergency helped manage that global crisis. A consequence of the industrial revolution The current climate crisis is a direct consequence of the Industrial Revolution where key processes emerged to explain the current situation: the appearance of wage labor and the working class, with consumerism as a basic economic driver, and the exploitation of natural resources – especially fossil fuels – in their own territories and in the colonies. The extension of this capitalist model of society to virtually the entire planet is a reality. Now, we see how this economic system has brought both great harm and significant benefits. Since its beginning, capitalism has wrought great suffering for people, masterfully described, among others, by Fredrich Engels in the Manchester of 1845 (5) or the London of 1838 in Charles Dickens` Oliver Twist (6). Although working conditions have since improved in many countries, there are still unbearable examples worldwide of worker exploitation and suffering. Among them, child labor, where 70% are working in agriculture (7) or some underregulated platform work (8), in a context of ever-increasing social inequalities (9). On the other hand, due to improved working and life conditions, there has also been an extraordinary increase in the world population, from one billion at the beginning of the 19th century to approximately eight billion today, leading to a linear increase in life expectancy at birth, which doubled globally between the beginning of the 20th century and the present. In 2015, the Lancet Commission on Planetary Health (10) pointed out that never before has humanity faced such an unintended paradox. While human well-being has been improving, the planet has been degrading. A contradiction that can no longer be sustained. We have lived as if our planet`s resources are unlimited. Based on comparisons to average temperature readings of the planet between 1850 and 1900, the United Nations International Panel on Climate Change estimated in its latest report that temperatures increased by 1.1° C between 2011 and 2020. This increase is very close to the 1.5° C established by the 2015 Paris Agreement as the limit beyond which climate impacts may become irreversible. Beyond any reasonable doubt, this is mostly attributable to the greenhouse effect produced by CO2 emissions, a consequence mainly of human activity and our way of living initiated by the Industrial Revolution. This global increase in temperature, with heat waves, floods and other extreme temperature events as its most obvious manifestations, is already having effects on worker health (12, 13). Climate change is also having effects on the economy and the labor market, both in the primary (agriculture and fishing) and services (tourism) sectors, with reductions in productivity and employment. Estimates from the European Commission reveal an average loss of 3% of GDP among EU countries between 1980 and 2020 (14). Simultaneously, we should not forget that the capitalist society that emerged from the Industrial Revolution is based, among other pillars, on full or near full employment. As such, wages represent the main economic resource for the majority of people, in addition to being the primary source of wealth generation for society, on whose income and taxes the welfare state was built. Of course, employment means much more than wage earning, as it plays a fundamental role in the social processes that sustain human dignity and social cohesion (15). However, only approximately 50% of the employed population, mainly in high-income countries, enjoy decent employment with a living wage and social rights (16). The resulting Gordian knot before us is enormous, with humanity facing the climate emergency and trying to move from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, while simultaneously seeking to maintain and increase decent employment for all Earth`s inhabitants, boosting the welfare states at the same time (17). Controlling climate-related hazards and just green transition The alternatives proposed to escape this crossroads vary between those that propose a new paradigm, which radically changes the current economic model, betting on measures that break drastically from the capitalist economy (18), versus a gradual process, supported by mitigation, adaptation, and compensation policies (19). Favoring this second alternative, but without ruling out the need to profoundly change human consumption patterns with important repercussions on the productive system (energy, transportation, food, etc.), gradualist policies will also directly or indirectly impact employment and working conditions during the transition from carbon emission energy to green energy. To cope with this urgent situation, specific control measures have been proposed over the last few decades. Schulte and colleagues have systematically reviewed the literature (20, 21, 22), identifying new and exacerbated old climate-related hazards such as extreme temperatures, air pollution, ultraviolet radiation, natural disasters, biological hazards, indoor air quality, etc., and they also assessed the impact of employment transition and economic burden on occupational health equity and mental health. On this basis, the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has elaborated recommendations to mitigate and control the impact of several climate-related hazards on worker health and well-being (23). Similarly, the EU Agency for Safety and Health at Work has published guidelines for heat at work (24). Going further, some governments, such as Spain, have begun regulating and enforcing specific measures (25). Implementation of these workplace preventive measures to mitigate the impact of climate change is the responsibility of employers, with full participation of workers. Devoting resources to hazard recognition; performing risk assessments to identify which workers are most vulnerable to climate change-related hazards; and implementing a control strategy with policies, procedures, equipment, and work organization changes aiming to eliminate or minimize the impact of these hazards can improve employer preparedness (26). Adaptation policies to reduce emissions of CO2 and other gases that are driving the greenhouse effect, still with limited results, could mean a loss of six million jobs worldwide, according to estimates of the International Labor Organization (ILO) (27). This same estimation predicts a promising creation of 24 million jobs, mainly in economies emphasizing recycling and reutilization of manufactured products (the so-called "circular economy"), infrastructure construction, development of renewables and energy efficiency. Also, during this transition, new forms of work will emerge (e.g., human-robot interfaces and artificial intelligence), and with them the need to train workers, both new and existing, to adapt to those new forms of work. While waiting for positive results from mitigation and adaptation policies, a just transition to a green economy must simultaneously incorporate compensation policies. To achieve this, it is essential to strengthen social protection systems, a cornerstone of decent employment. For example, there were measures adopted during the pandemic, such as temporary employment regulation for employees or benefits covering the cessation of activity of the self-employed. Similar compensation measures may help workers affected by mitigation and adaptation policies during a transition phase, possibly to a lesser degree than in the pandemic, but lasting longer. In summary, as was the case in the most recent public health emergency, the COVID-19 pandemic, declaring the climate emergency as an international public health emergency by the WHO could play a critical role in managing this new global health crisis. Research programs, supported by global occupational health surveillance systems, to monitor the effectiveness of mitigation, adaptation and compensation measures are urgent. Conflict of interest statement The authors report no conflicts of interest. References 1. WHO. International Health Regulations, 3rd edition. Geneva: WHO; 2016. Available on: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241580496. Accessed 4 February 2024. 2. Zielinski C. Time to treat the climate and nature crisis as one indivisible global health emergency. BMJ Open. 2023;13(10):e080907. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2023-080907 3. International Labour Organization. Report of the Director-General: decent work. Paper presented at the 87th Annual International Labour Conference, Geneva, 1999. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ilc87/rep-i.htm [Accessed March 9 2024]. 4. Burdorf A, Porru F, Rugulies R. The COVID-19 (Coronavirus) pandemic: consequences for occupational health. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2020; 46(3):229-230. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3893 5. Engels, F. The condition of the working class in England (D. McLellan, Ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2009. https://doi.org/10.1093/owc/9780199554652.003.0151 6. Dickens C. Oliver Twist. London: Lacy; 1938. https://doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00121337 7. Piketty, T. Capital in the twenty-first century (A. Goldhammer, Trans.). London: Belknap Press; 2017. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjnrvx9 8. International Labour Organization, Issue paper on child labour and climate change, Geneva: ILO; 2023. Available on: https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_905673/lang--en/index.htm. 9. Eurofound. Back to the future: Policy pointers from platform work scenarios, New forms of employment series. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union; 2020. 10. Whitmee S, Haines A, Beyrer C et al. Safeguarding human health in the Anthropocene epoch: report of The Rockefeller Foundation-Lancet Commission on planetary health. Lancet. 2015;386(10007):1973-2028. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60901-1 11. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Synthesis report (SYR) of the IPCC sixth assessment report (AR6). Available on: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle. Accessed 4 February 2024. 12. Martínez-Solanas È, López-Ruiz M, Wellenius GA, Gasparrini A et. Evaluation of the impact of ambient temperatures on occupational injuries in Spain. Environ Health Perspect. 2018;126(6):067002. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2590 13. Johnson RJ, Wesseling C, Newman LS. Chronic kidney disease of unknown cause in agricultural communities. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(19):1843-1852. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1813869 14. European Environment Agency. Economic losses and fatalities from weather and climate-related events in Europe. Available on: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/economic-losses-and-fatalities-from#:~:text=Between%201980%20%20and%202020%2C%20total,of%20these%20losses%20were%20insured. Accessed 4 February 2024. 15. Budd JW. The thought of work. J Ind Rel. 2012;54(4):542-545. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022185612456331 16. Frank J, Mustard C, Smith P, Siddiqi A, Cheng Y, Burdorf A et al. Work as a social determinant of health in high-income countries: past, present, and future. Lancet. 2023 Oct 14;402(10410):1357-1367. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00871-1 17. Benavides FG, Serra C, Delclos GL. What can public health do for the welfare state? Occupational health could be an answer. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2019;73(12):1141-1144. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2018-211561 18. Saito K. El capital en la era del Antropoceno. Barcelona: Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial, 2022. 19. Eurofound. Impact of climate change and climate policies on living conditions, working conditions, employment and social dialogue: A conceptual framework. Luxembourg: Eurofound research paper, Publications Office of the European Union; 2023. 20. Schulte PA, Chun H. Climate change and occupational safety andhealth: establishing a preliminary framework. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2009; 6:9, 542-554. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459620903066008 21. Schulte PA, Bhattacharya A, Butler CR et al. Advancing the framework for considering the effects of climate change on worker safety and health. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2016;13(11):847-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2016.1179388 22. Schulte PA, Jacklitsch LB, Bhattacharya A et al. Updated assessment of occupational safety and health hazards of climate change. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2023;20(5-6):183-206, https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2023.2205468 23. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Occupational safety and health and climate. Available on: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/climate/default.html. Accessed 6 February 2024. 24. European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. Heat at work - Guidance for workplaces. Available on: https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/heat-work-guidance-workplaces. Accessed 7 February 2024. 25. Real Decreto-ley 4/2023, de 11 de mayo, por el que se adoptan medidas urgentes en materia de […] prevención de riesgos laborales en episodios de elevadas temperaturas. Available on: https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rdl/2023/05/11/4. Accessed at 7 February 2024. 26. Levy, Barry S, Cora Roelofs. Impacts of climate change on workers' health and safety. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Global Public Health. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190632366.013.39 27. International Labor Organization (ILO). World employment and social outlook 2018: Greening with jobs. Geneva: ILO; 2018. Available on: https://www.ilo.org/weso-greening/documents/WESO_Greening_EN_web2.pdf. Accessed at 7 February 2024.
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I haven't had time to do much blogging lately. But I have been studying the recent burst of inflation and thinking of how to interpret what we're experiencing. As is my way, I decided to write down a little model (a dynamic general equilibrium model) to help organize my thinking on this question. Below, I summarize the interpretation stemming from the model (available on request). Because it's a model, it does not capture everything that one might think isimportant. But I think it certainly captures some of the main forces operating on the U.S. economy over the 2020-2022 time period. And if so, then it offers a different take on how to interpret the recent episode of (relatively) high and (hopefully) transitory inflation. I look forward to any feedback. DAIntroduction In February 2020, the month before the full effects of the pandemic were felt in the United States, PCE and CPI measures of inflation were running between 1.7% and 2.4%, consistent with the Federal Reserve's official 2% target inflation rate. From March 2020 to February 2021, these measures of inflation declined significantly, with most measures falling below 1% in May 2020, before recovering to somewhere near 1.5% by February 2021. In March 2021, measures of inflation began to rise sharply and significantly. By February 2020, the month prior to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, PCE and CPI inflation rates rose to between 5.4% to 8.0%, with core PCE peaking in that month. Other measures of inflation peaked in the summer of 2022. Inflation has been declining slowly and steadily since then. Most outlooks have inflation declining to between 2% and 3% by the end of 2024. If inflation continues along its projected path to settle in at or even somewhat above 2%, then the recent inflation dynamic will be hump-shaped, beginning in 2021, peaking in 2022, and falling significantly in 2023; see Figure 1.Figure 1 How should we interpret the hump-shaped inflation dynamic in Figure 1? The answer to this question is critically important because an evaluation of monetary and fiscal policy over this episode requires a proper interpretation of the phenomenon being studied. More than one interpretation is possible, of course. But any useful interpretation will have to rely on theory at some level. The goal of this paper is to develop a dynamic general equilibrium model that can explain the qualitative properties of data in an empirically plausible manner and be used to assess the monetary and fiscal policies employed since March 2020.An overview of the argument Views on the causes and nature of the "COVID-19 inflation" vary considerably. There is no doubt an element of truth to many of these views and my interpretation below relies on more than one causal factor. Beginning in March 2020, there were the supply disruptions induced by the pandemic. Some sectors of the economy, like leisure and hospitality, were virtually shut down in an attempt to "flatten the curve." Individuals stopped patronizing establishments delivering in-person services. The prime-age employment-to-population ratio fell from 80% to 70% from February to April in 2020 and did not recover its initial level for another two years. Severe disruptions in the global supply chain led to shortages of goods at final destinations. At the time these COVID-19 related shocks had more or less dissipated, additional disruptions emerged with the Russian invasion of Ukraine in late February 2022 along with growing Sino-American tensions. These "supply side" shocks were real and significant. It is not entirely clear, however, how they might be used to understand the inflation dynamic in Figure 1. The intensity of the "supply side" shock likely peaked in 2020, a year in which inflation declined. And the Russia-Ukraine war shock appeared in 2022, after the sharp rise in inflation in 2021. Of course, these observations do not mean that supply disruptions had no effect on the inflation dynamic. But they do suggest that other forces were likely at work. Other important forces were surely at work on the "demand side" of the economy. Exactly what these forces were and how they should be modeled remains an open question. Guerrieri, Lorenzoni, Straub, and Werning (2022) demonstrate how a negative sectoral supply shock in an incomplete markets setting can endogenously result in "deficient demand" (a decline in actual output in excess of the decline in potential output). Although their paper does not focus on inflation dynamics, the mechanism they identify is presumably disinflationary; at least, on impact. Another way in which demand can be affected is through expectations. Developed economies devote significant amounts of time and resources to activities broadly classified as investments, including business fixed investment, residential investment, human capital accumulation, and job recruiting. The contemporaneous demand for goods and services devoted to investment (broadly-defined) surely depends on its expected rate of return. Indeed, there is considerable evidence suggesting that this is the case; see Liao and Chen (2023) and the references cited within. Whether these expectations are driven by news over economic fundamentals (e.g., Beaudry and Portier, 2006) or by purely psychological factors (e.g., Keynesian "animal spirits") matters little for positive analysis. Depressed expectations over the return to investment will depress investment demand whether expectations are formed rationally or not. The manner in which expectations are formed does, however, have implications for monetary and fiscal policy. The analysis below assumes a large "negative sentiment shock" in 2020, consistent with the fear and uncertainty associated with the unfolding pandemic and the dramatic measures taken to shut down parts of the economy. When the outlook on investment returns darkens, investors typically seek safe havens. During the financial crisis of 2008-09, U.S. Treasury securities served as a "flight to safety" asset. The result was plummting bond yields. To the extent that interest rates do not (or cannot) move lower, the demand for safety expresses itself as a decline in capital spending and the price-level. That is, a negative sentiment shock is disinflationary; at least, on impact. Below, I assume that this negative sentiment shock largely reversed itself in 2021, consistent with the appearance and widespread use of COVID-19 vaccines in that year. Now, imagine for the moment, that monetary and fiscal policy remained roughly unchanged from 2019 to today. That is, imagine that the Fed did not lower its policy rate in March 2020 and that the large discretionary fiscal programs (primarily the CARES Act of 2020 and the American Rescue Plan of 2021) had not been implemented. Assume that the negative sentiment shock was significantly more powerful than the negative supply shock in 2020, in line with Guerrieri, Lorenzoni, Straub, and Werning (2022). Assume that these two shocks are largely reversed in 2021. Then the supply-demand framework sketched above suggests a large disinflationary impulse and recession in 2020, followed by an equally large inflationary impulse and economic recovery in 2021. Depending on the nature of adjustment costs, employment and inflation should have more or less returned to their pre-pandemic levels by 2022 or shortly thereafter. To a first approximation, this is essentially what happened. However, actual inflation turned out to be much higher and more persistent than can be rationalized by these shocks alone. What is missing? What is missing, of course, are the monetary and fiscal policy responses implemented at the start of the crisis. In March 2020, the Fed lowered its policy rate from 150bp to essentially zero where it remained until March 2022. The anticipated monetary tightening began in late 2021 (see the 2-year rate in Figure 2). From March to December of 2022, the federal funds rate rose by over four hundred basis points.Figure 2 From 2020 to 2021, the U.S. Congress passed a number of bills described as delivering "stimulus and relief." The two largest bills were the CARES Act, passed in March of 2020, and the American Rescue Plan (ARP), passed in March 2021. In broad terms, these spending packages had the following properties. First, the consisted largely of monetary transfers targeting the bottom half of the income distribution as well as distressed businesses. Second, the spending packages were large--around $2 trillion each--over ten percent of GDP in both 2020 and 2021. Third, the spending packages were not offset by spending reductions in other areas. Nor were surtaxes levied to finance the programs. The programs were financed with net new issuances of nominal securities purchased by the banking sector. That is, the transfers essentially took the form of "helicopter drops" of money; see Figure 3.Figure 3 The ultra loose monetary and fiscal policies over 2020-21 exerted strong inflationary pressures. In 2022, the Russian-Ukraine war contributed to headline inflation. The output loss in 2020 contributed to inflationary pressure. The reversal in business sentiment in 2021 contributed to inflationary pressure. The inflationary pressures cited above were offset by strong deflationary pressures in 2020 and 2022. In 2020, there was a strong negative demand shock, resulting in a strong decline in investment with an accompanying movement in the demand for money (the inverse of money velocity); see Figure 4.Figure 4 As business sentiment reversed in 2021, the demand for money (safe assets, in general) declined. This turn of events occurred just as the ARP kicked in. Together, these two events generated a strong inflationary impulse in 2021. This impulse was counteracted in 2022 by strongly contractionary monetary and fiscal policies (a sharp rise in the policy interest rate in 2022 and the expiration of the ARP by the end of 2021). The account given above is based on a model that I formalize below. Note that the account is purely qualitative in nature. This is because my model is designed only to flesh out the qualitative effects of a variety of economic forces that seem plausibly important (I am working on a quantitative version of the model with a coauthor). Formalizing the argument above through a simple dynamic general equilibrium model has two benefits. First, it will force me to be explicit about the assumptions I am making to render the verbal interpretation above logically coherent. Second, it will allow me to evaluate monetary and fiscal policies employed in the 2020-22 period. The model can also be used to perform counterf actuals. Policy assessmentThe model suggests the following assessment.1. Cutting the policy rate in March 2020 was appropriate only to the extent that there were forces driving a declining output below potential. A strong deflationary pressure is not sufficient to identify an "output gap," because rationally-pessimistic forecasts are deflationary. One would have to make the case that investors became overly-pessimistic. Or that sectoral shocks somehow led to deficient demand (Guerrieri, et. al., 2022). These are difficult arguments to make because "potential" is unobservable and prior to the arrival of the vaccines, a gloomy sentiment did not seem irrational. 2. The fiscal transfers associated with the 2020 CARES Act were desirable. The policy mostly redistributed purchasing power (at a time when total output was declining) from high to low-income persons (the latter group being disproportionately affected by the shutdowns). Without the CARES Act, the economy would have likely experienced a significant deflation (benefiting those with wealth in the form of money/bonds). Hence, the desired redistribution was financed through an inflation tax. A temporary income or consumption tax might have been used instead. In this sense, inflation was at least in part an efficient tax (or constrained efficient, better ways of financing the desired transfers were available).3. A case could be made that the 2021 ARP was desirable ex ante. A case could be made that it was undesirable ex post. Either way, the model suggests that the ARP was implemented at precisely the time investor sentiment had returned to normal. Essentially, 2021 saw a large increase in the supply of money and a large decrease in the demand for real money balances. Both effects served to drive inflation higher. 4. Strong disinflationary policies were enacted at the beginning of 2022. First, fiscal policy became highly contractionary (by ceasing the ARP). Second, the Fed began to raise its policy rate aggressively. These disinflationary policies were partially offset by the inflationary consequences of growing geopolitical tensions. My own assessment of monetary and fiscal policy over this period of time (based in part on my model) is as follows. First, the Fed should not have lowered its policy rate in March 2020 (its emergency lending programs worked as needed). Conditional on having lowered the policy rate (forgivable, in light of the weak inflation numbers), the Fed should have begun tightening sometime in 2021 (consistent with the recommendations of those economists who favor NGDP targeting). Second, despite all its warts, the CARES Act was essential and did what it needed to do. Third, desirability of the ARP is better weighed in political, rather than economic, terms. It was a redistribution policy. It was financed through an inflation tax. It might have been financed in some less-inflationary way. But a tax in some form would have been unavoidable. The policies and programs put in place by our elected representatives to meet the economic challenges inflicted on us by the pandemic were designed to redistribute purchasing power. If those policies were widely viewed as desirable, then it seems strange to blame inflation (or some other tax) for inflicting economic hardship. Inflation was mainly a symptom of the solution to a problem inflicted on humanity by nature. This is the sense in which one can describe the recent inflationary episode as "constrained efficient inflation." PS. If the hump-shaped inflation pattern continues to play out, it will be judged by economic historians as a "transitory" inflation. There is nothing in the model which suggests that a recession is necessary for the transitory part. A helicopter drop of money creates a transitory inflation. This is textbook economics.