La Bioética nos enseña que la medicina no solo debe comprometerse con la búsqueda del mayor beneficio para el paciente sino también a tener en cuenta sus intereses, respetando su identidad y su cultura, sin tratar de imponer opiniones de terceros, ya sean de carácter filosófico, moral, religioso o político. El considerable aumento en la expectativa de vida de nuestra población latinoamericana en los últimos 40 años y la creciente incidencia de enfermedades neurológicas que comprometen las funciones mentales como la enfermedad cerebrovascular y las demencias, han traído consigo la aparición de un nuevo e importante problema: ¿Cómo se deben tomar decisiones médicas en pacientes que han perdido la capacidad para tomar sus propias decisiones? El presente trabajo analiza los problemas bioéticos que surgen alrrededor de las decisiones médicas en sujetos con compromiso de sus funciones mentales o con deterioro cognitivo. Primero, en el MARCO DE ANTECEDENTES, se realiza una revisión de la literatura acerca de los problemas bioéticos encontrados en torno a las decisiones médicas en sujetos con compromiso de sus funciones mentales. Posteriormente, en el MARCO TEÓRICO CONCEPTUAL, se analizan los conceptos filosóficos relacionados (ser humano, persona, autonomía, dignidad humana y calidad de vida) con un enfoque al sujeto con compromiso de las funciones mentales, revisando las funciones mentales y su compromiso desde la medicina y la neurología, el proceso de toma de decisiones en medicina y su enfoque desde la neurociencia, así como también algunas propuestas de mejora actuales. Se revisa aquí también el abordaje bioético a la toma de decisiones en medicina, examinando este proceso desde varios aspectos bioéticos fundamentales y a través de los principales problemas que presentan estas decisiones en el sujeto con compromiso de sus funciones mentales al final de la vida, como la limitación del esfuerzo terapéutico, la eutanasia, el cuidado paliativo y la muerte digna, así como el abordaje actual que propone la medicina en estos casos, sus críticas y posibles alternativas desde una bioética integral. En tercer lugar, con el fin de intentar comprender mejor estos problemas, se realizó una investigación de tipo cualitativa interpretativa con enfoque de estudio de caso para explorar la percepción de los principales actores involucrados en el proceso, los médicos, mediante un trabajo de campo en un hospital general. En el MARCO METODOLÓGICO, se presenta en detalle el proceso metodológico empleado para el estudio, sus fundamentos, su diseño, la implementación del proceso y los aspectos éticos y bioéticos de la investigación. En el MARCO DE ANÁLISIS Y RESULTADOS se presenta el plan de análisis, el perfil de los médicos entrevistados y el análisis detallado de toda la información obtenida. Estos resultados se ilustran mediante un mapa conceptual que muestra una unidad hermenéutica con familias y categorías, las cuales se describen e interpretan a profundidad. La investigación realizada permitió establecer que existen factores relevantes que influyen en la toma de decisiones médicas en pacientes con compromiso de sus funciones mentales y que hay algunos problemas importantes en este contexto que fueron percibidos por los profesionales entrevistados. Algunos de estos factores se consideraron relevantes, ya que pueden influir marcadamente en la toma de decisiones médicas en estos pacientes. Entre ellos, fue notable la presencia del paternalismo médico. Finalmente, en CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES, se discuten los resultados a la luz de la investigación teórica efectuada y se comparan con hallazgos y conclusiones de estudios previos. Algunos de los factores encontrados en este estudio, que inciden en la toma de decisiones médicas en estos pacientes, se encontraron reportados en estudios previos, pero otros no. El proceso de toma de decisiones respecto al tratamiento médico en pacientes con compromiso de sus funciones mentales debe principalmente garantizar el respeto a la autonomía del paciente; este estudio demuestra que este es el núcleo fundamental del problema bioético en torno a las decisiones médicas en ellos. Se encontró que este problema bioético se origina tanto en factores dependientes de los profesionales de la salud y del sistema de salud, como en factores dependientes del propio paciente, de su familia y de la cultura. Se concluye que se deben promover medidas que permitan que las decisiones médicas se adhieran lo más posible a la voluntad del paciente, ya sea ésta obtenida por indagación a sus familiares o por conocimiento de las voluntades anticipadas. Es necesario crear espacios que permitan discutir las políticas existentes en el manejo de estos pacientes y buscar formas alternativas desde las cuales se puedan tomar decisiones en casos particulares, considerando una visión más holística del paciente. ; INTRODUCCIÓN _________________________________________________ 11 PLANTEAMIENTO DEL PROBLEMA, JUSTIFICACIÓN Y ALCANCES ______ 17 PROPÓSITO DEL ESTUDIO ________________________________________ 19 PRESUPUESTOS Y OBJETIVOS ____________________________________ 20 Objetivo General _____________________________________________________ 20 Objetivos Específicos _________________________________________________ 20 1. MARCO DE ANTECEDENTES ____________________________________ 21 1.1. ACERCA DE FACTORES NO MÉDICOS QUE INFLUYEN EN LA TOMA DE DECISIONES MÉDICAS _______________________________________________ 21 1.2. ACERCA DE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES MÉDICAS EN SUJETOS DE EDAD AVANZADA _________________________________________________________ 25 1.3. ACERCA DE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES MÉDICAS EN SUJETOS CON COMPROMISO DE SUS FUNCIONES MENTALES __________________________ 27 1.3.1. La Evaluación de la capacidad del paciente para tomar sus propias decisiones ___ 28 1.4. ACERCA DE LAS DECISIONES MÉDICAS CUANDO SE CONOCEN LAS PREFERENCIAS PREVIAS DEL PACIENTE _______________________________ 31 1.5. ACERCA DE LA INTERVENCIÓN DE LA FAMILIA EN LA TOMA DE DECISIONES MÉDICAS EN SUJETOS NO COMPETENTES __________________ 32 1.6. ACERCA DE LA PERCEPCIÓN DE LOS PROFESIONALES DE LA SALUD SOBRE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES MÉDICAS EN SUJETOS CON COMPROMISO DE SUS FUNCIONES MENTALES _______________________________________ 33 1.7. ACERCA DE LA ENSEÑANZA DE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES ÉTICAS EN MEDICINA __________________________________________________________ 34 1.8. ACERCA DE LA LEY EN LAS DECISIONES MÉDICAS EN PACIENTES CON COMPROMISO DE SUS FUNCIONES MENTALES __________________________ 38 1.8.1. La protección a la autonomía y a la discapacidad __________________________ 38 1.8.2. El Decálogo de los derechos de los pacientes de 1991 ______________________ 42 1.8.3. El consentimiento informado ___________________________________________ 43 1.8.4. Las voluntades anticipadas ____________________________________________ 45 2. MARCO TEÓRICO CONCEPTUAL _______________________________ 49 2.1. LOS CONCEPTOS DE SER HUMANO, PERSONA, AUTONOMÍA, DIGNIDAD HUMANA Y CALIDAD DE VIDA _________________________________________ 49 2.1.1. Los conceptos de ser humano y persona _________________________________ 49 2.1.2. El concepto de autonomía ____________________________________________ 52 2.1.3. Autonomía y Dignidad ________________________________________________ 53 2.1.4. La dignidad desde otras perspectivas ____________________________________ 55 2.1.5. El concepto de Calidad de vida _________________________________________ 57 2.2. LAS FUNCIONES MENTALES Y SU COMPROMISO ___________________ 59 2.2.1. El sujeto con compromiso de sus funciones mentales _______________________ 61 2.2.2. La vulnerabilidad ____________________________________________________ 61 2.2.3. La irreversibilidad ___________________________________________________ 62 2.3. EL ABORDAJE DEL PACIENTE EN MEDICINA _______________________ 63 2.3.1. El modelo médico tradicional __________________________________________ 63 2.3.2. La propuesta holística al abordaje del paciente ____________________________ 68 2.3.3. El abordaje holístico al paciente con compromiso de sus funciones mentales ____ 69 2.3.4. El abordaje al paciente neurológico desde la perspectiva de Oliver Sacks _______ 73 2.4. LA TOMA DE DECISIONES _______________________________________ 77 2.4.1. El proceso de Toma de decisiones desde la Neurociencia ___________________ 79 2.4.2. Las emociones y la toma de decisiones __________________________________ 79 2.4.3. Neurobiología de la toma de decisiones __________________________________ 81 2.4.4. Las decisiones morales _______________________________________________ 84 2.4.5. La toma de decisiones en medicina _____________________________________ 85 2.5. LA BIOÉTICA Y EL PROCESO DE TOMA DE DECISIONES MÉDICAS ____ 88 2.5.1. Ética, Bioética y Neuroética ___________________________________________ 88 2.5.2. Problema y Dilema Bioético ___________________________________________ 90 2.5.3. La ética hipocrática __________________________________________________ 90 2.5.4. Los principios bioéticos _______________________________________________ 91 2.5.5. El cambio de paradigma en bioética _____________________________________ 94 2.5.6. Los comités de bioética clínico-asistenciales ______________________________ 96 2.5.7. Problemas bioéticos más importantes asociados a la toma de decisiones médicas en sujetos no competentes _____________________________________________________ 96 3. MARCO METODOLÓGICO ____________________________________ 107 3.1. DISEÑO METODOLÓGICO DEL ESTUDIO DE CAMPO _______________ 109 3.2. LUGAR DEL ESTUDIO __________________________________________ 109 3.3. DESCRIPCION Y SELECCIÓN DE LOS SUJETOS PARTICIPANTES ____ 110 3.4. TÉCNICAS DE RECOLECCIÓN DE LA INFORMACIÓN _______________ 111 3.4.1. La observación ____________________________________________________ 111 3.4.2. Entrevista semiestructurada __________________________________________ 112 3.4.3. Recolección de la información ________________________________________ 117 3.5. CONSIDERACIONES ÉTICAS ____________________________________ 118 4. MARCO DE ANÁLISIS Y RESULTADOS _________________________ 119 4.1. PLAN DE ANÁLISIS ____________________________________________ 119 4.2. PERFIL DE LOS ENTREVISTADOS _______________________________ 119 4.3. PROCESAMIENTO DE LAS ENTREVISTAS ________________________ 121 4.4. ANÁLISIS DE LAS ENTREVISTAS ________________________________ 122 4.4.1. Mapa conceptual de la unidad hermenéutica _____________________________ 123 4.4.2. Primera familia: Relación e interacción entre actores involucrados ____________ 124 4.4.3. Segunda familia: Factores generadores de problemas _____________________ 133 4.4.4. Tercera familia: Factores relevantes en la toma de decisiones _______________ 146 5. DISCUSIÓN DE LOS RESULTADOS DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN DE CAMPO 162 6. CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES _______________________ 169 6.1. Acerca de los antecedentes revisados ____________________________ 169 6.2. Análisis conceptual ____________________________________________ 171 6.3. Análisis de los resultados de la investigación ______________________ 175 6.4. SIGNIFICACIÓN, APORTES Y LIMITACIONES ______________________ 177 7. ANEXOS ___________________________________________________ 178 7.1. ANEXO 1: CONSENTIMIENTO INFORMADO ________________________ 178 7.1.1. Explicación consentimiento informado __________________________________ 178 7.1.2. Hoja de Consentimiento informado para el profesional _____________________ 180 REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRAFICAS _________________________________ 181 ; Bioethics teaches us that medicine must not only commit itself to the search for the greatest benefit for the patient but also to take into account their interests, respecting their identity and culture, without trying to impose the opinions of third parties, whether of a philosophical nature, moral, religious or political. The considerable increase in the life expectancy of our Latin American population in the last 40 years and the increasing incidence of neurological diseases that compromise mental functions such as cerebrovascular disease and dementias, have brought with it the appearance of a new and important problem: ¿¿ How should medical decisions be made in patients who have lost the ability to make their own decisions? The present work analyzes the bioethical problems that arise around medical decisions in subjects with compromised mental functions or cognitive impairment. First, in the BACKGROUND FRAMEWORK, a review of the literature is carried out on the bioethical problems found around medical decisions in subjects with compromised mental functions. Subsequently, in the CONCEPTUAL THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK, the related philosophical concepts (human being, person, autonomy, human dignity and quality of life) are analyzed with a focus on the subject with commitment to mental functions, reviewing mental functions and their commitment from the medicine and neurology, the decision-making process in medicine and its approach from neuroscience, as well as some current proposals for improvement. The bioethical approach to decision-making in medicine is also reviewed here, examining this process from several fundamental bioethical aspects and through the main problems that these decisions present in the subject with compromise of their mental functions at the end of life, such as limitation of the therapeutic effort, euthanasia, palliative care and dignified death, as well as the current approach proposed by medicine in these cases, its criticisms and possible alternatives from a comprehensive bioethics. Thirdly, in order to better understand these problems, a qualitative interpretive research was carried out with a case study approach to explore the perception of the main actors involved in the process, the doctors, through field work in a general hospital. In the METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK, the methodological process used for the study, its foundations, its design, the implementation of the process and the ethical and bioethical aspects of the research are presented in detail. The ANALYSIS AND RESULTS FRAMEWORK presents the analysis plan, the profile of the doctors interviewed and the detailed analysis of all the information obtained. These results are illustrated by a conceptual map that shows a hermeneutical unit with families and categories, which are described and interpreted in depth. The research carried out allowed to establish that there are relevant factors that influence medical decision-making in patients with compromised mental functions and that there are some important problems in this context that were perceived by the professionals interviewed. Some of these factors were considered relevant, since they can strongly influence medical decision-making in these patients. Among them, the presence of medical paternalism was notable. Finally, in CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS, the results are discussed in light of the theoretical research carried out and compared with the findings and conclusions of previous studies. Some of the factors found in this study, which influence medical decision-making in these patients, were reported in previous studies, but others were not. The decision-making process regarding medical treatment in patients with compromised mental functions must mainly guarantee respect for the patient's autonomy; This study shows that this is the fundamental nucleus of the bioethical problem around medical decisions in them. It was found that this bioethical problem originates both in factors dependent on health professionals and the health system, as well as in factors dependent on the patient herself, her family and culture. It is concluded that measures should be promoted that allow medical decisions to adhere as closely as possible to the will of the patient, whether it is obtained by inquiring their relatives or by knowledge of advance directives. It is necessary to create spaces that allow the discussion of existing policies in the management of these patients and seek alternative ways from which decisions can be made in particular cases, considering a more holistic view of the patient. ; Doctorado
This dissertation investigates the ways in which societies are coming to know and govern solar geoengineering. The question at the heart of this dissertation is not whether solar geoengineering will succeed, or even whether it should, but rather what makes it --- and its governance --- imaginable. To this end, the bulk of this dissertation aimed to analyze the co-production of the evidence --- and governance assumptions --- for a sociotechnical system that does not yet exist. To do so, I draw on work in science and technology studies (STS) and political science to elucidate and analyze the political and scientific claims underpinning expert attempts to capture the public imagination and put solar geoengineering on mainstream public policy agendas. I argue that the ability to put an emerging technology on the public agenda constitutes an exercise of power, determined neither by social structures nor entrepreneurial social actors alone, and entails its own, oft-neglected, evidentiary politics.Decades of scholarship in the interpretive social sciences demonstrates that framing and producing technoscience requires imaginative as much as technical work. Sheila Jasanoff's concept of `sociotechnical imaginaries' offers a useful point of entry into these dynamics. Sociotechnical imaginaries describe ``collectively held, institutionally stabilized, and publicly performed visions of desirable futures'' co-produced with advances in science and technology. As a theoretical concept, imaginaries help to explain why some visions of scientific and social order are co-produced, while others are not. Coupling this work with responsible research and innovation (RRI), which is concerned with the responsible steering of technoscientific developments, draws attention to the ways these imaginaries may play a vital role in the development, assessment, and governance of emerging technologies in the present, making scrutiny of their content and prospects for institutionalization urgent and timely.Any social scientific study of solar-geoengineering-in-the-making presents challenges for the analyst, some of which are shared across `emerging technologies,' and some of which are unique to this topic, at least at this stage. For one, the supply of research on solar geoengineering --- social scientific and otherwise --- has outpaced any demand function. It is not yet a topic of research in the private sector, nor is it entangled in broader imaginaries of national identity or competitiveness, though this may change. As Steve Rayner has pointed out, solar geoengineering is at a research impasse. Moreover, the primacy of models as an evidentiary basis for contemplating solar geoengineering has contributed to its stabilization as an object of governance before we know much about what it is likely to become, or even whether it is doable at all. This has contributed to a set of early assumptions about solar geoengineering (for example, as cheap and easy, or likely to make things better or worse for specific people in specific places) that need to be revisited. In this supply-driven context, the visions of a relatively narrow set of actors --- and narrow kinds of evidence --- are forming the foundation for future policy regimes. In Evoking equity as a rationale for solar geoengineering research? Scrutinizing emerging expert visions of equity, I examine the scientization of debates about the equity implications of solar geoengineering research. In so doing, I identify three sets of equity-related arguments advanced by sociotechnical vanguards advocating for more solar geoengineering research. The first is a call for more research as a means to shed light on the distributional outcomes of envisioned futures with and without solar geoengineering. This includes a call to reduce uncertainties inherent in scientific models examining distributional outcomes of potential deployment of solar geoengineering. Accompanying such calls is a discernible shift in the content of science itself, from more extreme to more `realistic' modeled scenarios of deployment, and from consideration of global to regional effects. The second equity-related rationale for more research is a call for comparative risk-risk assessment, underpinned by the claim that equity demands that potential risks and benefits of solar geoengineering be compared to the risks of climate change itself, especially for vulnerable populations. The third equity-related rationale for more solar geoengineering research is the invocation of the 1.5 degree aspirational goal of the Paris Agreement as requiring research on solar geoengineering, out of concern for the global poor and those most vulnerable to the consequences of climate change.My research suggests reveals several implications of this expert-driven, outcome-oriented, and risk-based understanding of equity. First, it may suggest that more research on solar geoengineering is the only rational choice, since many of the relevant equity concerns are empirical matters, amenable to resolution through the provision of more science. Second, it sidesteps the question of whether and how diverse non-experts should have a say in whether and how such research moves forward --- even if it is to occur on their behalf, in part by assuming that climate-related preferences are knowable and quantifiable. Third, the focus on predicting the outcomes of any future deployment at this stage represents an exercise in speculative ethics, and risks ignoring alternative ways of thinking about equity and responsibility in the context of technological innovation. Finally, I suggest that further analysis should be directed toward whether the vanguard visions I explore reflect a broader shift in operationalizing equity within multilateral climate politics, with those bearing the greatest responsibility now recast as `risk managers' on behalf of the global poor and the vulnerable. I argue that those characterized as `the vulnerable' in expert discourses should regain their status as agential subjects, rather than remain undifferentiated objects in expert discourse. Empirical research suggests that publics have a set of concerns not captured in the approach to equity I analyze in this dissertation, including issues around moral responsibility, historical global injustices, the ability to be included in, and benefit from, technological development, and concerns around lack of agency and self-determination in shaping innovation pathways.In The Politics of Climate Models for Solar Geoengineering Research, I argue that there is an oft-neglected politics of evidence around attempts to put emerging topics on the formal public agenda, which has the potential to shape future policy regimes. In this chapter, I analyze the mutual construction of solar geoengineering modeling and policy framing. Climate models have been understood as important nodes at the interface of climate science and policy, and as capable of shaping societies' understanding of, and responses to, climate change. As other scholars have pointed out, less has been said about the development of this relationship over time, which can help explain how it is that the intersection of modeling and politics takes on the form that it does.There are at least two issues around uncertainty and representation in the use of climate models for knowledge about solar geoengineering, which raise questions at the intersection of modeling and politics. The first is that models are being used to represent technologies which do not yet exist, black-boxing the engineering in geoengineering ideas. As one interviewee stated, ``In the model, you can just make geoengineering work. You can just assume that the oceans have a higher albedo because of ocean bubbles, whether it's possible or not.'' This results in the management of the representation of a technology in models, rather than managing the development of the technology itself, eliding important near-term questions around the complexities of technology development and the structure of responsible research programs, and stabilizing solar geoengineering as an object of governance in potentially problematic ways. Secondly, there is significant debate about whether these models can usefully predict outcomes at all; uncertainties that may be less relevant to models of and for climate science and mitigation policy may become `matters of concern' when it comes to predicting or promising regarding the effects of geoengineering.I argue that imaginaries of solar geoengineering technologies --- despite not serving current regulatory demands, and despite the non-existence of the technologies themselves (perhaps because of it) --- are engaging directly with policy needs (both current and predicted). With regard to current needs, the focus on models as proxies for actual deployment of these imagined technologies has the effect of making it seem as though societies `know' more about whether and how to develop these techniques than they do, which is resulting in debates about the management of the representation of a technology which does not yet exist. This has contributed to the current research impasse, in which ``technologists await a green light from social scientists before proceeding with research, while social scientists are limited to commenting on highly speculative ideas about how geoengineering might turn out in practice.'' In this context, policymakers are avoiding decisions regarding the advisability of a research program aimed at answering societally-relevant questions about technology development, and are content to fund indoor modeling studies. Alternatively, one might argue that the existing settlement, at least in the US, between governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and scientists, in which governments seem willing to fund indoor modeling studies but accept an informal moratorium on everything else, may itself be a kind of clumsy solution, the stability of which depends on its non-articulation.There is a broader question around displacement in the realm of climate policy raised by this research. Several scholars and commentators have raised questions about the role of imagined technologies in the present, especially since the 2015 Paris climate agreement. As Steve Rayner has pointed out, the agreement maintains the belief that global temperature targets are achievable via the inclusion of imaginary technologies, which represents a kind of `magical thinking.' Noting that the line between ambition and delusion is not always sharp, Rayner argues that the reality seems to be that the world is already likely to exceed the temperature limit agreed to absent some form of geoengineering. Despite this reality, the inclusion of climate engineering technologies in modeled scenarios has the effect of making political targets seem achievable. This is true even without any instrumental action --- and potential near-term political costs --- to policymakers when it comes to actually funding research and development on these imagined technologies, and assessing their impacts and implications.Finally, in Climate Researchers' Views of Solar Geoengineering: Benefits, Risks, and Governance, I present the results of the first survey of climate change researchers' views of solar geoengineering research and its appropriate oversight. I argue that definitions of `expert' in emerging domains is itself a contested political category, and far from straightforward, particularly when the technologies under consideration do not yet exist. Respondents in this survey, much like surveys of general publics, report concern about the moral hazard operating at the level of political decision-making. Nevertheless, respondents generally support research on solar geoengineering, including small-scale outdoor studies --- despite both a general concern that research may result in lock-in and slippery slopes to deployment, and skepticism about the advisability of ever deploying these techniques. I find strong support for some form of novel or supplementary governance arrangement(s) for research, and a belief that scientific self-regulation is insufficient to manage risks. There seems to be less agreement, however, on particular governance approaches; I find mixed responses regarding the desirability of a `physical thresholds' approach to governing geoengineering experiments, for example.Despite the fact that most respondents express skepticism about the desirability of future deployment, respondents tend to support more research into these techniques, both indoor and, to a lesser extent, outdoors. This might be explained by a view that research will reveal reasons not to move forward, or because of a belief that concerns about slippery slopes are overstated (although this seems less likely, given that most respondents report concern that research may result in lock-in and slippery slopes to deployment). Alternatively, a substantial number of researchers surveyed here may have an interest in scientific research moving forward in general, irrespective of its strategic aims. Respondents express skepticism about prediction and controllability when it comes to solar geoengineering deployment. It remains an open question whether a desirable future world with solar geoengineering would depend upon predicting such outcomes, although most respondents do report a belief that uncertainty in our understanding of the climate system means we should never deploy solar geoengineering. Given low awareness of solar geoengineering, participation by a narrow set of actors --- including scientists, but also those who claim to represent the views of civil society --- can close down discussion of this imaginary technology, rather than open it up. In this way, the views of relevant but disempowered publics are assumed before most people have even heard of these ideas. It remains to be seen whether and how early visions of solar geoengineering will cohere or acquire collective stability, or whether they will be radically disrupted. My hope is that the data and analysis in this dissertation may prove useful in tracing the evolution of solar geongineering and its governance over time.
The study of textiles is an open area of scientific research, which for its variety of material components and physical chemical diversity of conditions, makes a field of interest for scientific studies in the cultural heritage field. Archaeological/historical textiles offer the possibility to carry out studies on organic materials such as fibers, adhesion elements, dyes, paper, etc., as well as on inorganic compounds for instance metals, alloys, precious stones and other added ornamentation. That variety of composition, allow to use a combination of analytical techniques to solve the questions coming from the object in an archaeometric research. One kind of textile object that provides a valuable cultural information because of its linguistic representation employed by its carrier societies, are the flags/banners/emblems, objects made with a nonverbal communication purpose. As long as depending on the use and/or purpose of each object, varies both the materials/techniques used in its production and its iconography (style, color, emblem, shape), its study gives the possibility to extract information through their materials and manufacturing techniques about a temporal-spatial frame, a particular event or a specific character. The flags/banners have been used since the eleventh century as representative objects of power, hierarchy, social or military organization, or as communicative media. The use of these objects has been spread throughout the world, possibly due to its easy interpretation and/or appropriation by different societies, making it part of their own culture. The flags as symbols of territorial control, using emblems that represent a family, order or army, were introduced to the New World (America) with the arrival of the European conquerors at the end of the fifteenth century. Flags/banners representing the Royal dominion over conquered territories, the Catholic Church and conquistadors' armies were the first to arrive. One of those flags that have endured over time, that have an invaluable cultural meaning for both American and Iberian societies, is the so-called Francisco Pizarro's Banner of Arms. It is a textile object with metal threads decoration over a Royal emblem. According to historical sources, this object was used by Francisco Pizarro in 1532 on the conquest process of Peru, after received the permission by King Charles V to on behalf of him, to conquer the lands of the New World today known as Peru. After Pizarro's control of the Inca territory, it is believed that Pizarro left his banner on top of the Inca's Sun's Temple as symbol of his rule. Centuries later, in the America libertarian campaigns, General Sucre, military at charge of the independence army in Peru, reports have found what he considered the Pizarro's Banner, sending it to Bogotá as a symbol of victory, being kept since that time until today by the National Museum of Colombia. Due to historical discrepancies in the different movements of the so-called Pizarro's Banner of Arms, its real meaning has been under discussion and because of the passage of time its physical condition has suffer deterioration. That is because its scientific study is now an interesting case study to respond to both historical and conservation questions of it. Through a collaboration with the National Museum of Colombia, a set of 25 samples of so-called Pizarro's Banner of Arms were collected, covering the various components and areas from the object of study. These samples were subjected to analytical studies for physical and chemical characterization. Microscopic observation, VSEM-EDS analysis, Raman spectroscopy, chromatographic analysis (HPLC-MS, GCMS) and radiocarbon dating were done. Similarly, was sought through a direct in situ physical inspection to the object and through a research into historical sources, adequate information to solve the object's problems. Results obtained allowed to identify as silk the textile used in the elaboration of the Banner's fabric, as well as the use of natural dyes for dyeing the fibers used on the emblem: use of cochineal and brazil wood as a source of red, luteolin plant-based for yellow color, indigotine plant-based for blue, and a mixture of yellow and blue dyes for green were identified. Similarly, the use of animal glue in the manufacturing process and the use of rag paper was evident. The metal threads study from the Banner give a confirmation to a silver core wire gilded with a thin gold sheet, being flattened and entwined with silk threads for their use. Finally, using the radiocarbon results, it was possible to postulate with huge accuracy that the Banner date manufacture was between the XV-XVI century and subject to restoration processes with addition of textiles in modern times. Together with, was evident that the state of degradation of the fabric is due to natural degradation in the silk fibers, having that its color has faded and its mechanical properties decreased, leading to loss of rigidity and disappearance of the physical structure. Similarly, it was clear the original colors of the emblem and highlight problems of detachment of paper due to crystallization of the adhesive. In the same way, was found that the metal threads suffer corrosion by sulfur and detachment of its crystals. Finally, combining the analytical results and the historical sources data found from the so-called Francisco Pizarro's Banner of Arms, allows to postulate that its manufacture process was done in Europe employing precious materials to obtain a long-life object with a deep message for its viewers. Also, the data obtained helps to support the possible idea that the object was employed by Francisco Pizarro in the Peru conquest process. However, by the symbols present in the object, its elaboration date and materials, this object its clearly unique in its kind, and the most important, by its linguistic message, does not represent to Francisco Pizarro or his army, meanwhile, represents the Spanish crown. Therefore, instead to be labeled as Francisco Pizarro's Banner of Arms, it should be called the Colonial Royal Banner of Charles V in the New World; RESUMEN: El estudio de textiles es un área abierta de investigación científica, la cual por su variedad de componentes materiales y la diversidad de condiciones físico-químicas presentes en estos objetos, lo hace un campo de interés para estudios científicos en el patrimonio cultural. Los textiles arqueológicos/históricos brindan la posibilidad de realizar estudios en materiales orgánicos como fibras, elementos de adhesión, tinturas, papel, etc., e inorgánicos como metales, aleaciones, piedras preciosas y demás materiales decorativos añadidos. Por su variedad de composición, es posible emplear diversas técnicas analíticas para resolver aquellas preguntas propias del objeto en una investigación arqueométrica. Uno de los objetos textiles que brinda gran información cultural debido a su representación lingüística empleada por las sociedades portadoras, son las banderas/estandartes/emblemas. Donde varía dependiendo de su uso y/o propósito, los materiales empleados en su elaboración, al igual que su iconografía (estilo, color, emblema, forma). El estudio de estos objetos construidos con un propósito de comunicación no verbal, da la posibilidad de extraer información a través de sus materiales y técnicas de elaboración sobre un rango temporal-espacial, un evento determinado en la historia o incluso a un personaje en específico. Las banderas han sido empleadas desde el siglo XI como objetos representativos de poder, jerarquía, organización social o militar, o como medio de comunicación. El uso de estos objetos se ha extendido a lo largo del mundo posiblemente debido a su fácil interpretación y/o apropiación por distintas sociedades, haciéndolo parte de su cultura. Las banderas como símbolos de control territorial, empleando símbolos que representan a una familia, orden o armada fueron introducidas a el Nuevo Mundo (América) con la llegada de los conquistadores europeos al final del siglo XV. Las banderas/estandartes que representaban el dominio Real sobre territorios dominados, la iglesia católica y las banderas de ejércitos y/o conquistadores fueron las primeras en llegar al nuevo mundo. Una de aquellas banderas que ha soportado el paso del tiempo, teniendo un gran valor cultural tanto para las sociedades americanas como para las ibéricas, es el denominado Estandarte de armas de Francisco Pizarro. Siendo un objeto textil con decoración en hilos metálicos sobre un emblema Real. De acuerdo a fuentes históricas, este objeto fue usado por Francisco Pizarro en 1532 en el proceso de conquista del Perú, quien recibe por parte del Rey Carlos V el poder para que, en su nombre, Pizarro pueda conquistar las tierras del nuevo mundo hoy conocidas como Perú. Luego del dominio de Pizarro sobre el territorio Inca, se cree que Pizarro dejó su estandarte en la cima del templo Inca del sol como símbolo de su control. Siglos más tarde, en las campañas libertarias de América, el General Sucre, militar encargado de la armada independentista en Perú, reporta haber encontrado lo que él considera como el estandarte de Pizarro, enviándolo a Bogotá como muestra de victoria, siendo custodiada desde ese momento por el Museo Nacional de Colombia hasta la actualidad. Debido a discrepancias históricas, el verdadero significado del llamado estandarte de Pizarro ha sido objeto de discusión y debido del pasar del tiempo su estado de conservación se ha deteriorado. Dejando de este modo, un caso de estudio interesante para que por medio de estudios científicos al objeto se pueda dar respuesta a preguntas tanto históricas como de conservación del mismo. De este modo, por medio de una colaboración con el Museo Nacional de Colombia, se obtuvo un juego de 25 muestras del llamado Estandarte de armas de Francisco Pizarro, abarcando los diferentes componentes y áreas del objeto de estudio. Dichas muestras fueron sometidas a estudios analíticos para su caracterización físico-química. Análisis de observación al microscopio, análisis VSEM-EDS, espectroscopia Raman, análisis cromatográficos (HPLC-MS, GC-MS) y datación por radiocarbono catorce fueron realizados. Del mismo modo, por medio de una inspección física al objeto in situ y una profunda investigación en fuentes históricas del mismo, se buscó la información adecuada para resolver sus problemáticas. Los resultados obtenidos permitieron identificar como seda el textil empleado en la elaboración del estandarte, así como el uso de colorantes naturales para teñir las fibras en el emblema: uso de cochinilla y palo de Brasil como fuente del color rojo, plantas a base de luteolin para el color amarillo, plantas a base de indigotina para el color azul y mezcla de colorantes amarillos y azules para el color verde fueron identificadas. Del mismo modo se evidencio el uso de adhesivos animales y el uso de papel de trapos en el proceso de manufactura. El estudio de los hilos metálicos, permitió evidenciar el uso de alambres con núcleos de plata con un fino recubrimiento de oro en su exterior, siendo aplanados y entrelazados con hilos de seda para su uso. Finalmente usando la datación por radiocarbono, fue posible conocer con alta precisión que el estandarte fue elaborado entre los siglos XV-XVI y sufrió procesos de restauración con añadidura de textiles en tiempos modernos. Junto a lo anterior, es posible postular que el estado de degradación de la tela es debido a degradación natural en las fibras de seda, teniendo así que su color se ha desvanecido y sus propiedades mecánicas disminuidas, conllevando a perdida de rigidez y desaparición de la estructura. Del mismo modo se pudo conocer los colores originales del emblema y evidenciar problemas de desprendimiento del papel debido a cristalización del adhesivo. Asimismo, se comprobó que los hilos metálicos presentan corrosión por azufre y desprendimiento de sus cristales. Finalmente, combinando los resultados analíticos y la información de fuentes históricas encontradas del llamado Estandarte de armas de Francisco Pizarro, se puede postular que su elaboración fue realizada en Europa, usando materiales preciosos para obtener un objeto de larga vida con un profundo mensaje para sus observadores. También, los datos obtenidos ayudan a dar soporte la posible idea de que este objeto fue usado por Francisco Pizarro en el proceso de conquista del Perú. Sin embargo, debido a los símbolos presentes en el objeto, fecha y materiales de elaboración, este objeto es claramente único en su tipo, y lo más importante, por su mensaje lingüístico, este no representa a Francisco Pizarro o su armada, al contrario, representa a la Corona de España. Por ende, en vez de denominarse como Estandarte de armas de Francisco Pizarro, este objeto debería nombrarse como el Estandarte Real de la Colonia de Carlos V en el Nuevo Mundo.
[Resumen] El sector ornamental tiene una gran importancia en la producción hortícola moderna, tanto desde el punto de vista económico, como en el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías. En el subsector de la producción de plantas de temporada en macetas, la Viola x wittrockiana ocupa una posición destacada, principalmente en el periodo que va desde otoño hasta el principio de la primavera. En este sentido, el principal objetivo de esta tesis fue el de estudiar tanto los sustratos comerciales utilizados y sus propiedades físicas y químicas (antes y después del cultivo de la planta), como las propiedades químicas de la raíz, de la parte aérea (PA) y de la flor, intentando correlacionar estas variables tangibles y determinables en el laboratorio, con otras de gran importancia en el momento de la comercialización, como son la calidad y diámetro de la planta y las flores y el desarrollo radicular. Además, se han estudiado las tecnologías de producción utilizadas y el nivel de conocimiento técnico de los responsables de los viveros y de sus equipos de trabajo, mediante un modelo de cuestionario de evaluación desarrollado específicamente para esta tesis. La toma de muestras de sustratos y material vegetal, los análisis de laboratorio y la aplicación de los cuestionarios se llevó a cabo entre enero de 2009 y marzo de 2010. Para ello se tomaron datos y efectuaron análisis a partir de 17 muestreos realizados en viveros de 13 productores de plantas ornamentales ubicados en las regiones españolas de Castilla y León y Galicia, además de en el norte de Portugal. Los parámetros físicos y químicos analizados en el sustrato fueron los siguientes: Volumen de agua (WV), volumen de aire (AV), porosidad total (PS), densidad de partícula (PD), valor de contracción (S), densidad aparente (DBD), materia seca (DM), humedad (WM), materia orgánica (MO), cenizas, potencial hidrógeno (pH), conductividad eléctrica (CE) y relación Carbono/Nitrógeno(C/N). Además, se han analizado los macro y micro nutrientes en los sustratos final e inicial, así como en las raíces, parte aérea y flores. Los parámetros físicos analizados, tanto en el sustrato inicial como en el final, están dentro de los valores recomendados por diversos autores. Asimismo, el pH y la conductividad eléctrica de las muestras se encuentran en su gran mayoría dentro de los márgenes recomendados. La relación Carbono/Nitrógeno (C/N) se presentó, de modo general, superior a los niveles recomendados, sin embargo al tratarse de turbas muy estables, esto no ha significado un problema en el desarrollo de las plantas. Las concentraciones de metales pesados han quedado por debajo de los máximos recomendados por diversos autores, indicando así que no existieron altos riesgos de contaminación ambiental. Los resultados de macro y micro nutrientes en los sustratos iniciales y finales ofrecieron valores inferiores a los recomendados, pero no se ha visto afectada la calidad de las plantas obtenidas ya que los productores realizan abonado por fertirrigacion, suministrando lo que las plantas necesitan en cada etapa de su desarrollo y también solucionado eventuales carencias con abonados foliares.Con la aplicación de los cuestionarios, se pudo observar que la gran mayoría de los viveros estudiados presentaban un nivel de tecnología medio/alto, que se refleja en la nota media de los viveros de 7,88. Por otra parte, el nivel de capacitación técnica y formación, ha obtenido una nota media de 6,82. En relación a la evaluación de la calidad de las plantas, la media de los viveros analizados ha dado como resultado unos valores de A1 = 39,65%; A2 = 44,65% y B = 15,64%. En cuanto a la calidad de raíces, las notas medias de los viveros fueron: 10 = 5,65%; 8 = 34,82%; 6 = 37,58% y 4 = 19,35%. Es decir, tanto en lo referente a la calidad de las plantas como al desarrollo radicular la gran mayoría de las muestras se incluyen dentro del rango exigido por el mercado. Los diámetros medios fueron 15,58 cm para las plantas y 7,79 cm para las flores, superando los valores medios exigidos por el mercado. Por lo tanto, la metodología utilizada para los análisis de la calidad morfológica y el modelo de los cuestionarios utilizados en la evaluación de los viveros se han mostrado eficaces para el desarrollo de este trabajo de tesis. ; [Resumo] O sector ornamental ten unha grande importancia na produción hortícola moderna, tanto dende o punto de vista económico coma no desenvolvemento de novas tecnoloxías. No subsector da producción de plantas de tempada en macetas, a Viola x wittrockiana ocupa unha posición destacada, principalmente no período que vai dende outono ata o inicio da primavera. Neste sentido, o principal obxectivo desta tese foi o de estudar tanto os substratos comerciais utilizados e as súas propiedades físicas e químicas (antes e despois do cultivo da planta), como as propiedades químicas da raíz, da parte aérea (PA) e flor, intentando correlacionar estas variables tanxibles e determinables no laboratorio, con outras de grande importancia no momento da comercialización, como son a calidade e diámetro da planta e das flores e o desenvolvemento radicular. Ademais, estudáronse as tecnoloxías de produción utilizadas e o nivel de coñecemento técnico dos responsables dos viveiros e dos seus equipos de traballo, mediante un modelo de cuestionario de avaliación desenvolvido especificamente para esta tese. A toma de mostras de substratos e material vexetal, as análises de laboratorio e a aplicación dos cuestionarios levouse a cabo entre xaneiro de 2009 e marzo de 2010. Para iso tomáronse datos e efectuáronse análises a partir de 17 mostraxes realizadas en viveiros de 13 produtores de plantas ornamentais situados nas rexións españolas de Castela e León e Galicia, ademais de no norte de Portugal. Os parámetros físicos e químicos analizados no substrato foron os seguintes: Volume de auga (WV), volume de aire (AV), porosidade total (PS), densidade de partícula (PD), valor de contracción (S), densidade aparente (DBD), materia seca (DM), humidade (WM), materia orgánica (MO), cinzas, potencial hidróxeno (pH), condutividade eléctrica (CE) e relación Carbono/Nitróxeno (C/N). Ademais, analizáronse os macro e micro nutrientes nos substratos final e inicial, así como nas raíces, parte aérea e flores. Os parámetros físicos analizados, tanto no substrato inicial coma no final, están dentro dos valores recomendados por diversos autores. Así mesmo, o pH e a condutividade eléctrica das mostras encóntranse na súa gran maioría dentro das marxes recomendadas. A relación Carbono/Nitróxeno (C/N) presentouse, de modo xeral, superior aos niveis recomendados, non obstante ao tratarse de turbas moi estables, isto non significou un problema no desenvolvemento das plantas. As concentracións de metais pesados quedaron por debaixo dos máximos recomendados por diversos autores, indicando así que non existiron altos riscos de contaminación ambiental. Os resultados de macro e micro nutrientes nos substratos iniciais e finais ofreceron valores inferiores aos recomendados, pero non se viu afectada a calidade das plantas obtidas xa que os produtores realizan aboado por fertirrigacion, subministrando o que as plantas necesitan en cada etapa do seu desenvolvemento e tamén solucionado eventuais carencias con subscritores foliares.Coa aplicación dos cuestionarios, púidose observar que a gran maioría dos viveiros estudados presentaban un nivel de tecnoloxía medio/alto, que se reflicte na nota media dos viveiros de 7,88. Por outra parte, o nivel de capacitación técnica e formación, obtivo unha nota media de 6,82. En relación á avaliación da calidade das plantas, a media dos viveiros analizados deu como resultado uns valores de A1 =39,65%; A2 =44,65% e B =15,64%. En canto á calidade de raíces, as notas medias dos viveiros foron: 10 = 5,65%; 8 = 34,82%; 6 = 37,58% y 4 = 19,35%. É dicir, tanto no referente á calidade das plantas coma ao desenvolvemento radicular a gran maioría das mostras inclúense dentro do rango esixido polo mercado. Os diámetros medios foron 15,58 cm para as plantas e 7,79 cm para as flores, superando os valores medios esixidos polo mercado. Polo tanto, a metodoloxía utilizada para as análises da calidade morfolóxica e o modelo dos cuestionarios utilizados na avaliación dos viveiros mostráronse eficaces para o desenvolvemento deste traballo de tese. ; ABSTRACT The ornamental sector is very important for the modern horticultural production, and this statement is el-founded, both from the economical point of view and also when considering the development of new technologies. Within the subsector dealing with production of season plants in pots Viola x wittrockiana occupies a central position, mainly in the period from autumn to beginning spring. Therefore, the main objective of this Ph. D. thesis was to study the commercial substrates used for growing this season plant, its physical and chemical properties (before and after the plant has been cultivated), and also the chemical composition of root, aerial part and flowers. First, it was tried to correlate the above mentioned variables determined in the laboratory with other characteristics which are of great interest for commercialisation such as plant quality, and flower and plant diameter, and root development. In addition the technologies of production employed as well as the performance of technical know-how of the managers of the garden centres studied and its work teams have been studied. For this purpose an specific evaluation form has been developed within the frame of this Ph.D. Sampling of substrates and plant material, laboratory analysis and surveys conducted by application of evaluation forms have been performed from January 2009 to March 2010. Data have been recorded and analysis have been made from 17 samplings taken on garden centres belonging to 13 producers of ornamental plants. The studied garden centres were located in he Spanish regions of Castile and Leon and Galicia as well as in the North of Portugal. The following physical an chemical properties have been analyzed in the substrate: water volume (WV), air volume (AV), total porosity (PS), particle or solid density (PD) percent of contraction (S), bulk density (DBD), dry matter (DM), moisture (WM), organic matter (OM), ashes, potential of hexogen (pH), electrical conductivity (CE), and carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N). In addition, macro- and micronutrients have been also analyzed in the substrates before sowing and after harvesting of the ornamental plant, as well as in roots, aerial parts and flowers. The values of the soil physical properties of the substrates studied, both before sowing and after harvesting are within the optimal range for adequate plant growth recommended by different authors. Most of the samples analyzed also showed pH and electrical conductivity values within intervals recommended for optimal plant growth; there were however samples with high values of electrical conductivity. In general, the carbon to nitrogen ratio was higher than the optimal values recommended; however this did not meant a problem for plant growth and development, most likely because the commercial substrates employed were bases on very stable peats, with low mineralization. Concentrations of heavy metals extracted with a 1:5 water solution were much lower than limits considered in the legislation as indicators of contamination, showing that there was no risk for environmental contamination. On the other hand, the macro- and micronutrient concentrations, both before sowing and after harvesting were below the recommended range of optimal values. However the low levels of nutrients showed not an effect on plant quality; which could be attributed to the fact that producers have mainly applied fertilizers by fertirrigation and also to manage occasional nutrient deficiencies using leaf fertilization; thus producers have been able to give to the plants just what they need for each stage of development. Application of Surrey tests showed that most of the garden centres or nurseries studied were characterized by a medium to high performance in technology, which was reflected on an average note of 7.88. On the other hand, levels of technical performance and formation received an average note of 6.82. Regarding plant quality evaluation, on average ornamental garden centres studied showed the following values: A1 = 39.65%; A2 = 44.65% and B = 15.64%. For the root quality the notes obtained ranked as follows: 10 = 5.65 %; 8 = 34.82%; 6 = 37.58%, and 4 = 19.35%. It follows that both, plant quality and root development criteria most of the samples studied have been found to be included within the interval of values which are required by the market. Moreover, mean diameter values of 15.58 cm for plants and 7.79 cm for flowers are higher than the respective mean values demanded by the markets. It follows that both, the methodology used to analyze morphological quality and the test survey model applied to evaluate ornamental garden centres have been shown to be efficient to accomplish this Ph. D. work.
¿Cuál ha sido el aporte de la economía al estudio de la historia? ¿En qué medida la mera recopilación de estadísticas y series en el tiempo supone en sí mismo un mejor análisis de una causalidad? ¿Está necesariamente mejor documentado un fenómeno histórico si en la explicación se utilizan indicadores comparados?La aparición de la cliometría o nueva historia económica en la década del 60´supuso en parte un intento de responder afirmativamente estos interrogantes. Sin embargo, en el camino se produjo una lógica tensión entre las disciplinas de la economía y de la historia.Un clásico libro introductorio fue compilado por Peter Temin en 1973. "New Economic history, Selected Readings" (Harmondsworth, England). Allí, Temin introduce la cuestión: "When economics was taking shape as an academic discipline in the late nineteenth century, two approaches to the study of economics affairs struggled for dominance. Classical economics traced its intelectual lineage back to english radical thought and utilized deductive reasoning to derive generalizations about the world from abstract propositions. Historical economics, as the competing approach was called, had its origins in Germany and was based on the principle of induction: the study of specific historical cases was supposed to generate laws of economic behaviour. The struggle was short, and the victory, decisive. Economics as we know it is the grandchild of classical economics. The progeny of historical economics are labelled economics history, social history and sociology- studied sometimes in academic departments of these names and sometimes not. The new economic history (known also as econometric history or Cliometrics) differs from the old by being a member of the classical economics family, not the historical economics clan" (1).¿Cuáles eran las áreas centrales de estudio en el inicio de la cliometría? Para Temin, eran tres: 1) Economic growth; 2) Economic Institutions y 3) Government Policies. En palabras del autor: "The subject matter of the new economic history can be grouped into 3 broad categories. 1) Economic growth. Like other economists, economic historians have been concerned over the last decade with the ´problem´of economic growth. And like recent work on this topic by theorists and students of current affairs, recent work in economic history has served to show how little we know. We have accumulated an impressive amount of monographic work on American economic growth, but we have not yet been able to gather these details together into a convincing picture of the process as a whole. In fact, much of the work of the new economic history can be seen as a refutation of previous generalizations about growth" (2).Siguiendo esta línea de razonamiento y recurriendo a un ejemplo mencionado por Temin, la cliometría ha ayudado a revelar que el alto nivel de vida de la sociedad americana antedataba el comienzo del proceso de industrialización. Así, para Temin y otros no es correcto hablar de un país (Estados Unidos) subdesarrollado en la década de 1840 y, consecuentemente, no es riguroso hablar de un take-off o despegue posterior. En este ejemplo podemos ver la relevancia del análisis introducido en la década del 60 y 70: cuando recurrimos a las estadísticas comparadas el análisis posterior puede devenir mas riguroso. En el ejemplo mencionado, comparar indicadores nos posibilita comprender que no era el proceso de industrialización lo que generó el alto nivel de vida para la época sino, en cambio, que era el alto nivel de vida lo que generó las condiciones de ahorro e inversión para alcanzar un proceso de industrialización. A su vez, este nuevo razonamiento tiene inconvenientes ya que, por ejemplo, el posterior desarrollo de nuevas técnicas de comparación han podido echar dudas sobre el verdadero nivel de vida de la sociedad americana a comienzos del siglo XIX. Sin embargo, es posible ver aquí la validez principal de la cliometría y de la técnica de la ciencia económica utilizada en el estudio de acontecimientos históricos: en un principio, nos ha servido para poner en tela de juicio creencias asumidas como verdaderas, que en su momento descansaban en una causalidad que parecía intuitiva, con mucho sentido común. En el ejemplo mencionado, es intuitivo asumir que una sociedad pobre deviene mas rica o próspera a partir de un proceso de industrialización que genera que una economía tradicional, basada en la explotación primaria, introduzca mayor eficiencia a partir de la aparición de maquinas o nuevas técnicas. En cambio, parece menos intuitivo pensar que ha sido un crecimiento en el nivel de vida lo que permitió un nivel mas alto de ahorro que, a su turno, repercutió en mayor inversión, teniendo como consecuencia la aparición de distintos tipos de innovaciones.El punto central aquí es remarcar que la aparición de la cliometría no buscaba refutar argumentos y cerrar debates sino que, por el contrario, se dedicaba a abrir nuevos áreas de investigación. Es decir, no cerraba discusiones sino que abría nuevas perspectivas. Así, como programa de investigación la cliometría poseía las características de un nuevo paradigma que, como tal, tenía entre sus condiciones principales desafiar los paradigmas dominantes basándose no en nuevas e irrefutables verdades sino en nuevas preguntas que introducían dudas en las comunidades científicas dominantes.El segundo área que marca Temin es "Economic institutions". El autor la define de la siguiente manera: "Although old and new economic historians examine the nature of institutions, the questions they pose are very different. The old economic historian or institutionalist tend to analyse the internal working of an institution. How was it organized? Who ran it? How did it change? The new economic historian, building on the work of the old, tends to ask about the effect of institutions on the rest of the economy…two institutions have received the most attention. Slavery, ´the peculiar institution´, fascinates any student of american history for myriad reasons…banking has received almost as much attention as slavery, at least partly as a result of the resurgence of interest in money among economists generally" (3).La aparición de instrumentos econométricos ha hecho posible profundizar el análisis de una situación determinada. Es decir, la existencia de instrumentos mas rigurosos para el estudio ha generado un círculo virtuoso con la especialización que ha habido en las distintas disciplinas científicas a lo largo del siglo XX, particularmente en la segunda mitad. Es posible focalizarse en el estudio de la esclavitud o del sistema bancario en los EE.UU. porque se han desarrollado los instrumentos analíticos y cuantitativos que permiten (y obligan) al investigador a ocuparse de ese tema en ese período. El círculo virtuoso eventualmente puede devenir vicioso porque, en ese escenario, el investigador sólo deberá ocuparse de un sólo tema ya que, si intentara abarcar distintos espacios científicos, correrá el riesgo de "no saber todo" lo que hay que saber sobre un tema específico. En parte, el investigador necesita todo su tiempo enfocado en un tema específico porque el propio desarrollo de los instrumentos científicos, como la econometría, genera la posibilidad de acceder a información cuantiosa, antes inexistente. Así, la aparición de la cliometría ha supuesto no solo la posibilidad de especializarse en un espacio temporal y analítico claramente delimitado. En parte, también ha supuesto la obligación de hacerlo para pertenecer a la comunidad académica dominante. Es posible pensar que la especialización supone en si mismo un paradigma dominanteEl tercer área de interés de la nueva historia económica ha sido "Government policies". Para el autor, "All of the new economic history, like all of economics, may be considered to be policy-oriented in some ultimate sense. Much of the work in economic history, however, is more inmediately related to the assessment of government policies. Banking laws and reforms, government promotion of canals and railroads, the tariff, federal land policy and other policies have all been studied. The influence of government has been found pervasive and on balance probably favorable for growth. The effects of these policies on the distribution of income have not been studied as much as their impact on total income, partly for lack of data, and our knowledge of their impact is therefore not yet complete" (4).Es claro que recurrir a estadísticas comparadas no supone en sí mismo un análisis mas riguroso, simplemente porque esas estadísticas pueden estar equivocadas. El aporte de la ciencia económica al estudio de la historia no es realizado por computadoras infalibles sino por investigadores tan falibles como aquellos historiadores clásicos que "solamente" recurrían a documentos en los archivos y que no poseían ninguna técnica cuantitativa. Así, las técnicas cuantitativas que ha introducido la econometría refleja en su secuencia lógica una decisión cualitativa: qué indicadores tomar, cuáles dejar de lado y por qué. Para esta decisión no hay un instrumento cuantitativo infalible, como por ejemplo una regresión, que le indique al investigador una razón cuantitativa para recurrir a una estadística comparada y no a otra.Desde esta perspectiva, podemos remarcar que el historiador debe recurrir a indicadores y estadísticas comparadas para evitar errores serios en su argumentación pero no para basar dicho argumento a partir de ese número o serie histórica. Es claro que la articulación de un argumento supone una construcción cualitativa que, eventualmente, deberá descansar en indicadores comparados para fortalecer la hipótesis en cuestión.Podemos recurrir a un ejemplo clásico en las sociedades que se modernizaban en la mitad del siglo XX. En medio de un proceso de modernización que suponía la aparición de una sociedad mas compleja, era posible ver que determinados delitos eran acompañados de niveles de violencia inéditos. Una parte de la sociedad asociaba estos mayores niveles de violencia al uso de drogas. Así, determinadas personas ejercían en la consecución de un delito mayor nivel de violencia física que en el pasado porque estaban afectadas por el uso de drogas. Sin embargo, distintos estudios demostraron que sólo una minoría de los involucrados estaban bajo el efecto de las drogas cuando cometían delitos. Así, la explicación pasó a ser insatisfactoria. Sin embargo, la refutación de la creencia no supuso en sí mismo la aparición de una explicación alternativa rigurosa. Esa explicación alternativa debía ser pensada y articulada y, en ese proceso, las estadísticas comparadas y series históricas podían tener un papel relevante pero no necesariamente decisivo. A partir de este ejemplo clásico, es posible ver que el papel principal de las estadísticas históricas es aportar una perspectiva comparada que ayude a limitar y refutar creencias. Sin embargo, la posterior construcción de una hipótesis alternativa no puede basarse sólo en una serie histórica rigurosa porque la aparición de una explicación alternativa mas sólida no se hará sólo a partir de la refutación de lo anterior sino a partir de un paradigma que, además de refutar, articule al menos parte de una solución.En la segunda parte profundizaremos en este último punto y recurriremos a ejemplos contemporáneos. En el anexo se detallan paginas webs con información estadística comparada y series históricas relevantes. Referencias: (1) Temin, Peter, obra citada. Página 7, introducción. Por su parte, en un artículo publicado por Temin enThe Journal of Interdisciplinary History, el autor sostiene que "The new component of the new economic history was its tie to economics. Old economic history is a branch of history; New economic history, a branch of economics". Temin, Peter: "The Future of the New Economic History", Vol. 12, No. 2, The New History: The 1980s and beyond (II) (Autumn, 1981), pp. 179-197. (2) Temin, obra citada. Página 9. (3) Temin, obra citada, página 10. (4) Temin, obra citada, página 12. Anexo Información estadísticaÍndice de Desarrollo Humano http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/ http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/data/ http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/ http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/tables/default.htmlInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) http://www.imf.org/external/data.htm http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/index.aspx http://www.imf.org/external/research/index.aspx http://www.google.com/publicdata/overview?ds=k3s92bru78li6_Gapminder www.gapminder.org http://www.gapminder.org/data/ http://www.gapminder.org/world/Oxford Latin America Database http://oxlad.qeh.ox.ac.uk/search.phpWorld income inequality databasehttp://www.wider.unu.edu/research/Database/en_GB/database/Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID) http://www.iadb.org/en/research-and-data/research-data,1612.htmlComisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL) http://websie.eclac.cl/infest/ajax/cepalstat.asp?carpeta=estadisticasEstadísticas europeas http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home/Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) http://www.oecd.org/statistics/Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO) http://www.fao.org/corp/statistics/en/United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (Unctad) http://www.unctad.org http://unctadstat.unctad.org/ReportFolders/reportFolders.aspx?sCS_referer=&sCS_ChosenLang=enBureau of Economic Analysis (Department of Commerce, EE.UU.) http://www.bea.gov/index.htmNational Bureau of Economic Research www.nber.orgPenn World Tables http://pwt.econ.upenn.edu/The cliometric society:http://cliometrics.org/index.htm *Cristina Edbrook es Licenciada en Relaciones Internacionales (Universidad Torcuato Di Tella-Argentina) y maestrando en Arquitectura Urbana (Universidad Di Tella-Argentina)Pedro Isern es Profesor Depto. de Estudios Internacionales.FACS. Universidad ORT Uruguay.
Nach der Trennung von Kirche und Staat (1905), waren die französischen Städte nicht länger autorisiert, den Bau von neuen Kirchen zu finanzieren oder sich um die Instandhaltung derjenigen Kirchen zu kümmern, die diesen bis dahin unterstellt waren. Konfrontiert mit Kritik von Seiten der Katholischen Kirche, stufte der französische Staat während der Jahre 1905-1914 viele Kirchen als offizielle historische Monumente ein. Dadurch wurde den Städten erlaubt, ihre Kirchen unter dem Vorsatz der Erhaltung des nationalen Erbes instand zu halten. Ausgestattet mit einem hohen Maß an nationaler Größe, hatten Kirchen eine bedeutende Rolle in der Kriegspropaganda vieler kriegsführender Staaten gespielt. Im Gegensatz zur französischen Propaganda, waren die Kirchen scheinbar nicht vornehmlich durch die deutschen Armeen zerstört worden. Nach dem Krieg führte der französische Staat ein sehr komplexes System zur Entschädigung von Kriegsschäden ein. Im Jahr 1919 gründete der Kanoniker Émile Thouvenin eine Kooperative zum Wiederaufbau in jeder Gemeinde im Departement von Meurthe-et-Moselle. Mit der Unterstützung der Präfektur, rief er 1921 eine Kooperative ins Leben, welche dem Wiederaufbau der Kirchen in der Diözese Nancy galt. Dieses Unternehmen wanderte oft auf dem schmalen Grat zwischen dem Gesetz zur Trennung von Kirche und Staat und dem Gesetz über Kriegsschäden. Gleichwohl bestand das Anliegen dieser Initiative nicht darin, das Gesetz zu umgehen: In erster Linie war es darauf ausgerichtet, den Prozess des Ausgleichs von Zerstörungen und den der Bauzulassung für Projekte zum Wiederaufbau von Kirchen zu beschleunigen. Die Beteiligung von offizieller Hand hatte zusätzlich den Vorteil der Rückkehr der Kirchen in ihre Rolle als offizielle Institution. Während der Einweihungsfeiern von wiederaufgebauten Kirchen waren die zivilen und kirchlichen Eliten von Meurthe-et-Moselle beständig angehalten, den Geist des 'geheiligten Bundes' (Union sacrée) sogar während der antikirchlichen Phase des linken Flügels des Cartel des Gauches (1924-1925) zu bewahren. Darüber hinaus zeigte der Kanoniker Thouvenin mehr Interesse an finanziellen und institutionellen Fragen als an der Stilart der Kirchen. Einige von diesen sind Kopien der neuromanischen oder neugotischen Kirchen, die vor dem Krieg gebaut wurden während andere deutlich moderner wirken.:Volume 1: Introduction Première partie. La séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat et ses conséquences pendant l'avant-guerre. 1905-1914 I. Les églises à la veille de la loi de séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat II. Les conséquences de la séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat III. Catholicisme et patriotisme à la veille de la guerre Deuxième partie. Les églises pendant la Première Guerre mondiale. 1914-1919 I. La « passion » des églises du diocèse de Nancy II. Les premiers débats sur la reconstruction III. Le bilan des destructions Troisième partie. Le cadre institutionnel et les grandes étapes de la reconstruction des églises I. Les prémices de la reconstruction II. La coopérative de reconstruction des églises du diocèse de Nancy III. Les lieux de culte reconstruits en marge ou hors du cadre de la coopérative diocésaine IV. Le rôle des architectes et des entrepreneurs Quatrième partie. La loi sur les dommages de guerre et la loi de séparation I. La place des églises dans l'urbanisme II. L'application aux églises de la loi sur les dommages de guerre III. Le contournement de la loi de séparation Cinquième partie. « Le bouquet sur le faîte », la dimension symbolique des églises reconstruites I. Un style « première reconstruction » ? II. « Domine salvam fac republicam ». La construction des églises et la perpétuation de l'Union sacrée III. La réception et la postérité des églises Conclusion Sources Bibliographie Chronologie Notices biographiques Index des personnes Index des lieux Table des matières détaillée Volume 2: Annexes I. Chronologie des archives des dommages de guerre II. Les églises de Meurthe-et-Moselle entre 1905 et 1914 III. L'Eglise et les églises pendant la guerre IV. Le bilan matériel de la guerre V. L'organisation de la reconstruction VI. Les architectes et les entrepreneurs VII. L'application de la loi Cornudet du 14 mars 1919 VIII. La coopérative de reconstruction des églises IX. Le coût des églises reconstruites X. L'association diocésaine de Nancy Iconographie générale I. Cartes II. Les images de lieux de culte pendant la guerre III. Les églises provisoires IV. L'urbanisme dans les villages reconstruits V. Les chantiers de reconstruction VI. Les matériaux de construction VII. L'iconographie régionale et patriotique VIII. Les protagonistes de la reconstruction des églises IX. Les cérémonies de consécration X. Les mairies XI. Les églises construites dans les communes industrielles de l'arrondissement de Briey hors du cadre de la coopérative XII. Les églises, lieux de mémoire de la Première Guerre mondiale Catalogue des églises de Meurthe-et-Moselle endommagées pendant la Première Guerre mondiale Première partie. Les églises gravement endommagées Deuxième partie. Les églises peu ou très peu endommagées Répertoire des architectes ayant participé à la reconstruction des églises de Meurthe-et-Moselle Table des matières détaillée ; Après la séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat (1905), les communes françaises n'étaient plus autorisées à financer la construction de nouvelles églises ou à assumer les grosses réparations des églises qui leur appartenaient déjà. Face aux critiques des catholiques, l'Etat a classé de nombreuses églises comme monuments historiques pendant les années 1905-1914, permettant ainsi aux communes de les entretenir pour des raisons patrimoniales et plus cultuelles. Investies d'une forte dimension nationale, les églises ont joué un rôle très important dans la propagande de guerre des différents pays belligérants en 1914-1918. Contrairement à ce qu'affirmait la propagande française, les églises ne semblent pas avoir fait l'objet d'un acharnement particulier de la part des armées allemandes. À l'issue du conflit, l'Etat français a mis en place un système d'indemnisation des dommages de guerre très complexe. Pour compléter ce système, le chanoine Emile Thouvenin a fondé, en 1919, une coopérative de reconstruction dans chaque commune détruite du département de Meurthe-et-Moselle. Avec l'appui de la préfecture, il a créé, en 1921, une coopérative vouée à la reconstruction des églises du diocèse de Nancy. Cette coopérative œuvra souvent en marge de la loi de séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat et de la loi sur les dommages de guerre. L'initiative du chanoine Thouvenin n'avait cependant pas pour but de contourner la législation en vigueur : il s'agissait surtout d'accélérer le processus d'indemnisation des dommages et d'approbation des projets de reconstruction des églises. L'implication des autorités officielles dans la reconstruction des églises avait par ailleurs l'avantage de rendre à l'Eglise une partie de son rôle d'institution officielle. Lors des cérémonies de consécration des églises reconstruites, les élites civiles et religieuses de Meurthe-et-Moselle se sont constamment attachées à perpétuer l'esprit de l'Union sacrée, même pendant le Cartel des Gauches (1924-1925) marqué par un regain d'anticléricalisme. Par ailleurs, le chanoine Thouvenin s'est plus intéressé aux aspects financiers et institutionnels qu'au style des églises reconstruites : certaines d'entre elles sont des copies conformes des édifices néo-romans ou néogothiques d'avant-guerre, d'autres apparaissent résolument modernes.:Volume 1: Introduction Première partie. La séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat et ses conséquences pendant l'avant-guerre. 1905-1914 I. Les églises à la veille de la loi de séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat II. Les conséquences de la séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat III. Catholicisme et patriotisme à la veille de la guerre Deuxième partie. Les églises pendant la Première Guerre mondiale. 1914-1919 I. La « passion » des églises du diocèse de Nancy II. Les premiers débats sur la reconstruction III. Le bilan des destructions Troisième partie. Le cadre institutionnel et les grandes étapes de la reconstruction des églises I. Les prémices de la reconstruction II. La coopérative de reconstruction des églises du diocèse de Nancy III. Les lieux de culte reconstruits en marge ou hors du cadre de la coopérative diocésaine IV. Le rôle des architectes et des entrepreneurs Quatrième partie. La loi sur les dommages de guerre et la loi de séparation I. La place des églises dans l'urbanisme II. L'application aux églises de la loi sur les dommages de guerre III. Le contournement de la loi de séparation Cinquième partie. « Le bouquet sur le faîte », la dimension symbolique des églises reconstruites I. Un style « première reconstruction » ? II. « Domine salvam fac republicam ». La construction des églises et la perpétuation de l'Union sacrée III. La réception et la postérité des églises Conclusion Sources Bibliographie Chronologie Notices biographiques Index des personnes Index des lieux Table des matières détaillée Volume 2: Annexes I. Chronologie des archives des dommages de guerre II. Les églises de Meurthe-et-Moselle entre 1905 et 1914 III. L'Eglise et les églises pendant la guerre IV. Le bilan matériel de la guerre V. L'organisation de la reconstruction VI. Les architectes et les entrepreneurs VII. L'application de la loi Cornudet du 14 mars 1919 VIII. La coopérative de reconstruction des églises IX. Le coût des églises reconstruites X. L'association diocésaine de Nancy Iconographie générale I. Cartes II. Les images de lieux de culte pendant la guerre III. Les églises provisoires IV. L'urbanisme dans les villages reconstruits V. Les chantiers de reconstruction VI. Les matériaux de construction VII. L'iconographie régionale et patriotique VIII. Les protagonistes de la reconstruction des églises IX. Les cérémonies de consécration X. Les mairies XI. Les églises construites dans les communes industrielles de l'arrondissement de Briey hors du cadre de la coopérative XII. Les églises, lieux de mémoire de la Première Guerre mondiale Catalogue des églises de Meurthe-et-Moselle endommagées pendant la Première Guerre mondiale Première partie. Les églises gravement endommagées Deuxième partie. Les églises peu ou très peu endommagées Répertoire des architectes ayant participé à la reconstruction des églises de Meurthe-et-Moselle Table des matières détaillée ; After the separation of Church and State (1905), French towns were no longer authorized to finance the construction of new churches, or the major repairs of churches that already belonged to them. Faced with criticism from the Catholics, the French State classified many churches as official historical monuments during the years 1905-1914, thus enabling the towns to repair their churches for the purpose of preserving the nation's heritage. Invested with a strong national dimension, churches have played an important role in the war propaganda of the various belligerent countries. Contrary to French propaganda, the churches were apparently not destroyed by the German armies in particular. After the conflict, the French State established a very complex system of compensation for war damages. In 1919, the canon Émile Thouvenin founded a reconstruction cooperative in each municipality of the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle. With the support of the préfécture, he created in 1921 a cooperative devoted to the reconstruction of churches in the diocese of Nancy. This cooperative worked often on the very edge between the Law of Separation and the Law on War Damages. This initiative's intention, however, was not to avoid the law: It was first of all created to accelerate the process of compensation for damages and the approval of projects for rebuilding churches. The involvement of the official authorities had the additional advantage of returning the Church to its role as official institution. During the consecration ceremonies of rebuilt churches, civil and religious elites of Meurthe-et-Moselle were constantly attached to perpetuate the spirit of the Sacred Union, even during the anticlerical phase of the Left-Wing 'Cartel des Gauches' (1924-1925). Furthermore, canon Thouvenin had shown more interest in the financial and institutional questions than in the style of churches. Some of them are copies of the Neo-Romanesque or Neo-Gothic churches built before the war while others seems definitely modern.:Volume 1: Introduction Première partie. La séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat et ses conséquences pendant l'avant-guerre. 1905-1914 I. Les églises à la veille de la loi de séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat II. Les conséquences de la séparation des Eglises et de l'Etat III. Catholicisme et patriotisme à la veille de la guerre Deuxième partie. Les églises pendant la Première Guerre mondiale. 1914-1919 I. La « passion » des églises du diocèse de Nancy II. Les premiers débats sur la reconstruction III. Le bilan des destructions Troisième partie. Le cadre institutionnel et les grandes étapes de la reconstruction des églises I. Les prémices de la reconstruction II. La coopérative de reconstruction des églises du diocèse de Nancy III. Les lieux de culte reconstruits en marge ou hors du cadre de la coopérative diocésaine IV. Le rôle des architectes et des entrepreneurs Quatrième partie. La loi sur les dommages de guerre et la loi de séparation I. La place des églises dans l'urbanisme II. L'application aux églises de la loi sur les dommages de guerre III. Le contournement de la loi de séparation Cinquième partie. « Le bouquet sur le faîte », la dimension symbolique des églises reconstruites I. Un style « première reconstruction » ? II. « Domine salvam fac republicam ». La construction des églises et la perpétuation de l'Union sacrée III. La réception et la postérité des églises Conclusion Sources Bibliographie Chronologie Notices biographiques Index des personnes Index des lieux Table des matières détaillée Volume 2: Annexes I. Chronologie des archives des dommages de guerre II. Les églises de Meurthe-et-Moselle entre 1905 et 1914 III. L'Eglise et les églises pendant la guerre IV. Le bilan matériel de la guerre V. L'organisation de la reconstruction VI. Les architectes et les entrepreneurs VII. L'application de la loi Cornudet du 14 mars 1919 VIII. La coopérative de reconstruction des églises IX. Le coût des églises reconstruites X. L'association diocésaine de Nancy Iconographie générale I. Cartes II. Les images de lieux de culte pendant la guerre III. Les églises provisoires IV. L'urbanisme dans les villages reconstruits V. Les chantiers de reconstruction VI. Les matériaux de construction VII. L'iconographie régionale et patriotique VIII. Les protagonistes de la reconstruction des églises IX. Les cérémonies de consécration X. Les mairies XI. Les églises construites dans les communes industrielles de l'arrondissement de Briey hors du cadre de la coopérative XII. Les églises, lieux de mémoire de la Première Guerre mondiale Catalogue des églises de Meurthe-et-Moselle endommagées pendant la Première Guerre mondiale Première partie. Les églises gravement endommagées Deuxième partie. Les églises peu ou très peu endommagées Répertoire des architectes ayant participé à la reconstruction des églises de Meurthe-et-Moselle Table des matières détaillée
Unlike much of the secondary literature on Shakespeare, "Immanent Shakespeares: Politics, Performance, and Pedagogy" labors less to determine what Shakespearean texts might mean than to explore the cultural work these texts do while working in conjunction with contemporary institutions of learning and technologies of performance. Shakespeare studies too often takes the determination (or destabilization) of meaning as its telos, even when it's largely informed by performance criticism. This project sets meaning aside to focus on how Shakespeare's textuality gets mobilized through performance in order to produce material effects--effects that exceed and shape semantic meaning. Semantic and hermeneutic vocabularies leave performance scholars very few terms with which they might interrogate performance's most salient features: duration, embodiment, light, discipline or affect. Making and coming to terms with what Shakespeare can do inevitably involves refiguring the relationship between Shakespeare's text and performance practices. In the dissertation, I argue that the field of Shakespeare studies too often figures the difference between textuality and performance spatially . These spatial models figure performance in prepositional relation to textuality: performances arise from the text or are interpretations of textuality. Performance has largely been understood as an interpretation of a Shakespearean meaning residing within a static (albeit polysemic) textuality. On stage or on screen, performance is continually represented as exterior to--and is considered over-determined by--textuality. My project, instead, figures the difference between stage/screen and page in terms of time. This move, from figures of space to figures of time, forces a reconsideration of many disciplinary assumptions (in literary, film and performance studies). Cultural studies' spatializing tendency, inseparable from the way it often figures difference (as "difference between" two discrete identities), is rooted in a long history of transcendental dialectics. Textuality and performance are framed, spatially, in terms of transcendence (even when stage-centered criticism tries to invert this relation, prioritizing performance, it nevertheless continues to understand difference within a transcendental relation). My project moves from a transcendental, spatial understanding of difference to one rooted in immanent, temporal duration. Giorgio Agamben recently identified "two different trajectories in contemporary French philosophy, both of which pass through Heidegger: a trajectory of transcendence , which includes Levinas and Derrida and goes back through Hussurl to Kant; and a trajectory of immanence , which includes Foucault and Deleuze, and goes back through Nietzsche to Spinoza." The dissertation works throughout to illustrate how this shift--from transcendental, spatial constraint to immanent, temporal production--allows for more nuanced discussions of elements constitutive of performance. The project considers Shakespearean performance within a variety of institutional arenas; different chapters consider reading practices, teaching practices, student performance, theatrical enactment, and new (and old) media engagement. This approach entails a series of interlocking, close, rhetorical readings of particular performances, theatrical/filmic/video/digital media technologies, arts/educational legislation, as well as the institutional discourses accompanying each. These close readings work to refigure the problem of textuality and performance in civic, aesthetic and pedagogical discourses; each chapter, subsequent to this refiguration, ends by proposing innovative, practice-based solutions. In Chapter One, I build on the critique of spatialized understandings of text and performance outlined in the introduction in order to argue that the humanities' figuration of difference and power (alongside attendant assumptions about the relationship between self and structure) continues to hide more than it reveals about culture, history, power and performance. In the chapter, I argue for and illustrate what an alternative, immanent critique might look like. The chapter focuses on two "objects" (a methodological term which seems to point to how performance is always already spatialized): 1) a "radical" or "transgressive" performance of Macbush , a contemporary re-imagining of Macbeth , and 2) a seemingly co-opted, official, "normative" performance of Macbeth sponsored by Boeing, the "right-wing" NEA, and the US Department of Defense. The chapter examines these two ostensibly opposed productions by rehearsing a dialectical or "transcendental" critique and using a common (hackneyed) reading of de Certeau's strategy/tactic distinction--one which emphasizes and prioritizes de Certeau's interest in space. I then complicate this reading by showing how de Certeau's figuration of power and performance within the panoptic city already includes an inclination towards an immanent understanding of power's circulation--one that emphasizes time and complicates the spatial cartographies upon which dialectical movement finds its ground and proper "identity." Through this immanent reading, I argue that dialectical understandings of culture and power rely upon a particular way of understanding the priority of space, one strengthened by Cold War discourses of cultural fronts and quantitative, incursive movements through homogenous space (both Macbeth and Bush, in prioritizing the stability of space over the contingencies of time, make this same tragic flaw in different ways). Ultimately, I argue that an immanent understanding of culture and power corresponds with contemporary changes in the shape of Empire and new ways of conceptualizing the flows of global capital, ways rooted in performance's duration and affect. Further, this immanent reading (and the shape of Empire and history correlative to this approach) highlights the dangers of the Left's reliance upon historical analogies that flatten important differences between Vietnam and Iraq or between Bush and Macbeth. Chapter Two develops the notion of immanent critique by revisiting dualistic notions of self and structure in film theory and performance studies. In this chapter, I look at the spatial arrangement of spectators, specific media, and apparatuses of projection. Through a reading of Prospero's Books , a 1991 "new media" film using proto-HDTV technologies and bourgeoning CGI graphics software, this chapter looks at film's ability, through these technologies, to trouble film theory's traditionally spatial understanding of filmic semiotics and the spectator's relation to the (transcendent) filmic apparatus. This chapter introduces an immanent performance theory to film theory by offering a new reading of the latter's key texts--from Munsterberg and Armheim, to Balazs and Metz, to Benjamin's Artwork essay--highlighting along the way each theorist's relation to the "immanent turn" in cultural studies. Key here will be the role each theorist gives to temporal relations. Particularly useful in rethinking the spectator's relationship to the (new or old media) apparatus is Benjamin's notion of "creative innervation"--a term he uses to show how the spectator's body is productively enlivened, rather than negatively determined, by a technological apparatus which becomes, for him or her, a prosthesis. This chapter puts Benjamin into contact with Deleuze to sketch out what an immanent model of reception might entail once traditional notions of the filmic apparatus' (over-) determinism have collapsed. This immanent understanding of filmic reception--a productive reception modeled in Prospero's Books --builds upon various notions of "pseudopresences" and theories of "affective faciality/physiognomy" sketched out by twentieth century film theorists in order to rethink the presence/absence binary and the various ways in which this binary gets unevenly mapped onto the disciplines of theatre and film. Chapter Three looks at how changing technologies continue to reconstitute the disciplinary gulf between film and theatre. In this chapter, I look at two interlocking performances: Richard Burton's 1964 Electronovision Hamlet and the Wooster Group's "new media" Hamlet . Working with Deleuze's idea of "the theatre of repetition," and continuing to work with Walter Benjamin's notion of "creative innervation," this chapter examines the technologies of repetition each Hamlet employs in order to read, write, and perform with the pre-recorded yet affective and "pseudopresent" specters of history. In July of 1964, three performances of the Burton-Gielgud Hamlet were recorded and edited together thanks to "miracle of Electronovision." The resulting "Theatrofilm" was then screened for two days in over one thousand theaters in order to give audiences the "liveness" of a Broadway show right in their own local theater. Recently, the Wooster Group has been staging another version of Hamlet , one that utilizes the Isadora and Final Cut Pro platforms to digitally remix and reframe the Burton-Gielgud production as an historical background upon which the company acts. Onstage, The Wooster Group imitates the 1964 Hamlet gesture for gesture in what the group likens to an archeological reconstruction, but I argue for an alternate figuration, one that is less spatial and more temporal in its figuration of history. This chapter uses these two performances (and their contemporary technologies) to ask how the so-called "new" media differently mediate our relationship with the past. I argue that new technological interfaces enable us to engage in historiographical research on stages and screens in ways that are singularly durational and within registers that are incommensurate to the textual historiographies of journals and monographs. Each of the Hamlet productions I treat figures a relation to history, treating the past as an interactive ensemble of images that are engageable yet immutably scripted. Chapter Four begins my engagement with critical pedagogy as I attempt to rework Freirean accounts of the classroom as a space of cultural contradiction and potential "liberation." The chapter asks how we might instead see classroom practices as productive of political, economic and ethical behaviors. Since the 1980s, critical pedagogy has rallied for the inclusion of "hip hop in the classroom" as part of a culturally relevant, Freirean model of connecting language with the lived experience of inner-city youth. But the movement begins to achieve success at the very moment hip hop begins losing its geographic specificity. Recently, a number of programs ("Shakespeare is Hip Hop," "Shakespeare: the Remix," and "Shakespeare in Urban Slang") have sought to connect Shakespeare and hip hop as a way of bridging the divide between the spaces of high and low culture. In this chapter, I examine the strange effects of local, culturally specific pedagogical practices fusing Shakespeare and hip hop which--like the music itself--have been removed, practiced and copied outside of what was once their "proper" space. What happens when suburban youth are asked by their teachers to perform Macbeth in hip hop vernacular? YouTube abounds with blackface Shakespeare. More importantly, though, the chapter rethinks intercultural borrowing and how the logic of "appropriation" falsely frames culture as private property at the same time that young people who identify with remix culture increasingly strive for a "creative commons" and continually challenge the spatial proprieties of culture. This chapter puts the "culture wars" into dialogue with the "copyright wars" and argues that, in a world where the line between public and private properties and spaces is increasingly blurred by virtual glocalities, digital rights management software and copyleft legal theories, cultural studies needs to rethink the spatial logic of cultural appropriation. Chapter Five brings immanent critique to the space of the classroom by examining another the Shakespeare teaching docudrama. These films, both fictional and documentary, chronicle "successful" pedagogues and the at-risk students whose lives they transform. In this chapter, I look at a few of these films alongside the No Child Left Behind Act's legislation on "character education." Performing a genealogy of the "character education movement" from the Greeks to 21st century US contexts, this chapter looks at the way in which Shakespearean repetitions operate to construct both a particularly American Shakespeare as well as a particularly American characterization of the student body. Centering on Prince Hal's Saint Crispin's Day speech, this chapter also explores the way in which discourses of national "character" and their corresponding pedagogies rely upon a particularly vertical (patrilineal, spatial, transcendental) notion of repetition and differentiation, one which might be refigured by Hardt and Negri's notion of how the immanent multitude operates in time. This chapter moves from the performance of character to a notion of "performing character." Much as earlier chapters refigured text/performance or apparatus/performance oppositions, this chapter shows how dialectical pedagogies might give way to durational, embodied performance pedagogies. The dissertation's concluding chapter, its post-script, uses the pedants of Love's Labour's Lost to engage in an interdisciplinary genealogy of the geek. I focus on three figures of the student body's relation to technology (the bookworm, the computer nerd, and the drama queen) in order to better understand how the "geek" has gained increased importance as a category of social difference and exclusion. The conclusion asks: How does the alterity of the geek historically produce and trouble the mutual exclusivity of love and labor , humans and machines, males and females, the curricular and the extracurricular, and/or the physical and the metaphysical? As a means of overcoming learning's alienation from the social, the dissertation concludes by introducing a "geek chic" performance pedagogy. This pedagogy uses training in digital video editing to include the social, and often virtual, extracurricular lives of students. Through editing their own performances (as they often already do within the world of social networking sites), students will rehearse the behaviors, gestures, expressions and temporal movements that constitute what we perceive as character. By examining these "character effects," students are trained to understand character differently--less as an originary space or cause of performance and more as a legible effect of performative behavior.
In the National Financial Banking we find the celebration of specific contracts on The Guarantee Mobiliaria that come operating without difficulty, such it is the case of the contract of vehicular credit, constitution of guarantee mobiliaria and deposit solidary celebrated International Bank of the Peru S.A.A. - INTERBANK and the client. Another of the cases, is the one taken place by the Bank of Credit of the Peru with the Company of Transports Leopards SAC, with RUC. Nº 20480882106. Of the universe of the antecedents of this investigation, with more fame we find it in Julio's opinion Panez it Rocks, who affirms that the social economy of market that characterizes our social economy "it is the economy in which the intervention of the State is admitted as superior entity that regulates and it orders the exercise of the initiative deprived in benefit of the social interest, planning, rationalizing and fomenting the production, as well as it rules the distribution and consumption of the wealth in order to impel the economic development of the country." The investigation is justified because it will allow us to know the way of thinking of the Peruvian Society and especially of the Society Trujillana, on the financial world that demands a culture change and adaptation to the being of the capitalist society and that this last in its modern version it privileges like financial instrument to the Guarantee Mobiliaria, whichever it is its modality. As much in the problem as in the hypothesis it has been conjugated in different addresses the constituent variables of the financial market in the Peru, the models and political economic in such a way that our objectives drive us to be in favor of the Guarantee Mobiliaria like an effective instrument to energize the development of the country. In the results and discussion we have played the central topics of the Guarantee Mobiliaria and thinking especially of the Peruvian resident of the merchants, managers and industrial condensing them in the following topics: Macro Economy of the Peru, Globalization and Guarantee Mobiliaria in the Peru a Year 2009. In this title we solve the macroeconomic contradiction of the peacefulness of the country in front of the rest of the world and the one denominated economic drip doesn't benefit the Peruvian resident, standing out this contradiction characteristic of the social economic system in which our inmerso country is; it is joined to this contradiction the form and methods of thinking of the diverse social classes of the country that you/they don't still understand the dynamics and the financial rules of the capitalist pattern to adopt behavior, behaviors and attitudes in front of the novísima Law Nº 28677 that it regulates The Guarantee Mobiliaria like a technique of financial leverage. Thinking Micro-economic - Political and Social of the Peru a Year 2009. In this result inversely in front of the desbalance of the globalization in our country have found enough reasons to settle down that at microeconomía level and in the products of family consumption, that is to say, in the one denominated family breed the prices they fluctuate, they break outlines and they are to the unison of what happens in the international economic relationships and many of these activities of market of supplies begin to take enormous dimensions as for example the case of Martingale in Lima and in others that succinctly discuss him. Philosophical and Artificial Concepción of the Peruvian Economy. We arrive wing conclusion that the guarantee mobiliaria besides energizing the internal market and being of financial nature demands quick and deep changes in the mental outline from each one of the Peruvian residents as they sustain the theoretical ones that tie these philosophical phenomena to the economy and world facts as they are the fall of the Wall of Berlin, the emergence of the Czars of the Petroleums and of those who manage the terrorism of the drugs and the politics is civil or state. Thinking of the Social Economy of Market of the Peru; because the development of the German economy in whose society this economic model was invented you/he/she is completely different with the development of the Peruvian society; however as countries of the third world we are forced to think as the countries of the first world and in our political constitution of the Peruvian State of 1979 this model is constitutionalized that for the time being have serious difficulties to adopt it like appropriate model; however, our form of thinking is in a market economy to the Peruvian, reason for the one which our merchants, managers and industrial they don't understand the financial and technical dimensions of the use of the guarantee mobiliaria. The Initiative of the Private Economy as Alternative of Development. This is the spine of the capitalist pattern with face or without human face and he/she responds necessary, correlative and prioritarily to the existence of the Law Nº 28677 that it regulates the Guarantee Mobiliaria; in other terms, the ideological support - philosophical and economic of the private initiative it is the Guarantee Mobiliaria, because it rewards to the talents that energize to the internal or external economy of the country and with their you criticize or without them it is a reality of which no Peruvian should escape. The proposal for the effectiveness of the Guarantee Mobiliaria in the Peru that comes to be the corollary of the discussion of the previous results, for he/she will intend it like national project an educational program of so much financial order in the public institutions as private that they allow to change the Peruvian resident's commercial, industrial and financial paradigms to understand and to apprehend what is the guarantee mobiliaria and their great necessity to build in any social stratum a competitive national bourgeoisie against the strange capitals that he/she brings the globalization and nowadays they have us colonized as he/she is necessary in the data provided in the discussion of the results of this investigation. As regards conclusions and recommendations we arrive to intellectual and academic constructos that you/they respond to the objectives proposed to the beginning of the investigation and therefore these conclusions should be analyzed by the reader in function of the results and other articles of the investigation in order to be formed an appropriate trial and valorativo of what we propose in the whole investigation. Finally, we culminate the presentation of the investigation with the bibliography and the pertinent annexes. ; En la Banca Financiera Nacional encontramos la celebración de contratos específicos sobre La Garantía Mobiliaria que vienen operando sin dificultad, tal es el caso del contrato de crédito vehicular, constitución de garantía mobiliaria y fianza solidaria celebrado Banco Internacional del Perú S.A.A. – INTERBANK y el cliente. Otro de los casos, es el celebrado por el Banco de Crédito del Perú con la Empresa de Transportes Leopardos SAC, con RUC. Nº 20480882106. Del universo de los antecedentes de esta investigación, con mayor notoriedad lo encontramos en la opinión de Julio Panez Meza, quién afirma que la economía social de mercado que caracteriza nuestra economía social "Es la economía en la que se admite la intervención del Estado como ente superior que regula y ordena el ejercicio de la iniciativa privada en beneficio del interés social, planificando, racionalizando y fomentando la producción, así como regla la distribución y consumo de la riqueza a fin de impulsar el desarrollo económico del país". La investigación se justifica porque nos permitirá conocer el modo de pensar de la Sociedad Peruana y en especial de la Sociedad Trujillana, sobre el mundo financiero que exige un cambio de cultura y adecuación al ser de la sociedad capitalista y que ésta última en su versión moderna privilegia como instrumento financiero a la Garantía Mobiliaria, cualquiera que sea su modalidad. Tanto en el problema como en la hipótesis se ha conjugado en diferentes direcciones las variables constitutivas del mercado financiero en el Perú, los modelos y políticas económicas de tal forma que nuestros objetivos nos conduzcan a ser partidarios de la Garantía Mobiliaria como un instrumento eficaz para dinamizar el desarrollo del país. En los resultados y discusión hemos tocado los temas centrales de la Garantía Mobiliaria y el pensar del poblador peruano especialmente de los comerciantes, empresarios e industriales condensándolos en los siguientes tópicos: Macro Economía del Perú, Globalización y Garantía Mobiliaria en el Perú al Año 2009. En este título resolvemos la contradicción macroeconómica de la bonanza del país frente al resto del mundo y el denominado chorreo económico no beneficia al poblador peruano, resaltando esta contradicción propia del sistema económico social en el cual está inmerso nuestro país; se aúna a esta contradicción la forma y métodos del pensar de las diversas clases sociales del país que aún no entienden la dinámica y las reglas financieras del modelo capitalista para adoptar conducta, comportamientos y actitudes frente a la novísima Ley Nº 28677, que regula La Garantía Mobiliaria como una técnica de apalancamiento financiero. El Pensar Microeconómico - Político y Social del Perú al Año 2009. En este resultado inversamente frente al desbalance de la globalización en nuestro país hemos encontrado razones suficientes para establecer que a nivel de microeconomía y en los productos de consumo familiar, es decir, en la denominada casta familiar los precios fluctúan, rompen esquemas y están al unisono de lo que sucede en las relaciones económicas internacionales y muchas de estas actividades de mercado de abastos comienzan a tomar dimensiones descomunales como por ejemplo el caso de Gamarra en Lima y en otros que sucintamente lo discutimos. Concepción Filosófica y Jurídica de la Economía Peruana. Llegamos ala conclusión que la garantía mobiliaria además de dinamizar el mercado interno y ser de naturaleza financiera exige cambios rápidos y profundos en el esquema mental de cada uno de los pobladores peruanos como sostienen los teóricos que ligan estos fenómenos filosóficos a la economía y hechos mundiales como son la caída del Muro de Berlín, el surgimiento de los Zares del Petróleos y de quienes manejan el terrorismo de las drogas y la política sea civil o estatal. El Pensar de la Economía Social de Mercado en el Perú; pues el desarrollo de la economía alemana en cuya sociedad se inventó este modelo económico es totalmente diferente con el desarrollo de la sociedad peruana; sin embargo como países del tercer mundo estamos obligados a pensar como los países del primer mundo y en nuestra constitución política del Estado Peruano de 1979 se constitucionaliza este modelo que por ahora tenemos serias dificultades para adoptarlo como modelo adecuado; sin embargo, nuestra forma de pensar es en una economía de mercado a la peruana, razón por la cual nuestro comerciantes, empresarios e industriales no entienden las dimensiones financieras y técnicas del uso de la garantía mobiliaria. La Iniciativa de la Economía Privada como Alternativa de Desarrollo. Esto es la columna vertebral del modelo capitalista con rostro o sin rostro humano y responde necesaria, correlativa y prioritariamente a la existencia de la Ley Nº 28677 que regula la Garantía Mobiliaria; en otros términos, el soporte ideológico – filosófico y económico de la iniciativa privada es la Garantía Mobiliaria, porque premia a los talentos que dinamizan a la economía interna o externa del país y con sus criticas o sin ellas es una realidad de la cual ningún peruano debe escapar. La propuesta para la eficacia de la Garantía Mobiliaria en el Perú, que viene a ser el corolario de la discusión de los resultados anteriores, por lo se deberá proponer como proyecto nacional un programa educativo de orden financiero tanto en las instituciones públicas como privadas que permitan cambiar los paradigmas comerciales, industriales y financieros del poblador peruano para comprender y aprehender lo que es la garantía mobiliaria y su gran necesidad para construir en cualquier estrato social una burguesía nacional competitiva contra los capitales foráneos que trae la globalización y hoy día nos tienen colonizados como se precisa en los datos proporcionados en la discusión de los resultados de esta investigación. En materia de conclusiones y recomendaciones arribamos a constructos intelectuales y académicos que responden a los objetivos propuestos al inicio de la investigación y por lo tanto estas conclusiones deben ser analizadas por el lector en función de los resultados y demás ítems de la investigación a fin de formarse un juicio adecuado y valorativo de lo que proponemos en toda la investigación. Finalmente, culminamos la presentación de la investigación con la bibliografía y los anexos pertinentes.
ÖZETTürkiye'nin Avrupa Birliği macerası yıllardır sürmektedir. Bugün mü, yarın mı derken Avrupa Birliği üyeliği giderek uzayan bir konu gibi gözükmektedir. Yıllardır süren macera Türkiye'nin aday ülke olarak kabul edilmesiyle farklı bir boyut kazanmış, hiç olmayacakmış gibi gözüken, neredeyse umudun bittiği anda 'üyelik' yeniden gündeme gelmiştir. Lüksemburg Zirvesiyle Türkiye-AB ilişkileri kopma noktasına gelmiş, Helsinki zirvesiyle ilişkiler yeni bir boyut kazanmış, Türkiye'nin üyelik umutları artmıştır. Helsinki Zirvesi bu boyutuyla Türkiye açısından çok önemlidir. Türkiye'nin AB macerasında en önemli yapı taşlarından biri Helsinki Zirvesidir denilebilir. Türkiye'nin aday ülke olmasının AB üyesi ülkelerde yarattığı etki, bir yerde Türkiye'nin Avrupa nezdinde öneminide ortaya koymaktadır. Bu nedenle Avrupa medyasında Türkiye'yle ilgili haberler Türkiye'nin aday olmasının arkasındaki gerekçelerin bir nebze olsun anlaşılmasında faydalı olacaktır. Medyanın günümüz işlevlerini düşünürsek Helsinki Zirvesi öncesi ve sonrası Avrupa medyasının Türkiye'ye bakış açısı önem kazanmaktadır. Medya Türkiye'nin AB'ne aday olmasında birinci derecede etkilidir diye bir sav olamaz ancak medyanın Helsinki zirvesi öncesi ve sonrası yazdıkları, yayınladıkları zirveye etkisi olabilmiştir ama bu neticede belirleyici etki olmamıştır. Türkiye sonuç olarak Helsinki Zirvesiyle AB'ne aday olmuş ve üyelik süreci hızlanmıştır. Bu nedenle Helsinki zirvesinin önemi ve Avrupa medyasının zirveyle birlikte Türkiye'ye olan yaklaşımı bir medya çalışanı olarak ilgimi çekmiş ve bu konuda çalışma yapmaya teşvik etmiştir.ABSTRACTRepublic of Turkey was built in 1923 on a past of 700 years of relationship with Europe. The Ottoman Empire was almost the strongest country in the world .15.and 16.centuries were the centuries that the Ottoman Empire was the boss of the world. At these centuries Empire was at the most powerful point about army, economy and territory. Renaissance and Reforms were the turning points for the Europe. After that, the equilibrium in the world began to change.That equlibrium changed negatively for the Ottoman Empire.That equlibrium changed positively for Europe.Ottoman Empire could not realize the importance of Renaissance and Reforms. Because of this, Empire only watched the development of Europe and result of this, Empire could not develop itself and while Europe was developing itself, Ottoman Empire was becoming weaker day by day. It can be said that because of Renaissance and Reforms the power passed the Europe and basic of today's Europe was made up of at that time.Europe was developing itself and when the Ottoman Empire realized it, reformists moverments only tried to save the day.These were not long term movements. The reformists movements that were done by the Empire about army, economy and at other branches were depending on the reformists movements which the Europe had done. It can be said that Turkey's Europe adventure began with these movements. Administrative Reforms were first seen in 1839.The Reforms that were decleared at that time, were trying to make better the Empire's politic, economic life. And with these reforms social life was tried to be changed. It can be said that, that was the first step for the law government.That Reform was decleared at 3 November 1839 at Topkapı Palace. It was the turning point for the Ottoman Empire. It's aim was to renew old institutions and make more powerfull the authority of the center. These reforms helped to form new personnels for the formation of new military, judical, managerial system. Reforms included everybody's safe, justice. The most important aim of that was to prevent Europe's pressure on the Empire. Later in 1856 another reformist movement occured in the Empire. These reforms were completing the Reforms that were decleared in 1839. In 30 March 1856 Paris Agreement was signed.And the Reforms that were declared was one of the conditions of that Agreement. On the other hand the effect of foreign capital increased in the Empire and European countries gained more power about Empire's politic and economic life. It can be said that like other reforms which was made in 1839, also these Reforms could not become real in life. So it is clear that Reforms were not useful for Ottoman Empire. The Empire was taking the Reforms as an example which were done by Europe. But later on the Ottoman Empire began to do the things that Europe wanted from it to do. After first world war and after Turkish national war, with the formation of a new Republic, Turkey tried to take part in Europe. It became a national policy. The relation between Turkey and the Union began at 31 July 1959 with the application for being common partner member.But after 40 years of that application Turkey only could have a candidateship for the Union at the Helsinki Summit. The Helsimki Summit was very important for both sides and with the result of that Summit a new term began between Turkey and the Union. Nationalistic public opinion was only concerning with the result of that Summit. Genarally, the subjects that were discussed at the Summit took part at media according to the agenda of the Union countries. Turkey's candidateship almost took part in every press at the Union contries.Press of some countries gave more importance to Turkey's candidateship rather than other countries 's press. That was linked to their relations with Turkey. At this study, the approaches of media in the EU member states towards Turkey's candidateship before and after the Helsinki Summit will be written.Media is composed of radio, tv, and press. In this study press will be the basic point. Newspapers and magazines will be the source of the study. Radio and tv, other mass media will take less place rather than newspapers in this satudy. Important tv channels will be written which gave news about Turkey's candidateship. Basicly press of the Union countries that gave place to Turkey in their columns will be main source of this thesis. Turkey's being candidate was waited from the year 1959. With the Summit of Luxembourg in 1997, the Union made Turkey stay outside Europe and after that the relations between Turkey and the Union became very bad.The union turned back from it's wrong with the Helsinki Summit and Turkey was declared as a candidate country. Turkey's declearation of candidateship was an important development for the future of the country. That opened a new term between Turkey and the Union. The political and economic criteria ( called Copenhagen criteria ) that the Union wanted from Turkey became more important. Turkey had to give more importance to its relations with the EU. The momentum which gave rise to and which was generated by the Single European Act continued after its adoption. The Committee chaired by Jacques Delors on Economic and Monetary Union had presented a report in 1989 setting out a three-stage plan for reaching EMU. The European Council decided to hold an intergovernmental conference on the subject, and, significantly, to hold at the same time a second intergovernmental conference on political union. The relationship between the two intergovernmental conference's has been explained as,"The second intergovernmental Conference on Political Union did not have such a long gestation period: it was not indepently planned, but developed in response to the European Monetary Union decision. Key Community states thought it imperative to balance economic integration with political integration. An economically integrated Europe without a comparable political dimension seemed the antithesis of the Community ideal".On the basis of the intergovernmental conference negotiations, a draft Treaty was presented by the Luxembourg presidency of the European Council in 1991. After various revisions of this draft at the European Council meeting in December of that year, the Treaty on European Union was eventually agreed and signed in Maastricht in February 1992. (Corbett, 1993). After vigorous debates leading up to the ratification process in the various Member States, which revwaled a considerable amount of public disquiet and dissatisfaction with the Treaty and with the process of its negotiations, it was rejected by the Danish population in a national referandum. However, after several concessions were secured by the Danish Government and formalized in a decision of the Heads of State at the Edinburgh European Council in 1992, including the right not to participate in the third and final stage of European Monetary Union and not to take on the Presidency of the European Council when defence issues were involved, a second referendum yielded a narrow majority in favor of ratification. When the last obstacle-in the shape of a challenge before the German Federal Supreme Court to the Constitutionaly of ratification was cleared, the Treaty entered into force in November 1993.Undoubtetly, the popular profile of the Comunity has been raised more by the Maastricht debate than by any previous development in the Community's history, even though some would contend that the Single European Act, with its revival of qualified-majority voting, represented a more significant step for the Commınity in the process of integration. Perhaps, apart from the detailed commitment to full economic and monetary union, the most obvious feauture of the Treaty on European Union was the instituonal change it wrought, establishing a three-pillar structure for what was henceforth to be called the European Union, with the Communities as the first of these pillars. As noted above, the EEC Treaty was officially renamed the European Community Treaty. (Craig, p;27,1995) News of press reaches all of the world with the help of televisions. Satellite technology helped press to reach billions of people in the world. It can be said that technological development form of press is named "media" at the present time and it is very effective. Making up the public opinion, formation of agenda give the ability to press about effecting people and the politic life.At the present time the European Union developed itself verymuch and began to behave as "one" government. And its importance increased in the world. For Turkey it became more important to be the member of the Union.Helsinki Summit became very important for Turkey in 1999. It was almost the last chance for Turkey to be the member of the Union. and 2000 journalists worked during that Summit and with the help of technology they conveyed information about the Summit to billions of people. Before the Helsinki Summit,the public opinion in the countries of the Union was in favor of Turkey.It can be said that that public opinion could be effective on the policy of member governments about Turkey.This study includes generall approach of the press in the Union countries towards Turkey before and after the Helsinki Summit.The aim is to show the opinion of the member states towards Tutkey's candidateship.With that, it can be understood which countries really supported Turkey and which countries had to support Turkey.Countries generally behave according to the public opinion.Press is very active at the formation of public opinion.So the press of the Union countries might have a role about Turkey's candidateship.After the Helsinki Summit Turkish media gave more importance to the Union and almost everday there could be seen news about theUnion in the newspaper and televisions. At this study first of all, the background of the press is pointed out and with that developments of press in Europe exists.Historical background of communication,historical backgroun of the relations between Turkey and the Union.At this study newspapers will be the basic point. Newspapers which gave place to Turkey's candidateship at European countries are pointed out.The news that they gave about Turkey are shown at this study. Turkey's candidateship did not take place all of the newspapers in Europe.Lots of them gave place and amount of the news changed according to newspapers in the countries. At this study the aim was to reach important newspapers and magazines in Europe and in the United States that wrote something about Turkey's candidateship.In this study the news and articles that were written about Turkey's candidateship in newspapers and magazines are pointed out among the European and the United States press.The media of the EU countries were generally focused on Turkey's geopolitic importance and the importance of energy around Turkey. Ocalan's case was another subject that the press of the focused on. Some newspapers were writing positive things and some of them could write negative. Interest of the newspapers was different. It was changing from one to other one. Some of them were dealing with one specific subject about Turkey and others were dealing other subjects about Turkey. These subjects were generally about Ocalan's case importance of energy around Turkey and the importance of geopolitics of Turkey in the region. Press of Germany,Austria,Greece,Switzerland,France,England,Belgium,Fınland, Italy, Holland and the United States are included in this study. As it was written above newspapers and the magazines are important ones in their countries that were searched.And these are the countries that Turkey took place in their newspapers and magazines.
Our interest in irrigation development predates recorded history. We have always recognized the important role of irrigation development in sustaining agricultural development Our early irrigation systems are mostly small, gravity irrigation systems that were built, operated and maintained by farmer-irrigators These systems have built-in stability as crop cultural practices as well as soil and water conservation practices arc interwoven in their design, operation and management (O&M) Starting in 1908, the government took a more active role in irrigation development It centralized irrigation development under the Bureau of Public Works This set in motion a seemingly irreversible process of viewing irrigation development as a typical public works project whose orientation is mainly engineering in nature and focused on infrastructures From the 1960s through the mid- 1980s, there was a rapid expansion in the area under irrigation There was a shill in emphasis towards medium- and large-scale gravity irrigation systems serving rice monocultures Irrigation development was heavily subsidized and under government monopoly In the late 1980s, it became quite clear that not all is well in as far as irrigation development is concerned A host of interrelated technical, social, economic, institutional and hydrologic issues and constraints added costs on irrigation facilities and services Scarce public resources were allocated to irrigation activities and technologies that were not cost-effective, efficient or sustainable Moreover, gravity irrigation systems were rapidly deteriorating at a rate of about 70,0(X) ha taken out of the irrigation command area annually As gravity irrigation systems rapidly deteriorated and failed to distribute water efficiently and equitably, service fee collections fell much short of the needed operation and maintenance costs, raising serious doubts about their sustainability The policy of continuing to invest in the development and rehabilitation of medium- to large-scale gravity irrigation systems has increasingly been questioned Rehabilitation and new area generation from 1992 to 1996 covered more than 410,000 ha, averaging about 83,000 ha annually The massive efforts resulted in a total increase of only 61,000 ha of irrigated area during the dry season, or an average annual increase of 12,000 ha pa year Though nearly 40 percent of the total service area in 1996 had either been newly generated or rehabilitated, the 1996 dry season cropping intensity was only about 56 percent Efforts to rationalize irrigation development started in the late 1980s and continue to date. The Department of Agriculture's (DA) shallow tubewell irrigation (STW) project which was launched in the early 1990s was a big step to promote cost-effective and sustainable irrigation technologies, increase participation of farmers in irrigation development and their control over facilities, privatize irrigation and gradually phase out irrigation subsidies. Present analysis confirmed the cost-effectiveness, by many folds, of STW and low lift pump ix (LLP) over alternative systems in terms of increasing effective cropped area and of empowering farmers. From 1990 onwards, STW and LLP irrigation became the engines of growth of irrigated agriculture, expanding at a rate of more than 10 percent annually. The command area of these modes of irrigation is estimated to be over half a million ha at present. Much of the available information show that the country is realizing less than half of the potential benefits from irrigation development. Moreover, there are alarming indications of decreasing efficiency in the planning and implementation of national irrigation systems (NIS) and communal irrigation systems (CIS) as attractive schemes get fewer and fewer and vital watersheds are increasingly subject to exploitation by an ever increasing population. On the average, irrigation service fee (ISE) collection for NIS and CIS only amount to about 58 percent of the assessed fees. This is despite the fact that the assessed fees are generally way below the amount required for their adequate repair, operation and maintenance (O&M). Thus, there is a need for frequent rehabilitation. On the average. irrigation service fee (ISE) collection for NIS and CIS only amount to about 58 percent of the assessed fees. This is despite the fact that the assessed fees are generally way below the amount required for their adequate repair, operation and maintenance (O&M). Thus, there is a need for frequent rehabilitation. Fortunately, the Philippines is blessed with abundant shallow groundwater resources. The National Water Resources Board (NWRB) estimated that we have an aggregate of 5.1 million ha shallow well area. Yet only about 1.4 million ha is currently irrigated by all modes of irrigation. It is clear that the small, fanner-controlled (collectively referred to as minor) irrigation technologies arc the most appropriate technologies for the future. This is more so in the case of STWs and LLPs which require much lower investment cost, have very short gestation periods, yield higher unit area productivity levels, give farmers a greater degree of control over their irrigation water, and are amenable to crop diversification. The Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) clearly recognized this fact when it called for a shift in focus to new minor irrigation facilities (STWs, LLPs and similar low-cost, farmer-controlled, privatized and sustainable irrigation systems). These cost-effective, efficient, farmer-controlled minor irrigation technologies offer the best growth opportunities for Philippine agriculture in the short and medium-terms. There are opportunities for optimizing the benefits from irrigation development through expanded and concerted irrigation research and development (R&D) efforts, which are almost non-existent at present, and through the development of appropriate policy and institutional environment conducive to sustainable irrigation development. There are also potentials for increasing the unit area productivity of irrigated agriculture by improving the performance of existing irrigation systems. Among others, this will require improved O&M; on-farm water management; farming systems intensification and diversification; effective and timely delivery of irrigated agricultural support services such as integrated irrigation water. soil and fertilizer, pests and seeds and seedling management; and farm mechanization. However, improving the performance of our present irrigation systems will require considerable rehabilitation efforts in order to rectify design shortcomings and arrest the decline in the command area and performance of NIS and CIS. A policy and program framework for accelerated and sustained irrigation development has been formulated after an in-depth analysis of the trends, issues and constraints as well as options in irrigation development. The program framework envisions that the country will soon have in lace a coherent.lice from together with a strategic vision for the transfo a highly productive, intensive and diversity, Page 11 / 123 CC term (5 — 10 years) scenario that can then sustained irrigation development guided by the intent and spirit of the AFMA. Among others, an accelerated and sustained irrigation development would require the following: I) Generation of an additional command area of about 100 thousand ha annually during year I and 2, with a 10 percent incremental increase annually from year 3 to 9. levelling off at 200 thousand ha per year thereafter. About 90 percent of the new area will come from STWs and LLPs. The rest will be from other modes of irrigation including Small Water Impounding Projects (SWIPs), Small Farm Reservoirs (SFRs). NIS, CIS and inundation schemes. 2) Rehabilitation of about 50 thousand ha of NIS and CIS annually for the next 10 years assuming that the present irrigation service areas are cut down to realistic level (by about 30%). This will maintain the present level of development of the NIS and CIS. Rehabilitation will be on a cost-sharing basis among stakeholders. After rehabilitation, a system must be self-sustaining (full 0 & M cost recovery from ISF). 3) Effective and efficient 0 & M of existing national, communal and small-scale irrigation facilities serving about I million ha (irrigation command area) at present. 4) Improved performance of irrigated agriculture. This will imply achieving a cropping intensity of 170 to 200 percent and unit area productivity of at least 7 Uha/year in terms of grain for STW and LLPs and a cropping intensity of at least 140 percent and unit area productivity of 5.5 t/ha/year for NIS and CIS. 5) Increasingly diversified, intensified and highly productive agriculture in areas served by small, farmer-controlled irrigation facilities. 6) Enhanced institutional capacity at all levels for the effective and timely delivery of essential irrigated agriculture support services and functions including policy planning. monitoring and evaluation, research and extension, training. credit and marketing facilities, and inputs supply and distribution • Assuming timely and effective implementation of the proposed framework and that irrigation development will be focused on rice production, palay production is expected to increase (from a base level of about 11.0 million metric tons at present) by at least 4.5 percent per year. Much of the incremental increase in production will come from the development of new STW and LLP irrigation systems. The rice supply and demand scenario resulting from the projected increase in rice production given the present level of per capita rice consumption of about 95 kg per year, a population growth rate of 2.3 percent and a 65 percent milling recovery shows that rice self-sufficiency will be attained in year 5 of successful program implementation. When per capita rice consumption is assumed to increase from 95 to 110 kg per year, self-sufficiency in rice will be attained in year 7 of program implementation. A total of 30 percent of the budget for agriculture and fishery modernization has been earmarked for irrigation development. Hence, a budget of at least about P6 billion is to be allocated for irrigation development for the year 2001. This sizeable budgetary allocation is xi likely to be allocated in the coming years since the national government is committed to achieving the goals and intent of the AFMA. The provision of a relatively large budget for irrigation development raises the issue of how to allocate to the various aspects of irrigation development such as O&M, rehabilitation and new systems development and to the various irrigation technologies so as to engender broad-based sustained agriculture growth and enhanced poverty alleviation. Given the numerous aspects and modes by which irrigation development may be carried out, it is but logical to allocate the financial resources optimally to maximize the benefits derived from these endeavors. An initial outlay of P6.0 billion pesos will be required. Of these, about P2.3 billion, P2.7 billion and P0.8 billion will be used for the development of new systems, for rehabilitation, and for the improvement in 0 & M of existing irrigation systems, respectively. The total program cost will level of about P8.9 billion from year 10 onwards. As stipulated by AFMA. the focus in new irrigation systems development is on small farmer irrigation systems such as STWs and LLPs. 'the development of these irrigation schemes is private sector-led. The rehabilitation of existing irrigation systems should be based on a cost-sharing arrangement among the Department of Agriculture (DA), Local Government Units (LGU) and the farmer-beneficiaries. The public sector should continue to contribute the lion's share in the cost of improving the 0 & M of NIS and CIS, in the delivery of essential irrigated agriculture support services and in the protection of critical watersheds and aquifers. About two-thirds of the initial budgetary outlay of P6.0 billion should come from the government. From year 8 onwards, the share of the public sector will be less than that of the private sector. The proposed program framework approach does not advocate totally displacing the share of gravity irrigation systems in favor of STWs and LLPs. With 58 percent collection rate for NIS and CIS, irrigation service fees are insufficient to cover the O&M costs of gravity irrigation systems. Without public financing to cover shortfalls in resources for O&M, losses in irrigated areas eventually set in from gravity system decay. In effect, these losses offset pan of hectare gained from promoting STWs. Calculations indicate a cropping intensity of 70 percent during the wet season and 50 percent during the dry season in NIS with a total service area coverage of 800.000 ha. The estimated budgetary requirements were based on the assumption that the heritage (240.000 ha) that can not be effectively served by the NIS anyway, even in the wet season, will be excised from the existing irrigation service area. This will reduce the required rehabilitation costs of gravity irrigated command areas as well as the shortfalls in irrigation service fees which need to be covered from the public coffers.
Issue 35.2 of the Review for Religious, 1976. ; REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS IS edited by faculty members of St Louis Umvers~ty, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building, 539 North Grand Boule-vard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copyright (~) 1976 by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $2.00. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $7.00 a year; $13.00 for two years; other countries, $8.00 a year, $15.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order payable to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor Assistant Editor March 1976 Volume 35 Number 2 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to Review for Religious; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts and books for review should be sent to Review for Religious; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's College; City Avenue at 54th Street; Philadelphia, Pennsyl-vania 19131. Mary, Model of the Church Paul VI December 8, 1975, marked not only the solemnity of the Immaculate Conception but also the tenth anniversary of the conclusion of the Second Vatican Council. This is the text of the Pope's homily in St. Peter's on that occasion.* Venerable Brothers and Beloved Sons! and all of you, special guests at this pious ceremony, Teachers, Research workers and Students of the Pontifical Roman Universities, you P~upils in our seminaries, you Members of the Ecclesiastical and Religious Colleges of the City, or associhtes of the Secular Institutes. And you, beloved Daughters in Christ, Religious, Novices, Probationers and Pupils of the Houses of formation for women in Rome. And then you, too, our Roman faithful, and you pilgrims of the Holy Year and visitors to this holy City. And finally you (we wish to gather everyone in the multiple value of the rite we are celebrating), you, we say, former members and protagonists 'of the Second Ecumenical Vatican Council, convened here to commemo-rate with us the tenth anniversary, which falls today, of those great ec-clesiastical sessions! Listen to us, all of you! and let us invite you to a moment of contem-plation, spiritual and almost visual, as if the appearance of her whose ex-traordinary feast we are celebrating today were present in the background of this Basilica, as if-hovering in the unique splendour, proper to herself (even if reflected from the divine source of light); and we were to see her with the prophetic eyes of the evangelist of the Apocalypse: *Abstracted from Osservatore Romano, 12/18/75, pp. 6-7. 161 162 / Review [or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 Behold! "A great portent appeared in heaven, a woman clothed with the sun, with the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars" (Apoc 12, 1; cf. Cant 6, 4 ft.). What is it? Who is it? We are amazed and absorbed by the Bible vision; and in our dazzled astonishment we lose the sense of reality. We do not forgo expressing as best we can the value of that mysterious image; and without continuing, for the present, with the scene in the Apocalypse, we are satisfied to know the double name that has been superimposed on that heavenly figure by the masters of Holy Scripture, as if exclaiming, in an-swer to our anxious curiosity: it is Mary, it is Mary, that Woman clothed with the sun, with the moon under her feet, and the mysterious crown of stars on her head! It is the Church, it is the Church! the scholars inform us, studying the secrets of the figurative and symbolical language of the world of the Apocalypse. Perhaps they are right. As for us, we are happy to honour Mary and the Church, the first the Mother of Christ in the flesh; the second the .Mother of his Mystical Body, and she herself part of that Mystical Body. All Brothers and Sons! For a moment let us fix our thought, dazzled and happy, on the first meaning of the bewildering vision; and let us say to ourselves, with the intention of celebrating the mystery of the Immaculate Conception: that is what Mary is like! Her aspect is heavenly and tri-umphal~ but if closely observed, it is that of a Woman "humble and lofty more than a creature" (Par 33, 2). So humble, in fact, that she banishes all our respectful trepidation (cf. Lk 1, 48), and almost invites us to see in her a beloved Sister. At the very moment that we dare to address to her a trusting word, no other words come to our lips than those of the Gospel: Blessed art thou! (Lk 1, 45 and 48). Yes, blessed! And for how many reasons! One among the many we are celebrating today, and we would like to put it at the peak of our devotion to Mary: her Immaculate Conception! That is, God's preferential thought for this creature of his; the intention to 'see in her again the original innocence of a being conceived "in the. image and likeness" of himself, God (Gen 1, 26-27), not disturbed, not contaminated by any stain, by any imperfection, as are all the children Of Eve, all mankind, except Christ and except her, the Blessed Virgin. An idea; a divine dream] a masterpiece of human beauty, not sought in the formal model only, but realized in the intrinsic and incomparable capacity of ex-pressing the Spirit in the flesh, the divine likenes~ in the human countenance, invisible Beauty in the physical figure. Mary, All Beauty Tota pulchra es, Maria.t You are beauty, real, pure, holy beauty, oh Mary! This should be the real and ideal image of the Blessed Virgin, re-flected, luminous and illuminating, in Our individual souls, today, oh Faith- Mary, Model o] the Church / 163 ful; as the synthesis of our admiration and devotion to the Blessed Virgin, whose feast, eminently theological and eminently ecclesial, we are celebrat-ing. Theological, because we deduce it from revelation and from the most vigilant and loving reflection, with which the most candid and virginal piety dared, certainly with her assistance, to fix an enraptured and exPloring gaze on her pure, humble face, the perfect face of sacred and human beauty~ Ecclesial, because from being a mirror of divine perfection, speculum iusti-tiae, she offers herself to us as a mirror of human perfection, in which the Church, venerating the Blessed Virgin, "joyfully contemplates, as in a faultless model (it is the Council speaking; Sacr. Cone., n. 103), that which she herself wholly desires and hopes to be"; a nuptial beauty which St. Paul, as we all remember, describes in a stupendous way: "in all its splen-dour, without spot or wrinkle, or any such thing, that she might be holy and without blemish" (Eph 5, 27). The Church's holiness, in its state of becoming, has its model, its "typus" in Mary, as St. Ambrose will say (in Lucam, II-7), and St. Augustine will comment: "figuram in se sanctae Ecclesiae demonstravit" (De Symbolo, I; P.L. 40, 661), Mary represented in herself the figure of the Holy Church. ¯ A model, a specimen, an ideal figure of the Church; is that enough? The theological truth goes further, and enters the frontiers of that subordinate causality, which in the divine plan of salvation inseparably associates the creature, Mary, the Handmaid of the "Fiat," with the mystery of the In-carnation, and makes her,: St. Irenaeus writes, "a cause of,this salvation for herself and for the whole of mankind" (Adv. haereses, III, 22, 4). "Mother of the Church" We will rejoice, then, to have in St. Augustine the conclusion which at the end of the III section of the Council we made our own, explicitly recog-nizing the unquestionable right of the Blessed Virgin to the title of "Mother of the Church." If, in fact, Mary is the mother of Christ in the flesh, and Christ is the head of the Church, his Mystical Body, Mary' is spiritually the Mother of this Body, to which she herself belongs, at an eminent level, as daughter and sister (cf. St. Augustine, de Sancta Virginitate, V and VI; P, L. 40, 339; and cf, H. De Lubac, Mdd. sur l'Eglise, c. IX) . To you, Teachers, Research workers and Students of our Rbman Uniz versities; to you, young Seminarian~, to you, Religious men and women, goes particularly a cry from our heart: love, invoke and imitate Mary Immaculate, the Mother of Christ and the Mother of the Ctiurch, and make good use, for the present and for future generations, of the treasure of wisdom that the second Vatican Ecumenical Council was and is. The Spirit Speaks: When and How? Thomas Dubay, S.M. Father Dubay, a frequent contributor to our journal, is engaged full time in lecturing and writing in the area of religious life. His home address is: Marist Seminary; 220 Taylor Street, N.E.; Washington, DC 20017 "Speak, Lord, for your servant is listening" (1 Kgs 3:10). ¯ One need not emphasize the point that a vibrant sector of Christian life at this point of history is the sector of the Spirit, the Holy Spirit. The charismatic renewal has been promoting with no little success a whole life-style patterned on and growing out of a program centered in the Spirit's activity in the midst of God's people. This renewal is by no means restricted to "the release of the Spirit'? or the gift of tongues or the healing ministry. It is felt that the Holy Spirit is speaking today not only to saints but to sinners, not only to officialdom but to the lowly placed. To some considerable extent, but not with an entire coincidence with the charismatic movement, the Spirit movement' has been prominent in renewal efforts carried on in religious life. Books, articles, lectures, chapter documents often refer to the Holy Spirit, especially under the rubric of openness to Him, listening to Him. The central thrust here is not so much prayer experience, speaking in tongues or engaging in a healing ministry as it is in detecting what God is saying to us, both to the individual and to the community. This thrust toward listening to the Spirit is readily noted in the popularity of discernment methods, techniques, processes~ Although one begins to sense an incipient, weariness with discernment talk, the interest remains noteworthy. The reality surely is of crucial importance in an age struggling to find the mind of God and to read the signs of the times. If God does speak to His people--and Scripture insists that He does--it can never be unimportant to listen. 164 The Spirit Speaks: When and How? / 165 An Anomalous Situation But this ."listening" is where .our problems begin, problems that press for solution. Before we can intelligently explain how one listens to the indwell-ing God, we should first understand something of how He speaks. The literature of our day, issuing both from the charismatic renewal and from religious life circles, says almost nothing on this subject. As a matter of fact, I must. candidly add that while speculative theologians often refer to the activity of the Holy Spirit in the Church, they seldom discuss how He acts and enlightens the individual through a personal contact. They do, of course, rightly point out that God speaks to His people through Scripture and through the representatives He has established in His Church: "he who hears you, hears Me" (Lk 10:16).1 But this is not the question at hand. People both in the Pentecostal movement and in religious life have in mind a personal (individual and!or communal) encounter with the Holy Spirit, and in this encounter they "listen to Him." Our situation, therefore, is odd. On the one hand many persons rou-tinely speak of "listening to the Spirit" as though He were as familiar as a friend speaking over one's right shoulder. Yet on the other hand almost no one explains how He speaks--even though we all know He does not speak in sound waves. Nor are we told how one can be so sure it is the Spirit speaking. Until we provide satisfactory answers to the question, "How does the Spirit speak?" we are left with some embarrassing problems. How can anyone be so sure he is listening to the Spirit and not to his own desires? We hardly need to debate the observation of Aldous Huxley: "The untutored egoist merely wants. Give him a religious education, and it becomes obvious to him, it becomes axiomatic, that what he wants is what God wants.'"-' Does God speak in diverse ways? If He does, how can we know the differences? What are we to think of,serious and sincere people who are convinced that they are receiving special messages from the Holy Spirit? Is good will enough to insure "listening to the Spirit"? Who Can Answer Our Questions? If it is true that the popular and theological literature on the con-temporary scene seldom discusses the title questign of this article, one may rightly wonder who can answer it? I know of two sources: Scripture and the mystics? We shall in this article explore both of these sources that we may discover on solid grounds when and how the Holy Spirit speaks in our own day. ~See also Jn 13:20; Jn 21:15-17; Lk 22:31-32; Tt 1:7; 1 Tm 3:15; 2Tin 3:14-16 and many other like texts. ~The Devils o] Loudun, p. 18. ZBy "mystics" here I do not refer to the recipients of extraordinary phenomena such as levitation or the stigmata. The word in Catholic theology indicates those men and women who have a deep experiential encounter with God. 166 / Review Jor Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 Scripture on the Experience og God ~ ~ We may acknowledge at the outset~ ~that the Lord God did speak to select representatives in biblical times~ and in :extraordinary ways (Heb l:l ). However, we shall not be primarily concerned here with the divine messages addressed to public personages, to a Moses or to a Paul. Rather we shall direct our attention to the usual, frequent, routine ways God speaks to the inner heart of anyone close to Him. Our tasks will be three: a) Introductory observations b) What does one experience when he experiences God? c) Implications of the .biblical account. When we complete our biblical study, we shall~ investigate the mystics' message. They have a great deal to say about listening to God: when and how it happens and does not happen. a) Introductory observations Just what is experience? We use the word constantly both in popular speech and in scholarly articles, but seldom does .anyone .suggest its mean-ing. The best synonym I can think of is awareness, Without awareness one cannot experience. A genuine experience is an awareness of something, even if that awareness focuses on one's self. An illusory experience is subjectively real but it has no objective correlative. Experience for human being .implies a passivity, a being affected by the object (tapioca, .coldness). In sensory experiences affectivity (pleasant, unpleasant, cold-hot, smooth-rough, sweet-sour) predominates over knowl-edge, whereas in intellectual experience the cognitive and the affective are closer to,.being equal partners because they more intimately interpenetrate each other. - Although it is obvious on ~a moment's reflection that ,19od cannot be experienced as though He were a material object somehow palpable, some seem to assume that He must be absent if.He does not manifest His pres-ence in human ways. He is God, and we should be .content to allow Him to operate in a divine manner. We may speak of an experience-of-God continuum tl~at runs from reasoned conclusions about Him (the weak. end of the continuum or spec-trum) ~,to the face'to,face vision of Him in. glory (the strong end). In be-tween we can locate the poetic, ,artistic and infused mystical experi~n(es, In this article I shall be concerned chiefly with the last, the divinely originated, mystical encounters with our God revealed in Christ. We need to emphasize that the experience of which we speak here comes from God, not from what we do or feel or will. It is not our idea which we like and and then baptize as being His idea. When God speaks, it is God who speaks. b) What does one experience when he experiences God? ~ Divine ~xperience is not one sole awareness. The reality is rich and is expressed in many ways, each of which brings out an element or emphasis found in the whole. I wiil distinguish and number these elements not to The Spirit Speaks: When and How? / 167 separate them but to clarify the richness. Our usual human way of under-standing is through concepts ,and distinctions. One who is impatient with reasonable distinctions does not understand that he could not utter his sentence of objection except by distinguishing each word of it from every other word. In what follows, however, we must understand that the reality is not a series of chopped up pieces but a flowing whole of diverse strands and richness. 1) PRESENCE-AWARENESS. The experience oLGod includes an aware-ness, a sense of His divine presence. One is aware that God is with him, be-fore him, at his'right hand (Ps 16:8). The Holy Spirit is given to "be with" the disciple of the Lord (Jn 14:15-17), and Jesus' name is Emmanuel, God-with-us (Mt 1:23). He promises to be with His disciples all days, even to the end of the world (Mt 28:20). One who loves possesses an abiding presence of God within himself (I Jn 4:16). We shall see further on how the mystics elaborate on this presence-awareness. 2) ~ SPIRITUAL AWARENESS: SENSE-LIKE BUT NOT SENSE-LIKE. Because God is purest Spirit no .one can attain Him through sense knowledge. Yet Scripture is not reluctant to use sense knowing to bring out the reality and richness of a divine-human encounter. We are to taste and see for ourselves the goodness of God (Ps 23:8). Jeremiah felt an inner touch, a burning in his being (Jer 20:9). Paul speaks of the fragrance of Jesus' offering (Eph 5:2). The Song of Songs refers to the hearing of a voice (Song 2:14). The mystics repeatedly refer to the five senses to explain a deep meeting with God. St.-Augustine,~offers a classical example when in the Conjessions he brilliantly denies that a profound experience of,God is sense-like but then immediately turns around and affirms that there is a sense-likeness in it: ~' Not with doubtful but with sure knowledge do 1 love you, O Lord. By your Word you have transfixed hay heart, and I have loved you . What is it then that I love when I love you?'Not bodily beauty, and not temporal glory, 'not the clear shining light, lovely as it is to our eyes, not the sweet melodies of 0many-moded songs, not the soft smell of flowers and: ointments, and per-fumes, not manna and honey, not limbs made for the body's embrace, not these do I love when I love my God. Yet 1 do love a certain light, a certain voice, a certain odor, a certain food, a certain embrace when I love my God: a light, a voice, an odor, a food, an embrace for the man within me, where his light, which no place can contain, floods into my soul; where he utters words~that time does not speed away; where he sends forth an aroma that no wind can scatter; where he provides food that no eating can lessen; where he so clings that satiety does not sunder us. This is what I love when I love my God.4 St. John of the Cross at one time uses music to suggest how a person can "hear" God in His creation: "Creatures will be for the soul a-harmonious 4Con[essions, Ryan translation, Image edition, Bk 10, c. 6. 168 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 symphony of sublime music surpassing all concerts . She calls this music 'silent' because it is tranquil and quiet . There is in it the sweetness of music and the quietude of silence.'''~ At another~ time the saint describes the experience of God as a fragrance: "Sometimes the fragrance is so abundant that it seems to the soul she is clothed with delight and bathed in inestimable glory.'''~ While both the biblical writers and the. later mystics know well that God is infinitely beyond our realm of sensation, yet they speak in this fashion in order to bring out the reality of the experience of God and the richness of it. 3) NEW K.NOWINO, D.IVINE AND DARK. When one advances into a depth relationship with God he grows in knowing his Lord without knowing how he knows. He perceives this hidden God in darkness (Is 45:15), and yet the Son manifests Himself to the person who loves and keeps His word (Jn 14:21). The Father, says St. Paul, radiates in our minds His own glory, the glory that shines on the face of Jesus (2 Co 4:6). Angela of Foligno observed that the more the supreme Good is seen in darkness the more does one know He surpasses all goods~ Listening to the Spirit, there-fore, does not usually mean listening to a clear message. God does not dictate idle details about one's friends, family, enemies, oneself. The man or woman listening to the Holy Spirit is learning most of all about the three divine persons, darkly beautiful. 4) YEARNING FOR GOD. God often speaks a thirsting for Himself into the human person. It is a thirsting that purifies the recipient for deeper union and love, a thirsting that widens capacity and "bestows humilityi The psalmist seeks and thirsts like parched earth (Ps 63:1) or like the deer panting after the running waters (P~ 42:1-2). Isaiah longs for his Lord and keeps vigil for Him through the night (Is 26:8-9). St. Augustine sighs for God day and night,r All available evidence indicates that the Holy Spirit communicates this divine thirst far more frequently than He does concrete messages that satisfy curious eyes and itching ears. God. has nothing better to say than Himself. That is why in the incarnation the Father spoke His Word into the world of human flesh. When one listens to the Father, he hears mostly the Son. 5) PEACE AND COMFORTING. Our God is a healing God, a God who l(~ves and therefore comforts us in~ all our sorrows (2 Co 1:3-4), a God who gives a peace that surpasses understanding (Ph 4:7), a G~)d who re-freshes the wearied soul and gives rest (Jr 31 ~25-26; Mt 11:28). While our own selfishness begets conflict and factions (Ga 5:19-21), what the Spirit r'Spiritual .Canticle, Stanzas 14-15, #25; I am using here The Collected Works o[ St, John o] the Cross, translated by Kieran Kavan~augh, O.C;D. and Otilio Rodriguez, O.C.D., New York, 1964, p. 472. ~lbid., Stanza 17, #7; p. 480. rConfessions, Bk 7, c. 10. The Spirit Speaks." When and How? / 169 brings.is very different: love, peace, harmony. (Ga 5:22). The Hebrew shalom was not a mere absence of conflict. It implied a fullness, a rich integrity, something akin to our word, prosperity. God speaks peace, shalom, to his people. His word makes individuals and communities inte-gral, whole, loving. 6) INPOURED LOVE. The divine gift par excellence is love: "the love of God is poured into our hearts by the Holy Spirit who has been given to us." (Rm 5:5) Those who divide the community into factions, who disregard their leaders are not listening to the Spirit who brings unity (1 Co 12:12-13; Ep 4:3-6) and an obedience to those overseers whom he Himself has placed to rule the Church of God (Ac 20:28). This love is a sign of the genuine disciple, one who loves as the Lord Himself loves (Jn 13:34-35). The Spirit speaks love (Ga 5:22). 7) UNION-POSSESSION-BURNING. This love of the Holy Spirit centers especially.on the three divine persons and it grows to a point where it can overwhelm one (2 Co 5: 14). It.can make one's heart.burn: "there seemed-to be a fire burning in my heart, imprisoned in my bones," said Jeremiah. "The effort to restrain it wearied me, I could not bear it." (Jr 20:9) The disciples on the road to Emmaus felt this burning as they listened to the word of the risen Kyrios (Lk 24:32), and the mystics commonly speak of it. Augustine~could write of being set. on fire for God by the psalms and of burning to repeat them.s Further on he declared that love was his gravity: "By your gift we are enkindled, and we are borne upwards. We glow with inward fire, and we go on. We asc(nd steps within the heart, and we sing a gradual psalm. By Your fire, by. Your good fire, we glow with inward fire:'''~ St. John of the Cross could speak simply of the perfect "who burn gently in God.''1" Once again we emphasize that when God speaks it is not a narration of idle details that satisfy curious expectations. God mostly speaks love. ~ 8) BEAUTY OF GOD AND JOY IN HIM. The experience of God is a growing perception of His goodness and beauty. We are to taste and see for ourselves how good He is (Ps 34:8). The one thing, the top-priority sought by the psalmist is to°dwell in the Lord's house all the days Of his life and thus to "gaze on the beauty of the Lord" (Ps 27:4). Augustine puts this in his own inimitable language: "All things are beautiful because You made them, but You who made all things are inexpressibly more beautiful . Too late have I loved You, O Beauty so ancient and so new, too late have I loved You!TM Our joy is to become so deep that it is radiant (Ps 34:5), complete (Jn 15:11), unending (Jn 16:22),.always and every- 81bid., Bk 9, c. 4. '°1bid., Bk 13, c. 9. 1°Dark Night of the Soul, Bk 2, c. 20, :~4; p. 337. 11Confessions, Bk 13, c. 20 and Bk 10, c. 27. 170 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 where (Ph 4:4), beyond description (I P 1:8). This, too, the Bishop of Hippo heard from the indwelling Lord: ",Sometimes You admit me," he said, "in my innermost being into a most extraordinary affection, mounting within me to an indescribable delight, If this is perfected in me, it will be something, I know not what, that will not belong to this slife.''r-' This'is what the Lord God especially speaks, and this is what they hear who deeply listen. 9) POWER, STRENGTH, FREEDOM. God speaks 'not only words but power itself.-It would seem correct to say that worded communications from Him are~comparatively rare, while bestowals of power and freedom . are comm.on, common that is to people who are mature in prayer. Paul came to the Corinthians not with human philosophy but with the power of God (1 Co 2:5). He explains that God,s kingdom.does not consist only of words--it~is power (1 Co 4:20). The apostle himself experiences "an overwhelming power" from the Father (2 Co 4:7). All he wants to know is Christ and the power of His resurrection (Ph 3:10). This power is a liberating dynamism: "Where the Spirit of the Lord is there is freedom" (2 Co 3:|7). c) Implications of the biblical account. Perhaps the most striking note of this New Testament picture of how God speaks is that He does not ordinarily speak specifics. It is true that public persons or those closely related to them do occasionally receive particularized directions. This is true, for example, of Peter (Ac 10:9-16), Cornelius (Ac 1'0:3-6), the "Council of Jerusalem" (Ac 15:28), Paul (Ac 9:3-6: Ga 2:2; 2 Co 12:8-9), Ananias (Ac 9:10-16). In the Christic economy when specific divine messages are given, they must be submitted to human authorities. This has long been the practice of spiritual directors and it is rooted in revelation itself. Even St~ Paul sought the .approval of the "leading men" in Jerusalem for the mission he had received directly from the risen Jesus (Ga 2:2, 6, 10). The New Testament gives no. com-fort to visionaries who deem themselves exempt from any structural guidance. What God usually does speak to the ordinary person is inner trans-formation. He speaks goodness in a general manner. He speaks his pres-ence ~. spiritual awareness., divine-dark knowing of himself., yearn-ing for his presence . . . peace and comfort . . , inpoured love . . . union-possession- burning., beauty and joy . . . power and freedom. This may come as a ,surprise to devotees of private revelations~ but it does not surprise experienced spiritual directors. Those who listen to God most genuinely are not those who believe they have received many detailed messages, but rather those whose minds have been fillhd with everything true, noble, good, pure, virtuous, worthy of praise (Ph 4:8). r"Ibid,, Bk 10, c. 40. The Spirit Speaks: When and How? / 171 Further Development, s: St. ~Iohn of the Cross While Sacred Scripture is rich in its variegated ways of dealing with the experience of God, it does leave, us with the need to unfold the richness further. We ,may therefore ask several qi~estions. Does the Holy Spirit speak in varying degrees of intensity? If so, what are they like? Does He add His own peculiar light to our human reasonings and searchings? If so, how does this happen? Can we know when it .happens? Is it possible to be mistaken regarding a genuine communication from ,13od? Were the saints ever mistaken? What does one do if he thinks (or is even convinced) that God has enlightened him in some specific way? In looking through a considerfible amount of the literature produced on these questions rI can think of no one more competent to respond to our questions than St. John of the Cross. That this Carmelite saint experienced the deepest, most magnificent encounters with the ,living God is beyond debate. If anyone~ has known what knowledge through infused love is all about, John has. If anyone has been capable of analyzing and synthesizing the sundry, elements in the experience of God:in all their varieties and de-grees, John has. If any mere man or woman has listened to the Spirit, John has. We shall, therefore, take this theologian of mysticism as our guide. In an area in which the Spirit-structure tension in the Church occupies center stage we need a master. "' Types of Communication God does not speak to,man as man speaks to man. He speaks as God; and consequently we should be wary Of our preconceived ideas as to how the communication ought to be carried: off. Moreover, He does not speak in one way only. Nor should we assume that His speaking is always unmis-takable: The indwelling God leads us into all truth (Jn 14:26; 16:13) in diverse ways and degrees. St. John.~of the Cross discusses these ways and degrees under the caption of what he calls supernatural locutions.13 It seems to me that this expression, "supernatural ,locution," is equivalent to what we mean in saying that the Holy Spirit speaks to us. John's'"locution" is a type of "apprehension," a knowing.It is a type that is "produced in the souls of spiritual persons without the use of :the bodily senses as means."14~,These are not sensory orqmaginary visions. They are "produced," that is, received from God. One does not originate the locution. God speaks and enlightens. Man receives. The saint reduces the many ways in which God speaks to three types. There are, in order of ascending value (and using the saint's terminology), a.~See Ascent o] Mt Carmel, Bk 2, cc. 28-31. 141bid., c. 28; p. 203. 172 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 successive locutions, formal locutions and substantial locutions. I will speak of them in my own language as well as John's. a) Assisting enlightenment (successive locutions). This .first type of divine speaking always occurs when one is "recollected and attentively absorbed" in some thought process. The.,enlightenment al-ways concerns the subject on which one is meditating?~' During this time, says John, the person is united with the truth and with 'the Holy Spirit who is in every truth, and yet he is thinking, reasoning in the usual, human man-ner. The Spirit aids him in forming his concepts and judgments. There is so great a clarity and ease in this activity thatqt seems another is teaching him, as indeed is the case. In this communion with :the. indwelling Spirit about a particular matter the person goes on to "form interiorly and suc-cessively other truths.''1' John supposes that this enlightenment occurs dur-ing prayer, that is, while one "is '!recollected" and "communing with the. divine Spirit?' It seems, therefore, that this type of speaking does not usually occur in dialogue sessions but in the midst of prayerful communion. The recipient of this assisting enlightenment "is unable to believe" that it originates with himself, but he has the awareness that it derives from another. And yet the knowledge received (it cannot be. attained by personal industry) is so delicate that the natural intellect by its own activity "easily disturbs and undoes" it.lr This point is important. Even when God does speak in this manner, he does not exclude our human activities with all their limitations, preconceptions, biases, errors. Even when he enlightens, he' permits men and women to be what they as a matter of fact are, fallen men and women--redeemed, yes, but still wounded and. deficient. We may conclude that this assisting enlightenment is not merely human reason proceeding under its own steam and deriving from the Holy Spirit only in the sense that anything true and good derives from him. The divine speaking is something over and above the gift ,of native intelligence, even though in the successive locution lit works closely with that intelligence, b) Independent-ideational speaking (formal locutions). Whereas the assisting enlightment occurs only when one. is prayerfully meditative, this divine speaking can happen at any time. In the first the locution accompanies human activity, while in the second it is uttered in-dependently of what the recipient is doing: "They are received as though one person were speaking to another.'''8 One may receive this locution while he is working, conversing; playing or praying. "Sometimes these words are very explicit and at other times not. They are like ideas spoken to the l~'lbid;, c. 30, #1; p. 208. ae'lbid., c. 29, #1; p. 204. ~rlbid., c. 32, #4; p. 213. aSlbid,, c. 30, #2; p. 208. The Spirit Speaks." When and How? / 173 spirit. At times only one word is spoken, and then again more than one; . . .-19 Although the recipient is clearly aware that this locution comes from another and thus has no reasonable doubt abou~ the otherness of origin, he can only too easily be deceived aSotO who this other is. It may be God or it may be the devil,o-" and the discernment is not always easy. Of this I shall speak later. c) Dynamic-effective speaking (substantial locution). It is now well known that the Hebrew idea of word, dabar, was not a mere intellectual representation of reality but a dynamic power. Just as the rain and snows come down from the heavens and produce food, so God's word comes down and achieves its effects (Is 55:10-11)~ The divine ~ord acts; it does things. It is like fire and a hammer that sunders rocks (Jr ,23:29). It is active, alive; it judges, divides and cuts like a two-edged sword (Heb 4: 12). Yahweh's word alone caused all creation to be (Gn 1 and 2). Jesus' words are spirit and life (Jn 6:63). This dynamic-effective speaking (substantial locution) is not merely an assisting enlightenment (the first manner) nor an ideational speaking (~the second manner). It is a powerful producing-in-the-soul of what it says. St. John of the Cross calls this communication substantial because it im-presses its meaning in the very substance of the recipient's being. The word does what it says. "For example," notes the saint, "if our Lord should say formally to the soul: 'Be good,'oit would immediately be substantially good; or if He should say: 'Love Me,' it would:at once have and experience. within itself the substance of the love of God; or if He should say to a soul in great fear: 'Do not fear,, it would without delay feel ample fortitude and tranquillity.''zx These dynamic~effective communications are the most excellent for several .reasons. One is that deceit, is impossible, since the devil cannot pro-duce this .goodness within one. Another is that these locutions impart "incomparable blessings" of life and goodness to the person who receives them. There is consequently nothing to fear or to reject. The recipient need do nothing about them "because God never grants them for that purpose, but He bestows them in order to accomplish Himself what they express.'':2 Divine Message and Human Fallibility We approach now a problem whose solution is anything but apparent. As a matter of fact it appears on the surface that the union of two factual 191bid. o-°ibid., c. 30, #3-5. °-1Ibid., c. 31, #1; p. 210. °'°'Ibid., c. 31, #2; p. 210. 174 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 premises is impossible. Fact number one: God does speak to certain men and women and He speaks with unfailing truth. Fact number two: these same men and women are often (not just rarely) mistaken in what they hear or think they hear or in what ihey conclude from what they hear, We immediately wonder what the sense of fact number one would' be, given the existence of fact number two. Why would or should God speak to people who often are mistaken in what they hear? One answer to this question is obvious on a momentrs reflection. A fruitful source of error in this area is a simple mistaking of the source of the locution. People often think they are listening to the Spirit when lie is .not speaking at all--or at least He is not saying what they think He is saying. We may not hold God responsible for what He did not say. Yet a problem remains: even when God does speak, the r.ecipient may either not hear or distort what~ he did hear or conclude invalidly from it. Why, then, should God speak when this may be the likely result? One response is identical to what we would say about any human speaking to a fellow human: failure to hear or distortion of the statement or invalid conclusion are always possible. Anyone who has lectured knows this from personal experience. It is remarkable how many people do not hear what you have said (or read what you have written). Yet we do not for that reason cease :speaking or writing. God .speaks to His people for the same reason we do: many do hear, and hear rightly. A lecturer or writer admit-_ tedly takes risks in sharing his thoughts publicly. He knows some will miss the message, while others wittingly or unwittingly will twist it. Yet he also knows that others will hear rightly. God loves us so much that He 'al-lows some to distort His word so that He may communicate intimately with those who will not. There are two reasons according to St. John of the Cross why a divine communication, even when perfectly authentic, can be the occasion for the recipient to be misled regarding it. The first reason is our crude way of understanding the divine mind. Explaining why not all revelations turn out as we expect them to turn out, that is, in their literal sense, the saint notes one reason to be that "since God is immense and profound, He usually embodies in His prophecies, locutions, and revelations other ways, con-cepts and ideas remarkably different from the meaning we generally find in them. And the surer and more truthful they are, the less they seem so to us."'-'~ The saint goes on to illustrate our usual "extremely literal method" with biblical examples. In making His covenant with Abram the Lord God promised that he would give the patriarch a new land. The latter understood this literally of his own personal possession and inquired what the sign of it would be (Gn 15:7-8). However, Abram died before .his possessing the land and "~.~lbid., c. 19, #1; p. 163. The Spirit Speaks: When and How? / 175 so one might have supposed' the divine promise mistaken. But it is the supposition that was mistaken .because it was based on a literal under-standing. Abram was given this land in his descendants as was explained a few verses further on (vv. 18-19). When God's people read that the Messiah was to rule from sea to sea, that His foes would bow down before him and lick the dust of the earth (Ps 72:8-9), they had a true prophecy but they misunderstood His rule to be temporal, whereas it was inner and eternal. So also the disciples on the road to Emmaus were reproved by the risen Lord for being dull and slow in failing to understand what the prophets had announced concerning the Messiah (Lk 24:25). St. John of the Cross concludes~ that "evidently, then, ~even though the words and revelations be from God, we cannot find assurance in them, since in our understanding of. them we can easily be deluded, and extremely so.''24 If this could happen in biblical times with genuine divine communications, it surely can happen in our times. The Carmelite points out that in divine words "God always refers to the more important and profitable meaning,'''5 whereas we tend to see in those same words something less important,' something perhaps merely temporal, even trivial or selfish. This is why the man of the flesh, to use Pauline terminology, the worldly man, cannot (not simply, does not) understand the things of God.(1 Co 2:14). He is too materialistic, too crass, too literal to grasp the divine meaning. One must undergo a con-version, get rid of his worldliness, says Paul, in order to come to know the perfect will of God (Rm 12:2). The second reason why an authentic divine communication can be mis-applied by the recipient is that God's judgment may be~conditional, and that without the knowledge of the human person. God's word or promise may so depend on some contingent event that when that event does or does not occur, so also the divine degree does or does not take~ effect. John cites Jonah's proclamation that Nineveh shall be destroyed in forty days (Jon 3:4). Yet the city was not destroyed because the people repented and did penance: The cause of the decree, human sin, was removed by penitence and so was the decree itself. They especially who do not understand the unfathomable abysses of the divine mind easily suppose they do understand. John of the Cross, who surely experienced God as few others have, supposed otherwise: "Be-lieve me," he concluded, "a person cannot completely grasp the meaning of God's locutions and deeds, nor can he determine this by appearances without extreme error and bewilderment.~''z5 Z4lbid., c. 19, #10; p. 167. God does not necessarily prevent even a genuine mystic from being mistaken in his understanding of an authentic communication. z~Ibid., c. 19, # 12; p. 168. ~ Z~lbid., c. 20, #6; p. 171. 176 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 Assisting Enlightenment and Human Fallibility What we have thus far considered regarding the divine message and human fallibility St. John of the Cross applies to visions as well as to locu-tions. We may now turn our attention specifically to what he calls suc-cessive locutions and I have termed God's assisting enlightenments. When the Holy Spirit aids us in prayerful pondering, is it likely that we can be mistaken in our conclusions? In itself the light of the Spirit can never be mistaken. He who is the tyuth can do nothing but illumine with the truth. However, the light He bestows is often so delicate and lofty that it leaves considerable room for human activity. And when we have room for human activity, we have room for error--unless there be a special divine intervention as is the case with the charism of infallibility given to the Church herself. The possibility of error is present especially in what we deduce and conclude from the divine enlightenment. The light of the Holy Spirit, says John, "is often so delicate and spiritual that the intellect does not succeed in ~being completely in-formed by it; and it is the intellect that of its own power, as we stated, forms the propositions. Consequently the statements are often false, or only apparent, or defective.'':~ This is important. Many of us seem to assume that "listening to the SpirW' means listening to neat, specific conclusions that God somehow inserts into the mind. And we further assume that if we have .an idea we think good it must be He who inserted it. Not so. That sort of neat "formu-lation- insertion" I would call an extraordinary private revelation, not a usual assisting enlightenment. In the latter case it is we who draw the conclusion, and it may be true or untrue, wise or unwise, loving or unloving. History bears out the solidity of this analysis. All through the ages there have been men and women who have expressed a profound conviction that their messages, even the most bizarre and untenable messages, have been spoken by God Himself. They seem not to suspect that they have them-selves contributed anything to their conclusions. John was able to write of this problem in terms that may startle us by their relevance: "I greatly fear what is happening in these times of ours: If any soul whatever after a bit. of meditation has in its recollection one of these locutions (succes-sive), it will immediately baptize all as coming from God and with such a supposition say, 'God told me,' 'God answered me.' Yet this is not so, but, as we pointed out, these persons themselves are more often the origin of their locution.''-~ P. de Letter is of the same mind. Remarking that even genuine charismatics can add human particulars of time and place to an authentic divine message, he notes that "they themselves are generally ~-Tlbid., c. 29, #3; p. 204. '-'Slbid., c. 29, #4; p. 204. The Spirit Speaks." When and How? / 177 unable to make a distinction between the divine and human elements."~"' A. Poulain and K. Rahner speak of the commonness of,human errors added to divine communications.:'" At this point one may ask how our intellect may be more completely informed by the light of God and thus be less subject to its proclivity to adulterate the delicate divine light with its own human shortsightedness. The answer is gospel goodness in general and the light of deep ., faith in particular. According to St. Paul the only way to attain to God's mind and know His perfect will is to put aside worldliness and.undergo conversion (Rm 12:2). The judgment of St. John of the Cross is the same: "The purer and.more refined a soul is in faith, the more infused .charity it possesses, and the more charity it has the more'the Holy Spirit illumines it and com-municates His gifts, because charity is the means by which they are com-municated,'''~' We see the truth of this in everyday life. Simple people of much love far surpass unloving intellectuals in basic wisdom. Diverse Origins of "Inner Lighls" There is yet another aspect to our problem, namely the origin of the enlightenment. Thus far we have supposed the light to come from God. Our theology of discernment of spirits speaks in the plural: spirits. St. John is of like mind. "Manifestly, then, these successive locutions can originate in the intellect from any of three causes: the divine Spirit, Who moves and illumines the intellect; the natural light of the intellect; and the devil who can speak to it through suggestion.":"-' While ~most people are willing to grant that .their own biases and preferences may suggest ideas to their minds, a goodly number may me~ely smile at the suggestion that the devil may be their origin. Even though this is not the place to adduce the ample biblical and magisterial evidences for diabolical reality and activity, it may be useful to point out that we do not pick and choose among, the data of divine revelation. Sound exegesis by all means. But nonetheless one accepts the whole Christ message or he shows that his criterion of acceptance or not is his own judgment rather than the divine word. After a review of biblical evidences, the Scripture scholar, Leopold Sabourin, concludes that "whoever reads"the New Testament with-out pr.econceptions or myth phobia should easily agree" that there is clear evidence of the existence of a personal hostile power and that this is an essential element in New Testament teaching. Sabourin also refers to e:,p. de Letter, New Catho'lic Encyclopedia, 12:446-447. .~oSee their works~ respectively Graces o[ Interior Prayer and Visions attd Prophecies. I also have touched on this point in "The Problematics of Discernment," Spiritual Li[e, Summer, 1974, pp. 135-147. .~lSt. John of the Cross, Ascent o] Mt Carmel, Bk 2, c. 29, #6; p. 205. .~-lbid., c. 29, :~ 11; p; 206. Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 Lyonnet's judgment regarding St. Paul's assertions on the devil: "To con-clude from these passages that Satan is for the Apostle a pure personifica-tion of the forces of evil would be to contradict as a whole the biblical and Pauline doctrine.''33 Our best theologians'write in the same vein. "The existence of angels," observes Karl Rahner, "cannot be disputed in view of the conciliar declarations (D 428, 1783). Consequently it will be firmly maintained that the existence of angels and demons is affirmed in Scripture and not merely assumed as a hypothesis which we could drop today.''34 If inner enlightenment may originate in other than divine sources, the question of discernment immediately arises. Can we know in a trustworthy manner the origin of our inner lights? Does the Spirit make Himself known? How do we detect Him? Whaf would be the signs of His activity as dis-tingnished from diabolical ,activity? Scripture, and especially the New Testa-ment, says so much about these questions that a mere article could not be adequate to report it all. Even less can a part of this article suffice. I may touch, however, only briefly on a number of considerations. Testing of the Spirits Jesus Himself leads the way to the later New Testament insistence that the spirits must be tested by the structural elements in the Chui'ch. The signal importance of this testing occurs, for example, in His prayer for Simon Peter. Significantly, this prayer centers on disturbances among the faithful caused by Satan. And the disturbances occur in the area of faith commit-ment. Jesus prays that after Peter's conversion he will strengthen his brothers and keep them firm despite satanic influences: "Simon, Simon! Remember that Satan has asked for you, to sift you all like wheat. But have prayed for you that your faith may n~ver fail. You in turn must strengthen your brothers" (Lk 22:31-32 NAB).3~ Jesus' prayer is always efficacious: what he prays for happens. Thus Peter's service in the Church is an effective faith service. While the devil does his best to disturb and dis-rupt, Peter tests him, unmasks him, overcomes him, protects the brothers and sisters in: their commitment to the Lord. It is obvious that Peter can confirm and strengthen in the faith only those who accept and listen to him. God forces no one. This is why St. Ignatius of Loyola, a leading figure in the history of discernment practice, considered the Successor of Peter the first tester of spirits and thus the last word on earth. This is why Ignatius (and other saints are of like mind) did not consider an important ~aLeopold Sabourin, "The Miracles of Jesus (II). Jesus and the Evil Powers," Biblical Theology Bulletin, June, 1974, p. 153. 34"Angels," Sacramentum Mundi, I : 32. aSSee Raymond E. Brownl Karl P. Donfried and John Reumann, editors, Peter in the New Testament, pp. 119-125. The Spirit Speaks." When and How? / 179 discernment process c.omplete until the Holy Father had approved the communal decision Ignatius and his companions had reached. St. Paul himself who received a direct commission from the risen Jesus nonetheless submitted his work to "the leading men" in Jerusalem to obtain their approval (Ga 2:2). Outer testing of the inner spirits is absolutely crucial if authentic enlight-enment is to be kept free of illuminist counterfeits and their bizarre conse-quences. o~Whatever else may be said about the illuminist, there is no doubt that no one can correct him. He is so sure of his privileged access to the mind of God that no other, not even Peter, can successfully point out to him that he is straying. Yet the very Spirit who speaks in our inner hearts has Himself established the outer structure to test the inner message. "Keep watch over yourselves," said Paul to the overseer-bishops of Ephesus, "and over the whole flock the Holy Spirit has given you to guard.' Shepherd the Church of God . . ." (Ac-20:28). The saints instinctively live this principle. St. Teresa of Avila, for example, a woman clearly led by the Spirit, strongly desired that, her works be examined and corrected and approved. Reaction Patterns It is interesting to observe the widely differing reactions people preseiat to the allegations that the Holy Spirit has spoken to someone or that He commonly enlightens from.within. We can speak of a reaction spectrum. At one end of it are those who ridicule the whole idea. They may be theists;~' but they just do not accept that God says anything particular to anyone. The objectivity of divine revelation is enough for them (though they may forget that the prophets and apostles had subjective experiences of God), .and so they look upon the charismatic renewal as a subjective enthusiasm. These people would probably pass up the present article because the title of-it indicates that the Holy Spirit does speak to men and women today. At the other end of the spectrum are those who readily believe that the Holy Spirit speaks. The~e people believe that ,He speaks often and that it is easy. to be in touch with Him. They tend to be uncritical and so are easily persuaded that their thoughts and desires and aspirations derive from God Himself. They would probably be attracted b3~ the title of this article but would tend to reject what I have said about the errors and illusions that abound in much of alleged "listening to God." Thus our subject is a touchy one. The Church's position lies somewhere in the midst of the two extremes of nothing or all. There are valid experi-ences of God and they are to be valued. He does enlighten those who are purified sufficiently to perceive His light. But there are also illusory experi-ences that are nothing more than unfounded persuasions. These can be found among people who are convinced that God is speaking to them, when as a matter of fact nothing of the sort is happening. Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 Practical Suggestions Supposing then that they are sons of God who are led by the Spirit of God (Rm 8:14), and yet that all things are to, be tested (1 Th 5:19-22), we may ask what this biblical position requires in everyday life. How does one tread the path of the golden mean between two extremes? 1 ) Hard-nosed evidence. While we should value the divine interven-tions in everyday life, we should not suppose them unless the biblical con-ditions are fulfilled. We do not presume, for example, that a proud or vain person is listening to the Spirit. Jesus has made it clear that the Father does not reveal His mysteries to the conceited but only to the little ones (Lk 10:21). A competent spiritual director looks for gospel holiness before he accepts that his client is "listening to the Spirit." This is why for centuries knowledgeable priests have discounted alleged divine phenomena in proud or disobedient people. Those who reject the outer word cannot be hearing the inner word. God does not contradict Himself. 2) No finite idea expresses God adequately and "thus we ought not to cling to it. One of the most valuable contributions offered by St. John of the Cross to this question of listening to God's voice can be missed even in a careful study of his work. It is that the most important element in most di-vine communications is not the clear idea, the detailed course of action to be followed. It is the love-penetrated touch of the divine in dark faith, a touch that itself communicates humility, love, prayer, strength, peace, joy. The most valuable gift God can communiqate to anyone is Himself, and He is no thing, no idea, no pattern of action. The Love Who is God is poured out0into our hearts by the Holy Spirit Who is given to us (Rm 5:5). Once we understand this we have gone a long way in understanding .John's severity in making so little of locutions and visions. The~saint recommends that the recipient of divine communications pay little attention to them, because if he gets attached to them, he feeds on them rather than on God.36 One likewise' begins to consider himself especially favored by God and,to look down on others who, in his opinion, do not enjoy this same enlighten-ing by the Spirit. The attachment can become a stubborn refusal to listen to anyone who may disagree because "I am listening to God." Clinging .to a finite communication, this person fails "to soar to the heights of dark faith.''3~ And in pilgrimage it is only in faith that we journey to the father-land (Heb 11"13-16). 3) Little attention is to be given to inner communications. I suspect that many people are surprised if not shocked at the attitude St. John of .~6The total renunciation demanded by Jesus is applicable here: "Unless a man re-nounce all he possesses he cannot be My disciple." (Lk 14".33) Even an idea about God is not God. '~rSt. John of the Cross, Ascent o] Mt Carmel, Bk 2, c. 18, #2; p. 160. The Spirit Speaks: When and How? / 181 the Cross takes toward inner enlightenments. He repeatedly advises the recipient to pay little attention, even no attention to them. The saint is so strong on this point that unless one is well acquainted with his whole teaching and life, he might conclude that John scarcely believed that God does communicate with the human person. Yet the saint, deeply believed in this .communication and in his own person enjoyed the very loftiest favors. Because his teaching is surprising to many of us, it may be well to offer here"a summation of it. We may first see two examples typical of the saint's statements of rejection, and then we will consider several reasons for the advice. Speaking of imaginative visions or "other supernatural communi-cations" received by the senses and independent of one's free will, John asserts 'q affirm that at whatever time or season (in the state of perfection or one less perfect) an individual must not desire to give them admittance, even though they.come from.God.''~s Later on in the same work as he discusses successive locutions the saint again says that "we should pay no heed to them, but be . . . content with knowing the mysteries and truths in~- the simplicity and verity~ with which the Church proposes them.'':''' This advice admittedly runs counter to what most of us. would expect. We would think that if God speaks,, we should pay attention, close atten-~ tion. We would consider a rejection of.the communication an insult to the speaker of it. Why is ~John (and other saints) of this mind? The first reason is the likelihood of illusion, deception. St. John o[ the Cross would surely agree that when God speaks, we listen carefully. This is precisely why the saint clings so tenaciously to Scripture and the teaching Church. Public revelation is sure and free from illusion and so is the teach-ing of the divinely commissioned Church, pillar of truth (l Tm 3:15). Private revelation is often not sure, that is, what is commonly thought to be revealed by God is not revealed at all. St. Paul was of this mind. He told the Galatians in no uncertain terms that even if .an.angel from heaven were to teach them something contrary to what they learned from human lips, they were to reject it (Ga 1:6-9). In other words, Paul was saying that such private "~revelation" was not revelation from God at all. When one pays much attention to "communications" he leaves the sure path of faith for the unsure path of "what 1 heard, what I received, what I see." History tells a 10ng and sad tale of the illusions that abound in this second path. Secondly, p,eop.le who are much concerned with God speaking within tend to neglect clear duties without. "On judgment day," says our Carmelite guide, "God will punish the faults and sins of many with whom He com-muned familiarly here below and to whom He imparted much light and 3Slbid., c. 17, #7; p. 158.- :~.~lbid., c. 29, -#:12; p. 207. Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 power. For they neglected their obligations and trusted in their converse with Him.''.'° John then illustrates his idea with. the words of Jesus, "When that day comes, many will plead with Me, 'Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in Your name? Have we not exorcised demons by its power? Did we not do many miracles in Your name as well?' Then I will declare to them solemnly, 'I never knew you. Out of my sight, you evildoers!' " (Mt 7:22~23). Doing the Father's will (Mt 7:21) is more important than receiving special .favors from God. St. Paul repeats this truth when he tells the Corinthians that their most marvelous charisms (including the gifts of healing, miracles, tongues) are of,no value without love (1 Co 13:1-3). The Carmelite explains how spiritual directors shouldguide people in faith, not in supposed special communications. These directors "should explain how one act done in charity is more precious in God's sight than all the visions and communications possible--since they imply n~ither m~rit nor demerit--and how many who have not received these experiences are in-comparably .more advanced than others who have had many.''~1 This last remark is both sobering and comforting. A third reason is a core reason. I have said above that the deepest value in a. divine communication does not lie in clear concepts or blueprints for future action. It lies in a deeper drinking of the divine, a drinking that is general, dark, non-ceptual, love-immersed. If a person pays much atten-tion to the clear words or ideas he has "heard" at prayer, he is absorbed in finite particulars rather than with the God who ,is infinitely beyond even the best concept. In pilgrimage we' journey to God best not in clear ideas but .in dark faith; Paying little attention to "communications" is wise, fourthly, because a subtle vanity easily seeps into persons preoccupied with "listening to the Spirit" in a self-conscious way. Like the pharisee in the parabl.e (Lk 18: 9-14) they may begin to consider themselves unlike the rest of men. Need-less to say, this attitude is not one conducive to growth in love.'~ Fifthly, giving attention to inner communications carries with it the need to discern their origin, whether they come from God, the' devil, or' one's own unrealized desires.":' While the work of discernment is. advisable for important matters, one can hardly seek out a spiritual, guide and/or engage in long prayerful study for routine everyday affairs. If one is an avid "listener to messages,", the alternatives are a preoccupation with analysis or ¯ ~Olbid., c. 22, #!5; p. 185. ~'lbid., c. 22, # 19; p. 187. ~ '~-°"They think something e~traordinary has occurred and that God his spoken, whereas in reality little more than nothing will have happened, or nothing at all, or even less than nothing. If an experience fails to engender humility, charity, mortification, holy simplicity, and silence, etc., of what value is it?" Ibid., c. 29, .#5; pp. 204-205; "albid., c. 17, #7; p. 158. ' The Spirit Speaks: When and How? an unfounded assumption that "it all comes from the Lord." Even a saint does not assume the latter. Finally, the recipient of an.authentic communication from God does not need to pay attention to it in order to derive its benefits. This many people do not realize. God produces the good effects of His communication with-out the recipient being able to prevent it. "A person," says John, "cannot hinder the goods God desires to impart, nor in fact does he do so, except by some imperfection or possessiveness.''44 By renouncing all divine communications° (and John includes visions, locutions, fragrances, pleasures, words) "a. person takes from these apprehensions only what God wants him*to take, that is, the spirit of devotion, since God gives them for no other principal reason.''4'~ The same is true of the lesser assisting enlightenment.4~ Paying little attention to inner enlightenments' is for all these reasons a sensible reaction that combines a vivid faith in the indwelling Trinity with a sober refusal to succumb to a credulous illuminism. These reasons also explain the remaining bits of practical advice. 4) Use of reason as a source ~of light. God expects us to use ordinary means~ to achieve ordinary ends. If I break a leg, he expects me to get it set by a doctor. I may pray for divine healing but not at the expense of refusing ordinary medical help. We should surely pray for divine enlightenment but not at the expense of refusing to study and consult. Where .human reason is sufficient to solve problems "usually God does not manifest such matters through visions, revelations, and locutions, because He is ever desirous that man insofar as possible take advantage of his own reasoning powers. All matters must be regulated by reason save those of faith, which though not contrary to reason transcend it.''47 This is a mystic with his feet on planet earth. 5) A divine Message needs human approval. This advice is shocking. It seems the reversal of the truth: a human message needs divine approval. A distinction is in order. When the divine message° is public, it needs no approval other than that~ required by Christ Himself. That is, it needs the acceptance of no merely human court. St. Paul explicitly declared that it made not the slightest difference to him whether any human tribunal found him worthy or not (1 Co 4:3). Yet the same apostle submits his divinely received commission from the risen Lord to the authorities in Jerusalem (Ga 2:2, 6, 10). All the more when a divine message is a private revelation must it be approved by due authority. 441bid. "t51bid., c, 17, #9; p. 159. 46"The profit produced by a successive locution will not be received from focusing one's attention on it. Through such behavior a person instead would be driving away the locution." Ibid., c. 29, #7; p. 205. ~ ~ 4"rlbid., c. 22, #13; p. 184. Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 The New Testament.consistently requires supposedly divine communi-cations to be submitted to the approval of the Lord's representatives. This we already find in the earliest,New Testament document. The gifts of the Spirit are not to be suppressed but they are to be tested (1 Th 5:1.9-22). They who want to hear Jesus must be prepared to hear~His representatives; otherwise they are rejecting Him (Lk 10:16; Jn 13:20). The heretics at the close of the first century are known to be false prophets because they refuse to listen to the leaders of the ekklesia ( 1 Jn 4: 1, 6). St. John of the Cross, therefore, is asking no more than the New Testa-ment when he teaches that one ought not to do what a locution tells him un-less he receives a human approval. The saint does not tire of insisting on this biblical point: "We must be guided humanly and visibly in all by the law of Christ the man and that of His Church and of His ministers. This is the method .of remedying our spiritual ignorances and weaknesses. One should disbelieve anything coming in a supernatural way, and believe only the teaching of Christ, the man,~as I say, and of His ministers who are men . (In the Old Testament) the people were to believe that God spoke to them through the mouth of these prophets and priests and not through their own opinion.'''s John supports his teaching from St. Paul who demanded that the Galatians set aside whatever they think an angel from heaven might say in favor of what human teachers have taught (Ga 1:6-9). In tile. work of spiritual direction I consistently find that persons who give every sign of genuine prayer development and authentic holiness in-stinctively follow this practice, The Holy Spirit gives them the inner in-clination, even a felt need to submit the apparently divine communication to a priest in whom they can confide.4'~ This inclination may be taken as a sign of a genuine communication from God, whereas its absence suggests otherwise?° This advice is, of course, consistent with all else we h~ve studied above. Christ did not establish an angelism, an invisible Church. He takes our "bodyliness". seriously. He operates now both immediately through His Holy Spirit working invisibly and mediately through His human representatives ¯ ~Slbid., c. 22, #7, 8; pp. 181-182. ~.'~"God is so content that the rule and direction of man be ihrough other men, and that a person be governed by natural reason, that He definitely does not want us to bestow entire credence upon His supernatural communications, nor be confirmed in their strength and security until they pass through this human channel of the mouth of man. As often as He reveals something to a person, He confers upon his soul a kind of inclination to manifest this to the appropriate person." Ibid., c. 22, #9; p. 1.82. .~0The saint connects this'trait with humility: "This is the trait of a humble person: he does not dare deal with God independently, nor can he be completely~ satisfied without human counsel and direction." Ibid., c. 22, :~11; p. 183. The Spirit Speaks: When and How? / 1:85 worki.ng visibly. So great is the likelihood of illusion and misinterpretation in the subjective realm that an objective evaluation is indispensable. What should be done when a competent guide is not available we consider next. 6) Competent spiritual direction. A qualified and experienced guide when faced with alleged divine communications sees them, of course, in their context. He considers the recipient's lifestyle, whether it is character-ized by love, joy, humility, detachment, obedience. The Father and the Son do not reveal themselves to the unloving and the proud (Jn 14:21; Lk 10:21). St. Paul told the Galatians that what the Spirit brings to His own is not self-indulgence or temper or fa~ctions or impurity but rather love, joy, peace, patience, gentleness, self-control (Ga 5: 19-22). I find repeatedly in spiritual direction that a deep prayer life, a genuine communion with God indwelling, is invariably.accompanied by these New Testament criteria. The spiritual director usually does well not to make much of the com-munication reported to him (although he belittles neither the person nor the report). If the communication is from God, its chief good effects are already achieved. If it is not from God, the less attention paid to it the better. Religious still complain, as did St. Teresa of Avila four centuries ago, of the lack of knowledgeable spiritual directors. What should one do if he cannot find a competent guide? It is my opinion that in the area of advanc-ing prayer as also in this matter of alleged communications, no direction is preferable to probably incompetent direction. A great deal of damage can be done by well-intentioned but faulty guidance. St. John of the Cross seems to have been of the same mind. After advising that formal locutions should be manifested to "an experienced confessor or to a discreet and wise person," he adds that "if such an expert person cannot be found, it is better not to speak of these locutions to anyone, but simply pay no attention to them, for a soul can easily fall into the hands of some persons who will tear it down rather than build it up. Souls should not.discuss these locutions with just anyone, since in so serious a matter being right or wrong is of such importance.TM 7) Growth in ]aith. A pilgrimage people travels not by vison but by faith (Heb 11:13-16; 1 Co 13:12). Toward the beginning of this article we considered that when God deals with private persons (as distinguished from the publicly commissioned heralds of His revelation), He usually com-municates with them in the general know!edge of dark faith. Even when He may offer a specific message, He wants it confirmed by the appropriate human authority. The proximate means by which we are united to God is nothing finite and created. It is the adherence to God Himself revealed in His Word. The 51Ibid., c. 30, :~5; p. 209. 186 / Review lor Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 stronger this clinging to Him, the more readily He communicates with the one clinging?-~ For St. Paul only the converted, the holy can detect the mind of God and know His perfect will (Rm 12:2). The more one is transformed by faith andlove the more God can pour out' additional light and love into his heart and mind. In this way we are transformed from one glory to an-other by the indwelling Spirit (2 Co 3:18). r"-"'The Holy Spirit illumines the intellect that is recollected," says John, "and He illumines it according to the mode of its recollection, and the intellect can find no better recollectt0n than in faith, and thus the Ho.ly Spirit wili not illumine it in any othei" recollection more than'in faith. The purer and more refined a soul is in faith, the more infused charity it possesses, and the more charity it has the more the Holy Spirit illumine it and communicates His gifts."lbid., c. 29, #6; p. 205. To A Benedictine Were you a dawn-rising monk in a black-robed hood Meditating in a Kansas winter wood? As you shuffled to chapel in bare, black sandals Lighting beeswax tapered candles-- Did you gaze into Christ's~bleeding eyes On His altar crucifix? And soul-long as all souls long for an unearthly Paradise As your hand touched His candlesticks? Later in your journeys all around the U.S.A.-- Did you study, thought-penetrate all people's problemed way? Did you want to reach the people when the people turned away? Did you find it very difficult sometimes to even pray? For God is ~never lost or ever far away . " But sometimes our paths seem hid and crossed, With clouds hiding tomorrowt darkening our future's way. Yet we know Redempti,on's garment must be woven By our own hands this very day, woven in Christ's design and way. Christ has a certain design, one that's yours, one that's mine, With His holy gift of time, He'll teach us to weave His way. If we don't forget to love Him, listen to what,His voice will say, He'll lift us up, overflow our cup. We'll find a brighter day. Mary Ann Putman 4422~.42nd Ave., S. West Seattle, WA 98116 Reflections on Our Congregation Sister Cecilia Murphy~ R.S.M. Sister Cecilia is Director General of the Sisters of Mercy in Pittsburgh. On the oc-casion of last All Souls~ Day, she reflected with her sisters on the "'many saints of our Congregation" and on the meaning of the Congregation itself. She resides at 3333 Fifth Ave.; Pittsburgh, PA 15213. We as a Congregation have some penetrating questions to answer. Among these questions are: What are we as a religious Congregation? What are we to each other? What is-our Congregational apostolic presence? What witness do we give as Sisters of Mercy? Does our life style reflect that of Christians who believe in the beatitudes and who strive, to live lives of ~simplicity? Do we feel the cost of being consecrated to God or do we dilute the suffering in our lives by compromises? Are ,we joyful people who live other-centered lives? Do we wish to grow and attracL new members? My most vital concerns about the Cqngregation center around questions like these. We must answer these questions as individuals and as a Congrega-tion. No General Director, no Council, no Policy,.Board can answer these questions. Each of us must assume the responsibility ,, to answer these ques-tions. ~ Our Decrees acknowledge the primacy of interior renewal. Are we really attentive to interior renewal? Our focus on external renewal is evident. Our external appearance,, our life style, our behavior patterns have changed greatly since 1966. What has happened to us interiorly? During the past nine years, many of us have suffered intensely from change. Through this suffering we have grown individually and as a Congregation. But, we now need to focus on some aspects~of our lives which need attention from each one of us. Personal prayer, without question, is an absolute necessity for each Sister. Never in our history .has the need for personal prayer been greater, 187 Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 and never have our distractions from prayer been greater. Prayer, as we all know, is not an obligation that we clock of[ at one-half hour periods; it is a way of life; it is a giving of ourselves to the Lord day by day despite the noises of our work and our relaxations. Why did we come to religious life? We must constantly seek to answer this question--not for some other Sister, but for ourselves. Do we as a Congregation witness to the value of prayer in our lives? Do people sense in me, an individual Sister of Mercy, that prayer is a priority? Do I ever take time for a day of retreat? Con-sidering the challenges to our life and to our spirit, these are not questions we can afford to ignore. These are questions that each of us must answer. I am firmly convinced that if we as a Congregation renew ourselves in-teriorly and face the question of personal prayer, we will not be predicting a rate of growth of one new member each year. We must be renewed in our commitment to personal prayer. Prayer presupposes some time for quiet. We live in a noisy world of TV, chatter, and many other noises, but we must remember that we need time and space for prayer. External stillness can help dispose us to God. This quiet cannot be imposed, but I ask eacfi Sister to contribute to a spirit of quiet and calm in her living situation. Thr6ugh this we can better stand before God, be ready for His word, and become more attuned to Him, more in touch with ourselves, our strengths, weaknesses, and potentialities. While we must pray alone, we must also pray together. Communal prayer t~or many Sisters is a source of concern and a disappointment. That in itself is a hopeful sign. I feel that there is a growing concern within us as a Congregation that we want and need to pray together: No one form of prayer will satisfy every Sister at all times~ But we have a right to expect communal prayer from each other. Each group of Sisters living together must continue to'be concerned and to make serious'efforts to pray together. It has been frequently said that communal prayer cannot be a forced situation, in which those who seldom communicate meet to*recite the same words. Prayer requires some union of mind and heart among its partici-pants. Thus, the need for rehewal in prayer touches on vital questions of community, of what we are to each other. By membership in the Congregation we share a bond of religious dedi-cation and a commitment to common ideals~ Sisters of our Congregation should be "special" to us even though we may not share their life Style or dress. We MUST be kind to one another. We cannot destroy each other. We must begin to 'realize that our conversations, our attitudes of hopeful-ness and joy or of complaint and negativism can cause 6thers to be strength-ened and rejoice in their vocations or to lose heart 'and wonder what re-ligious life has done for us. Our attitudes are conveyed in subtle 'ways; our words also tell others how we feel about them and what our values are. We must, if we'are to survive or deserve to survive as a Congregation, take careful account of our attitudes toward each other and toward the Congre~- Reflections on.Our Congregation / 189 gation. Catherine McAuley gave us a legacy of union and charity.Thus, we cannot spend our waking hours, our phone and table conversations gather-ing information ,about other Sisters, judging each other, and using leisure time in pettiness. There is NO time for this. We have;been called to be apostles, to spread, the "good news," to be "good news" to others. None of us, regardless of age or occupation, is exempt from this responsibility. Each of us needs to ask herself: Am I good news to others? Do Sisters consider me a strengthening factor in Congregational life? None of us has a perfect record in this regard. But let us begin again. Let us try to be more aware of our words and attitudes, more supportive of each other, not just as we do so well in times of death and sickness, but every day. Let us likewise reflect upon our attitudes to others outside the Congregation. Are we prejudiced? Are we concerned about others who lack the necessities of life? Are our values really Christian? Living religious life is not easy. It costs a great price. In the New Testa-ment we learn from Christ the cost of discipleship. He was hated, con-fronted, and crucified. He was, for all human purposes, the greatest failure the world has ever known. He did not come to bring us suffering but to teach us how to live with it. To His~ disciples He said: "Take up your cross and follow me". "Unless the seed die, it remains alone". "Un-less you deny yourself . . . " Christ did not igreach an easy message. He did not call His disciples to a life of comfort and security. He said: "The Son of Man has nowhere to lay His head". "the servant is not greater than his Master." It is never easy to be a disciple. It we are comfortable, satisfied and complacent, we have great cause for concern about our Con-gregation. No one who tried to fulfill the will of God did so with comfort and satisfaction. I see in our Congregation some need for each of us to reflect on the meaning of the cost of discipleship. Have I personally lost sight of who I am called to be? Have I compromised and rationalized so that I can have the best of two worlds? I cannot look at another Sister and judge what she has done. I must look at myself. When the Church abrogated the Lenten fast, she intended that we impose new personal penance upon our-selves. Do we do this? The human condition has not changed, nor has our need for self-denial. Each of us is, a sinner and the more we know of God, the more we know how sinful we are. None of us is perfect nor can we forget that we need to make conscious responses in self-denial. Catherine McAuley founded her Congregation on Calvary to serve a crucified Master. Each of us has a share in that mission by our member-ship in this Congregation. Catherine McAuley held ideals of service like: "God knows I would rather be cold and hungry than that His poor should be deprived of any consolation in our power to afford." Is this a reality in my life? Am I willing to be hungry, even occasionally, that others may eat? These are the kinds of questions we must face if we are to be true to the 190 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 spirit of Catherine McAuley. We need God desperately and we need each other desperately. We need to 'be willing to experience conversion personally and as a Congrega-tion. We must be willing to pay the price for this conversion. ~ We can and must be a tremendous potential for good in the Church and the world. We can and we must witness to each other and the world that material goods are NOT the source of our joy nor the values on which we spend our "energies. We need to reflect simplicity--not in a judgmental or self-righteous way but in a spirit of who we are called to be. We can~and we need to reflect a joy'that comes from living with Sisters of joy who belong to God and who are free to be faithful in celibate love. We must focus on what we are to each other in community, We must share not only our goods but ourselves. If we have any struggles today and. are to attract new members to our Congregation, I am convinced we must experience interior renewal and unity of purpose. We know that God is faithful and that He will help us in this. Let us unite together as a Congregation, renewed in our purpose to pursue conversion. May God grant each of us light, strength, patience, and courage so that individually and corporately we will be strengthened to spread the good news, to further God's Kingdom, to be vital Sisters of Mercy. A More Authentic Poverty Horacio de la Costa, S.J. At the time of the 32nd General Congregation of the Society of Jesus, Ft. de la Costa was one of~the four General Assistants to Fr. Arrupe. Subsequent to the Con-gregation, he was able to return to his beloved historical studies and writing, center-ing on the history of the Church in the Philippines. He resides at Xavier House; P.O. Box 2722; Manila 2801; Philippines. A consideration of the D~cree on Poverty of the 32nd. General Congrega-tion of the Society of Jesus must begin with a word about its background. The General Congregation immediately preceding, the 31st, decided that Jesuit legislation on poverty should be brought into conformity with the dispositions of. Vatican II, but at the same time perceived that this would be better done not by itself but by experts reflecting on the matter over a period of time. It therefore elected what are called definitores to draw up Statutes on Poverty which would become Society law, on the authority of the General Congregation itself, upon approval of the. Superior General. In 1967¢ Father General Arrupe approved these Statutes. The 31st General Congregation had provided, further, that the 'Statutes thus adopted be submitted for review to the next General Congregation. Ac-cordingly, Father General Arrupe, having decided after the Congregation of Procurators of 1970 to convene the 32nd General Congregation, ap-pointed a study commission to go over the Statutes and ~:ecommend possi-ble improvements. Some of the delinitores sat in this commission also. Most of its members were moral theologians, jurists, or administrators. Some months before the Congregation convened, Father General expanded the *This article is :being published simultaneously in the current issue of Jesuit Studies (The American Assistancy Seminar in Jesuit Spirituality) entitled: "On Becoming Poor: A Symposium on Evangelical Poverty." 191 Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 membership of tffe commission to include experts from other disciplines and areas of experience. The 32nd General Congregation constituted from among its member-ship its own Commission on Poverty: Commission III. Some of the mem-bers of the pre-Congregation commission, being also congregati, were elected to Commission Ili. Very broadly speaking, it can be said that for the jurid-ical aspects of the' present Decree, the Congregation relied chiefly on the work of the pre-Congregation commission; for its pastoral aspects, on its own Commission III. The Decree itself is divided into three sections. Section A is a declara-tion of what Jesuit poverty should be today in the light of prevailing con-ditions in the Church and in the world. This declaration sets forth the as-cetical and pastoral principles on which is based the dispositive part of the Decree, Sections B-F. Section B, "Norms," gives the prescriptive guidelines for a revision of the Statutes on Poverty, to be undertaken by a commis-sion appointed by Father General, who is to approve and promulgate the revised Statutes. Sections C-F are supplementary provisions concerning certain aspects of the new juridical structure which is being given to the Jesuit practice of poverty. A prinCipal objective which the pre-Congregation commission set for itself was to simplify Jesuit legislation on poverty. It was observed that over the years numerous alterations had been introduced into the primitive legis-lation of the Ignatian Constitutions, usually by obtaining an indult, that is, an exception to the law, from the Holy See; for instance, the indult whereby Jesuits are enabled to accept Mass stipends. Another~ kind- of deviation from the primitive legislation was that of certain accepted anomalies; for :instance, houses of writers.: A house of writers is not, strictly speaking, a "college" in the sense of the Constitu-tions. It is not a house of formation, the only Jesuit institution to which St. Ignatius allowed fixed revenues. Later, however, houses of writers were also permitted fixed revenues, on the grounds that they cannot otherwise carry on their valuable apostolate, since the kind of books Jesuits write are very seldom best-sellers. Similarly, there was no provision in the primitive legislation for the care of the sick and the aged. These were therefore assigned to the same juridical category as the Jesuit seminarians ("scholastics") supported by the colleges. In effect, those retired from the active apostolate were equated with those who had ~not yet begun it, and the arca seminarii, or formation fund, did double-duty as a social-security fund. . There were also accepted ambiguities which amounted to legal fictions. For instance, missionary priests in the Spanish colonies--at least up to the time the Jesuits were expelled therefrom (1767)--received fixed yearly stipends from the government. In the Philippines, this stipend was 100 silver pesos and 100 [anegas (bushels) of rice a year. This was by no means A More Authentic Poverty / 193 a pittance. A silver peso in those days was really made of silver, and its purchasing power was probably a hundred times that of the present metal-alloy peso. At any rate, each missionary priest was able to support with his stipend a missionary ~brother,~and still have something left over toward building a parish church and a parish, house. Now then: this stipend can, with a little stretching of meaning, be called an alms. But the government, and almost everybody else, considered it a salary--so.mething which the Constitutions did not allow for, especially with reference to spiritual min, istries, the normative maxim for which was. to "give freely what you have freely received." A more recent example of ~this ambiguity is the~ salary received by military and hospital chaplains. Military and hospital chaplaincies are certainly valuable, even necessary apostolates, But in many countries of the world, 'the civil law does not allow anyone to become a military or hos-pital chaplain unless he accepts a salary. It does not allow him to give freely what he has freely received. Finally, there was what looked like downright violations of th~ law to those Who ttid not understand or appreciate the need from which they arose. How, ,for instance, was the glorious Japanese mission of the Old SoCiety, founded, by Xavier himself and so fruitful in martyrs, supported?~:Why, by the fantastically .lucrative Macao,Nagasaki silk trade. ,.Portuguese inv~estors in the trade would invest sums for, or on behalf of, the Jesuit Provin(~'of Japan, and the profits from these investments were. what supported' the Province's catechumena~es, houses of formation, mission station~, printing press. Were they alms? Were they fixed revenues? Or were they negotiatio vetita, commerce forbidden to clerics? All these complexities seemed to arise from the fact that thoroughly ~alid and even absolutely essential apostolates could not be undertaken or main-tained without such departures from the primitive legislation. And 'the reason for this was the difference in economic, social, and juridical struc-tures between the modern world, the world that emerged from the Indus-trial Revolution, and the late-medieval world, the world of St. Ignatius. There are all-pervading socioeconomic realities we must take into account today which St. Ignatius and his first companions almost certainly did not foresee. Here are some of them. In many parts of the world, Western and non-Western, capitalist and socialist, there is a decline in the witness value of mendicancy. Living on aims is rarely if at all considered an effective witness to iapostolic fi'eedom and trust in divine Providence, Accompanying this decline is a correspond-ing appreciation of the ethical and social value of work, and of wh.a.t are generally considered to be the natural adjuncts of working for a living, such as the provident setting aside of savings for the future, and the invest-ment of such savings in economic enterprises that generate income. Another difference to be noted between St. Ignatius' time and ours is 194 / Review lor Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 the decline in the modern world of the temporal power .and wealth of the Church,-and the dissolution of medieval forms of union of Church and State. It is no longer possible,for large-scale apostolic enterprises to be financed by endowments granted by pope or prince, by cardinal or'con-quistador. How are large-scale apostolic, :enterprises financed today? Mostly by smal! private donations derived chiefly from the middle class: the people; neither rich nor poor, who enable o religious institutes to train,their seminarians and establish foreign missions. It is a fact, to be acknowledged with gratitude, that in the world as it now is we, depend almost entirely on the bourgeoisie for the financial viability of our apostolic enterprises. On the other hand, we r~eligious are called to live not precisely as bourgeois but as poor men and women. How do we do this, in the world as it now is? How do we set up a structure~for our poverty that will be simple enough and practical enough to enable us to carry on our ministries effectively, and yet live poor? ~ ~ The pre-Congregation commission on poverty mentioned earlier pro-posed that one way of doing this was to accept the basic distinction be-tween communities and apostolic institutes, .a distinction already Sketched out by the definitores of the Statuta of 1967. The 32nd General Congrega-tion ac6epted the :distinction, along with the juridical implications spelled out by'the commission.1 In fact, the Congregation made that distinction the "keystone" of its "reform of the structure of temporal administration.":-' There are, of course, preblems raised by this revision of structure, or foreseen as'following upon it. That is why the Holy Father directs that the Decree be put into practice ad experimentum, so that the. next General Congregation "can re-examine the entire question on the basis of the .experi-ence acquired in the years to come.''3 But ~where the religious life is.con-cerned, juridical structure is usually consequent on a spiritual discernment. In the present case, that discernment is set forth in the expository portion of the Decree (Section A), to which we now turn. The 32nd General. Congregation confirms the findings °of its predecessor on the basis of a review of the Societyrs experience during the decade inter-t" By the law of ~the Society there is to be established a distinction between com-munities and apostolic institutes, at least with regard to the destinatibn and usu-fruct of 'their goods and between the financial accounts of each."--Decree of Poverty B III 1. Apostolic institutes are defined as "those institutions or works .belonging to the Society which~ have a certain permanent unity and organization for apostolic pu,rposes, such as universities, colleges, retreat houses, and other such in which Ours cai'ry on their apostqlic work."--ibid. B I 2. "Th~ goods of apostolic institutes of the Society may not be diverted to the use or profit of Ours except for a suitabl~ remuneration, to be approved by the Provincial, for work in such institutes or for services rendered to the same."--ibid: B IV. ~-lbid. A IV I 1. '~Jean Cardinal Villot to Father General Arrupe, 2 May 1975, n. 5. A More Authenti¢ Poverty / 195 v~ening between them. These findings are chiefly three. First, that our pres-ent pra~ctice of evangelical poverty, falls short of. the norms .established by St. Ignatius and the first companions, and hence, that we must resolutely and perseveringly undertake a renewal of the spirit of poverty according to the specifically Ignatian inspiration. Second, that while we must~ by all means keep the primal norms of~.our poverty intact as far as their substantive de-mands are concerned, we must also adapt them to,the socioeconomic and juridical conditions of our time, very different from those of the time when St. Ignatius and the first companions established them. In other Words, our renewal of the spirit of poverty must be accompanied by a certain adaptation of structures and procedures; it must be a renovatio accoramodata. Third, that in the matter Qf poverty, as in other matters, ,spirit and structure are intimately interdependent; that while the spirit of poverty needs a structure to support it, safeguard it, and make it operative, the structure wilPnot work, will become dead-weight and dead-letter, unless those involved in the structure are imbued with the spirit of poverty and are resolved to make the structure work. The determination of the surplus income of 'a community might serve to illustrate this third finding, namely, the interdependence of spirit~and structure. The surplus income of a Jesuit community cannot be retained. It must be disposed of annually.4, By surplus income iS o meant what is over and-above the expenses and the contingency fund. provided for in the annual budget of the communit~y as determined by its "responsible administrator" with the appr.ovai of the provincial superior.~ The norm for estimating the annual budget is a community style of.life "removed .as far as possible from all infection of avarice and as like as possible to evan-gelical poverty.''6 Ultimately, therefore, this whole rrgime of placing the community on a budget and disposing of annual surpluses will depend on the style of life adopted by the community. It will depend oi~ how seriously the community tries to live up to the norm set by the Congregation, namely, that "the standard of living of our houses should not.be higher than that of a family of slender means whose providers must ,work. hard for its support.''r In a word, it will depend on how much alive the spirit of poverty is among us. For, as the Congregation. says; "While law can support spirit, no legal re-form will profit anything unless all, .our members elect evangelical poverty with courage at the invitation of .the Eternal King, Christ our Lord.,8 , 4Decree on Poverty B VII 1. 51bid. B VI. ~Ibid. B VII 1. rlbid. A llI 7. 8Ibid. A V 13. 196 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 The norm for our standard of living just ~ited may in ~turn serve to illus-trate the second 'of the findings mentioned above, namely, the need for adaptation. It is stated that our standard of living can be lower, but not higher than that of "a family of slender means." Yes; but what are "slender means"? What does "slender" mean? One particularization of the term follows immediately: a family of slender means is one whose providers must work hard for its support. This would seem to exclude unearned in-come, that is, income from'invested funds, at least as a principal source of support for our communities. It would seem to imply that our communities should derive their day-to-day support from the earnings of the day-to-day work of their members. Here is one example of the adaptation to the changed conditions of the times noted earlier. The Congregation itself calls attention to it: "For cen-turies, the perfection of religious poverty was found in mendicancy . He was .counted poor who lived on alms, placing all his hopes in the provi-dence of God operative through benefactors. With growing clarity the Church invites religious to submit to the common law .of labor. 'Earning your own living and that of your brothers and sisters, helping the poor by your work--these are the duties incumbent upon you.' '''~ This may possibly explain why the Congregation does not have'recourse to the gauges or measuring rods of religious poverty devised in times past. Such ~as, that religious poverty is a poverty of dependence~. dependence, in the first instance, on the superior, but through him, dependence on the providence of God "operative through benefactors,'--that is, dependence on alms. The emphasis today is not on alms but on work. Or again, that our poverty should be assimilated to that of honesti sacerdotes, reputable secular priests; for while the reputable secular priests of former times did live very slenderly, they were nevertheless supported by "livings,~' that ig, stable revenue derived chiefly from landed property. However, it must not be thought that the Congregation excluded mendi-cancy-~ dependence on alms for support--altogether. Neither did it sup-pose that religious who live on alms do not work. We should give it credit for a certain measure of realism. It is a fact that many of our, hardest work-ers are dependent~ on alms for their support; for instance, missionaries. It is also a fact that in certain regions of the world today, for instance, in those countries behind the Iron Curtain where the Church is permitted tO exist~ Jesuits can live and work only i~ supported by free-will offerings. And it is equally a fact that even in those regions of the world where the right of the Church to exist is recognized, much of the work we have to do as ministers of the Gospel does not have a financial remuneration attached to it. Thus, while we should by all means adapt ourselves to the work-ethic of our time, we should guard against pressing too closely the work-income ~'lbid. A II 4, citing Vat. II, PC n. 13, ET n. 20. A More Authentic Poverty / '197 nexus. It is my impression~ that the Congregation was fully .aware of the dangers of doing so; fully aware that it could introduce among us what usually accompanies the work ethic, namely the market orientation. It is not too far-fetched to foresee an evolution of attitude after this fashion: One begins by looking around for compensated.work in order to be able to contribute to the support of .one's community. One goes on to. prefer compensated to non-compensated work, the apostolic value of the Works being roughly ~equal. A gradual, perhaps a very gradual, an almost imper-ceptible reversal of values then takes place, whereby the value of apostolicity becomes Jsecondary to the value of marketability. Such a process might even end up with an alternative version of Surplus Value, namely, that wages represent an apostolic "surplus" over and above the apostolic value of the work itself, and hence that the better compensated work is the more apostolic work. Besides vitally affecting our choice of ministries, a too rigid interpreta-tion of the duty of ~"earning your.own' living and that of your brothers and sisters" could introduce in the Society--int~ormally, to be sure, but palpably another system of grades, one based not on presbyteral function but on earning capacity. Those engaged in gainful employment and thus con-tribute to the,support of the community would, for all practical purposes, be the professed; those not thus engaged, and hence are supported by the community, °would be the coadjutors. Such a stratification would tend to bring our c"0mmunity life down to a purelyhuman level, and may well have disastrous consequences: assumption of privilege by the ~gainful workers, frustration and resentment on the part of the "unprofitabl~ servants." Are these purely conjectural hypotheses, or do we perceive them even now, in certain parts of the Society, as a~ cloud no bigger than a man's hand? At any rate, we have from the'Congregation a reminder that the adoption of the work ethic--as, indeed, the adoption of any valid principle of action--involves risk. "The frequent engagement of Ours in professions and salaried offices it not without dangers, not only for the spirit of gratu-ity, but even, for the observance of common life itself. SuCh work is to be chosen only as a more effective means to the communication of faith, with-out thought of remuneration or of the privileges attached'to an office.''1° But to get back to the slender-means norm. Besides the fact that it.is means acquired by work, present hard work, rather than a stable income from invested funds, what other nuances can give it sharper definition? Perhaps this, that it should be a deliberate renunciatibn of consumerism, of "the appetite for enjoyment and consumptign of material goods" which, as the Congregation points out, "spreads everywhere and verges on a prac-tical atheism.''11 At least that. "At the very least, religious poverty should lOlbid. A III 8. 111bid. A II 3. 198 / Review ]or Religious,~ Volume 35, 1976/2 try hard to limit rather than:, to expand consumption,!~ :says. the Congrega-tion. 1-° ,.~ Another. nuance of the :slender,means norm is that our style Of life should be pitched at a level which enables and encourages us not only to work for t.h.e, poor but with ithe poor. In order to do that~ we need to i"acquire some experience of their condition;" and even of their "miseries and distress." This, the Congregation says, is a necessary consequence of the basic option we have made regarding our apostolate today, namely, "comniitment to the cause of justice and to the service of the poor.''13 It is with this nuance that the Congregation repeats ,St, 'Ignatius' injunction "to love poverty as a mother and, within the measure of holy discretion, experience some of its effects as occasions arise. Here, then, are some of the specifications that might make the slender-means norm of our voluntary poverty less abstract, more applicable to real, life .situations: Our style of life should be that of the worker rather than the rentier;.it should put out: of our reach the open-ended self-indulgence of . the consumer society; it should afford us some~direct experience of what the involuntarily poor of today have to put up with, so that we can the more realistically and effectively help them to help themselves. I must con-fess, however, that even so, for me personally, the slender-means norm remains somewhat 'fuzzy around the edges. And I think I see:the reason why in ~a statement in obliquo of the Congregation itself. It expresses regret that we have no other word.to designate the poverty of ~the.~)religous life except the word "poverty." This is regrettable ~because "poverty means very different things to different people.''.~ Indeed it does. Not only that; different people (and therefore different Jesuits) can hold their different views of poverty honestly and sincerely, without hy-pocrisy or cynicism. Further: the reasons why they hold these different views are not always myths but often realities. Thus, a Jesuit style of life really and truly considered poor in Australia or West Germany may well be considered really and truly :affluent in Ecuador or Indonesia; not neces-sarily because Ecuadorian and Indonesian Jesuits are religious of strict ob: servance, while Australian. and West-German Jesuits are religious ~ of lax observance; but simply because of~ the .difference between "a family of slen-der means" in the developed world and the corresponding family in the underdeveloped world. ~ Consider, too, the fact, or at least the possibility, that the type of apos-tolate to which a Jesuit is sent has, perhaps should have, an influence on his style of life; an influence that leads, perhaps inevitably, to a difference ~Z.lbid. A III 7. ~. ~'~lbid. A II 5, A III 10. ~Const. [287]. ~SDecree on Poverty A I11 7. A More Authentic Poverty / 19,9 in standard of living. Thus~ it might be asked whether the:style of life of Jesuits teaching in the Gregorian University~ in Rome should be, or can be exactly that of Jesuits working among the marginados in Venezuela. The classical.: precedents invoked by those who favor a difference are will known. Among ~he missionaries of the Old Society in India, was there not a sign~ificant difference in style of life between those who worked among the brahmins and those who Worked-among the pariahs? And what about the drastic change in style of life adopted by Xavier in Japan, when .he learned that the Japanese paid scant attention to mendicants but might possibly give a hearing to an hidalgo? Equally-familiar are the precedents brought forward by those opposed to recognizing such differences. Ignatius' instructions to Lainez and Salmer6n, papal theologians at the Council of Tre~nt, that they should not follow th.e life style of the Council Fathers, but should work in ,hosEitals as orderlies, preach in city squares without a Stipend, and beg their meals fromo, door. to. door. The example of Ignatius, himself, when, he returned to Loyola from Paris: refusing to stay in?.the ancestral castle with his brother, he chose to dodge in the town infirmary, considering it a better platform from which to. persuade his fellow citizens to the service of faith and~ the promotion of justice. There is, then, an ambiguity--a necessary ambiguity, as ,iLseems--in the general norms proposed .by the Congregation; and the Congregation. admits it. Not only does it recognize that poverty can mean different things. to different people, but in ;recommending "the insertion of communities among the poor" as '.'a testimony of love of the poor and of poverty to which the Church encourages religious," it calls attention to the fact that "implehae.ntation of this proposal will have to be different in our widely. diff,ering circumstances.''I~ What it is saying, in effect, is that the slender-means~ norm can mea.n different things to different communities., o Thp practical conclusign that follows from this is that it is up t'o the discernment of local and provincial_ communities to ensure that, taking into account differences in socio-economic context and apostolic commit-ment, our poverty is, and is .seen to be, the poverty of Christ. It is to the same practical conclusion that the Congregation comes in the other major areas of our life and apostolate.17.The crucial role which the Congregation assigns to discernment, personal, and communitarian, in the process of translating its decrees from paper to practice,~, clearly appears in that it recognizes discernment as an, ingredient of Jesuit identity,18 _.and giyes,~ex~, t.ended treatment to it as a feature of our community life.1:' ~ This brings us to what was mentioned earlier, as the first of the~ findings ~lbid. AIlI 10. ~TGC 32, "Our Mission Today," n. 71; "The Formation of Jesuits," n. 22. lsGC 32, "Jesuits Today," n. 19. ~ ~:~GC 32, "Union of Minds and Hearts," nn. 21-24. ~ 200 / Review 1or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 of the Congregation on Jesuit poverty, namely, the need for a renewal of the spirit of our poverty as conceived by St. Ignatius. A first observation and an Obvious one is that we h~ave vowed ourselves as religious to evangelical poverty, that is, the poverty proposed by the Gos-pel as a counsel of perfection~ and adopted by Christ~ himself. Hence, a first distinction, equally obvious, must be made between our voluntary poverty and the involuntary poverty that afflicts so large a portion of the human race. This inhuman and dehumanizing poverty, frequently imposed by in-justice, is an evil. It cannot be the object of a vow. It is not the poverty we embrace, it is the poverty, we must fight. Religous poverty is evangelical, not necessarily sociological. Not necessarily; which leads to a second observation. All religious in-stitutes are followings of Christ, but each religious institute follow~ Christ in its own way, according to the charism of its founder. Of St. Ignatius it may be said that his way of following Christ is pre-eminently the way of service, of apostolic service. We belong to a Society which~"'is founded for this purpose above all . the defense and propagation of the faith" :and any kind of ministry whatgoever that shall be "for the glory of God and the common good.''~° Our poverty, then, as everything about us, is-~or is meant to be apostolic. We embrace poverty not for its own sake, as another religious institute well might, but in function of the apostolate. St. Ignatius' phrase praedicare in paupertate--to preach in poverty--must, I think, be ~understood in this sense. We are to be poor that we may all the more effectively preach. The images in which St. Ignatius embodies his notion bf poverty seem to suggest as much. For Francis of Assisi, poverty is the Lady Poverty, the lady of a troubadour, a loveliness to be loved for itself alone. For Ignatius of Loyola, on the other hand, it is "the firm wall of rrligion"; fortifications designed to defend an intra muros, an area of peace in which to build the City of God. And we must love poverty, ~ertainly; but "as a mother": a mother who gives birth to a .life, nurtures and trains it, not to keep for herself but to send forth: a life that will be something of value in the world of me'n.21 In the world of men today, that something of value is, for us Jesuits, a commitment to "the service of faith, of whii~h the promotion of justice is an absolute, requirement.''z2 Hence, if the promotion of justice should i'equire in-some place, at some time, the "insertion of communitiesamong the poor," if it should summon us "to live among the poor, serving them and sharing something of their experience," something of their "miseries and Z°Form. Inst. n. 1. 21Cf: Const. [287], [553]. Z2GC 32, "Our Mission Today," n. 2. A More Authentic Poverty / 20_1 distress,'''-''~ then we .must. by all means do so, but with a clear understand-ing that such poverty is a degradation not an enhancement of the"human condition, and that we embrace it for the sole purpose of h.elping our fellow-men to free,themselve.s from it. In a word, ev.angelical poverty is not neces-sarily sociological poverty, but may demand acceptance of it in.function.of the apostolate. This brings us to a third observation, na~mely, that if our poverty is in function of the apos_tolate, then it is what might be called a "functional?' poverty. It is, in level, form and style the poverty that best serves our apos-tolic ends. Its measure is the tantum-quantum of the Exercises.-"4 That is why the Congregation begins its declaration on poverty with a "reflection on the Gospel in the light of the signs of our times"; or so it seems to me. It seems to me that the Congregation, faced with the task passed on to it by its predecessor of answering "the demands of a real and not pretended poverty," did not begin by asking the question "What should our poverty be?" but by asking the question "What should our poverty be ]or?'''~'' From its reading of the signs of the times, the Congregation brings for-ward certain apostolic objectives which our poverty should by preference bear witness to or serve. At a time when nations, groups, and individuals ha~,e come to realize that .the material resources of this planet.are limited, and have reacted to that realization by accepting as a fact of life that the race is only to the swift and the devil takes the hindmost, vowed poverty should be, and be a witness to, sharing. "On fill sides there is felt a desire to discover new com-munities which favor a more intimate interpersonal communication, com-munities of true sharing and communion, concerned for the integral human development of their members. Our lives, our communities, our very poverty can and should .have a meaning for such a world.'''-''~ That meaning and message will be effectively conveyed by "a poverty pro~foundly re~ newed . . . happy to share with each other and with ,all.'''7 In fact, "our communities will have no meaning or sign value for our tim.es, unless by their sharing of themselves and all they possess, they are clearly seen. to.be communities of charity ,and~ of concern for each other, and all others.''-~ Secondly, at a time when human .fulfillment tends to be equated with the possession, enjoyment, and consumption of material goods, vowed poverty should point in the opposite direction. It should point to. simplicity: :.~Decree on Poverty A II 5, A III 10. :4Cf. 'Spir. Ex. [23]. '-"~Cf. Decree on Poverty A 1I 3-5, A III 7. '-'Olbid. AlI 3. "-'Zlbid. A V 14. "-'Slbid, A II 5. 202 / Review [or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 a "simpler way of 'life," ~"simple in community expression and joyous in the following of Christ," and by this witness openin~ up to men "a new liberty and another happiness.''-~'~ Finally, at a time when the struggle for justice often means a~ struggle against unjust establishments, a disengagement from the affluent and power-ful elites from which we have received, and perhaps continue to°receive beriefacti6ns, vowed i56verty must have and be-seen to have a detachment that makes it credible. "It will be difficult for the Society everywhere to forward :effectively the cause of justic~ and human dignity if the greater part of her ministry identifies her with the rich and powerffil.'''~'~ That most be the touchstone of our credibility: detachment. "The attitude of the So-ciety should b~ that of the Third Class of Men. fully as ready to abahdon as to retain, to the greater service of God,''3~ manifest' in a povei'ty that is "apostolic in its~active indifference and readiness for any service; in-spiring our selection of ministries and turning us to those most in need?':~°- In sum: the,selfless sharing of a simplicity of life that leads to integral human developm6nt and, by its realism, gives credibility to our efforts to remove the obstacles tO that development--this is what the Congregation proposes our poverty should be today, as discerned frorri the Signs of the times: ~But in qchat'~sense is this a renewal, a making,new again, a return to what the Society was when it was new? This brings us back to'a point which came up earlier: the crucial role given by'this Congregati~on to discernment. For if it 0is admitted that ours is a functional poverty, a poverty in function oLthe apostolate,~then the authentic practii:e of that~poverty will depend at any given moment on what we discern to be,the Conc?ete objectives~of our apostolate at that moment; in short, on "our mission today." And this adap-tation is truly a renewal--so, at least, it is argued because it is precisely what St. Ignatius did. ~ ~. What Ignatius did was to giv meaning and structure to" the practice of' voweff poverty which was in function of what he discerned: to be the apos-tolic needs Of his time. He then wrote Constitutions which not-only do not forbid but demand that we practice our poverty in the light of a' similar discernment. What was his discernment? We might illustrate how concrete it was by its apparent c6ntradictions, for it is a'well-known fact that the concrete and its demands do not always meet the requirements of abstract logic. Ignatius made Jesuits in professed houses live from day to day and "-'albid. A II 3, A V 14. :~°Ibid. A II 5. 3~Ibid. AIII 9; cf. Spir. Ex. [155]. :*°-Ibid. A V 14; A More Authentic Poverty / 203, even beg from door to door; but he allowed fixed revenues for colleges, that is, the houses where Jesuits were being trained to live from day to day and beg from door to door. He would not permit the sacristies of our churches to be supported by such revenues, but-the churches themselves, Works of art which might be considered verging on the lavish,.he accepted from, or consented to be constructed by, benefactors belonging to the affluent establishments of his time. He did not favor our men going on horseback, even if they were on a mission and in somewhat of a hurry; yet he decided that professed houses should have a garden for our men to walk in. A garden! Why, certainly; a garden in cities where the ordinary citizen took the air in open sewers 'which, by an exaggeration of courtesy, were called streets. But, after all, was not Ignatius following in this matter the example of Christ himself? Christ, who regularly skipped meals because of the poor, the sick, and the bedevilled who pressed around him, but who told treed Zacheus to come down from his perch and give hil~ lunch in his house, the ~ather well provided house of an officer,of the internal revenue. Christ, who did not even have a foxhole or a bird's nest where to lay his head, but who, on his way to or from Jerusalem, regularly stopped_ at Bethany, in the house of the opulent Lazarus; who did this at lehst once with his entire entourage, seemingly unannounced, for he sent Mhrtha into a tizzy trying to figure out how may courses to lay on for dinner. Christ, who told the Seventy-two he was sending out on mission not to bring a purse or an extra pair of sandals, but who also told them that wherever they found accep-tance they should eat and drink what was put before them, because the laborer is worthy of his hire. Christ, who had a rather expensive robe, woven without seam from top to bottom, as the soldiers gambling for it immediately recognized; but who died naked on the cross. What then? Is there a fixed poverty line calculable in currency values,~ valid for all times and seasohs, to which we must keep? It ~ems not. But~ in that case how do we make, how can we be sure that we are making our poverty authentic? It would Seem that our po~verty is~authentic in the hi'eaT sure that it is really and truly in function of our apostolate--as it was in the case of Ignatius, as it was in-the case of Christ. And because it is in func-tion of the apostolate, our poverty, is, in sum, a basic insecurity: the basic insecurity of men who can.be sent and are willing to. be sent on any mission, even without provision for the jou~rney and with no assurance of provision at the end of it. Our poverty level is the minimum required to enable a Jesuit theologian to enlarge the frontiers ~of~ theology. It is also the maximum allowable "~for a Jesuit engaged in~ the "lSedagogy of the oppressed" to.be credible to. the oppressed. And it is a willingness on the part of the theologian to be sent to the oppressed, and a corresponding willingness ~n the part Of the peda-gogue of the oppressed to join a theological faculty. ,Let u,s, g~ve the last w~rd 204 / Review for Religious, l/olume 35, 1976/2 to the 32nd,General Congregation: "The authenticity of our poverty, after all, does not consist so much in the lack of temporal goods, as in the fact that we live and are seen to live from God and for God, sincerely striving for the perfection of that ideal which is the goal of the spiritual journey of the Exercises: 'Give me only a love of you with your grace and I am ~rich enough, nor do I ask anything more.' ":"~ a31bid. AV 14; Spir. Ex. [23~,].' * * Saint Louis University Accent '76 Summer offerings of The Department of Theological Studies, Saint Louis University June 22 - July 30 Accent: Spirituality Continuing SLU's tradition of summer institutes in Spiritu~ality, . Institutes: The~ New Testament and Traditions of Spirituality; Assimilating the LitUrgical Reform: Pastoral Ministry in Th, eological Focus Inaugural Institute: June 7 - June 17 Toward An American Spirituality (Herbert W. Richardson) Accent: °Religious Studies Continuing SLU's on-g0ing M.A. Program in Religious Studies. 12 Courses: Contemporary Doctrihe, Biblical Studies, 'Theology of Religious Life. Accent: Religion arid American Culture Continuing SLU's tradition of exploring the relationship between religion and culture. Workshops: Alternate Futures For Religious Education In The United States; New Interpretations of American Catholicism. Plus: Study Tour To lsrael All institutes and workshops can be separated into two-week segments. For complete information write: Department of Theological Studies Attn: Director of Summer Programs Saint Louis University 3634 Lindell Blvd; ' Saint Louis, Missouri 63108 Our Servant Song to Yahweh: The Radical Yes Sister Mary Catherine Barron, C.S.J. Sister Mary Catherine is an English teacher at Rome Catholic High School. She had p~blished earlier, in the November, 1975 issue. Sister resides at 808 Cypre.ss St.; Rome; NY 13440. In a poem of soul-shattering dimension, D. H. Lawrence, a very ~sensual man, poses a series of very spiritual questions.,He asks: Are you willing to be sponged out, erased, cancelled, ~ made nothing? Are you willing to be made nothing? dipped into oblivion? If not, you will never really change.1 His interrogation embodies the central Christological inquiry asked long before Jesus answered with His life. For throughout the centuries of salva-tion history it has been the haunting refrain of all who embrace the reality of the Servant Song. No matter where we turn in the Old Testament or the New, we find ourselves faced with its harsh delineations. ,Abraham must go through the annihilation Of family ties and holdings in order to found a nation from the child he nearly slays. Moses suffers privation, loneliness, and betrayal as he leads Yahweh's people to a land he never enters. David bears for-ever the searing knowledge of his sin as he witnesses its effects' upon his household and his kingdom. Hosea suffers the painfilled prostitution of his love; Jeremiah preaches renewal amid interior desolation; Isaiah witnesses 1D. H. Lawrence, "The Phoenix," The Complete Poems o[ D. H. Lawrence (New York: Viking Press. 1964). 205 206 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/2 to the emptiness of the Servant Who is to come. John the Baptist loses his disciples; Mary loses her Son; Jesus loses His life. What do we lose? In a past issue of Bible Today, Father Stuhlmueller reflects on the two-fold aspec't of vocation. He says: "Every vocation has an occasion, that which gets it started. Every vocation has a long search for the deeper mean-ing of what one started out to do.'' Somewhere between the ~'starting oc-casion" and the "deeper meaning" resides a radical "yes" on the part of the servant to what is so graphically outlined in the "Phoenix" poem. How do we say it--that radical "yes"? How did Jesus utter it? Through a total rendering of Himself, in faith, to His Father. He tells us: "Whatever the Father does the Son does too" (Jn 5:19). The Father's "radical yes" to His creation is manifested through the gift of His Son. The Son's "radi-cal yes" to His Father is manifested through the gift of Himself. There was nothing glorious about the human life of Christ. He paid dearly for every sign of spiritual power shown. He labored long and hard for infinitesimally small results. He traversed the length and breadth of His country only to learn that a prophet is never accepted by His own. He was condemned by leaders of the religion He fulfilled. And He
IntroducciónLa administración de George W. Bush (20 de enero de 2001-20 de enero de 2009) ha sido incapaz de comprender el alcance del proceso de declinación relativa en la que se encuentra inmerso EE.UU. La dificultad para entender un proceso lento y complejo contribuyó a una sucesión de errores estratégicos en la toma de decisiones. Dos ejemplos relevantes han sido la focalizada guerra en Irak y la imposible de focalizar guerra contra Al Qaeda. En este trabajo, mencionaremos las principales características de estos actores centrales y lo relacionaremos con el mencionado proceso de declinación en marcha.Los límites del ImperioEn su libro Colossus, el historiador escocés Niall Ferguson describe a un país con afanes imperiales, un poder predominante que se afirma como tal con el ocaso de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. La caída del muro de Berlín en 1989 marcó un hito como símbolo del poderío del Imperio. Sin embargo, hechos recientes como la caída de las torres gemelas nos hacen dudar, o por lo menos reflexionar, sobre el alcance de este poder hegemónico ¿Estamos presenciando el fin de una era Imperial? ¿Existen nuevos actores en la escena internacional con más peso político? (1) Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el 50% de las reservas de oro se encontraban en los bancos de EE.UU. y las potencias que hasta entonces eran líderes en la escena internacional -países europeos como Gran Bretaña y Francia- estaban fuertemente endeudados con la nueva potencia. Posteriormente, dicha deuda se acrecentó con el European Recovery Program (Plan Marshall). La Conferencia de Bretton Woods en 1944 dio vida a dos grandes agentes de las finanzas (Banco Mundial y Fondo Monetario Internacional) cuyas sedes se encuentran en Washington DC. Además, re-estableció el sistema de Patrón Oro, que determinaba que la moneda emitida por los países debía respaldarse en ese metal. En 1971 se abandona el Patrón Oro por decisión del presidente Richard Nixon. Comienza así la era del dólar (2). En la actualidad, el PIB de Estados Unidos asciende a $14.582 trillones y representa más del 20% del PIB mundial ($63.049 trillones) (3).Por otra parte, el fin de la Segunda Guerra mostró que EE.UU. no solo era una potencia hegemónica en el ámbito económico –cuyo más cercano "competidor" era la devastada URSS- sino que también lo era en los ámbitos políticos y, obviamente, militares. Hoy, Estados Unidos es la primera potencia nuclear y mayor potencia militar de la historia de la humanidad, destinando tan solo el 4,7% de su PIB a la Defensa. Sin embargo, esa fuerza se compara a la del resto del mundo unido (4).A partir del atentado contra las torres gemelas el 11 de setiembre de 2001, la hegemonía de EE.UU. comenzó a cuestionarse severamente. Era impensable que la "policía del mundo" sufriera un atentado en las mismas puertas de su casa. El análisis sobre un mundo unipolar para el corto-mediano plazo, luego de la caída del muro de Berlín y de la posterior implosión del régimen comunista, demostró ser geopolítica y analíticamente limitado (5). Para distintos analistas, EE.UU se enfrenta a un mundo con múltiples y nuevos actores y hasta el momento no ha sabido cómo enfrentarlos en forma eficiente. El Imperio de Ferguson se encuentra con enemigos que no son visibles -como los tradicionales Estados- tales como los terroristas. Por su parte, en el ámbito político-filosófico es posible marcar que la administración Bush ha fracasado en su aspiración de impulsar la democracia liberal como proyecto universal. China y Rusia son dos ejemplos contundentes que el sostenido crecimiento económico puede darse en un marco institucional donde no se respete la división de poderes clásica. El Profesor y periodista Fareed Zakaria desarrolla el problema de las democracias iliberales en "The rise of iliberal democracy", donde se argumenta que en la mitad de las democracias del mundo no se respetan los derechos constitucionales y/o derechos humanos (6).Al Qaeda y la difícil lucha contra un enemigo sin lugar La organización conocida mundialmente como Al Qaeda tiene sus inicios en la Guerra Fría, más específicamente en la liberación de Afganistán de la ocupación soviética. Cuando en 1989 las fuerzas de la URSS se retiran del país, el líder revolucionario Osama Bin Laden crea la organización basado en su interpretación de la Yihad, dentro del Corán. La Yihad, o "lucha espiritual" aparece en los textos del Corán llamando a la defensa de la religión islámica frente a los no creyentes. La visión personal del líder es que la posible expansión de la democracia es sinónimo de amenaza a las costumbres islámicas, e interpreta que la mejor defensa puede ser el ataque. Esta interpretación es inculcada a sus miembros y es la que determina el particular modo de accionar del grupo. La ideología del grupo se basa en la necesidad de unir a los musulmanes y echar a los infieles de las tierras de Alá. Sin embargo, emprender acciones directas contra Occidente no estaba dentro de las posibilidades de Bin Laden, por lo que desde el inicio preparó a los miembros de Al Qaeda para una guerra del terror, buscando infundir pánico a través de actos tales como atacar civiles indefensos. Estas acciones, catalogadas como actos terroristas, son la base de la existencia de grupos extremistas tales como Al Qaeda. Tras el atentado a las Torres Gemelas, el 11 de setiembre de 2001, EE.UU. lanza un ataque militar a Afganistán con el fin de dispersar a la organización terrorista, allí asentada. Sin embargo, el efecto producido no fue el esperado. El grupo se dispersó en pequeños focos que muchas veces actuaban por su cuenta, no recibiendo órdenes directas del líder del grupo. Al ser pequeños grupos que trabajan en la clandestinidad es difícil localizarlos y se estima que sus actividades se realizan no solo en el mundo árabe, sino que también en muchos países del "Primer Mundo". De la misma manera, existen otros tipos de ataque no directos de los cuales se vale Al Qaeda para desprestigiar la imagen de sus enemigos. La propaganda es una de estas herramientas, y la utilizan tanto para difundir sus ideas como para atacar. Por ejemplo, resaltando las muertes de los soldados que participaron en las guerras de Oriente ("They have dispatched your sons and daughters to die lonely deaths in the burning deserts of Iraq and the unforgiving mountains of Afghanistan.") como también las víctimas de torturas que el gobierno de Estados Unidos mantenía cautivas en Guantánamo. Según Luis Alberto Villamarín, autor de "Conexión Al Qaeda: del islamismo radical al terrorismo Nuclear", como el grupo terrorista se encuentra tan dividido y cada una de sus partes es auto gestionable, el asesinato de su líder no desmoronaría la estructura del mismo (7).Podemos concluir que al Qaeda resta de ser un grupo desorganizado y sin líder. El ataque que realiza a su enemigo no es directo, por lo cual la respuesta no puede ser convencional. Por su parte, este tipo de ataques ha resultado mayormente inefectivo, tal como se demostró en la guerra de Afganistán. Algunos autores como Villamarín especulan que formas más eficientes de contra-atacar al terrorismo podrían ser la cooperación internacional para evitar los flujos comerciales ilegales tales como la droga o el tráfico de armas, fuentes de ingreso de los grupos terroristas. A su entender, la eficacia con la que actúan estos grupos está correlacionada con la falta de acción a nivel global, como por ejemplo la ineficacia con que los organismos internacionales (como la ONU) enfrentan y, en alguna medida, entienden el terrorismo. Pero en el corto plazo, para evitar tragedias como los atentados del 11 de setiembre, las democracias liberales de hoy en día se enfrentan a la disyuntiva entre eficacia y resguardo de las libertades individuales. Soluciones "eficientes", como la tortura de prisioneros, son ilegales además de ser éticamente incorrectas. Por otra parte, las libertades individuales permiten el florecimiento de pequeños focos extremistas en el seno de los países occidentales, aumentando las posibilidades de accionar del terrorismo.Guerra en Irak: la peor manera de exportar la democraciaEn el año 1990 las fuerzas iraquíes invaden a su país vecino, el pequeño emirato petrolero de Kuwait. Este hecho fue el desencadenante de la primera Guerra del Golfo, que se inicia un año después (17 de enero de 1991) con la operaciónTormenta del Desierto, respaldada por la ONU. 12 años y dos meses después, luego de los sucesivos incumplimientos por parte del régimen de Irak ante las sanciones económicas impuestas por la Asamblea General y frente a una supuesta amenaza de posesión ilegal de armas nucleares, EE.UU. inicia la segunda guerra contra Irak. Esta invasión constituyó una grave violación al Derecho Internacional.Las tropas estadounidenses y británicas (principales actores de la coalición) irrumpen en territorio iraquí dando inicio a la segunda Guerra del Golfo. En cuestión de semanas toman la capital y derrocan el gobierno de Saddam Hussein. Como mencionamos, el gobierno de EE.UU. actúa sin el consentimiento del Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas. El argumento estadounidense era el incumplimiento por parte del régimen iraquí de la resolución 687, que imponía la eliminación de toda arma de destrucción masiva en suelo iraquí. Sin embargo, con el propósito de inspeccionar la eliminación de armas de destrucción masiva (entre tantas otras sanciones impuestas por la Asamblea General) ya habían sido creadas las comisiones UNSCOM y posteriormente en 1999, UNMOVIC (Comisión de las Naciones Unidas de Vigilancia, Verificación e Inspección). Otro de los argumentos expuestos por la administración Bush era el de legítima defensa preventiva, alegando una supuesta relación entre el régimen de Hussein y la organización terrorista Al Qaeda (8). Además, y debido a esta relación, es que el gobierno estadounidense alega la necesidad de restaurar la paz y seguridad de la zona mediante la democratización del país. El ataque a Irak se inició el 20 de marzo con el lanzamiento de 40 misilesTomahawk sobre la capital iraquí, violando los derechos que estipula la Convención de Ginebra relativa a la protección debida a las personas civiles en tiempo de guerra, que prohíbe la destrucción de bienes muebles e inmuebles a menos que sea absolutamente necesario. De igual manera, se utilizaron bombas prohibidas, las llamadas bombas racimo, las cuales contienen sub-municiones que se esparcen cuando la bomba se encuentra a cierta altura, por lo cual no es posible calcular los daños colaterales. Por otra parte, las tropas estadounidenses fueron responsables en diversas ocasiones por violaciones a los derechos humanos. Estos delitos no se limitan simplemente a la muerte de civiles debido al fuego cruzado, sino que también incluyen detenciones arbitrarias a personas que no participaban del conflicto, torturas a los prisioneros de guerra mantenidos cautivos en la cárcel de Abu Ghraib o la destrucción de hogares de miles de familias. Esto se ve agravado por la cantidad de civiles heridos por los efectos de las mencionadas bombas racimo. Durante el período de la guerra en Irak se llega al máximo de detenidos en Guantánamo. Colateralmente, debido a la falta de medicamentos y agua potable como consecuencia de la guerra, hubo una proliferación de enfermedades tales como el cólera y la diarrea (el 72% de la población infantil llegó a padecer diarrea durante el transcurso de la guerra). En síntesis, la segunda guerra de Irak (2003- al presente) no ha podido conciliarse con la aplicación de sanciones en contra de un supuesto incumplimiento de las resoluciones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas. Por otra parte, tampoco se puede argumentar la búsqueda de la democratización para salvar al pueblo iraquí de una tiranía, tal como ha sido expresado en su momento por el Chairman (Speaker of the House) de la Cámara de Representantes del Congreso de los EE.UU., Dennis Hastert (quién sostuvo que "…aquí hay un país que ha estado bajo un régimen terrible de un dictador que asesinó, saqueó, hizo cualquier cosa para él mismo, y ahora la gente tiene una oportunidad para construir un gobierno para ellos mismos…"1), debido a los incontables quebrantamientos de los derechos humanos cometidos en tan solo semanas de guerra.Aun hoy en día, cuando las últimas tropas estadounidenses abandonan el territorio ocupado siguiendo órdenes del presidente Barack Obama a fines de 2010, las repercusiones de la guerra siguen presentes: inseguridad en las calles debido a atentados terroristas, incontables bienes materiales que no se han podido reconstruir desde la guerra, inestabilidad política y sobre todo un creciente sentimiento antiimperialista y anti americanista que en parte facilita el trabajo de organizaciones terroristas como Al Qaeda. La victoria militar fue rotunda, pero el éxito de la operación es, al menos, dudoso. La dificultad de lidiar con Al Qaeda y la incapacidad de llevar a cabo la reconstrucción de Irak son dos ejemplos relevantes de la creciente debilidad de los EE.UU. Obviamente, la aparición de China como actor global en la última década ha terminado de confirmar que la democracia liberal como aspiración universal era solo un sueño superficial de la Administración Bush.(1) Ferguson, Niall: "Colossus. The Price of America´s Empire". Penguin, New York. 2004. Ferguson ha devenido un profesor de Harvard con la capacidad de atraer la atención de millones de personas. Su último libro, "Civilization. The West and the Rest" profundiza sobre las razones que llevaron a Occidente a alcanzar 500 años de preeminencia (1500-2000) y, mas aún, sobre las razones que explican el fin de ese período. Penguin Press. 2011(2) En un breve y profundo artículo, Carl Menger argumenta la lógica del proceso que da lugar a la aparición de un bien como moneda. Ver, "El origen del dinero". Libertas número 2. Mayo 1985.Buenos Aires.(3) Google Public Data Explorer: http://www.google.com/publicdata/directory(4) Ídem(5) En este marco, es posible criticar como reduccionistas tanto las profecías optimistas de Fukuyama como las profecías pesimistas de Huntington. Ver, Francis Fukuyama: "The end of history and the last man". Free Press. 1992. Ver Samuel Huntington: "The Clash of Civilazation and the remaking of world order", Simon / Shuster. 2011(6) Zakaria, Fared: "The Rise of Iliberal Democracy". Foreign Affairs. Noviembre-Diciembre 1997. El libro posterior se llama "The Future of Freedom. The Rise of Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad" y fue publicado en 2003 por W.W. Norton. En su tesis doctoral, Zakaria analiza la lógica de la consolidación del Estado americano hacia finales del siglo XIX. El riguroso estudia se llama "De la Riqueza al Poder" y ha sido publicado en español por Gedisa en el año 2000. Por otro parte, el autor ha escrito en 2008 un análisis mas superficial sobre la declinación americana, titulado "The Post-American World", publicado por W.W. Norton.(7) Ver Villamarín, Luis Alberto: "Conexión Al Qaeda: del islamismo radical al terrorismo Nuclear". Nowtilus. 2005(8) George W. Bush presentó la doctrina del ataque preventivo en un ya clásico discurso en la Academia Militar de West Point. Es posible leer dicho discurso aquí: http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/01/international/02PTEX-WEB.html?pagewanted=all.*Estudiante de la Licenciatura en Estudios Internacionales.FACS - Universidad ORT UruguayBibliografíaFerguson, Niall: "Colossus. The Price of America´s Empire". Penguin, New York. 2004Ferguson, Niall: "Civilization. The West and the Rest". Penguin Press. 2011.Fukuyama, Francis: "The End of History and the Last Man". Free Press. 1992. Google Public Data Explorer: http://www.google.com/publicdata/directory Huntington, Samuel: "The Clash of Civilazation and the Remaking of World Order", Simon / Shuster. 2011.Menger, Carl: "El Origen del Dinero". Libertas número 2. Mayo 1985. Buenos Aires.Villamarín, Luis Alberto: "Conexión Al Qaeda: del Islamismo Radical al Terrorismo Nuclear". Nowtilus. 2005Zakaria, Fared: "The Rise of Iliberal Democracy". Foreign Affairs. Noviembre-Diciembre 1997.Zakaria, Fared: "The Post-American World". W.W. Norton. 2008.http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=terrorismo http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/specials/newsid_3051000/3051163.stm http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/cfr092807 http://books.google.es/books?id=hry5iIjtogUC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Investigation/story?id=1115448&page=1 http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/
Tese de Doutoramento em Engenharia Química (Processos Químicos) apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; Agricultural processing inevitably goes along with the production of large amounts of agro-residues, which may represent a major waste disposal problem. Legislation regulating the management of waste materials has appeared throughout the European Union and has significantly contributed to the introduction of sustainable waste management procedures. The reuse and recycling of agro-residues has been highly encouraged and new technologies applying environmentally clean processes have been playing a central role within this context. These strategies may boost both the environmental and economic profiles of the implied industries, since they may create value in the entire chain-production pipeline. Typically, a substantial part of the agro-residues produced during the handling and processing of fruits, vegetables and forest resources still comprises important amounts of the original plant materials, such as fruit skins, fruit seeds, flowers, leaves, stems, barks, and roots. High-value natural compounds can be found in most of these vegetable residues, many of them having health-promoting characteristics. It is the case of, for example, phenolic compounds (which have been associated to the alleged health-promoting effects related to the consumption of fruits and vegetables), since they are preferentially biosynthesised in the external vegetable tissues. Usually, and despite their significant potential value, these residues are often underexploited and thus their potential value as natural products is frequently lost. Efficient techniques can thus be explored for separation and isolation of oils, antioxidants, fragrances, colorants, biocides and other bioactive substances of natural origin. Therefore, with some additional and adequate processing steps, these materials can be easily transformed, from a residual low-value status into a very interesting high-value status, in terms of well-known and consumer high-value and accepted uses in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, among others. This Thesis is focused on the extraction of potentially valuable compounds from agroresidues of elder and maritime pine (Portuguese native plants) and also from tara (a Peruvian native plant). Solvents and techniques generally regarded as "environmental friendly" were applied. Despite conventional methods such as hydrodistillation and Soxhlet extraction had been employed, special attention was given to high pressure extraction procedures, namely supercritical and pressurized solvent extractions using, respectively, carbon dioxide and mixtures of carbon dioxide, ethanol and water as solvents. In general terms and besides other particular aspects, the effect of several process variables/conditions on the yields and on the characteristics of the obtained extracts, such as composition and antioxidant and antiinflammatory activities, was analyzed. Extract fractionation, solvent flow rate and composition, in addition to extraction time, temperature and pressure, were among these studied process variables/conditions. Characterization of extracts involved the use of diverse analytical techniques including spectrophotometric and chromatographic ones. Elderberry pomace and elderflower were evaluated as sources of potentially useful natural compounds. Elderberry pomace is a juice-processing industry residue which comprises the fruit skins and seeds, and is known to be rich in anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds. It was subjected to high pressure extractions at 313 K and ~20 MPa, applying supercritical carbon dioxide in a first step and pressurized solvent mixtures of carbon dioxide, ethanol and water in a second step. Extract fractionation was achieved by such a methodology. While the first step led to extracts rich in lipids and other apolar substances, obtained second step extracts revealed high contents of anthocyanins and presented high antioxidant activities, which were strongly influenced by the employed solvent mixture composition. The results of this study highlight the potential of elderberry pomace as a source of valuable compounds, and may assist in the development of strategies for integral exploitation of elderberries, reducing the environmental impact of elderberry juice processing industries. Elderflower was, in its turn, subjected to supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. The effect of solvent density (300-900 kg/m3) and of extraction temperature (308-328 K) on extracts characteristics was analyzed. Most of the obtained extracts revealed high contents of apolar compounds. Their phenolic compounds contents and the resulting antioxidant activities were relatively low, but they may possibly be increased if ethanol and water mixtures are added as cosolvents to carbon dioxide (which is planned to be performed in the near future). Nevertheless, obtained results revealed that elderflower extracts achieved by supercritical fluid technology may be added as natural aromatic additives to cosmetic and food systems. Maritime pine bark is an abundant residue from pine wood processing industries which is rich in condensed tannins. This residue was subjected to conventional solid-liquid aqueousbased extractions as well as to supercritical and pressurized solvent extraction procedures in order to obtain efficient vegetable tanning agents and bioactive phenolic-based extracts, respectively. Conventional aqueous extractions were optimized by adding small amounts (up to 15%, v/v) of ethanol. This methodology was selective for condensed tannins and the obtained extracts revealed adequate characteristics for leather tanning applications. Concerning supercritical fluid extraction experiments, carbon dioxide and a mixture of carbon dioxide and ethanol (10%) were used in two consecutive steps, varying extraction pressure in the range 10-30 MPa, and extraction temperature in the range 303-323 K. The employed fractionated extraction methodology showed that it was possible to obtain different extract fractions having diverse antioxidant activities from maritime pine bark. Moreover, it showed that the process could be further optimized through the usage of different solvent mixtures as well as other operational conditions. Therefore, pressurized solvent extractions were consecutively performed varying some process variables such as solvent mixture composition (carbon dioxide and ethanol, with up to 90% of ethanol) and flow rate. Extraction kinetics and extracts composition (in terms of phenolic compounds in general, and of condensed tannins in particular) were considerably affected by the solvent mixture composition. The results of these studies showed that both conventional and high pressure extraction methodologies may be feasible strategies for the valorization of maritime pine bark, therefore reducing the environmental impact and increasing the profit of the involved industries. Finally, tara seed coat, which is a residue of tara powder and of tara gum processing industries, was evaluated as a source of phenolic compounds in general, and of hydrolysable tannins, in particular. Pressurized solvent extractions using homogeneous solvent mixtures of carbon dioxide, ethanol and water were performed at 313 K and 20 MPa. An experimental mixture design was applied in order to optimize the solvent mixture composition in terms of selectivity towards the above referred compounds, as well as in terms of antioxidant activities and lipoxygenase inhibition activities (indicative of their anti-inflammatory capacities) of the whole extracts. The achieved mixture models permitted to discern the contribution of the three individual solvents used: while water revealed to be the most effective solvent to obtain high extraction yields, ethanol-rich mixtures originated the maximum extracts´ phenolic contents. Moreover, the obtained extracts presented quite relevant antioxidant and lipoxygenase inhibition activities. Tara seed coat is, therefore, a rich source of bioactive compounds, which may be applied as natural additives in food, cosmetic or pharmaceutical goods, increasing their shelf-lives and/or acting as human health promoters. In conclusion, instead of being disposed as waste of environmental concern or utilized in low value applications, agro-residues of elder, maritime pine and tara are promising sources of important constituents and should be considered for valorization. Environmentally clean methodologies and solvents may be applied for the extraction of natural colorants, flavors, aromas, preservatives, among others, some of them presenting bioactive properties. The choice of the appropriate extraction methodology and extraction conditions is of extreme importance for the selectivity of the extraction towards the intended compounds and for the resulting properties of the obtained natural extracts, defining their future potential applications. The successful exploitation of the studied agro-residues still requires further research and development, besides the one presented in this Thesis. A more precise identification of the natural compounds present in the obtained extracts is still required and will be addressed in future works. Moreover, other issues like the toxicity, metabolism, bioavailability and physiological activities of the extracted compounds also need to be considered. Nevertheless, a contribution has been given to the sustainability of elder, maritime pine and tara processing industries. ; O processamento industrial de produtos agrícolas e florestais origina enormes quantidades de resíduos que podem constituir um sério problema ambiental, se forem sujeitos a procedimentos incorrectos de aproveitamento e/ou eliminação. Frequentemente, estes resíduos são apenas parcialmente valorizados, sendo utilizados para alimentação animal, como fertilizantes ou transformados em biocombustível. Contudo, nos últimos anos tem-se verificado uma tendência crescente para a sua valorização, acompanhando a evolução de uma legislação ambiental cada vez mais restritiva. Neste contexto, a reutilização e reciclagem destes resíduos naturais têm sido encorajadas, contribuindo para agregar valor económico na linha de produção das empresas do sector, podendo mesmo constituir uma excelente oportunidade de negócio. Tipicamente, uma parte substancial dos resíduos produzidos durante o processamento de frutos, vegetais e recursos florestais consiste da matéria-prima original, incluindo a pele e as sementes dos frutos, flores, folhas, caules, casca de árvores e raízes. Na maior parte destes resíduos existem quantidades substanciais de compostos com elevado valor acrescentado, muitos deles possuindo propriedades benéficas para a saúde humana. De entre eles, destacamse os compostos fenólicos (que têm sido associados aos benefícios relacionados com o consumo de frutos e vegetais), uma vez que são preferencialmente sintetizados nos tecidos vegetais exteriores. Usualmente, e apesar do seu valor significativo, estes resíduos são comummente sub-explorados, e o seu potencial valor como produto natural é frequentemente perdido. Sendo assim, uma das áreas com maior potencial de exploração é o aproveitamento de substâncias com elevado valor acrescentado. De facto, após o tratamento adequado das matérias-primas, seguido de técnicas de separação adequadas, a maior parte dos resíduos agro-industriais pode constituir uma fonte rica de antioxidantes, corantes, fragrâncias e biocidas naturais, entre outros, com enorme interesse para as indústrias farmacêutica, cosmética ou alimentar. Neste trabalho foi estudada a extracção de compostos com potencial valor acrescentado a partir de resíduos de três plantas: o sabugueiro e o pinheiro-bravo (nativas de Portugal), e a tara (nativa do Peru). Foram usadas técnicas e solventes de extracção considerados "amigos do ambiente". Apesar de terem sido usadas técnicas convencionais de extracção, como a hidrodestilação e a extracção por Soxhlet, foi dado especial destaque à extracção supercrítica e à extracção com solvente pressurizado, usando como solventes, respectivamente, o dióxido de carbono supercrítico e misturas pressurizadas de dióxido de carbono, etanol e água. Em termos gerais, e para além de outros aspectos particulares, foi estudado o efeito de diversas variáveis/condições de processo (fraccionamento de extracção, composição do solvente, temperatura e pressão de operação, caudal de solvente, entre outros) nos rendimentos e nas características dos extractos obtidos, nomeadamente em termos de composição e actividades antioxidante e anti-inflamatória. Para a caracterização analítica dos extractos foram usadas diversas técnicas analíticas, incluindo espectrofotométricas e cromatográficas. O bagaço e a flor de sabugueiro foram avaliados como possíveis fontes de compostos naturais de interesse. O bagaço de sabugueiro, um resíduo proveniente da indústria de processamento de sumo, é constituído essencialmente pelas peles e grainhas das bagas e é uma fonte rica de antocianinas e outros compostos fenólicos. Este resíduo foi sujeito a extracção a alta pressão a 313 K e a ~20 MPa, usando dióxido de carbono supercrítico numa primeira etapa, e misturas pressurizadas de dióxido de carbono, etanol e água numa segunda etapa. Esta metodologia de extracção permitiu obter o fraccionamento do extracto. A primeira etapa de extracção originou extractos contendo elevados teores de lípidos e outras substâncias apolares. Os extractos obtidos na segunda etapa revelaram ter elevados teores de antocianinas e apresentaram uma elevada actividade antioxidante, com uma acentuada influência da composição do solvente. Os resultados deste estudo evidenciaram o potencial do bagaço do sabugueiro como fonte de compostos com elevado valor acrescentado, podendo contribuir para o desenvolvimento de estratégias de utilização integral das bagas, reduzindo o impacto ambiental das indústrias do sector. Por outro lado, a flor foi sujeita a extracção supercrítica usando dióxido de carbono como solvente. Foi avaliado o efeito da massa específica do solvente (300-900 kg/m3) e da temperatura de extracção (308-328 K) nos rendimentos e nas características dos extractos obtidos. A maior parte dos extractos obtidos revelaram ter um elevado teor de compostos apolares. No entanto, os seus teores de compostos fenólicos e as suas actividades antioxidantes foram relativamente baixos, podendo eventualmente ser melhorados se misturas de etanol e água forem usadas como co-solventes (o que se prevê que venha a ser feito em trabalhos futuros). Os resultados obtidos revelaram que os extractos de flor de sabugueiro obtidos recorrendo à tecnologia de extracção supercrítica podem, eventualmente, ser usados como aditivos aromáticos naturais em produtos alimentares e cosméticos. A casca do pinheiro-bravo, um resíduo abundante da indústria madeireira e rico em taninos condensados, foi sujeita a extracções convencionais (com o objectivo de obter extractos eficazes na curtimenta de peles de animais) e a extracções supercríticas e com solvente pressurizado (com o objectivo de obter extractos bioactivos). Nas extracções convencionais, foi utilizada água como solvente e foi optimizado o aditivo usado. Verificouse que uma pequena percentagem de etanol (até 15%, v/v) foi selectiva para os taninos condensados e que os extractos obtidos tinham condições adequadas para serem usados na curtimenta de pele de animais. Nas extracções supercríticas foram estudadas as condições de pressão (10-30 MPa) e temperatura (303-323 K), usando o dióxido de carbono e uma mistura de dióxido de carbono e etanol (10%) como solventes, em dois passos consecutivos. A metodologia de extracção aplicada mostrou que é possível obter fracções de extracto com actividades diversas a partir da casca de pinheiro-bravo. Para além disso, mostrou que o processo podia, ainda, ser optimizado utilizando diferentes condições experimentais, entre as quais a composição do solvente. Sendo assim, foram efectuadas extracções com solvente pressurizado variando algumas condições de processo, tais como a composição do solvente (misturas de dióxido de carbono e etanol, contendo até 90% de etanol) e o caudal de solvente. Tanto as cinéticas de extracção como a composição dos extractos (em termos de compostos fenólicos, em geral, e de taninos condensados, em particular) foram consideravelmente afectados pela composição da mistura do solvente. Este estudo mostrou que, tanto a metodologia de extracção convencional como a de alta pressão, podem ser estratégias viáveis de valorização da casca do pinheiro-bravo, contribuindo para a redução do impacto ambiental e para o aumento do lucro das indústrias do sector. Finalmente, foi avaliada a possibilidade de aproveitamento da casca da semente de tara (um resíduo proveniente do processamento do fruto para a obtenção de pó e goma de tara) para a recuperação de compostos fenólicos, em geral, e de taninos hidrolisáveis, em particular. Foram efectuadas extracções pressurizadas usando misturas homogéneas de dióxido de carbono, etanol e água, a 313 K e a 20 MPa. Foi utilizado um desenho experimental para optimizar a composição do solvente de extracção, em termos de selectividade para com os compostos referidos, assim como em termos de actividade antioxidante e de inibição da lipoxigenase (indicativa da actividade anti-inflamatória). Os modelos de mistura obtidos permitiram avaliar a contribuição de cada um dos solventes individuais usados: enquanto que a água foi eficaz na promoção de elevados rendimentos de extracção, o etanol foi selectivo para os compostos fenólicos. Os extractos obtidos mostraram ter um elevado teor de compostos fenólicos e apresentaram relevantes actividades antioxidante e anti-inflamatória. Sendo assim, a casca da semente de tara é uma fonte rica de compostos bioactivos que podem ser usados como aditivos naturais em produtos alimentares, cosméticos e farmacêuticos, aumentando a sua vida útil e/ou actuando como substâncias promotoras da saúde humana. Em conclusão, os resíduos obtidos a partir de sabugueiro, pinheiro-bravo e tara são fontes promissoras de substâncias importantes devendo, por isso, ser considerados para valorização, em vez de serem encarados como causadores de problemas ambientais, ou serem usados em aplicações de baixo valor acrescentado. Neste estudo foram aplicadas metodologias e solventes "amigos do ambiente" para a extracção de corantes, aromas e antioxidantes, entre outros, de origem natural, alguns deles apresentando potenciais propriedades biológicas. A escolha da metodologia adequada e das condições particulares de extracção é de extrema importância para a selectividade da extracção para com os compostos de interesse, assim como para as propriedades evidenciadas pelos extractos naturais obtidos, definindo as suas potenciais aplicações futuras. O sucesso da exploração dos resíduos agro-industriais considerados requer mais investigação e desenvolvimento, para além dos apresentados neste estudo. Nomeadamente, requer uma identificação mais precisa dos compostos naturais presentes nos extractos obtidos, que irá ser abordada em trabalhos futuros. Outras questões tais como o metabolismo, a bio-disponibilidade e a actividade fisiológica dos compostos presentes nos extractos também necessitam, eventualmente, de ser considerados. No entanto, neste estudo foi dada uma contribuição para a sustentabilidade das indústrias de processamento de sabugueiro, pinheiro-bravo e tara.
Marx has a threefold objective in "On the Jewish Question": to respond to Bruno Bauer's views on the same issue; to give us his own standing on the matter of the political emancipation of Jewish populations in Germany and the rest of Europe, while at the same time defining what political emancipation means for each citizen, no matter the religion, in a modern State; and lastly, to show us how political emancipation is not enough and how actual freedom (political plus social) is accessible to all once a new, final and imperative kind of emancipation is obtained: human emancipation. This paper will be divided into two parts: the first one will try to briefly review and explain Marx's text. Particular attention will be given to the differentiation between political and human emancipation and its implications. In this section, Marx's views on Judaism will be clarified by analyzing them on their proper socio-historical context. In the second one, an interesting and, hopefully, appropriate exercise will be put into consideration: taking into account Marx's concerns regarding the possibility of inclusion of a religious minority into the public spheres of a secular State, the Jewish question of 19th century's Europe will be altered into the Muslim question of 21st century's Europe. According to Yoav Peled the main difference between how Bauer and Marx confront the issue of Jewish emancipation is that the former one considers the problem as a theological one, while the latter does it as a sociological one (1). Bauer affirms that not only the Jews are longing for political emancipation, meaning being recognized by the State as equal citizens; but also the rest of the Gentile population is awaiting such recognition. The State cannot emancipate Jews if it still has not emancipated the rest. The Jewry cannot obtain full citizenship if there are no citizens. In order to attain political emancipation the State has to become a secular one, not to recognize any religion as its official one and to extend freedom of religion to all of its citizens. Religious freedom would require religion's removal from the public sphere and its "ostracism" into a private creed. This privatization of religion would eventually abolish it. Nevertheless, Bauer does not consider the Jews capable of becoming free because he does not consider Judaism able to become a private creed. Bauer characterizes Judaism as a religion of law not as, like Christianity, areligion of faith. Being a religion based on actions and not on beliefs would completely be opposed to freedom of religion, to its own removal from the public sphere. Judaism could not become free because there is a chance that its laws would contradict the laws of the State. Marx, instead, affirms that Jews (and Christians), in order to be really emancipated do not have to abandon Judaism in a theological way, but have to do it in a sociological manner. Political emancipation as stated by Bauer is not the final possible form of emancipation, but it is the last possible form of emancipation within the framework of the prevailing social order. For example, according to Marx the citizens of the United States of America, which at the time was the best case of a modern secular State, still practiced, and needed to practice, their religious beliefs as private creeds. Then, Bauer was wrong; religion survived the test and did not disappear after political emancipation. As reported by Marx this happened because when religion is expulsed from the sphere of public law to that of private law, religion becomes the spirit of civil society and the essence of differentiation which leads to, and presupposes, inequality. Political emancipation divides the human being into two antagonistic spheres: the individual, who is egoistic by nature and based in inequality and corresponds to civil society; and the citizen, who is based in common solidarity and equality and complements with the State. This separation can only be overcome by human emancipation. Human emancipation is the final and real kind of reachable and desired emancipation by all human beings. Human emancipation would erase all deficiencies that are found in civil society: private property, insecurity and religion. Human emancipation would, then, end social inequality. Only then, humans would achieve real and total freedom. Only when the individual and the citizen would synthesize their antagonisms in the species-being would humanity be free from all its social and political constraints and a truly democratic State would appear. (2)Marx's views on Judaism have been defined as anti-Semitic by several critics; but it is not the case (3). First of all, Marx was a strong advocate for political emancipation to the Jewish communities in Europe, especially in Germany, and he believed, in opposition to Bauer, that the Jewry was fully capable of becoming citizens in a secular State by privatizing their creed. Although, it has to be said that Marx, like Bauer, considered Judaism to be a religion based on laws; he did not directly consider the case if Judaism could withstand the transformation to a private form. Orthodox Jews, for example, would not become suitable for citizenship in the modern secular State. Because Marx could not resolve this argument in a direct form he chose to solve it by taking Judaism in its socio-historical context instead than in a purely theological way. To Marx Jews have embodied the mercantile spirit in a natural economy dominated Europe (4). Jews did not choose to be merchants or entrepreneurs: feudal society limited them to those kinds of activities. They could not legally own land or be members of any corporate guild. Jews could only deal with money or goods exchange(5). Then, Jews could only be considered as bourgeois, as capitalists, as financiers. Even if, like Marx says, the Jewish mercantile particularity had already generalized through the Christian world and there was no economic basis for distinguishing between Jews and Gentiles, which allowed the Jews to practically self-emancipate by the "Judaization" of society; the general public was still perceiving Judaism as a synonymous of "merchants"(6). It is rather interesting to note that in 1850 half of all entrepreneurs in Berlin were Jews and that in 1861 58% of the Prussian Jewry was engaged in commerce and credit, while only 2% of Christians was similarly employed (7). When Marx calls for the abolition of Judaism, he is calling for the abolition of the economic activity that was a reflection of the Jews social-historical role in society; he is calling for the end of the mercantile/capitalist elements that produce social inequality. The abolition of Judaism means the abolition of all religions through the correction of the secular defect of civil society(8). Finally, Marx's views on the political emancipation of a religious minority and of social emancipation as the only way to end all inequalities and distinctions could be helpful in order to understand the current Muslim Question that is concerning much of Europe. The Muslim question is significantly different from 19th century's Jewish question. Jews were asking for the State's recognition of the same basic constitutional rights that Christians already, or were about to, benefited from. Additionally, liberal-secularists, like Bauer, were concerned about Judaism's capability to remove their religious practices from the public sphere and privatize them. According to them, it was essential for the survival of the modern secular State that its citizens should exclude their religious distinctiveness from all of their public interactions with the State or with other fellow citizens. Today, Muslims in Europe enjoy all of the individual and social rights that are recognized in each of the European Constitutions; meaning political emancipation is not an issue. It is Islam's interactions with the secular, and almost irreligious, European public spheres that has become on of the most fervent debates in the last few years. Such debate extremely overcomes the purpose of this article, but a few points should be taken into account regarding the Muslim question and the relevance of Marx's work on the matter. Marx, just like with the political emancipation of the Jews, would not have been able to directly confront the possibility of a real privatization of Islamic beliefs, because he would have faced the same issue that arose in the Jewish question: Islam, like Judaism, is a religious of laws. As it has been said, a religion of laws will almost certainly contradict the laws of a secular State and would not be able to refrain from interrelate with the public sphere. For example, teachers wearing a Muslim veil or turban in public schools; Muslim women wearing burqas in public facilities; the introduction of Sharia law in order to legalize social relationships within Muslim communities and in their relations with non-Muslim communities; etc., are challenges to the secular State. Several European countries are juggling between the right of freedom of religion and absolute secularism(9): France chooses to ban burqas in public spaces; the Netherlands to expel teachers from public schools that insisted in wearing veils or turbans in class; Italy to reform family law in order to stop "honor killings" among Muslim families; etc. But like with Judaism, Marx would overcome Islam's inability to privatize its creed by arguing that such incapability is a symptom of the antagonism between civil society (the individual egoistic man) and the State (the solidary citizen) and that will never be surpassed until human emancipation is obtained. Interestingly enough, while during the 19th century Jews were an equivalent to bourgeois and entrepreneurs, Muslims of the 21st century, on the other hand, are identified with other kinds of socio-economic characterization. Muslims are identified either as proletarians or as lumpenproletarians. Remarkably, the occupational standing of 84% of Muslims living in Germany is either blue or white collar; compared to just 40% of non-Muslims Germans (10); 20% of young non-Muslim French are unemployed compared to 50% of young French Muslims(11); 9% of non-Muslim Dutch are unemployed, while 30% of Dutch Muslims are jobless(12); 10% of non-Muslim Belgians live below the poverty line, while 60% of Muslim Belgians are poor(13); 15% of non-Muslim British households are in poverty, but that percentage ascends to 55% when Muslim British households are considered(14). In Europe 80% of Muslim men are employed in low-skill/low-wage jobs and in routine manual and service occupations, only 45% of non-Muslim men are employed in the same kind of jobs(15). Finally, when the Human Development Index is taken into account and it is divided among the Muslim and non-Muslim population in the European countries it is evidenced that the standard of living of Muslim communities is significantly lower than that of the rest (16). This brief and expedited socio-economic context of Muslims in Europe would be employed by Marx in order to circumvent Islam's inability to privatize its creed: Muslims, although they live in modern secular States and enjoy political emancipation, persist in carrying on with their religious practices in public spaces, and sometimes in opposition to public laws, because they are suffering social inequality; they are suffering from not attaining human emancipation. Of course, all human beings lack of human emancipation, not only Muslims in Europe, but it is Muslims' special socio-economic situation in Europe that creates a secular deficiency from political emancipation and prevents their religion's transformation into a private creed. Jews did not have political emancipation and were, in their majority, entrepreneurs, which gave them a better socio-economic standing and allowed them to privatize their religion once political emancipation was conquered. Most of European Muslims, in contrast, are proletarians and, in worst cases, lumpenproletarians (17)and even if they enjoy political emancipation they find themselves in a position characterized by an extreme social inequality, that does not allow many of them to privatize their creed (18). Only through human emancipation and social equality they would be able to negate their religious differentiation; because in a true democratic State, a communist State according to Marx, communism itself would act as a religious belief and manner of living. That is, perhaps, how Marx intended to accomplish the abolition of all religions: by the emergence of a new politically and socially equal "religion for all human beings", that of communism.(1) Peled Yoad; "From Theology to Sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the Question of Jewish Emancipation";History of Political Thought; Vol. XIII, No. 3, Autumn, 1992. (2) Marx borrows the concept of species-being from Feuerbach. It seems to be implied in the text, although it is more possible to be influenced by later Marx's texts, that revolution is the mean to obtain human emancipation; the mean that those who suffer from social inequality will use in order to end that suffering. Once human emancipation is reached then the democratic/communist State is at hand. Again, this is not actually said in On the Jewish Question. (3) See Flannery Edward, Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2005, pp.154-157; and Lewis Bernard, Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice, W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 1999, pp. 112.(4) Peled Yoad; "From Theology to Sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the Question of Jewish Emancipation"; History of Political Thought; Vol. XIII, No. 3, Autumn, 1992, pp. 475. (5) It was this image of the "financial Jew", embodied in the Rothschild dynasty, which begot the western anti-Semitic wave of the 19th and 20th century. See Arendt, Hannah, The Origins of Totalitarianism, Benediction Books, New York, 2009; Ferguson Niall, The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World, Penguin, New York, 2009; Ferguson Niall, The House of Rothschild, Penguin, New York, 2000; Landes David,Dynasties: Fortunes and Misfortunes of the World's Great Family Businesses, Penguin, New York, 2007.(6) Actually, the word "Judentum" came to be a synonymous with commerce.(7) Sorkin David, The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780-1840, Wayne State University Press, New York, 1999, pp. 108-9.(8) Peled Yoad; "From Theology to Sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the Question of Jewish Emancipation"; History of Political Thought; Vol. XIII, No. 3, Autumn, 1992, pp. 481.(9) For more about the interaction of Muslim minorities and political liberalism in a Rawlsian version see Benhenda, Mostapha, "For Muslim Minorities, it is Possible to Endorse Political Liberalism, but this is not Enough", Journal Of Islamic Law and Culture, Vol. 11, No. 2, May 2009, pp. 71-87. The article concludes that almost all Muslim minorities could and will endorse political liberalism, but many will not be able to do it because of a religious normative prohibition to reform their doctrine.(10) "Muslim Life in Germany", Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, German Government, http://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/EN/Migration/Publikationen/Forschung/Forschungsberichte/fb6-muslimisches-leben,templateId=raw,property=publicationFile.pdf/fb6-muslimisches-leben.pdf(11) "Muslims in Europe", Open Society Institute; http://www.soros.org/initiatives/home/articles_publications/publications/muslims-europe-20091215/a-muslims-europe-20100302.pdf(12) Ibid.(13) Ibid.(14) Ibid.(15) Ibid.(16) For example, the HDI of Spain, Italy, Great Britain, France, Germany and Sweden are: 0,955; 0,951; 0,947; 0,961; 0.947 and 0,963 respectively; while the HDI of their respective Muslim communities are: 0,841; 0, 848; 0, 830; 0, 850; 0, 860; 0,912. Available at the European Social Survey http://ess.nsd.uib.no/ (17) Loïc Wacquant would call them "urban outcasts" or marginal. See Wacquant Loïc, Urban Outcasts: A Comparative Sociology of Advanced Marginality, Polity, Cambridge, 2007; Wacquant Loïc, Prisons of Poverty, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 2009; Wacquant Loïc, Los Condenados de la ciudad. Gueto, peripherias, Estado, Siglo XII Editores, Buenos Aires, 2007.(18) Certainly they are more religious than Christian and Jewish Europeans because they are perceived as a marginalized minority and in fierce competition with non-Muslim proletarians. It is civil society that enforces religious differentiation on them.*Estudiante de Doctorado, New School for Social Research, New YorkMaestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos AiresÁrea de Especialización: Procesos de formación del Estado moderno, sociología de la guerra, terrorismo, genocidio, conflictos étnicos, nacionalismos y minorías.
From the introduction: 'Brazil is rich: rich in natural resources, rich in fertile soil, and rich in people". Although the country still shows deficits in different areas, the Brazilian market has attracted large investors and companies especially in the past decade. The country's potential has been the focus of many analysts and researchers by renowned economic institutes. After years of high inflation and slow growth – especially in the eighties and early nineties – Brazil was able to recover and get back into game with the other global players. From a historic perspective it is to say that the country has gone through large transition periods in the last century. Emerging from being a major coffee exporter until the early 20th century, Brazil now belongs to one of the most industrialized countries in Latin America. Although it is the largest country in the region in terms of population figures and geographical size, its GDP share in Latin America or annual growth rate offer a different conclusion. Nevertheless, the consulting market in Brazil has been growing, in particular during the last ten years. Many European and North American consulting companies have invested into the country, built branch offices and bought local firms. Although the market is still very young, its future potential has clearly been discovered. When thinking of Brazil, the words that tend to enter people's minds are positive sounding ones such as Samba, Carneval and beautiful beaches which radiate joy and energy. On the other side issues like criminality, poverty and high social inequality are often associated with Brazil as well. Either way, it is almost certain that one will have heard of Brazil. The country manifested itself in the mind of people and has made front page news more than once. Objective, relevance and research questions: The objective of the thesis is neither to conduct a market evaluation nor to point out the importance and future relevance of Brazil in the world economy. In fact this work is an empirical study on a market entry strategy which can serve as a reference for management consulting companies that want to enter the Brazilian consulting market. Furthermore, the work attempts to deliver a comprehensive picture of this market, with the intention of elaborating on whether it is wise to invest in Brazil, or whether there may be another – more suitable – Latin American country. Yet, the focus lies on the framework for strategy formulation and the proposals that will be made thereupon. In order to accomplish this, both a classical and an empirical approach were chosen whose outcomes will be compared to one another in the last chapter. LEAN Management is a booming term in the consulting business. Everybody wants to learn the 'LEAN-Thinking" and apply the method to his/her own company. Since the late 1990s LEAN Management is experiencing an upward trend and the word has spread all over the globe to reach Brazil. Consequently, there is a growing demand for LEAN in this country, as evidenced by the number of consulting companies already present in the market and the excellent prospects it shows. The aim of the thesis is to propose which geographical regions and economic sectors in Brazil may yield attractive prospects for management consulting companies. The information is then used to formulate a market entry strategy for LEAN Consulting in the Brazilian market. In addition, proposals will be made and future scenarios presented to the reader which are augmented by emprircal findings. Based on the introduction and the objective of the topic – giving a perspective of the situation in Brazil – the following two research questions are being raised. Is the LEAN market in Brazil a suitable market for a LEAN consulting company to invest in? Which recommendations for an entry strategy can be given when entering the Brazilian LEAN market? Out of these research questions, a sub-question is derived. Can Brazil serve as an entry port to Latin America for LEAN consulting businesses? The analysis of these questions will be conducted through a theoretical as well as an empirical approach. Structure of the topic: After having presented the objective and relevance of the topic as well as the research questions, the author will introduce the structure of the thesis. Accordingly, to strengthen the arguments that will be highlighted in the conclusion, the thesis is divided into three parts. The first part consists of theoretical results selected from secondary research. Based on the theory, an empirical study is conducted, involving a group of experts who will elaborate on their personal experiences and opinions with regards to the topic. The empirical findings deduced from the study are compared with the theoretical results in order to verify, if there exist a consensus among theory and empiricism. This comparison is then used to build up the third part of the thesis – the conclusion. Methodology: In order to create a solid basis for the strategy formulation chapters two and three provide a brief overview of the economic situation in Brazil – in a Latin American context – from the earliest settlement in the 14th century until today. Furthermore, an evaluation of the market, its productivity and its growth potential, completes the picture. Recent political changes have brought an upwind into the descending system. Since the implementation of the Real Plan in 1994 the country has experienced low inflation, trade liberalization, substantial privatization, increases in import penetration and the expansion of FDI. Thus, Brazil has reason to hope for future in prosperity. The information drawn for this section consists of secondary research, covering literature as well as various online resources and online libraries, to provide an adequate framework. The literature is primarily in English and partly in German or Portuguese language. The term LEAN Consulting is explained in detail in chapter four, in order to understand the impact and relevance of the term in this context. The literature for this part is provided by a consulting company that is working according to the LEAN principles. It consists entirely of secondary research with books and magazines as main sources. The LEAN Consulting market in Brazil has a special importance for the topic and the sources are given by the same consulting company. After having applied the theoretical framework of the thesis, chapter five provides the framework for the strategy formulation. The basis to this approach is the Five-Forces-Model by Michael E. Porter. Since the topic – market entry strategy – is a rather practical issue, the main part consists of empirical findings deducted from a Delphi Study. It is based on expert interviews that were held with a group of initially nine experts from the consulting business in two stages. In the first stage, these experts were confronted with two questionnaires – consisting of open and closed questions – which they had to answer based on their personal experience and opinion. The questionnaire in the second round was based on the summarized answers of the first one, raising new thoughts to the topic. The questionnaires were submitted in German, since all of the participants were either native German speakers or had sufficient knowledge of the German language to understand the questions. The aim of this Delphi Study was to gain opinions and experiences that can neither be found in books nor in any other relevant literature. Usually, Delphi Studies are used for business forecasting. The author receives new viewpoints that are based on personal experience of the experts by living in Brazil and working in the consulting business during the last decades. The last part of the thesis draws the conclusion, comparing the classical market entry approach to the empirical findings of the Delphi Study. This then gives a profound basis for constructing strategic recommendations and provides a future outlook. It is interesting to see how the experts of the Delphi Study view the future prospect of the consulting business in the country and what should be done to boost economic growth in this area. The thesis concludes by summarizing all important findings under consideration of the background layed out in the first part of the thesis.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH LANGUAGEIII ABSTRACT AUF DEUTSCHIV 1.INTRODUCTION1 1.1OBJECTIVE, RELEVANCE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS1 1.2STRUCTURE OF THE TOPIC2 1.3METHODOLOGY5 2.ECONOMIC OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND OF BRAZIL7 2.1MERCOSUR7 2.1.1History8 2.1.2Foundation8 2.1.3Economic role of the Mercosur9 2.2THE COUNTRY BRAZIL10 2.2.1Political and economic history11 2.2.2Economic environment13 2.2.3Political environment14 2.2.4Macroeconomic data15 2.2.5Social inequality17 2.2.6Level of corruption and governance indicators19 3.MARKET EVALUATION22 3.1THE 'THREE-SECTOR-THEORY' OF BRAZIL22 3.2PRODUCTIVITY24 3.3POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR MANAGEMENT CONSULTING COMPANIES25 3.3.1Major Brazilian companies26 3.3.2Strongest regions in Brazil31 3.3.3Most promising branches34 3.4CONCLUSION35 4.LEAN CONSULTING37 4.1DEFINITION AND PHILOSOPHY OF LEAN37 4.2TYPICAL PRACTICES APPLIED39 4.3DIFFERENCES OF LEAN MANAGEMENT TOWARDS OTHER METHODS42 4.4MANAGEMENT CONSULTING COMPANIES IN BRAZIL44 4.4.1LEAN consulting companies in Brazil45 4.4.2The IBCO47 4.5REASONS TO CHOOSE AN EXTERNAL CONSULTANCY47 4.5.1Criteria to choose consulting services48 4.5.2Average consulting fees48 4.6CONCLUSION49 5.MARKET ENTRY STRATEGY51 5.1OVERVIEW OF THE CLASSICAL MARKET ENTRY STRATEGY51 5.1.1Methods for market entry52 5.1.1.1Contractual agreements53 5.1.1.2Sole Venture54 5.1.2Influencing factors for the entry mode decision55 5.1.3Special characteristics of services56 5.2MARKET ENTRY STRATEGY INTO THE LEAN CONSULTING MARKET57 5.2.1Competition57 5.2.2Opportunities and threats62 5.2.3Framework for strategy formulation64 5.2.3.1Business communication65 5.2.3.2Starting the business66 5.2.3.3Employing foreign workers67 5.2.3.4Obtaining a credit69 5.2.3.5Legal constraints70 5.2.4The Delphi Study71 5.2.4.1Reasons to choose the Delphi method73 5.2.4.2Limits to the Delphi method74 5.2.4.3Experts75 5.2.4.4First round76 5.2.4.5Second round78 5.2.4.6Short summary of most important findings81 6.CONCLUSION83 6.1FINAL RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS83 6.2DIRECT COMPARISON OF THEORY AND EMPIRICISM86 6.3FUTURE OUTLOOK88 6.4PROSPECT FOR FURTHER RESEARCH90 7.BIBLIOGRAPHY91 7.1BOOKS91 7.2ARTICLES/PUBLICATIONS92 7.3WEBSOURCES94 7.4FURTHER READING AND EXPERTS97 8.APPENDIX98 8.1DELPHI STUDY - SUMMARY OF FIRST ROUND98 8.2DELPHI STUDY - SUMMARY OF SECOND ROUND101 8.3CONCRETE STEPS FOR STARTING A BUSINESS IN BRAZIL105 8.4PAYING TAXES IN BRAZIL107Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3, Market Evaluation: Today's marketplace is very competitive. In order to successfully place a company or a product in a new market its potential needs to be assessed first. The market evaluation uses information given about the market and helps to determine feasibility of a potential market and the competitive landscape. The aim is to compare different regions and sectors to find the strongest opportunities. This will reveal a strategic roadmap to the market entry. The Brazilian market has an enormous potential and growth is foreseen in the country for the next years. This chapter will provide an overview of the regions and branches in Brazil, pointing out the ones with the highest capability to be the future market for a management consulting company. The industrial sector is the most important one in this country and the focus of the strategy will lie on the branches present in this sector. A market segmentation presenting the biggest companies – measured by revenue – will provide the benchmark for potential growth and allows us to focus on prospective customers. The 'three-sector-theory" of Brazil: According to the 'three-sector-theory", developed by Jean Fourastié, the economy can be categorised into three different sectors of economic activity: the agricultural sector – the primary sector (commodity producing sector), the industry sector – the secondary sector (or goods-producing sector), and the service sector – the tertiary sector (or non-goods producing sector). The aim of this theory was to explain the transition from the agricultural to the industrial society and later on to the post-industrial service society in the 20th century. It is assumed that the three sectors have different opportunities to adapt to technological progress. Through the application of new technical procedures, the productivity in the primary and secondary sector increases while, at the same time, less manpower is needed and also the demand for these goods decreases with increased productivity. The excess manpower and demand, in turn, will be absorbed by the tertiary sector. The problem is that this theory assumes no influence by outside factors and therefore cannot be applied to any economy without precaution. In 2006, the agricultural sector accounted for 36% of the GDP worldwide, the industry sector for 22% and the service sector for 42%. In Brazil the distribution in the same year is considerably different, with the agricultural sector accounting for 5.5%, yielding coffee, soybeans, wheat and rice as the main products. The industry accounts for 28.7%, with its main products being textiles, shoes, chemicals, cement and iron ore. The services sector makes up 65.8% of total output. The GDP growth rate by sector in the years from 1997 to 2007 has been subject to fluctuation especially in the agricultural but also in the industry sector. The service sector has been rather stable during this period. The three-sector-theory is based on the assumption of above-average growth of demand and below-average growing productivity in the tertiary sector. The current situation in Brazil and in the global context shows a strong tertiary sector, followed by the secondary and the primary sector. This supports the three-sector-theory of the shift: agriculture > industry > service sector. Although the service sector is the strongest sector in the economy, both by total GDP and by year-over-year growth rate, it is a non-good producing sector, which makes it uninteresting for a management consulting company as they are concentrating on the industrial sector where production takes place. The theory does not explicitly state the distribution of the different branches among the three sectors. Therefore it can be assumed that some branches that are interesting for the strategy could be assigned to the service sector, although in the following this sector will not be elaborated on. The importance of the industrial sector has been fully recognized by the development studies all over the world. The industrial sector – through its linkages with other sectors – plays a very important role in achieving rapid growth and development. Most modern and rich countries have a well developed industrial sector through their early industrial revolution. It is the most important driver of the economy and apart from the service sector – the non-goods producing industry – it constitutes the biggest sector and generates the largest profit share out of all. During the last years the industrial production in Brazil was subject to many changes due to the slow growth of the economy. The country has set up an agenda to become a competitive economy that is able to provide qualified goods in sufficient quantity and to create a greater number of high skilled jobs. Brazil is on its way to transform into an economy that is included in the knowledge society and recognized as one of the main platforms for the industry worldwide. Productivity: The level of productivity is a crucial part in the context of this thesis. It indicates the general market growth and its potential for the future. Since management consulting companies will focus on the industry it is important to know, if there is a need to enhance productivity. If so, then this need would likely translate into higher investments in this area and a greater demand for support services from the consulting industry. The level of labour productivity is the primary determinant on the nation's GDP per capita growth. Brazil's weak economic growth is due to the relatively slow increase of labour productivity. The latest performance study, conducted by the Conference Board, shows a labour productivity growth rate of 1.9% in 2007. Compared to the other BRIC countries, this is the poorest rate. Russia, India and China showed a much better performance with 6.3%, 6.7% and 9.8%, respectively. This can be ascribed to transitional reallocations of employees by large companies into emerging markets that consequently foster productivity growth in the respective country. Especially India and China play a determining role in this context, since wages in these countries are notably lower than in Brazil and also in Russia, hence companies are more likely to turn to the Asian countries to make new investments that lead to job creation. According to a study on barriers to growth in the Brazilian economy, conducted by McKinsey's São Paulo office in 2005, there are two major root causes that lead to the relatively slower productivity growth. The first one refers to the modest per capita income, which promotes consumption of the lower-priced products and services. An example is the automotive industry, which produces primarily small and inexpensive cars. For the higher-priced vehicle section it relies on imports from other countries. The second cause is related to the first one – labour is cheaper than capital – which inhibits investment in new machinery that, in turn, would improve productivity levels. These barriers, however, will naturally fade once the government is able to resolve the social and economic problems by a policy shift. Labour and tax laws, price controls, product regulations, trade barriers and subsidies, among others, are present obstacles that limit productivity. Also, the unemployment rate, the level of inequality, the state of the educational system, are all factors that influence productivity levels and play a role in the performance studies. Potential markets for management consulting companies: After having identified the target sector and the level of productivity in the country, the next important step to defining a suitable market entry strategy is to determine specific markets in Brazil that yield the best prospects. Three different variables will influence the decision-making. These are the major Brazilian companies, the strongest regions and the most promising branches that are interesting for a management consulting company. Consequently, this will then lead to the establishment of the target branches as well as companies for LEAN business in Brazil and serve as a basis to formulate the entry strategy.
