Suchergebnisse

The relevance of the research. The emergence of temporary employment as an atypical form of work organization has become a relevant topic in the research of human resource management processes. Researchers analyze temporary employment not only as an atypical form of work organization, but also note that its practical use in labour market is characterized by flexibility while integrating workers into labour market and improving the productivity of the companies. The problem of the research. There is the lack of research and findings in scientific literature on temporary employment companies, empowering to reveal the flexibility of temporary employment management, its improvement and factors affecting it. There is little discussion among researchers about temporary employment as a flexible form of work organization, the tripartite relationship between a temporary employee, a temporary employment company and a user of temporary work. Specific and narrow issues are most often analysed. The description of the problem in this article can be summarized by the following problematic question: What are the factors that influence the management of a temporary employment company? Object of the research: factors that influence the management of a temporary employment company. Aim of the research: to disclose the factors determining the management of the activities of a temporary employment company. Research methods: Focus group, analysis of scientific literature, systematization, generalization and comparison, analysis of the contents of legal acts, statistics and other documents, methods of deduction and theoretical modelling, analysis, comparison and generalization of scientific statements and empirical research findings based on them, presentation of interpretations. Temporary employment is one of the forms of precarious employment and non-standard employment relationships. Unconventional employment patterns, in particular short-term and temporary work, have spread in many countries over the last few decades, but there is no universally accepted definition of temporary employment in scientific literature, as each country sets up their own specific regulation of employment. Temporary workers are usually considered to be workers who have concluded employment contracts for a specific period or for specific jobs, or those who have seasonal, casual or occasional work. It is widely recognized that temporary work improves the flexibility of labour market, has a positive economic impact, reduces unemployment and rapidly addresses temporary human resource shortages in companies. The form of temporary employment is convenient for disabled people, people with children and students for flexible integration into labour market, as it allows to take into consideration the mutual interests of the company and the temporary worker. Temporary employment services are provided by companies and agencies officially registered for these activities, which include the following functions: search and selection of employees, employee work accounting, employment contracts, etc. In Lithuania, the activities of temporary employment companies are regulated by the Labour Code of the Republic of Lithuania, and the criteria evaluation system of temporary employment companies is used to evaluate the activities of temporary employment companies. Every year, a temporary employment company has to submit a notice to the State Labour Inspectorate that it meets the established criteria. This article analyses a temporary employment company, coded as X at the request of its employees in order to maintain confidentiality. Information about the activities of this company in 2019 was provided by five company employees. The company has been providing temporary employment services in Northern Lithuania since 2012. The annual average number of temporary employees is about 70. The customers of the company – the users of temporary employment – are companies operating in manufacturing sector. The company establishes a tripartite employment relationship between a temporary employment user, a temporary employee and a temporary employment company, it employs a temporary employee and then sends an employee to work for a temporary employment beneficiary. The demand for services provided by Company X is determined by internal factors of collaboration with customers. Customers strive to minimize time and other resources and receive quality service. Manufacturing companies apply to Company X due to temporary increase in the scope of work, seasonality, sickness or holidays of employees. Company X expeditiously seeks the necessary employees for temporary employment in its existing database of job candidates or in labour market and then performs the necessary recruitment procedures. The company's activities are strongly influenced by external factors: legislative system, economic and demographic situation of the country, unemployment rate, the education level of employed employees and qualification improvement system of the country. A probabilistic analysis of opportunities of Company X and their impact on its business has disclosed that there is a high probability that a company can attract more customers in the course of different events and that this would have a significant impact on the company's business. The establishment of new divisions in other Lithuanian cities would also have a significant impact on this business, however, such establishment is unlikely. A probability analysis of threats and their impact on its business of Company X suggests that automation of workplaces for the company would be the factor that has the greatest negative impact on the company's business, as it would reduce the need for temporary workers. New competitors, as a medium impact factor, have negative impact, however, due to the fact that the terms and conditions for engaging in these activities for temporary employment companies are high, the likelihood of this threat is low. The highest probability of threats is related to temporary workers, their experience, their qualifications and competencies, low motivation to work, low wages and the impact of emigration. There are five temporary employment companies operating in Šiauliai city and region. The analysis of the competitive environment of Company X revealed that the price of the service is the most important factor for success of five companies in Šiauliai city and region, as the importance of this factor was evaluated by high scores of 2-3,5 by competitors. This is followed by the available base of temporary staff, the image of the company in society and among customers. The timing of service orders is significantly more important to Company X than to other four companies, and conversely, the cost of temporary employment service is much more important to other four companies. In terms of competitiveness, Company X is the second of five companies. As the gap in the estimates of competitiveness is not large, it can be stated that all five temporary employment service companies operating in Šiauliai city and region are similarly competitive.

Problem setting. In the context of reforming the public administration system in Ukraine, the important problem is the sustainable development of regions, which is impossible without taking into account the environmentally friendly component. The need to implement a sustainable development policy at the regional level is due to the understanding that it must begin and be maintained at a basic level and, accordingly, such development must be carried out from the bottom up, that is, from a specific community and region to a national and global scale. In general, the activities of permanent regional communities are aimed at ensuring an improvement in the quality of life of their people without the threat of their deterioration in other regions; maintaining ecosystems within their limits; providing effective state support to the activities of the regional community; creation of conditions for economic security. Sustainable development at the regional level and the formation of a sustainable community in the region involves the achievement of the ecological, social and economic balance of local entities. And in the context of European integration processes in Ukraine, the formation of state (national) and regional environmental policies in accordance with international and European standards is of particular relevance, therefore it is important to determine the main guidelines for the formation and implementation of environmental policies in Ukraine.Recent research and publications analysis. The problems, the formation and research of the implementation of environmental policy in Ukraine, the definition of the role of the state in ensuring the necessary level of environmental safety are devoted to the work of famous scientists and specialists, such as V. Andronov, N. Andrusevich, G. Belyavsky, V. Bugas, B. Burkinsky, V. Bulatov, A. Veklich, D. Vetvitsky, I. Dragan, A. Zarzhitsky, V. Kravtsov, A. Kucherenko, A. Lazor, S. Lisovsky, N. Malysh, G. Marushevsky, L. Melnik, M. Mikievich, A. Mordvinov, V. Muravyov, A. Myaghenko, V. Potapenko, Yu. Satalkin, L. Stasyuk, O. Trush, D. Fonaryuk, E. Khlobystov, N. Khumarova, M. Shapochka, V. Shevchuk, L. Yakushenko, L. Yatsenko and others. However, a number of issues are still poorly investigated, in particular, the issue of modernizing the public administration system in the field of environmental policy in accordance with European standards and in context European integration.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. In Ukraine, which isindependent and has very rich natural resources, an inefficient and environmentally hazardous nature management structure has developed. Important tasks in preventing this problem: stopping the decline of natural ecosystems, sustainable development at the regional level and the formation of a sustainable community in the region, provides for environmental, social and economic balance, a high standard of living and quality of life for current and future generations of Ukraine and the introduction of a new one built on the best achievements of the European environmental management model.The aim of the article is to determine the European integration guidelines and directions for the formation of environmental policy in the context of sustainable development of regions in Ukraine. A whole series of tasks meets this goal, namely, the issue of adapting and bringing national environmental legislation to European standards, introducing European experience in applying economic mechanisms for implementing environmental policies, implementing an environmental management system.Paper main body. Among the main European integration guidelines for the formation of environmental policy in Ukraine at the regional level, can be distinguished: firstly, adaptation and bringing the national environmental legislation to European standards, and secondly, the introduction of European experience in applying innovative mechanisms for implementing environmental policies.The implementation of environmental policy requires the effective functioning of a system of environmental legislation aimed at achieving national priorities. The main requirements for such legislation are its compliance with the Constitution of Ukraine, approximation to the relevant directives of the European Union (EU), ensuring the implementation and implementation of international environmental agreements to which Ukraine is a party.The priority area for the formation of environmental policy in Ukraine is the introduction of economic instruments adopted in the EU. The use of economic instruments is based on the "polluter pays" principle (which means that the manufacturer is fully financially responsible for ensuring the implementation of measures aimed at preventing or reducing environmental pollution), which ensures a change in the behavior of business entities by transferring external costs from destruction or depletion of facilities environment into the category of internal costs and changes in the set and structure of incentives for these entities.The current direction of European integration in the environmental sphere is the introduction of electronic management. The concept of environmental management in the implementation of environmental policy (especially at the regional level) is in line with current trends in public administration, contributing to accessibility and transparency in the interaction of the state, business and the public in solving environmental problems.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further research. Thus, the study identified the following European integration guidelines for the formation of environmental policy in Ukraine in the context of sustainable development of the regions: adaptation and bringing national environmental legislation to European standards (the legal principle for European integration processes in the environmental sector is Section V, Chapter 6 of the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the EU), the introduction of European experience in the application of economic mechanisms for the implementation of environmental policies, based on "polluter pays" principle (environmental taxes, benefits, subsidies, etc.); implementation of an environmental management system whose mechanisms are environmental monitoring, environmental assessment, environmental audit, environmental labeling; implementation of the concept of environmental management in the field of environmental policy implementation that meets modern trends in public administration, contributing to accessibility and transparency in the interaction of the state, business and the public in solving environmental problems.A promising area for further research is to determine the conditions for the implementation of European principles of environmental management in the field of national environmental policy. ; Досліджено та визначено євроінтеграційні орієнтири і напрямки формування екологічної політики в контексті сталого розвитку регіонів в Україні. Обґрунтовано, що в контексті децентралізації державного управління посилюється роль місцевого самоврядування в управлінні екологічною сферою, а отже, і формування регіональної екологічної політики. Виокремлено такі євроінтеграційні орієнтири формування екологічної політики в Україні в контексті сталого розвитку регіонів: адаптація і приведення національного екологічного законодавства до європейських стандартів; впровадження європейського досвіду застосування економічних механізмів реалізації екологічної політики, які засновані на принципі "забруднювач платить"; запровадження системи екологічного менеджменту, механізмами якого є екологічний моніторинг, екологічна оцінка, екологічний аудит, екологічне маркування; реалізація концепції екологічного урядування у сфері реалізації екологічної політики. Охарактеризовано євроінтеграційні орієнтири формування екологічної політики в Україні в контексті сталого розвитку регіонів.

The relevance of the research. The emergence of temporary employment as an atypical form of work organization has become a relevant topic in the research of human resource management processes. Researchers analyze temporary employment not only as an atypical form of work organization, but also note that its practical use in labour market is characterized by flexibility while integrating workers into labour market and improving the productivity of the companies. The problem of the research. There is the lack of research and findings in scientific literature on temporary employment companies, empowering to reveal the flexibility of temporary employment management, its improvement and factors affecting it. There is little discussion among researchers about temporary employment as a flexible form of work organization, the tripartite relationship between a temporary employee, a temporary employment company and a user of temporary work. Specific and narrow issues are most often analysed. The description of the problem in this article can be summarized by the following problematic question: What are the factors that influence the management of a temporary employment company? Object of the research: factors that influence the management of a temporary employment company. Aim of the research: to disclose the factors determining the management of the activities of a temporary employment company. Research methods: Focus group, analysis of scientific literature, systematization, generalization and comparison, analysis of the contents of legal acts, statistics and other documents, methods of deduction and theoretical modelling, analysis, comparison and generalization of scientific statements and empirical research findings based on them, presentation of interpretations. Temporary employment is one of the forms of precarious employment and non-standard employment relationships. Unconventional employment patterns, in particular short-term and temporary work, have spread in many countries over the last few decades, but there is no universally accepted definition of temporary employment in scientific literature, as each country sets up their own specific regulation of employment. Temporary workers are usually considered to be workers who have concluded employment contracts for a specific period or for specific jobs, or those who have seasonal, casual or occasional work. It is widely recognized that temporary work improves the flexibility of labour market, has a positive economic impact, reduces unemployment and rapidly addresses temporary human resource shortages in companies. The form of temporary employment is convenient for disabled people, people with children and students for flexible integration into labour market, as it allows to take into consideration the mutual interests of the company and the temporary worker. Temporary employment services are provided by companies and agencies officially registered for these activities, which include the following functions: search and selection of employees, employee work accounting, employment contracts, etc. In Lithuania, the activities of temporary employment companies are regulated by the Labour Code of the Republic of Lithuania, and the criteria evaluation system of temporary employment companies is used to evaluate the activities of temporary employment companies. Every year, a temporary employment company has to submit a notice to the State Labour Inspectorate that it meets the established criteria. This article analyses a temporary employment company, coded as X at the request of its employees in order to maintain confidentiality. Information about the activities of this company in 2019 was provided by five company employees. The company has been providing temporary employment services in Northern Lithuania since 2012. The annual average number of temporary employees is about 70. The customers of the company – the users of temporary employment – are companies operating in manufacturing sector. The company establishes a tripartite employment relationship between a temporary employment user, a temporary employee and a temporary employment company, it employs a temporary employee and then sends an employee to work for a temporary employment beneficiary. The demand for services provided by Company X is determined by internal factors of collaboration with customers. Customers strive to minimize time and other resources and receive quality service. Manufacturing companies apply to Company X due to temporary increase in the scope of work, seasonality, sickness or holidays of employees. Company X expeditiously seeks the necessary employees for temporary employment in its existing database of job candidates or in labour market and then performs the necessary recruitment procedures. The company's activities are strongly influenced by external factors: legislative system, economic and demographic situation of the country, unemployment rate, the education level of employed employees and qualification improvement system of the country. A probabilistic analysis of opportunities of Company X and their impact on its business has disclosed that there is a high probability that a company can attract more customers in the course of different events and that this would have a significant impact on the company's business. The establishment of new divisions in other Lithuanian cities would also have a significant impact on this business, however, such establishment is unlikely. A probability analysis of threats and their impact on its business of Company X suggests that automation of workplaces for the company would be the factor that has the greatest negative impact on the company's business, as it would reduce the need for temporary workers. New competitors, as a medium impact factor, have negative impact, however, due to the fact that the terms and conditions for engaging in these activities for temporary employment companies are high, the likelihood of this threat is low. The highest probability of threats is related to temporary workers, their experience, their qualifications and competencies, low motivation to work, low wages and the impact of emigration. There are five temporary employment companies operating in Šiauliai city and region. The analysis of the competitive environment of Company X revealed that the price of the service is the most important factor for success of five companies in Šiauliai city and region, as the importance of this factor was evaluated by high scores of 2-3,5 by competitors. This is followed by the available base of temporary staff, the image of the company in society and among customers. The timing of service orders is significantly more important to Company X than to other four companies, and conversely, the cost of temporary employment service is much more important to other four companies. In terms of competitiveness, Company X is the second of five companies. As the gap in the estimates of competitiveness is not large, it can be stated that all five temporary employment service companies operating in Šiauliai city and region are similarly competitive.

Problem setting. In the context of reforming the public administration system in Ukraine, the important problem is the sustainable development of regions, which is impossible without taking into account the environmentally friendly component. The need to implement a sustainable development policy at the regional level is due to the understanding that it must begin and be maintained at a basic level and, accordingly, such development must be carried out from the bottom up, that is, from a specific community and region to a national and global scale. In general, the activities of permanent regional communities are aimed at ensuring an improvement in the quality of life of their people without the threat of their deterioration in other regions; maintaining ecosystems within their limits; providing effective state support to the activities of the regional community; creation of conditions for economic security. Sustainable development at the regional level and the formation of a sustainable community in the region involves the achievement of the ecological, social and economic balance of local entities. And in the context of European integration processes in Ukraine, the formation of state (national) and regional environmental policies in accordance with international and European standards is of particular relevance, therefore it is important to determine the main guidelines for the formation and implementation of environmental policies in Ukraine.Recent research and publications analysis. The problems, the formation and research of the implementation of environmental policy in Ukraine, the definition of the role of the state in ensuring the necessary level of environmental safety are devoted to the work of famous scientists and specialists, such as V. Andronov, N. Andrusevich, G. Belyavsky, V. Bugas, B. Burkinsky, V. Bulatov, A. Veklich, D. Vetvitsky, I. Dragan, A. Zarzhitsky, V. Kravtsov, A. Kucherenko, A. Lazor, S. Lisovsky, N. Malysh, G. Marushevsky, L. Melnik, M. Mikievich, A. Mordvinov, V. Muravyov, A. Myaghenko, V. Potapenko, Yu. Satalkin, L. Stasyuk, O. Trush, D. Fonaryuk, E. Khlobystov, N. Khumarova, M. Shapochka, V. Shevchuk, L. Yakushenko, L. Yatsenko and others. However, a number of issues are still poorly investigated, in particular, the issue of modernizing the public administration system in the field of environmental policy in accordance with European standards and in context European integration.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. In Ukraine, which isindependent and has very rich natural resources, an inefficient and environmentally hazardous nature management structure has developed. Important tasks in preventing this problem: stopping the decline of natural ecosystems, sustainable development at the regional level and the formation of a sustainable community in the region, provides for environmental, social and economic balance, a high standard of living and quality of life for current and future generations of Ukraine and the introduction of a new one built on the best achievements of the European environmental management model.The aim of the article is to determine the European integration guidelines and directions for the formation of environmental policy in the context of sustainable development of regions in Ukraine. A whole series of tasks meets this goal, namely, the issue of adapting and bringing national environmental legislation to European standards, introducing European experience in applying economic mechanisms for implementing environmental policies, implementing an environmental management system.Paper main body. Among the main European integration guidelines for the formation of environmental policy in Ukraine at the regional level, can be distinguished: firstly, adaptation and bringing the national environmental legislation to European standards, and secondly, the introduction of European experience in applying innovative mechanisms for implementing environmental policies.The implementation of environmental policy requires the effective functioning of a system of environmental legislation aimed at achieving national priorities. The main requirements for such legislation are its compliance with the Constitution of Ukraine, approximation to the relevant directives of the European Union (EU), ensuring the implementation and implementation of international environmental agreements to which Ukraine is a party.The priority area for the formation of environmental policy in Ukraine is the introduction of economic instruments adopted in the EU. The use of economic instruments is based on the "polluter pays" principle (which means that the manufacturer is fully financially responsible for ensuring the implementation of measures aimed at preventing or reducing environmental pollution), which ensures a change in the behavior of business entities by transferring external costs from destruction or depletion of facilities environment into the category of internal costs and changes in the set and structure of incentives for these entities.The current direction of European integration in the environmental sphere is the introduction of electronic management. The concept of environmental management in the implementation of environmental policy (especially at the regional level) is in line with current trends in public administration, contributing to accessibility and transparency in the interaction of the state, business and the public in solving environmental problems.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further research. Thus, the study identified the following European integration guidelines for the formation of environmental policy in Ukraine in the context of sustainable development of the regions: adaptation and bringing national environmental legislation to European standards (the legal principle for European integration processes in the environmental sector is Section V, Chapter 6 of the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the EU), the introduction of European experience in the application of economic mechanisms for the implementation of environmental policies, based on "polluter pays" principle (environmental taxes, benefits, subsidies, etc.); implementation of an environmental management system whose mechanisms are environmental monitoring, environmental assessment, environmental audit, environmental labeling; implementation of the concept of environmental management in the field of environmental policy implementation that meets modern trends in public administration, contributing to accessibility and transparency in the interaction of the state, business and the public in solving environmental problems.A promising area for further research is to determine the conditions for the implementation of European principles of environmental management in the field of national environmental policy. ; Досліджено та визначено євроінтеграційні орієнтири і напрямки формування екологічної політики в контексті сталого розвитку регіонів в Україні. Обґрунтовано, що в контексті децентралізації державного управління посилюється роль місцевого самоврядування в управлінні екологічною сферою, а отже, і формування регіональної екологічної політики. Виокремлено такі євроінтеграційні орієнтири формування екологічної політики в Україні в контексті сталого розвитку регіонів: адаптація і приведення національного екологічного законодавства до європейських стандартів; впровадження європейського досвіду застосування економічних механізмів реалізації екологічної політики, які засновані на принципі "забруднювач платить"; запровадження системи екологічного менеджменту, механізмами якого є екологічний моніторинг, екологічна оцінка, екологічний аудит, екологічне маркування; реалізація концепції екологічного урядування у сфері реалізації екологічної політики. Охарактеризовано євроінтеграційні орієнтири формування екологічної політики в Україні в контексті сталого розвитку регіонів.

Al principio degli anni Sessanta dell'Ottocento il mondo degli affari europeo visse una fase di grande intensificazione nell'esportazione di capitali in seguito all'uscita dalla crisi del '57 e all'affermarsi del liberismo. La moderna economia capitalistica si irradiò gradualmente dal cuore dell'Europa continentale alle sue periferie e alle aree di influenza extraeuropee fino a raggiungere, al principio del nuovo secolo, un grado di integrazione a livello mondiale interpretato dagli storici come una «prima globalizzazione». L'Italia appena unificata per opera di un governo «modernizzatore» fu un terreno fertile per gli investimenti esteri. Debito pubblico, costruzioni ferroviarie, fondazione di istituti di credito fondiario e mobiliare divennero il terreno d'azione privilegiato di banchieri privati e nuovi istituti bancari che ruotavano intorno alla piazza finanziaria di Parigi. Come nel resto d'Europa, alla rivoluzione ferroviaria si accompagnarono progetti di espansione e di «amélioration» delle città principali. I servizi pubblici urbani in rete quali illuminazione pubblica e privata, adduzione di acqua potabile, sistemi fognari, sistemi di trasporto urbano divennero un nuovo campo d'investimento per capitali in cerca di impiego. Napoli, in particolare, ormai liberata dal governo borbonico, sembra offrire grandi attrattive ed ampie possibilità di investimento. Ex capitale del regno, era il centro politico, economico e finanziario di tutte le province meridionali e la più grande città italiana, terza per popolazione dopo Parigi e Londra. Cresciuta disordinatamente e priva di servizi efficienti divenne oggetto di progetti di investimento ad ampio spettro: costruzione di infrastrutture esterne (collegamento alla rete ferroviaria in via di realizzazione; potenziamento dell'area portuale) ed interne (illuminazione a gas, acquedotto); espansione del tessuto urbano ad oriente (area industriale) e ad occidente (area residenziale: Chiaia, Posillipo). La piazza finanziaria di Napoli, dunque – già abituata alla presenza del capitale straniero ma relativamente chiusa per volontà dei sovrani e per le barriere all'ingresso tenute in piedi, fino a quel momento, dalla casa napoletana del fratelli Rothschild – si inserì a pieno titolo nel nuovo flusso di investimenti che si mise in moto negli anni Sessanta dell'Ottocento dalle principali piazze finanziarie europee, Londra, Parigi, Bruxelles, Ginevra, e divenne un importante crocevia di capitali esteri in cerca di occasioni di investimento. Il mondo della finanza, d'altro canto, in risposta alla crescita del volume e del raggio delle operazioni che si trovò ad affrontare, conobbe un adeguamento strutturale che si sintetizza nel contrasto tra vecchia e nuova banca, tra banchieri privati e nuovi istituti bancari a struttura societaria. La spersonalizzazione del mercato del denaro attraverso l'istituzionalizzazione del credito non rese tuttavia minore il ruolo degli «uomini», imprenditori o finanzieri che fossero, che sostennero la nascita e la sopravvivenza dei nuovi istituti bancari e delle imprese ad essi collegate in diverse forme. La fondazione della Compagnie napolitaine d'Éclairage et de Chauffage par le gaz - ad opera di finanzieri francesi, belgi e svizzeri - maturò in questa realtà ed è uno specchio di questa transizione nel mondo degli affari finanziari. Nel 1862, con l'estensione a tutto il territorio cittadino del servizio di illuminazione, vi fu un cambio di guardia nell'industria del gas a Napoli: la compagnia lionese esistente dal 1839 cedette le proprie attività ad una società per azioni che, pur avendo sede a Napoli, era in realtà una delle imprese partecipate da una compagnia francese di travaux publics di grande importanza, cresciuta nel ventennio precedente nel settore delle costruzioni ferroviarie in Francia e, nei primi anni Sessanta, al culmine della propria fase espansiva. Parigi era la piazza finanziaria di riferimento, che tra fine anni '50 e primi anni '60 conobbe un vero e proprio boom nel lancio di attività imprenditoriali localizzate in territori stranieri. La piazza parigina, infatti, dalla metà degli anni Cinquanta, grazie alla rivoluzione del credito e alla potenza dello strumento concessorio divenne il fulcro degli investimenti internazionali nel settore dei servizi in rete, diretti soprattutto nei territori in cui la struttura amministrativa era stata esportata dal Primo Impero e che presentavano una somiglianza di contesto istituzionale tale da favorire l'integrazione economica e finanziaria spinta dalle politiche di libero scambio e di uniformità monetaria giunte a maturazione negli anni Sessanta, con la stipula dei trattati di commercio e la creazione nel 1865 dell'Unione monetaria latina. La forma bicefala che assunse la società, con sede legale a Napoli e sede amministrativa a Parigi, è indicativa della necessità di avere a disposizione per i titoli un mercato che Napoli e l'Italia non erano in grado di offrire. A Parigi Basile Parent, uno dei soci fondatori della società madre, aveva personalmente accesso al credito e al mercato finanziario per la reputazione di cui godeva e per essere entrato, fin dalla fondazione nell'azionariato del Crédit Industriel et Commercial, la prima banca di deposito nata a Parigi nel 1859 sotto forma di società per azioni, di cui fu anche uno degli amministratori. Oltre che specchio della transizione in atto nel mondo degli affari finanziari, la Compagnie napolitaine d'Éclairage et de Chauffage par le gaz, data la sua lunga esistenza, si pone trasversalmente al mutamento di equilibri politici che hanno influenzato e incanalato nel tempo i flussi internazionali di capitali ed è un riflesso dell'andamento di lungo periodo della presenza dei capitali francesi in Italia. Nell'ambito di questo panorama così complesso lo scopo di questo studio dunque è l'analisi delle vicende della società non solo limitatamente al suo contesto e alla sua operatività, ma anche in quanto caso esemplificativo di un nodo di problematiche storiche di grande attualità come la letteratura storico-economica dimostra. Si tratta di tenere insieme i due aspetti cardine della vita della società, finanza e produzione, che in un periodo come quello in oggetto, in cui proprietà e controllo furono strettamente legati, appaiono intimamente collegati. Le fonti interne che l'azienda conserva ricostruiscono la storia produttiva della società. Per introdurla invece nel contesto più ampio cui appartiene e per illuminare i percorsi di lungo periodo bisogna seguire le tracce degli imprenditori che la fondarono e la tennero in vita, dei legami che la società tessé all'interno del milieu degli uomini d'affari stranieri e italiani, delle relazioni con gli istituti bancari e finanziari del cui sostegno la società godette (Crédit Industriel et Commercial, Crédit Lyonnais, Société Générale, Comptoir d'Escompte, Paribas, Comit, Union Financière de Genève, etc.), degli avvicendamenti di governance e del passaggio di proprietà dei capitali.

 Years ago I was teaching political philosophy and decided to do something interesting with social contract theory. I made the point that the post-apocalypse is our state of nature. Whereas the seventeenth century contemplated the nature of authority and law from the origins of society we confront the same problem from its collapse. In each case human beings outside of the state, whether prior to or post, became the basis for thinking about both human nature, and the nature of the state. I then showed a bunch of clips from The Road Warrior and other films, all of which illustrated the intersecting problem of social contract theory and post-apocalyptic films: how does one go from disorder to order, from violence to authority?This problem develops throughout the Mad Max films, starting with The Road Warrior (Mad Max 2). In that film the problem is one of contracts. It is the most Hobbesian of the films, not in that there is a war of all against all, gangs are the elementary unit of social life, but in that it struggles with the problem that "covenants without the sword are but words, and of no strength to secure men at all." Can Max make a deal with the denizens of the refinery, should they trust Max to keep his word in delivering "a vehicle that can haul that tanker," and should anyone trust Lord Humungus to keep his word? At each step along the way we deal with the fundamental problem of how is it possible to have a contract without a social contract, a deal without any authority to enforce it?
In contrast to this Thunderdome is a film not so much about contracts, but about a society held together by a law. While contracts are ad hoc, formed as the situation demands, and established between two parties, each wondering if they should trust the other, laws are eternal and universal. They apply to everyone, both ruler and ruled. Aunty Entity (Tina Turner) finds herself constrained by the law that she established, which is why she needs to secretly subvert it in making a secret contract with Max. One could make a point here about the sovereign deciding the exception (if one wanted to Agamben about it(, or about the way that an official order of law needs an official and secret rule of violence that both subverts it and makes it possible (Zizek's point). The law in its stark universality is both the thing that makes Bartertown possible, sustains it, and also threatens it, constraining the very rule it relies on. While Road Warrior is in some sense about the struggle to even form contracts in a world defined by violence, Thunderdome is about the attempt to turn that violence into the basis of a law, of an order (and the constraint of the law on rulers).   

As I wrote earlier, the progression from Thunderdome to Fury Road is the progression from a society founded on a law to a society founded on religion. If one wanted to be crudely Marxist about it, it is a matter of moving up the superstructure (and away from the base) from the practical matter of the legal order to the lofty abstractions of theology. It is one in which the law has gone from a civil order, founded on its universality, to a religious order,  founded on its transcendence. The progression from Bartertown to the Citadel is a progression in the development of political power, from the Repressive State Apparatus of laws and contracts to the Ideological State Apparatus of ideas and subjection. It is a progression in which the techniques of social reproduction are expanded and extended, as Spinoza writes, "the multitude has no ruler more powerful than superstition." At the level of post-apocalyptic social history Fury Road is then after Thunderdome. The first gives us a city establishing law in the face of violence and chaos, while the latter gives us a city that has expanded its superstructure beyond law to encompass religion, even culture. It is a religion that dictates not just belief in a afterlife but clothes, hair, tattoos, and even a symbolism of the teeth and chrome (my favorite touch) To cite Spinoza once again in a passage that could apply to Immortan Joe as much to Moses, "…he did not allow these men, habituated as they were to slavery, to perform any action at their own discretion…They could not even eat, dress, cut their hair, shave...or do anything whatsoever except in accordance with commands and instructions laid down by the law." The law no longer deals with infractions, but constitutes the very meaning of social and individual life.All of this is a preamble to my favorite scene in Furiosa. In the scene (in the clip below), Dementus and his federation of biker gangs arrives at the Citadel to challenge Immortan Joe. Dementus makes a speech positioning himself as a populist leader. He tells the people of the Citadel that he is not after them, but only in overthrowing their rulers. He promises them a better life, a better deal, all they have to do is cast down those that rule over and subjugate them. One gets the impression that he has made this offer before, and it seems like a safe bet to present oneself as a liberator. In a world of brutal warlords one imagines there is a lot of dissatisfaction and anger at those who rule the wasteland. Dementus understands Machiavelli's basic point that you can take power by aligning yourself either with the elites or the people. As Machiavelli argues, these two groups are at odds because the elites want to rule and the populace just want to not be oppressed. However, he does not understand what he is up against in confronting the Citadel, what kind of rule it is under. Immortan Joe is not just a worldly leader, but an ecclesiastic one, to use Machiavelli's distinction, one who governs not just bodies but souls. His "warboys" do not see themselves as ruled by Immortan Joe, as under his oppressive power; they want to be seen by him, witnessed, and this witnessing is the key to their dream of life eternal in Valhalla. Their lives are too short, half-lives, to be concerned with worldly rule, they long to ride eternal. They are the product of "a subjection deeper than themselves" to cite Foucault, or more to the point, Spinoza's, they fight for their servitude as if it was salvation. Dementus finds himself hopelessly outmatched. How can you offer people a better deal, more water and more food, if they do not live by bread alone. How do you threaten people with death if they already dream of "riding eternal" on the road to Valhalla? One cannot counter a myth with a contract, offer people more cabbages in this world when they dream of being shiny and chrome in the next world. To cite Spinoza again only an affect can displace another affect, only a dream can replace another dream. Dementus never makes this transformation, never moves beyond ruling bodies and bikes in this world to ruling over some heavenly road, where one rides eternal,  and it is in part his undoing. He remains in some sense a ruler at the level of the contract, of the negotiation. His gang is similar to Humungus', right down to a toady and a vehicle wired for sound. (I remember reading somewhere in an interview with George Miller that Humungus' gang was supposed to be a federation of different road gangs, hence the different aesthetics from mohawks to motorcycle cops. Dementus' gang is the same in this film). Dementus' power is sustained by his ability to offer his gang a better deal, a better contract than they would have without him. Dementus does learn one thing from his conflict with Immortan Joe, and that is true power hinges on being able to sacrifice rather than preserve one's subjects. This can be seen in another scene from the film, Dementus' seize of gastown. Dementus has the perfect ruse, a captured war rig that appears to be under assault. It is all a performance, with Dementus' men playing both war boys and (themselves) as a marauding gang. It is not convincing though, not fooling anyone. In order to sell it they need to kill each other. Dementus learns to be more brutal, but he still lacks what Joe has, and that is the ability to sell this brutality as salvation. True power is subjects that sacrifice themselves. 

I wrote earlier that the central question of Furiosa is "As the world falls around us, how to brave its cruelties? Those cruelties are not just the brutality of the wasteland, the scarcity of resources, but also a ruling class that paradoxically is all the more powerful in its ability to treat its subjects as disposable. It is hard not to see many allegories to the present here. One could think of Trump's famous line about being able to shoot someone in the middle of Fifth Avenue, (he also later joked to his own rally  in Vegas about how they were expendable). More broadly, is hard not to see the first scene of conflict between Dementus and Joe as that between a rational politician, offering people some improvement of their living conditions, health care or price controls on the cost of gasoline, and a post-liberal populist offering the people part of some grand vision of nation or god, a chance to ride eternal making America great again. Or one could think of Covid, which has gone from a ghoulish insistence that everyone sacrifice their lives to the economy to everyone yelling "witness me" as they rawdog a pandemic, foregoing vaccines and masks. Post-apocalyptic films are more than our states of nature, they might be the closest thing we have to help us make sense of the perversions of rule and authority we are subject to. 

Temporary or permanent, local or international, voluntary or forced, legal or illegal, registered or unregistered migrations of individuals, whole communities or individual groups are an important factor in constructing and modifying (modern) societies. The extent of international migrations is truly immense. At the time of the preparation of this publication more than 200 million people have been involved in migrations in a single year according to the United Nations. Furthermore, three times more wish to migrate, mostly from sub-Saharan Africa towards some of the most economically developed areas of the world according to the estimates by the Gallup Institute (Esipova, 2011). Some authors, although aware that it is not a new phenomenon, talk about the era of migration (Castles, Miller, 2009) or the globalization of migration (Friedman, 2004). The global dimensions of migration are definitely influenced also by the increasingly visible features of modern societies like constantly changing conditions, instability, fluidity, uncertainty etc. (Beck, 2009; Bauman, 2002).The extent, direction, type of migrations and their consequences are affected by many social and natural factors in the areas of emigration and immigration. In addition, researchers from many scientific disciplines who study migrations have raised a wide range of research questions (Boyle, 2009, 96), use a variety of methodological approaches and look for different interpretations in various spatial, temporal and contextual frameworks. The migrations are a complex, multi-layered, variable, contextual process that takes place at several levels. Because of this, research on migrations has become an increasingly interdisciplinary field, since the topics and problems are so complex that they cannot be grasped solely and exclusively from the perspective of a single discipline or theory. Therefore, we are witnessing a profusion of different "faces of migration", which is reflected and at the same time also contributed to by this thematic issue of the journal Ars & Humanitas.While mobility or migration are not new phenomena, as people have moved and migrated throughout the history of mankind, only recently, in the last few decades, has theoretical and research focus on them intensified considerably. In the last two decades a number of research projects, university programs and courses, research institutes, scientific conferences, seminars, magazines, books and other publications, involving research, academia as well as politics and various civil society organizations have emerged. This shows the recent exceptional interest in the issue of migration, both in terms of knowledge of the processes involved, their mapping in the history of mankind, as well as the theoretical development of migration studies and daily management of this politically sensitive issue.Migration affects many entities on many different levels: the individuals, their families and entire communities at the local level in the emigrant societies as well as in the receiving societies. The migration is changing not only the lives of individuals but whole communities and societies, as well as social relations; it is also shifting the cultural patterns and bringing important social transformations (Castles 2010). This of course raises a number of questions, problems and issues ranging from human rights violations to literary achievements. Some of these are addressed by the authors in this thematic issue.The title "Many faces of migration", connecting contributions in this special issue, is borrowed from the already mentioned Gallup Institute's report on global migration (Esipova, 2011). The guiding principle in the selection of the contributions has been their diversity, reflected also in the list of disciplines represented by the authors: sociology, geography, ethnology and cultural anthropology, history, art history, modern Mediterranean studies, gender studies and media studies. Such an approach necessarily leads not only to a diverse, but at least seemingly also incompatible, perhaps even opposing views "on a given topic. However, we did not want to silence the voices of "other" disciplines, but within the reviewing procedures actually invited scientists from the fields represented by the contributors to this volume. The wealth of the selected contributions lies therefore not only in their coherence and complementarity, but also in the diversity of views, stories and interpretations.The paper of Zora Žbontar deals with the attitudes towards foreigners in ancient Greece, where the hospitality to strangers was considered so worthy a virtue that everyone was expected to "demonstrate hospitality and protection to any foreigner who has knocked on their door". The contrast between the hospitality of ancient Greece and the modern emergence of xenophobia and ways of dealing with migration issues in economically developed countries is especially challenging. "In an open gesture of hospitality to strangers the ancient Greeks showed their civilization".Although the aforementioned research by the United Nations and Gallup Institute support some traditional stereotypes of the main global flows of migrants, and the areas about which the potential migrants "dream", Bojan Baskar stresses the coexistence of different migratory desires, migration flows and their interpretations. In his paper he specifically focuses on overcoming and relativising stereotypes as well as theories of immobile and non-enterprising (Alpine) mountain populations and migrations.The different strategies of the crossing borders adopted by migrant women are studied by Mirjana Morokvasic. She marks them as true social innovators, inventing different ways of transnational life resulting in a bottom-up contribution to the integrative processes across Europe. Some of their innovations go as far as to shift diverse real and symbolic boundaries of belonging to a nation, gender, profession.Elaine Burroughs and Zoë O'Reilly highlight the close relations between the otherwise well-established terminology used in statistics and science to label immigrants in Ireland and elsewhere in EU, and the negative representations of certain types of migrants in politics and the public. The discussion focusses particularly on asylum seekers and illegal immigrants who come from outside the EU. The use of language can quickly become a political means of exclusion, therefore the authors propose the development and use of more considerate and balanced migration terminology.Damir Josipovič proposes a change of the focal point for identifying and interpreting the well-studied migrations in the former Yugoslavia. The author suggests changing the dualistic view of these migrations to an integrated, holistic view. Instead of a simplified understanding of these migrations as either international or domestic, voluntary or forced, he proposes a concept of pseudo-voluntary migrations.Maja Korać-Sanderson's contribution highlights an interesting phenomenon in the shift in the traditional patterns of gender roles. The conclusions are derived from the study of the family life of Chinese traders in transitional Serbia. While many studies suggest that child care in recent decades in immigrant societies is generally performed by immigrants, her study reveals that in Serbia, the Chinese merchants entrust the care of their children mostly to local middle class women. The author finds this switch of roles in the "division of labour" in the child care favourable for both parties involved.Francesco Della Puppa focuses on a specific part of the mosaic of contemporary migrations in the Mediterranean: the Bangladeshi immigrant community in the highly industrialized North East of Italy. The results of his in-depth qualitative study reveal the factors that shape this segment of the Bangladeshi diaspora, the experiences of migrants and the effects of migration on their social and biographical trajectories.John A. Schembri and Maria Attard present a snippet of a more typical Mediterranean migration process - immigration to Malta. The authors highlight the reduction in migration between Malta and the United Kingdom, while there is an increase in immigration to Malta from the rest of Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. Amongst the various impacts of immigration to Malta the extraordinary concentration of immigrant populations is emphasized, since the population density of Malta far exceeds that of nearly all other European countries.Miha Kozorog studies the link between migration and constructing their places of their origin. On the basis of Ardener's theory the author expresses "remoteness" of the emigratory Slavia Friulana in terms of topology, in relation to other places, rather than in topography. "Remoteness" is formed in relation to the "outside world", to those who speak of "remote areas" from the privileged centres. The example of an artistic event, which organizers aim "to open a place like this to the outside world", "to encourage the production of more cosmopolitan place", shows only the temporary effect of such event on the reduction of the "remoteness".Jani Kozina presents a study of the basic temporal and spatial characteristics of migration "of people in creative occupations" in Slovenia. The definition of this specific segment of the population and approach to study its migrations are principally based on the work of Richard Florida. The author observes that people with creative occupations in Slovenia are very immobile and in this respect quite similar to other professional groups in Slovenia, but also to the people in creative professions in the Southern and Eastern Europe, which are considered to be among the least mobile in Europe. Detailed analyses show that the people in creative occupations from the more developed regions generally migrate more intensely and are also more willing to relocate.Mojca Pajnik and Veronika Bajt study the experiences of migrant women with the access to the labour market in Slovenia. Existing laws and policies push the migrants into a position where, if they want to get to work, have to accept less demanding work. In doing so, the migrant women are targets of stereotyped reactions and practices of discrimination on the basis of sex, age, attributed ethnic and religious affiliation, or some other circumstances, particularly the fact of being migrants. At the same time the latter results in the absence of any protection from the state.Migration studies often assume that the target countries are "modern" and countries of origin "traditional". Anıl Al- Rebholz argues that such a dichotomous conceptualization of modern and traditional further promotes stereotypical, essentialist and homogenizing images of Muslim women in the "western world". On the basis of biographical narratives of young Kurdish and Moroccan women as well as the relationships between mothers and daughters, the author illustrates a variety of strategies of empowerment of young women in the context of transnational migration.A specific face of migration is highlighted in the text of Svenka Savić, namely the face of artistic migration between Slovenia and Serbia after the Second World War. The author explains how more than thirty artists from Slovenia, with their pioneering work in three ensembles (opera, ballet and theatre), significantly contributed to the development of the performing arts in the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad.We believe that in the present thematic issue we have succeeded in capturing an important part of the modern European research dynamic in the field of migration. In addition to well-known scholars in this field several young authors at the beginning their research careers have been shortlisted for the publication. We are glad of their success as it bodes a vibrancy of this research area in the future. At the same time, we were pleased to receive responses to the invitation from representatives of so many disciplines, and that the number of papers received significantly exceeded the maximum volume of the journal. Recognising and understanding of the many faces of migration are important steps towards the comprehensive knowledge needed to successfully meet the challenges of migration issues today and even more so in the future. It is therefore of utmost importance that researchers find ways of transferring their academic knowledge into practice – to all levels of education, the media, the wider public and, of course, the decision makers in local, national and international institutions. The call also applies to all authors in this issue of the journal.

Temporary or permanent, local or international, voluntary or forced, legal or illegal, registered or unregistered migrations of individuals, whole communities or individual groups are an important factor in constructing and modifying (modern) societies. The extent of international migrations is truly immense. At the time of the preparation of this publication more than 200 million people have been involved in migrations in a single year according to the United Nations. Furthermore, three times more wish to migrate, mostly from sub-Saharan Africa towards some of the most economically developed areas of the world according to the estimates by the Gallup Institute (Esipova, 2011). Some authors, although aware that it is not a new phenomenon, talk about the era of migration (Castles, Miller, 2009) or the globalization of migration (Friedman, 2004). The global dimensions of migration are definitely influenced also by the increasingly visible features of modern societies like constantly changing conditions, instability, fluidity, uncertainty etc. (Beck, 2009; Bauman, 2002).The extent, direction, type of migrations and their consequences are affected by many social and natural factors in the areas of emigration and immigration. In addition, researchers from many scientific disciplines who study migrations have raised a wide range of research questions (Boyle, 2009, 96), use a variety of methodological approaches and look for different interpretations in various spatial, temporal and contextual frameworks. The migrations are a complex, multi-layered, variable, contextual process that takes place at several levels. Because of this, research on migrations has become an increasingly interdisciplinary field, since the topics and problems are so complex that they cannot be grasped solely and exclusively from the perspective of a single discipline or theory. Therefore, we are witnessing a profusion of different "faces of migration", which is reflected and at the same time also contributed to by this thematic issue of the journal Ars & Humanitas.While mobility or migration are not new phenomena, as people have moved and migrated throughout the history of mankind, only recently, in the last few decades, has theoretical and research focus on them intensified considerably. In the last two decades a number of research projects, university programs and courses, research institutes, scientific conferences, seminars, magazines, books and other publications, involving research, academia as well as politics and various civil society organizations have emerged. This shows the recent exceptional interest in the issue of migration, both in terms of knowledge of the processes involved, their mapping in the history of mankind, as well as the theoretical development of migration studies and daily management of this politically sensitive issue.Migration affects many entities on many different levels: the individuals, their families and entire communities at the local level in the emigrant societies as well as in the receiving societies. The migration is changing not only the lives of individuals but whole communities and societies, as well as social relations; it is also shifting the cultural patterns and bringing important social transformations (Castles 2010). This of course raises a number of questions, problems and issues ranging from human rights violations to literary achievements. Some of these are addressed by the authors in this thematic issue.The title "Many faces of migration", connecting contributions in this special issue, is borrowed from the already mentioned Gallup Institute's report on global migration (Esipova, 2011). The guiding principle in the selection of the contributions has been their diversity, reflected also in the list of disciplines represented by the authors: sociology, geography, ethnology and cultural anthropology, history, art history, modern Mediterranean studies, gender studies and media studies. Such an approach necessarily leads not only to a diverse, but at least seemingly also incompatible, perhaps even opposing views "on a given topic. However, we did not want to silence the voices of "other" disciplines, but within the reviewing procedures actually invited scientists from the fields represented by the contributors to this volume. The wealth of the selected contributions lies therefore not only in their coherence and complementarity, but also in the diversity of views, stories and interpretations.The paper of Zora Žbontar deals with the attitudes towards foreigners in ancient Greece, where the hospitality to strangers was considered so worthy a virtue that everyone was expected to "demonstrate hospitality and protection to any foreigner who has knocked on their door". The contrast between the hospitality of ancient Greece and the modern emergence of xenophobia and ways of dealing with migration issues in economically developed countries is especially challenging. "In an open gesture of hospitality to strangers the ancient Greeks showed their civilization".Although the aforementioned research by the United Nations and Gallup Institute support some traditional stereotypes of the main global flows of migrants, and the areas about which the potential migrants "dream", Bojan Baskar stresses the coexistence of different migratory desires, migration flows and their interpretations. In his paper he specifically focuses on overcoming and relativising stereotypes as well as theories of immobile and non-enterprising (Alpine) mountain populations and migrations.The different strategies of the crossing borders adopted by migrant women are studied by Mirjana Morokvasic. She marks them as true social innovators, inventing different ways of transnational life resulting in a bottom-up contribution to the integrative processes across Europe. Some of their innovations go as far as to shift diverse real and symbolic boundaries of belonging to a nation, gender, profession.Elaine Burroughs and Zoë O'Reilly highlight the close relations between the otherwise well-established terminology used in statistics and science to label immigrants in Ireland and elsewhere in EU, and the negative representations of certain types of migrants in politics and the public. The discussion focusses particularly on asylum seekers and illegal immigrants who come from outside the EU. The use of language can quickly become a political means of exclusion, therefore the authors propose the development and use of more considerate and balanced migration terminology.Damir Josipovič proposes a change of the focal point for identifying and interpreting the well-studied migrations in the former Yugoslavia. The author suggests changing the dualistic view of these migrations to an integrated, holistic view. Instead of a simplified understanding of these migrations as either international or domestic, voluntary or forced, he proposes a concept of pseudo-voluntary migrations.Maja Korać-Sanderson's contribution highlights an interesting phenomenon in the shift in the traditional patterns of gender roles. The conclusions are derived from the study of the family life of Chinese traders in transitional Serbia. While many studies suggest that child care in recent decades in immigrant societies is generally performed by immigrants, her study reveals that in Serbia, the Chinese merchants entrust the care of their children mostly to local middle class women. The author finds this switch of roles in the "division of labour" in the child care favourable for both parties involved.Francesco Della Puppa focuses on a specific part of the mosaic of contemporary migrations in the Mediterranean: the Bangladeshi immigrant community in the highly industrialized North East of Italy. The results of his in-depth qualitative study reveal the factors that shape this segment of the Bangladeshi diaspora, the experiences of migrants and the effects of migration on their social and biographical trajectories.John A. Schembri and Maria Attard present a snippet of a more typical Mediterranean migration process - immigration to Malta. The authors highlight the reduction in migration between Malta and the United Kingdom, while there is an increase in immigration to Malta from the rest of Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. Amongst the various impacts of immigration to Malta the extraordinary concentration of immigrant populations is emphasized, since the population density of Malta far exceeds that of nearly all other European countries.Miha Kozorog studies the link between migration and constructing their places of their origin. On the basis of Ardener's theory the author expresses "remoteness" of the emigratory Slavia Friulana in terms of topology, in relation to other places, rather than in topography. "Remoteness" is formed in relation to the "outside world", to those who speak of "remote areas" from the privileged centres. The example of an artistic event, which organizers aim "to open a place like this to the outside world", "to encourage the production of more cosmopolitan place", shows only the temporary effect of such event on the reduction of the "remoteness".Jani Kozina presents a study of the basic temporal and spatial characteristics of migration "of people in creative occupations" in Slovenia. The definition of this specific segment of the population and approach to study its migrations are principally based on the work of Richard Florida. The author observes that people with creative occupations in Slovenia are very immobile and in this respect quite similar to other professional groups in Slovenia, but also to the people in creative professions in the Southern and Eastern Europe, which are considered to be among the least mobile in Europe. Detailed analyses show that the people in creative occupations from the more developed regions generally migrate more intensely and are also more willing to relocate.Mojca Pajnik and Veronika Bajt study the experiences of migrant women with the access to the labour market in Slovenia. Existing laws and policies push the migrants into a position where, if they want to get to work, have to accept less demanding work. In doing so, the migrant women are targets of stereotyped reactions and practices of discrimination on the basis of sex, age, attributed ethnic and religious affiliation, or some other circumstances, particularly the fact of being migrants. At the same time the latter results in the absence of any protection from the state.Migration studies often assume that the target countries are "modern" and countries of origin "traditional". Anıl Al- Rebholz argues that such a dichotomous conceptualization of modern and traditional further promotes stereotypical, essentialist and homogenizing images of Muslim women in the "western world". On the basis of biographical narratives of young Kurdish and Moroccan women as well as the relationships between mothers and daughters, the author illustrates a variety of strategies of empowerment of young women in the context of transnational migration.A specific face of migration is highlighted in the text of Svenka Savić, namely the face of artistic migration between Slovenia and Serbia after the Second World War. The author explains how more than thirty artists from Slovenia, with their pioneering work in three ensembles (opera, ballet and theatre), significantly contributed to the development of the performing arts in the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad.We believe that in the present thematic issue we have succeeded in capturing an important part of the modern European research dynamic in the field of migration. In addition to well-known scholars in this field several young authors at the beginning their research careers have been shortlisted for the publication. We are glad of their success as it bodes a vibrancy of this research area in the future. At the same time, we were pleased to receive responses to the invitation from representatives of so many disciplines, and that the number of papers received significantly exceeded the maximum volume of the journal. Recognising and understanding of the many faces of migration are important steps towards the comprehensive knowledge needed to successfully meet the challenges of migration issues today and even more so in the future. It is therefore of utmost importance that researchers find ways of transferring their academic knowledge into practice – to all levels of education, the media, the wider public and, of course, the decision makers in local, national and international institutions. The call also applies to all authors in this issue of the journal.

Machine generated contents note:pt. 1Role of the Investigator --1.Miranda Warning --2.Qualities of the Investigator --3.Investigator Job Description: 32 Discrete Services --4.Basic Duties of the Crime Scene Investigator --5.Responsibilities of Investigators at Crime Scenes --6.Importance of Effective Report Writing --7.Interviewing and Interrogating --8.Interpreting Nonverbal Communication: Body Language --9.Art of Investigative Interviewing --10.Investigative Interviewing: Types of Questions --11.Investigative Interviewing: Closed Questions --12.Investigative Interviewing: Open Questions --13.Investigative Interviewing: Types of Open Questions --14.Investigative Interviewing: Question Filter Factors --15.Investigative Interviewing: Tactics When Seeking a Confession --16.Law Enforcement and the Forensic Pathologist --17.Pre-Planning Major Case Investigations --18.Phrases and Proper Names You Should Know and Understand --19.Levels of Authority: Security Personnel --20.Private Detectives/Private Investigators, Insurance Investigators, Forensic Science Technicians, Forensic Veterinarians, and Other Law Enforcement Officers --pt. 2Basics About Evidence --21.Crime Scene Investigator/Evidence Technician's Kit --22.Definitions and Purpose of Evidence --23.Nature of Physical Evidence --24.Crime Scenes --25.Collect, Identify, and Preserve the Evidence at a Crime Scene --26.Collection and Preservation of Evidence --27.How to Collect, Mark, and Package Physical Evidence --28.Requests for Examination(s) of Evidence --29.Prepare Evidence and Paperwork Necessary for Crime Laboratory Examinations --30.Shipment of Evidence --pt. 3Types of Evidence and Evidence Examination --31.Rules of Evidence --32.Miscellaneous Evidence Examinations That Can Be Performed at a Laboratory --33.Evidence: Types of Examinations --34.Examinations for Informational Purposes --35.Types of Specialized Assistance and Examinations Available --36.Shoe Print and Tire Tread Impression Evidence --37.Paint Examination Techniques --38.Arson Evidence --39.Preservation of Fire Evidence --40.Handling Procedures for Fire Evidence --41.General Considerations -- Fiber Evidence Crime Scene --42.Fiber Evidence and the Wayne Williams Trial --43.Fibers and the Crime Laboratory --44.Hair Evidence --45.How Hair and Fiber Examinations Aid the Investigation --46.Information Determined From Examination of a Hair --47.Information Determined From Fiber Examinations --48.Stolen Vehicle Evidence --49.Clandestine Business Records Analysis --50.Evidence at the Crime Scene of a Bombing --51.Explosive Evidence --52.Toxicology Examinations and Suspected Cases of Poisoning --53.Pharmaceutical and Drug Evidence --54.General Chemical Analysis Examinations --55.Glass Fibers and Fiberglass Insulation Materials Evidence and Collection of Glass Evidence --56.Soils, Dusts, Debris Evidence and the Value of Soil as Evidence --57.Collection of Soil Specimens as Evidence --58.Insulation Evidence From a Safe --59.Building Materials Evidence --60.Evidence From Ores, Minerals, Rock and Ceramics, Abrasive Materials, and Precious Stones --61.Mineralogy Examinations --62.Serology Examinations --63.Information Determinable by Blood Tests --64.Collection, Identification and Wrapping of Bloodstained, and Other Significant Body Fluids Evidence --65.Secretors and Secretor Status --66.DNA Examinations: DNA Testing --67.Collection, Identification, and Packaging of Evidence Stained With Body Fluids --68.Rape Case -- Special Evidence Considerations --69.Types of Firearms Evidence --70.Gunshot Residue Examinations --71.Obtaining Evidence in Tool Mark Cases --72.Tool Mark Identification Evidence --73.Tool Mark Examinations --74.Plastic Cast/Impression of Numbers Stamped in Metal --75.Paints, Plastics, Cosmetics, and Tape Evidence --76.Fluorescent Powders, Dyestuffs, and Other Marking Materials --77.Types of Document Examinations --78.Document Examinations --79.Documentary Evidence --80.Obtaining Known Handwriting Samples --81.Obtaining Known Printer Samples --82.Reference Files of Known Standards --83.Questioned Material Files --84.Photographic Examinations and Bank Robbery Video Footage --85.Impressions in Different Surfaces --86.Impressions on Firm Surfaces --87.Forensic Linguistic Analysis (Authorship/Speaker Identification) --pt. 4Conducting the Investigation --88.Sources of Investigative Information --89.Crime Scene Equipment Checklist 144 --90.Investigations: 50 Things You Should Know --91.Hazards and a Crime Scene --92.Surveillance --93.Informants --94.Entrapment --95.Polygraph Examinations --96.Bank Robbery and Bank Security --97.Investigations of Bank Night Depository Trap Devices --98.Definition of Robbery --99.Checklist: Robbery Investigations --100.Cigarette Identification File --101.Firearms Identification --102.Standard Ammunition File --103.Traffic Accident Investigations --104.Hit-and-Run Traffic Accident Investigations --105.Vehicle Searches --106.Vehicle Searches, Inventory, and Impoundment --107.Vehicle Search Checklist --108.Photographs of Fatal Traffic Accidents --109.Computer Fraud and Investigation --110.Definition of Arson --111.Fire Investigations --112.Checklist for Arson Investigations --113.Homicide Investigations: 70 Things You Should Find Out About the Victim --114.Cutting and Stabbing Investigations: Five Things You Should Know --115.Buried Body Cases --116.Death Scene Checklist --117.Radiation Hazards and Radiation Protection During Investigations --118.Radiation Detection Equipment --119.Definition of Burglary --120.Checklist: Burglary --121.Sketching a Crime Scene --122.Crime Scene Floor Plan --123.Bullying in the Workplace: How to Conduct an Investigation --124.Missing and Exploited Children --125.Five Things to Know About Missing Persons Reports --126.Checklist: Pedophile Investigations --127.Internal Theft --128.Digital Photo Array or Mug Book --129.Preventing and Investigating Identity Theft --130.Employee Applications and Background Investigations --131.Checklist: Notification That a Victim Has Been Found --132."Lucky" Investigation --133."Sloppy" Investigation --pt. 5Crime, Investigations, and the Legal System --134.Uniform Crime Reporting --135.Freedom of Information Act --136.Constitution, the Fourth Amendment --137.Constitution, the Fifth Amendment --138.Constitution, the Sixth Amendment --139.Constitution, the Eighth Amendment --140.Constitution, the Fourteenth Amendment --141.Warrantless Searches of Persons Incident to Arrest --142.Clearance and Arrest --143.Arrest Tactics --144.Arrest by Private Citizens --145.Arrest and Detention: 21 Things You Should Know --146.Arraignment --147.Grand Jury --148.Burden of Proof at a Criminal Trial --149.Hate Crimes: A Policymaker's Guide --150.Real Problems in American Justice.

Refugee migration continues to receive considerable attention in the literature, primarily due to its escalating importance. According to the United Nations (UN), forced displacements in 2021 are the highest ever recorded. Since 2015, Afghans and Syrians have been the two largest internationally displaced populations, not only globally, but also within the European Union (EU). In the last seven years, the number of Afghans applying for asylum in Europe has continued to rise despite the EU's efforts to discourage them. There are major knowledge gaps in the literature with regard to the experiences of migration from the perspective of the refugees themselves and about the driving factors and actors behind fragmented migration journeys. There is also limited literature on Afghan refugees, even though they constitute the second-largest nationality in asylum migration to Europe. Moreover, there are knowledge gaps on the role that different actors, particularly private companies, play for refugees' integration in the receiving societies. Addressing these knowledge gaps, the research objectives of this thesis were (1) to explore the trajectories of fragmented migration undertaken by Afghan and Syrian refugees to Germany; (2) to better understand the opportunities and challenges of their adaptation to new societies; and (3) to explore the role of private companies in integrating refugees into the labour market. This dissertation uses a qualitative case study design, with individual in-depth interviews and Focus Group Discussions with newly arrived Afghans and Syrians, experts from the public sector, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), social workers, volunteers, translators/interpreters and private companies. In total, 91 refugees and 69 respondents from the public and private sector and civil society organizations participated in this research. The findings on the first objective showed that three-quarters of Afghan respondents did not plan to travel to Germany before their departure; in contrast, the majority of Syrian respondents did have Germany as a destination in mind when departing from their origin or a transit country. There were different factors behind origin migration (i.e. direct migration from the country of origin to the country of destination) and transit migration (i.e. migration with extended stays in other countries before reaching the destination country). The majority of the respondents migrating directly from Afghanistan and Syria left their countries of origin mainly due to political prosecution, violent conflict, personal security, and socio-economic pressure. The major reasons that led to the departure from transit countries were lack of prospects, lack of legal residence permits, fear of deportation, barriers to education and employment, exploitation of their labour, explicit racism, and ethnic and racial discrimination. Moreover, there were some temporary factors such as the so-called opening of borders to Europe in 2015 and expectations for the protection of Syrians in Germany that were seen as an opportunity for both transit and origin migration to Europe. Smugglers, other asylum seekers in transit, and social media contacts were the most influential actors and played very important roles at the beginning, transit, and endpoints of refugees' journeys. To address the root causes of migration, European countries including Germany could facilitate regular migration pathways. Moreover, with regard to transit migration, Germany and other European countries could support improving the conditions of refugees in the first countries of refuge, e.g., by creating more favourable reception and living conditions there, improving access to residence and work permits as well as opportunities for employment and education. The findings of the interviews suggest that this may change the decisions of many about undergoing the risky onward migration to Europe. The findings with regard to the second research objective show interesting differences in the integration of the two nationalities included in the study. Syrians were found to be better integrated into their communities as compared to Afghans. The study showed that the shorter the asylum application process is and the more secure the residency status is (which is typically the case for Syrians), the faster refugees gained access to language and integration courses, which gave them a better opportunity to get integrated into the labour market, to find housing and to make better connections to the receiving society. Among the challenges faced by Afghan refugees were the lengthy asylum application process, the difficulty in securing housing, and the long-term residence in reception centres, which caused considerable stress and hardship for the refugees. The opportunities for refugees' adaptation into the new societies were facilitated by diverse volunteer services, social and cultural events, and labour market integration services besides the government-provided German language integration courses. Although Stuttgart was found to be a pioneering city in terms of integration facilities for refugees, there is still room for improvements, such as timely accommodation of refugees outside of refuge centres, better coordination of integration offers, and systematic employment of volunteer services for social and labour market integration purposes. Regarding the third objective, the study showed that the engagement of private companies in the labour market integration of refugees increased with the larger arrival of refugees during 2015/2016. This was due to several factors, including the following: the discursive environment; the government call to private sector participation; corporate social responsibility of large-scale international companies; and shortages of skilled workers for small and medium-sized businesses, specifically in the care and service sector. However, the findings indicate that bureaucratic administrative employment procedures, challenges related to cooperation with the public sector, and lack of secure work permits have not only discouraged companies from engagement but also decreased the effectiveness of their engagement.

Topicality. Physical Education should take into account the state characteristics of the culture and sport development, the state and world experience that is a system of guidelines and views for a long-term period. The study of European countries experience in PE is presented by a number of researchers, scientists and specialists, in particular H. Ardelean, O. Tsybaniuk and others. The Purpose of the Research is to analyze the features of the National University of Physical Education and Sports in Bucharest – the first higher educational institution for training specialists in PE & Sports in Romania. Stuff and Methods of the Research. The research stuff has been divided into archival, statistical, legal acts and scientific papers. General scientific research methods have been used to substantiate the relevance, formulate conclusions; the group of specific scientific methods – for the systematization of historical and pedagogical literature sources; chrono- logical method – to clarify the genesis of Romania PE & Sports content. The Research Results and Conclusions. The first attempt to organize an institution for PE specialists training in Romania was made by V. Badulescu, who in 1920 founded the Institute of Physical Education in Cluj-Napoca. State interests led to the transfer in 1922 of the institution to the capital – Bucharest, however, the interest in PE (gymnastics) training teachers in the Transilvania region led to the creation of the Department of Physical Education at a local University. It should be noted that the full support of the royal family, influential government officials, and the adoption in 1923 the Law on Physical Education caused the rapid development of the professional Institute. The dual subordination of the institute to the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Defense immediately identified three areas of student training: pedagogical, military, and amateur. The National University of Physical Education and Sports in Bucharest has experienced several changes in its title and structure. The definition of «national» and «higher» in the title of institution proves its status what is preserved even now. ; Актуальность. Физкультурное образование и физическое воспитание должны происходить с учетом и на основе государ- ственных особенностей развития культуры и спорта, быть системой ориентиров и взглядов на роль организации вышеупомянутой отрасли на долгосрочный период с учетом развития государства и мирового опыта. Изучение опыта европейских стран в области физического воспитания и спорта представлено рядом работ педагогов, специалистов отрасли (Г. Арделеан, А. Цибанюк). Цель исследования – проанализировать особенности деятельности первого высшего учебного заведения для подготовки специалистов физического воспитания и спорта в Румынии – Национального университета физического воспитания и спорта в Бухаресте. Материалы и методы. Материалы исследования нами разделены на архивные, статистические, нормативно-правовые акты и научные статьи. Нами использованы общенаучные методы исследования – для обоснования актуальности, формулирования выводов; конкретно-научные – для систематизации историко-педагогической литературы; проблемно-хронологический – для выяснения генезиса содержания физического воспитания и спорта в Румынии. Результаты исследования и ключевые выводы. Доказано, что первую попытку организации заведения для подготовки специалистов физического воспитания в Румынии совершил В. Бадулеску, который в 1920 г. создал в г. Клуж-Напока Институт физического воспитания. Государственные интересы привели к переносу в 1922 г. заведения в столицу – г. Бухарест, однако заинтересованность в подготовке учителей физического воспитания (гимнастики) именно в регионе Трансильвания повлекла создание кафедры физичес- кого воспитания в местном университете. Необходимо отметить, что всесторонняя поддержка королевской семьи, влиятельных деятелей государственного уровня и принятия в 1923 г. «Закона о физическом воспитании» вызвали быстрое развитие профессионального института. Двойное подчинение института (Министерству образования и Министерству обороны) сразу выделило три направления подготовки студентов – педагогический,военный, любительский. Национальный университет физического воспитания и спорта в Бухаресте пережил несколько волн изменений в названии и структуре. Находим в названии заведения разных времен определение «национальный», «высший», что говорит о статусе заведения, который сохраняется и теперь. ; Актуальність. Фізкультурна освіта та фізичне виховання повинні відбуватися з урахуванням і на основі державних особливостей розвитку культури й спорту, що є системою орієнтирів та поглядів на роль, організацію й функціонування сфери вищезазначеної галузі на довгостроковий період з урахуванням розвитку держави та світового досвіду. Вивчення досвіду європейських країн у галузі фізичного виховання й спорту представлено низкою праць педагогів, фахівців галузі (Г. Арделеан, О. Цибанюк). Мета дослідження ‒ проаналізувати особливості діяльності першого вищого навчального закладу для підготовки фахівців фізичного виховання та спорту в Румунії – Національного університету фізичного виховання та спорту в Бухаресті. Матеріали й методи. Матеріали дослідження нами розділено на архівні, статистичні, нормативно-правові акти та наукові статті. Використано загальнонаукові – для обґрунтування актуальності, формулювання висновків; конкретно-наукові – для систематизації історико-педагогічної літератури; проблемно-хронологічний – для з'ясування генези змісту фізичного виховання й спорту в Румунії методи дослідження. Результати досліджен- ня та ключові висновки. Доведено, що першу спробу організації закладу для підготовки фахівців фізичного виховання в Румунії здійснив В. Бадулеску, який у 1920 р. створив у м. Клуж-Напока Інститут фізичного виховання. Державні інтереси призвели до переносу в 1922 р. закладу в столицю – м. Бухарест, проте зацікавленість підготовкою вчителів фізичного виховання (гімнастики) саме в регіоні Трансильванія спричинили створення кафедри фізичного виховання в місцевому університеті. Потрібно зазначити, що всебічна підтримка королів- ської родини, впливових діячів державного рівня та прийняття у 1923 р. «Закону про фізичне виховання» спричинили швидкий розвиток представницького фахового інституту. Подвійне підпорядкування інституту (Міністерству освіти та Міністерству оборони) одразу диференціювало три напрями підготовки студентів – педагогічний, військовий, аматорський. Національний університет фізичного виховання та спорту в Бухаресті пережив кілька хвиль змін у назві й структурі. Знаходимо в назві закладу різних часів визначення «національний», «вищий», що свідчить про статус закладу, який зберігається й тепер.

Purpose of this article is to determine whether the right to remedial secession exists under the contemporary international law. This question is relevant because intense legal debates concerning an existence of this right has not come to conclusion. Moreover, it is important to answer this question because of a vast number of separatist movements worldwide that base their claim for independence on self-determination and the concept of remedial right to secede. In order to answer the question whether the right to remedial secession exists under the contemporary international law relevant judicial decisions, state practice and opinio juris were analysed. It was concluded that there is no remedial right to secede under the contemporary international law. First, it was determined that international community is reluctant to recognise unilateral attempts of secession. Therefore, consent of parent state is still considered to be an important factor for acceptance of new states. Secondly, there was no single instance of acceptance of entitlement to remedial secession in state practice. Also, there is a split in states opinio juris concerning an existence of remedial right to secede. Furthermore, there is no strong and united opinio juris supporting this notion. Accordingly, weak opinio juris and lack of practical implementation show that remedial secession cannot be considered as a part of the binding international law. ; Šios publikacijos tikslas yra nustatyti ar tarptautinėje teisėje egzistuoja teisė į gynybinę secesiją. Tautų apsisprendimo principas yra svarbi modernios tarptautinės teisės dalis. Ši teisė įtvirtinta įvairiose tarptautiniuose dokumentuose, tarp jų ir Jungtinių Tautų Chartijoje. Jos svarbą ir erga omnes statusą yra pabrėžęs Tarptautinis Teisingumo Teismas. Dažnai teigiama, jog post-koloniniame pasaulyje ši teisė turėtų būti įgyvendinama valstybės viduje. Nepaisant to, egzistuoja gynybinės secesijos teorija, kuri teigia, jog tauta, negalinti įgyvendinti savo tautos apsisprendimo teisės valstybės viduje, turi teisę į vienašalį atsiskyrimą iš suverenios valstybės. Ši teorija turi didelį palaikymą tarp teisės mokslininkų. Nepaisant to, teisės į gynybinę secesiją egzistavimas jau ilgai yra išsamių teisinių ginčų objektas. Šios doktrinos kritikai dažnai pabrėžia, jog tokios teisės egzistavimas pažeistų šalies teritorinio vientisumo principą ir taip sugriautų valstybių ir teisinės tvarkos status quo. Taip pat pabrėžiama, jog ši teorija nesiremia jokia konkrečia šalių praktika. Tačiau autoriai, palaikantys gynybinės secesijos egzistavimą, dažnai nurodo įvairius atvejus, kai žmogaus teisės pažeidimus patyrusių tautų nepriklausomybės siekis buvo gausiai palaikomas tarptautinės bendruomenės. Teisės mokslininkai vis dar nepadarėišvados ir vis dar nenustate, ar tokia teisė egzistuoja. Šio darbo aktualumui svarbu tai, jog pasaulyje yra daugybė separatistinių judėjimų, kurie dažnai remiasi tautų apsisprendimo principu ir būtent gynybinės secesijos doktrina. Atlikus tyrimą, į klausimą, ar gynybinė secesija egzistuoja tarptautinėje teisėje, atsakyta neigiamai. Pirmiausia, atlikus teismų praktikos, šalių praktikos ir opinio juris analizę buvo nustatyta, jog nėra nei vieno atvejo, kad gynybinė secesija būtų pripažinta tarptautinės bendruomenės ir įgyvendinta praktikoje. Darbo metu buvo išanalizuoti Bangladešo, Kroatijos, Kosovo atvejai, kurie yra dažnai laikomi kaip gynybinės secesijos pasireiškimas praktikoje. Nežiūrint to, jog visose šiose situacijose su įvairiais žmogaus teisių pažeidimais susidūrusiai grupei buvo suteikta teisė į nepriklausomybę, panašu, kad tai buvo padaryta ne dėl jos teisės į gynybinę secesiją egzistavimo, bet dėl faktinių ir politinių aplinkybių. Nėra jokio įrodymo, jog tarptautinė bendruomenė, palaikydama šių šalių nepriklausomybes, rėmėsi gynybinės secesijos doktrina. Dar daugiau, panašu, kad Kosovo atveju tarptautinė bendruomenė siekė nesukurti precedento ir, pabrėždama išskirtines šios situacijos aplinkybes, siekė atgrasinti kitus panašius judėjimus. Taip pat, opinio juris, palaikantis gynybinės secesijos egzistavimą, yra nepakankamai stiprus ir vieningas. Nepaisant to, jog tokio opinio juris galima rasti įvairiuose teismų sprendimuose, kuriuose yra nurodoma gynybinės secesijos galimybė, taip pat dalis šalių išreiškė palaikymą tokios teisės egzistavimui Kosovo bylos nagrinėjimo metu Tarptautiniame Teisingumo Teisme, negalima ignoruoti grupės šalių, kurios Kosovo bylos nagrinėjimo metu atmetė tokios teisės egzistavimą. Taigi, akivaizdu, jog Kosovo bylos nagrinėjimo metu išreikšta šalių opinio juris yra per daug susiskaldžiusi, kad rodytų vieningos ir stiprios opinio juris palaikančios gynybinę secesiją egzistavimą. Taip pat, reikėtų pažymėti, kad šalies, nuo kurios yra atsiskiriama, sutikimo egzistavimas vis dar išlieka svarbiu faktoriumi pripažįstant naują valstybę. Galima teigti, jog tarptautinė bendruomenė yra nelinkusi pripažinti vienašalių secesijos atvejų. Tai akivaizdu Kosovo atveju, kuris nepaisant to, jog sulaukė didelio tarptautinės bendruomenės palaikymo, vis dar yra nepripažintas didelio skaičiaus valstybių ir nepriimtas į Jungtines Tautas. Atsižvelgus į teismų praktikos, šalių praktikos ir opinio juris analizę galima teigti, jog tarptautinė teisė nepripažįsta teisės į gynybinę secesiją egzistavimo. Ši išvada remiasi tuo, kad opinio juris šiuo klausimu yra nepakankamai stiprus ir vieningas. Taip pat šios teisės egzistavimas yra neįrodytas šalių praktikoje. Netgi ir taikant labiau progresyvų paprotinės teisės nustatymo metodą, kuriame stiprios opinio juris egzistavimas gali kompensuoti šalių praktikos trūkumą, išvados lieka tos pačios. Kaip ir minėta anksčiau, opinio juris šiuo klausimu yra per daug nevieningas, kad galėtų įrodyti teisės į gynybinę secesiją egzistavimą. Šiuo metu vienašalių secesijos bandymų sėkmė priklauso nuo tarptautinės bendruomenės politinių sprendimų. Todėl dažnai tokiais atvejais svarbesni tampa politiniai išskaičiavimai, o ne moraliniai ar teisiniai faktoriai. Tokia teisinė nežinomybė tik skatina separatistinių konfliktų augimą pasaulyje. Todėl, rekomenduotina, jog tarptautinė bendruomenė susitartų dėl gynybinės secesijos egzistavimo ir galimų gairių, kurios padėtų nustatyti tokių atvejų atitikimą teisei. Šiomis gairėmis tarptautinė bendruomenė galėtų vadovautis prieš suteikdama pripažinimą naujai atsiskyrusioms valstybėms. Tokia situacija galėtų suteikti daugiau teisinio tikrumo ir padėtų stabilizuoti situaciją tarptautinėje bendruomenėje. Gairės turėtų atitikti dažniausiai doktrinoje sutinkamus reikalavimus, keliamus gynybinei secesijai. Pirmiausia teisės turėtojas turėtų būti objektyviai ir subjektyviai išsiskirianti grupė, sudaranti daugumą atskiroje teritorijoje. Antra, tautai turėtų būtų užkirstas kelias išreikšti savo apsisprendimą valstybės viduje ir tauta turėtų patirti pastovius ir rimtus žmogaus teisių pažeidimus. Trečia, visos kitos priemonės išspręsti konfliktą būtų išnaudotos. Taip pat galima teigti, jog papildoma sąlyga galėtų būti atsiskyrusioje šalyje gyvenančių mažumų teisių užtikrinimas.

ANNOTATION. Problematic aspects of defining the tasks and place of the prosecutor's office, as well as the foreign strategy of improving the organization of the prosecutor's office are highlighted. The experience of foreign countries of the developed democracy, concerning the work of the prosecutor's office for its implementation in the legislation of Ukraine, the history of its origin and its modern purpose are analyzed. On the basis of a comparative study of foreign prosecutor's offices data on their place in the system of government, type of model and basic functions are given, which gives an idea of the role and directions of development of the prosecutor's office in the leading countries of the modern world. It is stated that the modern Prosecutor's Office of France is referred to the executive branch of power and reports to the Ministry of Justice. Prosecutors are very close to the judge's corps because they receive the same training and often move from prosecutors to judges and vice versa throughout their careers. In Germany, prosecuting authorities operate at the general courts of all levels. The Attorney General of the Federal Republic of Germany exercises his authority under the general authority of the Minister of Justice of Germany. According to a special law that defines the legal status of the Prosecutor's Office in Latvia, the prosecutor's office is a judicial authority that independently supervises compliance with the law within the established competence. In the UK, there is no public prosecutor's office or its direct analogue. The Public Prosecutor's Office operates within the system of public authorities as an independent authority, coordinated by the General Atorney. In the Republic of Lithuania, prosecutors organize and manage the pre-trial investigation process, as well as support state prosecutions in criminal cases. The author summarizes that there is no uniform standard in Europe for the prosecutor's model. The prosecutor's models analyzed have advantages and disadvantages, but none of them excludes or prefers one or the other model. Recommendations on improving the Prosecutor's Office of Ukraine have been provided. KEY WORDS: prosecutor's office, organization of the prosecutor's office, international experience, model of the prosecutor's office, place of the prosecutor's office, prosecutor, powers of the prosecutor. ; АННОТАЦИЯ: в статье выделены проблемные аспекты определения задач и места органов прокуратуры, а также зарубежной стратегии совершенствования организации прокуратуры. Проанализирован опыт зарубежных государств развитой демократии, касающийся работы прокуратуры для его введения в законодательстве Украины, история возникновения этого органа и его современное назначения. На основании сравнительного исследования зарубежных прокуратур наведени данные об их месте в системе власти, тип модели и основные функции, дает представление о роли и направления развития института прокуратуры в ведущих странах современного мира. Отмечено, что современная прокуратура Франции отнесена к исполнительной ветви власти и подчиняется Министерству юстиции. Должностные лица прокуратуры очень близки к судейскому корпусу, так как они получают одинаковую подготовку и в ходе своей карьеры нередко переходят из прокуроров в судьи и наоборот. В Германии органы прокуратуры функционируют при общих судах всех уровней. Генеральный федеральный прокурор выполняет свои повноваження под общим руководством Министра юстиции Германии. В соответствии со специальным законом, который определяет правовое положение прокуратуры в Латвии, прокуратура является органом судебной власти, самостоятельно осуществляет надзор за соблюдением законности в пределах установленной компетенции. В Великобритании прокуратуры или его прямого аналога вообще нет. В системе органов государственной власти функционирует Служба королевских прокуроров как самостоятельный и независимый орган власти, деятельность которого координирует Генеральный атторней. В Литовской Республике прокуроры осуществляют организацию и управление процессом досудебного следствия, а также поддерживают государственное обвинение по уголовным делам. Автор резюмирует, что в Европе нет единого стандарта по модели прокуратуры. Проанализированы модели прокуратур имеют преимущества и недостатки, но ни одна из них не исключается и не отдается предпочтение той или иной модели. Даны рекомендации по совершенствованию прокуратуры Украины. ; АНОТАЦІЯ: у статті виокремлено проблемні аспекти визначення завдань і місця органів прокуратури, а також зарубіжної стратегії вдосконалення організації прокуратури. Проаналізовано досвід зарубіжних держав розвиненої демократії, який стосується роботи прокуратури для його запровадження в законодавстві України, історія виникнення цього органу та його сучасне призначення. На підставі порівняльного дослідження зарубіжних прокуратур наве­дені дані про їх місце в системі влади, тип моделі та основні функції, що дає уявлення про роль і напрями розвитку інституту прокуратури в провідних країнах сучасного світу. Зазначено, що сучасна прокуратура Франції віднесена до виконавчої гілки влади і підпорядковується Міністерству юстиції. Посадові особи прокуратури дуже близькі до суддівського корпусу, оскільки вони отримують однакову підготовку і в ході своєї кар'єри нерідко переходять із прокурорів у судді і навпаки. У Німеччині органи прокуратури функціонують при загальних судах усіх рівнів. Генеральний федеральний прокурор виконує свої пов­новаження під загальним керівництвом Міністра юстиції Німеччини. Відповідно до спеціального закону, який визначає правове становище прокуратури в Лат­вії, прокуратура є органом судової влади, який самостійно здійснює нагляд за дотриманням законності в межах установленої компетенції. У Великобританії прокуратури чи її прямого аналога взагалі немає. У системі органів державної влади функціонує Служба королівських прокурорів як самостійний та незалежний орган влади, діяльність якого координує Генеральний аторней. У Литовській Республіці прокурори здійснюють організацію і управління процесом досудового слідства, а також підтримують державне обвинувачення у кримінальних справах. Автор резюмує, що у Європі немає єдиного стандарту щодо моделі прокуратури. Проаналізовані моделі прокуратур мають переваги і недоліки, але жодна з них не виключається і не віддається перевага тій чи іншій моделі. Надано рекомендації щодо вдосконалення прокуратури України.

Der Begriff "Verbotener Umgang" brandmarkte Kontakte zwischen deutschen Zivilisten und französischen Kriegsgefangenen, die sich während des Zweiten Weltkriegs auf dem Reichsgebiet aufhielten. Kontakte mit Kriegsgefangenen wurden bereits vor ihrer Ankunft durch die Verordnung zum Verbotenen Umgang mit Kriegsgefangenen untersagt, sowohl aus Gründen der militärischen Sicherheit als auch im Namen der nationalsozialistischen Rassenideologie. Anhand eines umfangreichen Korpus von Gerichtsakten, die sich auf dieses Delikt beziehen, nähert sich die Dissertation den verbotenen Beziehungen, von denen Zehntausende eingegangen wurden. Sie zeigt die Kluft zwischen Vorschrift und Realität und spiegelt die Schwierigkeit der Kontrolle der Zivilbevölkerung in Konfliktzeiten und die Handlungsspielräume der Akteure wider.Die Verwendung dieses dokumentarischen Materials hat sich auch als sehr reichhaltig für die Rekonstruktion des Alltagslebens einer Gesellschaft im Krieg erwiesen, eines Alltags weitab von der Frontlinie. Obwohl nicht alle verbotenen Beziehungen durch Liebe oder Sexualität motiviert waren, waren sie für die Behörden von besonderem Interesse. Ein Anliegen der vorliegenden Studie ist es daher, nicht nur die Funktionsweise des deutschen Justizsystems aufzudecken und die praktizierten Anhörungsmethoden zu beleuchten, sondern auch aus der Perspektive einer Geschichte der Geschlechterverhältnisse die Rolle von Sexualität im Kriegskontext und die funktionalen Zuschreibungen an die Frauenkörper zu analysieren. Diese verbotenen Beziehungen sind auch eine Gelegenheit, die Haltung der Kriegsgefangenen und ihr Verhältnis zum ihnen zugewiesenen Feindstatus zu hinterfragen. Die Wahrnehmung dieser Beziehungen und die Erinnerung daran wird über einen langen Zeitraum beleuchtet, insbesondere indem den Kindern aus den binationalen Beziehungen, den "Kindern des Krieges", das Wort erteilt wird. Mehr als siebzig Jahre nach den Ereignissen legen sie Zeugnis ab. Ausgehend von diesen Quellen und dank der Beiträge der Mikrogeschichte eröffnet diese Studie eine andere Herangehensweise an den Krieg aus der Perspektive der Intimität und der Liebesgefühle. Sie verteidigt die These, dass die verbotenen Beziehungen zu einer anderen Geschichtsschreibung der deutsch-französischen Beziehungen im Herzen des Zweiten Weltkriegs beigetragen haben. Eine Geschichtsschreibung, für deren Verständnis eine historisch-anthropologische Perspektive einzunehmen ist und die Verhältnisse der Individuen zur Sexualität und zu Verwandtschaftsstrukturen hinterfragen werden müssen. ; The term « forbidden relationships » refers to contacts between German civilians and French prisoners of war present on the territory of the Reich during the Second World War. Forbidden by the decree of Verbotener Umgang mit Kriegsgefangenen from November 1939 , such contacts were banned both for military security reasons and in the name of National Socialist racial ideology. Thanks to a substantial corpus of judicial files related to this crime, the thesis analyses the tens of thousands of relationships that have taken place. It shows the gap between "the norm" and reality during this period. It reflects the difficulty in controlling the civilian population during times of conflict and the agency of the actors. The use of this documentary material has also proven to be beneficial in reconstructing the daily life of a society at war, a slice of ordinary life, played out far from the front line. Although not all forbidden relationships were of a romantic and/or sexual nature, they are of particular concern to the authorities. One of the interests of this study is therefore not only to shed light on the workings of the German legal system by revealing the methods used in hearings. It also explores the history of gender relations in the context of war from different perspectives. The role of sexuality is analysed, and the function assigned to women's bodies. Prohibited relationships were also an opportunity to question the attitudes of the captives and their relationship with the "enemy" status been assigned. The significance of these relationships has been questioned over a long period of time, with the most compelling being the testimonies of the children born to these mixed couples. These "children of war", who more than seventy years after the events have shared their experiences. With the help of these different trajectories, and thanks to the contributions of micro history, this study contributes to approaching war in a different way, through a story of intimacy and love. It defends the hypothesis that forbidden relations contributed to the writing of a different history, one of Franco-German relations at the heart of the Second World War. In order for this to be understood requires a historical anthropological approach and the questioning of relationships to sexuality and the structures of kinship. ; L'expression « relations interdites » désigne les contacts établis entre civiles allemandes et prisonniers de guerre français présents sur le territoire du Reich pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Interdits par le décret du Verbotener Umgang mit Kriegsgefangenen adopté avant même l'arrivée des captifs, ces contacts sont proscrits à la fois pour des raisons de sécurité militaire et au nom de l'idéologie raciale national-socialiste. Grâce à un corpus conséquent de dossiers judiciaires se rapportant à ce délit, la thèse analyse les dizaines de milliers de relations de ce type qui ont eu lieu. Elle montre l'écart entre la norme et les pratiques, reflétant la difficulté de contrôler la population civile en période de conflit et l'agentivité des acteurs. L'exploitation de ce matériau documentaire s'est révélée également très riche pour reconstruire le quotidien d'une société en guerre, un ordinaire qui se joue loin du front. Si toutes les relations interdites ne sont pas de nature amoureuse et /ou sexuelle, ces dernières préoccupent pourtant particulièrement les autorités. L'un des intérêts de cette étude est ainsi non seulement d'éclairer le fonctionnement de l'appareil judiciaire allemand en révélant les méthodes d'auditions pratiquées, mais aussi, dans une perspective d'histoire des rapports genrés en contexte guerrier, d'analyser le rôle de la sexualité et la fonction dévolue au corps des femmes. Les relations interdites sont également l'occasion de questionner l'attitude des captifs et le rapport qu'ils entretiennent avec le statut d'ennemi qui leur est assigné. La portée mémorielle de ces relations est interrogée dans le temps long, en donnant notamment la parole aux enfants nés de ces couples mixtes, « enfants de la guerre », qui plus de soixante-dix ans après les événements, témoignent. A l'aide de ces différentes trajectoires, et grâce aux apports de la microhistoire, cette étude contribue à aborder la guerre autrement, par le biais d'une histoire de l'intime et du sentiment amoureux. Elle défend l'hypothèse que les relations interdites ont contribué à l'écriture d'une autre histoire des rapports franco-allemands au cœur du Second Conflit mondial, qui, pour être saisie, oblige à se situer dans une démarche d'anthropologie historique et à interroger le rapport des individus à la sexualité et aux structures de la parenté.

The subject of the master's work is the Budapest Memorandum. The purpose of the work is to consider the significance of the Budapest Memorandum, as well as the causes and consequences of its violations. The main objectives of the work: to explore the development of international relations between the Republic of Belarus, the European Union and the Russian Federation in the XX century; to determine the role of international law in resolving the political crisis in the Republic of Belarus by the example of an analysis of the Budapest memorandum; assess the prospects for the development of international law with regard to the provision of guarantees and territorial integrity to the countries-participants of potential conflicts. The methodological basis is the method of system analysis, comparative historical method, structural and functional analysis, forecasting method. All these methods allowed, on the basis of a thorough study of sources, academic literature, media, Internet sources and interviews, to study the chosen scientific problem. The presented work, combining the method of system analysis, comparative historical method, structural and functional analysis, forecasting method, is an analysis of the Budapest memorandum and an attempt to identify the causes of violation of the memorandum articles in relation to the Republic of Belarus. In the framework of this work, little-known facts were examined about the interference of the guarantor country of the Budapest memorandum of the Russian Federation in the internal affairs of the Republic of Belarus. The study may serve as another argument for creating an international negotiating platform for resolving a conflict situation. The fist document of nuclear disarmament of the Republic Belarus was State Sovereignty Declaration (the 27th of July 1990) which said that Belarus declared its intention to become a permanently neutral state in the future, which won't place military forces of other countries and refuses nuclear weapons. After signing Lisbon Protocol in 1992 Belarus arranged the membership in the Treaty of Strategic Offensive Reduction (START I Treaty), which supposed that Belarus is the follower of Soviet Union in the part of following the agreement the START I Treaty, but not in the part of nuclear weapons. On the 22 of July 1993 Belarus officially joined the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and became the first state which willingly rejected owning nuclear weapons, which was left after the collapse of the USSR. Welcoming the fact of joining of the Republic Belarus in the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons on the 23d of May 1992 as a non-nuclear state, the UK, Russia and the USA provided Belarus with the guaranty of safety and fixed their responsibilities in Budapest memorandum on the 5th of December 1994. According to Budapest memorandum this guaranty is the realization of Helsinki act of OSCE 1975 concerning Belarus and Ukraine. By the rejection of nuclear weapons in exchange of safety guaranty on UN principles Belarus and Ukraine have strengthened the international regime of non-spreading of nuclear weapons and Euro-Atlantic safety in general. At the same time with signing Budapest memorandum of safety guaranties of Belarus and Ukraine OSCE behavior code concerning military-political safety aspects was adopted. The analyses of Budapest memorandum text shows that this international document after its creation created for signing countries-the USA, the UK and Russia-the responsibilities of providing territorial safety and political sovereignty of Belarus and Ukraine in return of handing in the nuclear weapons to Russia by these countries, and later Belarus and Ukraine got the following guaranties for the China and France which joined later-from force threat or its usage against the territorial safety and political independence (p.2 of Budapest memorandum),from economical force, aimed at realization of sovereignty state rights for their own interests and gaining any advantages in this way(p.3 of Budapest memorandum) On the 22 of November 1996 due to Russia's interference into the internal affairs of sovereignty Belarus and agreement was made "About public-political situation and constitutional reform in Belarus" which allowed the president to hold a referendum on the 24th of November 1996 about the changing of the constitution of Belarus. Using the political interference into the internal affairs of Belarus, Russia in November 1996 broke p. 2 and p. 3 of Budapest memorandum, putting pressure on the Supreme council and the Constitutional court and putting the Belorussian economy in dependence of Russian preferences. Concerning Ukraine Russia broke p.2 of Budapest memorandum "avoid force threat or its usage against territorial safety. On these points which refer to Budapest memorandum the international policy of non-recognition of the changed status of Autonomous Republic of the Crimea and the city of Sevastopol and their annexation by Russia is based (according to the referendum in the Crimea on the 14th of March 2014.The 9th of April 2014 Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) in its resolution 1988(2014) The failure of Budapest memorandum of 1994 which had to provide safety guaranties for Ukraine and Belarus has really undermined the trust to the similar documents which don't have the legal power, which Russia and the West could offer to other countries. Signing of such guaranties by the resolution of the safety council of the UN would make them legally compulsory. At the moment between governments of Russian and Belarus are negotiating about signing the programs of profound integration within the agreement about the Union state from the 26th of January 2000, the Union state of Belarus and Russia together with the Ukrainian territory-the Republic of the Crimea and the city of Sevastopol will undermine the international regime about non-spreading of nuclear weapons and the Euro-Atlantic safety system.