DEUTSCHE NATURWISSENSCHAFT, TECHNIK UND ERFINDUNG IM WELTKRIEGE Deutsche Naturwissenschaft, Technik und Erfindung im Weltkriege ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([V]) Impressum ([VI]) Vorwort. ([VII]) Inhaltsverzeichnis. ([XIII]) Krieg und Kultur. ([1]) Erster Teil. Allgemeine Fragen. ([3]) Einleitung. Vom Wesen der Kultur. Der Krieg in seiner Beziehung zur Kultur. ([3]) 1. Krieg und Kultur in der Geschichte der Menschheit. (5) 2. Krieg und Menschlichkeit. (7) 3. Macht- und Kulturpolitik. (9) 4. Vom Geiste der deutschen Kultur. (12) 5. Vom Sinn des Krieges. (13) Zweiter Teil. Das Geistesleben im Kriege und die Geisteswissenschaften. (15) 1. Krieg und Geschichtswissenschaft. (15) 2. Krieg und Philosophie. (18) 3. Krieg und Dichtung. (20) 4. Krieg und bildende Kunst. (22) 5. Krieg und Musik. (24) 6. Krieg und Sittlichkeit. (25) 7. Krieg und Religion. (26) Dritter Teil. Abschluß und Ausblick. (29) 1. Der Ertrag des Krieges für das innere Leben. (29) 2. Die Kulturaufgaben für die Zukunft. (30) Zur Psychologie des Krieges und der Erfindungen. ([33]) I. Die sinnliche Wahrnehmung. (36) 1. Gesichtssinn. (36) 2. Gehör. (38) 3. Raumsinn. (39) II. Das Gedächtnis und Merkfähigkeit. (41) III. Assoziationen. (42) IV. Die Bildung von psychischen Komplexen. (43) V. Affektzustände. (44) VI. Willenscharakter. (46) VII. Aussage. (47) VIII. Verstand und Begriffsbildung. (48) IX. Erfindertätigkeit. (49) Die Physik im Kriege. ([57]) [Abb.]: Fig. 1. (63) [3 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 2. (2)Fig. 3. (3)Fig. 4. (64) [Abb.]: Fig. 5. (68) [Abb.]: Fig. 6. (69) [Abb.]: Fig. 7. (70) [Abb.]: Fig. 8. (71) [Abb.]: Fig. 9. (72) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 10. (2)Fig. 11. (73) [Abb.]: Fig. 12. (74) [Abb.]: Fig. 13. (75) [Abb.]: Fig. 14. (76) [Abb.]: Fig. 15. (77) [Abb.]: Fig. 16. (78) Die Meteorologie im Kriege. ([81]) Die Lehre von der irdischen Lufthülle. ([83]) Erster Abschnitt. Die Meteorologie im engeren Sinne. (84) Zweiter Abschnitt. Die Klimatologie. (100) Die Aeronautik im Kriege. ([111]) 1. Entwicklung der deutschen Luftfahrt. ([113]) 2. Verwendung der Ballone ohne Triebwerk. (115) 3. Luftschiffe. (116) [Tabelle]: Das zeigt sich schon in der Vergleichung des ersten erfolgreichen Zeppelin-Luftschiffes aus dem Jahre 1900 mit der Bauart von 1914: (118) [Abb.]: Zeppelin ([119]) 4. Flugzeuge. (120) [Abb.]: Boelcke (121) Die Photographie im Kriege. ([125]) [Abb.]: Abb. 1. (133) [Abb.]: Abb. 2. (134) [Abb.]: Abb. 3. (136) [Abb.]: Abb. 4. (138) [Abb.]: Abb. 5. (141) [Abb.]: Abb. 6. (142) Die Chemie im Kriege. ([143]) Die deutsche chemische Industrie vor dem Kriege. ([143]) Die physiologische Chemie im Kriege. ([159]) Arzneimittelwesen. ([179]) [Tabelle]: Daß es tatsächlich gelungen ist, die Verbreitung der Kriegsseuchen Pocken, Unterleibstyphus, Cholera und Ruhr im Verlaufe der Kriegszeit dank der vorzüglichen sanitären Versorgungsmaßnahmen einzuschränken, besagen folgende Zahlen, die anzeigen, wie viele Krankheitsfälle während des ersten und während des zweiten Kriegsjahres, berechnet auf 1000 Mann, eingetreten sind: (183) Neue Arzneimittel. (187) Die folgende Aufzählung der neuen Arzneipräparate ist unter Anführung ihrer Handelsnamen in alphabetischer Anordnung erfolgt. (188) Acridinfarbstoffe - Arzeimittelzubereitungsformen (M. B. K.) (188) Baldrianol - Bolusal mit Tierkohle (189) Calciglycin - Compretten (189) Desazon (Bayer) - Dispargen (190) Electrocollargol (Heyden) - Gynormon (191) Hämostaticum - Jodiperol (192) Kalzan - Kremulsion R (192) Laneps - Lutosargin (193) Magnesiumglycerophosphat (Merck) - Moronal (193) Narkophin - Nucleohexyl (194) Optannin - Ormizet (195) Panchelidon - Purostrophan (195) Quecksilbersalbe - Spuman (196) Tegoglykol - Typhus-Impfstoff "Höchst" (197) Upsalan - Wismutsubacetat (Merck) (198) Die Explosivstoffe. ([199]) Die Ballistik im Kriege. ([209]) [Abb.]: Franz Külp † Hauptmann im Inf.-Reg. 118, Assistent an der militärtechnischen Akademie in Berlin-Charlottenburg bei Herrn Geheimrat Cranz, geboren am 11. April 1879 zu Eberbach in Baden gefallen am 9. August 1917 in Rußland. ([210]) Die innere Ballistik ([212]) [Abb.]: Bild 1 (213) [Abb.]: Bild 2 (215) [Abb.]: Bild 3 (216) Die äußere Ballistik. (217) Die experimentellen Methoden der äußeren Ballistik. (218) [Abb.]: Bild 4 (218) [Abb.]: Bild 5 (220) [Abb.]: Bild 6 (221) Ballistische Photographie. (222) [Abb.]: Bild 7 (223) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bild 8 (2)Bild 9 (224) [3 Abb.]: (1)Bild 10 (2)Bild 11 (3)Bild 12 (225) [3 Abb.]: (1)Bild 13 (2)Bild 14 (3)Bild 15 (226) [4 Abb.]: (1)Bild 16 (2)Bild 17 (3)Bild 18 (4)Bild 19 (227) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bild 20 (2)Bild 21 (228) [Abb.]: Bild 22, I (230) [Abb.]: Bild 22, II (231) [Abb.]: Bild 23 (232) Waffen. ([235]) Waffen. ([235]) Allgemeines. ([237]) [Abb.]: Kanonenwerkstatt ([238]) [Abb.]: Panzerbearbeitungswerkstatt (239) Landkrieg. (240) A. Angriffsmittel. (241) I. Fernkampfwaffen. (241) [Abb.]: Trommelfeuer auf den Cailettewald (241) [Abb.]: Entladen eines Munitionszuges (243) 1. Geschütze. (245) [2 Abb.]: (1)Am Scherenfernrohr im Schützengraben (2)Beobachtungsstelle (aus mitgeführtem Gerät errichtet) (251) Feldartillerie. (251) [Abb.]: Feldgeschütz in Feuerstellung (252) [Abb.]: Die Verpackung der Geschosse (253) Gebirgsartillerie. (253) [Abb.]: Gebirgsartillerie (254) Die schwere Artillerie des Feldes. (255) [Abb.]: Schwere deutsche Mörser (256) [Abb.]: Wirkung eines Mörsergeschosses auf einen Panzerturm (258) Belagerungsartillerie. (259) [Abb.]: Einschußöffnung eines schweren Mörsergeschosses (259) Festungsartillerie. (261) Luftabwehrartillerie. (261) 2. Handfeuerwaffen. (262) 3. Maschinengewehre. (265) [2 Abb.]: Verwendung Maxim-Maschinengewehr (1)Maschinengewehre in Feuerstellung (2)Maschinengewehrbeförderung a. Gewehrwagen (266) [2 Abb.]: (1)Maschinengewehrbeförderung durch Tragtier (2)Vorbringen der Maschinengewehre in Feuerstellung (267) II. Nahkampfmittel. (268) [Abb.]: Granatwerfer (271) [2 Abb.]: (1)Leichter Minenwerfer (2)Schwerer Minenwerfer (272) [Abb.]: Einschlag einer schweren Mine (273) [Abb.]: Gasangriff (274) [Abb.]: Arbeiten im Minengang (275) B. Abwehrmittel. (276) I. Geländeverstärkung und Befestigung. (276) Feldbefestigung. (277) [Abb.]: Gewöhnlicher Schützengraben (277) [2 Abb.]: (1)Sandsackverwertung (2)Ausgebauter Sprengtrichter (278) [Abb.]: Feldbefestigung im Sumpfgebiet (279) Ständige Befestigung. (279) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eingedeckter Laufgang (2)Im Inneren eines bombensicheren Unterstandes (279) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fliegeraufnahme eines Außenforts von Bukarest (2)Grabenstreiche in der Kehle eines Forts (280) [2 Abb.]: (1)Spanische Reiter auf dem Sumpfeis (2)Drahthindernisse auf dem Eis eines Sees (281) Hindernisse. (281) [2 Abb.]: (1)Explodieren einer Flattermine (2)Drahthindernis in einem Fortsgraben (282) II. Schutzmittel und Schutzwaffen. (283) Panzerung in der Befestigung. (283) [Abb.]: Gesprengter Panzerturm (283) Panzerschutz an beweglichen Kampfmitteln. (284) [Abb.]: Deutscher Panzerzug (284) Persönlcihe Schutzmittel. (286) [Abb.]: Deutsche Posten mit Stahlhelmen (286) [Abb.]: Grabenposten mit Gasmasken (287) Seekrieg. (287) A. Schiffsartillerie. (288) [Abb.]: Schwere Schiffsgeschütze in Panzertürmen (290) B. Kriegsschiffe. (292) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schlachtschiff-Geschwader (2)Linienschiff "Kaiser" (24700 Tonnen) (294) [2 Abb.]: (1)Panzerkreuzer "Goeben" (23000 Tonnen) (2)Kleiner Kreuzer "Mainz" (4350 Tonnen) (3)Hilfskreuzer "Prinz Eitel Friedrich" (295) C. Küstenartillerie. (296) [Abb.]: Küstenartillerie b. feuern (freisteh. Flachbahngeschütz) (296) [Abb.]: Eingraben leichter Geschütze an der Küste (297) D. Torpedo und Torpedofahrzeuge. (297) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aufgefischter Torpedo (2)Torpedoausstoßrohr (Überwasserrohr) (298) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsches Torpedoboot (2)Deutsches U-Boot (Überwasserfahrt) (299) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsches U-Boot, halb untergetaucht (2)Längsschnitt durch ein U-Boot-Modell (300) [Abb.]: Der Maschinenraum eines im Bau befindlichen U-Bootes (301) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Seebild des Periskops eines U-Bootes (2)Blick in das Torpedoausstoßrohr eines U-Bootes (Unterwasserrohr) (303) [Abb.]: Aufgerichtetes U-Boot-Geschütz (304) E. Minen und Minenfahrzeuge. (304) [Abb.]: Versenktes U-Boot-Geschütz (304) [Abb.]: Ans Land getriebene Seemine (305) [Abb.]: Wirkung einer Seemine im Unterbau eines Dampfers (306) Luftkrieg. (306) A. Luftschiffe. (307) [Abb.]: Wirkung einer Zeppelinbrandbombe (308) B. Flugzeuge. (308) [Abb.]: Bombenwirkung in einer Londoner Straße. (308) [2 Abb.]: (1)Einschlag einer Fliegerbombe (2)Bombenwirkung auf ein Gleis (309) [Abb.]: Immelmanns Kampftaube (310) Die Technik im Kriege. ([313]) I. ([315]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der gesprengte Lubizina-Viadukt bei Delatyn (Hanomag-Nachr. 1917, Nr.) (2)Abb. I. Lubizina-Viadukt bei Delatyn. Belastungsprobe an dem wiederhergestellten Viadukt (317) [3 Abb.]: A. Der eiserne probewagen für die AEG-Schnellbahn (Gesundbrunnen - Neuköln). Abbildungen 1a (3)Wageninneres. An der Strinwand rechts befindet sich der Führerstand ([318]) [3 Abb.]: B. Akkumulatorenwagen. Abbildungen 1a (2)Führerstand des Doppelwagens mit Stromrückgewinnung (3)Akkumulatorenwagen mit Stromrückgewinnung ([319]) [5 Abb.]: C. Tunneluntersuchungswagen. Abbildungen 1a (1)Lichtbatterie für den Akkumulator-Tunneluntersuchungswagen (2)Dynamo und Benzolmotor des benzoelektrischen Tunneluntersuchungswagens (3)Führerstand des 120 PS.-benzoelektrischen Triebwagens (4)Benzoelektrischer Tunneluntersuchungswagen (5)Akkumulator-Tunneluntersuchungswagen neuer Bauart ([320]) [2 Abb.]: D. Elektrischer Triebwagen mit Schwerölmotor Abbildungen 1a (1)Elektrischer Triebwagen mit Schwerölmotor (2)Maschinendrehgestell mit Ölmotor, Dynamo, Erregermaschine und den Druckluftmaschinen (321) [Abb.]: Abb. 2 (322) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 3 (2)Abb. 3. (324) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 3a (2)Abb. 4 (325) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 5 (2)Abb. 6 (326) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 7 Beton-Mischmaschine (2)Abb. 8. Wagonkipper: Wagen aufgezogen (327) [Abb.]: Abb. 9 (329) [Abb.]: Abb. 9a (330) [Abb.]: Abb. 10 (331) [Abb.]: Abb. 11 (332) [Abb.]: Abb. 12 (333) Der Kleiderverschuß Arm-Amputierter und Arm-Beschädigter. (334) [3 Abb.]: Abbildungen 13 (1)Hosenverschluß (2)Kragenverschluß (3)Prothesenträger: angekleidet, teilweise mit Hilfe von besonderen Kleiderverschlüssen (334) [4 Abb.]: (1),(2)Abb. 13 Schuhverschluß (3),(4)Abb. 13 Westenverschluß (335) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 14 (2)Abb. 14 (336) [4 Abb.]: Abb. 15 Federhalter zum Schreiben für Linkshänder und Handbeschädigte von F. Soennecken - Bonn (337) [Abb.]: Abb. 16 (338) [6 Abb.]: Abbildungen 17 Die Nitralampe und der Elektromagnet in der Heilkunde. (1)Armstütze für Augenoperationen mit Handmagnet. (2)Mattierte Nitralampe von etwa 100 Watt in Stehlampe zum Gebrauch mit Stirnreflektor (3)Elektrische Beleuchtungslampe für Magnetoperationen (4)Magnetachse, horizontal, tiefe Stellung (großer fahrbarer Elektromagnet zur Extraktion von Geschoßsplittern usw.) (5)Stirnlampe (kleine Niederspannungs-Nitralampe) mit Metallreflektor (6)Magnetachse, vertikal geneigt, Veränderung der Höheneinstellung im Handrad ([339]) [7 Abb.]: Abbildungen 18 Die Röntgentechnik im Kriege a - c Feldröntgenautomobil d - g Feldröntgenapparat ([340]) [7 Abb.]: Abb. 19 (341) [Abb.]: Abb. 20 (342) [5 Abb.]: Abbildungen 21 Zur Elektrolyse des (1)a) Blei aus Bleiacetat (2)b) Blei aus Bleiacetat (3)c) Zinn aus Zinnchlorid (4)d) Zinn aus Zinnchlorid (5)e) Zink aus Zinkchlorid ([343]) [Abb.]: Abb. 22 (344) [Abb.]: Abb. 23 Elektrische Stumpfschweißmaschine (345) [Abb.]: Abb. 24 (347) [Abb.]: Abb. 25 (348) II. (349) Die Industrie der Ersatzstoffe. (353) Verkehrs- und Nachrichtenmittel. ([359]) Allgemeines. ([361]) I. Bahnverkehr. (364) Vollbahnen. (366) [Abb.]: Eisenbahntransport von Kriegsfahrzeugen (367) [6 Abb.]: Einrichtungen eines Lazarettzuges. (1)Wagen für Pflegepersonal (2)Krankenwagen (3)Küchenwagen (4)Vorratswagen (5)Operationsraum (6)Chefarztwagen ([369]) [Abb.]: Krankenzug (370) [Abb.]: Badezug (Inneres eines Badewagens) (371) Feldbahnen. (372) [Abb.]: Feldbahnzug mit Leichtverwundeten (372) Förder- u. Seilbahnen. (373) [Abb.]: Verwundetentransport durch Seilbahn (373) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gesprengter und wiederhergestellter Tunnel (2)Neubau einer zerstörten Eisenbahnbrücke (374) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gesprengte Eisenbahnbrücke (2)Zerstörte Eisenbahn- und Fußgängerbrücke (375) II. Schiffsverkehr. (376) Schiffbare Wasserstraßen. (376) [Abb.]: Schleppzug aus Lastkähnen (377) [Abb.]: Lazarettschiffe (378) [Abb.]: Kriegsbrückengerät (Pontonpark) (379) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kriegsbrücke (2)Große Kriegsbrücke über die Weichsel (380) [Abb.]: Pionierbrücke aus Behelfsmaterial (381) Seeweg. (381) [Abb.]: Fähre aus Kriegsgerät (381) [Abb.]: Handels U-Boot "Deutschland" (382) III. Verkehr auf Landstraßen und im Gelände. (384) [Abb.]: Pionierbrücke über Weichland (384) Straßen und Wege (384) [2 Abb.]: (1)Neubau einer festen Brücke (2)Straßenbarrikade (385) Fahrzeuge mit Pferdebespannung. (386) [Abb.]: Verwundetentransport auf Schlitten (386) [Abb.]: Fahrbarer Trinkwasserbereiter (387) [Abb.]: Fahrbarer Ofen zur Kleiderreinigung (388) Tragetiere. (388) [Abb.]: Entlausungsmaschine (388) [Abb.]: Tragetiere (389) Kraftwagen. (389) [8 Abb.]: Personen- und Krankenkraftwagen. (1)Offener Personenwagen (2)Geschlossener Personenwagen (3)Mannschafts-Omnibus (4)Feldapothekenwagen m. Drahtseil-Fangvorrichtg. (5)Geschlossener Krankenwagen (6)Offener Krankenwagen (7)Krankenzug (8)Badewagen im Betrieb ([391]) [7 Abb.]: Lastkraftwagen und Kraftzug. (1)Schwerer Lastkraftwagen (2)Leichter Lastkraftwagen (3)Ganz leichter Lastwagen (4)Postkraftwagen (5)Motorlastzug (6)Heißdampflokomotive (7)Flugzeugtransport auf Kraftwagen ([393]) [Abb.]: Lastkraftwagenkolonne (394) [Abb.]: Kraftfahrerabteilung (396) Krafträder. (396) Der Kraftzug. (397) [Abb.]: Transport schwerer Geschütze durch Dampflokomotiven (398) Fahrräder. (398) [Abb.]: Radfahrerabteilung. (399) Schneeschuh. (399) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schneeschuhabteilung (2)Schneeschuhpatrouille in Schneeanzügen (400) Lastenträger. (400) IV. Luftverkehr. (401) Luftschiffe. (402) [Abb.]: Deutsches Luftschiff (403) Flugzeuge. (405) [Abb.]: Deutscher Doppeldecker (407) [3 Abb.]: (1)1. Fliegeraufnahme von Epinal (2)2. Fliegeraufnahme von Epinal (3)Deutsches Wasserflugzeug (408) [Abb.]: Deutscher Fesselballon (409) V. Nachrichtenmittel. (410) [2 Abb.]: (1)Legen der Feldleitung von der Trage aus (2)Legen der Feldleitung vom Wagen aus (412) [Abb.]: Bombensicherer Fernsprech-Unterstand (413) [Abb.]: Meldehund (Zurückbringen einer Meldung) (420) [2 Abb.]: (1)Sanitätshund (2)Sanitätshund auf der Suche (421) VI. Beleuchtungsmittel. (422) [Abb.]: Fahrbarer Scheinwerfer (423) VII. Postverkehr. (424) Die Geologie in der Kriegs-Literatur bei Beschaffung von Rohstoffen des Bodens und Wasserversorgung für Truppen. ([427]) I. Einleitung. ([429]) II. Beschaffung von Rohstoffen des Bodens. (430) III. Wasserversorgung. (435) [Abb.]: Fig. 1. Neufassungen für einen durch Latrinenabwässer verseuchten Brunnen. Durch die Absperrvorrichtungen kann nötigenfalls jede der Quellen a-c ausgeschaltet werden; die bisherige Mitbenutzung der verseuchten Wasseraustritte dicht hinter der Küche und unterhalb der Vorratskammer hört durch Abbruch ihrer (ungenügenden) Fassungen auf (436) [Abb.]: Fig. 2. Verunreinigung einer Stauquelle durch ein Dorf. (437) [Abb.]: Fig. 3. Vermeintliche "Quellfassung" auf dem Land im besetzten Frankreich (439) [Abb.]: Fig. 4. Entwurf eines behelfsmäßigen Schacht- und Bohrbrunnens (440) [Abb.]: Fig. 5. Bauzeichnung des in Fig. 4 entworfenen Brunnens (441) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 6a. Absenkung eines Wasserspiegels in einen tieferen (2)Fig. 6b (444) [Abb.]: Fig. 7 Gebohrter Abessinierbrunnen. (448) [2 Abb.]: Fig. 8. Quellfassung (1)Schnitt. (2)Grundriss. (450) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 9a. Mangelhafte Fassung einer (Schicht- und) Schuttquelle. Quellkammer überfüllt, weil Überlauf fehlt; durchdrückendes Wasser (←) beschädigt sie. Bedeckung der Kammer zum Schutz gegen Tagewasser ungenügend. Nach Angaben von Herrn F. Bernauer. Die Mauer am Trog ist architektonisch verziert. Statt dessen muß die Quellkammer gemauert (oder betoniert) werden, Fig. 9b (2)Fig. 9b. Bessere Fassung derselben Quelle (451) Der Krieg und die erdkundliche Wissenschaft. ([455]) 1. Die geographische Karte im Kriege. (459) [Karte]: Abb. 1. Reliefkarte der deutsch-französischen Grenzgebiete ([462-463]) [Abb.]: Abb. 2. Der Hafen von Dünkirchen (von einem deutschen Flugzeug aufgenommen). Man beachte die Wirkung der Sonnenbestrahlung im Spiegeln der Schuppendächer und in den Schattenbildern der Schiffe (464) 2. Die geographische Lage im Kriege. (465) [Abb.]: Abb. 3. Vor Bombenwurf flüchtende russische Torpedoboote (von einem deutschen Flugzeug aufgenommen). Die rasende Fahrt im ausweichenden Zickzack veranlaßt sich überschneidende Wellenstreifen, die scharfe Licht- und Schattenwirkungen aufweisen (465) [Abb.]: Abb. 4. Vorder., Zwisch.- u. Hint.-Europa (466) [Karte]: Abb. 5 Skizze der Karpathenpässe (475) 3. Der geographische Raum im Kriege. (476) [Tabelle]: Übersicht über die Raum- und Volksgröße der um Mitte Juli 1917 nicht mehr neutralen Staaten: (478) [Abb.]: Abbildung 6. und 7. Schematische Veranschaulichung der Größenverhältnisse der vom Kriege betroffenen Staaten. Zeit: Mitte Juli 1917. (479) [2 Karten]: Abb. 8 und 9. Verkehrsbedeutung des norditalienischen, serbischen und rumänischen Kriegsschauplatzes (September 1917; inzwischen verschoben die Mittelmächte ihren Einflußbereich viel weiter ostwärts) (1)Was die Entente wollte. (2)Was wir erreicht haben. (485) 4. Die Landeseigenart im Kriege. (487) [Tabelle]: Doch Frankreich vermochte seinen hauptsächlich im Nordosten lagernden Schatz nicht annähernd selbst zu verhütten, während Deutschland, das kohlenreiche, erhebliche Erzmengen einführte. Diese Einfuhr hat sich sehr merkwürdig entwickelt. Langsam hob sich die spanische, rasch die schwedische, reißend die nordfranzösische Zufuhr. (490) [2 Abb.]: Abb. 10 und 11. Posières bei Albert vor und nach der Somme-Schlacht 1916. (Fliegeraufnahme) ([492]) [Abb.]: Abb. 12. Verwüstungen im Rabenwald östlich vom Toten Mann (493) Zum Schrifttum über Kriegsgeographie. (497) Krieg und Völkerkunde. ([499]) Erster Teil. Geschichte der Völkerkunde. ([501]) Zweiter Teil. Arbeiten und Ergebnisse der Völkerkunde im Kriege. (508) Allgemeine Einleitung. (508) 1. Anthropologische Arbeiten. (510) 2. Der Krieg als Erscheinung der primitiven Kultur. (510) 3. Die primitiven Völker auf den Kriegsschauplätzen. (511) 4. Die europäischen Völker im allgemeinen. (513) 5. Vom deutschen Wesen. (514) 6. Die Völker in Österreich-Ungarn. (515) 7. Die Nordgermanen. Belgier. Holländer. Buren. Luxemburger. Schweizer. (516) 8. Engländer und Iren. (518) 9. Die romanischen Völker. (520) 10. Die Russen. (522) Die Fremdvölker des russischen Reiches. (526) 1. Allgemeine Übersicht. (526) 2. Die Polen. (527) 3. Die Ukrainer. (529) 4. Litauer und Letten. Die Finnen. (530) 5. Die türkischen und mongolischen Völker. Lappen. Samojeden. (531) 6. Die Kaukasusvölker. (533) 7. Die Ostjuden. (534) Die Balkanvölker. (536) Die Völker des türkischen Reiches und der Islam. (541) Der Orient. (544) 1. Allgemeines. (544) 2. Armenier. Perser. Inder. (545) 3. Ostasien. (549) Die Amerikaner. (551) Die Botanik im Kriege. (553) Öle und Fette. (557) 1. Gesteigerter Anbau vor dem Krieg als Öllieferanten in Deutschland angebauter Pflanzen. (557) 2. Anbau von vor dem Krieg nicht oder nur in beschränktem Maße in Deutschland kultivierten Ölpflanzen. (557) [Abb.]: Abb. 1 (558) [Abb.]: Abb. 2. Sonnenblumenmassenkultur Anfang August 1916 (559) [Abb.]: Abb. 3. Sonnenblumenmassenkultur nach dem Unwetter Anfang Oktober 1916 (560) 3. Nutzung der bei uns wildwachsenden oder zu anderen Zwecken kultivierten, ölhaltigen Pflanzen. (561) Walnuß (561) Bucheckern. Weinrebe. (562) Steinobstkerne. (562) Mehle und Stärke. (563) [Abb.]: Abb. 4 (564) Reismelde. (564) [Abb.]: Abb. 5. Reismeldenkultur (565) Flechten (565) [Abb.]: Abb. 6. Isländisch Moos. Renntierflechte (565) [Abb.]: Abb. 7. Flechtenbestandenes Moor im württembergischen Algäu. (566) Salate und Gemüse. (566) Pilze. (567) Hefe. (569) Genußmittel (Kaffee- und Tee-Ersatz). (570) Kaffee. (570) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 8. Zichorienpflanze (2)Abb. 9. Zichorienwurzel (571) [Abb.]: Abb. 10. Zichorienlieferung Frank-Ludwigsburg (572) Tee-Ersatz. (572) Arzneipflanzen. (573) Faserersatz. (575) Die Brennessel. (577) [Abb.]: Abb. 11. Brennessel (577) [Abb.]: Abb. 12 (578) Der Ginster (Sarothamnus scoparius). Hopfen (579) Lupine (579) Weide. Torffasern. (580) Ersatz für technisch wichtige Artikel. (580) Seife. (580) Kautschuk. Klebstoffe. (581) Mikroskopisch-anatomische Untersuchungen. (582) Die Zoologie im Kriege. ([585]) [Tabelle]: In der bestehenden Übersicht sind die wichtigsten hierhergehörenden Insekten und die von ihnen übertragenen Krankheiten zusammengestellt; (599) [Abb:]: Abb. 1. Lage des Verdauungstraktes der Kleiderlaus, schematisch (Nach H. Sikora 1916) (602) [Abb:]: Abb. 2. Kopf der Kleiderlaus (Mikrophotogramm nach Frickinger 1916) (603) [7 Abb:]: Abb. 3a - g. Entwicklung des Läuseeies (nach Hase 1916): (1)a)Ei nach der Ablage (2)B) am Ende des 1. Tages. (3)c) am Ende des 2. Tages (4)d) am 3. Tage (5)e) am 4. Tage (6)f) am 5. Tage (7)g) unmittelbar vor dem Ausschlüpfen der Larve (604) [Abb:]: Abb. 4. Deckel des Läuseeies mit Mikrophylapparat (Nach Hase 1916) (605) [2 Abb:]: (1)Abb. 5. An Fasern und Haaren abgelegte Läuseeier (Nach Hase 1916) (2)Abb. 6. Ungewöhnliche Anheftung von Läuseeiern am Kopf bzw. Bein einer andern Laus (nach Hase 1916) (606) [Abb:]: Abb. 7. Stellung der Laus beim Blutsaugen (nach Hase 1916) (607) Die Bakteriologie im Kriege. ([629]) [Tabelle]: Einen Überblick über diese und die Zeit ihrer Entdeckung soll folgende Tabelle geben: (633) Grundlegende Methoden. (633) Gestaltung, Organisation und chemisch-physikalische Beschaffenheit der Bakterien. (634) Die Lebenserscheinungen der Bakterien. (636) Die äußeren Lebensbedingungen. (636) Die Feuchtigkeit. (636) Die Temperatur. (636) Der Stoffwechsel. (637) Der Tierversuch. (639) Das wechselweise Verhalten von Bakterium und infiziertem Organismus. (640) Toxine. (640) Bakteriolysine. (641) Agglutination. (641) Herstellung von Impfstoff. (642) Die im Kriege wichtigsten Bakterien. (643) Coccaceen. (644) Streptococcen. (644) Micrococcus. Micrococcus gonorrhoeae. (645) Micrococcus intracellularis. (645) Micrococcus pyogenes. (646) Bacteriaceen. (646) Sporenlose Bakterien. (647) Die Typhus-Coli-Ruhr-Gruppe. (647) Die Typhusgruppe. (648) B. typhi. (651) B. Paratyphi A. (652) B. Paratyphi B. (652) B. dysenteriae und pseudodysenteriae. (653) B. proteus. (654) Sporenbildende Stäbchen. (655) Aerobe sporenbildende Bakterien. (655) Bacilius subtilis. (655) B. anthracis. (655) Anaerobe sporenbildende Bakterien. (656) B. Tetani. (656) Anaerobe Gasbazillen. (657) Spirillaceen. (658) Vibrio Cholerae. (658) Mycobacteriaceen. (659) C. Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Corynebacterium Mallei. (660) Mycobacterium tuberculosis. (661) Kriegsmethoden. (661) [Abb:]: Abb. 1 (662) Massenuntersuchungen. (663) [Abb:]: Abb. 2 (664) Die Hygiene im Kriege. ([665]) [Tabelle]: Der Jahreszugang an Kriegsseuchen oder sonstigen bemerkenswerten Krankheiten betrug, gleichfalls berechnet auf je tausend der Kopfstärke: (695) [Tabelle]: An Krankheiten, welche für die Beurteilung des Gesundheitszustandes der Flotte von Bedeutung sind, gingen zu: (696) [Tabelle]: Die Erkrankungen und Sterbefälle infolge der wichtigsten Infektionskrankheiten in Cöln von 1907 - 1915: (697) Die Medizin im Kriege. ([699]) Krieg und Heilkunst. ([701]) Die Chirurgie im Kriege. ([713]) [Abb.]: Fig. 1 (718) [Abb.]: Fig. 2 (720) [Abb.]: Fig. 3a -c (722) [Abb.]: Fig. 4 (728) [Abb.]: Fig. 5 (730) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 6a (2)Fig. 6b (731) Die Orthopädie im Kriege. ([739]) [Abb.]: Abb. 1. Geh-Gipsverbände bei Oberschenkelbrüchen (von Lange-München) (743) [3 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 2a (2)Abb. 2b. Streckverbandapparat nach Ansinn-Bromberg zur selbsttätigen Bewegung des Knie- u. Hüftgelenkes bei Oberschenkelbrüchen (3)Abb. 2c. Lagerung zur selbsttätigen Gelenkbewegung bei Schußbrüchen nach Böhler-Bozen (744) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 3. Mechanotherapie und Gymnastik. (Aus dem Wiener orthopäd. Spital und Invalidenschulen) (2)Abb. 4. Kniestreckschiene nach Schede-München (745) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 5 Schiene für Schulterversteifungen nach Erlacher-Wien-Graz (2)Abb. 6. Behandlungsapparat nach Fischer-Preßburg bei Ellbogenversteifungen (746) [Abb.]: 7. Erhöhungsschuh mit Kniekappe bei Oberschenkelverkürzung und Knieschlottern (747) [5 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 8. Radialschiene nach Spitzy-Wien zur Behebung der Fallhand (2)Abb. 9a. Ulnarisspange zur Behinderung der Krallenhand bei Ellnervenverletzung (3)Abb. 9b. Ulnarisspange angelegt (4)Abb. 10. Apparat bei Lähmung der Oberarmheber nach Stracker-Wien (5)Abb. 11. Schuh mit Hebezug bei Lähmung der Fußheber. Alte Form. (Wiener orthop. Spital) (748) [5 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 12. a Fallhand links bei Radialislähmung; (2)b. durch Sehnenplastik geheilt. Von Fischer-Stuttgart. (Aus der Münch. med. Wochenschr. 1915) (3)-(5)Abb. c-e Lähmungen von Arm- und Beinnerven, durch Nervenoperation (Naht des durchtrennten Nerven) wieder geheilt. (Aus dem Wiener orthopädischen Spital und Invalidenschulen) (749) [3 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 13. Gipsprothesen nach Spitzy-Wien (2)Abb. 14a. Lederbehelfsprothesen für doppelseitig Unterschenkelamputierten, ohne Schuh und Verkleidung (3)Abb. 14b. Lederbehelfsbein bei sehr kurzem Oberschenkelstumpf, verkleidet. (Aus dem Wiener orthopädischen Spital) (750) [Abb.]: 15 Kunstbein bei Verlust des ganzen rechten Beines (ausgelöst in der Hüfte). (Aus dem Wiener orthopädischen Spital) (751) [3 Abb.]: Abb. 16. Doppelseitig Oberschenkelamputierter mit seinen Prothesen, mit denen er stundenlang gehen kann. (Aus dem Wiener orthopädischen Spital) (752) [6 Abb.]: Tafel I (1)-(4)Doppelseitig Verstümmelter mit sehr kurzem Stumpf rechts. (5)-(6)Muskelanschlußprothese links. Beide können vom Stumpf aus Ellbogen und Finger willkührlich bewegen (Wiener orthopädisches Spital) ([755]) [6 Abb.]: Tafel II Doppelseitig Armamputierte bei den Verrichtungen des täglichen Lebens. (Aus dem Wiener erthopädischen Spital und Invalidenschulen) ([756]) [7 Abb.]: Tafel III a-d Verschiedene Arbeitsbehelfe. (1)a. Wienerarm (2)b. Bauernarm (3)c. Kellerhand (4)d. Rotaarm (5)-(7)e-g Muskelanschlußprothesen. (Aus dem Wiener orthopädischen Spital und Invalidenschulen) ([757]) Die Lichttherapie im Kriege. ([763]) Einleitung. ([763]) Das Licht. ([763]) Die Lichtquellen für die Lichttherapie. (764) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 1. Kromayerlampe (2)Abb. 2. Bachs künstliche Höhensonne (766) Wirkung der ultravioletten Strahlung. (767) [Abb.]: Abb. 3. Jesionek-Quarzlampe (767) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 4. Lichtfilter (2)Abb. 5. Hagemanns Glühlampenring (768) [Abb.]: Abb. 6. Sollux-Ergänzungs-Höhensonne (769) Die Lichttherapie im Kriege. (770) [2 Abb.]: Abb. (1)7a und (2)b. Wundheilung (774) [Abb.]: Abb. 8. Gruppenbestrahlung (775) Die Röntgentechnik im Kriege. ([777]) I. Physikalische Grundlagen. ([777]) II. Erzeugung der Röntgenstrahlen. (780) [Abb.]: Fig. 1. Röntgenröhre (780) [Abb.]: Fig. 2. Glühkathoden-Röntgenröhre (782) III. Die Erzeugung der hohen Spannung. (782) IV. Die Erkennung von Krankheiten mit Röntgenstrahlen. (783) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 3 (2)Fig. 4 (784) [Abb.]: Fig. 5 (785) V. Kriegs-Röntgenapparate. (786) [Abb.]: Fig. 6. Feldröntgenauto, gebaut von den Veifawerken in Frankfurt a. M. (787) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 7 (2)Fig. 8 (788) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 9 (2)Fig. 10 (789) VI. Röntgenbilder aus dem Kriege mit Erklärungen. (791) Aus der überaus großen Zahl von Anwendungen, die das Röntgenverfahren im Kriege gefunden hat, können wir nur einige Beispiele in den nachfolgenden Tafeln bringen: (791) [3 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 11 (2)Fig. 12 (3)Fig. 13. Großer Präzisionsapparat für Fremdkörper-Lagebestimmung (792) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fig. 14. Röntgenkinematograph. Aufnahme eines Geschosses im Herzen. (2)Fig. 15. Ausmessungsaufnahme eines Geschosses im Herzen mittels des Präzisionsmeßapparates und des Telekardiographen nach Huismanns in einem Reservelazarett (793) [Abb.]: Tafel I ([795]) [Abb.]: Tafel II ([796]) [Abb.]: Tafel III ([797]) [Abb.]: Tafel IV ([798]) [Abb.]: Tafel V ([799]) Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten. ([801]) Die Einwirkung des Krieges auf das Nervensystem geschieht in vielerlei Arten. (802) I. Die mechanischen Schädigungen des Nervensystems. (802) 1. Peripherische Nerven. (802) 2. Rückenmark. (808) 3. Gehirn. (809) II. Infektions- und Intoxikationskrankheiten. (810) III. Erschöpfende Einflüsse. (813) IV. Psychische Einwirkungen. (815) Die Augenheilkunde. ([821]) [Abb.]: Abb. 1. Veränderungen des Augenhintergrundes nach einem Schuß, welcher die umgebenden Knochen des Auges getroffen hat (822) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 2a a) Nach Verbrennung ist eine Verwachsung der Haut des oberen Lides mit der Hornhaut und der Bindehaut des Augapfels entstanden. (2)Abb. 2b b) Das Auge nach Abtragung der Hautbrücke. Das Hautläppchen a) ist zur Herstellung des unteren Bindehautsackes verwandt, außerdem ist noch Lippenschleimhaut eingesetzt. Ein Teil der oberen Hautbrücke wurde zur Bildung des oberen Bindehautsackes verwandt (823) [Abb.]: Abb. 3. Wagrechter Schnitt durch Augen und Gehirn. Beide Augen fixieren Punkt F. Sein Bild fällt auf den gelben Fleck. (M und M`). cM und g`M` werden von der linken Gehirnseite mit Nerven versorgt, Mg und M`c`von der rechten. M und M`gelber Fleck. aFb Gesichtsfeld des linken Auges. a`F``des rechten Auges. Aus Dr. Klingelhöffer, Das Auge und seine Erkrankungen. Thomas`Volksbücher 113 und 114 (826) [Abb.]: Abb. 4. Blick in gerader und schräger Richtung durch ein doppelgehöhltes und ein Meniskenglas (829) Die Zahnheilkunde. ([833]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 1. Bügel und sog. "Band". Dieses wird an den Zahn angeschraubt. In der seitlich angelöteten Röhre kann der Bügel mit Hilfe der beiden Muttern befestigt werden (2)Abb. 2. Der Bügel ist so eingestellt, daß er freigelassen, wie dies die gestrichelte Linie andeutet, nach außen federn würde. Er wird durch die Röhrchen festgehalten und nimmt, seiner Ruhelage zustrebend, die ihn festhaltenden Zähne allmählich nach außen mit. Der Erfolg ist eine "Kieferdehnung" (834) [3 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 3. Der Bügel dient hier als einfache Kieferschiene. Die Zähne und mit ihnen die Bruchstücke des Knochens werden an dem Bügel durch Draht festgebunden und bis zur Heilung fixiert. (2)Abb. 4. Der Bügel überbrückt den Defekt und hält die beiden Bruchstücke in ihrer gegenseitigen Lage fest (3)Abb. 5, oben. Definitives Ersatzstück bei Fehlen des Mittelteiles des Unterkiefers. Es findet an den durch Kronen miteinander befestigten Backenzähnen beider Stümpfe seinen Halt durch Klammern (835) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 6. Fehlen des Mittelteiles des Unterkiefers. Da nicht geschient wurde, näherten sich beide Stümpfe, um in dieser ungünstigen Stellung miteinander zu verwachsen (2)Abb. 7. Die links am Bügel angebrachte "schiefe Ebene" zwingt bei jedem Kieferschluß die Fragmente in die richtige Stellung (836) [3 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 8. Schwere Zerreißung der Wangenweichteile durch die Splitterwirkung des zertrümmerten Unterkiefers (2)Abb. 9. Abschuß des ganzen Mittelteiles des Unterkiefers. Untelippenweichteile teilweise noch erhalten (3)Abb. 10. Großer Wangendefekt bei Schußbruch des Oberkiefers (837) [2 Abb.]: Abb. 11 Abb. 12 Ober- und Unterkieferdefekt nach Heilung der Wunden. - Der verlorene Knochen wird durch "Kautschukschilder" ersetzt, die an den Kieferresten ihren Halt finden und die Unterlage für die Deckung des Defektes mit Weichteillappen bilden (838) [Abb.]: Abb. 13. Der gleiche Patient nach Deckung des Defektes. Die Kautschukschilder werden später gegen zahntragende Kautschukgebisse ausgetauscht. Gegebenenfalls wird vorher noch der Unterkieferknochen durch Knochenverpflanzung ersetzt (839) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 14. Narbe nach der Heilung der Weichteilwunde der Abb. 8 (2)Abb. 15. Zustand nach Ausschneidung der Narbe und exakter Wundnaht (840) [Abb.]: Abb. 16. Durch einen "Nagel" wird das linke Unterkieferfragment mit Hilfe einer Kopfkappe in richtiger Lage gehalten. Das rechte Fragment ist auf die gleiche Weise geschient. (841) [3 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 17. Die beiden Kiefermodelle sind in einen anatomischen Artikulator eingegipst, der die genaue Wiederholung der sehr komplizierten Kieferbewegungen erlaubt. Die Gleitschiene wird hier erst in die richtige Lage gebracht und mit dem Bügel verlötet (2), Abb. 18a (3)Abb. 18b Freilegung und Anbohrung der beiden Knochenstümpfe, oben das dem Schienbein entnommene entsprechend vorbereitete Knochenstück. - Das "Transplantat" ist in die Kieferstümpfe eingefügt. Es folgt Weichteil- und Hautnaht (842) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 19. Großer Unterkieferdefekt mit großen Weichteilwunden (2)Abb. 20. Der gleiche Patient, mit verheilten Wunden. Unterkiefermittelteil nebst Kinn und Lippe fehlt (843) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 21. Am Oberkiefer wird ein Kautschukkiefer befestigt, als Unterlage für den plastischen Ersatz der Kinnweichteile (2)Abb. 22. Der Weichteildefekt ist gedeckt. Der Narbenschrumpfung wird durch Kopfkappenzugverband vorgebeugt ([844]) [Abb.]: Abb. 23. Der gleiche Patient siehe Abb. 19, nach Weichteil- und Knochenplastik (845) [2 Abb.]: Abb. 24 Abb. 25 Sattelnase wird durch Pelotten- und Gummizug gehoben, die an einer Kopfkape ihren Halt finden. - Apparat zur Formung neugebildeter oder deformierter Nasen. Die Pelotten sind in jeder Lage feststellbar. Halt an Kopfkappe (846) Die Tiermedizin. ([849]) [Abb.]: Fig. 1. Positives Ergebnis der Mallein-Augenprobe bei einem rotzkranken Pferde. - Die Einträufelung einiger Tropfen Mallein- (Rotzbazillenextrakt-) Lösung in den Lidbindehautsack erzeugt bei rotzkranken Pferden nach 4-6 Stunden einen mehrere Stunden anhaltenden Ausfluß eiterflockenhaltigen Sekretes. (852) [Abb.]: Fig. 2. Ein von der Räudekrankheit befallenes und dadurch an zahlreichen Körperteilen, besonders an der Schulter, der Flanke und am Gesäß, des Haarkleides beraubten Pferd. (854) Die Landwirtschaft und der Krieg. ([873]) [Abb.]: Bild 1. Unser täglich Brot. Herr v. Lochow-Petkus bei seinen Elitepflanzen des Petkuser Roggens (879) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Dagegen mehrte sich die Zahl der Menschen, die nebenberuflich in der Landwirtschaft tätig sind, und es bleibt auch wohl zu beachten, daß es viele kleine Leute gibt, die "gewerblich" und "landwirtschaftlich" arbeiten, sich aber bei der Berufszählung nicht als Bauern bekennen. (2)Ernteerträge im ganzen in 1000 Tonnen pro Hektar in Doppelzentnern: (882) [Abb.]: Bild 2. Getreideselektionsraum. Aus der Saaatzucht von Fr. Strube in Schlanstedt (883) [Abb.]: Bild 3. Hohenheim bei Stuttgart, die älteste landwirtschaftliche Hochschule die 1918 ihr hundertjähriges Jubiläum feierte (885) [Abb.]: Bild 4. Tiere des Rassenstalls der landwirtschaftlichen Hochschule Hohenheim (890) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Von den Jahren 1882 auf 1895 auf 1907 war die Zahl der Betriebe: (2)Bei den Zwergbetrieben, die in Friedenszeiten weniger Bedeutung für die Landwirtschaft besitzen, ist allerdings ein Verlust von 129000 Landwirten zu buchen, die durch andere Leute ersetzt worden sind. (891) [Tabelle]: Verteilung der Tierbestände auf die einzelnen Betriebsgrößen im Deutschen Reich nach der Zählung vom 2. Dezember 1907: (892) [2 Tabellen.]: (1)Anbauflächen (2)Gesamterträge: (894) [Abb.]: Bild 5. Weinlese auf einer hessischen Domäne (895) [Tabelle]: Von den Hauptzuckerländern waren die Zahlen 1912/13 für den Zuckerrübenbau: (895) [Abb.]: Bild 6. Vollblut-Shorthorns auf Sürwürden, Oldenburg. Aus Dade, "Die deutsche Landwirtschaft unter Kaiser Wilhelm II." (898) [Tabelle]: Danach verlief die Zunahme folgendermaßen: (898) [Tabelle]: Fügen wir Pferde und Ziegen hinzu und betrachten wir die Zahl seit 1873 noch etwas genauer, so erkennen wir den weiteren Aufstieg und zugleich die Schwankungen, denen naturgemäß die Viehbestände ausgesetzt sind (Futterernten und dergleichen). (899) [Abb.]: Bild 7. Württemberger Bastardschafe auf der Domäne Ochsenhausen bei Biberbach, Oberschwaben (900) [Abb.]: Bild 8. Aus "Kriegsbilder", Nr. 15, 13. April 1918, Illustrierte Wochenbeilage der Deutschen Tageszeitung (901) [3 Tabellen]: (1)Es betrug das durchschnittliche Schlachtgewicht in Kilogramm: (2)Die Zunahme des Schlachtgewichts betrug in Prozenten: (3)Im selben Sinne sprechen die Erhebungen durch das Großherzogliche Statistische Landesamt in Baden (1913), wonach die Lebendgewichte der Rinder, Schweine und Schafe und deren Verkaufswert fortgesetzt stiegen. (902) [Abb.]: Bild 9. Herde auf Friedrichswerth bei Gotha von Domänenrat Meyer (903) [Tabelle]: Es kamen auf 100 Einwohner: (903) [Abb.]: Bild 10. Aus der Forellenzucht von Wüsten-Jerichow, Bezirk Magdeburg (904) [Tabelle]: Die Zahl der landwirtschaftlichen Betriebe, die überhaupt Maschinen benutzten hat sich erheblich vermehrt. (906) [Abb.]: Bild 11. Landbaumotor Lanz mit angehängten Mähmaschinen (907) Die Forstwirtschaft im Kriege. ([913]) I. Die technischen Hilfsstoffe des Waldes. (916) [Tabelle.]: Vielmehr stellt sich der Besitzstand in den Forsten des Deutschen Reiches wie folgt: (917) II. Die Nährstoffe des Waldes. (930) Der naturwissenschaftliche Unterricht und der Krieg. ([945]) Die Schulmathematik und der Krieg. ([961]) Krieg und Wirtschaftsleben. ([975]) Werbung ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )
WIE UNSRE GEGNER DEN KRIEG SEHEN Wie unsre Gegner den Krieg sehen ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([3]) [Vorwort]: (5) Wie unsere Gegner den Krieg sehen Bilderteil ([23]) [Abb.]: Das "Gehirn" unserer Gegner. General Joffre bespricht mit den Herrn seines Stabes in seinem Extrazug die Lage an der Front von Verdun. Die Deutschen beunruhigen den Feind überall an der Front, so daß die französische Heeresleitung weniger an ihrem Standort als im Eisenbahnwagen ist. (25) [3 Abb.]: Die Könige von Belgien und England (1)The Hero-King, - Sans peur et sans reproche! The knightly king of the Belgians at home at his villa. König Albert fern von Brüssel, in einem kleinen Landhaus bei Furnes, seiner jetzigen Residenz. (2)The Prince of Wales. Der englische Thronfolger in Marschbereitschaft - Der Sturm kann beginnen! (3)Leader of the No-alcohol-in-war-time campaign: König Georg hat, mangels geeigneter Verwendung an der Front, die Führung des "Antialkohol-Krieges" übernommen. (26) [2 Abb.]: Präsident und Oberbefehlshaber von Frankreich (1)Le Président salutant une jeune Alsacienne et une jeune Lorraine auxquelles il a remis des souvenirs. Wie's gemacht wird: Poincaré läßt sich einige Elsässer Kinder in Landestracht vorführen, um in Paris die Illusion aufrechtzuerhalten, daß Frankreich vom Elsaß als Befreier willkommen geheißen würde. (2)General Joffre decorating soldiers of the French Maroccan division. Durch Ordensverleihung und Bruderkuß werden die im Heere Frankreichs von General Joffre als ebenbürtige Streitgenossen "im Kampfe für die Zivilisation" anerkannt. (27) [3 Abb.]: Zar und Zarewitsch (1)Der Kaiser von Rußland und sein Sohn. Wenn Zar und Zarewitsch der Front zunahe kommen, zeigen sie sich kriegerisch "bis an die Zähne bewaffnet". (2)Rechts sehen wir sie beim Vorbeimarsch von Truppen, links Vater und Sohn bei einem Feldgottesdienst. (3)Russischer Feldgottesdienst vor der Schlacht. (28) [Abb.]: Der Vize-König vom Kaukasus. Der Großfürst Nikolajewitsch küßt in überquellender Dankbarkeit den Eroberer von Erzerum. (29) [Abb.]: Auf dem Wege in die Verbannung. Le vieux roi Pierre de la Serbie sur la route de l'exil. De jeunes recrues de 15 à 17 ans, sans armes, évacuant des caisses de cartouches sur Prizrend, entourent le caisson attelé de boeufs qui porte le souverain. Der alte König Peter von Serbien auf dem Wege in die Verbannung. Waffenlose junge Rekruten von 15 bis 17 Jahren, die Patronenkisten nach Prizrend schaffen sollen, umstehen den von Büffeln gezogenen Wagen des Herrschers. (30) [Abb.]: Auch ein Rückzug aus Moskau. A second "retreat from Moscow": A king without territory. The serbian ruler crossing a mountain path in Albania during the retreat. Ein "zweiter Rückzug von Moskau": Der serbische Herrscher auf einem Bergpfad in Albanien während des Rückzuges: Ein König ohne Land. (31) [3 Abb.]: Der König von Italien als Feldherr (1)General Joffre "surprise" visit to the Italian front: Italy taking an "al-fresco". Victor Emanuel und der französische Oberbefehlshaber beim Frühstück. (2)The french Generalissimo and the King of déjeuner. Kriegsrat mit Joffre angesichts des Mote Nero (Krn). (3)Sa majesté le roi Victor Emanuel qui se plait lui-même à prendre des clichés, se laisse photographier de bonne grâce. Der König als Amateur-Photograph. (32) [2 Abb.]: Frankreich empfängt die russischen Hilfstruppen (1)Les défilés dans Marseille en fête. Ein französischer Alpenjäger führt den Zug der russischen Garde, der die entzückte Bevölkerung Vorschußlorbeeren gestiftet hat. (2)Types des soldats des régiments du général Lohvitsky. Typen aus General Lohvitskys Regimentern beim feierlichen Einzug am 21. April 1916. (33) [3 Abb.]: Schutzmaßregeln gegen Luftangriffe. Nachtbilder aus der "Lichtstadt" Paris, die zeigen, wie man, um der Zeppelingefahr zu begegnen, die Beleuchtung abgestellt hat. (1)Le Boulevard Montmartre un soir du printemps dernier (1914) - Einst - (2)Le même Boulevard le 19 janvier 1915 à 6 1/2 h. du soir. - Jetzt - (3)Paris la nuit: La Conciergerie, la Seine et le pont neuf. (34) [2 Abb.]: Die Weltstadt im Dunkel. (1)The new war-"comet" over Paris! A patrolling french aeroplane signalling with ist searchlight above the darkened city. Das Flugzeug auf Wachtposten über Paris signalisiert am Nachthimmel. (2)Sweeping London's skies for possible bomb-dropping Zeppelins: The searchlight at work on Charing Cross Station. Der Londoner Himmel wird von einem Scheinwerfer abgesucht, der auf dem Charing-Croß-Bahnhof steht. Trotz der vielseitigen Abwehrmaßnahmen konnte die englische Hauptstadt jene Zeppelinbesuche nicht verhindern, die bis in ihr Herz - the City - drangen. (35) [Abb.]: Im Kreuzfeuer der Scheinwerfer. The untouched photograph of a Zeppelin raiding the London district - as thousands of people saw it: A remarkable snapshot of an enemy dirigible during its visit on the night of September 8 (1915). Die unretouchierte Photographie eines Zeppelins, der London besuchte. So sahen ihn Tausende von Menschen. (36) [Abb.]: Ein Zeppelin über London. Murderer of civilians: A Zeppelin raider "like a thief in the night". One of the fleet of the hostile airships which raided this country on Oktober 13 (1915) over the London area. Shells from antiaircraft guns bursting about it. Ein Zeppelin-Räuber als "Dieb in der Nacht". Geschosse von Luftabwehrkanonen platzen um eins jener feindlichen Luftschiffe, die am 13. Oktober 1915 auch London besuchten. (37) [3 Abb.]: Zeppelinwirkungen in Paris (1)Explosivstelle einer Zeppelinbombe auf einem Boulevard von Paris. Die Bombe riß ein großes Loch bis in den Tunnel der Untergrundbahn. (2), (3)Zerstörte Häuser. (38) [2 Abb.]: Zeppelinwirkungen an englischen Fabriken (1)Bei den Zeppelinangriffen auf England sind nicht nur alte Frauen und Kinder umgekommen, es wurden, wie diese Bilder zeigen, häufig Munitionsfabriken und andere, zu militärischen Zwecken dienende Gebäude zerstört. (39) [6 Abb.]: Venice "armoured" against aircraft: monuments protected. Geschützte Denkmäler des gegen Luftangriffe gepanzerte Venedig. (1)Oben links: Eine Ecke des Dogenpalastes. - (2)Oben rechts: Die mit Sandsäcken geschützte Halle des berühmten Glockenturmes. - (3)Mitte links: Bau eines Gerüstes um das Colleoni-Denkmal. - (4)Mitte rechts: Abgenommene Deckengemälde im Dogenpalast werden in Sicherheit gebracht. - (5)Unten links: In Venedigs berühmter Markuskirche. - (6)Unten rechts: Steinmauern stützen die Bogen der Arkaden des Dogenpalastes. (40) [Abb.]: Englischer Zeppelin-Kalender. So sah der Himmel aus, als Zeppeline England besuchten. Eine interessante Zusammenstellung, die zeigt, daß unsre Luftschiffe durchaus nicht nur bei nebeligem Wetter und mondlosen Nächten hinüberfliegen. Gleichzeitig erweist die Statistik, daß die Zeppeline in 7 Monaten 20 mal über England waren. (41) [4 Abb.]: Zerstörung deutschen Privateigentums in Paris. Zerstörte deutsche und österreichische Geschäfte in Paris. Völkerrecht und Zivilisation, deren Begriffe für unsre Gegner Schlagworte geworden sind, hielten die Bevölkerung von Paris, London und Mailand nicht ab, sich in zügelloser Weise an dem nach dem Völkerrecht geschützten Eigentum wehrloser Privatpersonen zu vergreifen. (42) [4 Abb.]: Paris im September 1914. Die Vorbereitungen in Paris zur Abwehr der "Kriegswelle", die sich in den Septembertagen des Jahres 1914 so stark auf die Hauptstadt Frankreichs zuwälzte, daß Poincaré die Regierung nach Bordeaux verlegte und sich nicht auf die Verteidigungsmaßnahmen der Pariser verließ. Schützengräben wurden ausgehoben, Barrikaden errichtet, Bäume gefällt und Umwallungen gemauert. (43) [Abb.]: Der Landesverräter Hansi. Si les boches d'enface savaient: à 60 mètres d'eux sous l'uniforme français, celui qui avant la guerre avait déja l'honneuer de leur inspirer une haine féroche. Le dessinateur alsacienne Hansi que le tribunal d'empire Leipzig condamnait le 9 juillet 1914 à un an de prison "pour offense du peuple allemand" et qui porte maintenant avec la croix de la légion d'honneur l'insigne d'officier interprète. Der Karikaturenzeichner Waltz, genannt Hansi, wurde in Deutschland wegen Landesverrat zum Zuchthaus verurteilt und jetzt von der "ritterlichen" Nation eben wegen dieser Heldentat mit dem höchsten französischen Orden ausgezeichnet. (44) [Abb.]: und eins seiner Werke. Die Marneschlacht - eins jener Bilder, mit denen der Elsässer Landesverräter Hansi Waltz in Zeitschriften und Bilderbüchern die Herzen der kleinen Franzosen vergiftet und zum Haß aufstachelt gegen die Barbaren. (45) [3 Abb.]: Reklame im Kriegsdienst (1)Une affiche d'Abel Faivre éditée pour la banque de France, sous les auspices de la société des amis des artistes. Der verwundete Kämpfer deutet mahnend auf die einfachen Leute, die auch ihre Pflicht tun. (2)L'Affiche de Jules Adler. Die Mahnung: "Gebt Euer Geld für Frankreich hin", veranschaulicht durch den Kampf des Goldes um den Sieg; man zeigt seinen Landsleuten, wie entsetzt der preußische Militarismus zusammenbrechen werde, wenn der gallische Hahn aus Gold ihn attackiert. (3)L'Affiche de Paulbot. Der ausziehende Vaterlandsverteidiger ermahnt sein Weib mit letzten Gruß, sie soll nicht vergessen, Kriegsanleihe zu zeichnen - für den Sieg und die Heimkehr! (46) [2 Abb.]: Französische Kriegsanleihescheine (1) L'Affiche de Bernhard Maudin. Dieses vaterländische Gedenkblatt, mit dem der dankbare Finanzminister die Anleihezeichner belohnt, hängt der brave Bürger unter Glas und Rahmen in den Salon. (2)Ein Maueranschlag desselben Zeichners, den die Gesellschaft der Künstlerfreunde herausgegeben hat. (47) [9 Abb.]: (1) - (6)Englische Werbeplakate, wie sie aller Orten in greller Buntheit den Vorübergehenden fragen, warum er nicht in Khaki gekleidet ist, ob er nicht einen noch freien Platz ausfüllen will und was er seinem Kinde zu sagen gedenkt, wenn es ihn später einmal fragt, was er im Kriege geleistet hat. (7) - (9)Hier ruft ihm ein Anschlag zu, er solle sich Belgiens Schicksal zur Mahnung nehmen und sich schnell anmelden, dort tröstet ein andres, daß man schon gewinnen würde, allerdings müsse der freundliche Leser dazu helfen. (48) [7 Abb.]: Aus englischen Werbebüros (1)Werberede eines Majors auf offener Straße - (2)Ansammlung vor dem Werbebüro bei Öffnung der Pforte (der Zeitungsphotograph wählte, um durch scheinbaren Andrang Eindruck zu erwecken, diesen für seine Aufnahme günstigen Moment) - (3), (4)Der Werber mit seinem Opfer - (5)Invalide mit dem Werbeplakat - (6)Neu eingekleidete Rekruten - (7)Leichtverwundete als Stimmungsmacher für den Feldzug. (49) [2 Abb.]: Werbewesen (1)Nicht ohne Humor zeigt dieses Plakat, wie nicht nur Menschen, sondern Pfund, Schilling und Pence für England mobil gemacht werden. In marktschreierischen Plakaten muß das britische Reich die Daheimgebliebenen auffordern, Kriegsanleihe zu zeichnen. (2)The soldier on the holiday at the Zoo. Es ist der neueste Sport, daß verwundete Soldaten Sonnatgs nachmittags von ihren Freundinnen im Rollstuhl spazieren gefahren werden - auch ein indirektes Werbemittel. (50) [2 Abb.]: Werberede - Rekrutenvereidigung. L'appel pour les munitions chez nos alliés d'outre-manche. Un Meeting pendant l'heure du dèjeuner aux forges et usines de munition de guerre beardmore & Co., Glasgow. Le simple soldat May revenu du front, harangue les ouvriers de travailler pour l'amour des camerades des trenchées. Ein junger Frontsoldat appeliert im Hofe einer englischen Munitionsfabrik in der Zeit der Ausstände an den Patriotismus und das Solidaritätsgefühl der englischen Arbeiterschaft. (2)The West Indie's response to the Empire's call: trinidad and Barbadoes recruits being sworn in before the Lord Mayor. Vereidigung englischer Rekruten aus Westindien vor dem Lord-Mayor von London. (51) [4 Abb.]: Öffentliche Werbetätigkeit in London. (1), (2)Obtaining recruits in Trafalgar Square. One of the recruiters on the plinth. Serg. Newsand, who is a constant speaker in Trafalger Square. A bayonets display on a recruiting meeting. 2 army officers engage in friendly combat to attack recruits.Rekrutenwerbung am Sockel der Nelsonsäule in London. Zuerst spricht Sergeant Newsand als erfahrener Mann, dann entspinnt sich vor den Augen der Menge ein kleiner Bajonettkampf; (3)A Chelsea pensioneer greets an Indian officer. Es folgt ein anderes Bild: Händedruck zwischen einem alten Veteranen und einem indischen Offizier, (4)Miss Sh. Kellogg, the well known actress, kisses a small boy who came forward to know if he could do anything at a recruiting meeting organised für the second London regiment. .und zuletzt verspricht die Liebkosung einer bekannten Schauspielerin durch Vorführung am kleinen Modell ähnliche Belohnungen dem neuen Rekruten. (52) [Abb.]: Karikaturzeichner im Werbedienst. Die Leiden des pflichtvergessenen Zivilisten und die Freuden des pflichtgetreuen Rekruten. Was von jedem wehrpflichtigen Deutschen als selbstverständliche vaterländische Pflicht empfunden wird, muß dem Engländer in so drastischer Weise zu Gemüte geführt werden. (53) [Abb.]: Englische Feldausrüstung. Guaranteeing effiency and comfort: What she british soldier bears to the firing line. Die Ausrüstung der Angehörigen des britischen Söldnerheeres reklamehaft dargestellt als Werbemittel für die englische Armee. (54) [Abb.]: Fliegergepäck. Everything an airman wants. Was solch ein englischer Flieger nicht alles braucht! Außer den Meßinstrumenten, Notizbuch und Photoapparat finden wir Luftkissen, Rasierapparat Nagelpflegeinstrumente, Pfeife, Tabak und Zigaretten, Trinkbecher, Würfel und Spielkarten. (55) [Abb.]: Englische Soldaten als Einkäufer in Paris. Rue de la Paix . Dans les salons d'un grand couturier parisien. Présentation des nouveaux du printemps aux acheteurs d'une maison de Londres. Die Einkäufer eines Londoner Konfektionshauses erscheinen in Felduniform bei einem Pariser Schneider und lassen sich die neuesten Modeschöpfungen vorführen. (56) [2 Abb.]: Der französische Stahlhelm. Die Herstellung des Stahlhelms. (1)Stamping out circles of steel which will be shaped into helmets. Links werden die Blattstahlscheiben ausgestanzt, (2)Making the crowns of the steel helmets from the metal disk with the aid of a pressing-machine. ., rechts wird das Metall in die Form des Helms gepreßt. (57) [Abb.]: Londoner Börsenleute als Schipper. City-men trench digging near the old G. P. O.: Members of the national guard training for home defence. Auch London hat seine Schützengräben, noch nicht für den Ernstfall wie in Paris, auch nicht als Schaustück wie in Berlin, sondern als Übungsbauten der Nationalgarde. Männer der City, denen in freidlichen Zeiten nur Pfundnoten und Geschäftspapiere durch die Hände gegangen sind, haben Karre und Spaten in die Hand genommen zur Verteidigung der Heimat, um für den Fall einer deutschen Landung gerüstet zu sein. (58) [Abb.]: Sarah Bernhardt im Dienste Frankreichs. L'Allégorie des cathédrales des France au théâtre Sarah Bernhardt. Allegorie auf Frankreichs Kathedralen im Theater der Sarah Bernhardt. Die alte Deutschenfresserin hat in ihrem Theater ein Austattungsstück in Szene gesetzt, in dem die Kathedralen von St. Pol de Leon, Arles, Straßburg (von ihr selbst dargestellt), Paris, Amiens und Bourges die unglückliche Schwester in Reims beklagen. (59) [Abb.]: Die Marseillaise! La réouverture des théatres de Paris: Mlle. Chenal incarne et chante l'hymne national à l'opéra comique. Während die deutschen Theater vom Kriege ihre Spielzeit nicht unterbrechen ließen, schloß die Gefährdung der französischen Hauptstadt die Tore ihrer Musentempel. Nachdem die deutsche Gefahr in die Ferne gerückt war, wurden die Bühnen feierlich wiedereröffnet. Die schöne Schauspielerin der komischen Oper im Gewande der Trikolore und geschmückt mit der Elsässer Haube, hinter sich die Napoleonische Garde, riß durch den Vortrag der Marseillaise ihre Zuhörer mit sich. (60) [Abb.]: Das Admiralitätsgebäude in London kriegsmäßig. "Englands expects ." Nelson and the listening wireless off the admiralty office. Nelson Standbild als Wächter vor dem Admiralitätsgebäude und die Anfangsworte seiner berühmten Parole in der Seeschlacht von Trafalgar sollen die stolze Zuversicht des meerbeherrschenden Britanniens widerspiegeln. Der Turm des Admiralitätsgebäudes zeigt, daß man von hier aus funkentelegraphisch mit der Flotte auf dem Meere verkehren kann. (61) [Abb.]: "Was sind Hoffnungen, was sind Entwürfe!" French officers studying a large war-map at Headquarters. Französische Offiziere beim Studium einer großen Kriegskarte im Hauptquartier. Durch solche Darstellung, die immer noch auf strategische Pläne für einen Feldzug im Inneren Deutschlands hinweist, sucht die gegnerische Presse die Hoffnung auf eine nahe Wendung des Kriegsglücks zu nähren, während doch Frankreichs Sorgen unverändert in der Nähe von Paris liegen. (62) [2 Abb.]: Franzosen in Feldgrau. (1)Französische Artilleristen in gedeckter Stellung, mit Masken gegen die Wirkung der deutschen Gasangriffe geschützt, ein Beweis, daß solche Gasangriffe auch noch in den hintersten Stellungen ihre Wirkung tun. (2)Joffres spendid men: The new "fantassins" of France as they are in this, the second yearof the great war. Frankreichs neue Infanteristen im zweiten Kriegsjahr. (63) [2 Abb.]: Bilder von der Westfront (1)Les premiers exploits de nos alpins: Quand its eurent occupé le col de "bonhomme" après un violent combat, le 7 août, les diables bleus s'empressèrent d'abattre le poteau frontière allemand. Die "ersten Taten" der französischen Alpentruppen. Die "blauen Teufel" im Kampf mit einem deutschen Grenzpfahl. (2)A terraced colony of dug-outs for the french army's ambulance dogs. An interesting corner near the front in Northern France. Terrassenförmiges Lager von Unterständen für die Sanitätshunde des französischen Heeres. Ein interessanter Winkel nahe der Front in Nordfrankreich. (64) [3 Abb.]: Minenwerfer und Handgranaten (1)Links oben: Französisches Lufttorpedo wird abgefeuert. Ein 58-mm-Minenwerfer mit seinem "Flossen"-Geschoß in Stellung. (2)Rechts oben: Lager dieser Lufttorpedos, die mit kleinen flügelförmigen "Schwanzflossen" versehen sind, um die Richtung einzuhalten. (3)Unten: Das fürchterlichste der französischen Grabengeschütze. Eine 80-mm-Gebirgskanone, die Luftminen im Gewicht von 236 L. B. (englischen Pfund) schleudern kann. (65) [2 Abb.]: Brieftauben im Kriegsdienst (1)The pigeon-express: Winged messengers of war. Geflügelte Kriegsboten und ihr "Expreß". Das Dach des Autobus trägt Käfige für Brieftauben der französischen Armee. (2)Die Taube als militärischer Beobachter: (2)Oben transportable Dunkelkammer, rechts einfacher links doppelter photographischer Apparat für Tauben. In der Mitte Tauben mit umgeschnallten Apparat, unten Aufnahmen. (66) [2 Abb.]: "Die Deutschen sind da!"(1)Un télégramme historique: le télégramme le 20 août 1914 de Bruxelles à Amsterdam. "Cette photographie est absolument authentique", nous écrit Mr. Paymans, télégraphiste au bureau d'Amsterdam qui nous a adressé ce document. Ein Amsterdamer Telegraphenbeamter hat den Moment, als die letzten Worte seines Brüsseler Kollegen aus dem Morse-Apparat klapperten, photographiert. Diese Worte lauten in deutscher Übersetzung: "Die Deutschen kommen, wir ziehen uns zurück! Adieu!" (2)Relics of German air raids in Paris: Three types of bombs dropped on the city by enemy airmen. Deutsche Grüße aus der Luft, die ihre Bestimmung verfehlt haben, sind den Verbündeten liebere Andenken als die durch unsere Flieger zerstörten Werkstätten und Fabriken. (67) [2 Abb.]: Aus einem französischen Flugpark. (1)The escadrilles which guard the camp retranché of Paris. Die kleinen Geschwader, die das verschanzte Lager von Paris bewachen. Flugplatz vor der Stadt, von dem beim Nahen von Zeppelinen oder Tauben Abwehrflugzeuge aufsteigen. (2)Photographed by search-light: one of a number of French aeroplanes starting at night for a long distance raid. Scheinwerferphotographie: Eins der zahlreichen französischen Flugzeuge startet bei Nacht zu einem Fernflug. (68) [2 Abb.]: Des Fliegers Glück und Ende (1)Chasing off german aeroplanes at a high of 6500 feet: A french monoplane of the "Parasol"-Type flying at full speed above Nancy towards San Nicolas du Port. Jagd auf deutsche Flugzeuge in einer Höhe von 6500 Fuß (ungefähr 1900 Meter) zwischen Nancy und San Nicolas du Port. (2)Les débris de l'appareil de Pégoud. Le 31 août (1915) au matin dans la pleine entre Petit Croix et le bois de Fontenelle. Le corps de l'aviateur est étendu devant le médecine portant un brassard, sous un entoilage arraché d'une de ses ailes. Die Trümmer von Pégouds Flugzeug, wie sie am Morgen des 31. August auf der Ebene zwischen Petit Croix und dem Walde von Fontenelle gefunden wurden. Vor dem Arzt (mit der Armbinde) liegt die Leiche des Fliegers unter einem Stück Leinen einer Tragfläche. (69) [Abb.]: Im Unterstand. Ein französischer Röhrengang in der Champagne. Durch gebogene Wellblechlagen, die mit Sandsäcken gegen Granaten geschützt sind, hat man luftige Unterstände erbaut. (70) [2 Abb.]: Reiseleben in der Kriegszone (1)Accomodation at the "Lion d'or" Reims, while shells are falling. Bequemlichkeit im "Goldenen Löwen" von Reims während eines Granathagels. Das Hotelzimmer ist zu unbehaglich geworden, und man hat sich, so gut es ging, im Keller eingerichtet. (2)How all french roads near the front are watched: Soldiers examing a passing motorists papers at night. Wie alle französischen Landstraßen die nahe der Front bewacht werden: Soldaten prüfen bei Nacht die Papiere eines durchfahrenden Automobilisten. (71) [Abb.]: Die Angreifer. Les fauves dans la forêt: Soldats allemands photographiés en liberté à 15 mètres d'une tranchée française. Aufnahme deutscher Soldaten von einem französischen Schützengraben aus. Die "neutrale" Platte zeigt, daß auch die nächste Nähe des Feindes unseren Feldgrauen nicht die Stimmung verdirbt. (72) [Abb.]: und die Angegriffenen. German shrapnel bursting a hastily-built french barricade. Deutsches Schrapnell platzt hinter einer schnell errichteten französischen Barrikade. (73) [2 Abb.]: Der Kampf um Verdun. (1)A position finely won: in the Bois de la Caillette. Schützengraben im Caillettewalde. (2)Camion démoli près de Verdun par un obus de 210 de radiateur détaché est tombé au fond de l'entonnoir. Lastauto, das eine 21-cm-Granate bei Verdun zerstört hat. (74) [Abb.]: Unsere Brandbomben in Verdun. Die Feuerwehrleute von Verdun. Eine Feuerwehr mußte ins Leben gerufen werden, die die Wirkungen unserer Brandbomben einzudämmen hat. (75) [Abb.]: Kriegsgefangene in Verdun. Prisonniers allemands dans une chapelle de Verdun. Ein Häuflein deutscher Soldaten als Gefangene in einer französischen Kapelle. (76) [Abb.]: Der Kirchturm als Beobachtungsposten. La vierge dorée du clocher de la basilique d'Albert qui présentait, les bras tendus, son divin fils aux populations chrétiennes. Das goldene Standbild der Jungfrau mit dem Jesusknaben, in dessen Schutz der Feind auf dem Kirchturm von Albert Beobachter aufgestellt hatte, ist infolge eines deutschen Treffers umgestürzt ohne herabzufallen. Auch hieraus suchen unsre Gegner eine Anklage gegen deutsche Kriegsführung zu erheben. (77) [Abb.]: Französischer Schützengraben. Three-storied french field-fortifications: A corner of a first-line trench in Champagne. Groß ist die Verteidigungskunst der Franzosen, wie dieser Ausschnitt aus einem starkbefestigten Schützengraben zeigt, größer aber die Sturmgewalt unserer Feldgrauen, wie Verdun beweist. (78) [Abb.]: Die englische Offensive 1916. The "Smoke of Battle" to screen advancing troops: Our infantry attacking under cover of smoke bombs. Analogous to the use of smoke-screens by war-ships at sea: Opaque clouds produced by bombs used as protective cover for a british infantry attack. Unter dem Schutz von Rauchbomben stürmen die Engländer aus ihren Schützengräben auf den Feind. (79) [Abb.]: Deutscher Fliegerangriff. Bombing Botha's army from the air: Bombs exploding in a camp of the Union forces. Mit der Wiedergabe dieses Bildes dokumentieren die Engländer die Treffsicherheit unsrer bewaffneten Flugzeuge. (80) [Abb.]: Gerichteter Spion. Un exemple: "Espion, traitre de son pays". Ein wegen Landesverrat erschossener französischer Spion bleibt nach der Hinrichtung zur Abschreckung am Pfahl, eines der vielen Beispiele, in welchem Maße es unsere Gegner nötig haben, abschreckend auf die eigenen Truppen zu wirken. (81) [Abb.]: Vom Krieg im Elsaß. Les opérations en Alsace. Ein von den französischen "Befreiern" in Brand geschossenes Dorf im Oberelsaß. (82) [Abb.]: Ein Nachtbild von der Westfront. Les usées éclairantes de l'ennemi. Deutsche Leuchtraketen, wie sie für einen kurzen Zeitraum die Nacht erhellen, von der feindlichen Front aus aufgenommen. (83) [Abb.]: Ypern 1915. Diese Aufnahme hat eine englische Zeitschrift als Kunstdruck vervielfältigt, damit der Engländer in seinen vier Wänden stets an Belgiens Schicksal und an deutsche Zerstörungswut erinnert wird, wobei zu sagen "vergessen" wurde, daß Engländer und Franzosen diese herrliche Stadt, eine Perle altvlämischer Kultur, zum Mittelpunkt ihrer Verteidigung machten und während des Krieges zur Festung ausgebaut haben. Das lange Gebäude mit dem Turm ist die Tuchhalle, das berühmte Ständehaus der Weber-Innung, links davon steht die Kathedrale. (84) [Abb.]: Reims im Kriege. La cathédrale de Reims et le quartier environnant après deux mois de bombardement. Blick aus einem französischen Doppeldecker auf die Kathedrale von Reims, nachdem das Bombardement schon 2 Monate angedauert hatte. Diese Aufnahme straft erstens die Beschuldigung der Zerstörung der Kathedrale durch unsre Artillerie Lügen, beweist aber zweitens die Treffsicherheit unsrer Kanoniere, denn rings um die Kathedrale haben deutsche Granaten mit Erfolg eingeschlagen. (85) [2 Abb.]: (1)An der russischen Front. (1)La visite que fit le Tsar a Przemysl. La Grand-duc Nicolas avait voulu montrer a l'empereur ce qui restait des formidables fortifications de l'ancienne citadelle autrichienne. Der Großfürst zeigt dem Zaren Przemysl, die neue Perle der russischen Monarchie, die aber bald wieder aus der Zarenkrone fiel. (2)Automitrailleuses blindées de l'armée russe sur une route de Galicie. Gepanzertes Maschinengewehr-Auto des russischen Heeres auf einer Landstraße Galiziens. (86) [2 Abb.]: Gasangriff - Riesenflugzeug (1)A German gas-attack photographed bay an airman: Poisonous fumes rolling towards the Russians and German troops. Fliegerphotographie eines deutschen Gasangriffes. Giftige Dämpfe wälzen sich auf die Russen zu, dahinter deutsche Truppen. (2)Russia's 3 1/2 ton aeroplane for eight! A giant Sikorsky-biplane, one of which bombarded the Germans in East Prussia. Russische 3 1/2-Tonnen-Flugmaschine für 8 Personen! Einer der riesigen Sikorsky-Doppeldecker, die auf die Deutschen in Ostpreußen Bomben warfen. (87) [Abb.]: Der Krieg in den Alpen. Eine von österreichischen Granaten in Brand geschossene Kirche: Kriegswirkungen in einem typischen Alpendorf. Die schönen Bergdörfer der Alpen, wo Italiener und Österreicher kämpfen, erleiden ebenso wie die belgischen und nordfranzösischen das Schicksal des Krieges. (88) [Abb.]: Schwieriger Geschütztransport. "Excelsior!" How the Alpini troops take the guns up the mountains. Geschütztransport durch italienische Alpentruppen. (89) [Abb.]: Venedig aus der Vogelschau. Venise en aeroplane. Blick aus dem Flugzeug auf die Lagunenstadt, deren Arsenale und Munitionsstätten österreichische Flieger erfolgreich mit Bomben bewarfen, ohne die Kulturdenkmäler vergangener Jahrhunderte zu zerstören. (90) [Abb.]: Das alte und neue Zeitalter. Ancient wonders of the world photographed from a new wonder of the world. The pyramids and the surrounding desert "taken" from an aeroplane. Die Begegnung alter und neuer Weltwunder im Kriege. Blick aus einem Flugzeug auf die Pyramiden und die Wüste. (91) [2 Abb.]: Der Auftakt in Gallipoli (1)Landing artillery on the Gallipoli peninsula. A 155 mm-gun being towed ashore on a lighter ad Sedd ul Bahr. Artillerielandung auf der Halbinsel Gallipoli. Ein 155-mm-Geschütz wird von einem Leichter bei Sedd ul Bahr an Land gezogen. (2)Lord Kitchener in Gallipoli: At Sedd ul Bahr with the French commander-in-chief and the High commissioner for Egypt. Bei Sedd ul Bahr mit dem französischen Oberbefehlshaber und dem Höchstbevollmächtigten für Ägypten (92) [2 Abb.]: Die Vorbereitungen zum "Sieg" (1)Camels from Egypt on their way to the sands of Gallipoli. Ägyptische Kamele auf dem Wege nach Gallipolis Küsten (2)Men of the Australian Lighthorse who fought so gallantly on the Gallipoli peninsula. Leute der australischen leichten Reiterei. Selbst die "Anzacs" (Australian New Zeeland Army Corps) haben dem Ansturm der vom Gegner verachteten türkischen Truppen nicht widerstehen können. (93) [2 Abb.]: Wasserflugzeuge (1)The "Ark royal" - aeroplane ship - in the Dardanelles straits. Die "Ark Royal" - Flugzeugschiff - in den Meerengen der Dardanellen. In der Mitte auf Deck stehen 2 Krane zum Herablassen und Hinaufziehen der Wasserflugzeuge, von denen 2 auf dem Achterdeck stehen. (2)Hoisting a seaplane aboard. Anbordziehen eines Wasserflugzeuges. Der gepanzerte Eindecker, in dem der Beobachter sitzt, während der Führer das Hebeseil am Flugzeug angebracht hat, wird nach einem Fluge wieder an Board gezogen. Der stehende Pilot ist ein Franzose, sein Beobachter Engländer. (94) [4 Abb.]: Rettung eines Fliegers aus Seenot (1)Seaplane rescue: Floating half-sunk alongside the mother-ship. (2)Salvage work in full swing: The working-party stripping gear. (3)A stripped plane liftet from the water: Hoisting the frame aboard. Ein neben sein "Mutter"-Schiff geschlepptes Flugzeug wird abgetackelt, (2)Safely swung clear: Lowering on the mother-ship's deck. .hochgewunden und an Deck gebracht. (95) [4 Abb.]: Feindlicher Aufklärungsdienst (1)Kilid Bahr (Europe), ses forts et ses batteries avec leurs epaulements où l'on distingue nettement les canons. Die Forts und Batterien der europäischen Dardanellenfestung Kilid Bahr, deren Kanonen erkennbar sind. (2)L'embouchure du Mendéré et les forts du Koum Kaleh (Asie) à l'entrée des Dardanelles. Das türkische Dorf Kumkaleh auf der asiatischen Seite der Dardanelleneinfahrt. (3)Blick auf ein türkisches Kaukasusdorf aus einer russischen Flugmaschine. (4)Russische Flugzeugaufnahme eines türkischen Zeltlagers im Kaukasus. (96) [2 Abb.]: Sicherheitsdienst in den Lüften (1)View of a turkish town on the Dardanelles as seen from a french aeroplane. Blick aus einem französischen Doppeldecker auf eine Dardanellenstadt. (2)What an air-scout sees: A view taken from the basket of an observation ballon on a dull day. Die Landschaft unter einem Fesselballon, dessen 3 Kugeln zur Abgabe von Signalen dienen. (97) [2 Abb.]: Der "Glorreiche" Rückzug (1)The Allies' outpost-guard beyond the main defences of Salonika: Kitchen-huts in a French marsh-camp. Vorgeschobener Wachtposten der Verbündeten außerhalb der Hauptverteidigungswerke von Saloniki. Kochhütten eines französischen Sumpflagers. Eigentümlicherweise sprechen die Engländer hier von Verteidigung von Saloniki, von wo doch eigentlich der Angriff geführt werden sollte. (2)Destruction officers: Preparing to fire stores at Suvla. That evrething of use to the enemy might be burned: Placing hay (afterwards soaked with petrol) among the stores before the evacuation. Man bereitet die Vernichtung der Vorratslager vor, indem sie mit Stroh angefüllt werden, das vorher mit Petroleum durchtränkt wurde. (98) [2 Abb.]: Abschied von Gallipoli (1)Stores burning at five in the morning. The scene as viewed from a battle ship at Suvla. Anblick der brennenden Vorratslager morgens früh um 5 Uhr von einem Schlachtschiff bei Suvla aus. (2)Seen from H. M. S. "Cornwallis", the last ship to leave Suvla Bay. Stores and other material burning at the time of the evacuation. Brennende Material- und Munitionslager zur Zeit der Räumung von S. M. S. "Cornwallis" aus gesehen, die als letztes Schiff die Suvla-Bucht verließ. (99) [2 Abb.]: Bilder vom Balkan (1)The Nish banquet to the Kaiser. January 18 (1916). The menu-card, and the music-programm. Speisenfolge und Musikprogramm vom Kaiserbankett in Nish. Angeblich ist diese Aufnahme von einem englischen Spion gemacht worden, der als neutraler Berichterstatter dem Essen beigewohnt haben will. (2)Nos alpins qui arrivent des Vosges jouissent d'une matinée dominicale ensolleillée sous la colomnade d'un puits grec. Französische Alpenjäger, die aus den Vogesen gekommen sind, ruhen sich nach der Besetzung des Achilleions vor einem griechischen Brunnen aus. (100) [3 Abb.]: Der Feind im Achilleion (1)Le géant teuton élevé par Guillaume à la mémoire d'Achille. Die Achilles-Statue, die Kaiser Wilhelm aufstellen ließ, wird von den Franzosen als "teutonischer Riese" bezeichnet. Sollte wohl der auf dem Sockel stehende Alpenjäger seinen Landsleuten ein Bild des Größenverhältnisses der beiden Nationalkräfte geben?! (2), (3)A l'Achilleion. Les automobiles impériales encore dans leurs caisses. Elles ont été requisitionnées pour le service de l'ambulance franco-serbe et on n'attend pour s'en servir que les pneumatiques et les magnétos demnadés en France. Im Achilleion: Die "ritterliche" Nation vergreift sich im neutralen Gebiet am Privateigentum des Deutschen Kaisers. Die kaiserlichen Automobile werden für den französisch-serbischen Sanitätsdienst "entliehen". (101) [6 Abb.]: Die Seeschlacht beim Skagerrak. Ehrenschmisse nach dem Nordseesieg! Bilder von einem englischen Kriegsschiff, dem es gelang, aus der Schlacht zu entfliehen, zeigen dem englischen Leser die harmlosen Schrammen, die die deutsche Flotte der englischen kratzen konnte. Die Ehrlichkeit der englischen Berichterstattung muß es sich bedauerlicherweise versagen, Photographien von der auf dem Meeresgrund liegenden Flotte zu bringen. (102) [2 Abb.]: U-Boote bei der Arbeit. The enemy submarine approaching the danish steamer "Sulfoss". Zwei Bilder von den bekannten, sich immer wiederholenden Phasen der Untersuchung eines neutralen Handelsschiffes. Vor dem Dampfer "Sulfoß" aus Dänemark ist ein deutsches Unterseeboot aufgetaucht. (103) [3 Abb.]: Torpediert! Trois phases du torpillage du "Carthage" au large du cap Hellès, le 4 juillet 1915. Der Dampfer ist von einem Torpedo am Heck getroffen, so daß sich das Vorderteil allmählich aufrichtet, bis es senkrecht in die Tiefe schießt. Das das feindliche Handelsschiff zum Schutz begleitende Torpedoboot trägt die Trikolore. (104) [2 Abb.]: Mißbrauch des Roten Kreuzes auf See. The sinking of the "Anglia" on which the king was brought to England. Nachdem die "Anglia" als Hospitalschiff den englischen König nach seinem Unfall an der Front heimgebracht hatte, fuhr sie als Transportschiff unter der Roten-Kreuz-Flagge mit Mannschaften und Kriegsgerät beladen, nach Frankreich zurück. Hierbei ereilte sie ihr Schicksal. Das obere Bild zeigt uns, wie sie sich nach Steuerbord zu neigt, und unten versinkt die "Anglia", Heck aufwärts. Torpedo- und Rettungsboot eilen hilfebrindend herbei. (105) [Abb.]: Versenkung der "Majestic" The "Majestic" sinking, seen from the air. A novel disaster photographed for the first time an aeroplane in flight: The british battleship lying keel upwards jst before sinking after being torpedoed ba an enemy submarine. Von den vielen feindlichen Schlachtschiffen, die bei dem Dardanellenabenteuer verlorengingen, zeigen die Engländer (mit einigem sportlichen Stolz) die erste Photographie aus einem Flugzeug auf ein sinkendes Kriegsschiff. S. M. S. "Majestic" treibt kieloben, um kurz darauf zu verschwinden. (106) [Abb.]: Wirkung eines deutschen Torpedos. The shattering effect of a submarine's torpedo on a ship: A torpedoed cargo-Steamer in dock. Das hausgroße Loch in einem torpedierten Handelsdampfer zeigt die furchtbare Sprengkraft der von unsern U-Booten abgeschossenen Torpedos. (107) [2 Abb.]: Ein guter Treffer. As it must have been with the "Lusitania": The hole made in a ship by a German submarine's torpedo. Das obere Bild zeigt die Schußstelle am Bug, während unten die gegenüberliegende Seite Löcher von durchgedrungenen Geschoßteilen aufweist. (108) [5 Abb.]: Die Aufnahme eines Neutralen, der sich auf der "Appam" befand, als sie in deutsche Hände fiel, zeigen den Führer des Prisenkommandos von der "Möwe" und späteren Kapitän der "Appam", Leutnant Berg, einen Matrosen, das Schiff selbst, sowie Szenen vom Anlandgehen der Passagiere. Die Abbildung der Speisekarten soll zeigen, wie herrlich die Reisenden gelebt haben, als sie noch unter englischer Flagge fuhren, im Gegensatz zu der bescheidenen Speisenfolge, die der deutsche Kapitän einrichtete, um die Vorräte in Rücksicht auf den Zuwachs der Besatzung zu "strecken". (109) [3 Abb.]: Englische Verspottung deutscher Opferwilligkeit. Enemy war memorial- and Congo cases of nailing. Das angeblich für die europäische Kultur kämpfende England findet es geschmackvoll und nicht kulturwidrig, den Riesen-Hindenburg, das Symbol deutscher Opferwilligkeit, mit afrikanischen Fetischen auf gleiche Stufe zu stellen, während es elbst mit Wilden aller Zonen an der Front in einer Linie steht. (110) [Abb.]: Die Vergewaltigung der Neutralen. Scientific eyes for the officer examining cargoes for contraband in war-time. Not macht erfinderisch. In der Befürchtung, daß der Handels- und Aushungerungskrieg gegen uns ebenso vergeblich werden könnte wie die Anstrengungen Englands zu Wasser und zu Lande, werden die Ballen neutraler Handelsschiffe mit Hilfe einer Erfindung deutschen Geistes, der Röntgenstrahlen, auf Bannware untersucht. (111) [4 Abb.]: Leute ohne Vaterland. Leute mit deutschen Namen und neutralisierte Briten, die nach Kriegsausbruch ihre deutsche Abstammung verleugnen zu müssen glaubten und als äußeres Zeichen ihrer Gesinnung ihren Namen anglisierten. Man wird gut tun, sich diese Leute für die Zeit nach dem Kriege zu merken. Unten rechts der schamlose Brief eines gewissen Karl Meyer, der diese Gesinnung deutlich zum Ausdruck bringt. (112) Einband ([uncounted]) Einband ([uncounted])
Der Hansische Wirtschaftsraum ist definiert als der Raum zwischen England und Flandern im Westen und Westrußland im Osten, zwischen den skandinavischen Ländern im Norden und dem mitteldeutschen Raum im Süden, in dem das Gros der Hansekaufleute wirtschaftliche Interessen verfolgte.
(1) Das Verbundprojekt ´Wirtschaftliche Wechsellagen im hansischen Wirtschaftsraum 1300-1800´:
"Das Forschungsprojekt ´Wirtschaftliche Wechsellagen im hansischen Wirtschaftsraum 1300-1800´ wurde von der Volkswagen-Stiftung im Rahmen ihres Förderungsschwerpunktes ´Forschungen zur frühneuzeitlichen Geschichte: Das Alte Reich im europäischen Kontext´ gefördert. Es handelt sich um ein internationales Verbundprojekt mit Zentrum an der ´Forschungsstelle für Geschichte der Hanse und des Ostseeraums´ am Amt für Kultur der Hansestadt Lübeck. 35 WissenschaftlerInnen aus zehn europäischen Ländern und aus Kanada sind an diesem Forschungsprojekt beteiligt. (…)
Als wirtschaftliche Wechsellagen bezeichnet man die langfristigen Schwankungen ökonomischer Variablen wie z.B. die Bevölkerungsgröße, den Ertrag der Landwirtschaft und das Preisniveau. Durch die Schwankungen dieser Variablen veränderte sich deren Verhältnis zueinander, wodurch es zu einer Strukturveränderung der Wirtschaft kam. Im vorindustriellen, ´malthusianischen´ Zeitalter entstanden Auf- und Abschwünge durch das sich beständig verändernde Verhältnis von Produktion (vor allem im Agrarsektor) und Bevölkerungsentwicklung. (…)
Ziele des Projekts: Das Projekt will für den hansischen Wirtschaftsraum die intertemporalen Bezüge seiner wirtschaftlichen Struktur und ihre Veränderungen in ihren regionalen und 'internationalen' Bezügen anhand historisch-ökonomischer Zeitreihen verfolgen. I. Die Erfassung ökonomisch historischer Zeitreihen aus dem hansischen Wirtschaftsraum aus dem Zeitraum zwischen 1300 und 1800 (…), die ausführliche Kommentierung der Originaldaten sowie die Gold- und Silberäquivalente der relevanten Rechengeldsysteme zur Umrechnung der Nominaldaten. II. Statistische Analysen der Zeitreihen im Hinblick auf Konjunktur und Wechsellagen. Ökonomisch-historische Zeitreihen werden als sichtbare Indikatoren wirtschaftlicher Prozesse gesehen. (…) Um diese Wechsellagen und Konjunkturen zu identifizieren, werden die herangezogenen Zeitreihen einer empirisch-statistischen Deskription unterzogen, (…). Erkenntnisziel ist die Zusammensetzung vorindustrieller Zeitreihen und die Klärung der Fragen, ob periodische Zyklen festgestellt werden können und ob diese Perioden - nach Raum und Zeit und Datenart verglichen - gleich- oder gegenläufig waren. (…) III. Interpretationen dieser Zeitreihen unter ausgewählten historischen Fragestellungen. Mit Hilfe der Verlaufsformen der Zeitreihen soll vor allem ermittelt werden, welche Zeiträume gleicher und welche Zeiträume unterschiedlicher langfristiger konjunktureller Entwicklung es (bezogen auf vergleichbare Zeitreihen) im hansischen Wirtschaftsraum gab und in welchen Regionen diese gleich- und andersartigen Verläufe vorkamen. Auf dieser Grundlage sollen 'international' einheitliche Prozesse und regionale Entwicklungs- und Konjunkturmuster, möglicherweise auch Kausalbeziehungen zwischen diesen Zeitreihen ermittelt werden. In der modernen Wirtschaftsgeschichte spricht man dabei vom Interdependenzprinzip, das die gegenseitigen Einflüsse unterschiedlicher Regionen behandelt, und vom Homogenitätsprinzip, das Regionen (oder kleinere räumliche Einheiten) ähnlicher Struktur untersucht. IV. Vergleich der erzielten Ergebnisse mit vorliegenden Agrarpreisreihen, um den Zusammenhang zwischen der agrarischen Produktion als der zentralen wachstumsbestimmenden Größe der vorindustriellen Zeit und den Produktionskurven gewerblicher Güter und den Handels- und Investionsgüterkonjunkturen festzustellen.
Zentrale Regionen: Bis zum März 1997 sind rund 400 Zeitreihen erfaßt worden. In räumlicher Hinsicht bildeten sich drei zentrale Regionen heraus, die a) durch eine relativ dichte Überlieferung von Zeitreihen aus den anderen Regionen des Untersuchungsraumes hervorragen und b) sich aufgrund ihrer wirtschaftlichen Struktur voneinander unterschieden: 1. der niederländisch-englische Raum, gekennzeichnet durch eine dichte Gewerbelandschaft, die auf den Export von Tuchen, anderen Geweben sowie Metallfabrikaten ausgerichtet war; 2. der Bereich der wendischen Hansestädte (Hamburg, Lübeck, Lüneburg, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, Greifswald; einbezogen wird hier auch Stade), der primär vom Zwischenhandel geprägt war und nur wenig eigene Exportproduktion aufwies; 3. der preußisch/polnisch-livländische Raum, gekennzeichnet durch den Export von land- und waldwirtschaftlichen Rohstoffen und Halbfertigfabrikaten, die vor allem in die Zentren des Westens, nach beiden Niederlanden und nach England gingen. (…) Da die genaue Kenntnis der lokalen und regionalen Verhältnisse Voraussetzung zur Deskription einer Zeitreihe und zur Bestimmung ihrer Indikatorqualität ist, werden die einzelnen Zeitreihen von HistorikerInnen bearbeitet, die mit den jeweiligen lokalen und regionalen Verhältnissen bestens vertraut sind. Daher reicht die geographische Spannweite der Mitarbeiter von Gent und London im Westen bis nach Tallinn und Moskau im Osten, von Stockholm und Visby im Norden bis nach Leipzig im Süden.
Funktionen: Nach ihrer Funktion werden die Zeitreihen in die vier folgenden Kategorien gegliedert: - landwirtschaftliche Produktion und Bergbau (Sektor 1), - gewerbliche Produktion (Sektor 2), - Handel und Dienstleistung (Sektor 3) - und in Preisreihen. Pro Kategorie sind folgende Zeitreihen erhoben worden. Sektor 1: 50 Zeitreihen (Salz-, Silber-, Kupfer- und Bleiproduktion, Roherzförderung, Erträge der Bergwerke, Belegschaftszahlen; zeitlicher Schwerpunkt: spätes 16. Jahrhundert bis 1800) Sektor 2: 20 Zeitreihen (Tuch-, Bier-, Essig- und Münzproduktion) Sektor 3: 300 Zeitreihen (landesherrliche und städtische Zolleinnahmen unterschiedlicher Differenzierung, städtische Steuern auf den Verkauf unterschiedlicher Güter, Akziseeinnahmen unterschiedlicher Differenzierung, Wareneinfuhr und -ausfuhr, Warenumsätze, Schiffsfrequenzen, Geleitsgebühren, städtische Immobilien- und Rentenmärkte, Löhne u.v.a.m.). Preisreihen: 70 Zeitreihen (Tuche, Mieten, Lebensmittel wie Getreide, Butter, Ochsen, Heringe u.a.m., andere Verbrauchsgüter wie Feuerholz und Talg)." Gekürzter Auszug aus: Hammel-Kiesow, Rolf (1997): Wirtschaftliche Wechsellagen im hansischen Wirtschaftsraum 1300-1800. Ein internationales Projekt an der Forschungsstelle für Geschichte der Hanse und des Ostseeraumes der Hansestadt Lübeck. Arbeitsgemeinschaft außeruniversitärer historischer Forschungseinrichtungen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland e.V., http://www.ahf-muenchen.de/ Forschungsberichte/Berichte/HammelKiesow.shtml.
(2) Teilprojekt: Quantitative Untersuchungen über den frühneuzeitlichen Bergbau in Skandinavien, 1623-1958., Studienleiter: Björn Ivar Berg
Die Studie umfasst insgesamt 49 Zeitreihen aus dem Zeitraum zwischen 1623 und 1844, für das Bergwerk in Kongsberg bis 1958. Ihrer Funktion nach handelt es sich um Zeitreihen aus dem Sektor 1: landwirtschaftliche Produktion und Bergbau.
Auflistung und Beschreibung der einzelnen Zeitreihen nach dem Schema Reihe_ID: Titel der Reihe (Zeitraum von – bis) Beschreibung:
Reihe Z001:
Silberproduktion beim Kongsberg Silberbergwerk, 1623-1958
Die Angaben betreffen Feinsilber, d.h. 100 % Ag oder rein metallisches Silber. "Feinsilber" war kein faktisches Produkt, aber ein Rechnungswert, der durch Analysen aus dem Brandsilber, dem Endprodukt des Hüttenprozesses, berechnet wurde. Mit Ausnahme von einer Periode in der letzten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts wurde bis kurz nach 1800 fast alles Brandsilber zur Ausmünzung geliefert, seit 1628 in die königliche Münze in Christiania (Oslo), die 1686 nach Kongsberg übersiedelte, und die noch im Betrieb ist (2007). Etwas Silber in der Statistik kam auch vom silberhaltigen Hüttenkupfer, das auch in der Hütte in Kongsberg erzeugt wurde, und meistens zur Münze ging. Nicht alles Silber wurde geschmolzen und in den Feinsilberangaben eingeschlossen. Einzelne besonders schöne oder interessante Mineralienstücken – oft krystalliertes gediegenes Silber in Form von Drahtsilber u. dgl. – wurden in der Hütte zur Seite genommen und als Handsteine zu Besuchern, Königen usw. verkauft oder geschenkt. Der Silberinhalt der einzelnen Stücke wurde ggf. nach gewissen Regeln geschätzt, als Grundlage für die Festlegung des Verkaufspreises. In den hier publizierten Angaben ist Feinsilber sowohl von Brandsilber, Hüttenkupfer und Handsteinen eingeschlossen, so weit Daten davon bekannt sind. Früher habe ich fast identische Angaben für die Zeit bis 1805 präsentiert und kommentiert (Berg 1988). Deichman, der auch Produktionsziffer von Röros publizierte (vgl. Z233), gibt die Quellen für seine Angaben nicht an. Entsprechende Listen befinden sich in seinem Privatarchiv (Deichmanske Bibliotek Oslo, fol. 45). Vielleicht basierte er sich wenigstens z. T. auf ziemlich leicht zugänglichen Angaben in den Hauptrechnungen des Silberbergwerk. Diese sogenannten Bergkassenrechnungen sind für die Zeit nach 1694 noch im Werksarchiv erhalten, zusammen mit verschiedenen anderen Rechnungen, die zurück bis zum Anfang des Bergbaus 1623 reichen. Eine parallelle und ausfüllende Serie mit Bergkassenrechnungen ist im Archiv der Rentekammer erhalten (im Werksarchiv fehlen bis 1761 12 Jahre, danach bis 1800 ist nur 1799 vorhanden). Die Basis für die Angaben in den Bergkassenrechnungen sind die monatlichen Produktionsrechnungen der Silberhütte in Kongsberg, die sog. Schmelzbücher, die zurück bis zum Anfang der Verhüttung des Kongsberger Silbers erhalten sind (1624), zwar auch nicht lückenlos. Hier sind die verschiedenen metallurgischen Prozesse in Einzelnheiten von Tag zu Tag dokumentiert, mit den abschliessenden Feinbrennungen des Silbers, wie auch Analysen vom Feinsilberinhalt der Brandsilberstücke. Angaben sowohl über Brandsilber als Feinsilber für die einzelnen Monaten sind danach in den jährlichen Bergkassenrechnungen eingeschlossen und summiert. Dazu wurde auch silberhaltiges Kupfer als Nebenprodukt verhüttet, und der Feinsilberinhalt im "Hüttenkupfer" ist als Ergänzung zu den monatlichen "Silberposten" auch in den Bergkassenrechnungen angegeben. Ich habe die Bergkassenrechnungen von 1711 und 1712 und von 12 Jahren in der Periode 1736-1757 untersucht. Die Angaben von Deichman stimmen für alle diese Jahre völlig übereins mit den Angaben in den Bergkassenrechnungen. Eine Besonderheit muss jedoch genannt werden. Deichmans Angaben sind in Mark – Lot – Quentchen – Ort gegeben. Dass ist auch der Fall in den Bergkassenrechungen 1711 und 1712, aber die Angaben in den von mir bekannten Schmelzbüchern und Bergkassenrechnungen um die Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts sind in Mark - Lot – Grän, wie auch bei Thaarup für die Zeit nach 1772. Vielleicht nutzte trotzdem Deichman andere Quellen als diese Rechnungen? Ich habe auch Akten von einer mehr unsicheren Periode untersucht, nämlich 1673 bis 1687. Von 1673 bis 1683 war das Silberbergwerk im Privatbesitz von Heinrich Müller, danach erfolgte die endliche Übernahme vom dänisch-norwegischen Staat und eine Reorganisierung des Betriebs nach einer Krise im Anfang und in der Mitte der 1680er Jahren (in der Periode 1628 bis 1661 war das Werk auch privat, aber der König war damals einen Grossgewerke). Produktionsangaben sind in den Bergzehnterechnungen der Rentekammer für die Jahren 1680 bis 1687 gegeben. Diese Zahlen sind insgesamt etwa 1225 Mark oder 3,2 % geringer als die Angaben von Deichman, die trotzdem hier ungeändert publiziert werden, als wir nicht feststellen können, ob seine Datengrundlage besser war als die Alternative. (Die jährlichen Abweichungen variierten stark, ausschlaggebend war das Jahr 1685 mit 986 Mark höher bei Deichman.) Münzrechnungen von den Jahren 1673 und 1678-1679 stimmen besser übereins mit den Angaben von Deichman, die insgesamt für diese drei Jahren nur 0,5 % höher sind. Mit Ausnahme von einer dreissigjährigen Periode in der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts (1763-94) wurde fast alles Silber (und Hüttenkupfer) zu Vermünzung abgeliefert, worüber fast lückenlose Rechnungen vorhanden sind (Rentekammeret, vgl. Rönning 1986: 211ff und passim). Über den Handsteinhandel wurden besondere Rechnungen gemacht, und die jährlichen Summen des davon berechneten Feinsilberinhalts sind für viele Jahre – aber nicht für alle – in den Bergkassenrechnungen und danach in den statistischen Publikationen gegeben. Bei Deichman (1777) und nach ihm Thaarup (1794) fehlen Angaben über Handsteine für die Periode 1673-1693 und für Einzelnjahre (1699, 1703, 1708, 1716, 1718, 1719 – vielleicht wurden in diesen Jahren keine Handsteine verkauft), und entsprechende Angaben haben wir für die Periode nach Thaarups Publikation (d.h. nach 1792) nicht bearbeitet vorhanden. Nach den zugänglichen Angaben war der gesamte Feinsilberinhalt in den Handsteinen 1624-1792 etwa 1320 kg oder 0,26 % der gesamten Produktion. (Die Bergzehntrechnungen 1680-1687 geben auch Daten über Handsteine, die bei Deichman fehlen, mit insgesamt 97,7 Mark Feinsilber, 0,25 % der Gesamtproduktion nach diesen Angaben. Deichmans Angaben sind aber hier angegeben, ohne diese Daten über Handsteine.) Nicht alles Silber von Handsteinen ist in den Produktionsangaben gekommen. Z.B. bekam der König Friedrich V. bei seinem Besuch in Kongsberg 1749 viele Handsteine mit insgesamt über 26 Mark Feinsilber, und sein Oberhoffmarschall von Moltke bekam auch einige mit über 4 Mark, ohne dass dieses Silber in den Produktionsangaben kam. Bei der Produktionsstatistik ergibt sich eine Unregelmässigkeit in der Periode etwa von 1730 bis 1770, als ein Bergwerk bei Konnerud nahe an die Stadt Drammen, 40 km von Kongsberg, betrieben wurde. Dieses kleines Bergwerk produzierte Silber, Blei und Kupfer, und musste laut seinen Privilegien das Hauptprodukt Silber zur Bergkasse in Kongsberg zu festgesetzten Preisen abgeben, und damit kam das Silber in den königlichen Bergkassenrechnungen. Nach Untersuchungen in einigen Bergkassenrechnungen kann nun festgestellt werden, dass dieses Silber in den Gesamtangaben eingeschlossen ist, die als unsere Datengrundlage dienen. Nach zeitgenössischen Angaben war die Silberproduktion von Konnerud von 1736 bis 1770 insgesamt 29 565 Mark 11 Lot oder 6915 Kilogramm, d.h. dass die eigentliche Produktion bei Kongsberg in dieser Periode von den Konnerud-Lieferungen in unserer Statistik mit 3,5 % erhöht worden ist. Die Zahlen variierten natürlich von Jahr zu Jahr. Unter vier untersuchten Jahren war die grösste Erhöhung der Silberproduktion durch das Konnerud-Silber 9,2 % (1739), die kleinste 1,8 % (1751). Auch Silber von einigen andere privaten Gruben in der Gegend wurde in den Bergkassenrechnungen eingeschlossen. Wir kennen nicht die genauen Zahlen von Metall von diesen Gruben, sie waren aber unbedeutend und die Quantitäten mussen offenbar sehr klein gewesen sein. Im grossen und ganzen können wir feststellen, dass die hier publizierten Angaben ziemlich zuverlässig für die allgemeine Entwicklung der Produktion in Kongsberg bis 1805 sind. Die Angaben sind zwar nicht 100 % sicher für alle Jahre, besonders sind einige Jahre im 17. Jahrhundert etwas unsicher. Aber im 18. Jahrhundert haben Stichproben von den offiziellen Produktionszahlen in den Archiven die Angaben in der statistischen Literatur völlig bestätigt. Für eine Periode zeigte es sich zwar, dass nicht nur Silber von Kongsberg darin berechnet war. Nach der offiziellen Stillegung des Silberbergwerks 1805 wurden doch eine Grube, einige Pochwerke und die Silberhütte weiter vom Staat in kleinem Masstab betrieben. Die Hütte bearbeitete auch Erze aus einigen privaten Silbergruben. Die Produktionszahlen von allen diesen Betrieben sind gesamt aufgegeben, als getrennte Angaben noch nicht vorhanden sind. Nach der Wiederaufnahme des Silberbergwerks 1816 (offiziell, aber tatsächlich im Juli 1815) sind bis 1877 die offenbar gut bearbeiteten Angaben von dem Direktor des Silberbergwerks C. F. Andresen (1879) benutzt. Für diese Zeit gibt es auch andere publizierte Reihen z. B. in den Berichten von verschiedenen Untersuchungskommisionen, die z.T. abweichende Angaben erzeigen. Jährliche Produktionsdaten sind auch in den Jahresberichten des Silberbergwerks ab 1837 veröffentlicht. Ab 1879 sind statistische Angaben im Standardwerk zur Geschichte des Silberbergwerks von K. Moen (1967) benutzt. Diese Angaben sind gegen ältere statistische Angaben im Archiv des Bergwerksmuseums Kongsberg und andere Angaben z.B. von Kommissionen kontrolliert. Die Angaben basieren sich alle auf die Jahresberichte, doch sind sie unabhängig von einander ekstrahiert. Bei fehlender Übereinstimmung und in anderen Zweifelfällen sind Moens Angaben gegen die Jahresberichte kontrolliert und ggf. korrigiert. Es handelt sich in beiden Fällen um rechnungsführte Produktion. Für einzelne Jahre gibt es ziemlich grosse Abweichungen gegenüber der tatsächlichen, physischen Produktion. Solche Übertragungen von Teilen der Produktion von Jahr zu Jahr gründeten sich besonders auf Rücksichten zum Etat. In der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts und im frühen 20. Jahrhundert wurde wiederum Erze von privaten Silbergruben in der Kongsberger Silberhütte verhüttet. Das davon stammende Silber ist diesmal nicht in den Angaben von Silber aus den eigenen Gruben des Silberbergwerks eingeschlossen. Angaben von Silber aus verkauften Handsteinen ist ab 1816 doch nicht eingeschlossen. Zur Bergbaugeschichte Kongsbergs: Nach einigen kurzfristigen Versuchen mit Bergbau im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert, begann der Bergbau auf Silber in Kongsberg im Oktober 1623, und die Verhüttung das nächste Jahr. Die überlieferten Produktionsangaben fangen dann an, und laufen fast lückenlos bis zum letzten Silberschmelzen am 13. Februar 1958. Der Verlauf der Produktion in der ersten Betriebsperiode 1623-1805 zeigt deutliche Phasen, die teilweis typisch für Bergbau sind, teilweis aber eigenartig. In groben Zügen folgt der Verlauf eine allgemeine Entwicklung solcher Wirtschaftszweige, mit einer langdauernden Steigerung der Produktion bis zu einer Kulmination (1768), gefolgt von einem ernsthaften Fall. Diese allgemeine Tendenz ist doch von zwei Niedergangsphasen oder sogar Krisenphasen unterbrochen, damit man auch sagen könnte, das der typische "Wachstum-Krisen-Verlauf" sich dreimal wiederholt, aber jedesmal auf einer höheren Ebene:
Bei der Interpretation dieser langen Phasen ist es wie immer schwierig den Einfluss allgemeiner Faktoren von speziellen und lokalitätsbedingten Ursachskomplexen klar zu unterscheiden. Für Silber als Münzmetall darf man vielleicht mehr als bei anderen Waren annehmen, dass Preisschwankungen nicht jedenfalls für kurzfristige Änderungen ausschlaggebend waren, obwohl man auch Silberwerte gegenüber allgemeine Preisänderungen relativisiern muss, und in einer längeren Perspektive muss man die Wirkung relativer Preisänderungen auch von Edelmetall berücksichtigen. Bei einem Bergbaubetrieb wie zu Kongsberg waren abere "innere Faktoren" wie technische Änderungen und die Struktur der Grubenbetriebe zu jeden Zeiten grossen Änderungen unterworfen, die ausschlaggebend für die Produktionsentwicklung waren. Besonders wichtig war die Einführung des Pulverschiessens im späten 17. und frühen 18. Jahrhundert, wobei die primäre Arbeitsoperation der Erzgewinnung eine weit mehr expansionsfähige Basis gegeben wurde, was vor allem die grosse Ausdehnung der Tätigkeit und der Produktion nach 1732 ermöglichte. Technische und lagerstättliche Faktoren waren auch zentral beim Niedergang der Produktion nach 1768, als viele von den wichtigsten Gruben eine Tiefe von 300-400 erreichten (die Tiefste 550 m, senkrecht vom Tage gemessen), wo die Wasserhaltung und die Erzförderung mit Wasserrad sehr schwierig war und eine weitere Verfolgung der Erzgänge in die Tiefe verhinderten. Die Lage wurde noch schlimmer als viele von den Erzgängen seinen Reichtum von Silber in etwa solchen Tiefen verloren. In der letzten Betriebsperiode 1816-1958 ist die Entwicklung mehr unregelmässig. Seit den späten 1820er Jahren wurden sehr reiche Silbervorkommen in der Königs Grube entdeckt, die für viele ergiebige Jahre sorgten. Die Produktion überstieg 1833 mit 9329 kg den früheren Maximum aus 1768 (8261 kg), obwohl die Anzahl von Arbeitern auf nur etwa ein Zehntel (ca. 400 gegen ca. 4000 um 1770) reduziert war, und wesentliche technische Änderungen nicht eingeführt waren. Nach grossartigen Innovationen und Investitionen kurz nach der Jahrhundertwende 1900 (Elektrizität, Bohrmaschinen, Benzinlokomotive u.s.w.) konnte die Produktion nochmals erweitert werden und reichte seinen Gipfel im Betriebsjahr 1915/16 mit fast 13 000 kg (d.h. rechnungsführte Produktion, die tatsächliche Produktion kulminierte 1914/15 mit 15 617 kg). Bisher hat die offizielle Geschichtschreibung mit einer Gesamtzahl für die Produktion von ca. 1 347 800 kg gerechnet (Moen 1967: 428), gewöhnlich abgerundet zu 1 350 Tonnen. Das wird sich kaum nach diesen neuen Untersuchungen ändern. Insgesamt ist beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk nach den hier publizierten Produktionszahlen 1 352 206 kg Feinsilber (100 % Ag) produziert. Subtrahiert man davon die oben genannten angenommenen 6 915 kg aus Konnerud, bleibt eine Eigenproduktion von 1 345 291 kg Silber. Dazu kommen nicht eingeschlossene Mengen von privaten Silbergruben im alten Revier des Silberbergwerks nach 1816, die auch in der staatlichen Silberhütte verhüttet wurden. Die Verteiling zwischen staatlichen und privaten Betrieben von der in der Periode 1806-1815 insgesamt produzierten Menge von 9 008 kg Silber, die in unseren Angaben völlig eingeschlossen ist, bleibt unklar. Auf der anderen Seite fehlen Angaben von Silber in Handsteinen für die ganze Zeit nach 1792. Rechnen wir dass auch weiter wie vorher der Anteil des Silbers in Handsteinen sich auf 0,26 % beträgt, gäbe dass eine zusätzliche Menge von etwa 2 167 kg Silber. Dazu kommen in Prinzip unkalkulierbare Mengen von Silber, dass zu jeder Zeit gestohlen wurde.
Reihe Z002:
Verbrauch von Talch (Unschlitt) beim Kongsberg Silberbergwerk, 1686-1805
Talch oder Unschlitt wurde zur Beleuchtung in offenen Lampen benutzt. Das Silberbergwerk kaufte Talch wie andere Materialiensorten zum grossen Teil von Kaufleuten in Drammen, Christiania (Oslo) und anderen Städten. Einzelne Bauern konnten auch kleinere Quanta gelegentlich verkaufen, als sie bei den Märkten in der Bergstadt eintrafen, besonders am Sommermarkt. Im 18. Jahrhundert wurden grosse Lieferungen von den Bauern im westlichen Teil Norwegens organisiert. Die Bauern brachten das Talch auf Saumrossen über die Hochgebirgsebene Hardangervidda, wo auch Vieh und andere Waren zum Markt in der Bergstadt transportiert wurden. Die Entwicklung der Lieferungen von Talch zeigt deutliche Wachstums- und Niedergangsphasen:
1) 1686-1724 (38 Jahre): Wachstum – 3,5-mal Verdoppelung der Lieferung. Erweiterung des Bergbaus, aber nicht im gleichen Masstab. Vermutlich bessere Organisierung der Lieferungen. 2) 1724-1728 (4 Jahre): Starker Fall – Likviditätsprobleme und daher vermutlich Wegfall des Zutrauens unter den Lieferanten. 3) 1728-1749 (21 Jahre): Wachstum bis etwa zum früheren Gipfel. 4) 1749-1756 (7 Jahre): Starker Fall – schwierig zu interpretieren, der Umfang des Bergbaus hält sich ziemlich stabil, und es ist eigentlich keine Krise wie in den 1720er Jahren. 5) 1756-1770 (14 Jahre): Wachstum, die früheren Maximalwerten werden aber nicht überschritten. Der Bergbau expandierte in dieser Periode bis zur Kulmination um 1770. 6) 1770-1800 (30 Jahre): Gradueller Niedergang, mit Plateauphase inzwischen. Krise und Einschränkung des Bergbaus, der Bedarf an Talch wird weniger.
Als Alternative zu Talchlampen kamen im 18. Jahrhundert Fackel, die mehr oder weniger mutwillig – wegen der Brandgefahr – von der Leitung zugelassen wurden, aber nur auf brandsicheren Stellen. Als die Anzahl von Bergarbeitern in den zwei letzten Dritteln des Jahrhunderts weit über die früheren Zahlen anstieg, musste man offenbar mehr und mehr nach Fackeln greifen, weil man nicht Talch genug für alle beschaffen konnten, wie es aus der Statistik ziemlich klar lesbar ist.
Reihe Z003:
Verbrauch von Schiesspulver (Schwarzpulver) beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1659-1805
Angaben über Verbrauch von Schiesspulver sind in verschiedenen Rechnungen geführt. Seit Mitte der 1680er Jahre haben wir leicht zugängliche Angaben in den besonders geführten Materialienrechnungen (vgl. die Anmerkungen zu Z002). Als die Einführung und die spätere Nutzung von Schiesspulver zentrale Thema in der technikgeschichtlichen Forschung über Bergbau in Kongsberg sind, hat der Verfasser das Verbrauch von Schiesspulver auch vor 1683 in den Rechnungen nachgeforscht. Meistens mussten die Angaben aus den monatlichen Schichtmeisterrechnungen Grube für Grube ausgeholt werden (vgl. Berg 1994/1998 mit vollständigen Quellenangaben). Die Gewinnung von Erz und Gestein ist eine Hauptoperation im Bergbau, und technische Änderungen in diesem Gebiet sind bedeutende Faktoren in der Entwicklung der ganzen Montanindustrie (wie später Dynamit, Bohrmaschinen). Pulverschiessen im Bergbau ist in Europa seit 1617 (Le Thillot, Frankreich) bekannt, diese wichtige neue Gewinnungstechnik hat sich aber nicht überall schnell etabliert. Wie Christoph Bartels gezeigt hat, wurde das Pulverschiessen am Harz relativ schnell nach seiner Einführung 1632 die dominierende Gewinnungstechnik, mit grossen Wirkungen für den Aufschwung des Bergbaus. Es waren mehrere hemmende Faktoren in der allgemeinen Rezeption dieser Technik. Das Sprengen selbst war destruktiv und gefährlich sowohl für die Menschen als für die Grubenanlagen und musste kontrolliert werden. Die Herstellung von Bohrlöchern durch Böhrer von Schmiedeeisen war arbeitsintensiv und schwierig, besonders im festen Gestein wie gewöhnlich z.B. zu Kongsberg. Die Grubenräume waren teilweis sehr eng, besonders bei Bergbau auf schmalen Erzgängen wie zu Kongsberg, eine besonders nachteilige Bedingung für die frühe Sprengtechnik hier. Die Alternative Gewinnungstechnik, das Feuersetzen, wurde im grossen Masstab hier benutzt und wurde lange offenbar vorgezogen. Handarbeit mit Schlegel und Bergeisen kam auch vor, wurde aber im ersten Drittel des 18. Jahrhunderts aufgegeben. In Norwegen planierte man Versuche mit Pulverschiessen schon im 1643, nach eingehenden Forschungen der Quellenmaterial lässt sich doch keine Realisierung dieser Pläne nachweisen. Die erste belegte Schiessarbeit in Norwegen ist 1655 bei einer kleinen Kupfergrube in Westnorwegen (Kvinnherad) nachgewiesen. Schiesspulver wurde in Kongsberg nachweislich erstmals 1659 benutzt, bei einer Sprengarbeit übertage, danach nur versuchsweise auch untertage in den folgenden zwei Jahrzehnten. 1681 versuchte die Leitung die neue Sprengtechnik auf eine festere Basis zu organisieren, es war aber nicht sehr erfolgreich. Die spätere Entwicklung zeigt auch wiederholte Versuche auf Expansion dieser Technik, gefolgt von Rückschlägen. Seit etwa 1713 war es immer schwieriger dem expandierenden Bergbau mit grösseren Mengen von Holz zum Feuersetzen zu versorgen, und immer mehrere Arbeiten mussten mit Pulverschiessen belegt werden. Die Sprengmethode war auch mehr sicher geworden, nachdem Lettenbesatz statt Schiesspflöcke von Holz 1711 eingeführt wurde. Der Bergbau expandierte bis 1724, danach folgte eine Krise. 1732-33 kam eine neue Betriebsleitung aus Deutschland, und Erweiterung des Pulverschiessens auf Kosten des Feuersetzens war ein Programm dieser neuen Beamten. Schlegel- und Eisenarbeit wurde zu dieser Zeit fast völlig aufgegeben. Eine Pulvermühle wurde 1734 gegründet, damit das Bergwerk sich selbst mit Schiesspulver versorgen konnte. Das Schmiedewesen wurde umorganisiert und das Feuersetzen praktisch verdrängt von vertikalen Arbeiten wie Gesenke und Strossen, und zu horizontalen Arbeiten wie Feldörten, Querschlägen und Stollen allein hingewiesen. Zu solchen Arbeiten wurde Feuersetzen z.T. bis 1890 benutzt, es verlor nur endlich im Wettbewerb mit der Sprengarbeit, nachdem Dynamit in den Jahren nach 1872 Schiesspulver ersätzte. Das Verbrauch von Schiesspulver kulminierte gleichzeitig mit der Anzahl von Arbeitern beim Silberbergwerk (4000 in 1770). Ein sehr starker Fall traf in den wenigen Jahren von 1778 bis 1783 ein – eine Halbierung in nur fünf Jahren. Das war ein Ergebnis einer Sparkampagne unter der Leitung eines dafür besonders eingesätzten Bedienten, des "Oberschiessers". Dazu wurden 1776 Beladung mit Räumnadel anstatt ausgebohrter Schiessröhre eingeführt. Die Einsparungen wurden doch schliesslich von der Leitung als übertrieben beurteilt. Viele Sprenglöcher waren so schwach mit Schiesspulver beladen, dass sie beim Abschiessen versagten und kein oder wenig Gestein lossprengten. Die schwere Arbeit mit dem Bohren war dann vergeblich gemacht. Nach Aufgebung der extremen Sparkampagne zeigt die Kurve über das Schiesspulververbrauch einen mehr stabilen Verlauf. (Berg 1994/1998)
Reihe Z004:
Verbrauch von Eisen (Schmiedeeisen) beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1686-1805
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Eisen war einer der wichtigsten Materialien im Bergbau, und die Bergwerke waren grosse Abnehmer der Eisenproduktion in der frühen Neuzeit. Eisen wurde bei Werkzeugen zur Gewinnung von Erz und Gestein im grossen Masstab eingesetzt, und der tägliche Verschleiss bei der Bearbeitung des festen Gesteins war gross. Bergeisen und Bergböhrer mussten jeden Tag wieder zur Schmiede. Obwohl Holz und Stein die wichtigste Baumaterialien waren, wurde auch viel Eisen zu Bauzwecken in den Gruben und am Tage benutzt, zu Nagel, Beschläge usw. Besonders bei den grossen Maschinenanlagen wurden viel Eisen benutzt (Wasserradtechnik, Wasserkunst/Pumpenwerke, Kehrräder zur Schachtförderung von Erz und Gestein, usw.) Der Verlauf des Eisenverbrauchs folgt eine allgemeine Entwicklung: Zunächst relativ langsames Wachstum bis etwa 1712, danach ziemlich schnelles Wachstum bis 1724. Diese Entwicklung fällt mit der Erweiterung des Pulverschiessens zusammen und es ist zu vermuten, dass ein Verbrauch von weit mehr Bohreisen als vorher in dieser Entwicklung ausschlaggebend war. Dasselbe trifft zu nach 1732, es wurde aber in den folgenden zwei Jahrzehnten auch sehr viele neue Maschinen gebaut, die auch viel Eisen benötigten. Mit Ausnahme von ausserordentlichen Auslieferungen von Eisen 1737, wurde den Gipfel des Eisenverbrauchs schon 1750 erriecht – d.h. schon 20 Jahre vor der Kulmination des Betriebs. In der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts ist diese Kurve weit mehr stabil als andere Materialienkurven. Die fehlende Kulmination diese Kurve in den Jahren um 1770 kann vielleicht durch fehlende Investitionen in Maschinanlagen usw. erklärt werden.
Reihe Z005:
Verbrauch von Stahl beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1683-1805
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Stahl war zu diesen Zeiten ziemlich kompliziert herzustellen und daher sehr teuer im Vergleich mit Schmiedeeisen. Stahl wurde darum nur zu besonderen kleinen Teilen von Werkzeugen, Beschlägen usw. benutzt, die für Verschleiss sehr ausgesetzt waren. Z.B. wurden Kronen oder Bohrköpfe von Stahl zu Bohrstangen von Schmiedeeisen geschweisst, Stahl wurde in Lager für rotierende Wellen eingelegt, zu Spitzen in Bergeisen usw. Das Verhältnis zwischen Eisen und Stahl ist durch die ganze Periode im Durchsnitt 25:1. Der Verlauf der Kurve für Stahl folgt in grossen Zügen die Kurve für Eisen, auch für Stahl kulminierten die Auslieferungen weit vor der Betriebskulmination 1770 (Gipfel 1759). Eine Abweichung gegenüber der Kurve für Eisen ist der Niedergang nach 1781, der allerdings die übrige Krisenzeichen und der Kontraktion des Betriebs dieser Zeit im allgemeinen folgt.
Reihe Z006:
Verbrauch von Salpeter beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1735-1805
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Salpeter war das Hauptmaterial zur Produktion von Schiesspulver, das seit 1734 mit der Gründung der Pulvermühle beim Silberbergwerk in Kongsberg erzeugt wurde. Die Kurve folgt logisch die Kurve des Schiesspulvers (vgl. Z003). Salpeter musste überwiegend aus dem Ausland durch Kaufleute gekauft werden.
Reihe Z007:
Verbrauch von Schwefel beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1723-1805
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Schwefel wurde beim Anzünden von Sprenglöchern benutzt. Es ist vielleicht zufällig dass die ersten – kleinen – Angaben gerade in 1723 auftauchen. Wichtig wurde Schefel vor allem als Rohmaterial zur Produktion von Schiesspulver, das seit 1734 mit der Gründung der Pulvermühle beim Silberbergwerk in Kongsberg erzeugt wurde. Die Kurve folgt logisch die Kurve des Schiesspulvers und des Salpeters (vgl. Z003, Z006).
Reihe Z008:
Verbrauch von Schwefeldraht beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1749-1805
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Schwefeldraht wurde beim Anzünden von Sprenglöchern benutzt. Die Entwicklung ist einen Indikator für die Anzahl von Sprenglöchern – mehr als z.B. für die Menge von Schiesspulver, als die durchschnittliche Beladung von Löchern sich freilich ändern konnte. Die Kurve ist seit etwa 1762 nicht sehr abweichend von der Kurve über Schiesspulververbrauch, und danach von den über Salpeter und Schwefel (vgl. Z003, Z006, Z007). Aber der Anfang der Kurve zeigt etwas besonderes, mit der Kulmination der ganzen Kurve schon 1750, mit einem folgenden starken Rückgang bis 1762. Diese Entwicklung ist nicht beim Schiesspulververbrauch zu spüren. Diese Tatsache zeugt wahrscheinlich von einer Umgestaltung des Bergbaus, mit Aufgebung des Tiefbaus und Erweiterung des Bergbaus in tagenahen Bauen, die sehr weit waren und daher förderten weniger Löcher per Kubikmeter, aber offenbar mehr Schiesspulver per Loch.
Reihe Z009:
Verbrauch von Schiesspapier beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1686-1805
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Schiesspapier wurde beim Anzünden von Sprenglöchern benutzt. Das Papier wurde mit nassem Schiesspulver eingeschmiert und getrocknet. Es wurde oben ins Loch gesteckt, mit einem Faden von Schwefeldraht dazu befestigt. Die Entwicklung ist wie die Kurve für Schwefeldraht (vgl. Z009) ein Indikator für die Anzahl von Sprenglöchern. Der Verlauf ist vergleichbar mit der Kurve für Schwefeldraht, mit der Kulmination der ganzen Kurve in 1750, und mit einem darauf folgenden starken Rückgang. Dieser Rückgang bestätigt die Annahme bei Z008, die auf Basis der Umgestaltung des Bergbaus gegeben wurde.
Reihe Z010:
Verbrauch von Hanfseil (Förderseil) beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1730-1805
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Hanfseil wurde als Förderseil in den Schächten benutzt, zunächst nur bei Haspeln, später auch bei den Kehrrädern – den dobbelt beschaufelten Wasserrädern. Gerade diese technische Entwicklung prägt vor allem dem Verlauf der Kurve. Bis zur Mitte der 1760er Jahren ist der Verbrauch von Hanfseil ziemlich stabil und sehr gering im Vergleich mit der folgenden Entwicklung, mit etwa einer vierfacher Verdoppelung in nur vier Jahren 1765-69 und mit einer späteren Verdoppelung nur von einem Jahr bis zum anderen 1776-77. Die vier benutzten Fördereinrichtungen in Kongsberg waren Haspel (seit dem Anfang 1623), Pferdegöpel (seit 1670), Kehrrad (seit 1727) und Trittrad (seit 1753). Die zwei kräftigeren Maschinen nutzten ursprünglich Eisenketten als Förderseil. Der Pferdegöpel wurde nur bis zu einer Tiefe von etwa 200 m benutzt. Als der Bergbau Schachttiefen von etwa 300 Meter erreichte, wurden die Eisenketten zu schwer und zerbrachen. Hanfseile wurden in Slovakien benutzt, Lederseile in Schweden. Sowohl Hanf als Leder waren am Harz um 1750 versucht, aber mit schlechten Ergebnissen. Drahtseile wurden erst im 19. Jahrhundert eingeführt. Versuche mit Hanfseilen bei Kehrrädern in Kongsberg kennen wir von den Jahren um 1770. Offenbar begannen sie etwa 1766-67. Der Durchbruch kam aber erst zehn Jahre später, nachdem der neue Oberberghauptmann seit 1775, Jörgen Hiort, eine erneute Konzentration um des Tiefbaus als einen wichtigen Punkt in seinem Krisenbewältungungsprogramm festlegte. Gleichzeitig konnte man Lieferungen von einer neuen Reperbahn in Christiania (Oslo) sichern. Tritträder wurden abgeschafft. Die Kurve folgt nicht dem allgemeinen Rückgang des Betriebs gegen Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts. Der Bergbau wurde grösserteils in die Tiefe fortgesetzt, und der Bedarf an Hanfseil in den Hauptgruben wurde damit eher grösser mit der Zeit. Der Maximalverbrauch wurde dann so spät als 1795 mit fast 20 Tonnen erreicht.
Reihe Z011:
Verbrauch von Leder beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1770-1805
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Leder wurde vor allem als Ventilmaterial in den Saug- und Hebepumpen in den Grubenschächten benutzt. Leder wurde in verschiedenen Qualitäten und Formen eingekauft, gewöhnlich von Kaufleuten und zu dieser Periode nach Auktion. Die drei ausgelieferten Qualitäten beim Anfang der Periode waren Puntleder, Pumpenscheiben und "Tuggen", die zwei letzten Typen waren mehr oder wenig fertig bearbeitete Pumpenventilen und wurden in Anzahl und nicht nach Gewicht gerechnet. Dazu kommt seit 1774 sogenanntes "geschmiertes" Leder, das in Haute gerechnet wurde. In den hier publizierten Angaben ist seit 1770 nur Puntleder gegeben, das in Schalpfund gerechnet wurde, samt seit 1774 auch sogenanntes "norwegisches" Leder, und seit 1786 auch "aluniertes" Leder. Die Gesamtzahlen für die Periode verteilt sich in folgender Weise:
Die Kurve folgt wie die Kurve für Hanfseil nicht dem starken allgemeinen Rückgang des Betriebs gegen Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts. Zwar wurden einige Gruben stillgelegt, andere aber wurden immer tiefer. Einschränkungen von der Belegschaft erfolgten vor allem in der Erzaufbereitung durch Innovation – Einführung der "ungarischen Pochmethode". Der Bergbau wurde grösserteils in die Tiefe fortgesetzt. Das Maximum der Kurve wurde 1793 erreicht, d.h. etwa gleichzeitig mit dem Maximum des Hanfseilverbrauchs (1795).
Reihe Z012:
Einkäufe von Blei beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1684-1813
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Blei wurde in der Verhüttungsprozess benutzt. Die Kurve zeigt sehr grosse jährliche Schwankungen, als Blei teilweis in grösseren Parteien eingekauft wurde, und die Einkäufe nach Gelegenheit gemacht werden mussten. Einige Jahren wurde überhaupt kein Blei eingekauft. Das Blei wurde meistens nach Auktion von Kaufleuten in Norwegen eingekauft, die es vermutlich zum grossen Teil von England beschafften, obwohl wir keine sichere Auskünfte darüber haben. Viele grosse norwegische Kaufhäuser hatten engen Beziehungen zu England wegen des Holzhandels. Von 1748 bis 1791 das Blei als "englisches Blei" bezeichnet (danach aber neue Hand in den Rechnungen!). Nur wenig Blei wurde in Norwegen produziert, in der Periode etwa 1730 bis 1770 bei Konnerud (Drammen), dieses Bergwerk lieferte aber nachweisbar nur kleinere Parteien in den Jahren 1739, 1740 und 1742. Die Kurve folgt aus natürlichen Gründen in grossen Zügen der Produktionskurve von Silber (vgl. Z001). Das Maximum wurde aber schon 1735 mit etwa 330 Schalpfund ( 165.000 kg) erreicht. In den Jahren 1728 bis 1737 war Fabricius in Kopenhagen der dominierende Lieferant. Diese Zeit um 1730 zeigt deutliche Abweichungen im Verhältnis zwischen Blei und Silber, die unter den Kommentaren zum Verbrauch (Z229) weiter diskutiert wird.
Reihe Z029:
Verbrauch von Blei beim Kongsberger Silberbergwerk, 1686-1815
Zur Quellenlage, vgl. die Anmerkungen über die Materialienrechnungen zu Z002. Blei wurde im Verhüttungsprozess benutzt. Daher folgt die Kurve in grossen Zügen die Produktionskurve von Silber (vgl. Z001). Im Durchschnitt wurde in der Periode 1687 bis 1800, als die Daten vollständig vorliegen, eine relative Menge von 14,5 Kilogramm Blei per Kilogramm erzeugtes Feinsilber im Hüttenprozess verbraucht – obwohl vieles Blei in der Form von Bleiglätte und Herdblei im Prozess wiederverbraucht wurde. Das Verhältnis zwischen Blei und Silber war aber nicht konstant. Einige Jahren und Perioden zeigen grosse Abweichungen. Besonders hoch (über 20 kg per kg Silber) war der relative Bleiverbrauch in Einzelnjahren wie 1688, 1713, 1715, 1796 und 1797, und vor allem in der Periode 1724 bis 1737. Das Jahr 1734 erreichte der Bleiverbrauch fast genau dieselbe Höhe als bei der Kulmination der Silberproduktion 1768 (223.794 bzw. 224.175 Schalpfund), obwohl im erstgenannten Jahr nur 55% der Silberproduktion in 1768 erzeugt wurde. Diese Abweichungen sind schwer zu erklären, vielleicht liegt es an metallurgische Besonderheiten in diesen Jahren, die wir nicht kennen. Es mag sein, dass die Erzgrundlage in der Periode um 1730 etwas besonders war, aber es ist nicht wahrscheinlich. In jedem Fall ist es als eine Hypothese anzunehmen, dass die folgenden grossen Einsparungen im relativen Bleiverbrauch auf metallurgische Rationalisierungs¬massnahmen zurückzuführen seien. Diese Zeit stellt sich dann nach diesen quantitativen Analysen als eine interessante Untersuchungsperiode für künftige Forschung mit dem Hüttenwesen als Thema vor.
Reihe Z232:
Falun, Rohkupferproduktion in Schiffspfund Berggewicht, 1546/1568-1810
Rohkupfer ist das Produkt der vielen meist privaten Kupferhütten bei Falun, die mit Erz vom "Grossen Kupferberg" versorgt wurden. Man schätzt den Metallinhalt des Rohkupfers zu etwa 90% Cu. Seit dem frühen 17. Jahrhundert wurde das meiste Rohkupfer in Garhütten ausserhalb Falun raffiniert, und grosse Anteile der Produktion wurde exportiert. Vieles Kupfer wurde auch einheimisch abgesetzt, besonders zur Münzung. Seit 1546 sollte alles erzeugtes Rohkupfer beim Waage in Falun unter Aufsicht eines Beamten eingewogen werden, als Grundlage für neue Produktionsabgaben. Das Rohkupfer wurde in Schiffspfund Berggewicht gewogen, dieses Mass war etwas grösser als das Stockholmer Handelsgewicht, um Gewichtreduktionen bei Raffinierung und Transport zu berücksichtigen. Genaue Umrechnungswerte für die ganze Periode kann man nicht geben. Der Bergbau in Falun geht weit zurück, er ist urkundlich belegt seit dem Anfang unserer Untersuchungs¬periode (1288), zu welcher Zeit Bergbau und Verhüttung ordentlich organisiert wurden. Vermutlich wurde Kupfer schon Jahrhunderte früher gewonnen. Produktionsangaben sind vom Mittelalter unbekannt. Nur einige Angaben von lübischen Pfundzollisten 1368-69 und 1492-96 geben Andeutungen über die Grösse des Kupferausfuhrs, zum ersten Zeitpunkt etwa 500 bis 800 Schiffspfund, in den 1490er Jahren etwa 2000 Schiffspfund, die Jahren sind doch vermutlich nicht repräsentativ. Lübeck war Zentrum für den Kupferexport bis zu etwa den 1620er Jahren, als der Kupferhandel nach Westen verlegt wurde (Hamburg, Amsterdam). Nur seit 1546 gibt es ziemlich zuverlässige Produktionsangaben. Die Produktion war damals unbedeutend. Ein Produktionsanstieg kam im letzten Teil des 16. Jahrhunderts, und wieder im Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts. Dann ging vermutlich das meiste Exportkupfer nach Spanien, der 1599-1626 zu praktisch reiner Kupferausmünzung übergangen war. Grosse Finanzierungskosten des schwedischen Staats als Kriegsbüsse zu Dänemark nach 1613 wurden teilweis mit Kupferexport gedeckt. Die anstiegende Produktion von Falun, mit seiner Kulmination um die Mitte und im zweiten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts, füllte eine Lücke die von reduzierter Produktion des Mansfelder und des ungarischen Kupfers seit dem letzten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts gebildet war. Später kam Kupfer von Japan und von anderen Quellen, aber im 17. Jahrhundert hatte das schwedische Kupfer weitgehend einen grossen Einfluss auf den europäischen Kupfermarkt, obwohl es diskutiert ist, welche Rolle es eigentlich spielte. Schweden war ohne Zweifel der grösste Kupferproduzent in Europa, und Falun war ganz dominierend in Schweden, niemals mit unter 90 % der Gesamtproduktion. In der schwedischen Wirtschaft war zwar immer die Eisenerzeugung wichtiger, im 16. Jahrhundert auch der Silberbergbau. Besonders im 17. Jahrhundert war doch die Kupferproduktion von internationaler Bedeutung und wichtig für die Finanzierung der schwedischen Staatsmacht, gerade bei der Etablierung Schwedens als Grossmacht während und im Gefolge des Dreissigjährigen Krieges. Der Kausalzusammenhang zwischen Politik und Wirtschaft ist nicht eindeutig. Gewiss ist, dass der Staat die Expansion der Kupfererzeugung in der ersten Hälfte des Jahrhunderts durch verschiedene Massnahmen förderte. Bergbau und Hüttenwesen wurden 1637 unter der Aufsicht und Leitung des staatlichen "Bergskollegium" (etwa eines Oberbergamts) gestellt. Technische Änderungen trugen auch zur Expansion bei, besonders in der Metallurgie. Das Rohkupfer wurde jetzt weiter raffiniert zu Garkupfer durch Etablierung von besonderen Garhütten, eine neue Messingindustrie wurde auch gegründet. Wichtig für die Produktion war immer die innere Entwicklung des Bergbaus. Das Kupfervorkommen in Falun ist stark raumlich konzentriert. Die Erzgewinnung ging vor in ziemlich naheliegenden Abbauräumen, die einander mit der Zeit teilweis verbunden wurden, teilweis durch grössere oder mindere Brüche, die schliesslich eine grosse Pinge bildeten. Die Geschichte des Bergbaus im 17. Jahrhundert ist stark von solchen Pingenbrüchen bestimmt, und das endliche Zusammenbruch von drei naheliegenden Pingen zu einem grossen in 1687 markierte auch das Ende der grossen Produktionsepoche. Die reichsten Erzparteien waren aber auch dann zu Ende. Nach einem starken Niedergang der Produktion etwa von 1690 bis 1720, hält sich die Produktion ziemlich stabil weiter durch das 18. Jahrhundert. Obwohl die Preise wie immer bei Kupfer zu Zeiten stark variierten, haben diese Änderungen wahrscheinlich wenig zu den Produktionsschwankungen beigeträgt. Der Bergbau war im ganzen 18. Jahrhundert schwierig, und stand unter grosser Aufmerksamkeit von den leitenden Bergbehörden und von hervorragenden Technikern wie Christopher Polhem, der das Maschinenwesen bei der Grube stark innovierte. Der Tiefpunkt der Produktion kam am Ende der 1760er Jahren, vor allem nicht wegen Erzmangels aber wegen äusserer wirtschaftichen Umständen, vor allem der allgemeine Preisentwicklung. In den letzten Jahren des Jahrhunderts erreichten die Bergleute das Ende des grossen Kupferkiesvorkommens. Als es schon einige Jahre lang sich eingeengt hatte, fiel die Produktion stark seit 1793. Die Zeit um 1800 markiert daher auch für Falun eine natürliche Zäsur in der Geschichte des Bergbaus.
Reihe Z233:
Röros, Kupferproduktion in Schiff-, Lis- und Schalpfund, 1646-1844
Das Kupferbergwerk in Röros wurde 1644 gegründet und war seit 1646 in regelmässiger Produktion. Seit diesem Jahr liegen Produktionsangaben vor, doch für die ersten sechs Jahren nur als Gesamtzahlen für zwei dreijährige Perioden. Seit 1652 laufen dann die Angaben jährlich, obwohl die Angaben für die ersten 6-7 Jahrzehnte etwas unsicher sind. Mit Kupfer ist hier fast vollständig das gewöhnliche Endprodukt Garkupfer gemeint, d. h. nicht 100% rein metallisch Kupfer, aber viel reiner als z. B. das Rohkupfer von Falun (vgl. Z232). Nur geringe Mengen von Kupferblech wurden auch zu Zeiten erzeugt. Der Verlauf der Kurve ist von kurzfristigen und längerfristigen Schwankungen geprägt. Mit Ausnahme von einem Jahr 1671 kam die Produktion erst nach 1686 über 1000 Schiffspfund. Eine Krise kam um 1680 wegen Kriegshandlungen, als die Schweden 1678 og wieder 1679 Röros besetzten und das Werk zerstörten. Wie bei Kongsberg, wurde das Kupferbergwerk in der Mitte bzw. am Ende der 1680er Jahren neu organisiert, eine Grundlage für die spätere Expansion. Seit dann waren meisten der Besitzer und die führenden Kräften Bürger in Trondheim. Ein Bergamt für die mittelnorwegischen Bergwerken wurde 1689 in Trondheim gegründet. Seit dem Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts war Röros das grösste Kupferbergwerk in Norwegen. Seit dann und im fast ganzen 18. Jahrhundert war Röros ein sehr gutes Geschäft für die Besitzer und durch den Produktionsabgaben auch für den dänisch-norwegischen Staat. Von 1711 bis 1720 war wieder Krieg in Skandinavien, und Kriegshandlungen 1718 zerstörten nochmals den Betrieb für viele Jahre, wie es in den Produktionsangaben lesbar ist. Nachdem die alten Vorkommen zum Teil ausgeschöpft wurden, fand man 1708 "Neue Storwartz", die Hauptgrube der nächsten zwei Jahrhunderte. Zwei andere wichtige Vorkommen wurden 1723 (Christianus Sextus) und 1735 (Königs Grube) entdeckt, diese Gruben waren auch wichtig für die weitere Expansion. Nachdem Pulverschiessen bei der Erzgewinnung schon seit 1657 benutzt war, wurde die neue Technik auch hier – wie zu Kongsberg (vgl. Z003) – nach etwa 1730 die dominierende Gewinnungstechnik, und die einheimische Produktion von Schiesspulver wurde gestärkt. Erzgewinnung durch Feuersetzen wurde mehr selten, und diese Technik wurde weniger benutzt als in Kongsberg. Holz war im Gebirgsgebiet um Röros schwierieger zu beschaffen und die zugänglichen Wälder im Revier mussten wegen des grossen Bedarfs an Holzkohle zu den Kupferhütten so viel wie möglich zum Köhlerei reserviert werden. Nach 1746 kam eine Periode mit Rückgang der Produktion, wahrscheinlich meistens von vorübergehenden Schwankungen des Erzlagers verursacht. Überschwammungen 1755 und 1760 trugen auch dazu bei. In der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts waren viele Schürfer im Revier tätig, und neue Vorkommen wurden entdeckt. Investitionen in Maschinen wurden auch gemacht, wie auch Massnahmen zur Verbesserung der Metallurgie. Die Produktion kulminierte 1774, sie fiel später bis zur früheren Lage im Anfang der 1790er Jahren, und stieg dann wieder ziemlich hoch. Zu diesen Kriegszeiten war es ein Hochkonjunktur, der gunstig auf diesen Zweig der Wirtschaft wirkte, bis Dänemark-Norwegen 1807 selbst in den Krieg hereingezogen wurde und die englische Blokade grosse Schwierigkeiten für den Handel schaffte. Es fällt auf, das die Produktionskurve in grossen Zügen ziemlich gut vergleichbar mit der Kurve von Silberproduktion in Kongsberg ist, mit einigen Ausnahmen (vgl. Z001). Bei diesen zwei grössten Bergwerke Norwegens stieg die Produktion schwach durch das 17. Jahrhundert, abgebrochen von Krisenerscheinungen um etwa 1680, gefolgt von einer stärkeren Expansion bis zu einer Blütezeit im frühen 18. Jahrhundert, abgebrochen von einer Krise in den Jahren etwa um 1720-1730, gefolgt von einer noch stärkeren Expansion bis zur Kulmination der Produktion bei beiden Bergwerken um 1770. Der folgende Rückgang wurde nur bei Röros von einem neuen Anstieg gegen die Jahrhundertwende abgebrochen, Kongsberg aber stürzte noch weiter ab.
PEBRUARY, 1901 ooTheoo ettysbiir Mercury CONTENTS The Flight of the Birds 239 The Taking of a United States Census 240 Pan-American Sports 243 A College Romance 244 The Treatment of the Skeptic 246 A Glimpse of Byron 248 Giving 254 Exchanges 255 Editor's Desk 258 The Past Our Present Pilot 259 A Financier (Continued) 263 A Twilight Reverie 266 "Taps" 266 An Era of Progress 268 G'BURG C. LIB. pUPLICATE FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. For Fine. Printing go to Tk Jo Eo Wile ftkilm Staff CARLISLE ST. GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. Kitzmiller Dealer In Hats, Caps, Boots and Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. R. M. Elliott Dealer in Hats, Caps, Shoes and. Gents' Furnishing Goods Corner Center Square and Carlisle Street GETTYSBURG, PA. EDGAR S. MARTIN, ^CIGARS AND SMOKERS' ARTICLES Chambersburs St., Gettysburg Leadership IN THE CLOTHING and MEN'S FURNISHING Business It is strictly here—everybody knows it. Testimony? The stock itself. The pen suffi-ciently nimble to tell all the good points of our ::::::: PALL AND WINTER. SUITS AND OVERCOATS has not been found. We will keep you dressed right up-to-date if you buy your Clothing and Furnishings here. : : : : STINE McPherson Block. No. II BALTIMORE STREET THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The Literary Journal of Pennsylvania College. Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter% VOL. IX. GETTYSBURG. PA., FEBRUARY, 1901. No. 8. THE FLIGHT OF THE BIRDS. MARGARET (HIMES) SEEBACH. Not one by one on lonely wing, They seek afar a sunny clime, When winds a chill from ice-fields bring The sombre Autumn-time; But when the cold rain comes to beat On tattered nest and drooping feather, They rise in rushing flocks, to greet The South-land all together. Not one by one, as single souls, We seek thy sunshine, Land of Light, When o'er our love-lit sky uprolls The first black shade of flight. When Pain comes whispering, " Rise and go I I bring the heart's bleak winter weather," Our pilgrim souls clasp hands, and so We journey home together I 240 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY THE TAKING OF A UNITED STATES CENSUS. C. W. WEISER, '01. HPHE book-agent or peddler may meet with a door slammed in * his face, a couple of cross dogs let loose, or an angry and citrous tongue set wagging ; he may even meet with the toe of a boot, or some missile hurled violently at him—poor man ! But the enumerator who is discreet and courteous has none of these weapons of local warfare to fear. His way is paved by the an-nouncement in the local papers of his coming. All the cross dogs seem to be away on a visit, or else tied. The people greet you with, " I knew you'd be along ; I saw it in the paper.'' He, unlike the wretched book-agent, starts out knowing that he is going to succeed. He is not asking the people, in an indirect way, for dollars ; all he wants is their census. "Well, you hain't a going to get any of my senses," replied one woman. The census enumerator learns lessons and acquires experience which could be obtained in no other way. He comes in contact with all sorts and condition^ of men. Some of his experiences with these people are indelibly fixed in his memory. Many of them, indeed, are pleasant, and some of them ridiculously humor-ous ; while some of the scenes and tales of woe which incidentally come to his knowledge are pitiable in the extreme. It is our purpose to relate some of these experiences in the active service. In town the work was pleasant, and progressed rapidly, until I came to the manufacturing establishments, where it went slow. It was necessary to make a complete inventory of the books and property, which took much time. The proprietors, however, acted in a very courteous manner. In the country the work was more troublesome, owing to the distance between the different farms, and the rough roads I had to travel over. It was not an unusual occurrence to be seen pushing a wheel up a hilly road, which was almost too rough even for a buggy. The farmers were usually to be found in a back field at their corn. This meant a long tramp, and some-times several hours spent standing out under a scorching hot sun filling out the Agricultural report, for no one kept a book ac-count. But this was amply atoned for by a cordial invitation to a farmer's dinner. The required statistics were freely given, except in the case THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 2A\ of a few illiterate people, who thought that this was only a scheme for increasing taxation. I met one man only who was unreason-able. Him, no amount of explanation would satisfy, until fright-ened into answering by the presentation of my census badge. All in all, the farmers proved themselves to be a well read, intel-ligent, courteous and hospitable people. It was, however, among the poor classes in or along themoun-tain side where one met with the most varied experiences. We came in contact with poverty and illiteracy of the most flagrant kind. The lack of suitable food and clothing was most evident. Some of the narratives were heartrending. I rapped at the closed door of a little shack one June morning, and soon saw the hag-gard and disheveled head of a distracted woman peer through a sidewindow. Soon the bolts were drawn and the door was opened. After I had completed the Population Schedule, and asked for the cause of the death of her child, the poor mother answered in tones of despair that it had frozen to death in bed one cold mid-winter night. Perched in an agony of physical and mental torment, in a lit-tle black hovel, through whose single window peered the dim light, I found a murderess—an ex-penitentiary convict. The look of despair, and fear, and torment, mirgled with every sign of the wildest passion, were sufficient to make one shudder. After a long and lonesome journey on horseback, through the wildest and most picturesque mountains in the state, I arrived one mid-day on the top of a lofty mountain. Far below lay a deep, narrow vale, wooded with the verdant forest. On the op-posite side loomed up lofty crags and peaks, proud sentinels of a scene of native grandeur which few have ever beheld, and which brought tears of rapture to the eye. In all this grand and lonely fastness there were but four families, for two of which I had to make this long trip. They had never been to school. Had no-where to go to church. Creeping in among the bushes I came across some rude hovels, in which dwelt gnome-like creatures, who spoke a dialect scarcely to be understood. The chief object which showed of any com-munication with the outside world, which I saw in one hovel, was a tin cup filled with tobacco standing in the centre of a rough table. Of this both men and women smoked and chewed. I suppose it was their only consolation. When asked the date of 242 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY their birth, the one replied that she was born in "the corn husk-ing time," another in the " huckleberry season." When asked their age, they simply couldn't tell; they hadn't the faintest idea. At another house I rapped at the door. A woman answered, and after I had stated my business she simply turned her back and walked away. I followed her into the house, opened my portfolio, and began work. When I asked the date of her birth she studied awhile and finally drawled out, "Why—m—1749." (She was about thirty years of age.) Another woman said she was born in 1896. One old man replied, " My mommy hut mir net gesat" (His mother hadn't told him). No doubt you will ask whether the condition of these people of the mountains cannot be helped. It cannot, at least in this generation. It has been tried. Some of the children have been brought out to the town schools, and after years of hard toil and unceasing, patient effort 011 the part of the teacher, these chil-dren have gone back as ignorant as when they came. They could not spell d-o-g or c-a-t. When given warm clothing they could not be induced to wear much of it. Habits of thought and neat-ness could not be taught to them. When they spoke to each other it was in such guttural, and so rapid, that no one else could understand. And is it any wonder that these people have become so de-praved and mentally estranged ? Isolated from the world, amidst wild and lone surroundings, they have always lived in the same spot where their ancestors lived for two hundred years back. Under such conditions the natural condition would be for these people to drift back towards a wild and animal state. Thus, coming in contact with the high and the low, the rich and the poor, it will readily be seen what a wide range for the study of humanity the enumerator has. Much of the social and moral condition of our country cannot be conveyed by the great round numbers of a census report. It remains buried in the heart of the enumerator. 'Many a dream has vanished away, Many an ideal turned to clay ; Many a friendship proved untrue— Constant and lasting, Oh, how few !" THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 243 PAN-AMERICAN SPORTS. '"PHE President of the Pan-American Exposition recently appoint- *■ ed a Committee on Sports, as follows: Jesse C. Dann, Chairman, Dr. Chas. Cary, J. McC. Mitchell, John B. Olmsted, Chas. M. Ranson, Seward A. Simons, Wm. Burnet Wright, Jr. Soon after its appointment the committee invited the follow-ing named gentlemen to act as members of an Advisory Committee on Amateur Sports: Hon. Theodore Roosevelt, Walter Camp, C. C. Cuyler, C. S. Hyman (Canada), C. H. Sherrill, A. A. Stagg, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, Casper Whitney. The appointment of this Advisory Committee emphasizes the desire of the Committee to have all amateur competitions occupy the highest possible plane. The Stadium, with a seating capacity of 12,000, is beautiful in design and promises to be one of the most successful architect-ural creations of the Exposition. It will surround a quarter-mile track with ground area ample for the requirements of all the events proposed. As to the nature of the athletic events planned, it may be said that amateur sports of all kinds will be encouraged as representing the most desirable of athletic competitions, and the members of the Committee on Sports, being college graduates, particularly wish to make a special feature of college sports. In the manage-ment of inter-collegiate events, it is the desire of the Committee that the various college associations be invited to undertake as far as possible the arrangement of the necessary details connected therewith. Although amateur sports will comprise a large part of the program, it is proposed to have such a number of professional events as will allow visitors an opportunity to witness the athletic skill of the best professionals. The character of prizes that will be offered has not yet been definitely determined upon, but the assurance may be given that prizes will be awarded of value as lasting souvenirs of athletic success at the Exposition. It is proposed to arrange a number of college baseball and foot-ball games, and it is especially desired by the Committee that the Eastern Inter-Collegiate (I. A. A. A.) Track Meeting be held in Buffalo next year. An ideal program might be to hold in the Stadium the East-ern Inter-Collegiate Meeting, then the Western Inter-Collegiate 244 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Meeting; these to be followed by a Pan-American Meeting open to competitors in the two previous meetings and to representatives of other Inter-Collegiate Associations. Other Inter Collegiate events have been considered, such as La Crosse, Cross Country Running with start and finish in the Stadium, etc., etc. The Committee on Sports hope that the Exposition may have a full college representation. It is proposed to hold many other sports in the Stadium, the A. A. U. Championship, Lawn Tennis, La Crosse, Cycling, Association Football, Water Sports, Trap and Target Shooting, etc., etc. All communications should be sent to Jesse C. Dann, Chair-man; 433 Ellicott Square, Buffalo, N. Y. c*p A COLLEGE ROMANCE. '99. Thro' a painted window Soft the sunlight falls, With a rainbow beauty Lighting- up the halls— With a touch of glory, Gilding dim, old walls. Stately arching pillars Rise above the stair, On the carven columns Stone-cut faces rare; Here a laughing satyr, Tearful naiad there. Graven deep, long ages Each has filled its space, Keeping watch in silence O'er the classic place. Time has laid no finger On each cold, still face. Motionless in sunshine, And in shadow so, Heeding not unnumbered Feet that come and go. Oh, what fiue romances Must these statues know! THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 245 Could each sculptured image Open lips of stone, Tell to eager listening Secrets it hath known, Bits of lore and legend, Of the days long gone! Once a dark-eyed maiden Lingered near the stair, And a fair-haired Junior Stood beside her there, With one strong arm resting Strangely near her hair. Eyes of brown are meeting Eyes of tender blue, Hearts are closer beating— Lips are Hearing, too, How it came to happen Neither ever knew. Just a hurried pressure, One keen moment's bliss, But the face above them Saw the stolen kiss. When had graven image Looked on sight like this? Years have closed the lashes Over eyes of brown; One page in life's story Folds forever down. Thro' the classic hallway Others trail the gown. Tho' the silent statue May recall full well That romantic moment, Yet a magic spell Ouardeth still the secret— It can never tell! c*P Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 'Tis only noble to be good ; Kind hearts are more than coronets, And simple faith than Norman blood. —TENNYSON. 246 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY THE TREATMENT OF THE SKEPTIC. J. B. BAKER, '01. TVTHAT the world is to-day, she owes to the skeptic. Before " he walked among men, the race was inert and drowsy and dull. No systems of thought were conceived, no rational explanations sought. It does appear sometimes, however, in going back to mythic lands and mythopceic days, that they must have been, indeed, an active state. The grotesqueness of their various colored myths is sometimes taken as a proof of mental keenness. The multiplicity of their beings, and the variety of their functions, connected as they are with almost every conceivable phenomenon of nature, is said to augur a deep measure of mental acumen on the part of the authors, as well as the people who believed in them and honored them. But they are not the product of a mature analysis ; only the fancies of a dreamy childhood. Their golden fables were nothing more than the gyrations of splendid color to the yawning child who is just rubbing the scales of sleep away from his eyes. They are the capricious imaginings of an awakening mind. In this setni-somiioleut condition the sons of men were long enwrapped, and cared little to abandon it. When Thales, Anaximines, Diogenes and others appeared with their various creeds and myth-dispelling dogmas, they dis-turbed the lethargy of their fellows, and incurred the hostility of many. Their names became the targets of false accusation, and their teachings were branded as dangerous. But the world of philosophy is not unique in its antagonism to the independent thinker. The realm of science is its kin. There was a time when scientific men believed the world to be fiat. Columbus said it was round, and instantly the tongues of ridicule were loosened on him. Yet upon his hypothesis rest the important calculations of to-day. There was a time when the sage men of the world held that "lightning was an almost infinitely fine combustible matter, that floats in the air and takes fire by sudden and mighty fermenta-tion; also, that it was a physical expression of God's wrath against the insects He had created." Benjamin Franklin was too practical a man for such idle spec-ulation, and showed them their folly by the flying of his kite. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 247 No sooner had he seized the bolts of Zeus, however, and shat-tered their theory to the good of mankind, than he was charged with an affront to the Almighty himself. Protecting houses against lightning was said to interfere with the prerogatives of Deity, and when, three years after the experi-ment, New England was shaken by an earthquake, a Boston divine contended, in a sermon preached on the subject, that light-ning rods, by gathering the electricity from the clouds and ac-cumulating it in the earth, were the causes of the upheaval. There was a time, even later than that, when the stage-coach was the fastest mode of transportation, when steam locomotion was unknown and little thought of. George Stephenson went to work to construct an engine, and this is what the Quarterly Re-view had to say: "What can be more palpably absurd and ridicu-lous than the prospect held out for locomotives traveling twice as fast as stage-coaches. We would as soon expect the people of Woolwich to suffer themselves to be fired off in one of Congreve's cannons as to trust themselves to the mercy of such a machine going at such a rate." Another authority of equal prominence said that " the poisoned air of the locomotives would kill the birds." Waile still another insisted that " there would be no further use for horses." Such examples might be added to an almost infinite number, but would only strengthen a truth already quite patent. There is yet another sphere of activity in which the skeptic, or man of thinking, figures prominently, and that is the world of religious thought. Nowhere does dissension touch such a vital point in man's destiny, and nowhere has it been punished with greater severity. The men of courage, who gave us the heritage of a pure gos-pel, were men who felt the hand of inquisitional torture. They were men whose flesh and bones were blistered and charred by the fagots of fire; men who were driven about like the master they followed, with nowhere to lay their heads. We honor them, and mention their names with oracular reverence. But we are judging them all from the vantage ground of tested history. What shall be our attitude toward the skeptic of to-day ? Con-servatism might advise us to shun him as we would shun a ser-pent. Radicalism might tell us to be fearless and read his works. We shall not presume to answer the question, but consider it wise 243 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY to resort to that sage old philosopher, who said, "Know thyself," and to a still higher authority, which says, "Know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." Above all things, whether we believe him or not, whether he is right or wrong, it is due to us to respect him for his independent thought and candor. "Honor the honest man. Earth rears but few. Only at God's white forge are such souls wrought. Rare honest man. His mind perchance sees truth In different forms from thine, yet honor him. Perchance his vision thy dim sight transcends And what to thee appears sublime and sure As the eternal hills, to him is but A bubble in the air. Perchance when thou Hast found the crystal spring whereof he drinks Thou, too, wilt quaff, and own the light divine." A GLIMPSE OP BYRON. HTHE meteoric career of this celebrated, but ill-starred poet has * been a subject of study for all lovers of literature and its makers. Meteoric, both because of its brilliancy and short dura-tion. Byron's popularity, in his day, was greater than that of any of his contemporaries, but it was much briefer and more in-constant, and to-day the general verdict pronounced by the read-ing public and literary reviewers, is against him. To-day men praise the highland ruggedness and simplicity of Scott's poetry; its bold irregularity and indifference to minor imperfections, claiming all to be the highest attributes of genius; they speak with unchilled ardor of Wordsworth: his great and sympathetic heart; his tender but manly verse, always sincere, often profound and ever, the genuine utterances of a true priest of the spirit; Southey and Coleridge are both loved and lauded for their large-ness of vision and poetic truth; but Byron who was hailed as he rose over the horizon in the artlessness and inexperience of his youth, as a star of the first magnitude, as the brightest orb in the firmament, is now almost universally despised and deserted; an outlaw under the ban of moral reproach and literary censure, he stands friendless in the gloom of his solitary exile. That Byron was endowed with rare natural gifts, that his poetry bears the evi-dence of exceptional powers are denied by no impartial reviewers; THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 249 that his poems lack energy, emotional colouring, daring in in-vention and many of the less definable qualities of poetry cannot be rationally insisted upon; bat that his poetry is unfit for the hands and hearts of innocent and impressionable youth and that it revolts the moral sensibilities of the more mature in years and experience, as well as offends the literary taste of the cultured, are matters of fact, known to all students of English literature. This apparent paradoxical fact must be accounted for by the unfortunate accompaniments that attended and marred his genius. His powers were of the first order, but they were accompanied by a pessimistic and envenomed spirit, a haughty egotism—though this he endeavored to conceal,—and at last, what reversed his early successes, a growing affectation of contempt for public opinion or private regard. There was a mixture of literary and moral virtues with literary and moral vices in which the propor-tion of vice became predominant, and eventually prostituted his genius to the service of shame and folly in their most attractive and insidious forms. Censorship should not be unjust, not even unsympathetic towards this most to be pitied of poets. His works to be properly appreciated, and his unwholesome sentiment and thought to be viewed in a fair light, must be traced back to his sad life as their source of inspiration, and there though the works may justly be reprobated as unchaste and injurious,we cannot help, at least but partially exonorate their author, when we view the circumstances that gave them birth and determined their character. Born into the world with a tender but impetuous and some-what petulant nature, he was alternately visited with passionate caress and indiscriminate and vindictive disfavor by his mother, —caressed into self-will and pride, he was upbraided and scolded into ill-temper and defiance; his sensitive young nature was embittered; his strong propensity to love and crave it in return was here first disappointed and thwarted; here his spirit began to be discolored with that tinge of hatred and haughty contempt for human kind that disfigured his poetry and ruined his life. Leaving home with scarce a regret save that at the expiration of the school term he would have to return, he hoped to enter a more wholesome social atmosphere, to mingle among more active and congenial spirits, and there find that sympathy, trust and esteem for which his ardent young nature panted. His friendships, 250 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY as may be imagined, were few but fast, nearly always broken, if broken at all, through his own petulance upon the most trivial occasions, but generally soon renewed with ties of stronger affec-tion and mutual respect. Precocious emotional susceptibility exposed him at a very early age to the vexatious experience of unreasoning loves. The mistresses of hisyouthful passions uniformly repelled his advances, little knowing that they were crushing a heart that would bleed, not for a day, or a week, or a month, but for a lifetime; that they were rejecting a passion, which, exalted by a sanctified home-life, would have provided and enriched every endearment of wedded felicity; but spurned with indifference in its first ventures, would turn to the madness of despair. The haughty pride of his untamed spirit was insulted at every turn; his keen sensibility to neglect or offense kept his resent-ment, against somebody or other, at white heat the greater por-tion of his life, making him new enemies, and decimating fre-quently the ranks of his friends—those who generally endured his eccentricities, and enjoyed his confidence and esteem. His first effort in poetry was a juvenile performance, with meagre promise of his later fame in it, written at school and pub-lished when he left the University under the title, " Hours of Idleness." It was assailed at once by Francis Jeffreys, the most celebrated critic of his day, in the Edinburgh Review. The poem, prefaced with a disavowal of all poetical aspira-tions and a cleverly written appeal to the clemency of the critics was condemned without reserve, its faults exposed with relent-less accuracy, and, in general, treated with so much ridicule and contempt that Byron was aroused, the latent powers of sarcasm and irony that lay sleeping within him were awakened, and he seized the pen and wrote with the energy and inspiration of a demon, "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers," venting indis-criminate calumnies upon all writers and critics of his day. This poem, though written in the rashness of youth, and in some re-spects inviting severe censure as " misplaced anger and indis-criminate acrimony," for the first time announced his real power. His skill in versification, the vigor of his thought, the terrible energy of his feelings, and brilliancy of sarcastic wit, proclaimed at once to England that no common man had risen, and prophe-cies were many and sanguine of his future fame. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 251 After having been rebuked by every journal, by critic and even friends for his unjust assault upon men of genius and merit, some of established reputation and venerated name, he became dissatisfied at home, and, conceiving his talents not duly appre-ciated, and himself slighted, he sailed from England and traveled throughout the continent, visiting Spain, France, Switzerland and Italy. During his tour he wrote the first two cantos of " Childe Harold." This poem, written in the verse of Spencer's " Fairie Queen," though often affectedly antiquated in style, and always darkened by skepticism and misanthropy, is energetic and manly in thought always, in spirit often, and his language is picturesque and expressive, conjuring from the world of fancy the weird but vivid and copious imagery that so uniformly characterizes all his poetry. This rhythmic tale is regarded as a poetical version of his own life, the central figure throughout the narrative no other than the haughty Byron himself, masquerading in an imperfect disguise. The spirit, the pictured career and dismal sentiments of the self-exiled hero, are all paralleled in Byron, though he strenuously denied their identity, alleging that Harold was wholly an inde-pendent creation, without an existing prototype, at least under his observation. The poet, however, in the fourth canto identi-fies himself with the gloomy pilgrim visiting earth's historic scenes, as if no longer caring to maintain his false character. All the poetry that followed was animated by the same spirit; characters were changed in name, but not in essence ; scenery was altered; the tale diversified by fresh incident; yet through it all stalked Harold's sombre ghost casting a shade of gloom and sadness over it, and breathing into it his philosophy of despair. Frequently Byron was bitter, but that in his attacks upon so-ciety, upon the virtues and excellencies of character, which most men admire and magnify, he was insincere, and did not give utterance to sentiments actually his own, only unsympathetic and misled readers dare assert. His poetry above any other of his age bears the stamp of its author's character, the seal of his spirit, though often gracefully concealed, and impresses the reader that whatever the scenes, whatever the characters, Byron is there and speaks from the innermost depths of his heart. "From the in-nermost depths of his heart," for in all his works the energy of his 252 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY spirit burns with a blazing heat and like a kindled furnace throws its wild glare upon the narrow scene it irradiates; little difference whether he wrote of angels or villains, of princes or beggars, the torch of his thought and feeling was lighted at the same flame. This sombre color and despairing energy of his genius, though admirable in the proper place and proportion, makes it impossible for him to sympathize with the ordinary and more generous feel-ings of humanity. He could not elevate the simple and obscure life, the pure love, the trials, the sorrows, the tradegy and comedy of those low in station and humble in fortune, into the realm of poetic beauty as Burns; Nature had denied him the tender respon siveness of heart to song of bird, ripple of brook, the sigh of wind, which it so richly bestowed upon Wordsworth. Byron was fasci-nated by rugged scenery, by nature in her violent moods but never loved her for herself, and though his poetry abounds with allusions to and descriptions of mountain and lake, ocean and forest, they serve but to suggest by analogy some mood of man—and that mood how monotonously the same ! What a sublime range of character, what inexhaustible re. sources of human feeling, what a wealth of poetic mystery, beauty and truth investing diversified nature and human life were left un-touched by his master pen. Had his energy of spirit not been perverted and confined to the narrow channels into which it was forced, had his harp been tuned to more numerous and pleasing chords, who can say that with his exuberance of imagination, ca-pacity for reflection and poetic insight and art, Byron would not have been the chief ornament of his day and generation, his mem-ory cherished with fondest admiration, and his poetry a more per-manent and vastly more desirable addition to our literature. Of this sad fact Byron was not ignorant and often took occasion in his verse to rebuke his impetuous and monotonous strain of feeling and ardently prayed for tranquillity of spirit and soberness of mind. Serene landscapes, peaceful waters, inspired longings "to forsake earth's troubled waters for a purer spring." "Clear placid Leman," he cries, "once I loved Torn ocean's roar but thy soft murmuring' Sounds sweet as if a sister's voice reproved." During the early stages of his literary career he resolves but in vain to tame his wild passions and to think and feel as other men: THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 253 "Yet must I think less wildly; I have thought Too long and darkly, till my brain became In its own eddy boiling- and o'erwrought A whirling gulf of phantasy and flame, And thus untaught in youth my heart to tame My springs of life were poisoned,—"Tis too late." The tragedy of a soul here seems to reach its catastrophe in the utterance of the concluding sentence: '' 'Tis too late !'' Byron here appears to stand on a commanding eminence and view with retrospective survey the irredeemable past, lamenting the errors of his way, but all "too late," and theu with sublime heroism to submit to the doom prepared for him, "to feed on bitter fruits without accusing Fate;'' to chide himself with the guilt of his own desolation: "The thorns which I have reaped are of the tree I planted—they have torn me and I bleed, I should have known what fruit Would spring from such a seed." His poetry thus is the musical wail of a proud yet broken spirit; a life with many shattered yet many vibrant strings; it is a feast of beauty attended by the unclean spirits of an unchaste mind, a song with the vigor and spirit of a march and the sadness and gloom of a dirge; the tuneful philosophy of a man who knew both too much and too little of himself and his fellow mortals, who in tempest and calm sailed life's pathless sea without chart or compass; a man with more than the usual powers of men, but destitute of their most common possession—character. "A wandering mass of shapeless fame, A pathless comet and a curse, The menace of the universe, Still rolling on with innate force Without a sphere, without a course." —TID BITS. Oh, many a shaft at random sent Finds mark the archer little meant; And many a word at random spoken May soothe or wound a heart that's broken. —SCOTT. 254 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY GIVING. When God brought forth the world we're told, He did it by decree, , Just spake the word, and chaos rolled Into consistency. But when the race of human-kind To sin became a slave, Not all the words in Perfect Mind Could ransom, so He gave. He gave his child, the anointed One, The best in Heaven above, That man might learn through His dear Son How God indeed is Love. And so must we, if we would be Found walking in His ways, Show to mankind that sympathy, That gives as well as prays. A word well said may often thrill, A happy song may cheer, But souls will ne'er be won, until Kind deeds with words appear. They are the vessels that contain The oil of healing grace, And they alone can free from pain The deep-scarred human race. Then let our eyes be e'er alert, Our neighbors' want to see, Our hands and feet grow more expert To bear them sympathy. For thus it is, each little chance Improved, becomes a gem, Whose lustre shall fore'er enhance Our heavenly diadem. —ERNIE. e$P Three poets in three distant ages born, Greece, Italy and England did adorn ; The first in loftiness of thought surpassed, The next in majesty, in both the last. The force of nature could no further go; To make a third she joined the former two. -DRYDEN. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Entertdat the Postojfice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. VOL. IX. GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1901. ' No. 8 Editor-in- Chief, . A. VAN OR.MER, '01. Assistant Editors, W. H. HKTRICK, W. A. KOHLER. Business Manager, H. C. HOFFMAN. Alumni Editor, REV. F. D. GARLAND. Assistant Business Manager, WILLIAM C. NEY; Advisory Board, PROF. J. A. HIMES, LIT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD. D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, One Dollar a year in advance; single copies Ten Cents. Notice to discontinue sending- the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors, and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EXCHANGES. [From the January TOUCHSTONE, Lafayette.] Our Contemporaries. I HAVE heard it said that we never have original thoughts; that even those which we consider original have been worked over in the minds of others who have gone before. It seems impossible, however, that two college men, apparently far sepa-rated, should have had thoughts so exactly similar, and above all, that they should have expressed them in language so similar, as have two men representing two of our prominent colleges. This is an age of psychological phenomenon, and the power ot one mind over another is unquestioned ; but, if the case under consideration comes under this head, there evidently remains a field of psychological research yet unfathomed. 2S6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY We ask the aid of those interested in honest college literary work, in the solution of the following mystery : In the Nassau Literary Magazine for October, 1900, was printed the MacLeau prize oration, entitled "An Ideal of American His-tory." In the Gettysburg Mercury for November, 1900, appeared an oration, entitled " Abraham Lincoln." We quote from these two articles, and print them in parallel columns. AN IDEAL OF AMERICAN HISTORY. Thirty-five years have gone by and the Republic is stronger than ever. The battle smoke of the civil war has rolled away, and to-day when we look into the clear past, our first glance meets the colossal figure of Abraham Lincoln. He is an American mountain—when you view minutely and examine care-fully each particular crag or fea-ture, how homely he seems ! But stand back half a century, behold the entirety—do you not see an Al-mighty hand ? We say an Ameri-can mountain, for you cannot think of Lincoln as a Grecian or a Roman, he is not English and certainly not French—he is ours, the man be-longs to. us alone, while his fame is the world's. Our broad country can no more contain that, than the present race can compute its dura-tion. Ages are the units which shall measure its extent, and eter-nity shall not behold it9 comple-tion. Let us for a while then con-sider him who, under God's provi-dential hand, more than any other, preserved our liberties and main-tained for us our national govern-ment. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. Thirty-five years have passed and the Republic is stronger than ever. The battle-smoke of civil war has rolled away, and as we louk into the clear past, our first glance meets the colossal figure of Abra-ham Lincoln. He seems a moun-tain— when you examine each par-ticular crag and feature, how home-ly he appears; but stand back half a century, behold theentirety—Do you not see the hand of God ! We wonder at him for his greatness, and we are proud of him that he is ours. We cannot imaging Lincoln as a Grecian or a Roman; he is not English and certainly not French —he belongs to us alone, but his fame is the world's. Our broad land can no more contain that than the present generation can esti-mate its duration; ages are the units which shall measure its ex-tent, and eternity shall not behold its completion. Let us for a while then consider him who, under God, more than any other, preserved our liberties and kept us as a peo-ple what we are. The Nassau Literary Magazine Princeton University Princeton, N. J., Jan. 29, 1901 Editor Gettysburg Mercury, « Dear Sir: You have probably noticed in the Lafayette Touchstone for January, 1901, in the department headed Our Contemporaries, that attention is called to two orations, one entitled "An Ideal of American History," which was published in this magazine in the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 257 October number and another, entitled "Abraham Lincoln," which appeared in your magazine for November. The opening para-graphs of the two orations are printed in parallel columns and are so similar that it leaves no doubt in our mind that either one was copied from the other or else both were taken from a common source. If you will read what the Toiichstonc says you will prob-ably come to the same conclusion. Now this matter should be sifted to the bottom and it is to the interest of both magazines to see that it is done. I send you a copy of the Lit. which contains "An Ideal of American History" and request that you send us the November number of the Mercury. Will you also state who wrote the oration on "Abraham Lincoln," when it was delivered, and when probably written. Also the home residence of the man who wrote it. "An Ideal of American History" was delivered here last June and won the Junior McLean Oratorical prize of $ioo. I trust you will appreciate the seriousness of this for both of us, and help me to find out the truth of the matter. Awaiting an early reply, I am, sincerely RALPH P. SWOFFORD. The above are self-explanatory. It but remains for the MER-CURY to clear away the accumulated mist, thus vindicating Mr. Heilman and his alma mater as well as the MERCURY. For this purpose we find sufficient testimony in Mr. Heilman's Statement. "March 9, 1900, I delivered the oration at Collegeville before the Pennsylvania Inter-Collegiate Oratorical Union; March 10, joined Glee Club on trip at Carlisle; March 19, returned to Get-tysburg from Glee Club trip and found awaiting me a letter from Princeton, written by a '97 alumnus of the Harrisburg High- School, whose classmate I had been for about 9 mouths. The letter asked me to send a copy of my oration for a few hints and ideas, as the '97 alumnus was preparing an oration soon to be de-livered. Sent copy of oration to Princeton March 20th or 21st. Handed oration to Dr. Himes in competition for Geis Prize— third number. [The third production for the Geis prizes is due May 1st.—Ed.] Have not seen the manuscript since." The oration came into possession of the MERCURY from the Geis prize committee through Dr. Himes, before the close of 258 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY college in June. We published it in the November MERCURY, and the original manuscript is still in our possession. We hope the above is a satisfactory explanation—that it is not necessary to ramble through that "field of psychological research yet unfathomed." It is to be hoped, further, that this, as a warn-ing to college men, may prove beneficial. Gettysburg does not suffer from the "mix up;" indeed we may feel complimented that one of our men wrote the oration that won the MacLean prize of $ioo at Princeton University, knowing that it was not sent for the use made of it. Princeton, come out. Lafayette, give us due credit. S. A. VAN ORMER, Ed. MERCURY. EDITORS' DESK. Following the custom of former years, no January number of the MERCURY was issued. The question of special programs in our literary societies is be-ing discussed. That they have merit no one will doubt; but whether they should occur so frequently is, indeed, a question. The object of the societies is to train their members for the duties that shall rest upon them in years to come by assisting in and completing that harmonious development that shall send the col-lege student into the world well-rounded. Our discoveries in science have been made by men who worked in seclusion; our masterpieces in literature and in art have not been wrought before the gaze of cheering throngs; the men who have "moved the masses" in days agone have frequently talked to the ocean's waves and the forest's trees. Young men, that they may be successful, must cultivate the habit of working with-out artificial stimulus. As this is the last issue of the present staff, we desire to ex-press our appreciation of the hearty support we have received from those interested in THE MERCURY. We have at all times had sufficient material on hand. Whether or not we have selected wisely the material used, others must determine. We have tried THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 259 to maintain the standard formerly held by THE MERCURY among the college journals of the State. In conclusion, we remind the Professors, Students and Alumni of Pennsylvania College that the standard of her journals have much to do with her success ; and we bespeak for the new staff the same hearty support given us, that the literary journal of the institution may be worthy ot Pennsylvania College. THE PAST OUR PRESENT PILOT. CHAS. LEONARD, '01, Reddig Junior Oratorical Prize. ■CAR back through the dim, dim vistas of the ages, when chaos, ■*■ darkness and void had receded in obedience to the eternal fiats of the Omnipotent, to give place to cosmos, light, and cre-ation, there appeared in that creation a creature whose progress and destiny have been the objects of the concern of two worlds. The earth was man's birthday present. "Go forth and subdue it" was the divine commission, and the history of the race is the story of the warfare that has been going on ever since that com-mission has been received. As the nineteenth century gates swing on their hinges, soon to shut into the hoary past another century, we feel like one who is leaving the harbor to sail an untried sea; in whose vision friends throwing kisses of good-by, and waving handkerchiefs for a suc-cessful voyage, are fast fading from view, and from whose sight the well beloved shore is receding and has at last merged into the misty horizon overhanging the deep. In the stately ship of civilization we are about to launch on a trackless ocean. Farewell to the past—only its lessons are any longer ours. Welcome the future, in which we are to live and act! I^et our prayers be united that our majestic ship may clear all the dangerous rocks that lie just beneath the surface, any one of which may prove fatal to the progress of the "Ship of State." As we stand at the stern of the vessel, looking out upon the watery expanse stretching into eternity on either side of the wake, with our mind's eye we take a retrospective glance into the history of the past. We look into the realm of discovery and we note that the most important contribution of this realm to civilization has been the discovery of laws in the moral and the physical universe. 260 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Ages ago the minds of men craved to understand the laws of the heavenly bodies, and the skies did speak to the old Chaldean shepherds, but in an unknown language. They were transported by the rich melody of the spheres, but could not appreciate or understand the celestial anthem. Ptolemy listened and caught a few scattered words; Copernicus hearkened and caught the first full sentences: Kepler and Newton gave us the first translation of the rythmical language of the heavenly orbs. Thus we see the gradual development of the scientific spirit in the presence of which truth has always unveiled her face and made herself known, as she has come to answer the everlasting "Why?" of science. In philosophy the same development is strikingly real. Man in his eagerness to answer the two questions concerning himself of "Whence?" and "Whither?" at first indulged in speculations that seem to us to the last degree chimerical. Twenty-five centuries have made but comparatively few changes on the face of the material world. A Greek of the fifth century B. C. might still find his way without difficulty from town to town of his native Hellas, and recognize at a glance the scenes of his childhood days, but he would find the world of thought a new creation or rather the old so transformed as to be unrecognizable. We have emanated from the mist and fog which enveloped the old Pagan philosophers. We have transcended the highest thought of grand old Socrates. Thought can no longer be said to be "An infant crying in the night, An infant crying for the light, And with no language but a cry." In the sunlight of truth this infant of thought has grown to a great stature, though it has not yet attained the perfect symmetry of maturity. The discovery of laws has been just as important and extensive in the social and political world as in the realm of philosophy. Every century has been an improvement over the preceding. Nations have been born, grown up, and died, while history, the coroner of the fallen empires of the past, has declared at the autopsy, "The cause of death was the result of a departure from law, either undiscovered or disobeyed" and standing, a silent sentinel, in the ashes of their former glory, pointing her finger toward the future she says in prophetic voice to all surviving nations "Beware!"— THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 261 a word so full of meaning when uttered by such an authoritative voice. Are we heeding this long sounded warning? Shall we dare say that the past is meaningless? Shall we not profit by the wise instruction it has to give? The Mu
International audience ; The collective work presents the study and publicationof excavated materials of an archaeologically known twoapsechurch from the first half of the 9th to the first half ofthe 10th century at the top of the Tuzluk Hill in the Yedi Evlerarea, Crimean Peninsula, near the village of Semidvorie(Alushta, Crimea, Ukraine). This sanctuary was linked tothe large agricultural and pottery producing settlement thatexisted in this economically developed and populous regionin the second half of the 8th/9th - first half of the 10th century.The settlement was situated 150-250 meters to the east andsoutheast from the church. Just 350 meters southeast fromthe church was a medieval cemetery of the "Suuksu" typeof the 7th – 8th / 9th (?) centuries existed which was left by thepopulation usually identified as Crimean Goths tribes.In 2007, an area of around 96 m2 was investigated andchurch ruins and surrounding cultural layer were studied.The stratigraphical analysis managed to identify here 44archaeological layers or contexts, one medieval grave withdouble burials, and a Bronze Age cultual place. The studyof ruins shows that the sanctuary was rebuilt multiple times.The church consisted of two communicating compartmentsof different sizes. As for characteristic features, the southernmain apse is bigger in size than the northern one, andthere was an entrance in the main part of the church throughthe northern compartment as well as two other doorwaysfrom the west and from the south. The western portal of thenorthern compartment was completely open and no traces ofwall masonry here were attested. In contrast to the southerncompartment, the foundation of the northern part was cutin natural. The three-layer masonry wall was made of localpoor faceted rectangular stones of various sizes. For buildingmortar, mud solutions with clay loam as a binder elementwere mostly used. The inside of the southern churchwalls was plastered with lime mortar, which in some placesis preserved in situ, and painted with red linear and geometricpatterns including letters or even inscriptions that aretoday illegible. The roof likely had two slopes covered bylocally made tiles of different types.The overall dimensions of the church were: width – 5.60-5.70 m, length - 8.50 m. The thickness of the wall was about0.7 m. Structure remains are preserved to a height of 0.80 m.Both apses have shoulders connecting apsidal semicirclesand walls. The external diameter of the southern apse is 2.13m. The internal dimension of the southern main compartmentis 2.34×4.15 м. The external diameter of the northernapse is 1.20 m, while the internal is 0.63 m. The width in thewestern part of the northern compartment is 1.34 m, and inthe eastern part it is reduced to 1.26 m. The church was orientedto the northeast. The azimuth of its central axis is 47°,which roughly corresponds to the azimuth point of sunriseduring the summer solstice for Crimean latitude.SUMMARYIn the first chapter, written by V. Kirilko, the buildinghistory of the church and its architectural peculiarities arepresented. The double apse sanctuary belongs to the relativelyrare type of churches of the Middle Byzantine periodthat could be described as a two-apse church with unequalapses of different sizes. G. Dimitrokallis (1976), the authorof the most representative corpus of double apse byzantinesanctuaries, classified them as "pseudobiconques." Thereare some examples of double apse churches in the Crimea(Sotera near Alushta, Sudak, Funa near Luchistoe settlement,Chembalo fortress in Balaklava). Yet, these sanctuariesmainly date back to the 14th century, with the one exceptionbeing the Sotera church that belonged to the periodof the 8th-10th century, and none of them provides an exactparallel to the church of Yedi Evler.During the short period of its history, the church wascompletely rebuilt at least once. The first building periodinvolved the creation of the main southern church with theapse and the three entrances from the west, south and north.It is highly likely that the church was intentionally conceivedby priests, ktitores or the Christian community as a doubleapse and two-part building. Immediately after the perfectionof the southern church, the additional northern compartmentwith open western portal and separate apse was added. Thispart of the church was connected to the main church via aspecial doorway in the wall dividing the compartment thatpreviously served as the northern entrance to the southernchurch. In fact, the second building period is distinguishedonly theoretically as a final step in the construction of thechurch. The chronology of the first two periods of the building'shistory, based mainly on the study of pottery and ceramicmaterials from the complex, dates back to the firsthalf of the 9th century, or more precisely the second-third tothe middle of the century.After a short period the church was completely destroyed,most likely due to inadequate construction worksor an earthquake. The third building period is determined as860-880s, when the sanctuary was rebuilt and reconstructed.After reconstruction, the northern compartment was buriedby earth and ruined stones and preserved according tocanon law practices for unused sacral Christian objects. Inthe third building period, the northern part was not active asa liturgical zone. The sanctuary became an ordinary ruralByzantine one-apse, one-nave church. A narthex was constructedin the eastern part of the sanctuary. The doorwaybetween the southern and northern parts was closed off bywall masonry. During the third building period, only twoentrances — the southern and western — were still active.The main entrance was the southern one, which was addedby a wooden apprentice. After the second deterioration ofthe church in the first half of the 10th century, no more renovations were carried out. The ruins were reused by the localpopulation for ordinary purposes no earlier than in the secondhalf of the 14th -15th century, as pottery fragments fromthe ruins show. Most probably, the narthex and apse wereused at this time as a temporary living structure in what isregarded in the chapter as the fourth building period. Theauthor proposes graphical reconstruction of the sanctuaryaccording to fourth building periods and shows architecturalparallels to this building among contemporary churches ofthe Northern Caucasus and Minor Asia.Chapter two, author I. Teslenko, deals with the stratigraphyof the site and description of archaeological layers.The analysis of excavated materials provided in the chapterallowed for the presentation of all steps of anthropogenicactivity on the Tuzluk Hill from the Bronze Age to moderntimes. The description of materials is organized by archaeologicallayers, with general characteristics of different findsincluded. Every layer inside and outside the church is attributedto a corresponding building period. A hypothesison the formation of each layer and its causes are also given.The most important layers are linked to two dilapidationsof the church, and some of them are attributed to regular liturgicallife and different rituals practiced in and around thesanctuary. Several layers may be left from construction andreconstruction works. A detailed description of the archaeologicalfinds and a cultural and liturgical interpretation ofstructures, layers and bones are given in the next chapters.In the third chapter, I. Teslenko provides an analysis ofceramic and pottery materials from the church. During theexcavation, 2,589 fragments of roof tiles and kalypters (55%of all ceramic materials), 637 fragments of kitchen and tablewares (13.5%) and 1,485 pieces of pithoi and amphora (31.5%) were recorded. Among them 9 intact rectangular rooftiles that were still preserved and 5 kalypters can be fragmentarilyreconstructed. Several tiles have a constructionsign or craftsmen marks as tridents and Greek letters «λ»,«ρ», «π» «В», «V». A theoretical estimation on the numberof tiles, including kalypters for covering the roof, has beendone. The amount is between 374 tiles / 376 kalypters and396 tiles / 397 kalypters in the second and third buildingperiod respectively. Accordingly, in the second period theweight of the roof was about 3893-3897 kg, for the thirdperiod – 4118-4122 kg.Nearly all excavated ceramic materials came from localproduction. The author lists the characteristics and providesa description of clay pottery and ceramic items, which showtwo craftsmen traditions. The first one emerged locally andis characteristic of primitive treatments, the use of a handpottery wheel and unsatisfactory baking. The second craftsmentradition reflects well-organized, high-technology commodityproduction oriented on the external wine trade. It ispresented specially by amphora. Today, there are more than40 known pottery workshops with high-technology kilns inthe southern part of the Crimean peninsula. Such a potterytradition was most likely brought here in the 8th-9th centuryfrom Minor Asia. The author discusses chronologies ofvarious types of local pottery, particularly amphora, and hemakes comparisons to groups of amphora known from differentregions of the Byzantine World. Local amphoras arepresented by so-called "Black Sea type" (second variant),which was produced until the mid-10th century, according tothe author. At the archaeological site, only two fragments ofimported pottery have been recorded: the bottom of a highneck brown clay jug with wide flat handles, no earlier thanthe mid-9th century, and a fragment of Glazed White Ware II,according to J.W. Hayes, from 10th century Constantinople.The kitchen pottery which were in use in Khazar kaganateis also absent. Ceramic finds in the church date back mainlyto the end of 8th-10th century; only several fragments of twored glazed sgraffito bowls and one fragment of a brown unglazedpot come from the 14th-15th century.The fourth chapter presented by I. Teslenko and A.Musin describes and studies the collection of glass lampfragments (342 items) that are partially not indentified.The bulk (91%) of the lamps comes from the third buildingperiod and is concentrated near the southern entrance tothe church, where the liturgy should start. Precisely withinthe same zone, micropieces of flint made by strike-a-lightfor making "liturgical fire" were recorded, and kitchen andbone remains from community meals were also attested.Glass lamps are presented by two main groups: polycandelonor beaker-shaped lamps with hollow stems, and singlelamps with handles on the rim. All lamps have close parallelsamong glass finds from other Middle Byzantine sanctuaries,for instance, Myra-Demre in Turkey, Thessaloniki inGreece, Chersoneses in Crimea, etc. The glass is mainly coloredlight green and blue. A slowly increased percentage ofpotassium oxide recorded by optical emission spectroscopymay point to glass production centers in the southeasternpart of Asia Minor or Levant.Chapter five, written by A. Musin, analyzes and classifiesmetal crosses found in the church. The excavation recordedat least 30 crosses and their fragments. Crosses wereused throughout the entire period of the church's existence.Crosses are regarded as an ex-voto offering. Most of themwere concentrated in the altar zone of the sanctuary andnear the southern entrance to the church. Two crosses wereput in wall masonry that closed the doorway between thenorthern compartment and the main church during the thirdbuilding period, evidently with apotropaic magic purposes.Presumably, crosses were suspended on the church wall oron elements of the church's interior, or inserted in them. Thecorpus of crosses is divided into five typological groups.The main group consists of iron crosses with an extendedlower branch made of two plates connected with a rivet thatderived from individual processional crosses and turned inex-voto. Some crosses with splayed arms were cut from thinsheet-metal, including copper alloy and probably silver,and decorated with punch ornamentation. Two crosses weremade of silver coins: Umayyad dirham (661 – 750 AD) andimitation of Arab-Sassanian half-drachma of the Sassanidking Kosrou II (590-629 AD).The two last groups of crosses can be compared to thecrosses of the type 1.2.2 according to J. Staecker found inEarly Rus' and Scandinavia in the 10th – 11th century, especiallyknown to be in graves in Birka (Sweden), Gnezdovonear Smolensk, Timerevo near Yaroslavl (Russia), Kiev,Iskorosten (Ukraine) and other political and economic centersof the formation of early medieval states in Russia andSweden. Several scholars have insisted that the crosses havean Anglo-Saxon origin and appeared in Sweden around930-940s AD with the mission of bishop Uni from BritishIslands. However, after the Yedi Evler excavation, the Byzantineorigin of these crosses is quite clear. Crosses fromEastern and Northern Europe may have been created usinga Byzantine example or brought directly from this regionin several cases. During the cultural transformation of theChristianization period, crosses that initially belonged to liturgicalpublic culture were turned in barbarian society intoprivate devotion objects and used as an element in burialcustoms.Nearly all crosses found in the Yedi Evler church haveparallels in other regions of the Byzantine Empire and theneighboring region in the Black Sea coastland, Mediterranean,Asia Minor, Northern Caucasus and Balkans. Suchex-voto crosses illustrate a special feature of post iconoclasticculture in the beginning of the Middle Byzantine period,as well as large distribution of personal reliquary-crossesof the end of the 9th – 11th century. However, prior to becomingan ex-voto offering in church interior, both types ofcrosses were generally used in private Christian devotion.It is largely accepted that the 9th -11th century was a periodof increasing individualism, social atomism and growingemphasis on personal piety. With that in mind, individualcrosses were evidence of the new post-iconoclasm Orthodoxyas a manifestation of personal activity in church lifeand a sign of the victory of polis community tradition overimperial tyranny.The process of donating personal crosses to churchesshould be regarded as a special way of reconciling personaldevotion with the liturgical needs of the local communityencouraged by Church hierarchy. The present hypothesisis confirmed by information in the Byzantine MonasticTypikons, especially that of Empress Irene Doukaina Komnenefor the Convent of the Mother of God Kecharitomenein Constantinople founded between 1100 and 1118, whichprescribed that each Saturday laymen would offer crosses-stauria in the sanctuary for the commemoration of thedeceased, and that other crosses must be brought similarlyeach Sunday on behalf of the living who are recorded on thediptychs. Crosses from the Yedi Evler church and in othercases should be regarded as an archaeological illustration ofsuch a ritual.Other small finds from the church like nails, chain linksfor the suspension of lamps, fragment of bronze wire, leadplates from a wick holder, buttons of bronze, small greenglass beads, and an iron arrow-head characteristic of EasternEurope military culture in the 10th/11th - 13th century aredescribed and analyzed in chapter six by I. Teslenko. Twoamulet-pendants found in the church that are made of clamshell of Cerithium vulgatum and tooth of deer of Cervuselaphus, which could also be offered in the sanctuary asex-voto, are presented in chapter seven by G. Gavris and I.Teslenko.Chapters eight to twelve compiled by G. Gavris, V.Logvinenko, and S. Leonov deal with bones and faunisticremains including birds, mammals, fishes, marine mollusks,and land snails recorded during the excavations. As a result,information is exhausted on the repertoire of animal sacrifices,a normal practice in rural parish Byzantine churches,and the composition of church festive meals has been determined.Among 139 identified bones of mammals, 64% belongto Ovis aries and Capra aegagrus hircus, 16% to Sus scrofadomesticus, 6% to Lepus europaeus and 2 % to Bos Taurus.Birds are presented with 148 individuals of 19 species,including 78% of Gallus domesticus and Gallus domesticussm. and an insignificant quantity of bones of Otis tarda,Cygnus olor, Perdix perdix etc.It is quite interesting to note that fishes are nearly absentfrom the collection, and consequently, on the table of parishmen who lived along the sea coast, only 13 bones ofAcipenser gueldenstaedtii and Perciformes were recorded.Evidently, bones from the excavation present the remainsof a festive meal and not an everyday diet. However, shellfishesare recorded here in 1900 fragments of Mytilus galloprovincialis(95% of mollusk) and a small number ofPatella ulyssiponensis and Ostrea lamellose. Eriphia spinifronspresented in 4-5 individuals should also be noted. Terrestrialgastropods mollusks are mainly presented by Helixalbescens (72.4%), Monacha fruticola (24.2%) Chondrulatridens (3.2%), and only one shell of Brephulopsis cylindrical.Some remarks on the distribution of animal bonesin the excavated complex will be provided in the followingchapters.In chapter thirteen, I. Teslenko proposed and arguedthe chronology of the site based mainly on pottery analysis.Coins from the 7th – mid-8th century that were used forthe manufacturing of crosses give only large terminus postquem for the church building. Amphora with small horizontalmultiple grooves on the surface well-known in Crimeanot later than the beginning - first half of the 9th century arenot recorded among the excavation materials; so the beginningof the church complex must date back to the secondthird-middle of the 9th century. The find of the fragment of ahigh neck jug with wide flat handles in layers of the secondbuilding period, and their absence later on, puts the date ofthe rebuilding of the church at 860-880 AD. The presence oflocal "Black Sea type" amphora of the second variant andthe absence of forms similar to amphora of types I and IIbaccording to N. Günsenin allow to propose the first half –mid of the 10th century as the final stage of the church's existenceand that of surrounding settlements. Another find isthe fragment of Glazed White Ware II, dated no earlier thanthe beginning of the 10th century. The history of the churchactually spans about 100 (± 20-25) years.Chapter fourteen by A. Musin discusses liturgical ritualspracticed in the sanctuary against the large background ofByzantine church culture and shows parallels from relatedterritories. To explain the meaning and origin of the two unequalapse church building in the Yedi Evler area, the authorprovides a thorough account of the phenomenon of doubleapse churches with unequal apses from Transcaucasia andthe Northern Caucasus through Asia Minor and the GreekIslands up until biapsidal churches were recorded in medievalItaly in the 9th-13th century. As a result, a conclusionhas been made that the Mediterranean World did not havea unique genesis of double apse churches. Late Antiquitychurches with two symmetrical naves and apses cannot beregarded as a direct prototype for the Yedi Evler church andrelated building. The architecture of Transcaucasia and theNorthern Caucasus sometimes gives similar features, forexample Mgvimevi, Georgia, the end of the 13th century,but all of them were built later than the monument underconsideration.The "pseudobiconques" churches with a reducednorthern apse are also known in medieval Italy and Corsicaof the 10th-12th century (see for example: San Venerio,La Spezia-Migliarina, Liguria; San Tommaso al Poggio,Rapallo, Liguria; Santa Maria della Chiappella, Rogliano,Haute-Corse; Santa Maria di Sibiola, Serdiana, Sardegna).However, they hardly could be a source of inspirationfor builders of the Yedi Evler church for cultural andchronological reasons. The Italian architecture of the "chiesebiabsidate" did, however, deeply influence the appearanceof two apse churches in Crimea and Muscovite Russia inthe end of the 14th-15th century. Nevertheless, early Italiantwo apse sanctuaries, especially with different apses and anadditional northern entrance, could initially reflect the sameprocess of the change of liturgical planning as in the YediEvler church.It should be acknowledged that "pseudobiconques"churches are not very characteristic for the Greek Island.Some indirect parallels can bee seen in the planning ofthe church of St Spyridon – Panagia Protothroni Halkia,Halki, Naxos Island; church of St Pantaleon, Kotraphi,Peloponnesus; church of St Athanasius, Phaturu, PatmosIsland; church of St Athanasius, Phaturu, Patmos Island. Inall cases, it is difficult to say whether the additional reducedcompartment was initially intended for this or that particularliturgical ritual. It is quite possible that both naves wereused for the Eucharist. However, in the Middle Byzantineperiod, the appearance of double churches of Sts John andGeorge, Sarakini, Samos, and the Monastery of St JohnChrysostomos at Koutsovendis, Cyprus can be attested.The double apse church was renewed in the 10th century inÜçayak, near Kirşehir, Central Anatolia, Turkey. The mostnotable fact is that the high density of two apse middlebyzantine churches, including the "pseudobiconques"sanctuary, is known to have existed in the ancient Pontprovince and near Trabzon, Turkey, for example in Koralla,Görele Burunu fortress or Gantopedin fortress (Matzouka,Zana Kale), Labra, Maçka Dere, near Köpruna Köy. Thisregion always had direct ties with the northern Black Seacoast and Crimea during Antiquity and Middle Ages.At the same time, the closest parallel to the Yedi Evlerchurch can be seen in the 10th-11th century double apsechurch in the Upper City of Middle Byzantine settlementin Boğazköy (Hattusa, Asia Minor), Turkey, excavated by P.Neve in the early 1980s. At the small northern compartmentthat served as the principle entrance in the southern mainchurch, obviously meant for the Eucharist, a considerablenumber of metal ex-voto crosses was recovered. Thecombination of such features attested both in Yedi Evlerand Boğazköy and the chronological coincidence cannot beaccidental.The author argued that different liturgical functions of twochurch compartments and the subsidiary role of the northernpart may be stressed by their sizes and architectural volumesand expressed in the exterior of churches in an architectonicway and by means of architecture. An additional means ofspecial organization of two parts of liturgical space involvedthe arrangement of a separate doorway to the main churchvia the northern compartment as a supposable place of initialworship rituals.Such a change in liturgical planning finds its possibleexplanation in the reform of Prothesis/Proskomedia,which took place in Middle Byzantium during and rightafter the iconoclasm period. The Euchologion Barberinigr. 336, the oldest Orthodox liturgical book of the end ofthe 8th century, reported the appearance of the first priest'sprayer for the preparation of bread and wine as gifts for theEucharist. There was a time when the clergy and monksestablished control over the expression of community andindividual piety within the bringing of liturgical gifts. Thechapter argues in support of a hypothesis on the Prothesisfunction established in the northern compartment in MiddleByzantine churches with two unequal apses such as YediEvler, Sotera, Boğazköy, several sanctuaries of Pont andTrabzon, etc. as a materialization of church reforms at thattime. It is quite possible that contemporary Italian churcheswith two unequal apses were also influenced by the samearchitectural and liturgical innovation in the beginning of theMiddle Byzantine period, especially since the EuchologionBarberini is a manuscript of southern Italian provenance,which reflects, however, practices of Constantinople.Architectural studies let us assume that initially, for anewly performed ritual, the northern annexes or nave ofchurch could be reserved, but later such liturgical planninginnovation did not catch on in church practice. Both preanaphoraand anaphoric rituals were concentrated in thealtar zone.The architectural implementation of the Prothesisreform could be reflected in another way, for example, in theconstruction of rectangular annexes to Middle Byzantinechurch as monastery Kisleçukuru, Antalia, and in İnişdibifortified settlement, Istlada, near Kekova – Myra/Demre,both in Turkey provide examples. In fact, the MiddleByzantine period is generally characterized by the risingof additional architectural volumes and a compartmentaround the main church building within the multiplicationof liturgical rituals and "Privatisation" of Liturgy.As proof for the given hypothesis, a find of liturgicalequipment in the church can be added. At the central partof the northern compartment just opposite the doorway tothe main church, an almost rhomboidal flat stone with dimensionsof 0.5 х 0.7 m (weight 75 kg) was attested. Itshorizontal position in situ was fixed by two roof tiles andfragments of amphora. A considerable number of potteryand glass fragments was concentrated around the stone, aswell as some animal bones. At the east end of the northernapse, the bottom of pithos and fragmentary sheep skullwere also recovered, which indicate some unknown ritual.It is quite possible that such flat stones laying directly on thechurch floor and serving as the Prtothesis table for offeringliturgical bread and wine were typical for rural Byzantinechurches, as the information of Pratum spirituale by JohnMoschus suggests.No remains of the altar table or distinct elements of thealtar screen were recorded during the excavations. This impliesthat the Holy table in the church could be made ofwood and the altar screen existed as a cloth curtain or katapetasma.However, the altar zone was separated from thenaos by a terrace cut in natural as a kind of bema. Near thebema, there was a pit, most likely for a water reservoir usedfor church needs and ritual purification purposes. Beside thispit within the altar zone, several roof tiles were stocked as aspecial construction associated with finds of metal crossesand glass lamp fragments that may be regarded as an elementof an unpreserved altar barrier.Such liturgical elements as the offering of ex-voto crossesand new arrangement of the Prothesis ritual may suggesta monastic influence in the area. Additionally, this possibilityis confirmed by some features of burial custom of thegrave excavated near the church to the southeast from themain apse, i.e. the fixation of the head of one buried senilisman with the help of small stones or a special head-supportknown in the practice of Mont Athos monasteries and in theTypikon of Studios monastery in Constantinople. This observationallows for a revision of the role of Byzantine monasticismin the development of Crimean Christian cultureof the iconoclasm and posticonoclasm period, especiallysince an erroneous hypothesis on the "mass migration" ofByzantine monks-iconodoules to the Crimean peninsulabased on an uncritical review of the information of the Lifeof Saint Stephen the Younger has been abandoned after newresearch.However, rituals practiced in the Yedi Evler church werelinked not only to monastic practices but also to popularChristianized rituals, as finds of animal bones in and aroundthe church suggest. Without a doubt, these kitchen remainstestify to animal sacrifice and parish community or familyfestive meals organized in the church. The finds of oxremains, an animal usually offered as a sacrifice in ruralGreek communities during sanctuary consecration, nearthe western and southern entrances to the church may referto rituals of dedication of the church after its constructionand reconstruction in the second and third building periods.Other bones and faunal remains are relatively proportionallyspread out in the church complex. It is difficult todeterminate where exactly the common meals took place.Most likely, during the first period of church life it was thenorthern part of the church; the joint offering of gifts forthe Eucharist and ordinary meal in the same place near theflat stone in the northern part of the church shows a kindof syncretism of liturgical and popular rituals. During thelast period, when the northern compartment was buried accordingto canon law postulates the main part of the kitchenremains was concentrated near the southern entrance to thesanctuary.The practice of animal sacrifices and parish meals waslargely in use in Byzantine popular religion, or so-called"parish Orthodoxy." In spite of prescriptions against suchpractices, which can be found in canon law, it was regardedas a norm in society, and even hagiographical texts, for example,the Life of Saint Nicolas of Sion in Asia Minor, tellabout such rituals without any fulmination. Rituals of animalsacrifices are also known in the North Caucasus, Transcaucasia,and the Balkans and are still preserved in ethnographicpractice until the beginning of the 20th century andon several territories up until the present age. For example,in the Farassa area, Cappadocia, modern Feke, Adana Province,Turkey, in the Greek parish the ritual of animal sacrificeswas recorded in the church opposite the main altar on abig stone. This parallel may suggest that the flat stone in thenorthern part of the Yedi Evler church, apart from its Prosthesisfunction, could have also served as archaic sacrifice.The remains of rituals of church consecration are alsoknown from the excavations. They have been attestedthanks to one-time concentrations of charcoals and fireplacesas well as kitchen remains opposite to the entrances of thesanctuary. For the first church consecration, three fireplaceswere recorded to the north, west and south of the church.The second consecration left one fireplace to the south fromthe church according to the position of the main doorwayduring the third building period.Within the last zone, micropieces of flint made by strikea-light were found. It is obvious that there was a specialplace here for making 'liturgical fire' before the beginningof office of vespers. Evidently, the celebration in the churchwas not conducted every day, but on special days includingFeast and Sunday Liturgies. Today the ritual of makingnew fire before offices is still preserved in Latin andGreek parish life, only on the eve of Easter Day when theliturgical light for the ceremony is normally lit from a bonfireburned outside the church. In Russian and UkrainianOrthodoxy, such practice has been abandoned. A specificderivate of such practices is the ritual of 'Holy Fire' in thechurch of Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem on Great Saturday,the day before Orthodox Easter, presented in mass mentalityand church propaganda as a miracle. However, the practiceof making 'new' or 'holy' fire, especially at the beginningof spring, is well known thanks to ethnological research inWestern and Central Europe, and relations between churchrituals and folklore customs are difficult to establish. Multiplefragments of glass lamps in the same zone hardly referto any rituals, nor do presented remains of lamps accidentallybroken during manipulation. Only one church customthat involves the intentional breaking of wedding glass cupsof wine was first attested in the Euchologion Paris Coislin.213 in 1027 AD. However, until the 12th century, the churchblessing of wedding was practiced in the aristocratic milieuand was not very widespread in rural society.In sum, the local parish community had enough cultivatedlevel of religious life and combined innovations ofliturgical mainstream of Byzantine society issued from culturalcenters and archaic practices belonging to the provincialrural population.The conclusions presented by I. Teslenko and A. Musinsummaries research results and give future perspectives.For the first time in the history of excavations of Crimeanmedieval churches, thanks to careful digging and fieldfixation, architectural archaeology managed to record manyliturgical features and everyday life elements characteristicof Byzantine rural churches. It allowed for determining acharacteristic of the material culture of the local populationduring the "demographic boom" and establishing of themataadministrative division in Byzantine Empire in the 8th-9thcentury. Church planning kept the very important step inthe development of the initial part of East-Christian Liturgyas ritualisation of Prothesis. Archaeological contextspreserved intact bones of animal sacrifices and communitymeals appropriated to Byzantine popular religion, tracesof making of 'holy' or liturgical fire as micropieces of flintmade by a light-a-strike, and ex-voto offering in the formof metal crosses, and amulets pendants that at the sametime could serve as interior church decoration. Such findsallowed us to establish byzantine origin of several typesof Christian devotional crosses pendants from the 10th-11th century originated from the territories of Early Rus'and Scandinavia. The church in Yedi Evler is an examplemonument of the Middle Byzantine period for the study ofliturgical devotion, rural sacral architecture and everydaylife of provincial settlements, which should be useful forthe understanding of both Crimean medieval culture and thehistory of other parts of the Byzantine World.The study of the Yedi Evler church permits us todraw some conclusions about the historical developmentand cultural situation in the southern part of the Crimeanpeninsula at the end of the 8th – mid 10th century. The materialculture of the local population known from the result ofthe church excavation and investigation of surroundingsettlements and pottery workshops suggests importantinnovation, such as stone housebuilding using roof tiles,high-technology pottery production with very effectivekilns, winemaking oriented to local and long distancetrade, and ecclesiastical architecture of basilica-type parishchurches. All these improvements were previously unknownfor the autochthonic people, which may be indentified tothe Crimean Goths. The settlement archaeology in the areashows that the above-mentioned innovations were broughthere with the wave of mass migration, and newly-establishedresidences of the new population existed quietly side by sidewith previous habitations. This situation may demonstratethe process of mutual integration and even acculturation ofautochthonic people in higher organized society. Most likely,the main group of migrants came from Asia Minor andbrought the mentioned traditions of Byzantine-Rhômaioscivilization, including high technology in pottery andliturgical innovations reflected in ecclesiastical architectureand devotional practices.Undoubtedly, the colonization of the southern part of theCrimean peninsula was organized by the administration ofthe Byzantine Empire in the framework of the establishingof the themata system. The theme ta Klimata in this areawas constituted in 841 AD, and later in the 850s it wasreorganized in the theme of Chersoneses. In the same vein,the new church administration was established here. Theregion under question had probably been included in themetropolitan of Ghotia or Doros, whose eastern borderseparating it from another one new diocese of Sougdaia orSourozh, now Sudak, was exactly across from the Yedi Evlervalley. The Goths diocese is referred to as "a certain regionalong the coast there called Dory," mentioned by Procopiusof Caesarea in his panegyric on the building activity of theemperor Justinian De Aedificiis.The chronology of pottery materials suggests that thechurch in Yedi Evler and the local agglomeration, as wellas a considerable part of settlements in Southern and South-Western Crimea, ceased to exist at the same time in the firsthalf of the 10th century. Such a social collapse may be linkedto the politically unstable situation in the area caused by theconflict between the Byzantine Empire and Khazar kaganateand active military raids of the Rus' from the Middle Dnieperarea to the Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions, Asia Minorand Constantinople. The local population moved to moresecure regions or fled behind city walls for protection.This publication is supplemented by appendixes withcatalogues of finds of various categories including metals,glass, and faunal artifacts (I. Teslenko, N. Turova), pottery,ceramic and stone materials (O. Ignatenko, I. Teslenko),architectural elements (V. Kirilko), find of Bronze Ageperiod (I. Teslenko), description and results of opticalemission spectroscopy of glass finds (A. Egor'kov) andstudy of flint finds (V. Chabai).
4. La perspectiva de los burócratas: el pensamiento de Octavio Morató sobre la autonomía del BROU y el estatuto de los funcionarios bancarios Octavio Morató fue Gerente del BROU desde 1921 sucediendo a Jorge West. Dejó su puesto de Gerente en 1937, pasando a desempeñarse como Asesor Técnico del Banco hasta su jubilación definitiva en 1940. Fue funcionario del Banco desde su fundación en 1896. Inicia su carrera como Jefe de la sección Responsabilidades, pasa por Teneduría de Libros, Sub-Contador, Contador General, Gerente, Sub-Gerente A, hasta llegar a la Gerencia de la institución en 1921. Morató no sólo fue, además, uno de los economistas más influyentes de su época, referente permanente en cuestiones bancarias y financieras y activo participante en múltiples actividades académicas, políticas y técnicas a nivel nacional e internacional (1). La síntesis del pensamiento de Morató proviene de dos fuentes: la compilación de su actuación en el BROU titulada "Al servicio del Banco de la República y la economía uruguaya" (MORATÓ, 1976) y la conferencia dictada en 1924 en la Caja Nacional de Ahorros y Descuentos. Esta última fue publicada en forma de libro a posteriori, "Los funcionarios de las industrias del Estado" (MORATÓ, 1943). Este material es necesariamente incompleto. Como se consigna en "Al servicio.", Morató conservaba en su archivo personal copia de toda su actuación en el BROU, llenando la misma unos 50 biblioratos formato oficio. De ese archivo se incluyeron en el mencionado libro 52 informes referentes a múltiples cuestiones bancarias, económicas, proyectos de cambio y cuestiones de gobierno de la institución. Por tanto, queda dentro de nuestra exploración aquella zona de la actuación de Morató que el recopilador de "Al servicio ." encontró razonable y pertinente publicar. Por suerte, dicho recopilador (2) fue seguramente alguien que conoció de cerca los temas de mayor importancia para Morató y de los 52 informes publicados, hay 9 que están dedicados precisamente a temas relativos a la defensa de la autonomía administrativa de la institución (3).Esta síntesis tiene dos objetivos:Mostrar el sentido que para Morató comportaba el concepto de autonomía, como una forma peculiar de administración alejada de lo que él llama el"régimen desquiciador de la administración pública" (MORATÓ, 1976: 370).Mostrar los argumentos que empleó Morató para defender las prerrogativas del BROU para administrarse a sí mismo (dentro de lo que establecía la constitución y la tradición administrativa del instituto).4.1. El concepto de autonomía y su sentido en la vida política nacional según Octavio Morató. El punto basal de la defensa que hace Morató de la autonomía administrativa del BROU es su visión histórica de la misma. Es decir, su idea de que la autonomía es un producto peculiar de la historia del país. Como ha sido señalado (SOLARI, FRANCO, 1983), el origen histórico de la descentralización por servicios es algo que progresivamente fue perdiendo peso en los debates sobre las empresas públicas. De ahí la importancia de los argumentos de Morató: su argumentación histórica es una prueba de que en las empresas públicas se estaba creando un estamento muy particular de burócratas. Hay tres grandes ejes en la visión de Morató sobre los entes industriales y su rol en la vida política y económica del país:Hay una "razón histórica y una razón científica" para la autonomía administrativa.La organización autonómica (o ente autónomo) no puede ser tratada como el resto de la administración pública.Un ente autónomo busca la eficiencia de una empresa privada, pero no es una empresa privada.4.1.1. Hay una "razón histórica y una razón científica" para la autonomía administrativaComenzaremos por la conferencia dictada en 1924 en la Caja Nacional de Ahorros y Descuentos sobre el estatuto de los "funcionarios industriales" del Estado. En la misma, Morató defiende la tesis de que los funcionarios de la banca estatal son funcionarios "especiales". El objetivo es refutar la tesis rival según la cual a los mismos debían ser clasificados como funcionarios públicos. En el lenguaje de Morató, las autonomías (que constituyen la forma de organizar la intervención del Estado en la economía) tienen una "razón histórica y una razón científica". Para Morató, la historia impuso nuevas funciones al Estado y en la asunción de las mismas fue necesario delegar ciertos aspectos en corporaciones especializadas con variables grados de libertad para decidir. En un principio hubo autonomía técnica, pero la misma no implicaba autonomía administrativa. En la Instrucción Pública, Facultades de Estudios Superiores, Caridad Pública, etc.; el Poder Ejecutivo era quien nombraba los empleados, fijaba los sueldos, etc. Con la evolución de estos institutos, algunos de ellos comienzan a adquirir grados más elevados de autonomía administrativa en la medida en que por razón de su función perciben algún tipo de renta independiente de los recursos del Estado. Sucesivamente se llega a la constitución de los entes con mayor grado de autonomía, siendo – en la visión de Morató- los bancos República e Hipotecario los únicos con autonomía"completa"."Todas las escalas de autonomía que he descrito, no han resultado de la concepción de un plan general, sino de la gravitación de hechos, en algunos casos, de la ratificación de situaciones especiales creadas por la participación del Estado en empresas de servicio general en otros y del instinto, más que de la visión clara de las conveniencias públicas, en las primeras autonomías creadas; luego, de una concepción superior perfectamente disciplinada, que presidió las confirmaciones que se hicieron, reafirmando la política económica, dentro del terreno práctico de las autonomías, al reorganizar ciertos institutos" (MORATÓ, 1943: 26).Destaca el éxito del modelo organizacional del BROU y cómo dicho éxito"constituyó el más grande y poderoso estímulo para que el Estado se propusiera, con seguridad de éxito, entrar de lleno a detentar la explotación de industrias que estaban en manos de particulares, ya creando privilegios, ya adquiriendo instituciones privilegiadas, u organizándolas sobre la base de monopolios o constituyéndolas en competencia con la industria privada" (MORATÓ, 1943: 14-15).La base de la razón científica estará en la división del trabajo y la especialización de funciones. "Todas estas corporaciones [los Consejos Directivos de los servicios descentralizados] se constituyeron con el fin de entregar una gran parte de la gestión o de las funciones del Estado, a elementos especializados o que se especializaran en ellas, aplicando así la conocida y provechosa fórmula de la división del trabajo. Los consejos o Comisiones tenían, y tienen todavía, autonomía en su función técnica, es decir: en la función primordial, que ha sido objeto o es de su constitución. Naturalmente, la autonomía técnica debía girar dentro de las líneas generales que sus leyes orgánicas habían delineado, pero dentro de ellas, autonomía al fin" (MORATÓ, 1943: 23).Para Morató, división y especialización de funciones encarnan la búsqueda de la"eficiencia" en la administración pública:"(…) del estudio del conjunto de todas esas leyes especiales [las Cartas Orgánicas]y de su comparación se descubre que los grados de autonomía han sido inspirados, en todo tiempo, por estas dos ideas directrices: división del trabajo y la especialización de funciones, como medio de obtener la 'eficiencia' en ciertos ramos de la administración pública; la autonomía es el modo de realizar esos propósitos" (MORATÓ, 1943: 26).Como consecuencia de esta manera de pensar, Morató reclama que la autonomía se considere en toda la extensión del vocablo una vez aprobado el artículo 100 de la Constitución (4): "autonomía de gestión; autonomía de administración, por lo menos dentro de las líneas generales que las leyes especiales que rigen cada instituto y que no han sido derogadas, les ha acordado" (MORATÓ, 1943: 21).4.1.2. La organización autonómica (o ente autónomo) no puede ser tratada como el resto de la administración públicaMorató identifica a la administración pública con el predominio del patronazgo político en el ingreso y en el desarrollo de la carrera administrativa. Esto involucra una forma de organización no científica, irracional, "desquiciada"fruto del manejo "político" de su estructura. Frente a este concepto contrapone el de organización autonómica como aquella en la que es posible poner en práctica la "disciplina científica de la administración". Esto último es producto del hecho de no estar vinculada orgánicamente "al virus disolutivo de la política" (MORATÓ, 1976: 370) y tener la posibilidad de experimentar libremente con diferentes métodos de organización tal como sucede en la empresa privada. Un claro indicador de esta diferenciación está en la contraposición del régimen del BROU (o de los entes autónomos en general) como excepcional frente al de la administración pública como "régimen vulgar". Otro indicador es la constante asimilación que hace Morató del régimen autonómico con el de la empresa privada. Hay dos amenazas que Morató intenta conjurar. Por un lado, el problema del status de los funcionarios de los entes autónomos. Si los funcionarios del BROU son considerados como funcionarios públicos dos problemas enfrentan los administradores del instituto. Primero, el problema de la inflexibilidad del régimen de funcionarios públicos (se pueden contratar libremente pero no despedir libremente). Segundo, el problema de la autoridad de los administradores frente a los funcionarios. Si el ingreso y la carrera están sujetos a la intermediación política, el instituto pierde autoridad frente a sus funcionarios. La otra amenaza que percibe Morató es la posibilidad de que se multipliquen los controles del gobierno sobre las decisiones de los directorios autónomos. Más posibilidad de control central implica, para Morató, enlentecer la toma de decisiones del instituto.En lo que respecta a los funcionarios de los entes industriales, defiende la"condición excepcional" de los funcionarios del Banco (lo cual implica que no pueden ser considerados funcionarios públicos). Justifica esta excepcionalidad en la idea de organización "científica", asimilable en su régimen de ingreso y carrera al de la empresa privada:"Los funcionarios de las industrias del Estado están regidos por reglamentos especiales, dictados por el Directorio de la institución a la cual sirven. Los Directorios resuelven inapelablemente, sobre la situación de los empleados sometidos a su autoridad. Los empleados públicos son agentes del Estado; como tales tienen su representación y autoridad dentro del puesto para el cual han sido nombrados. Los empleados de las industrias del Estado tienen carácter privado y, como las instituciones de que forman parte, están sometidos a las disposiciones del derecho común, como cualquier particular. Los funcionarios de los Bancos de Estado, se encuentran en una posición -de hecho y de derecho- más aproximada a la de los Bancos privados, que a la de los empleados civiles del Estado"(MORATÓ, 1943: 31).En lo que respecta a los controles centrales, Morató critica –durante los años de 1930- algunos institutos creados con el fin de aumentar dichos controles. Tal es el caso del Tribunal de Cuentas. Este organismo fue creado en 1934 con el fin de realizar la vigilancia y superintendencia en todo lo relativo a presupuestos y gestión de la Hacienda Pública (5). En dos ocasiones, Morató escribió acerca de las disposiciones que regían al Tribunal y cómo las mismas afectaban el normal desempeño de las funciones del Banco (octubre de 1934 y agosto de 1936). En noviembre de 1936 Morató redacta un Memorando en el cual reúne sus opiniones sobre el Tribunal y su actuación con relación al BROU. En los primeros dos años de funcionamiento del Tribunal habían surgido frecuentes discrepancias con el BROU en cuanto a la apreciación de problemas de orden técnico-contable y administrativos y sobre las maneras de resolverlos (MORATÓ, 1976: 524-525).4.1.3. Un ente autónomo busca la eficiencia de una empresa privada, pero no es una empresa privadaEn este punto, aparece el otro elemento central de la concepción de ente autónomo. Si bien hay una constante asimilación de la organización y administración a los preceptos seguidos en la empresa privada, un ente autónomo no es una empresa privada. Se orienta a la consecución del lucro, pero no exclusivamente. Y esto porque el ente autónomo es el lugar, por excelencia para Morató, del interés público, entendido como el interés nacional más allá de "la divisa". Cuando Morató trata la defensa de la autonomía presupuestaria del BROU hace especial énfasis en este aspecto:"El Banco de la República no es una institución únicamente comercial, es una institución de carácter público y de utilidad pública. Como institución comercial, consulta los resultados financieros de sus negocios, hasta donde le permite asegurar la permanente solvencia de la institución; como entidad de carácter público, es un formidable punto de apoyo de las finanzas nacionales, del crédito público, del servicio de la circulación monetaria y de la estabilidad de la moneda y del cambio internacional; y, en fin, en su función de servicio público, fomenta el ahorro nacional, organiza toda clase de facilidades que pone a disposición del Estado y de la población en las mejores condiciones de comodidad; atiende los intereses superiores de la producción, del comercio y de la industria, con la multiplicación y diversificación de los servicios administrativos, técnicos e informativos, con el propósito principal de servir esos intereses .[Por tanto] no puede decidirse sobre el peso de los gastos administrativos del Banco de la República, considerados desde el punto de vista comercial, exclusivamente". (MORATÓ, 1976: 121)Y, en tanto el BROU (como ente autónomo) es el locus del "interés público", Morató siempre tiende a identificar el interés del BROU con el "interés nacional".No sólo el Banco debe estar protegido –vía descentralización autonómica- del "virus disolutivo de la política", sino también de las"conveniencias financieras del Estado". Un texto que resume estos 3 aspectos clave de la concepción autonomista de Morató es "El pacto de los partidos tradicionales y sus consecuencias en el Banco de la República" (MORATÓ, 1976). En el mismo hay una dura crítica del autor sobre el "pacto del chinchulín" celebrado entre los representantes batllistas y blancos en el CNA (6. En dicho documento, Morató advierte que las consecuencias del pacto serán el comienzo del fin de la "esencia básica de la formación de los entes autónomos", y en particular el fin de un estilo de dirección a nivel del BROU:"La adhesión del Directorio a la fórmula del Consejo Nacional de Administración, significa:el renunciamiento a la autonomía administrativa, dejándola en manos del Consejo Nacional;la sumisión de los intereses del Banco y los del país, comprometidos también, a las conveniencias financieras del Estado, identificados ambos para hacer frente a las vicisitudes que el tiempo pueda depararle a éste;la destrucción de la organización administrativa, de fundamental importancia para instituciones como el Banco de la República, y su sustitución por el régimen vulgar de la administración pública, donde predominan, no las condiciones de preparación y capacidad, sino las ventajas de interés político. El ingreso a la institución y el ascenso, no serán ya concedidos al más apto; el mejor adaptado triunfará" (MORATÓ, 1976: 369-370).5. ConclusionesPara cerrar la reflexión planteada en la ponencia, quisiéramos destacar tres elementos referidos al pensamiento del actor burocrático en los años veinte y treinta del siglo pasado.En primer lugar, la fuerte compenetración entre el personal jerárquico de carrera de la institución y los Directorios del BROU en la defensa de los "fueros autonómicos" del instituto.En segundo lugar, la relevancia del actor burocrático al momento de asegurar la continuidad de los objetivos para los cuales fueron creados los entes autónomos. Un aspecto no menor cuando se piensa en continuidades a nivel institucional. Para Octavio Morató el problema que está detrás de los cuestionamientos a las libertades administrativas de los entes frente a la administración central, es el desconocimiento de las razones históricas por las cuales los entes fueron dotados de dichas libertades. Consciente de que el formato autonómico es una rareza tanto desde el punto de vista constitucional como de los valores de la sociedad uruguaya, justifica la autonomía por razones "científicas". Por eso, el lenguaje abstracto de la"correlación entre función, gestión y agente" debe interpretarse con cuidado. No se trata de retórica positivista. Es un recurso argumental esgrimido en un momento en el cual la discusión sobre la administración de los entes se producía en forma desconectada con el marco histórico en el cual surgieron los mismos. Por eso Morató describe primero el marco histórico para luego justificarlo en términos"científicos".Por último, la autopercepción del actor burocrático acerca de su rol en la administración. Morató veía al conjunto de los Entes Autónomos Industriales y Comerciales como un espacio privilegiado para la realización del interés público. La clave de esta posibilidad estaba en la autonomía administrativa ya que permitiría una administración independiente del interés partidario. En la visión de Morató un Directorio autónomo es un Directorio que decide en función de los intereses del BROU, a los cuales equipara con los intereses del país. Un Directorio"político", "con divisa", nombrado en base a razones políticas o acuerdos electorales tendría como consecuencia transformar al BROU en una "repartición del Estado, a la manera de una oficina pública, bajo un director que no tiene facultades, atribuciones, ni independencia ni otro criterio que aquel que le permite el pequeñísimo margen de los reglamentos administrativos dictados por el CNA" (MORATÓ, 1976: 371).(1) Carlos Quijano al revisar la actuación del Banco República en la política monetaria de los años veinte comenta: "En ese período de nuestra historia bancaria hay dos o tres presidentes del Banco que actúan con una gran autoridad moral, pero hay un hombre que actúa con gran autoridad técnica, no obstante la modestia de su vida, que es don Octavio Morató, a quien no se le ha hecho la justicia que merece". (QUIJANO, 1995: 266)(2) En el libro referido no se aclara quien fue el recopilador, pero con toda seguridad fue el hijo de Morató, el Dr. Octavio Morató Rodríguez. Fue éste quien desde 1971 se ocupó de realizar gestiones ante el Senado para la publicación de la obra (MORATÓ 1976: 5 – 8). Es razonable pensar que el hijo de Morató conocía de cerca las preocupaciones de su padre dado que nació en 1901, contando con 42 años a la muerte de su padre en 1943.(3) Ver Morató (1976), asuntos nº: 5, 8, 9, 24, 25, 30, 32, 46 y 48.(4) Esta misma postura defendió el directorio del BROU a lo largo de los años de 1920. También coincidieron hombres de los partidos políticos como Martín C. Martínez que veían en el excesivo celo "literalista" de algunos juristas una traba a la realización de todo el potencial de los entes autónomos.(5) El artículo 201 de la Constitución de 1934 prescribe: "La vigilancia en ejecución de los presupuestos y la función de contralor en toda gestión relativa a la Hacienda Pública, será de cargo del Tribunal de Cuentas de la República, que actuará con autonomía funcional, siendo de resorte de la ley que proyectará el mismo Tribunal, la reglamentación de su autonomía, así como la fijación de las atribuciones no especificadas en este capítulo".(6) Téngase presente al leer las críticas de Morató que él mismo era de extracción batllista. Esto habilita a formular la siguiente pregunta: ¿era Morató al final de su vida más un hombre político, un batllista, que un burócrata al servicio del Estado? *Profesor de Fundamentos de la Investigación Social, Métodos de investigación y Taller de Monografía.Depto de Estudios InternacionalesFACS – ORT Uruguay(ma.baudean@gmail.com). BIBLIOGRAFÍAABERBACH, J.; PUTNAM, R. ; ROCKMAN, B. 1981. Bureaucrats and politicians in western democracies. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.ACEVEDO, Eduardo. 1934. Anales históricos del Uruguay. Tomo IV. Montevideo: Barreiro y Ramos.Banco de la República Oriental del Uruguay [Raúl Montero Bustamante]. (s.f.) El Banco República en su Cincuentenario. Memoria Histórica (1896-1946). Montevideo: BROU.BARRÁN, J. P. 1998. El Apogeo del Uruguay pastoril y caudillesco. Montevideo: La República, EBO.BARRAN, J.P.; NAHUM, B. 1971. Historia Rural del Uruguay Moderno. Tomo II. Montevideo: EBO.BARRAN, J.P.; NAHUM, B. 1973. Historia Rural del Uruguay Moderno. 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IntroducciónLas sucesivas crisis fiscales que han acontecido en la problemática historia económica argentina han sido causadas principalmente por dos situaciones: la existencia de una desmesurada confianza que generaba burbujas (como la "crisis de progreso" de 1890) o una irresuelta puja distributiva que generaba déficit fiscales insostenibles (por ejemplo, 1975, 1989, 2001).Este trabajo hace hincapié en la segunda situación e intenta argumentar el inicio de las pujas distributivas irresueltas en el juego de suma cero que prosiguió a la incipiente articulación del proceso de industrialización argentino en la década del 20'.En primer lugar, debemos argumentar el comienzo del proceso de industrialización en los 20', detallando las visiones contrapuestas. En segundo lugar, debemos discutir por qué este proceso habría supuesto un juego de suma cero. En tercer lugar, intentaremos demostrar por qué, asumiendo la existencia de un juego de suma cero, eso necesariamente devendría causa de la volatilidad de los ciclos económicos argentinos y, eventualmente, de las sucesivas crisis fiscales.Por ende, primero debemos introducir brevemente el debate sobre las condiciones del proceso de industrialización en Argentina.La década del 20 y el proceso de industrialización¿Hay una relación analítica entre el juego de suma cero entre el sector agropecuario y el sector industrial y la sistemática presencia de crisis fiscales en la economía argentina? ¿Cuándo comienza el juego de suma cero entre el sector agropecuario y el sector industrial y cuál es la relación entre ese juego y las sucesivas crisis fiscales argentinas? Este trabajo intenta marcar la existencia de una relación analítica entre la oposición campo-industria y la acentuada volatilidad de los ciclos económicos argentinos.Si bien la literatura especializada había mencionado la década del 30' como el momento histórico donde se consolida la incipiente industria, contemporáneamente los historiadores han situado ese proceso mucho antes: según Fernando Rocchi, en la década final del siglo XIX pueden verse intentos de protección a industrias nacientes en el interior del país, como la vitivinícola en Mendoza y la caña de azúcar en Tucumán (1). Los grupos de interés se articulaban eficientemente para lograr cuotas y tarifas que impidieran el acceso al mercado doméstico de bienes producidos en el extranjero.Un trabajo muy influyente sobre el rol jugado por un proceso de industrialización tardío es "Las Etapas del Desarrollo Económico Argentino", donde Guido Di Tella y Manuel Zymelman desarrollan la teoría de la "gran demora". ¿En que consiste? En la supuesta incapacidad de los policy makers en ver que se agotaba un (largo) modelo y ciclo económico, siendo necesario empezar a pensar una nueva manera de insertarse en una economía mundial que iniciaba un proceso de cambio. Para los autores, se había alcanzado la frontera de producción agrícola y se necesitaba pensar un nuevo país basado en el desarrollo de una política industrial específica. Sin embargo, esta posición tiene demasiados problemas. Por un lado, supone un análisis ex post de los acontecimientos. Es decir, Di Tella y Zymelman exponen la supuesta incapacidad de los dirigentes para realizar un cambio de política desde la perspectiva que les daba conocer el futuro. A su vez, la teoría de la "gran demora" no se cuestiona por qué no se podía profundizar la frontera de producción agrícola, asumiendo que efectivamente se hubiera alcanzado. ¿Qué había hecho que los 20' reflejaran un límite para la expansión agrícola? ¿Por qué la economía argentina no habría podido lograr nuevas ganancias de productividad en el sector? (2).En cambio, Javier Villanueva critica la visión tradicional sobre el inicio de la industrialización en los 30´, producto de las dificultades que supuestamente habría generado la Gran Depresión. Según Villanueva, esa es una versión "olímpica", es decir, alejada del análisis detenido de los acontecimientos locales. El autor sostiene que la industria argentina había comenzado a despegar en los años 20´ como consecuencia de una incipiente política proteccionista. Villanueva considera acertada la implementación de este conjunto de políticas. Según Villanueva, "…puede observarse que la tasa de crecimiento de la actividad industrial es por lo menos igual o aun mayor para el periodo comprendido entre 1911-1929, que para el periodo 1929-1939…si lo que se somete a la observación es, no ya la tasa de crecimiento del sector mismo, sino de la participación porcentual en la producción total del país, las conclusiones son parecidas a las señaladas anteriormente…"(3).A su vez, sostiene que:Los datos del censo de 1946 sugieren la idea de que, en lo que se refiere a la creación de establecimientos industriales, con independencia de su tamaño, los años 20´ no resultaron menos fructíferos que los del 30´. En 1946 continuaban produciendo 9943 empresas de la cepa de 1926-1930 contra 9962 del periodo 1931-1935…La tasa de crecimiento más elevada de la inversión en el sector industrial corresponde a los años 1923-1929. Un examen de la inversión en equipos y maquinarias industrial contribuye a reafirmar lo expuesto en los párrafos anteriores: entre los años 1924 y 1930 se produce la más amplia inversión en el sector industrial hasta la segunda guerra mundial. (4)Podemos ver el siguiente cuadro elaborado por el autor:Producto Bruto Nacional: Sectores agrícola y manufactureroParticipación y aumento en la participación (1900 – 1950) Fuente: Javier Villanueva, "El origen de la industrialización argentina," Op. cit., [en línea] disponible enwww.educ.ar 7.Por su parte, Pablo Gerchunoff y Horacio Aguirre ven en la política económica de los 20' un antecedente del peronismo pero con apertura, es decir, salarios reales altos, un desarrollo industrial incipiente y un sector agro-ganadero con menor peso relativo. Para los autores The 1920s are thus placed as a "missing link" in Argentine economic history: it is a period that does not seem to carry with it distinct features of its own, but rather tends to be depicted as either the proto-history of economic stagnation or the epilogue of open-economy development…The fact that import prices retained during the 1920s part of their gains of the previous decade, gave way to conditions that favoured a 'spontaneous' kind of protection; in contrast, high export prices in the 1940s presented peronism with an opportunity to seize resources and allocate them to the industrial sector. Whereas the radical administrations would not break ties with the past in terms of identifying exports as the growth engine, and would thus take an attitude of 'benign neglect' towards industry, the peronist creed had industrial development as one of its pillars -and so would finance subsidies to industries with the trade surplus. It was 'market driven' industrialisation that took place in the 1920s, as opposed to active pro-industrial policies in the 1940s." (5)A partir de estas distintas posiciones que reflejan los historiadores económicos, podemos ver que la década del 20' no es el comienzo del proceso de industrialización argentino pero sí deviene como el periodo donde, sin saberlo los actores, se estaba alcanzando un punto en que la continuación exitosa del histórico modelo agro exportador necesitaría de inversiones importantes para mantener su eficiencia económica. En este sentido, la articulación de un sector industrial con capacidad para capturar rentas devenía no sólo un problema para el sector agropecuario sino para la economía en su conjunto.El comienzo de un proceso de industrialización no necesariamente tiene que generar juegos de suma cero con otros actores. ¿Por qué ello habría ocurrido en Argentina y cuales han sido sus características peculiares?Oposición campo - industria y juegos de suma ceroA partir de los aportes de los historiadores económicos, podemos reformular el problema: la década del 20' no significa el comienzo del proceso de industrialización argentino, sin embargo, puede significar el comienzo del juego de suma cero entre el sector agropecuario y el incipiente sector industrial. ¿Cuándo se dan los juegos de suma cero? Cuando hay dos o mas actores con la suficiente capacidad para generar y mantener un marco institucional donde uno captura sistemáticamente la mayor eficiencia de otro. Es importante notar que lo analíticamente relevante no es la existencia de un juego de suma cero sino la permanencia del mismo en el tiempo. Es decir, un problema atrae a analistas e historiadores no cuando sucede en un momento T1 sino cuando sigue sucediendo, sin solución de continuidad, en T2, T3, Tn. Así, lo que debemos responder es por qué se mantiene en el tiempo un marco donde un sector A es lo suficientemente productivo para ser sistemáticamente capturado y un sector B es lo suficientemente eficiente para capturar sistemáticamente a A.¿Por qué el juego de suma cero habría comenzado en los 20' y por que no había existido tal juego anteriormente? Como mencionamos, para la existencia de un juego de suma cero se necesitan al menos dos actores: uno que produzca los bienes que otro captura. Podemos pensar que antes de la década del 20' no estaban en la economía argentina suficientemente configurados los actores relevantes para la existencia de un juego de estas características. Es decir, el sector agropecuario expandía su producción y el mundo demandaba sus productos, mientras que por otro lado el sector industrial no era lo suficientemente articulado y poderoso como para capturar parte de las rentas agropecuarias. La década del 20 da comienzo a una particular economía política de la Argentina por la concatenación de estas características: 1) un sector agropecuario (relativamente) menos productivo que en el pasado, 2) un sector industrial en proceso de articulación y 3) una crisis en ciernes. ¿Cuál es la novedad analítica que nos provee la economía política de finales de los 20'? La existencia de un sector industrial con la capacidad de capturar la renta de un sector lo suficientemente productivo para ser capturado justo en el momento histórico donde acontecía una caída en la demanda de lo que producía dicho sector capturado y la economía mundial se adentraba en una Gran Depresión. ¿Es azarosa la aparición conjunta en el tiempo de un sector industrial con la capacidad de capturar y una economía que se avecinaba a la situación de un juego de suma cero? No necesariamente. Es posible que la mayor capacidad de captura se haya debido a la debilidad relativa que crecientemente mostraba el eficiente sector agropecuario argentino.El juego de suma cero que se avecinaba puede ser percibido en la siguiente definición de Gerchunoff y Llach:Mencionamos dos asimetrías. Una podría llamarse la asimetría sectorial; otra, la asimetría regional. La asimetría sectorial alude a la vasta brecha de productividad entre actividades primarias y secundarias. Como consecuencia de la escasa población y de la abundancia de tierra fértil (combinadas, al menos en un principio, con una mínima existencia de capital acumulado), la Argentina estuvo siempre muy bien preparada para producir alimentos. Esa ventaja absoluta para la elaboración de bienes primarios, resultado de la demografía y de la naturaleza, fue al mismo tiempo la fuente de la gran desventaja comparativa que siempre tuvo la Argentina para la producción industrial, que requería precisamente los factores menos abundantes, el trabajo y el capital. La relación entre abundancia de factores productivos y perfil productivo era visible para los observadores más agudos de la joven Argentina. Carlos Pellegrini presentaba en el Congreso de 1899 una versión rudimentaria del teorema Heckscher-Ohlin: "En la República Argentina es muy caro el capital y es muy cara la mano de obra, por ejemplo, mientras que hay otras naciones en que una y otra cosa son más baratas. En la República Argentina hay facilidades de otro orden, que no se encuentran en otros países. Una industria cualquiera que requiriera mucha mano de obra, sería una industria muy difícil de arraigar en la República Argentina, porque desde el principio tendría que luchar contra esta condición especial nuestra, que es la falta de mano de obra." (6) Podemos introducir la cuestión de la oposición campo-industria desde la perspectiva analítica que da la oposición campo-ciudad. Sostiene Varshney Ashutosh:A history of ideas on town-country struggles must start with the obvious fact that as economies develop and societies modernize, agriculture declines. Before the rise of industrial society, all societies were rural. If we look at the most industrialized societies of today, their agricultural sectors constitute less than five per cent of GDP. Contrariwise, in the poorest economies of the world, agriculture still accounts for anywhere between 30 to 65 per cent of GDP (World Bank, 1991: 208-9).(7)Así, si bien el autor se refiere a la problemática relación campo-ciudad en África, el desarrollo que hace nos sirve para Argentina:Using theories of collective action, Bates (1981) reformulated this argument. One can identify 3 steps in his argument. First, to extract resources for the treasury, city and industry, African states set prices that hurt the countryside. Second, by selectively distributing state largesse (subsidies and projects), African states divide up the countryside into supporters that benefit from state action and opponents who are deprived of state generosity, and are frequently punished. Such policy-induced splits pre-empt a united rural front. Third, independently of the divisive tactics of the state, rural collective action is difficult because (a) the agriculture sector is very large with each peasant having a small share of the product, and (b) it is dispersed, making communication difficult. The customary free-rider problem in such situations impedes collective action. Industry, on the other hand, is small and concentrated in the city, and the share of each producer in the market is large, making it worthwhile for each producer to organize."(8)A su vez, la asimétrica relación entre el campo y la industria depende en parte importante del grado de desarrollo de la economía en cuestión. Richard Peerlberg ha realizado una síntesis del problema en el American Journal of Agricultural Economics:Un excelente estudio para explicar por qué todos los países desarrollados tienden a proteger a los productores agropecuarios es un libro publicado por Anderson y Hayami. Los autores realizan una comparación de las variaciones nominales en la protección del sector agrícola (es decir, la ratio entre el precio interno y el externo) en 15 países, desarrollados y en vías de desarrollo, en el periodo 1955-80. Los autores encuentran que el 70% de estas variaciones en la protección nominal puede ser explicada, país por país, a través de la variación de los indicadores de urbanización e industrialización (indicadores como ratio tierra-trabajo y ratio productividad del trabajo agrícola versus productividad del trabajo industrial). Anderson y Hayami concluyen que, mas allá de la distintiva historia de un país, su cultura o instituciones, el nivel de protección para el sector agrícola tenderá a crecer junto a la industrialización, o más precisamente, cuando las ventajas comparativas de la agricultura decrecen. Así, en cuanto las ventajas comparativas se trasladan de la agricultura a la industria, el foco de la protección cambiará desde la industria a la agricultura. Anderson y Hayami estudian particularmente esta tendencia en Asia Oriental, donde países como Japón, Corea, y Taiwán han pasado dramáticamente de castigar impositivamente a proteger al agro, una vez que el rápido proceso de industrialización comenzó.(9)De la cita anterior surge un punto analítica y políticamente central para este trabajo: mientras en los países desarrollados la industrialización supuso un proceso donde se pasaba de castigar a proteger al sector agropecuario, la experiencia Argentina ha mostrado el camino inverso. El país "era desarrollado" cuando no se protegía al agro y comenzó a retrasarse (relativamente, en relación al ingreso per capita de los países ricos) cuando inició el supuesto proceso de industrialización. Es decir, este camino inverso refleja la asimétrica relación entre un sector agrícola altamente productivo y un sector industrial poco productivo. El siguiente gráfico refleja la decadencia relativa:Evolución relativa del ingreso por habitante de Argentina.Ingreso per cápita argentino como % del promedio entre Estados Unidos, Francia, Reino Unido, Italia, Alemania, Bélgica, Canadá, Australia, Nueva Zelanda y Brasil. Fuente: Pablo Gerchunoff y Lucas Llach, Ved en Trono a la Noble Igualdad, Op. cit., 8.Juegos de suma cero y repetición de crisisDurante la crisis y post crisis de 1929 es cuando comienza a consolidarse el juego de suma cero que se institucionaliza en la estable puja distributiva que impone el primer peronismo. La influencia que la Gran Depresión ha tenido en la economía política de la Argentina no puede subestimarse. Tanto la Gran Depresión como el primer peronismo son variables centrales para entender por qué acontece una puja distributiva de baja calidad institucional, que se consolida en el tiempo independientemente de las sucesivas crisis fiscales que ayuda a provocar. Podemos ver los siguientes indicadores:La depresión del comercio argentino:exportaciones e importaciones durante la crisis Fuente: Pablo Gerchunoff y Lucas Llach, El ciclo de la ilusión y el desencanto: Un siglo de políticas económicas argentinas (Buenos Aires: Ariel, 1998), 114. (De aquí en adelante: Pablo Gerchunoff y Lucas Llach, El ciclo de la ilusión y el desencanto)¿Cuáles son las nuevas variables que aparecen con la Gran Depresión? La principal variable que genera la crisis es una ola proteccionista. Una segunda variable, relacionada con la primera, es la incipiente consolidación de la Industrialización por Sustitución de Importaciones (ISI), modelo económico-político que es institucionalizado por el primer peronismo. Una crisis puede tener la particularidad de generar incentivos económicos e institucionales anteriormente inexistentes. Sin embargo, lo relevante de la crisis del 29' para la economía política de la Argentina ha sido contribuir a generar nuevos incentivos que se fueron consolidando con las sucesivas crisis. Es decir, es un dato analítico inusual que las posteriores crisis fiscales hayan contribuido a institucionalizar un patrón de captura en vez de generar incentivos para al menos intentar modificar la economía política del estancamiento.La crisis del 29' nos provee también indicadores comparados:Un mundo en crisis:Caída máxima del producto en tiempos de la Depresión (%) Fuente: Gerchunoff, Pablo y Llach, Lucas, El ciclo de la ilusión y el desencanto, Op. cit., 119.Como mencionamos, podemos ver que la puja distributiva que comienza en el juego de suma cero de finales de los 20's se consolida durante el primer peronismo(10): Fuente: elaboración propia con datos provistos en CD con estadísticas de Gerardo Della Paolera y Alan Taylor,A New Economic History of Argentina (EEUU: Cambridge University Press, 2003): Nominal Wage Index (IEERAL (1986) and Mundlak, Cavallo and Domenech (1989)) (De aquí en adelante: Gerardo Della Paolera y Alan Taylor, A New Economic History of Argentina)La puja distributiva también queda reflejada en el Índice de Precios al Consumidor: Fuente: elaboración propia con datos provistos en CD con estadísticas de Gerardo Della Paolera y Alan Taylor,A New Economic History of Argentina, Op. cit.Por otro lado, podemos ver como después de la Gran Depresión los salarios del sector agropecuario se recuperan en parte, para volver a caer con la llegada del primer peronismo. En cambio, los salarios del sector industrial permanecen en una meseta durante la Depresión, para alcanzar un aumento notable con la llegada del peronismo: Fuente: elaboración propia con datos provistos en CD con estadísticas de Gerardo Della Paolera y Alan Taylor,A New Economic History of Argentina, Op. cit.Por último, es necesario mostrar la discriminación al campo que se consolida e institucionaliza con el primer peronismo:La discriminación al campo(Base 1925-1929 = 100) Fuente: Gerchunoff, Pablo y Llach, Lucas, El ciclo de la ilusión y el desencanto, Op. cit., 189.¿Por qué habría una relación entre el juego de suma cero planteado y la repetición de las crisis fiscales en Argentina? Como mencionamos, la década del 20 contribuyó a consolidar un proceso de industrialización de baja calidad. En ese marco, el problema no sólo era la mala calidad de la industrialización sino el momento histórico donde ello acontecía. Cuando más se necesitaban recursos para producir nuevas ganancias de productividad en el sector agropecuario argentino, comenzaba una eficiente captura por parte de un nuevo actor. Esta sistemática captura puede ejemplificarse en la aparición de la Junta Nacional de Granos en 1935 y en las políticas distributivas implementadas por el primer peronismo(11). Sin embargo, aquí el punto analítico principal es que el juego de suma cero se institucionaliza con el primer peronismo, y las sucesivas crisis fiscales son incapaces de generar incentivos como para modificar la captura en marcha.A partir de la cita anterior de Astoney Vahsney, podemos pensar que la complejidad de la experiencia argentina se debe en parte a la existencia de un proceso de industrialización donde el perjudicado es el sector agropecuario y el protegido es precisamente un sector industrial con bajos índices de productividad. Siguiendo esta lógica, es posible ver que la mala calidad del proceso de industrialización argentino institucionaliza un marco estable de captura porque el sector eficiente es también el más atomizado políticamente. Así, las sucesivas crisis fiscales reflejan la existencia de una irresuelta puja distributiva. Esta particular economía política de la captura puede ayudarnos a articular una explicación sobre la estabilidad del estancamiento.El juego de suma cero supone la existencia de cierta ineficiencia económica y esta a su vez supone la posibilidad de un sector público que gasta por encima de sus ingresos. A su vez, eso genera una crisis. Sin embargo, esa crisis fiscal no necesariamente supone una cesación de pagos. Della Paolera, Irigoin y Bózzoli hacen hincapié en un punto analíticamente central: para ellos, los problemas de incumplimiento del sector público argentino no tienen que medirse sólo en relación al default de bonos de la deuda sino al default interno que significa la desvalorización de la moneda local debido a la inflación causada por la excesiva monetización. La impresión de moneda local es una deuda que el Estado contrae con sus ciudadanos y la monetización de los déficits es, para los autores, una manera de incumplir con las obligaciones asumidas. Es decir, no sólo se pueden violar los derechos de propiedad a través de la cesación de pagos de bonos de la deuda publica sino también a través de la cesación de pagos de hecho que significa la impresión de moneda que genera procesos inflacionarios. En palabras de los autores:As was the case prior to 1850s, currency issue was the ultimate recourse taken to meet the fiscal gap. This was the result of the government's capacity to influence the authorities in charge of monetary policymaking. Eventually, excessive monetary expansion led to inflation and allowed the government to repudiate some of its liabilities. Because inflation diminished the real value of money, the monetization of the fiscal deficit acted as a progressive expropriation of domestic currency held by private agents, i.e., it acted as an inflation tax. This permanent erosion in the purchasing power of the public's cash holdings had dramatic consequences. Over time, this repeatedly used device reached extreme proportions: on a percentage basis, increases in the fiscal deficit were often met one-for-one with increases in inflation tax…The use of monetization to finance persistent fiscal deficits was one of the main problems of the Argentine economy in the second half of the 20th century. (12)Las crisis económicas pueden reflejarse en incumplimientos en el pago de bonos pero también en el valor de la moneda local. El sector público argentino ha sistemáticamente monetizado sus déficits y generado así ganadores y perdedores. Sin embargo, lo destacable del proceso ha sido la dificultad para modificar el patrón de captura. Es decir, una pregunta central que debe responder la historia económica no es la existencia de una puja distributiva sino la irresuelta permanencia de la misma. En este trabajo hemos intentado marcar que esa irresuelta permanencia se ha debido en parte a la compleja e inusual relación dada en un país que elige para modernizarse depender de la eficiencia del sector agropecuario. A su vez, ello no sólo generó la existencia de un juego de suma cero sino la estabilidad de ese juego. La razón de la estabilidad hay que buscarla en la lógica de la acción colectiva: el incipiente sector industrial no sólo era ineficiente económicamente sino que se encontraba en una relación de poder asimétrica y ventajosa con el crecientemente desarticulado sector agropecuario, situación que contribuyó a institucionalizar el juego de suma cero incluso ante la sucesión de crisis fiscales.Consideraciones finales¿En qué medida el incipiente proceso de industrialización en marcha en los años 20' potenció un juego de suma cero entre el campo y la industria y, al hacerlo, ha contribuido a generar diversos ciclos de expansión populista que, dado su volatilidad, ayudaron a consolidar un marco institucional de sucesivas crisis? Es decir, ¿potencian los juegos de suma cero la volatilidad de los ciclos económicos?En el presente trabajo hemos intentado marcar una relación entre el juego de suma cero del campo y la industria y la volatilidad de los ciclos económicos en Argentina a partir de la institucionalización de la captura. ¿Cuál ha sido la particularidad de la economía política de la Argentina? Posiblemente, que la captura ha sido estable debido a que el proceso de modernización supuso la protección para la industria y no para el campo. Esto hizo estable la captura y una captura estable devino en sucesivas crisis fiscales que, a su vez, no podían generar un cambio posterior en los incentivos institucionales.La volatilidad del ciclo económico argentino ha sido producto en parte de la mala calidad de la puja distributiva. Una puja distributiva es de mala calidad cuando se institucionaliza una captura de un actor sobre otro y las sucesivas crisis (de mayor o menor volatilidad) no pueden modificar los incentivos. Si bien podemos enumerar decenas de pujas distributivas que permanecen en la misma dinámica, sin solución de continuidad, debemos preguntarnos qué tiene de distintivo la puja que surge con el proceso de industrialización. Lo distintivo es la concatenación con la Gran Depresión y la necesidad de desarrollar importantes inversiones en un sector agropecuario que debía competir con un mundo crecientemente protegido pero competitivo. A su vez, la mala calidad de la industrialización argentina se concatena con una eficiente articulación política del sector urbano-industrial. Asimismo, el peronismo institucionaliza este mecanismo y hace que la puja distributiva que había nacido fuera de difícil modificación incluso después de sucesivas y profundas crisis fiscales. BibliografíaDella Paolera, Gerardo y Alan Taylor. A New Economic History of Argentina. EEUU: Cambridge University Press, 2003.Di Tella, Guido y Manuel Zymelman. Las etapas del desarrollo económico argentino. Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 1967. Díaz Alejandro, Carlos. Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970.Gerchunoff, Pablo y Horacio Aguirre. In Search of the Missing Link: the Argentine Economy in the 1920s. Mimeo. Buenos Aires: Universidad Di Tella, 2003. Gerchunoff, Pablo y Damián Antúnez. "De la bonanza peronista a la crisis del desarrollo." En Los Años Peronistas, Vol VIII de la Nueva Historia Argentina, ed. Juan Carlos Torre, 125-205. Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 2002.Gerchunoff, Pablo y Lucas Llach. El ciclo de la ilusión y el desencanto. Buenos Aires: Ariel, 1998.Gerchunoff, Pablo y Llach, Lucas. Ved en Trono a la noble igualdad. Crecimiento, equidad y política económica en la Argentina, 1880-2003. Buenos Aires: Fundación Pent, 2003.Paarlberg, Robert. "The Political Economy of American Agricultural Policy: Three Approaches." The American Journal of Agricultural Economics71 (diciembre 1989): 1157-1164. [en línea] disponible en http://chla.library.cornell.edu.Rocchi, Fernando. Building a Nation, Building a Market: Industrial Growth and the Domestic Economy in Turn-of-the- Century Argentina. PhD dissertation. Santa Barbara: UC Santa Barbara, 1997.Varshney, Ashutosh. "Introduction: Urban Bias in Perspective." Journal of Development Studies 29 (julio 1993): 3-22.Villanueva, Javier. "El origen de la industrialización argentina." Desarrollo Económico 47 (oct-dic 1972): 1-24. [en línea] disponible en www.educ.ar.NOTAS(1) Ver Fernando Rocchi, Building a Nation, Building a Market: Industrial Growth and the Domestic Economy in Turn-of-the-Century Argentina. Ph.D. dissertation (Santa Barbara: UC-Santa Barbara, 1997).(2) Ver Guido Di Tella y Manuel Zymelman, Las etapas del desarrollo económico argentino (Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 1967).(3) Javier Villanueva, "El origen de la industrialización argentina," Revista de Desarrollo Económico 47 (oct-dic 1972): 4. [en línea] disponible en www.educ.ar. (De aquí en adelante: Javier Villanueva, "El origen de la industrialización argentina").(4) Javier Villanueva, "El origen de la industrialización argentina," Op. cit., [en línea] disponible enwww.educ.ar 6.(5) Pablo Gerchunoff y Horacio Aguirre, In Search of the Missing Link: the Argentine Economy in the 1920s.Mimeo (Buenos Aires: Universidad Di Tella, 2003), 1 y 20. El investigador Carlos Díaz Alejandro desacredita la posibilidad de la década del 20´ como un punto de inflexión. El historiador económico cubano demuestra que las tasas de crecimiento continuaban siendo elevadas y superiores a la tasa promedio de los países principales. Ver la clásica obra: Carlos Díaz Alejandro, Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970).(6) Pablo Gerchunoff y Lucas Llach, Ved en Trono a la Noble Igualdad. Crecimiento, Equidad y Política Económica en la Argentina: 1880-2003 (Buenos Aires: Fundación Pent, 2003), 3. (De aquí en adelante: Pablo Gerchunoff y Lucas Llach, Ved en Trono a la Noble Igualdad).(7) Ashutosh Varshney, "Introduction: Urban Bias in Perspective," Journal of Development Studies 29 (julio 1993): 7. (De aquí en adelante: Ashutosh Varshney, "Introduction: Urban Bias in Perspective")(8) Ashutosh Varshney, "Introduction: Urban Bias in Perspective," Op. cit.: 7.(9) Robert Paarlberg, "The Political Economy of American Agricultural Policy: Three Approaches," The American Journal of Agricultural Economics 71 (diciembre 1989): 1158. [en línea] disponible en http://chla.library.cornell.edu.(10) Tomando en cuenta la mayor participación del sector industrial en el Producto Bruto Nacional, especificado anteriormente en el cuadro de Javier Villanueva titulado "Producto Bruto Nacional: Sectores agrícola y manufacturero".(11) Ver Pablo Gerchunoff y Damián Antúnez, "De la bonanza peronista a la crisis del desarrollo," en Los Años Peronistas, vol VIII de la Nueva Historia Argentina, ed. Juan Carlos Torre, (Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 2002).(12) Gerardo Della Paolera, María Alejandra Irigoin y Carlos G. Bózzoli, "Passing the buck: Monetary and fiscal policies," en A New Economic History of Argentina, ed. Gerardo Della Paolera y Alan Taylor (EEUU: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 72-73. A su vez, Della Paolera y Taylor desarrollan la relación entre moneda y baja calidad institucional en Gerardo Della Paolera y Alan Taylor, Straining at the Anchor (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2001). *Licenciada en Relaciones Internacionales (Universidad Torcuato Di Tella-Argentina), maestrando en Arquitectura Urbana (Universidad Di Tella-Argentina)Ha sido Profesora Adjunta en Historia Economica (Universidad Di Tella-Argentina)
v. 750. V -- Vallejo L -- v. 751. Vallejo M -- Vans -- v. 752. Vänt -- Vážn -- v. 753. Vazo -- Venezuela Com -- v. 754. Venezuela Con -- Vereim -- v. 755. Verein -- Vers L -- v. 756. Vers M -- Victor M -- v. 757. Victor O -- Vigd -- v. 758. Vige -- Vinea -- v. 759. Vineb -- Vision R -- v. 760. Vision S -- Voice C -- v. 761. Voice D -- Voso -- v. 762. Vosp -- Vz -- v. 763. W -- Wagner, Richard A -- v. 764. Wagner, Richard B -- Walker, William F -- v. 765. Walker, William G -- Walz -- v. 766. Wam -- Ward A -- v. 767. Ward B -- Warsh -- v. 768. Warsi -- Waso -- v. 769. Wasp -- Water Supply Engineering B -- v. 770. Water Supply Engineering C -- Weak -- v. 771. Weal -- Wedk -- v. 772. Wedl -- Welc -- v. 773. Weld -- Wenzel R -- v. 774. Wenzel S -- West Virginia I -- v. 775. West Virginia J -- Whare -- v. 776. Wharf -- White E -- v. 777. White F -- Whittier L -- v. 778. Whittier M -- Wijg -- v. 779. Wijh -- William B -- v. 780. William C -- Willis S -- v. 781. Willis T -- Wimh -- v. 782. Wimi -- Winters G -- v. 783. Winters H -- Wit and Humor, American R -- v. 784. Wit and Humor, American S -- Woh -- v. 785. Woi -- Woman-Employment-U.S.T -- v. 786. Woman-Employment-U.S.U -- Wood G -- v. 787. Wood H -- Woold -- v. 788. Woole -- World Politics, 1919- T -- v. 789. World Politics, 1919- U -- World War, 1939-1945 EC -- v. 790. World War, 1939-1945 ED -- World War, 1939-1945 Ph -- v. 791. World War, 1939-1945 Pi -- World War, 1939-1945 Regional C -- v. 792. World War, 1939-1945 Regional D -- Wright G -- v. 793. Wright H -- Wz -- v. 794. X -- Yeast V -- v. 795. Yeast W -- Young C -- v. 796. Young D -- Yz -- v. 797. Z -- Zehn J -- v. 798. Zehn K -- Zimmerman C -- v. 799. Zimmerman D -- Zoology A -- v. 800. Zoology B -- Zy. ; v. 730. U -- Underdeveloped Areas A -- v. 731. Underdeveloped Areas B -- Union of South Africa So -- v. 732. Union of South Africa Sp -- United States Adu -- v. 733. United States Adv -- United States Army R -- v. 734. United States Army S -- United States Commerce C -- v. 735. United States Commerce D -- United States Division S -- v. 736. United States Division T -- United States Foreign Relations R -- v. 737. United States Relations S -- United States Historic -- v. 738. United States History -- United States History-Revolution-Poetry S -- v. 739. United States History-Revolution-Poetry T -- United States History-Civil War-Military-Regimental History L -- v. 740. United States History-Civil War-Military-Regimental History M -- United States History-Yearbooks -- v. 741. United States Ho -- United States Justice Department Ac -- v. 742. United States Justice Department Ad -- United States National Aeronautic and Space Administration R -- v. 743. United States National Aeronautic and Space Administration S -- United States Politics, 1865-1897 J -- v. 744. United States Politics, 1865-1897 K -- United States Rac -- v. 745. United States Rad -- United States State Department P -- v. 746. United States State Department Q -- United States War Information Office A -- v. 747. United States War Information Office B -- Université S -- v. 748. Université T -- Urban O -- v. 749. Urban P -- Uz. ; v. 703. T -- Tall -- v. 704. Talm -- Tariff I -- v. 705. Tariff J -- Taxation-Jurisprudence F -- v. 706. Taxation-Jurisprudence G -- Taylor Jer -- v. 707. Taylor Jes -- Tecn -- v. 708. Teco -- Television C -- v. 709. Television D -- Tena -- v. 710. Tenb -- Tess -- v. 711. Test -- Textile Machinery S -- v. 712. Textile Machinery T -- Their -- v. 713. Theis -- Thern -- v. 714. Thero -- Thomas V -- v. 715. Thomas W -- Thorpe B -- v. 716. Thorpe C -- Tidev -- v. 717. Tidew -- Tires -- v. 718. Tiret -- Tokio G -- v. 719. Tokio H -- Torl -- v. 720. Torm -- Towards E -- v. 721. Towards F -- Trade Unions G -- v. 722. Trade Unions H -- Transcendentalism B -- v. 723. Transcendentalism C -- Treason-Trials H -- v. 724. Treason-Trials I -- Trial -- v. 725. Triam -- Trotzky, Lev G -- v. 726. Trotzky, Lev H -- Tube R -- v. 727. Tube S -- Turin C -- v. 728. Turin D -- Tuw -- v. 729. Tux -- Tz. ; v. 636. S -- Safe -- v. 637. Saff -- Saint Louis G -- v. 638. Saint Louis H -- Saler -- v. 639. Sales -- Salvation Army R -- v. 640. Salvation Army S -- Sanchez L -- v. 641. Sanchez M -- Sans -- v. 642. Sant -- Sarl -- v. 643. Sarm -- Savar -- v. 644. Savas -- Schaa -- v. 645. Schab -- Schid -- v. 646. Schie -- Schmidt B -- v. 647. Schmidt C -- Scholl S -- v. 648. Scholl T -- Schopf E -- v. 649. Schopf F -- Schulze F -- v. 650. Schulze G -- Science Col -- v. 651. Science Com -- Scoa -- v. 652. Scob -- Scott -- v. 653. Scotu -- Seals and Seal Fisheries C -- v. 654. Seals and Seal Fisheries D -- Sedl -- v. 655. Sedm -- Sell -- v. 656. Selm -- Sericulture A -- v. 657. Sericulture B -- Sever G -- v. 658. Sever H -- Shakers L -- v. 659. Shakers M -- Shakespeare A -- v. 660. Shakespeare B -- Sheldon S -- v. 661. Sheldon T -- Shipping G -- v. 662. Shipping H -- Shórn -- v. 663. Shoro -- Shrub -- v. 664. Shruc -- Sigg -- v. 665. Sigh -- Simek -- v. 666. Simel -- Singing Q -- v. 667. Singing R -- Skinner B -- v. 668. Skinner C -- Slavs B -- v. 669. Slavs C -- Smith A -- v. 670. Smith B -- Smith, William A -- v. 671. Smith, William B -- Social D -- v. 672. Social E -- Socialism, 1923-1933 H -- v. 673. Socialism, 1923-1933 I -- Societe Al -- v. 674. Société AM -- Societies R -- v. 675. Societies S -- Sociology T -- v. 676. Sociology U -- Solís -- v. 677. Solit -- Sonh -- v. 678. Soni -- Sousa A -- v. 679. Sousa B -- Southgate V -- v. 680. Southgate W -- Spain-Foreign Relations F -- v. 681. Spain-Foreign Relations G -- Spanish America-History-to 1600 -- v. 682. Spanish America-History-after 1600 -- Speech O -- v. 683. Speech P -- Spirit F -- v. 684. Spirit G -- Spuc -- v. 685. Spud -- Stage-France O -- v. 686. Stage-France P -- Stanford R -- v. 687. Stanford S -- Statement F -- v. 688. Statement G -- Sted -- v. 689. Stee -- Stel -- v. 690. Stem -- Stevenson I -- v. 691. Stevenson J -- Stockholders F -- v. 692. Stockholders G -- Storg -- v. 693. Storh -- Straus D -- v. 694. Straus E -- Struc -- v. 695. Strud -- Stuer -- v. 696. Stues -- Sueb -- v. 697. Suec -- Summ -- v. 698. Sumn -- Surim -- v. 699. Surin -- Swan H -- v. 700. Swan I -- Swey -- v. 701. Swez -- Symbolism in Architecture R -- v. 702. Symbolism in Architecture S -- Sz. ; v. 603. Q -- Quek -- v. 604. Quel -- Qw -- v. 605. R -- Radio in Politics B -- v. 606. Radio in Politics C -- Railways Ab -- v. 607. Railways Ac -- Railways D -- v. 608. Railways E -- Rak -- v. 609. Ral -- Rape -- v. 610. Rapf -- Raymond V -- v. 611. Raymond W -- Recei -- v. 612. Récéj -- Reed V -- v. 613. Reed W -- Régim -- v. 614. Regin -- Reiner I -- v. 615. Reiner J -- Religion I -- v. 616. Religion J -- Rentm -- v. 617. Rentn -- Retail Trade R -- v. 618. Retail Trade S -- Revue S -- v. 619. Revue T -- Rhodesia, Northern L -- v. 620. Rhodesia, Northern M -- Richl -- v. 621. Richm -- Rihs -- v. 622. Riht -- Ritter C -- v. 623. Ritter D -- Roads-U.S.M -- v. 624. Roads-U.S.N -- Robinson J -- v. 625. Robinson K -- Rodrigues G -- v. 626. Rodrigues H -- Rolfe F -- v. 627. Rolfe G -- Rome (City)-P -- v. 628. Rome (City)-Q -- Rord -- v. 629. Rore -- Ross C -- v. 630. Ross D -- Rousseau L -- v. 631. Rousseau M -- Roźd -- v. 632. Roze -- Rul -- v. 633. Rum -- Russia Ar -- v. 634. Russia As -- Russia-Social Conditions, 1917 K -- v. 635. Russia-Social Conditions, 1917 L -- Rz. ; v. 548. P -- Pagg -- v. 549. Pagh -- Paintings-Collections R -- v. 550. Paintings-Collections S -- Paleography L -- v. 551. Paleography M -- Palmer K -- v. 552. Palmer L -- Pann -- v. 553. Pano -- Pap -- v. 554. Paq -- Paris E -- v. 555. Paris F -- Parkh -- v. 556. Parki -- Parties, Political D -- v. 557. Parties, Political E -- Patd -- v. 558. Paté -- Paul J -- v. 559. Paul K -- Pearce C -- v. 560. Pearce D -- Pei -- v. 561. Pej -- Pennsylvania F -- v. 562. Pennsylvania G -- Pén [i.e. Pénz] -- v. 563. Peo -- Periodicals C -- v. 564. Periodicals D -- Periodicals-U.S.I -- v. 565. Periodicals-U.S.J -- Persia C -- v. 566. Persia D -- Peru -- v. 567. Perv -- Petri R -- v. 568. Petri S -- Pfeiffer E -- v. 569. Pfeiffer F -- Philip G -- v. 570. Philip H -- Philology S -- v. 571. Philology T -- Phok -- v. 572. Phol -- Phrom -- v. 573. Phron -- Picb -- v. 574. Picc -- Pik -- v. 575. Pil -- Pioneer Life-U.S.V -- v. 576. Pioneer Life-U.S.W -- Pittsburgh S -- v. 577. Pittsburgh T -- Plas -- v. 578. Plat -- Plup -- v. 579. Pluq -- Poetry, American A -- v. 580. Poetry, American B -- Poetry, American Wis -- v. 581. Poetry, American, Wit -- Poetry, Dutch S -- v. 582. Poetry, Dutch T -- Poetry, English, Hist. & Crit., 20th Cent. C -- v. 583. Poetry, English, Hist. & Crit., 20th Cent. D -- Poetry, Hungarian A -- v. 584. Poetry, Hungarian, B -- Poetry, Spanish P -- v. 585. Poetry, Spanish Q -- Poland F -- v. 586. Poland G -- Polish Literature, Hist. & Crit. O -- v. 587. Polish Literature, Hist. & Crit. P -- Polska Akademja Umiejetnosci A -- v. 588. Polska Akademja Umiejetnosci B -- Popar -- v. 589. Popas -- Portrait S -- v. 590. Portrait T -- Postage Stamps R -- v. 591. Postage Stamps S -- Poula -- v. 592. Poulb -- Pram -- v. 593. Pran -- Press, Liberty of H -- v. 594. Press, Liberty of I -- Prier -- v. 595. Pries -- Printing G -- v. 596. Printing H -- Privies N -- v. 597. Privies O -- Proj -- v. 598. Prok -- Protection V -- v. 599. Protection W -- Prussia-History-Frederick II C -- v. 600. Prussia-History-Frederick II D -- Psyk -- v. 601. Psyl -- Puli -- v. 602. Pulj -- Pyz. ; v. 509. N -- Nan -- v. 510. Nao -- Nash -- v. 511. Nasi -- National C -- v. 512. National D -- National Sh -- v. 513. National Si -- Natural History R -- v. 514. Natural History S -- Naval E -- v. 515. Naval F -- Navy R -- v. 516. Navy S -- Ned -- v. 517. Nee -- Neh -- v. 518. Nei -- Netherlands (Kingdom, 1815- ) O -- v. 519. Netherlands (Kingdom, 1815- ) P -- Neud -- v. 520. Neue -- New England D -- v. 521. New England E -- New K -- v. 522. New L -- New York (city) B -- v. 523. New York (city) C -- New York (city) L -- v. 524. New York (city) M -- New York N -- v. 525. New York O -- New York (state) H -- v. 526. New York (state) I -- New Zealand C -- v. 527. New Zealand D -- Newspapers E -- v. 528. Newspapers F -- Nicol -- v. 529. Nicom -- Ninn -- v. 530. Nino -- Nole -- v. 531. Nolf -- North Am -- v. 532. North An -- Northwestern O -- v. 533. Northwestern P -- Noth -- v. 534. Notti -- Numismatics C -- v. 535. Numismatics D -- Nz -- v. 536. O -- Occupations C -- v. 537. Occupations D -- Oese -- v. 538. Oesf -- Ohio H -- v. 539. Ohio I -- Old L -- v. 540. Old M -- Omaha R -- v. 541. Omaha S -- Oor -- v. 542. Oos -- Oratory R -- v. 543. Oratory S -- Organic R -- v. 544. Organic S -- Orrego L -- v. 545. Orrego M -- Ostl -- v. 546. Ostm -- Outs -- v. 547. Outt -- Oz. ; v. 450. M -- Mccol -- v. 451. Mccom -- Mcgrad -- v. 452. Mcgrae -- Mackenzie G -- v. 453. Mackenzie H -- Macq -- v. 454. Macr -- Maga -- v. 455. Magb -- Maic -- v. 456. Maid -- Malat -- v. 457. Malau -- Maml -- v. 458. Mamm -- Mana -- v. 459. Manb -- Mannk -- v. 460. Mannl -- Many -- v. 461. Manz -- Marc -- v. 462. Mard -- Maris -- v. 463. Marit -- Marriage F -- v. 464. Marriage G -- Martens E -- v. 465. Martens F -- Martr -- v. 466. Marts -- Masc -- v. 467. Masd -- Massachusetts I -- v. 468. Massachusetts J -- Mathematics K -- v. 469. Mathematics L -- Matthews D -- v. 470. Matthews E -- Max -- v. 471. May -- Meb -- v. 472. Mec -- Medic -- v. 473. Medid -- Mej -- v. 474. Mek -- Memory R -- v. 475. Memory S -- Meq -- v. 476. Mer -- Merv -- v. 477. Merw -- Meteorology C -- v. 478. Meteorology D -- Metropolitan M -- v. 479. Metropolitan N -- Mexico G -- v. 480. Mexico H -- Meyk -- v. 481. Meyl -- Mich -- v. 482. Mici -- Mikn -- v. 483. Mikó -- Military L -- v. 484. Military M -- Milla -- v. 485. Millb -- Milton L -- v. 486. Milton M -- Mines and Mining G -- v. 487. Mines and Mining H -- Mirac -- v. 488. Mirad -- Missions, Foreign E -- v. 489. Missions, Foreign F -- Mitb -- v. 490. Mitc -- Modn -- v. 491. Modo -- Moll -- v. 492. Molm -- Money F -- v. 493. Money G -- Monof -- v. 494. Monog -- Monteiro L -- v. 495. Monteiro M -- Mónu -- v. 496. Monv -- Mord -- v. 497. More -- Morl -- v. 498. Morm -- Morse E -- v. 499. Morse F -- Motd -- v. 500. Mote -- Mountaineering M -- v. 501. Mountaineering N -- Moving Pictures R -- v. 502. Moving Pictures S -- Mufs -- v. 503. Muft -- Municipal C -- v. 504. Municipal D -- Murk -- v. 505. Murl -- Music B -- v. 506. Music C -- Music T -- v. 507. Music U -- Mutt -- v. 508. Mutu -- Mz. ; v. 414. L -- Labor G -- v. 415. Labor H -- Labour Party, Gt. Br. D -- v. 416. Labour Party, Gt. Br. E -- Lagd -- v. 417. Lage -- Lamm -- v. 418. Lamn -- Land, Public-U.S.N -- v. 419. Land, Public-U.S.O -- Lang O -- v. 420. Lang P -- Lapk -- v. 421. Lapl -- Latg -- v. 422. Lath -- Latth -- v. 423. Latti -- Law S -- v. 424. Law T -- Law, Maritime A -- v. 425. Law, Maritime B -- Leadh -- v. 426. Leadi -- Lebn -- v. 427. Lebo -- Lefk -- v. 428. Lefl -- Lehm -- v. 429. Lehn -- Lenc -- v. 430. Lend -- Leroy E -- v. 431. Leroy F -- Letters E -- v. 432. Letters F -- Levn -- v. 433. Levo -- Liberalism K -- v. 434. Liberalism L -- Libraries (Place) N -- v. 435. Libraries (Place) O -- Lich -- v. 436. Lici -- Lighthouses H -- v. 437. Lighthouses I -- Lincoln A -- v. 438. Lincoln B -- Lior -- v. 439. Lios -- Literature P -- v. 440. Literature Q -- Living Expenses G -- v. 441. Living Expenses H -- Locomotives A -- v. 442. Locomotives B -- Loll -- v. 443. Lolm -- London U -- v. 444. London V -- Lord R -- v. 445. Lord S -- Louis XVI -- v. 446. Louis XVII -- Lowe S -- v. 447. Lowe T -- Ludwig O -- v. 448. Ludwig P -- Lutg -- v. 449. Luth -- Lz. ; v. 363. I -- Idn -- v. 364. Ido -- Illumination of Books and Manuscripts S -- v. 365. Illumination of Books and Manuscripts T -- Impos -- v. 366. Impot -- Independence D -- v. 367. Independence E -- India, History E -- v. 368. India, History F -- Indians, Central America, Tribes L -- v. 369. Indians, Central America, Tribes M -- Indians, North America S -- v. 370. Indians, North America T -- Indib -- v. 371. Indić -- Industrial Arts (Place) E -- v. 372. Industrial Arts (Place) F -- Industries (Place) U -- v. 373. Industries (Place) V -- Inl -- v. 374. Inm -- Institut M -- v. 375. Institut N -- Insurance I -- v. 376. Insurance J -- Intellectuals (Place) F -- v. 377. Intellectuals (Place) G -- International Ch -- v. 378. International Ci -- International LaC -- v. 379. International Lad -- Internationalism B -- v. 380. Internationalism C -- Iowa R -- v. 381. Iowa S -- Irish L -- v. 382. Irish M -- Isa -- v. 383. Isb -- Italian Language H -- v. 384. Italian Language I -- Italy, History to 1815 -- v. 385. Italy, History-After 1815 -- Iz -- v. 386. J -- Jagem -- v. 387. Jagen -- Jansen T -- v. 388. Jansen U -- Jard -- v. 389. Jaré -- Jels -- v. 390. Jelt -- Jesuits and Jesuitism U -- v. 391. Jesuits and Jesuitism V -- Jews, Anti-Semitic Writings M -- v. 392. Jews, Anti-Semitic Writings N -- Jews So -- v. 393. Jews Sp -- Johnm -- v. 394. Johnn -- Jolk -- v. 395. Joll -- Jorg -- v. 396. Jorh -- Journey B -- v. 397. Journey C -- Juk -- v. 398. Jul -- Juvenile Literature, Drama, American C -- v. 399. Juvenile Literature, Drama, American D -- Jz -- v. 400. K -- Kampe -- v. 401. Kampf -- Karo -- v. 402. Karp -- Keem -- v. 403. Keen -- Kennedy J -- v. 404. Kennedy K -- Kets -- v. 405. Kett -- Kinf -- v. 406. King -- Kirr -- v. 407. Kirs -- Kloo -- v. 408. Klop -- Kobd -- v. 409. Kobe -- Kolor -- v. 410. Kolos -- Kor -- v. 411. Kos -- Kreus -- v. 412. Kreut -- Kuer -- v. 413. Kues -- Kz. ; v. 330. H -- Hahm -- v. 331. Hahn -- Hall J -- v. 332. Hall K -- Hamilton J -- v. 333. Hamilton K -- Handwriting R -- v. 334. Handwriting S -- Harbors M -- v. 335. Harbors N -- Harper V -- v. 336. Harper W -- Hartmann K -- v. 337. Hartmann L -- Hathaway E -- v. 338. Hathaway F -- Hawkins L -- v. 339. Hawkins M -- Heart's T -- v. 340. Hearts U -- Hegel H -- v. 341. Hegel I -- Heller J -- v. 342. Heller K -- Henry of K -- v. 343. Henry of L -- Heredity R -- v. 344. Heredity S -- Hertling O -- v. 345. Hertling P -- Hibben S -- v. 346. Hibben T -- Hiller F -- v. 347. Hiller G -- Historia A -- v. 348. Historia B -- History, General-18th Century Works B -- v. 349. History, General-18th Century Works C -- Hodge B -- v. 350. Hodge C -- Hog -- v. 351. Hoh -- Holr -- v. 352. Hols -- Hond -- v. 353. Hone -- Horn L -- v. 354. Horn M -- Hot R -- v. 355. Hot S -- Housing-Working Class H -- v. 356. Housing-Working Class I -- Howl -- v. 357. Howm -- Hughes F -- v. 358. Hughes G -- Humo -- v. 359. Hump -- Hunting N -- v. 360. Hunting O -- Hut -- v. 361. Huu -- Hygiene, Public L -- v. 362. Hygiene, Public M -- Hyz. ; v. 291. G -- Gall L -- v. 292. Gall M -- Gandía E -- v. 293. Gandía F -- Gardiner G -- v. 294. Gardiner H -- Gases A -- v. 295. Gases B -- Gazs -- v. 296. Gazt -- General E -- v. 297. General F -- Geography As -- v. 298. Geography At -- Geology O -- v. 299. Geology P -- Geometry S -- v. 300. Geometry T -- Gerk -- v. 301. Gerl -- German Literature S -- v. 302. German Literature T -- Germany C -- v. 303. Germany D -- Germany-History 1847 -- v. 304. German-History 1848 -- Gerom -- v. 305. Geron -- Giac -- v. 306. Giad -- Gilds G -- v. 307. Gilds H -- Girk -- v. 308. Girl -- Glay -- v. 309. Glaz -- Godf -- v. 310. Godg -- Gold Mines and Mining-Al -- v. 311. Gold Mines and Mining-Am -- Gol [i.e. Golz] -- v. 312. Gom -- Gook -- v. 313. Gool -- Goula -- v. 314. Goulb -- Grad -- v. 315. Grae -- Grang -- v. 316. Granh -- Great Britain I -- v. 317. Great Britain J -- Great Britain-Description and Travel,1800-1850 -- v. 318. Great Britain-Description and Travel, 1850-1900 -- Great Britain-Govt. B -- v. 319. Great Britain-Govt. C -- Great Britain-Hist., 19th cent. F -- v. 320. Great Britain-Hist.,19th cent. G -- Great Britain-Politics, 1660-1714 R -- v. 321. Great Britain-Politics, 1660-1714 S -- Great Britain-Trade, Board of U -- v. 322. Great Britain-Trade, Board of V -- Greece (Modern)-History, 1830 M -- v. 323. Greece (Modern)-History, 1830 N -- Greene H -- v. 324. Greene I -- Grey N -- v. 325. Grey O -- Grog -- v. 326. Groh -- Grunds -- v. 327. Grundt S -- Gueu -- v. 328. Guev -- Gumo -- v. 329. Gump -- Gzow. ; v. 249. F -- Fairs F -- v. 250. Fairs G -- Fans -- v. 251. Fant -- Fascism-Germany B -- v. 252. Fascism-Germany C -- Fearh -- v. 253. Feari -- Felln -- v. 254. Fello -- Ferrari -- v. 255. Ferrarj -- Fev -- v. 256. Few -- Fiction, American Ham -- v. 257. Fiction, American Han -- Fiction, American Will -- v. 258. Fiction, American Wilm -- Fiction, Dutch A -- v. 259. Fiction, Dutch B -- Fiction, English Kim -- v. 260. Fiction, English Kin -- Fiction, Flemish L -- v. 261. Fiction, Flemish M -- Fiction, German A -- v. 262. Fiction, German B -- Fiction, Lettish J -- v. 263. Fiction, Lettish K -- Fiction, Swiss-German B -- v. 264. Fiction, Swiss-German C -- Filmr -- v. 265. Films -- Finance, U.S., 1813 -- v. 266. Finance, U.S., 1814 -- Finland R -- v. 267. Finland S -- Fischa -- v. 268. Fischb -- Fishing A -- v. 269. Fishing B -- Flanders G -- v. 270. Flanders H -- Flora F -- v. 271. Flora G -- Flya -- v. 272. Flyb -- Folklore N -- v. 273. Folklore O -- Fond -- v. 274. Fone -- Før N -- v. 275. For O -- Forestry-Germany S -- v. 276. Forestry-Germany T -- Forter -- v. 277. Fortes -- Fourm -- v. 278. Fourn -- France Ar -- v. 279. France As -- France-Foreign Relations R -- v. 280. France-Foreign Relations S -- France-History-Revolution O -- v. 281. France-History-Revolution P -- France-Statistics M -- v. 282. France-Statistics N -- Frank E -- v. 283. Frank F -- Frederick I, King of Prussia -- v. 284. Frederick II, King of Prussia -- Freemasons P -- v. 285. Freemasons Q -- French Language-Dictionaries D -- v. 286. French Language-Dictionaries E -- Fresco Paintings B -- v. 287. Fresco Paintings C -- Friends, Society of. L -- v. 288. Friends, Society of. M -- Früh [i.e. Fruh] -- v. 289. Frui -- Funck J -- v. 290. Funck K -- Fyz. ; v. 214. E -- Eastern Col -- v. 215. Eastern Com -- Ecole B -- v. 216. Ecole C -- Economic History-Chile F -- v. 217. Economic History-Chile G -- Economic History I -- v. 218. Economic History J -- Economic History-U.S.F -- v. 219. Economic History-U.S.G -- Economics, 1848-1889 E -- v. 220. Economics, 1848-1889 F -- Edel -- v. 221. Edem -- Education E -- v. 222. Education F -- Education O -- v. 223. Education P -- Education-U.S.-N.J.T -- v. 224. Education-U.S.-N.J.U -- Egypt C -- v. 225. Egypt D -- Eisenstein I -- v. 226. Eisenstein J -- Electric M -- v. 227. Electric N -- Electrons B -- v. 228. Electrons C -- Ellis S -- v. 229. Ellis T -- Emigration, Canada N -- v. 230. Emigration, Canada O -- Enchanted R -- v. 231. Enchanted S -- Engineering Ch -- v. 232. Engineering Ci -- English Language-Dictionaries G -- v. 233. English Language-Dictionaries H -- English Literature S -- v. 234. English Literature T -- Epitaphs T -- v. 235. Epitaphs U -- Ero -- v. 236. Erp -- Espl -- v. 237. Espm -- Essays P -- v. 238. Essays R -- Ethics G -- v. 239. Ethics H -- Etr -- v. 240. Ets -- Europe-History H -- v. 241. Europe-History I -- European War, Aerial Operations M -- v. 242. European War, Aerial Operations N -- European War, Economic Aspects Germany K -- v. 243. European War, Economic Aspects Germany L -- European War, Neutrality R -- v. 244. European War, Neutrality S -- European War, Regimental History F -- v. 245. European War, Regimental History G -- European War, Great Britain G -- v. 246. European War, Great Britain H -- Evero -- v. 247. Everp -- Exhibitions C -- v. 248. Exhibitions D -- Ez. ; v. 177. D -- Dale C -- v. 178. Dale D -- Dancing F -- v. 179. Dancing G -- Danzig G -- v. 180. Danzig H -- Dauw -- v. 181. Daux -- Dawn -- v. 182. Dawo -- Debray -- v. 183. Debraz -- Defei -- v. 184. Defel -- Delaware C -- v. 185. Delaware D -- Democracy-U.S.B -- v. 186. Democracy-U.S.C -- Denton, Name [i.e. Denton (Name)] -- v. 187. Denton, County [i.e. Denton County] -- Desmares -- v. 188. Desmaret -- Deutsche J -- v. 189. Deutsche K -- Dewar M -- v. 190. Dewar N -- Dickens, Charles F -- v. 191. Dickens, Charles G -- Dikes H -- v. 192. Dikes I -- Disaster Relief B -- v. 193. Disaster Relief C -- Divo -- v. 194. Divr -- Dog L -- v. 195. Dog M -- Donato L -- v. 196. Donato M -- Douglas P -- v. 197. Douglas R -- Drama, American A -- v. 198. Drama, American B -- Drama, American Mi -- v. 199. Drama, American Mo -- Drama C -- v. 200. Drama D -- Drama, English Hol -- v. 201. Drama, English Hom -- Drama, English Translations From . R -- v. 202. Drama, English Translations From . S -- Drama, French J -- v. 203. Drama, French K -- Drama, German Bas -- v. 204. Drama, German Bat -- Drama, German, Low German D -- v. 205. Drama, German, Low German E -- Drama, L -- v. 206. Drama, M -- Drama, Spanish Ger -- v. 207. Drama, Spanish Ges -- Drama, Walloon W -- v. 208. Drama, Walloon X -- Dreu -- v. 209. Drev -- Dublin U -- v. 210. Dublin V -- Duke O -- v. 211. Duke P -- Duper -- v. 212. Dupes -- Dutch Language D -- v. 213. Dutch Language E -- Dz. ; v. 107. C -- Cah -- v. 108. Cai -- Cale -- v. 109. Calf -- California V -- v. 110. California W -- Cameron, I -- v. 111. Cameron, J -- Canada B -- v. 112. Canada C -- Canada Statistics Bureau M -- v. 113. Canada Statistics Bureau N -- Canaq -- v. 114. Canar -- Capeh -- v. 115. Capei -- Cardif -- v. 116. Cardig -- Carm -- v. 117. Carn -- Carrik -- v. 118. Carril -- Case A -- v. 119. Case B -- Castles R -- v. 120. Castles S -- Cathedrals S -- v. 121. Cathedrals T -- Catholic Church Roman L -- v. 122. Catholic Church Roman M -- Cauch -- v. 123. Cauci -- Cement and Concrete M -- v. 124. Cement and Concrete P -- Ceo -- v. 125. Cep -- Chah -- v. 126. Chai -- Chand -- v. 127. Chane -- Charities I -- v. 128. Charities J -- Charz -- v. 129. Chas -- Chemical Industries I -- v. 130. Chemical Industries J -- Chemm -- v. 131. Chemn -- Chicago B -- v. 132. Chicago C -- Children AC -- v. 133. Children AD -- Chile T -- v. 134. Chile U -- Chinese A -- v. 135. Chinese B -- Christ L -- v. 136. Christ M -- Christianity E -- v. 137. Christianity F -- Church Al -- v. 138. Church Am -- Church I -- v. 139. Church J -- Chyz -- v. 140. Ci -- Cities-Plans-D -- v. 141. Cities-Plans-E -- Civil R -- v. 142. Civil S -- Claq -- v. 143. Clar -- Classification K -- v. 144. Classification L -- Clergy F -- v. 145. Clergy G -- Club T -- v. 146. Club U -- Cobb -- v. 147. Cobd -- Coi -- v. 148. Coj -- Collection K -- v. 149. Collection L -- Collim -- v. 150. Collin -- Colonies and Colonization A -- v. 151. Colonies and Colonization B -- Columbia University Q -- v. 152. Columbia University R -- Coml -- v. 153. Comm -- Commerce Am -- v. 154. Commerce An -- Commerce-New York -- v. 155. Commerce-New Zealand -- Commis -- v. 156. Commit -- Competition-Unfair F -- v. 157. Competition-Unfair G -- Cone -- v. 158. Conf -- Congres H -- v. 159. Congres I -- Conr -- v. 160. Cons -- Continuation L -- v. 161. Continuation M -- Cookery B -- v. 162. Cookery C -- Cooperation S -- v. 163. Cooperation T -- Copyright M -- v. 164. Copyright N -- Coronations G -- v. 165. Coronations H -- Cortazar C -- v. 166. Cortazar D -- Cotner T -- v. 167. Cotner U -- Country Life-United States -- v. 168. Country Life-Uruguay -- Cowper W -- v. 169. Cowper Family -- Creation-Biblical Account-H -- v. 170. Creation-Biblical Account-I -- Criminal H -- v. 171. Criminal I -- Crip -- v. 172. Criq -- Crosby G -- v. 173. Crosby H -- Cua -- v. 174. Cub -- Cunningham A -- v. 175. Cunningham B -- Cux -- v. 176. Cuy -- Cz. ; v. 52. B -- Bader -- v. 53. Bades -- Baker, I -- v. 54. Baker, J -- Ballads, E -- v. 55. Ballads, F -- Banco P -- v. 56. Banco R -- Banks and Banking-Gt. Br. S -- v. 57. Banks and Banking-Gt. Br. T -- Baptists-U -- v. 58. Baptists-V -- Barlac -- v. 59. Barlad -- Barry, I -- v. 60. Barry, J -- Basr -- v. 61. Bass -- Baud -- v. 62. Baue -- Beac -- v. 63. Bead -- Beck -- v. 64. Becl -- Beh -- v. 65. Bei -- Belk -- v. 66. Bell -- Bend -- v. 67. Bene -- Benz -- v. 68. Beo -- Berlin F -- v. 69. Berlin G -- Berr -- v. 70. Bers -- Bet -- v. 71. Beu -- Bible. Zulu -- v. 72. Bible. Selections -- Bible. N.T.: Crit -- v. 73. Bible. N.T.-D -- Bible. O.T. Pr -- v. 74. Bible. O.T. Ps -- Bibliography-O -- v. 75. Bibliography-P -- Bibliotheca O -- v. 76. Bibliotheca P -- Bik -- v. 77. Bil -- Bio -- v. 78. Bip -- Bisl -- v. 79. Bism -- Blai -- v. 80. Blaj -- Blis -- v. 81. Blit -- Bob -- v. 82. Boc -- Bog -- v. 83. Boh -- Bolr -- v. 84. Bols -- Bolz -- v. 85. Bom -- Bon -- v. 86. Boo -- Bool -- v. 87. Boom -- Bor -- v. 88. Bos -- Botany-R -- v. 89. Botany-S -- Bouq -- v. 90. Bour -- Boyd -- v. 91. Boye -- Bram -- v. 92. Bran -- Brazil D -- v. 93. Brazil E -- Brer -- v. 94. Bres -- Brid -- v. 95. Brie -- British E -- v. 96. British F -- Brom -- v. 97. Bron -- Brov -- v. 98. Brow -- Brt -- v. 99. Bru -- Bryc -- v. 100. Bryd -- Budget-E -- v. 101. Budget F -- Building C -- v. 102. Building D -- Bulle -- v. 103. Bullf -- Burgf -- v. 104. Burgg -- Burrow, M -- v. 105. Burrow, N -- Buss -- v. 106. Bust -- Bz. ; v. 1. A -- Aben -- v. 2. Abeo -- Académie de F -- v. 3. Académie du G -- Achm -- v. 4. Achn -- Adams, D -- v. 5. Adams, E -- Ador -- v. 6. Adós -- Aeronautics-Ac -- v. 7. Aeronautics-Ad -- Aesoph -- v. 8. Aesopi -- Africa, So -- v. 9. Africa, Sp -- Agar -- v. 10. Agas -- Agriculture-Economics-F -- v. 11. Agriculture-Economics-G -- Agriculture-C [i.e. Agriculture (Place) C] -- v. 12. Agriculture-D [i.e. Agriculture (Place) D] -- Air-E -- v. 13. Air-F -- Alabam -- v. 14. Alaban -- Alcaraz, Em -- v. 15. Alcaraz, En -- Alexan, F -- v. 16. Alexan, G -- Aliens-H -- v. 17. Aliens-I -- Allied J -- v. 18. Allied K -- Alphabet, S -- v. 19. Alphabet, T -- Alz -- v. 20. Am -- America M -- v. 21. America-N -- American Fab -- v. 22. American Fac -- American Languages-Q -- v. 23. American Languages-R -- American Pio -- v. 24. American Pip -- Americans in L -- v. 25. Americans in M -- Amy -- v. 26. Amz -- Anderson, S -- v. 27. Anderson T -- Angle S -- v. 28. Angle T -- Annal -- v. 29. Annam -- Anthon -- v. 30. Anthoo -- Apar -- v. 31. Apas -- Aqueb -- v. 32. Aquec -- Arauco, C -- v. 33. Arauco D -- Architectural D -- v. 34. Architectural E -- Architecture, Ecclesiastical-F -- v. 35. Architecture, Ecclesiastical-G -- Arens -- v. 36. Arent -- Aristoc -- v. 37. Aristod -- Armitage, R -- v. 38. Armitage, S -- Army, R -- v. 39. Army, S -- Arres -- v. 40. Arret -- Art-Essays and Misc. G -- v. 41. Art-Essays and Misc. H -- Art Per [i.e. Art Pers]-- v. 42. Art, Peru -- Arz -- v. 43. As -- Assat -- v. 44. Assau -- Assz -- v. 45. Ast -- Athenaeum I -- v. 46. Athenaeum L -- Attention M -- v. 47. Attention N -- Auq -- v. 48. Aurauco D -- Austria B -- v. 49. Austria-C -- Authorship T -- v. 50. Authorship U -- Auy -- v. 51. Auz -- Az. ; Mode of access: Internet.
Breast cancer (BC) risk for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers varies by genetic and familial factors. About 50 common variants have been shown to modify BC risk for mutation carriers. All but three, were identified in general population studies. Other mutation carrier-specific susceptibility variants may exist but studies of mutation carriers have so far been underpowered. We conduct a novel case-only genome-wide association study comparing genotype frequencies between 60,212 general population BC cases and 13,007 cases with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. We identify robust novel associations for 2 variants with BC for BRCA1 and 3 for BRCA2 mutation carriers, P < 10-8, at 5 loci, which are not associated with risk in the general population. They include rs60882887 at 11p11.2 where MADD, SP11 and EIF1, genes previously implicated in BC biology, are predicted as potential targets. These findings will contribute towards customising BC polygenic risk scores for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. ; BCAC acknowledgements. We thank all the individuals who took part in these studies and all the researchers, clinicians, technicians and administrative staff who have enabled this work to be carried out. ABCFS thank Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Gillian Dite. ABCS thanks the Blood bank Sanquin, The Netherlands. ABCTB Investigators: Christine Clarke, Deborah Marsh, Rodney Scott, Robert Baxter, Desmond Yip, Jane Carpenter, Alison Davis, Nirmala Pathmanathan, Peter Simpson, J. Dinny Graham, Mythily Sachchithananthan. Samples are made available to researchers on a non-exclusive basis. BBCS thanks Eileen Williams, Elaine Ryder-Mills, Kara Sargus. BCEES thanks Allyson Thomson, Christobel Saunders, Terry Slevin, BreastScreen Western Australia, Elizabeth Wylie, Rachel Lloyd. The BCINIS study would not have been possible without the contributions of Dr. K. Landsman, Dr. N. Gronich, Dr. A. Flugelman, Dr. W. Saliba, Dr. E. Liani, Dr. I. Cohen, Dr. S. Kalet, Dr. V. Friedman, Dr. O. Barnet of the NICCC in Haifa, and all the contributing family medicine, surgery, pathology and oncology teams in all medical institutes in Northern Israel. The BREOGAN study would not have been possible without the contributions of the following: Manuela Gago-Dominguez, Jose Esteban Castelao, Angel Carracedo, Victor Munoz Garzon, Alejandro Novo Dominguez, Maria Elena Martinez, Sara Miranda Ponte, Carmen Redondo Marey, Maite Pena Fernandez, Manuel Enguix Castelo, Maria Torres, Manuel Calaza (BREOGAN), Jose Antunez, Maximo Fraga and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of the University Hospital Complex of Santiago-CHUS, Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago, IDIS, Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Santiago-SERGAS; Joaquin Gonzalez-Carrero and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of University Hospital Complex of Vigo, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur, SERGAS, Vigo, Spain. BSUCH thanks Peter Bugert, Medical Faculty Mannheim. CBCS thanks study participants, co-investigators, collaborators and staff of the Canadian Breast Cancer Study, and project coordinators Agnes Lai and Celine Morissette. CCGP thanks Styliani Apostolaki, Anna Margiolaki, Georgios Nintos, Maria Perraki, Georgia Saloustrou, Georgia Sevastaki, Konstantinos Pompodakis. CGPS thanks staff and participants of the Copenhagen General Population Study. For the excellent technical assistance: Dorthe Uldall Andersen, Maria Birna Arnadottir, Anne Bank, Dorthe Kjeldgard Hansen. The Danish Cancer Biobank is acknowledged for providing infrastructure for the collection of blood samples for the cases. CNIO-BCS thanks Guillermo Pita, Charo Alonso, Nuria alvarez, Pilar Zamora, Primitiva Menendez, the Human Genotyping-CEGEN Unit (CNIO). The CTS Steering Committee includes Leslie Bernstein, Susan Neuhausen, James Lacey, Sophia Wang, Huiyan Ma, and Jessica Clague DeHart at the Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Dennis Deapen, Rich Pinder, and Eunjung Lee at the University of Southern California, Pam Horn-Ross, Peggy Reynolds, Christina Clarke Dur and David Nelson at the Cancer Prevention Institute of California, Hoda Anton-Culver, Argyrios Ziogas, and Hannah Park at the University of California Irvine, and Fred Schumacher at Case Western University. DIETCOMPLYF thanks the patients, nurses and clinical staff involved in the study. The DietCompLyf study was funded by the charity Against Breast Cancer (Registered Charity Number 1121258) and the NCRN. We thank the participants and the investigators of EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition). ESTHER thanks Hartwig Ziegler, Sonja Wolf, Volker Hermann, Christa Stegmaier, Katja Butterbach. GC-HBOC thanks Stefanie Engert, Heide Hellebrand, Sandra Krober and LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nuchter, Ronny Baber). The GENICA Network: Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch-Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, and University of Tubingen, Germany [HB, Wing-Yee Lo], German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Partner Site Tubingen [[HB], gefordert durch die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) im Rahmen der Exzellenzstrategie des Bundes und der Lander - EXC 2180 - 390900677 [HB], Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany [YDK, Christian Baisch], Institute of Pathology, University of Bonn, Germany [Hans-Peter Fischer], Molecular Genetics of Breast Cancer, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany [Ute Hamann], Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, Germany [Thomas Bruning, Beate Pesch, Sylvia Rabstein, Anne Lotz]; and Institute of Occupational Medicine and Maritime Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany [Volker Harth]. HABCS thanks Michael Bremer. HEBCS thanks Kirsimari Aaltonen, Irja Erkkila. HUBCS thanks Shamil Gantsev. KARMA and SASBAC thank the Swedish Medical Research Counsel. KBCP thanks Eija Myohanen, Helena Kemilainen. kConFab/AOCS wish to thank Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow-Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab. LMBC thanks Gilian Peuteman, Thomas Van Brussel, EvyVanderheyden and Kathleen Corthouts. MARIE thanks Petra Seibold, Dieter Flesch-Janys, Judith Heinz, Nadia Obi, Alina Vrieling, Sabine Behrens, Ursula Eilber, Muhabbet Celik, Til Olchers and Stefan Nickels. MBCSG (Milan Breast Cancer Study Group): Mariarosaria Calvello, Davide Bondavalli, Aliana Guerrieri Gonzaga, Monica Marabelli, Irene Feroce, and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory. The MCCS was made possible by the contribution of many people, including the original investigators, the teams that recruited the participants and continue working on follow-up, and the many thousands of Melbourne residents who continue to participate in the study. We thank the coordinators, the research staff and especially the MMHS participants for their continued collaboration on research studies in breast cancer. MSKCC thanks Marina Corines, Lauren Jacobs. MTLGEBCS would like to thank Martine Tranchant (CHU de Quebec - Universite Laval Research Center), Marie-France Valois, Annie Turgeon and Lea Heguy (McGill University Health Center, Royal Victoria Hospital; McGill University) for DNA extraction, sample management and skilful technical assistance. J.S. is Chair holder of the Canada Research Chair in Oncogenetics. NBHS and SBCGS thank study participants and research staff for their contributions and commitment to the studies. For NHS and NHS2 the study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards of the Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and those of participating registries as required. We would like to thank the participants and staff of the NHS and NHS2 for their valuable contributions as well as the following state cancer registries for their help: A.L., A.Z., A.R., C.A., C.O., C.T., D.E., F.L., G.A., I.D., I.L., I.N., I.A., K.Y., L.A., M.E., M.D., M.A., M.I., N.E., N.H., N.J., N.Y., N.C., N.D., O.H., O.K., O.R., P.A., R.I., S.C., T.N., T.X., V.A., W.A., and W.Y. The authors assume full responsibility for analyses and interpretation of these data. OFBCR thanks Teresa Selander, Nayana Weerasooriya. ORIGO thanks E. Krol-Warmerdam, and J. Blom for patient accrual, administering questionnaires, and managing clinical information. PBCS thanks Louise Brinton, Mark Sherman, Neonila Szeszenia-Dabrowska, Beata Peplonska, Witold Zatonski, Pei Chao, Michael Stagner. The ethical approval for the POSH study is MREC /00/6/69, UKCRN ID: 1137. We thank staff in the Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre (ECMC) supported Faculty of Medicine Tissue Bank and the Faculty of Medicine DNA Banking resource. RBCS thanks Jannet Blom, Saskia Pelders, Annette Heemskerk and the Erasmus MC Family Cancer Clinic. We thank the SEARCH and EPIC teams. SKKDKFZS thanks all study participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers and technicians for their contributions and commitment to this study. SZBCS thanks Ewa Putresza. UCIBCS thanks Irene Masunaka. UKBGS thanks Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research for support and funding of the Breakthrough Generations Study, and the study participants, study staff, and the doctors, nurses and other health care providers and health information sources who have contributed to the study. We acknowledge NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/ICR NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. We acknowledge funding to the Manchester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (IS-BRC-1215-20007). The authors thank the WHI investigators and staff for their dedication and the study participants for making the program possible. CIMBA acknowledgments. All the families and clinicians who contribute to the studies; Catherine M. Phelan for her contribution to CIMBA until she passed away on 22 September 2017; Sue Healey, in particular taking on the task of mutation classification with the late Olga Sinilnikova; Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Gillian Dite, Helen Tsimiklis; members and participants in the New York site of the Breast Cancer Family Registry; members and participants in the Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry; Vilius Rudaitis and Laimonas Grikeviius; Drs Janis Eglitis, Anna Krilova and Aivars Stengrevics; Yuan Chun Ding and Linda Steele for their work in participant enrollment and biospecimen and data management; Bent Ejlertsen and Anne-Marie Gerdes for the recruitment and genetic counseling of participants; Alicia Barroso, Rosario Alonso and Guillermo Pita; all the individuals and the researchers who took part in CONSIT TEAM (Consorzio Italiano Tumori Ereditari Alla Mammella), in particular: Bernard Peissel, Dario Zimbalatti, Daniela Zaffaroni, Alessandra Viel, Giuseppe Giannini Liliana Varesco, Viviana Gismondi, Maria Grazia Tibiletti, Daniela Furlan, Antonella Savarese, Aline Martayan, Stefania Tommasi, Brunella Pilato and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory, Milan, Italy. Ms. JoEllen Weaver and Dr. Betsy Bove; FPGMX: members of the Cancer Genetics group (IDIS): Marta Santamarina, Miguel Aguado and Olivia Rios; IFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nuchter, Ronny Baber); We thank all participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers, and technicians for their contributions and commitment to the DKFZ study and the collaborating groups in Lahore, Pakistan (Noor Muhammad, Sidra Gull, Seerat Bajwa, Faiz Ali Khan, Humaira Naeemi, Saima Faisal, Asif Loya, Mohammed Aasim Yusuf) and Bogota, Colombia (Ignacio Briceno, Fabian Gil). Genetic Modifiers of Cancer Risk in BRCA1/2 Mutation Carriers (GEMO) study is a study from the National Cancer Genetics Network UNICANCER Genetic Group, France. We wish to pay a tribute to Olga M. Sinilnikova, who with Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet initiated and coordinated GEMO until she sadly passed away on the 30th June 2014. The team in Lyon (Olga Sinilnikova, Melanie Leone, Laure Barjhoux, Carole Verny-Pierre, Sylvie Mazoyer, Francesca Damiola, Valerie Sornin) managed the GEMO samples until the biological resource centre was transferred to Paris in December 2015 (Noura Mebirouk, Fabienne Lesueur, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet). We want to thank all the GEMO collaborating groups for their contribution to this study: Coordinating Centre, Service de Genetique, Institut Curie, Paris, France: Muriel Belotti, Ophelie Bertrand, Anne-Marie Birot, Bruno Buecher, Sandrine Caputo, Anais Dupre, Emmanuelle Fourme, Marion Gauthier-Villars, Lisa Golmard, Claude Houdayer, Marine Le Mentec, Virginie Moncoutier, Antoine de Pauw, Claire Saule, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet, and Inserm U900, Institut Curie, Paris, France: Fabienne Lesueur, Noura Mebirouk. Contributing Centres: Unite Mixte de Genetique Constitutionnelle des Cancers Frequents, Hospices Civils de Lyon - Centre Leon Berard, Lyon, France: Nadia Boutry-Kryza, Alain Calender, Sophie Giraud, Melanie Leone. Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France: Brigitte Bressac-de-Paillerets, Olivier Caron, Marine Guillaud-Bataille. Centre Jean Perrin, Clermont-Ferrand, France: Yves-Jean Bignon, Nancy Uhrhammer. Centre Leon Berard, Lyon, France: Valerie Bonadona, Christine Lasset. Centre Francois Baclesse, Caen, France: Pascaline Berthet, Laurent Castera, Dominique Vaur. Institut Paoli Calmettes, Marseille, France: Violaine Bourdon, Catherine Nogues, Tetsuro Noguchi, Cornel Popovici, Audrey Remenieras, Hagay Sobol. CHU Arnaud-de-Villeneuve, Montpellier, France: Isabelle Coupier, Pascal Pujol. Centre Oscar Lambret, Lille, France: Claude Adenis, Aurelie Dumont, Francoise Revillion. Centre Paul Strauss, Strasbourg, France: Daniele Muller. Institut Bergonie, Bordeaux, France: Emmanuelle Barouk-Simonet, Francoise Bonnet, Virginie Bubien, Michel Longy, Nicolas Sevenet, Institut Claudius Regaud, Toulouse, France: Laurence Gladieff, Rosine Guimbaud, Viviane Feillel, Christine Toulas. CHU Grenoble, France: Helene Dreyfus, Christine Dominique Leroux, Magalie Peysselon, Rebischung. CHU Dijon, France: Amandine Baurand, Geoffrey Bertolone, Fanny Coron, Laurence Faivre, Caroline Jacquot, Sarab Lizard. CHU St-Etienne, France: Caroline Kientz, Marine Lebrun, Fabienne Prieur. Hotel Dieu Centre Hospitalier, Chambery, France: Sandra Fert Ferrer. Centre Antoine Lacassagne, Nice, France: Veronique Mari. CHU Limoges, France: Laurence Venat-Bouvet. CHU Nantes, France: Stephane Bezieau, Capucine Delnatte. CHU Bretonneau, Tours and Centre Hospitalier de Bourges France: Isabelle Mortemousque. Groupe Hospitalier Pitie-Salpetriere, Paris, France: Chrystelle Colas, Florence Coulet, Florent Soubrier, Mathilde Warcoin. CHU Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France: Myriam Bronner, Johanna Sokolowska. CHU Besancon, France: Marie-Agnes Collonge-Rame, Alexandre Damette. CHU Poitiers, Centre Hospitalier d'Angouleme and Centre Hospitalier de Niort, France: Paul Gesta. Centre Hospitalier de La Rochelle: Hakima Lallaoui. CHU Nimes Caremeau, France: Jean Chiesa. CHI Poissy, France: Denise Molina-Gomes. CHU Angers, France: Olivier Ingster; Ilse Coene en Brecht Crombez; Ilse Coene and Brecht Crombez; Alicia Tosar and Paula Diaque; Drs.Sofia Khan, Taru A. Muranen, Carl Blomqvist, Irja Erkkila and Virpi Palola; The Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Research Group Netherlands (HEBON) consists of the following Collaborating Centers: Coordinating center: Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, NL: M.A. Rookus, F.B.L. Hogervorst, F.E. van Leeuwen, S. Verhoef, M.K. Schmidt, N.S. Russell, D.J. Jenner; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, NL: J.M. Collee, A.M.W. van den Ouweland, M.J. Hooning, C. Seynaeve, C.H.M. van Deurzen, I.M. Obdeijn; Leiden University Medical Center, NL: C.J. van Asperen, J.T. Wijnen, R.A.E.M. Tollenaar, P. Devilee, T.C.T.E.F. van Cronenburg; Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, NL: C.M. Kets, A.R. Mensenkamp; University Medical Center Utrecht, NL: M.G.E.M. Ausems, R.B. van der Luijt, C.C. van der Pol; Amsterdam Medical Center, NL: C.M. Aalfs, T.A.M. van Os; VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, NL: J.J.P. Gille, Q. Waisfisz, H.E.J. Meijers-Heijboer; University Hospital Maastricht, NL: E.B. Gomez-Garcia, M.J. Blok; University Medical Center Groningen, NL: J.C. Oosterwijk, A.H. van der Hout, M.J. Mourits, G.H. de Bock; The Netherlands Foundation for the detection of hereditary tumours, Leiden, NL: H.F. Vasen; The Netherlands Comprehensive Cancer Organization (IKNL): S. Siesling, J.Verloop; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; Dr Martine Dumont for sample management and skillful assistance; Ana Peixoto, Catarina Santos and Pedro Pinto; members of the Center of Molecular Diagnosis, Oncogenetics Department and Molecular Oncology Research Center of Barretos Cancer Hospital; Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow-Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab; the investigators of the Australia New Zealand NRG Oncology group; members and participants in the Ontario Cancer Genetics Network; Leigha Senter, Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, Julia Cooper, Amber Aielts, and Michelle O'Conor; HVH: acknowledgments to the Cellex Foundation for providing research facilities and equipment. Dr Juliette Coignard was supported by a fellowship of INCa Institut National du Cancer N degrees 2015-181, la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer IP/SC-15229 and Olga Sinilnikova's fellowship (2016). BCAC Funding. BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A16563, C1287/A10118], the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant numbers 634935 and 633784 for BRIDGES and B-CAST respectively), and by the European Communitys Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme funding source had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing of the report. Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the NIH Grant U19 CA148065, and Cancer UK Grant C1287/A16563 and the PERSPECTIVE project supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant GPH-129344) and, the Ministere de l'Economie, Science et Innovation du Quebec through Genome Quebec and the PSRSIIRI-701 grant, and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia) and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363]. The Australian Breast Cancer Tissue Bank (ABCTB) was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Cancer Institute NSW and the National Breast Cancer Foundation. The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). The BCEES was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia and the Cancer Council Western Australia and acknowledges funding from the National Breast Cancer Foundation (JS). For the BCFR-NY, BCFR-PA, BCFR-UT this work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. The BREast Oncology GAlician Network (BREOGAN) is funded by Accion Estrategica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI12/02125/Cofinanciado FEDER; Accion Estrategica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136); Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur. Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Vigo-SERGAS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grant 10CSA012E, Conselleria de Industria Programa Sectorial de Investigacion Aplicada, PEME I + D e I + D Suma del Plan Gallego de Investigacion, Desarrollo e Innovacion Tecnologica de la Conselleria de Industria de la Xunta de Galicia, Spain; Grant EC11-192. Fomento de la Investigacion Clinica Independiente, Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, Spain; and Grant FEDER-Innterconecta. Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Xunta de Galicia, Spain. The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). CBCS is funded by the Canadian Cancer Society (grant # 313404) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. CCGP is supported by funding from the University of Crete. The CECILE study was supported by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Agence Nationale de Securite Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council, and Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. The CNIO-BCS was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, the Red Tematica de Investigacion Cooperativa en Cancer and grants from the Asociacion Espanola Contra el Cancer and the Fondo de Investigacion Sanitario (PI11/00923 and PI12/00070). The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is currently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398, UM1 CA164917, and U01 CA199277). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. The University of Westminster curates the DietCompLyf database funded by Against Breast Cancer Registered Charity No. 1121258 and the NCRN. The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Generale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucia, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Wurttemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). The GC-HBOC (German Consortium of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer) is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, coordinator: Rita K. Schmutzler, Cologne). This work was also funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0 and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The GESBC was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e. V. [70492] and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The HABCS study was supported by the Claudia von Schilling Foundation for Breast Cancer Research, by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society, and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki UniversityHospital Research Fund, the Finnish Cancer Society, and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HUBCS was supported by a grant from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (RUS08/017), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations for support the Bioresource collections and RFBR grants 14-04-97088, 17-29-06014 and 17-44-020498. Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (ALF) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Marit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. kConFab is supported by a grant from the National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. Financial support for the AOCS was provided by the United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command [DAMD17-01-1-0729], Cancer Council Victoria, Queensland Cancer Fund, Cancer Council New South Wales, Cancer Council South Australia, The Cancer Foundation of Western Australia, Cancer Council Tasmania and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC; 400413, 400281, 199600). G.C.T. and P.W. are supported by the NHMRC. RB was a Cancer Institute NSW Clinical Research Fellow. LMBC is supported by the 'Stichting tegen Kanker'. The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419, 110826, 110828], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC; IG2014 no.15547) to P. Radice. The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer [CA116201], and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study (MCCS) cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further augmented by Australian National Health and Medical Research Council grants 209057, 396414 and 1074383 and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. The MEC was support by NIH grants CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839 and CA164973. The MISS study is supported by funding from ERC-2011-294576 Advanced grant, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Local hospital funds, Berta Kamprad Foundation, Gunnar Nilsson. The MMHS study was supported by NIH grants CA97396, CA128931, CA116201, CA140286 and CA177150. MSKCC is supported by grants from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative. The work of MTLGEBCS was supported by the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program - grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade - grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. The NBHS was supported by NIH grant R01CA100374. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The Northern California Breast Cancer Family Registry (NC-BCFR) and Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) were supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The Carolina Breast Cancer Study was funded by Komen Foundation, the National Cancer Institute (P50 CA058223, U54 CA156733, U01 CA179715), and the North Carolina University Cancer Research Fund. The NHS was supported by NIH grants P01 CA87969, UM1 CA186107, and U19 CA148065. The NHS2 was supported by NIH grants UM1 CA176726 and U19 CA148065. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997-1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. Genotyping for PLCO was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health, NCI, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics. The PLCO is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The POSH study is funded by Cancer Research UK (grants C1275/A11699, C1275/C22524, C1275/A19187, C1275/A15956 and Breast Cancer Campaign 2010PR62, 2013PR044. The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318. SEARCH is funded by Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124, C490/A16561] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. The Sister Study (SISTER) is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033). The Two Sister Study (2SISTER) was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES102245), and, also by a grant from Susan G. Komen for the Cure, grant FAS0703856. SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The SMC is funded by the Swedish Cancer Foundation and the Swedish Research Council (VR 2017-00644) grant for the Swedish Infrastructure for Medical Population-based Life-course Environmental Research (SIMPLER). The SZBCS and IHCC were supported by Grant PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004 and the program of the Minister of Science and Higher Education under the name Regional Initiative of Excellence in 2019-2022 project number 002/RID/2018/19 amount of financing 12 000 000 PLN. The TNBCC was supported by: a Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The UCIBCS component of this research was supported by the NIH [CA58860, CA92044] and the Lon V Smith Foundation [LVS39420]. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. CIMBA Funding. CIMBA: The CIMBA data management and data analysis were supported by Cancer Research - UK grants C12292/A20861, C12292/A11174. GCT and ABS are NHMRC Research Fellows. iCOGS: the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement no 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A 10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/A12014, C5047/A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978) and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065 and 1U19 CA148112 - the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defence (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer (CRN-87521), and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade (PSR-SIIRI-701), Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund. The PERSPECTIVE project was supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation through Genome Quebec, and The Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. BCFR: UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. BIDMC: Breast Cancer Research Foundation. CNIO: Spanish Ministry of Health PI16/00440 supported by FEDER funds, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) SAF2014-57680-R and the Spanish Research Network on Rare diseases (CIBERER). COH-CCGCRN: Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health under grant number R25CA112486, and RC4CA153828 (PI: J. Weitzel) from the National Cancer Institute and the Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. CONSIT TEAM: Funds from Italian citizens who allocated the 5x1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects '5x1000') to S. Manoukian. Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC; IG2015 no.16732) to P. Peterlongo. DEMOKRITOS: European Union (European Social Fund - ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program Education and Lifelong Learning of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) - Research Funding Program of the General Secretariat for Research & Technology: SYN11_10_19 NBCA. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund. DKFZ: German Cancer Research Center. EMBRACE: Cancer Research UK Grants C1287/A10118 and C1287/A11990. D. Gareth Evans and Fiona Lalloo are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre, Manchester. The Investigators at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. Ros Eeles and Elizabeth Bancroft are supported by Cancer Research UK Grant C5047/A8385. Ros Eeles is also supported by NIHR support to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. FCCC: A.K.G. was in part funded by the NCI (R01 CA214545), The University of Kansas Cancer Center Support Grant (P30 CA168524), The Kansas Institute for Precision Medicine (P20 GM130423), and the Kansas Bioscience Authority Eminent Scholar Program. A.K.G. is the Chancellors Distinguished Chair in Biomedical Sciences Professorship. A.Vega is supported by the Spanish Health Research Foundation, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), partially supported by FEDER funds through Research Activity Intensification Program (contract grant numbers: INT15/00070, INT16/00154, INT17/00133), and through Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Enferemdades Raras CIBERER (ACCI 2016: ER17P1AC7112/2018); Autonomous Government of Galicia (Consolidation and structuring program: IN607B), and by the Fundacion Mutua Madrilena (call 2018). GC-HBOC: German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, Rita K. Schmutzler) and the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). GEMO: Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer; the Association Le cancer du sein, parlons-en! Award, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program and the French National Institute of Cancer (INCa grants 2013-1-BCB-01-ICH-1 and SHS-E-SP 18-015). GEORGETOWN: the Non-Therapeutic Subject Registry Shared Resource at Georgetown University (NIH/NCI grant P30-CA051008), the Fisher Center for Hereditary Cancer and Clinical Genomics Research, and Swing Fore the Cure. G-FAST: Bruce Poppe is a senior clinical investigator of FWO. Mattias Van Heetvelde obtained funding from IWT. HCSC: Spanish Ministry of Health PI15/00059, PI16/01292, and CB-161200301 CIBERONC from ISCIII (Spain), partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER funds. HEBCS: Helsinki University Hospital Research Fund, the Finnish Cancer Society and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. HEBON: the Dutch Cancer Society grants NKI1998-1854, NKI2004-3088, NKI2007-3756, the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research grant NWO 91109024, the Pink Ribbon grants 110005 and 2014-187.WO76, the BBMRI grant NWO 184.021.007/CP46 and the Transcan grant JTC 2012 Cancer 12-054. HEBON thanks the registration teams of Dutch Cancer Registry (IKNL; S. Siesling, J. Verloop) and the Dutch Pathology database (PALGA; L. Overbeek) for part of the data collection. ICO: The authors would like to particularly acknowledge the support of the Asociacion Espanola Contra el Cancer (AECC), the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (organismo adscrito al Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad) and Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER), una manera de hacer Europa (PI10/01422, PI13/00285, PIE13/00022, PI15/00854, PI16/00563 and CIBERONC) and the Institut Catala de la Salut and Autonomous Government of Catalonia (2009SGR290, 2014SGR338 and PERIS Project MedPerCan). INHERIT: Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program - grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade - grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. IOVHBOCS: Ministero della Salute and 5x1000 Istituto Oncologico Veneto grant. kConFab: The National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. MAYO: NIH grants CA116167, CA192393 and CA176785, an NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201),and a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation. MCGILL: Jewish General Hospital Weekend to End Breast Cancer, Quebec Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade. Marc Tischkowitz is supported by the funded by the European Union Seventh Framework Program (2007Y2013)/European Research Council (Grant No. 310018). MSKCC: the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, the Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative, the Andrew Sabin Research Fund and a Cancer Center Support Grant/Core Grant (P30 CA008748). NCI: the Intramural Research Program of the US National Cancer Institute, NIH, and by support services contracts NO2-CP-11019-50, N02-CP-21013-63 and N02-CP-65504 with Westat, Inc, Rockville, MD. NNPIO: the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grants 17-00-00171, 18-515-45012 and 19-515-25001). NRG Oncology: U10 CA180868, NRG SDMC grant U10 CA180822, NRG Administrative Office and the NRG Tissue Bank (CA 27469), the NRG Statistical and Data Center (CA 37517) and the Intramural Research Program, NCI. OSUCCG: Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center. PBCS: Italian Association of Cancer Research (AIRC) [IG 2013 N.14477] and Tuscany Institute for Tumours (ITT) grant 2014-2015-2016. SMC: the Israeli Cancer Association. SWE-BRCA: the Swedish Cancer Society. UCHICAGO: NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA125183), R01 CA142996, 1U01CA161032 and by the Ralph and Marion Falk Medical Research Trust, the Entertainment Industry Fund National Women's Cancer Research Alliance and the Breast Cancer research Foundation. UCSF: UCSF Cancer Risk Program and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center. UPENN: Breast Cancer Research Foundation; Susan G. Komen Foundation for the cure, Basser Research Center for BRCA. UPITT/MWH: Hackers for Hope Pittsburgh. VFCTG: Victorian Cancer Agency, Cancer Australia, National Breast Cancer Foundation. WCP: Dr Karlan is funded by the American Cancer Society Early Detection Professorship (SIOP-06-258-01-COUN) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), Grant UL1TR000124. HVH: Supported by the Carlos III National Health Institute funded by FEDER funds - a way to build Europe - PI16/11363. MT Parsons is supported by a grant from Newcastle University. Kelly-Anne Phillips is an Australian National Breast Cancer Foundation Fellow. ; Sí
Publisher's version (útgefin grein) ; Breast cancer is a common disease partially caused by genetic risk factors. Germline pathogenic variants in DNA repair genes BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2, ATM, and CHEK2 are associated with breast cancer risk. FANCM, which encodes for a DNA translocase, has been proposed as a breast cancer predisposition gene, with greater effects for the ER-negative and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) subtypes. We tested the three recurrent protein-truncating variants FANCM:p.Arg658*, p.Gln1701*, and p.Arg1931* for association with breast cancer risk in 67,112 cases, 53,766 controls, and 26,662 carriers of pathogenic variants of BRCA1 or BRCA2. These three variants were also studied functionally by measuring survival and chromosome fragility in FANCM−/− patient-derived immortalized fibroblasts treated with diepoxybutane or olaparib. We observed that FANCM:p.Arg658* was associated with increased risk of ER-negative disease and TNBC (OR = 2.44, P = 0.034 and OR = 3.79; P = 0.009, respectively). In a country-restricted analysis, we confirmed the associations detected for FANCM:p.Arg658* and found that also FANCM:p.Arg1931* was associated with ER-negative breast cancer risk (OR = 1.96; P = 0.006). The functional results indicated that all three variants were deleterious affecting cell survival and chromosome stability with FANCM:p.Arg658* causing more severe phenotypes. In conclusion, we confirmed that the two rare FANCM deleterious variants p.Arg658* and p.Arg1931* are risk factors for ER-negative and TNBC subtypes. Overall our data suggest that the effect of truncating variants on breast cancer risk may depend on their position in the gene. Cell sensitivity to olaparib exposure, identifies a possible therapeutic option to treat FANCM-associated tumors. ; Peterlongo laboratory is supported by Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC; IG2015 no.16732) to P. Peterlongo and by a fellowship from Fondazione Umberto Veronesi to G. Figlioli. Surrallés laboratory is supported by the ICREA-Academia program, the Spanish Ministry of Health (projects FANCOSTEM and FANCOLEN), the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competiveness (projects CB06/07/0023 and RTI2018-098419-B-I00), the European Commission (EUROFANCOLEN project HEALTH-F5-2012-305421 and P-SPHERE COFUND project), the Fanconi Anemia Research Fund Inc, and the "Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional, una manera de hacer Europa" (FEDER). CIBERER is an initiative of the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain. BCAC: we thank all the individuals who took part in these studies and all the researchers, clinicians, technicians and administrative staff who have enabled this work to be carried out. ABCFS thank Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Tu Nguyen-Dumont is a National Breast Cancer Foundation (Australia) Career Development Fellow. ABCS thanks the Blood bank Sanquin, The Netherlands. Samples are made available to researchers on a non-exclusive basis. BCEES thanks Allyson Thomson, Christobel Saunders, Terry Slevin, BreastScreen Western Australia, Elizabeth Wylie, Rachel Lloyd. The BCINIS study would not have been possible without the contributions of Dr. Hedy Rennert, Dr. K. Landsman, Dr. N. Gronich, Dr. A. Flugelman, Dr. W. Saliba, Dr. E. Liani, Dr. I. Cohen, Dr. S. Kalet, Dr. V. Friedman, Dr. O. Barnet of the NICCC in Haifa, and all the contributing family medicine, surgery, pathology and oncology teams in all medical institutes in Northern Israel. The BREOGAN study would not have been possible without the contributions of the following: Manuela Gago-Dominguez, Jose Esteban Castelao, Angel Carracedo, Victor Muñoz Garzón, Alejandro Novo Domínguez, Maria Elena Martinez, Sara Miranda Ponte, Carmen Redondo Marey, Maite Peña Fernández, Manuel Enguix Castelo, Maria Torres, Manuel Calaza (BREOGAN), José Antúnez, Máximo Fraga and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of the University Hospital Complex of Santiago-CHUS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago, IDIS, Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Santiago-SERGAS; Joaquín González-Carreró and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of University Hospital Complex of Vigo, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur, SERGAS, Vigo, Spain. BSUCH thanks Peter Bugert, Medical Faculty Mannheim. CBCS thanks study participants, co-investigators, collaborators and staff of the Canadian Breast Cancer Study, and project coordinators Agnes Lai and Celine Morissette. CCGP thanks Styliani Apostolaki, Anna Margiolaki, Georgios Nintos, Maria Perraki, Georgia Saloustrou, Georgia Sevastaki, Konstantinos Pompodakis. CGPS thanks staff and participants of the Copenhagen General Population Study. For the excellent technical assistance: Dorthe Uldall Andersen, Maria Birna Arnadottir, Anne Bank, Dorthe Kjeldgård Hansen. The Danish Cancer Biobank is acknowledged for providing infrastructure for the collection of blood samples for the cases. Investigators from the CPS-II cohort thank the participants and Study Management Group for their invaluable contributions to this research. They also acknowledge the contribution to this study from central cancer registries supported through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Program of Cancer Registries, as well as cancer registries supported by the National Cancer Institute Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results program. The CTS Steering Committee includes Leslie Bernstein, Susan Neuhausen, James Lacey, Sophia Wang, Huiyan Ma, and Jessica Clague DeHart at the Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Dennis Deapen, Rich Pinder, and Eunjung Lee at the University of Southern California, Pam Horn-Ross, Peggy Reynolds, Christina Clarke Dur and David Nelson at the Cancer Prevention Institute of California, Hoda Anton-Culver, Argyrios Ziogas, and Hannah Park at the University of California Irvine, and Fred Schumacher at Case Western University. DIETCOMPLYF thanks the patients, nurses and clinical staff involved in the study. The DietCompLyf study was funded by the charity Against Breast Cancer (Registered Charity Number 1121258) and the NCRN. We thank the participants and the investigators of EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition). ESTHER thanks Hartwig Ziegler, Sonja Wolf, Volker Hermann, Christa Stegmaier, Katja Butterbach. FHRISK thanks NIHR for funding. GC-HBOC thanks Stefanie Engert, Heide Hellebrand, Sandra Kröber and LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nüchter, Ronny Baber). The GENICA Network: Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch-Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, and University of Tübingen, Germany [HB, Wing-Yee Lo], German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) [HB], Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany's Excellence Strategy - EXC 2180 - 390900677 [HB], Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany [Yon-Dschun Ko, Christian Baisch], Institute of Pathology, University of Bonn, Germany [Hans-Peter Fischer], Molecular Genetics of Breast Cancer, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany [Ute Hamann], Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, Germany [TB, Beate Pesch, Sylvia Rabstein, Anne Lotz]; and Institute of Occupational Medicine and Maritime Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany [Volker Harth]. HABCS thanks Michael Bremer. HEBCS thanks Heidi Toiminen, Kristiina Aittomäki, Irja Erkkilä and Outi Malkavaara. HMBCS thanks Peter Hillemanns, Hans Christiansen and Johann H. Karstens. HUBCS thanks Shamil Gantsev. KARMA thanks the Swedish Medical Research Counsel. KBCP thanks Eija Myöhänen, Helena Kemiläinen. LMBC thanks Gilian Peuteman, Thomas Van Brussel, EvyVanderheyden and Kathleen Corthouts. MABCS thanks Milena Jakimovska (RCGEB "Georgi D. Efremov), Katerina Kubelka, Mitko Karadjozov (Adzibadem-Sistina" Hospital), Andrej Arsovski and Liljana Stojanovska (Re-Medika" Hospital) for their contributions and commitment to this study. MARIE thanks Petra Seibold, Dieter Flesch-Janys, Judith Heinz, Nadia Obi, Alina Vrieling, Sabine Behrens, Ursula Eilber, Muhabbet Celik, Til Olchers and Stefan Nickels. MBCSG (Milan Breast Cancer Study Group) thanks Daniela Zaffaroni, Irene Feroce, and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory. We thank the coordinators, the research staff and especially the MMHS participants for their continued collaboration on research studies in breast cancer. MSKCC thanks Marina Corines and Lauren Jacobs. MTLGEBCS would like to thank Martine Tranchant (CHU de Québec Research Center), Marie-France Valois, Annie Turgeon and Lea Heguy (McGill University Health Center, Royal Victoria Hospital; McGill University) for DNA extraction, sample management and skillful technical assistance. J.S. is Chairholder of the Canada Research Chair in Oncogenetics. NBHS thanks study participants and research staff for their contributions and commitment to the studies. We would like to thank the participants and staff of the Nurses' Health Study and Nurses' Health Study II for their valuable contributions as well as the following state cancer registries for their help: AL, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, DE, FL, GA, ID, IL, IN, IA, KY, LA, ME, MD, MA, MI, NE, NH, NJ, NY, NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, TN, TX, VA, WA, WY. The study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards of the Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and those of participating registries as required. The authors assume full responsibility for analyses and interpretation of these data. OFBCR thanks Teresa Selander and Nayana Weerasooriya. ORIGO thanks E. Krol-Warmerdam, and J. Blom for patient accrual, administering questionnaires, and managing clinical information. PBCS thanks Louise Brinton, Mark Sherman, Neonila Szeszenia-Dabrowska, Beata Peplonska, Witold Zatonski, Pei Chao and Michael Stagner. The ethical approval for the POSH study is MREC /00/6/69, UKCRN ID: 1137. We thank staff in the Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre (ECMC) supported Faculty of Medicine Tissue Bank and the Faculty of Medicine DNA Banking resource. PREFACE thanks Sonja Oeser and Silke Landrith. PROCAS thanks NIHR for funding. RBCS thanks Petra Bos, Jannet Blom, Ellen Crepin, Elisabeth Huijskens, Anja Kromwijk-Nieuwlaat, Annette Heemskerk, the Erasmus MC Family Cancer Clinic. We thank the SEARCH and EPIC teams. SKKDKFZS thanks all study participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers and technicians for their contributions and commitment to this study. We thank the SUCCESS Study teams in Munich, Duessldorf, Erlangen and Ulm. SZBCS thanks Ewa Putresza. UCIBCS thanks Irene Masunaka. UKBGS thanks Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research for support and funding of the Breakthrough Generations Study, and the study participants, study staff, and the doctors, nurses and other health care providers and health information sources who have contributed to the study. We acknowledge NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/ICR NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. CIMBA: we are grateful to all the families and clinicians who contribute to the studies; Sue Healey, in particular taking on the task of mutation classification with the late Olga Sinilnikova; Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Helen Tsimiklis; members and participants in the New York site of the Breast Cancer Family Registry; members and participants in the Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry; Vilius Rudaitis and Laimonas Griškevičius; Yuan Chun Ding and Linda Steele for their work in participant enrollment and biospecimen and data management; Bent Ejlertsen and Anne-Marie Gerdes for the recruitment and genetic counseling of participants; Alicia Barroso, Rosario Alonso and Guillermo Pita; all the individuals and the researchers who took part in CONSIT TEAM (Consorzio Italiano Tumori Ereditari Alla Mammella), thanks in particular: Giulia Cagnoli, Roberta Villa, Irene Feroce, Mariarosaria Calvello, Riccardo Dolcetti, Giuseppe Giannini, Laura Papi, Gabriele Lorenzo Capone, Liliana Varesco, Viviana Gismondi, Maria Grazia Tibiletti, Daniela Furlan, Antonella Savarese, Aline Martayan, Stefania Tommasi, Brunella Pilato, Isabella Marchi, Elena Bandieri, Antonio Russo, Daniele Calistri and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory, Milan, Italy. FPGMX: members of the Cancer Genetics group (IDIS): Ana Blanco, Miguel Aguado, Uxía Esperón and Belinda Rodríguez. We thank all participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers, and technicians for their contributions and commitment to the DKFZ study and the collaborating groups in Lahore, Pakistan (Noor Muhammad, Sidra Gull, Seerat Bajwa, Faiz Ali Khan, Humaira Naeemi, Saima Faisal, Asif Loya, Mohammed Aasim Yusuf) and Bogota, Colombia (Diana Torres, Ignacio Briceno, Fabian Gil). Genetic Modifiers of Cancer Risk in BRCA1/2 Mutation Carriers (GEMO) study is a study from the National Cancer Genetics Network UNICANCER Genetic Group, France. We wish to pay a tribute to Olga M. Sinilnikova, who with Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet initiated and coordinated GEMO until she sadly passed away on the 30th June 2014. The team in Lyon (Olga Sinilnikova, Mélanie Léoné, Laure Barjhoux, Carole Verny-Pierre, Sylvie Mazoyer, Francesca Damiola, Valérie Sornin) managed the GEMO samples until the biological resource centre was transferred to Paris in December 2015 (Noura Mebirouk, Fabienne Lesueur, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet). We want to thank all the GEMO collaborating groups for their contribution to this study. Drs.Sofia Khan, Irja Erkkilä and Virpi Palola; The Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Research Group Netherlands (HEBON) consists of the following Collaborating Centers: Netherlands Cancer Institute (coordinating center), Amsterdam, NL: M.A. Rookus, F.B.L. Hogervorst, F.E. van Leeuwen, M.A. Adank, M.K. Schmidt, N.S. Russell, D.J. Jenner; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, NL: J.M. Collée, A.M.W. van den Ouweland, M.J. Hooning, C.M. Seynaeve, C.H.M. van Deurzen, I.M. Obdeijn; Leiden University Medical Center, NL: C.J. van Asperen, P. Devilee, T.C.T.E.F. van Cronenburg; Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, NL: C.M. Kets, A.R. Mensenkamp; University Medical Center Utrecht, NL: M.G.E.M. Ausems, M.J. Koudijs; Amsterdam Medical Center, NL: C.M. Aalfs, H.E.J. Meijers-Heijboer; VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, NL: K. van Engelen, J.J.P. Gille; Maastricht University Medical Center, NL: E.B. Gómez-Garcia, M.J. Blok; University of Groningen, NL: J.C. Oosterwijk, A.H. van der Hout, M.J. Mourits, G.H. de Bock; The Netherlands Comprehensive Cancer Organisation (IKNL): S. Siesling, J.Verloop; The nationwide network and registry of histo- and cytopathology in The Netherlands (PALGA): A.W. van den Belt-Dusebout. HEBON thanks the study participants and the registration teams of IKNL and PALGA for part of the data collection. Overbeek; the Hungarian Breast and Ovarian Cancer Study Group members (Janos Papp, Aniko Bozsik, Zoltan Matrai, Miklos Kasler, Judit Franko, Maria Balogh, Gabriella Domokos, Judit Ferenczi, Department of Molecular Genetics, National Institute of Oncology, Budapest, Hungary) and the clinicians and patients for their contributions to this study; HVH (University Hospital Vall d'Hebron) the authors acknowledge the Oncogenetics Group (VHIO) and the High Risk and Cancer Prevention Unit of the University Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Miguel Servet Progam (CP10/00617), and the Cellex Foundation for providing research facilities and equipment; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; Dr Martine Dumont for sample management and skillful assistance; Catarina Santos and Pedro Pinto; members of the Center of Molecular Diagnosis, Oncogenetics Department and Molecular Oncology Research Center of Barretos Cancer Hospital; Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab investigators, research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab; the investigators of the Australia New Zealand NRG Oncology group; members and participants in the Ontario Cancer Genetics Network; Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, Julia Cooper, Amber Aielts, and Michelle O'Conor; Christina Selkirk; Helena Jernström, Karin Henriksson, Katja Harbst, Maria Soller, Ulf Kristoffersson; from Gothenburg Sahlgrenska University Hospital: Anna Öfverholm, Margareta Nordling, Per Karlsson, Zakaria Einbeigi; from Stockholm and Karolinska University Hospital: Anna von Wachenfeldt, Annelie Liljegren, Annika Lindblom, Brita Arver, Gisela Barbany Bustinza; from Umeå University Hospital: Beatrice Melin, Christina Edwinsdotter Ardnor, Monica Emanuelsson; from Uppsala University: Hans Ehrencrona, Maritta Hellström Pigg, Richard Rosenquist; from Linköping University Hospital: Marie Stenmark-Askmalm, Sigrun Liedgren; Cecilia Zvocec, Qun Niu; Joyce Seldon and Lorna Kwan; Dr. Robert Nussbaum, Beth Crawford, Kate Loranger, Julie Mak, Nicola Stewart, Robin Lee, Amie Blanco and Peggy Conrad and Salina Chan; Carole Pye, Patricia Harrington and Eva Wozniak. OSUCCG thanks Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, Julia Cooper, Michelle O'Conor and Amber Aeilts. BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A16563, C1287/A10118], the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant numbers 634935 and 633784 for BRIDGES and B-CAST respectively), and by the European Community´s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme funding source had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing of the report. Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the NIH Grant U19 CA148065, and Cancer UK Grant C1287/A16563 and the PERSPECTIVE project supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant GPH-129344) and, the Ministère de l'Économie, Science et Innovation du Québec through Genome Québec and the PSRSIIRI-701 grant, and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia) and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363]. The Australian Breast Cancer Tissue Bank (ABCTB) was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Cancer Institute NSW and the National Breast Cancer Foundation. The AHS study is supported by the intramural research program of the National Institutes of Health, the National Cancer Institute (grant number Z01-CP010119), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant number Z01-ES049030). The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). The BCEES was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia and the Cancer Council Western Australia. For the BCFR-NY, BCFR-PA, BCFR-UT this work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. BCINIS study was funded by the BCRF (The Breast Cancer Research Foundation, USA). The BREast Oncology GAlician Network (BREOGAN) is funded by Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI12/02125/Cofinanciado FEDER; Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136); Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur. Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Vigo-SERGAS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grant 10CSA012E, Consellería de Industria Programa Sectorial de Investigación Aplicada, PEME I + D e I + D Suma del Plan Gallego de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica de la Consellería de Industria de la Xunta de Galicia, Spain; Grant EC11-192. Fomento de la Investigación Clínica Independiente, Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, Spain; and Grant FEDER-Innterconecta. Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Xunta de Galicia, Spain. The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). Sample collection and processing was funded in part by grants from the National Cancer Institute (NCI R01CA120120 and K24CA169004). CBCS is funded by the Canadian Cancer Society (grant # 313404) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. CCGP is supported by funding from the University of Crete. The CECILE study was supported by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council, and Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. The American Cancer Society funds the creation, maintenance, and updating of the CPS-II cohort. The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is currently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398, K05 CA136967, UM1 CA164917, and U01 CA199277). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. The University of Westminster curates the DietCompLyf database funded by Against Breast Cancer Registered Charity No. 1121258 and the NCRN. The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucía, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Württemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). FHRISK is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The GC-HBOC (German Consortium of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer) is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, coordinator: Rita K. Schmutzler, Cologne). This work was also funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0 and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The GEPARSIXTO study was conducted by the German Breast Group GmbH. The GESBC was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e. V. [70492] and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The HABCS study was supported by the Claudia von Schilling Foundation for Breast Cancer Research, by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society, and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society, and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HMBCS was supported by a grant from the German Research Foundation (Do 761/10-1). The HUBCS was supported by a grant from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (RUS08/017), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations for support the Bioresource collections and RFBR grants 14-04-97088, 17-29-06014 and 17-44-020498. E.K was supported by the program for support the bioresource collections №007-030164/2 and study was performed as part of the assignment of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russian Federation (№АААА-А16-116020350032-1). Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (ALF) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Märit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. LMBC is supported by the 'Stichting tegen Kanker'. DL is supported by the FWO. The MABCS study is funded by the Research Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology "Georgi D. Efremov" and supported by the German Academic Exchange Program, DAAD. The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419, 110826, 110828], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC) and by funds from the Italian citizens who allocated the 5/1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects "5 × 1000"). The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer [CA116201], and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. MCCS cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further supported by Australian NHMRC grants 209057 and 396414, and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry (VCR) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. The MEC was support by NIH grants CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839 and CA164973. The MISS study is supported by funding from ERC-2011-294576 Advanced grant, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Local hospital funds, Berta Kamprad Foundation, Gunnar Nilsson. The MMHS study was supported by NIH grants CA97396, CA128931, CA116201, CA140286 and CA177150. MSKCC is supported by grants from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative. The work of MTLGEBCS was supported by the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program – grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. The NBHS was supported by NIH grant R01CA100374. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The Northern California Breast Cancer Family Registry (NC-BCFR) and Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) were supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The Carolina Breast Cancer Study was funded by Komen Foundation, the National Cancer Institute (P50 CA058223, U54 CA156733, U01 CA179715), and the North Carolina University Cancer Research Fund. The NHS was supported by NIH grants P01 CA87969, UM1 CA186107, and U19 CA148065. The NHS2 was supported by NIH grants UM1 CA176726 and U19 CA148065. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997-1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. Genotyping for PLCO was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health, NCI, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics. The PLCO is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The POSH study is funded by Cancer Research UK (grants C1275/A11699, C1275/C22524, C1275/A19187, C1275/A15956 and Breast Cancer Campaign 2010PR62, 2013PR044. PROCAS is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318). SEARCH is funded by Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124, C490/A16561] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. The Sister Study (SISTER) is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033). The Two Sister Study (2SISTER) was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES102245), and, also by a grant from Susan G. Komen for the Cure, grant FAS0703856. SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The SMC is funded by the Swedish Cancer Foundation and the Swedish Research Council [grant 2017-00644 for the Swedish Infrastructure for Medical Population-based Life-course Environmental Research (SIMPLER)]. The SZBCS is financially supported under the program of Minister of Science and Higher Education "Regional Initiative of Excellence" in years 2019-2022, Grant No 002/RID/2018/19. The TNBCC was supported by: a Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The UCIBCS component of this research was supported by the NIH [CA58860, CA92044] and the Lon V Smith Foundation [LVS39420]. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. ICR acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. The USRT Study was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. CIMBA CIMBA: The CIMBA data management and data analysis were supported by Cancer Research – UK grants C12292/A20861, C12292/A11174. ACA is a Cancer Research -UK Senior Cancer Research Fellow. GCT and ABS are NHMRC Research Fellows. The PERSPECTIVE project was supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation through Genome Québec, and The Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. BCFR: UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. BFBOCC: Lithuania (BFBOCC-LT): Research Council of Lithuania grant SEN-18/2015 and Nr. P-MIP-19-164. BIDMC: Breast Cancer Research Foundation. BMBSA: Cancer Association of South Africa (PI Elizabeth J. van Rensburg). CNIO: Spanish Ministry of Health PI16/00440 supported by FEDER funds, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) SAF2014-57680-R and the Spanish Research Network on Rare diseases (CIBERER). COH-CCGCRN: Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health under grant number R25CA112486, and RC4CA153828 (PI: J. Weitzel) from the National Cancer Institute and the Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. CONSIT TEAM: Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC; IG2014 no.15547) to P. Radice. Funds from Italian citizens who allocated the 5 × 1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects '5 × 1000') to S. Manoukian. UNIROMA1: Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC; grant no. 21389) to L. Ottini. DFKZ: German Cancer Research Center. EMBRACE: Cancer Research UK Grants C1287/A10118 and C1287/A11990. D. Gareth Evans and Fiona Lalloo are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre, Manchester (IS-BRC-1215-20007). The Investigators at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. Ros Eeles and Elizabeth Bancroft are supported by Cancer Research UK Grant C5047/A8385. Ros Eeles is also supported by NIHR support to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. FCCC: NIH/NCI grant P30-CA006927. The University of Kansas Cancer Center (P30 CA168524) and the Kansas Bioscience Authority Eminent Scholar Program. A.K.G. was funded by R0 1CA140323, R01 CA214545, and by the Chancellors Distinguished Chair in Biomedical Sciences Professorship. Ana Vega is supported by the Spanish Health Research Foundation, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), partially supported by FEDER funds through Research Activity Intensification Program (contract grant numbers: INT15/00070, INT16/00154, INT17/00133), and through Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enferemdades Raras CIBERER (ACCI 2016: ER17P1AC7112/2018); Autonomous Government of Galicia (Consolidation and structuring program: IN607B), and by the Fundación Mutua Madrileña (call 2018). GC-HBOC: German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, Rita K. Schmutzler) and the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). GEMO: Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer; the Association "Le cancer du sein, parlons-en!" Award, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program, the French National Institute of Cancer (INCa) (grants AOR 01 082, 2013-1-BCB-01-ICH-1 and SHS-E-SP 18-015) and the Fondation ARC pour la recherche sur le cancer (grant PJA 20151203365). GEORGETOWN: the Survey, Recruitment and Biospecimen Shared Resource at Georgetown University (NIH/NCI grant P30-CA051008) and the Fisher Center for Hereditary Cancer and Clinical Genomics Research. HCSC: Spanish Ministry of Health PI15/00059, PI16/01292, and CB-161200301 CIBERONC from ISCIII (Spain), partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER funds. HEBCS: Helsinki University Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. HEBON: the Dutch Cancer Society grants NKI1998-1854, NKI2004-3088, NKI2007-3756, the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research grant NWO 91109024, the Pink Ribbon grants 110005 and 2014-187.WO76, the BBMRI grant NWO 184.021.007/CP46 and the Transcan grant JTC 2012 Cancer 12-054. HUNBOCS: Hungarian Research Grants KTIA-OTKA CK-80745 and NKFI_OTKA K-112228. HVH (University Hospital Vall d'Hebron) This work was supported by Spanish Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII) funding, an initiative of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Innovation partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER Funds: FIS PI12/02585 and PI15/00355. ICO: The authors would like to particularly acknowledge the support of the Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer (AECC), the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (organismo adscrito al Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad) and "Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER), una manera de hacer Europa" (PI10/01422, PI13/00285, PIE13/00022, PI15/00854, PI16/00563, P18/01029, and CIBERONC) and the Institut Català de la Salut and Autonomous Government of Catalonia (2009SGR290, 2014SGR338, 2017SGR449, and PERIS Project MedPerCan), and CERCA program. IHCC: PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004. ILUH: Icelandic Association "Walking for Breast Cancer Research" and by the Landspitali University Hospital Research Fund. INHERIT: Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program – grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. IOVHBOCS: Ministero della Salute and "5 × 1000" Istituto Oncologico Veneto grant. IPOBCS: Liga Portuguesa Contra o Cancro. kConFab: The National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. MAYO: NIH grants CA116167, CA192393 and CA176785, an NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), and a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation. MCGILL: Jewish General Hospital Weekend to End Breast Cancer, Quebec Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade. Marc Tischkowitz is supported by the funded by the European Union Seventh Framework Program (2007Y2013)/European Research Council (Grant No. 310018). MSKCC: the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, the Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative, the Andrew Sabin Research Fund and a Cancer Center Support Grant/Core Grant (P30 CA008748). NCI: the Intramural Research Program of the US National Cancer Institute, NIH, and by support services contracts NO2-CP-11019-50, N02-CP-21013-63 and N02-CP-65504 with Westat, Inc, Rockville, MD. NNPIO: the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grants 17-54-12007, 17-00-00171 and 18-515-45012). NRG Oncology: U10 CA180868, NRG SDMC grant U10 CA180822, NRG Administrative Office and the NRG Tissue Bank (CA 27469), the NRG Statistical and Data Center (CA 37517) and the Intramural Research Program, NCI. OSUCCG: was funded by the Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center. PBCS: Italian Association of Cancer Research (AIRC) [IG 2013 N.14477] and Tuscany Institute for Tumors (ITT) grant 2014-2015-2016. SMC: the Israeli Cancer Association. SWE-BRCA: the Swedish Cancer Society. UCHICAGO: NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA125183), R01 CA142996, 1U01CA161032 and by the Ralph and Marion Falk Medical Research Trust, the Entertainment Industry Fund National Women's Cancer Research Alliance and the Breast Cancer research Foundation. UCSF: UCSF Cancer Risk Program and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center. UKFOCR: Cancer Researc h UK. UPENN: National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R01-CA102776 and R01-CA083855; Breast Cancer Research Foundation; Susan G. Komen Foundation for the cure, Basser Research Center for BRCA. UPITT/MWH: Hackers for Hope Pittsburgh. VFCTG: Victorian Cancer Agency, Cancer Australia, National Breast Cancer Foundation. WCP: Dr Karlan is funded by the American Cancer Society Early Detection Professorship (SIOP-06-258-01-COUN) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), Grant UL1TR000124. ; Peer Reviewed
Issue 12.1 of the Review for Religious, 1953. ; Review t:or ~eligious Volume XII January December, 1953 Publlshed'at ~ THE COLLEGE PRESS Topeka, Kansas , "Edited by THE JESUIT FATHERS SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE St. Marys, Kansas REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is indexed in ÷he CATHOLIC PERIODICAL INDEX ¯ The C rt:husi ns Jerome Breunig, S.J. ~"HE centuries-old Carthusian Order is breaking ground in the | NewWorld and the eyes of America are watching with interest. Through the generosity of a benefactress and with the approval of the Bishop of Burlington, the Most Rev. Edward F. Ryafi~, a pio-neer band, consisting of two Carthusian priests and two lay brothers with some Americancandid~ates, has established the first ~ommunity at Sky Farm near Whitingham in the Vermont hills. The very name Carthusian is pronounced, with reverence on Catholic lips, and in .many minds it represents the ultimate in austerity and deep spiritual-ity. The coming of the Carthusians brings many questi~ons to mind. Is there place for them today? Aren't they passe, a respected' relic of the past? Just how old are they? Who founded them and why? Do they differ from the Trappists? What do they do? What did they do? How do they live? Is it true that they do not eat meat, that they do not heat their rooms, that they always wear a hairshirt? Are there Carthusian nuns? Many of these and similar questions are answered in the Apos-tolic Constitution of Pius XI, Umbratilem, in the booklet, The Car-thusian Foundation in America, and in tw~o recent books that com.- plement each other: The Cartbusians, which gives a detailed factual' description ,of their life, and The White; Paradise, which is a glowing account of his visit to the chartethouse ~it La Valsainte in.Switzer-land by the gifted autho£-conv~rtI, Peter van der Meer de Walcheren. Mo~t of the information in this article is taken from these four sources. Any questioning of the validity; and modern relevance of the Carthusians should be cut short by Umbratilem, the Constitution issued on July 8, 1924, when the Statutes of the Carthusian Order were. approved in conformity with the new dode of Canon Law. This important document on the contemplative life states clearly at the, outset that Carthusians h~ive chosen the better part, and holds up their life to the, admiration and imitation of all. ".All those, who, according to their .rule~ lead a life of solitude 'remote from the din and follies of" the world, and who not only ~3 JEROME BREUNIG Reoiew for Religious assiduously cbntemplate the divine mysteries and the ~ternal truths, and pou~ forth ardent.and continual prayers to God that his king-- dom may flourish and be daily spread more widely, but who also atone for the sins of other men still more than for their own by mortification, prescribed or voluntary, of mind and body--such indeed must be said to have choser~ the better part, like~ Mary of Bethany. "For no more perfect state and rule of life than that *can be pro-posed for men to take up and embrace, if the Lord calls them to it. Moreover, by the inward holiness of those who lead the solitary life in the silence of the cloister and by their most intimate union with Gbd, is kept brightly shining the halo of' that holiness which the spotless Bride of Jesus Christ holds up to the admiration and imita- ~tion of all." The document also mikes it clear that there is need for Carthu- .sians today. "For, if ever it was needf_ul that there should be ancho; rites of that sort in the Church of God it is most specially expedient nowa'days "when we see so (nany Christians-living without a thought for the things of the next world and utterly regardless of their eter-nal salvation,° giving rein to their desire for earthly pelf and the pleasures of the flesh an'd adopting and exhibiting publicly as well as in their private life pagan manners altogether opposed to the Gospel. ¯ . . It is, besides, easy to understand how they who assiduously fulfil the duty of prayer and penance contribute much l~ore to the increase of the Church and the welfare of mankind than those who labo~ in tilling the Master's field; for unless the former drew down from heaven a shower of divine graces to water the field that" is being tilled, the evangelical laborers would reap forsooth from their toil a more Scanty crop." The Founder An authentic hunger for God led a diocesan priest-educator in the eleventh century to formulate a" way of life that h'appily blends community life with thelife of solitude and keeps the advantages of each form. This life was first put into practice in 1082 by the same priest and six companions at Chartreuse in the Alps of Dauphin~, in Southern France, and endures to our day. From the extant r~cord of tributes after his death, this priest, whom we know as St. Bruno, was one of the great men of his time. Besides noting Bruno's talents as a preacher, writer, and educator, these tributes single out three vir-tues for which the saint was conspicuous: spirit of prayer, extreme January, 1953 THE CARTHUSIANS mortification, and filial devotion to Our Lady, virtues also conspicu-ous in his Order. Born in Cologne, St. Bruno (1030-i l~J)'studied at the episco-pal school at Rbeims. After his ordination he remained at this school for 25 Years as '.teacher~, principal, and "diocesan superintendentl) of schools. After a short term as chancellor of the diocese he evaded the efforts of the clerg~ to make him their bishop by "~scaping" to Chartreuse in 1082. In .I090 Pope Urban II called his former teacher, St. Bruno, to Rome to be his counsellor. The orphaned community wavered in their vocation for a time and later even deserted by.following their founder to Rome, but after a year they returned to their hermitages at Chartreuse. Though Sty. Bruno made the ground plan for the Carthusian Order, it was the fifth general, Guigo the Venerable (1109-1136) wh6 xvrote the Consuetudines, the first Statutes of the Order. "The Consuetudines are the Carthu-sian gospel, Guigo our evangelist and Saint Bruno our founder and lawgiver" (The Carthusians, 17). The Life of Solitude In Rome is a famous statue of St. Bruno by~Houdon. It is so lifelike, the comment is: "It would speak if his rule did not compel him to silence." Silence and solitude, so essential to the Cartbusian life, are insured by providing each monk with a separate hermitage consisting of four distinct rooms and an enclosed ghrden plot. There is a storeroom and work shop, usually on the first floor, and, above, an ante-chamber called the Ave Maria, because it honors a statue of, Our Lady, and an "'inner chamber" or living room. A private wash-room is also provided. In the cell proper the monk has a prayer-stall, desk and book cas~, a bed, and a small table for meals. Except on Sundays and feast days the meals are brought to an opening in each cell. There is never any breakfast and m~at'is never permitted even in sickness. From September 14 to Easter the evening meal is cut down to a collation of dry bread and whatever is the most com-mon drink of the country. Penitential as it is; the diet seems to insure longevity rather than shorten life. The cell is the monk's "living toom." Except for community exercises and the occasional recreation periods the monk never leaves his hermitage. He lives for God and God alone. Here he devotes whole hours to study, to spiritual reading, and to prayer, including mental prayer, the part of the Divine Office not said in choir, the JEROME BREUNIG . Reoieto for Religious Office of Our Lady. and sometimes the Office of the Dead¯ Since "the harp needs a rest,", th~ monk relaxes from time to time with light manual work such as sawing wood for his fire, cultivating his gar-den. making religious articles, and caring for the hermitage. No siesta is permitted and the night's sleep is always broken into two periods of about three and a half hours each by the night Offce. The Comrnunit~ Life The community life which tempers the solitude provides a~ frame-work with a fixed daily'order and sustains the courage of each monk by mutual good example. 'jBrother helped by brother-makes a strong city." The main daily communal exercises are the chanting of the night Office and of Vespers and the conventual Mass. On Sundays and feast days the rest of the Office except Compline is-chanted, meals arc taken in the refectory, and there is a recreation period. Besides there is a weekly walk outside the enclosure.- ,This period is called, the spatiarnenturn and lasts about three and a half hours. Dom I.e Masson an outstanding general of the order'(1675~- 1703). says of this exercise: "It is only with the greatest reluctance that I excuse from the spatiarnentum, and then. on!y to tbe aged. So great, it appears to me. is the utility of this walk for good both of body and soul . More easily and willingly would I exempt a car-thusian monk from the night Office for some days, or from fasts, of th~ Order. than from the spatiarner~tum." (The Cartbusians. 62.) What They Did Onl.y eternity will unfold the~ contribution of the Carthuslan Order to~ the glory, ~: God- and .the salvation of souls. Even in recorded history the order is eminent in providing the Church with saints, beati, and saintly bishops, archbishops, and a few cardinals. Perhaps the greatest s!ng[e contribution is the'treasure of writings in ascetical and m~stical theology. The only wealth of any kind in a charterbouse was to be found in the library. Scbolarship'was always held in high esteem and the monks helped enrich other libraries as well as their own ldy providing both copyists and eminent writers. Besides St. Bruno,' who is said to have written bi~ famou~ commen~ ¯ tary on the Epistles of St. Paul when at Chartreuse, the list of writers includes Ludolf of Saxony, whose Vita Cbris~ti was so influential for centuries~ Dionysius the Carthusian called the Ecstatic Doctor, who has written more than St: Augustine; John Lansperg, who ~_~te of Devotion to the Sacred Heart before St: Margaret Mary l and Lau- danuar~t, 1953 THE CARTHUSIANS rentius Surius, whose Vitae still help supplement the work of the ~3011andists. The official document of the Church Ur~bratilem is quite articu-late about the contribution of the Carthusians to the. religious life. "In his great kindness, God, who is ever attentive to the needs and well-being of his Church, chose Bruno. a man of eminent sanctity, for the work of bringing the contemplative life back to the glory of it~ original integrity: To that intent Bruno founded the Carthusian Order. imbued it thoroughly with his own spirit and provided it with those.laws which might efficaciously induce its members to ad, ,vance speedily along the way of inward sanctity and of the most rigorous penance, to the preclusion of every sort of exterior, ministr) and office: laws which would also impel th~em to persevere with steadfast hearts in the same austere and hard life. And it is a recog-nised fact that through nearly nine hundred years the Carthusians have 'so wel! retained the spirit of their Founder, Father "and Law- , giver that unlike other religious bodies, their Order has never in'~o long a space of time needed any amendment, or, as they say, reform." The badge of the order is appropriate. It is a globe surrounded by~ a cross and seven stars, with the motto: Star crux dum votoitur orbis terrarum The cross remains firm while the world keeps spinning around. If, persecution is a mark of Christ's followers, the Carthusians can certainly, be identified. "They have persecuted Me. they will also persecute you.'" Three Carthusian priors .were among the proto-martyrs of Henry VIII: fifteen more mohks died on the scaffold or starved to death in prison during the English persecution which practically suppressed the order in that country.~ Spain pre-vented a Carthusian foundation in Mexico in 1559, compelled the charterhouses to separate from the order in 1784, and suppressed them in 1835. The, French Revolution was the greatest blow. In ",1789 there were about 122 charterhouses. Almost all,of-them were suppressed, first in France and then throughout Europe as the French armies over-ran the continent. The restored houses in France were again disrupted in 1901 as a result of the Association Laws. Tile. Italian houses were suppressed during the course of the Risorgimento. The Carthusian Order in 1607 had about 260 houses with 2,500 choir monks and 1,300 lay brothers and donn~s. At the pres-ent time there are 18 established charterhouses witil a total of over 600 members. There are four charterhouses in France, five in Italy and Spain, and one each in Switzerland, Jugoslavia, Germany, and England. 7 January, ) 953 The Carthusian Nuns In 1245 Blessed John of Spain,, Prior of,the Charterhouse of Montrieux, was ordered to adapt the Carthusian Rule for a group of nuns at the Abbey of Pr~bayon in Provence. Since then there have never been more than ten convents for Carthusian nuns. The nuns; live in private rooms not separate buildings, have two recreations a day, eat in a common refectory, and are not obliged to wear the hair-shirt. They spend eleven hours a day in prayer, meditation, and work, and are allowed eight hours, sleep. The nuns have always been distinguished for their austere sanctity and strict observance. Out-standing among them ar~ Blessed Beatrix of Ornacieux and St. Rose-line of Villaneuve. Both lived durin'g the fourteenth century. The body of the latter is still incorrupt. At present there are four con-vents for nuns, two in France and two in Italy. BOOKS ABOUT THE CARTHUSIANS The following can be obtained from The Carthusian Foundation, Sky Farm, Whitingham, Vermont: The'Church and the Carthusians. The teaching of Pope Plus XI as contained in the Apostolic Constitution Umbratilem; Introduction, translation and Latin text. Pp. 18. $.10. The Cartbusian Foundation in America. Pp. 24. With pictures and illustrations, $.25. The Carthusians: Origin --- Splrlt--Familg Life. First p~inted in 1924. Re-printed in 1952 by the Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland, Pp. 107. $1.75. The White Paradise. The Life of the Carthusians. By Peter van der Meer de Walcheren. Witha preface by ~Jacques Maritain. David McKay Co., New York, 1952., Pp. 91. $2~00. THEOLO~Cf DI~EST Theglogy Digest, a new publication edited by ' Jesuits at. St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, is for priests, religious, seminarians, and laity who are interested 'in present-day theological thought, but who perhaps find it hard to maintain and cultivate this interest. The Digest aims to help such readers to ke~p informed of current problems and developments in theology by presenting a concise sampling of current periodical writings in America and Europe. The digests-deal with the vari-ous branches of theological learning--Apologetics. Dogmatic Theology, Scripture, Moral Theology and Canon Law, Ascetics, Liturgy, and Church History--with emphasis on the speculative rather tbar~ the pastoral aspects of theology. Published three times yearly. Subscription price in U,S.A.] Canada, and coun-tries of Pan-American Union, $2~00. Foreign, $2.25. Send subscriptions to: Theology Digest, 1015 Central, Kansas City 5, Missouri. "So Trust in God as it:. ," Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. ! [AUTHOR'S NOTE: For nearly everything in this brief account I gladly and grate-fully acknowledge my indebtedness to the article by C. A. Kneller, S.J., "'Ein Wort cleshl, lonatius oon Logola,'" in the Zeitschri?t t~uer Aszese und M~stil~, 1928, 253-'257. There one will find a fuller treatment of the matter and the original texts.] ONE could hardly be familiar with modern spiritual literature and not have encounfered one or the other, or both, of these sayings attributed to St. Ignatius: "So trust in God as if all success depended on yourself, and not at all on God; but take all pains' as if you were going to do nothing, and God alone every-thing"; and the other: "S~ trust in Go.d as. if all success depended on Him, and not at all on yourself; but take all pains as if God were going to do, nothing, and you alone everything." Both rules have become commonplace. The firsl~, more paradoxical, form occurs in various editions of the Thesaurus Spiritualis Soci~tatis desu, an official collection of documents of prime importance in the spiritual formation of mem-bers of the Society and in the hands of all of them. This version was first published by the Hungarian Jesuit Gabriel Hevenesi (d. 17i5) in a little book entitled lgnatian Sparks. For every,day of the year he proposed an aphorism of St. Ignatius. They were to have some-thing of the effect, if we may use an anachronistic cgmparison, of a spark-plug upon one's daily life and fervor. The book rhust have been excellent: it went through dozens of editions, one of them being ~s late as 1909. This di'ctum, "So trust . .," is put down for January 2, a fact which suggests that in' Hevenesi's opinion it was one of the best of the maxims which he' found in St. Ignatius. The dictum has been censured as contrary to the Catholic doc-trine of grace. It implies, the objection runs~ that man carinot do anything, not even merit, toward his eternal salvation. But the maxim is not concerned with how divine and human activities are united. I~t purports to give a working rule on how to combine one's expectations with one's exertions. It has.also been argued that the saying does not make sense, and that therefore it could not have been uttered b'y St. Ignatius. In an article on "The Tensions of Catholicism" in ThoughtI 1. Thought (December, 1950), 630-662. AUGUSTINE ~. F.LLARD Reoieuv/'or Religious Father Andr~ Godin.states that Catholic hope can deteriorate in two different vfay:~. The first is.by way of "the rationalizing tendency: to march toward salvation with assurance and in a spirit of con-quest." The secohd is the "affective tendency: to attain salvation ~hrough fear and tremblirig.'; The true "Catholic equilibrium of "the two tendencies" is "to act as though all depends on God and to pray as though all depends on us." He notes that ."the formula is sometimes r~versed, but then it ,s~ems extremely banal.''~ Father Godin takes "this celebrated formula" to mean that in Christian action there should be both humility and hope, and in pra, yer anguish as wellas ardent appeal. It excludes both Quietism and Pelagian-ism. One's life becomes a unified whole, in which there are both "the tranquil certitude of Christian hope 'and the. anxiety of invocation in .prayer." . If one were perfectly united with God and as it' were identified with Him, one might well trust in God as if all success depended on oneself, that is, really, on God, and tak~ all ~pains as if. God were going to do everything, that is again, God and oneself co-operating with Him. ~Father Pinard de la Boullaye, in his Saint Ignace de Logolq Directeur d'Ames, quotes it in French translation. He ~ays that it was inspired.by the doctrine of St. Paul: "I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth" (I Cor.3:7). It should warn us, he adds, not to be negligent in any way on the-plea that after all it is reallyGod who accomplisl~es things. But Father Pinard de la Boullaye seems to betray a sense that there is something wrong with this direction by supplementing it immediately with another "quota-tlon from St. Ignatius (and Hevenesi also) strongly emphasizing foresight and constant self-correction: "To plan in advance,, what one is going to do, and then to examine what one has done, are two of the most.reliable rules for acting r.ightly,''~ The counsel to trust in God as if nothing depended on Him, and to exert oneself as if one's efforts were to have no effect, seems indeed to be more than a paradox or an oxymoron: how understand it as something other than a perfect absurdity? One so advised might ask, "How am I to go about formulating such a trust? What is the point in doing something expressly acknowledged to be of no avail ?" Although this first form of the maxim is in every Jesuit's 2.Ibiil~, p: 64~. 3. Thesaucu~"Spiritualis Societatis Jeiu (Bruges, 1897); No. 9, p. 604.~ 10 ~la'nua~'~ 1953 So TRUST IN G6D Tbesaurus~ oddly enough it is not the one more Commonly heard, or encountered. One is more, apt~ to meet, substantially this advice:. "Trust in God as if everythifig depended on Him, and exeft yourself as if you were'doing everything by' yourself." Given "this contrary and more intelligible .turn, the principle is said to ha;ce been a favorite guiding rule of the late eminent Arch-, bishop John I~eland of St. Paul. However, with him it underwent a further minor change: "We ought to act as if everything depe'nded on us, and pratt as if everything depended on God." Praying is sub-stituted for trusting. One of the most famohs pulpit-orators of the last century, namely, the French Jes6it Xavier de Ravignan, distin-guished for the conferences he used to give in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris, in advising some of his younger religious brethren how to prepare themselves for preaching, said: "Listen to St. Ignatius, " who gives us this'meaningful counsel, 'One must do all as if one were alone in acting, and one must expect everything from God as if one ¯ had done nothing.' " This form of the saying is very common' on leaflets given to .retreatants, on :religious-calendars, holy cards, and so on. Another slightly different turn given to it is this: "Let Us ;act as bravely as if we could d6 everything, and still abandon ourselves to Providence as if we ~ould do nothing." A person who hears, that St. Ignatius advises one to act a~ if everything depended on ~ne's self and then again 'as-if nothing at all depended on one's self, may rightly '.wonder what St. Ignatius really said. Reason for wondering is enhanced when one notices the long interval of time that elapsed between Ignatius and Hevenesi, namely, .150 years. If, too, one should try to. find the' original 'words of St. Ignatius in hi~ printed works or in other first-class sources, one's wonderment could become still greater. Neither the first nor the second form of this saying is a direct~ quotation from the saint. However, the substance or idea of toe ~econd form does occur repeat-edly in the documents written by him or by his contemporar{es about Hevenesi gives, as his authority the Bologna Jesuit Carnoli (d. 1.693), Who published a life.of St. Ignatius at Venice ~n 1680. In a chapter on the faith and hope of the saint he relates the follow-ing incident. Off a certain occasion Ignatius, accompanied by Riba-' deneira, a confidant and frequent companion of his, called on~ the Spanish ambassador in Rome, the Marquis de Sarria, ~nd met with a cool reception. Ighatius's suspicion ~as that the M~rquis was piqued AUGUSTINE (3. ELLARD . . Review for Religious because~ his influence with the Pope was not considered great and his intercession was not much in demand. Then Ignatius explained to Ribadeneira that thirty years earlier the Lord had taught him to employ all permissible means in the divine service, but not to build his hope upon them. Hence neither upon the noble Marquis nor upon any other creature would he base his confidence. Carnoli does not give his source. In fact at that time it was not in print. Now it is, namely Ribadeneira's work, De Actis P. N. lgnatii.* In No. 108, the pertinent place, Ribadeneira writes: "He said to me that he thought of telling him that thirty-six [sic] years ago our Lord had given him to understand that in. matters of His holy servic'e, he ought to use all the possible legitimate means, but then to place his confidence in God, not in those means." Ribadeneira himself wrote a biography of St. Ignatius, and in the account of this visit quotes him as saying: "I shall tell him [the Ambassador], an'd I shall say it plainly, that thirty years [sic] ago I 'learned from God that in doing the work of God, I should seek all helps, but in such a way that I consider my hope to rest, not in those aids, but in Godralmselr. . s In a letter to St. Francis Borgia St. Ignatius gives expression to the same thought: "Looking to God our Lord in all things . considering it wrong to trust and hope merely in any means or efforts by themselves, and also not regarding it as secure to trust entirely in God without using the help He has .given, since it seems to me in our Lord that I ought to avail myself of all aids . I have ordered . "6 I The same Ribadeneira wrote a treatise entitled "On the Method of St. Ignatius in Governing," and in it he says: "In the matters belonging to the service of ou~ Lord that he undertook, he employed all human, means to succeed in them, with as-much care and efficiency as if success depended on them, and" he confided in God and kept himself dependent on divine Providence as if all those other human means that he took were of no effect.''7 Pinard de la B'oullaye gives several other .references to old writings which witness to St. Igna-tius's use of the sam~ principle.8 4. Monumenta Historica Societatis Jesu, Monumenta lgnatiana, Set. ,~, v. 1. 391 ; cf. 400. ¯ 5. Pedro de Ribadeneira, Vitq lgnatii Loyolae (Cologne, 1602), Lib. 5. cap. 9, 615ff. 6. Monumenta'Ignatiana, Set. 1, t~. 9 (Sept. 17, 1555), 626. 7. Ibid., Set. 4, v. 1, 466. 8. Pinard de la Boullaye, Saint lgnace de Loyola Directeur d'Ame~, p. 299. 12 January, 1953 So TRUST IN GOD This principle is also characteristic of the spirit that animates the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus. In one of the most important parts of them, after stating that, to preser;;'e and perfect the Society, supernatural means should be given the priority, the Founder says: "This foundation having been laid . natural means also . . . are conducive to the same end; if however they be learned and used sin-cerely and only for the service of God, not that our trust should rest upon them, but rather that, in accordance with the order of His supreme providence, we should in this way co-operate with divine grace.''9 The very same idea, in almost identical words, is proposed in the rules for priests.1° Perhaps the latest development in the long and complicated record of this aphorism :is the,following. About the beginning of 1951 Father Joseph De Lapparent, editor of Vari~t~s Sinotogiques~ wrote to Father John B. Janssens, the General of the Society, com-plaining'that the text of this dictum as it occurs in all the different editions of the Thesaurus Spiritualis was defective. In reply Father Janssens says: "Although that form of.the saying is not without -some sense~ it must be confessed that it is twisted and far-fetched, and does not perfectly correspond to very many sayings of St. Igna-tius, as one can see in the notes already published by your Rever, encen and in the study of Father C. A. Kneller, S.J., "Ein Wort des hl. Iqnatius yon Loyola.' "'~ Father Janssens goes on to say that in getting out the Spanish edition of the Thesaurus pubiished at San-tander in 1935 the'editor did well to change th~ text to: "So trust God as if all success depended on Him, not at all from, yourself; however, exert yourself as if God were going to do nothing, and you alone.everything."~3 ~ Before the times if St. Ig.natius the well known theologian, spir-itual writer, and chancellor of the University of Paris, John Gerson (1363-1429) had said something very. similar: "Presumption re-fuses to co-operate with God, and despair will not wait for ~he co-operation of God with it. The middle course is so to act that everything may be attributed to divine giace, and so to trust in grace 9. Constitutiones Societatis desu, Pars X, n. 3. 10. Regulae Societatis desu (1932), No. 14. 11. Nouvelles de la Mission de Shanghai, Sept. 15, 1944; Oct. 31, 1947; Dec. 30, 1948. 12. Zeitschrift fuer Aszese und M~stik (1928), 253-257. , 13. Acta Romana Soc&tatis desu (1952), 137-138. 13 AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD as not to give up one's own activity, doing what one can.'°14 Bossuet's conception of the matter was thus expressed: "One ought to expect everything from God, but nevertheless t0 act also. For one ought not only to pray as if God alone should do every-thing, but also to do what one can, and use one's own will with. grace, for everything is done through this co-operation. But neither should we ever forget that it is always God who takes'the initiative, for there precisely lies the basis of humility.''is St. Vincent de Paul puts it ~hus: "I cons,ider it a good maxim to avail oneself of all the means that are licit and possible for the glory of God, as if God should not help us~ provided that one expect all things' from His divine Providence, as if we did not have any human means."16 An Englishman, who like St. Ignatius, has a name in history as a military 'man and a religious leader, but was~ very unlike him in other respects, namely, Oliver Cromwell, is said to have given his followers this admonition: "Put your trust in G6d; but mind to keep your powder dry!" 14. "'De Si~nis Bonis et Malis;'" Opera (Ed. Dupin)~ III, 158 d. 15. Meditations sur l'Etaangile (40e jour).: cf. Pinard de la Boullaye, op.cit.29.9. 16. Letter t6 Markus Cogl~e (April 24, 1652), Oeuvres (Ed. P2 Coste, Paris, 19.21) ,rlV, 366. EXAMINATION OF THE PAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS" , Proposed for Superior.s General 1. Has the love of God grown in proportion to the graces offered: daily Com-mumon, develop~ent.'of liturgical life, deeper study of Holy Scripture, increased de-vouon to Our Lady, doctrine of the Mystical Body, and way of spiritual childhood? Are there more souls of prayer in our communities? Is there a deeper sense-of God? 2. Has true charity increased within our communitie~ in thought, word, and deed? 3. Is tension caused by the quantity of work undertaken, to the detriment of patience and humility which ,should win hearts and draw them, to the religious life? -4. Has motherly charity in government rather than mere administration given a true idea of the holocaust of charity? '5. Has the pursuit of technical and p~ofessional progress obscured ~he need fo~ poverty, disinterestedness, a, nd0great lo~;e for the poor? / 6. Is the Gospelspirit of self-denial, penance, and reparation not only unques-tioned but stronger~to defend religious holiness against the spirit of the world? 7. Is more consideration given to religious who are tired and over-strained, and ".what means are taken to guard against that conditibn? 8. Have fi'iendliness between congregations, collaboration in work, the "spirit of the Church," increased? 14 Lengt:h ot: Lil:e of Religious Men: Marianist:s, 1820-195! Gerald J. Schnepp; S.M~ and John T. Kurz, S.M. ~'JHAT is the average age at death of male religious? Has their W~ length ~o~ life increased, decade by decade, with the rest of the population? Are there differences by country? Finally, how does the average age at de~ath of religious' compare with that of males in the general pdpulation? Answers to these questions are now availhble for 2,380 Marian-ists who died in the Society of Mary between 1820 and 1951. Source of the st~atistics is the latest edition of the Necrolo~g of ibe Societg of Marg which lists the name, age at death, and year and place of death of each religious who persevered.1, The Soci~ety of Mary was founded in 1817 in Bordeaux,-France, "by Very Reverend William Joseph Cha~inade: during the decade 1820-29, seven religious2 were called to their eternal reward and in succeeding decades, increasing numbers died. The congregation comprises three categories of persons: Priests, Teaching Brothers, and Working Brbthers. For the present study,s no breakdown by categories is given because, first, the Necrol-ogo does not distinguish the two types of Brothers, and secondly, the number of Priests is too small (perhaps ten per cent of the total) tO supply an adequate sample over the 130-year period covered.4 Let us take up, in order, the answers to the four questions posed. The mean or average age at death of the entire group of 2,380 Marianists is 55.7 years, with a standard deviation of 22.4 years: 1purpose of, the Necrology (Dayton, Ohio: Mount St. John Press. 1952), which also lists the exact day of death, is to recall to the li~'ing members the names of the deceased, for remembrance in their prayers: the list for the following day is read in community after the evening meal. 2Here and throughout the article is included the first Marianist to die, Brother An-thony Cantau, who passed away in Bordeaux in 1819. 3The present article is based on John Kurz, S.M., Length of Life of Male Religious (Unpublished M.A. thesis, Saint Louis University, 1952). 4Research on the lengih of life of religious priests' w~uld be of interest in the light of one study which shows that, the average age 'at death of Catholic priests in Eng-land is five per cent above the average for the general population. See Louis J. Dublin, Alfred J. Lotka, and Mortimer Spiegelman, Length of Life (New York: The RonaldPress Co., 1949), p. 219. '. 15 GERALD J. SCHNEPP and JOHN T. KURZ Ret~iew for Religious this means that approximately two-thirds of the ages at death fall between 33.3 years and 78.1 y~ars. The median age, or mid-point ¯ in the distribution, is 61.5 years. A total of 844 Marianists, or 35.5 per cent, lived out the traditional "thr~e score and ten" 70 years or beyond. These figures, it should be kfiown, are weighted by com-paratively low ages at death in the earlier years of the S'ociety. Even so, they indicate a fairly "respectable" life span. Measured in terms of service, assuming that each Marianist began his active life at the age of 18, this represents 89,726 years of service which the Society of Mary has given to the Church from 1820 to 1951.5 Concerning the second question, it is known that life expectancy all over the civilized world has been increasing during the past 130 years, the period of time covered by this study. Improved living con-ditions, better nutrition, and advances in medical science undoubt-edly all played a part in this development. Likewise, the extraordi-nary development of science and industry, along with the improve-ments in agricultural and processing techniques c6mbined to improve the quality, quantity, and variety of food. These factors had an in-fluence on the lives of all who lived during this period, including the religious who are the subjects of.this study. The facts concerning the 2,380 Marianists are presented in Table 1. During the first three decades, all deaths (except one) occurred at age 54 or less, and hence the mean ages at death are very low 23.9, 25.9, and 28.1 years. This is to be expected in a young society, since, if any deaths are to occur, they are likely to be deaths of rela-tively young religious. The length of time involved is not sufficient to enable men who joined at the usual age 15 to 25 to reach much beyond 50. But there is a steady upward progression through-out the series, with slight breaks during the 1910-19 and 1940-49 decades. The explanation ~eems to be that both were decades in which world wars occurred; in some European countries, religious in the younger age brackets served in the armed for~es, and some of them were killed. Further, during the '1910-1919 decade, the influenza epidemic interfered with normal life expectancy. In general, then, Table 1 indicates that Marianist life expectancy,has increased, decade by decade, reaching a high of 67.2 years during the 1930-39 decade. In order to make comparisons with the general population, how-ever, it is necessary to consider~ the figures for each country separately; SThis figure would be considerably larger, of course, if the services of those still living were included. Z TABLE I--Ageat Death and Decade of Death (1820-19Sl) for 2,380 ,Mar;an;sts 1820-29 1830;39 AGE GROUP 1 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 23.9 3 8 2 0 1 ~1 1 0 0 O 0 0 0 " 0 0 0 16 25.9 1840~49 12 14 13 2 4 4 1 1 0 0 °0 0 0 0 0 1 52 28.1 -- 1850:59 12 21 17 9 6 5 5 3 I 3 2 0 1 0 1 0 86 32.4 14.8 1860-69 5 I0 18 I1 6 8 4 8 6 5 '5 4 1 0 0 0 91 40.7 16.4 1870:79 14 28 19 I1 I0 6 10 I0 10 13 14 15 5 3 0 0 168 44.3 19.5 1880-89 1.7 22 13 10 15 8 12 10 22 17 I~ 16 8 5 ,,3 1 193 48.2 20.4 1890-99 18 34 ~20 9 5 ~,6 13 13 17 23 29 32 22 13 1 0 255 :51.8 "21.6 1900-09 5 28 I0 '4 8 "12 5 11 '17 26 32 37 30 18 8 5 256 59.2 20.6 I~10-'19 12 34 18 19 16 l0 8 16 12 23 39 46 41 30 10 3 337 57.1 20.1 1920-29 6. 23 7 . 7 4 7 I1 15 22 19 28 37 35 25 13 3 262 61.1 20.2 1930-39 2 lO 14 ll 9. 1 8 14 19 ~l 34 52 56 36 34- 14 345 67.2 18.0 1940-49 3 II 21 7 lO 6 3 8 ll 20 17 37 46 60 15 13 288 66.1 20.6 1950-51 1 .2 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 5 3 2 2 2 2 0 24 61.2 Total 111 248,175 100 94 74 83 112 137 185-217 278 247 192 87 40 2380 55.7 22.4 GERALD J. SCHNEPP and JOHN T. KURZ ¯ Reoiew for Religious this will help~to answer the third question. °World-wide figures, even if available,¯ would be misleading, since the f~ctors affecting length of life do not operate uniformly all over. It is also necessary to consider tbh figures for males 'only, since female.life expectancy is generally greater; for example, in the United States at the present time, male life expectancy is about 66 years, whereas femal~ life expectancy is about 71 years. Ten countries are represented as places of death for the 2,380 Mafianists.included in this study bui~ com-parative figures can be presented only for' France (1,314 deaths) ; Switzerland (171) ; United States (370) ; Belgium (141) ; ~and Austria (11i6) ' Statistics for .Spain (175 deaths) are unavailable in regard to the male population; smallness of sample rules out com-parative figures for the'other four countries: Japan (52) ; Italy (22) ; Russia (17) ; and C~na (2). TABLE 2 I-ireExpectancy o~r Males af Age 17 ~n France, Swlfzerland, United States, Belgium, and Austria Compared to Age at Death of MaHanlsts, by SpeciRed Time Intervals MARIANISTS WHO DIED IN FRANCE Years Average Age I. FRANCE Life Expect. atAge 17(1) ~861-65 63.4 1877-81 62.9 1891-00 63.8, 1898-03 63.3 1908-13 64.4 1920-23 65.9 1933-38 66.9 II. SWI'I'ZERLAN D 1910-11 65.5 1921-30 68.4 1931-41 70.0 I939-44 71.3 III. UNITED STATES 1930-39 70.1 1945 72.1 IV. AUSTRIA 1930-33 68.4 V. BELGIUM 1928-32 69.2 Years at Death 1860-69 42.0 1870-79 45.6 1890-99 55.2 1900-09 62.8 1910-19 " 53.3 1920-29 66.0 1930-39 ~ 71.0 MARIANISTS WHO blED 1910-19 ' 66.6 1920-29 67.5 1930-39 70.8 1940-49 74.9 No. of Deaths During Decade 77 ,153 223 129 1'99 97 116 IN" SWITZERLAND. 30 40 MARIANISTS WHO DIED IN THE UNITED STATES 1"930-39 - 70.3 ~' 87 1940-49 68.6 MARIANISTS', WHO DIEDIN AUSTRIA 1930-39 71.4 27 MARIANISTS WHO DIEDIN BELGIUM 1920-29 70.0 32 (1) Life Expectancy at Age 17 computed by interpolation from Dublin, Lotka, and Spiegelman, Length of Life and here expressed, for comparison, as expected age at death (li{e expectancy at 17, plus 17). References for the various countries: France, p. 346 ; Switzerland,' p. 348 ; United States, p, 324 ; Austria and Belgium, p. 346. January, 1953 LENGTH OF LIFE As is noted from Table 2; the comparisons are not perfect, "be-cause statistics from the various countries are not always available by decades. Since it may be assumed that all the Marianists had sur-vived at least the first 17 years of life (17 is the ordinary age for taking first vows), the figures, for the various countries are presented on the basis of life expectancy at age 17. A cursory examination of the tables will bear out this general conclusion: Mariani~t life ex-pectancy is about the same as, or somewhat more favorable than, that of the general male population of each country in the years since 1900; prior to' that time,. Marianist life .expectancy was somewhat lower, and in the early years of the Society; considerably lower, than the general male life expectancy. Another way of looking at this is to return to the figures in Table I. If only the 1,512 Marianists who died since 1900 are considered, it is found that 712 or 47.1 per cent lived to age 70 or beyond. Another matter of interest is the average length of life by coun-try. Tbis is available for our study but not for the male population of the ten countries over the span of years that Marianists have been working in those countries. The figures, in' order from highest to lowest, are: Belgium, 69.2 years; Switzerland, 65.8 years; United States, 60.5 years: Italy, 58.4 years: Spain, 57.5 years;: France, 53.6 years: Austria, 52.9 years: Japan, 46.8 years; Russia, 39.8 years; and'China, 22.5 year~. It should again be pointed out that these averages are b;]sed on a small number of cases in-,regard" to Japan, Italy, Russia, and China. For the rest, cautious comparison with the over-all average of 55.7 years seems to be justified. The only couff-tries with a large number of deaths which fall below this. general average are France and Austria. Compulsory military service and war undoubtedly are factors in both cases; and, for France, the cradle of the Society, it must be remembered that figures extend back to 1820 when general life'expectancy was not so high as it became in later years. The over-all conclusion, from this study is that life expectancy of Marianists for the past 50 years has been about the same as that of the general male population. Since the unmarried population has a lower life expectancy than the general population,6 ~tbese Marianist figures demand some explanation. Why do these Marianists-- 6"Among white males at ages 20 and over in the United States in 1940, the single had a death rate just 1 2/5 times that of the married." Dublin, Lotka, and Spiegelma~, op. cir., p. 140. 19 GERALD J. SCHNEPP and JOHN T. KURZ Ret~iew for Religious all unmarried of course--have a higher life expectancy than 'other unmarried males in the population? Explanations readily suggest themselves: the screening process by which only healthy persons are accepted in'to the congregation; the fact that most of these men were male teachers, an occupational classification with a higher than aver-age life expectancy? lack of financial and dbmestic worries; regular-ity of life, i~ncluding regular hours for prayer, work~ recreation, meals, and sleep; easy access to good medical care; and, in the United States, exemption from military service. Less certain as a factor is the loss, through defection, of individuals who, if they had perse-vered, might tend to decrease the average age at death. Although it is impossible to state, from the present study, that these are the factors at work, they are mentioned here as suggestions for a more ambitious project which might be undertaken in the future. It would also be profitable to make similar studies of other religious orders and con-gregations of men and of women; to consider Priests and Brothers separately; and to make some inquiries int.o the causes of death. The general value of such studies is to provide an answer to the recurring criticism that religious life, from a physical and/or psycho-logical point of view, is unnatural and harmful. For the particular order or con. gregat!on, such studies are valuable in guiding the ad-ministration in such matters as recommendation of religious for ad-vanced studies; appointments to serve as superiors: .policies on diet and medical care; adaptation of religious life to modern conditions; and provision for the aged members who, according to all indica-tions, will be progressively more numerous in the future, propor-tionately, than ever before. Since these considerations may seem to put too much emphasis on the natural, it must not be overlooked that the Will of God in regard to the death of each religious is a fact; however, we may be certain that God does not prohibit but rather commands that all natural means be used to prolong that life as long as possible. 7Ibid, p. 219. OUR CONTRIBUTORS THOMAS SULLIVAN, the designer of a special Communion card for patients (REVIEW, Sept. 1952, p. 248),is chaplain at St. Luke,s Hospital, Aberdeen, South Dakota. GERALD J. SCHNEPP and ALBERT MUNTSCH are-professors of sociology at St. Louis University, St. Louis, ,Missouri; the latter has been teaching 49 years. JOSEPH F. GALLEN teaches canon law at Woodstock College, Wood-itock. Maryland. AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD and JEROME BREUNIG are members of' the editorial board. 20 Canonical oVisi!:at:ion ot: Nigher Superiors ,Joseph F. GaIlen, S.J. THE visitation of the houses 9f a religious institute by the higher. superiors and the local Ordinary, since it is prescribed by canons 511-512, is called the canonical visitation. The pur-pose of this article is to explain the visitation of higher superiors. 1) Frequencg of visitation. The Code of Canon Law does not determine the frequency of the visitation of higher superiors. In the practice of the Sacred Congregation of Religious in appro',;ing the constitutions of lay congregations, which is and should be closely imitated by diocesan institutes, the far more common norm is ~hat the superior general, personally or throug~ anothe~ religious, visits the entire congregation at least every three years, even in congrega-tions that are divided into provinces. Many institutes not divided into provinces, realizing that they lack the customary annual visita-tion of a provincial; prescribe a greater frequency of visitation by the superior general, for example, every second year, at least every second year, or annually. This desirable greater frequency cannot be pre, scribed in many congregations because of their large number of sub-~ jects, the great territorial extent of the institute, or both, A much lower number of congregations command a visitation by the superior general only once every six years, but at least this is commanded in the .practice of.the Holy See for lay institutes, even in those that are very extensive and large. By far the greater number of institutes im-pose an annual visitation by the provincial; a small number limit this obligation to one visitation in three years or two in three years. The annual visitation' is the much more preferable norm and it may always be made, even when not commanded by the constitutions. Some constitutions permit the provincial ~o omit the visitation during the year that the house has been or is to be visited by the supe-rior generhl, but a prudent provincial will hesitate to use this privi-lege unless some rare business of greater moment demands or counsels the omission of the visitation. A provincial cannot make the annual appoint.ments satisfactorily to himself or to others unless he knows both his subjects and the facts. 2) Moral oblioation of making the visitation. Canon 511 per- 2.1 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Relfgious mits .the particular constitutions to determine the frequency and even to omit any prescription, as to the frequency of the visitation. If the constitutions have 'commanded a determined frequency, canon 511 imposes an obligation immediately in conscience on the higher supe-riors to make the visitation according to this frequency. The omis-sion 'of the visitation, without a justifying, reason, is thus a sin. Many canonicalauthors hold that this obligation is grave.1 The~sin .is certainly.grave if the culpable omission of the visitation is the ~:ause of the existence or continuance of a serious relaxation of reli- :gious discipline or of any another seriously harmful situatio'n.2 3) The obligation is personal. Canon 511 permits a higher :superior to designate another to make the prescribed visitation only when he is l~gitimately prevented from doing so himself. Legitimate impediments are the following and others of about the same import: sickness, infirmity, old age, the great territorial extent or large num-ber of subjects of the institute or province, other business 'of serious mom, ent, and long or frequent absences on visitation that impede the proper government of the institute or province. It is evident' that such reasons will frequently excuse from only part of the visitation': Houses omitted from a visitation should ordinarily be given the pref-erence in the following visitation. A few of the excusi.ng reasons will lose" some and even all of their cogency if the higher superior is given an efficient secretary and freed from the work of a typist' and clerk. The lack of proper "courtesy is also a time-consuming element in the lives of higher superiors. Matter~ that fall within the compe-tence of local superiors should not be brought to higher superiors. Subjects should ordinarily not seek an interview for matters that can be despatched by letter. Whgn an interview is necessary, proper courtesy demands that a subject request an interview by'l~tter. The telephone should be used only when a request or a matter is urgent. It.is obviously inconsiderate and discourteous to drop in on a higher superior at any time and to expect an interview. We can .all al~o render the lives of higher superiors more useful, fruitful, and peace-ful by coming to the point quickly and sticking to it. Reasons ex-cusing from making the visitation are to be interpreted more liberally for the superior general than for the provincial. 1. Beste, 335; De Carlo, n~ 92: Fanfani, n. 70; Fine, 981: Gerster, 263; Geser, q. 364; Piatus Montensis, ,,L 636; Pruemmer, q. 170; Schaefer, a. 558; Vromant, n, 396, 2); Wernz-Vidal, III, n. 145. ¯ 2. Cf. Wernz-Vidal, III, n. 148. 22 danuar~lo 1953 : CANONI~U., VISITATION The'.understanding of the constitutions in a particular institute may be that the higher superior has full liberty either to make the visitation personally or to delegate another as visitor. This interpre-tation is more likely to be verified if the constitutions omit the.clause of candn 511, "if legitimately impeded," and is far more readily ad-mitted for the superior general than for the provincial. Aliteral in-terpretation of canon 511 leads to the conclusion that a higher supe-rior must delegate another for any visitation that he cannot make personally. This is also the: teaching of authors and is at least gen-erally true. However, if a personal visitation is mostrarely omitted, I do notbelieve that there exists a certain obligation to delegate an-other as visitor unless a, situation in the institute, province, or house clearly demands a visitation. Higher superiors are to be slow to ex-cuse themselves and to delegate a visitor. Su,bjects quite generally find it difficult to talk to a-delegated visitor. 4) Constitutions that do not prescribe ~isitations. Canon 511 does not directly command higher superiors to make visitations; it merely enforces any obligation of visitation imposed by the constitu-tions., If the particular constitutions do not impose a visitation, the higher superior has no.obligation but he always has the right of making a visitation. Some constitutions do not oblige the superior general to make visitations, but this would be unthinkable in the case of a provincial and also in that of a superior general of an institute not divided into provinces, , Canon ~I 1 is principally concerned with centralized institutes and thus with general and provin'cial superiors, who are the higher superiors in such institutes. These institutes can also have superiors of vice-provinces, quasi-provinces, regions, missions, districts, and vicariates, who should, as a general principle, follow the same norms-of visitation 'and of frequency as provincials. The canon also extends to the superiors of monastic congregations and confed.erations and ac-cordingly now affects the superior general or president lind regional superiors in federations and confederatiohs of nuns established cording to the counsel of the apostolic constit.ution, Sponsa Christi. ~,The constitutions of some institutes of ,religious. women factu-' ally consisting of many houses and engaged in the active life., contain no prescriptions on visitation, because by law they, are nuns or.con-. gregations of sisters whoseconstitutions.have been,taken from orders of nuns. The mothers superior of such institutes should make visita-tions according to the norms detailed-abo~e for .superiors general. 23 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Reoieto for Religious Theseinstitutes are factually centralized, and the purpose of a visita-tion is at least as necessary in them as in a canonically centralized in-stitute. 5) Designation of a delegated oisitor. The usual norm of con-stitutions of brothers and sisters permits a superior general to appoint -a visitor for a particular matter or an individual house but demands the consent of the general council for the delegation of a visitor for the entire congregation if this visitor is not a member of the general council.3 Some constitutions extend the necessity of ~his consent to any delegated general visitor and to a visitor designated by the supe-rior general for an entire province. The same norm ordinarily regu-lates the nec, essity of the consent of his council in the delegation of a visitor by a provincial superior. 6) Companion of oisitor. The constitutions of brothers and sisters almost universally prescribe that a superior general, provincial, or delegated visitor is to have a religious of perpetual vows as com-panion. 4 The companion can be of great assistance to the visitor by handling the latter's correspondence. He could also be delegated for the visitation of' pl.aces, i.e., the chapel and sacristy, cloister, refectory, kitchen, recreation or common room, library, and the living quarters of the religious. The whole house shofild be visited'. The general or provincial bursai would frequently be an apt companion. He could examine the books and investigate thoroughly the financial and material condition of the house. 7) Purpose of ~isitation. The 'importance that the Church places on the visitation of higher superiors and the seriousness with which canonical authors consider its obligation manifest evidently that the visitation is not to degenerate into a mere ~egal formality. The primary purpose is to learn and correct defects of religious dis-cipline, s "This includes the observance of the vows, "the laves, decrees, and. instructions of the Holy See, the constitutions, legitimate cus-toms, ordinations of the general chapter, and the regulations of higher superiors. Such a purpose implies the encouragement, of the fervent, the prudent correction of delinquents, and the prescribing of apt means to restore, preserve, and increase fait.hful and constant ob-servance. Higher superiors are to ax;oid the energy of the reformer but they-are also to shun the passivity of the quietist. Some people 3. Cf. Normae, nn. 256: 271, 9*. 4. 'Cf. Normae, n. 257. 5. Cf. Wernz-Vidal, III, n. 148. 24 January, 1953 VISITATION hold that the least government is the best government; others incline to the view that the worst government is no government. If a local Ordinary finds a serious situation in any house in his canonical vis-itation, the conclusion is almost infallible that higher superiors have been derelict in their duty. A paternal or maternal government does not exclude in religious superiors,, as it does not in our Holy Motherl the Church, decisive action when this is demanded by the circum-stances. The higher superior is~also to learn the spiritual and tem-poral needs and desires of subjects and to grant these according to the principles of the religious lifel the common good, and prudence. The purpose of the visita,tion is also to investigate the govern-ment of provincial and local superiors and the administration of the temporal property of the house and province. Defects of govern-ment and administration are to be prudently corrected. There is a general need of clarity and emphasis on the fact that the investigation of government is only a secondary purpose of the visitation. Too many religious prepare for an interview with a superior general or provincial with only one principle in mind: what is wrong with the superior and with the officials? The primary norm of the prepara: tion should be: what is wrong with me? Higher superiors should protect the good name and authority of local superiors, they should remember that in a doub~ ~he presumption favors the superior, bu~ they cannot follow the principle that a local superior never errs. Mi, nor, accidental, and occasional mistakes should be overlooked; the local superior also must be given the forbearance due to a son, or daughter of Adam. However, habitual and serious dei:ects that are ob-structive of the spirituality, efficiency, and peace of the community should be studied, and the local superior is to be admonished of them, but with appropriate consideration. It has been remarked that we can often justifiably apply to a superior the principle of what was said of a conspicuous historical character: the scrutiny fastened on him detects many flaws but entitles him to be. judged free of any-thing of which he is not charged. ~ An important purpose of the visitation is that the higher supe-rior acquires a knowledge of the Capabilities and deficiencies of sub, jects. This should be of great assistance in making the annual ap-pointments for both the common and the individual good. 8) Extent ot: the t~isitation. The visitation extends to all houses, persons, places, and things. Both superiors general and provincials should strive to visit the missions at least once during their term of ,JOSEPH F. GALLEN office. The religious on .the missions are those making the greatest sacrifice and they should not be the most neglected. Both in law and in fact it is the presumption that perfect observance is more °difficult in small houses, and yet higher superiors are inclined to make only a cursory visit of a few hours iii~such houses. Canon 511 commands a higher superior to visit all bbuses subject to him. Therefore. a provincial does not visit a house immediately subject to the superior general unless he has been delegated to do so by the" latter. Canon 513, § 1 obliges a visitor ~to interview only the determined religious and the number in a house that he judges necessary for the purpose of the visitation, but¯ the particular law or custom of an institute will almost universally oblige a higher superior to interview all the reli-gious, This is also demanded by paternal government and the pur-pose of knowing the individual religious. As stated in n. 6, the visitation extends to all places in the house. A visitor is to be sensi, tire not o.nly to the irregularities of worldliness, luxury, softness, and sensuality but also to the adequate and et~icient furnishings of the living quarters of the religious. The cell of stark monastic sim-plicity may be suitable neither for sleep nor work. The visitation extends to all'things, for example, the furnishings of the house, the chapel, the sacristy, the proper care of the sick in the infirmary, the clothing, the heating, light,- food, to the books and documents of temporal administration, and to the book of minutes of the council. A fastidiousness, over-interest, and preoccupation with food is evidently alien to the state of perfection, but the food of religious ~hould be simple, substantial, well-cookedl appetizing, and sui~cient. Religious poverty implies privation, not indigestion. Highe{isuperiors should not omit a quite careful visitation of the li-brary and should investigate the number and quality of the' books purchased during the year. It would be interesting to learn what percentage of the budget, if any, is allotted to the purchage of books in some religioushouses. The visitation covers the whole external life of the community. The suitability of the horarium to the work and climate of the community is to be studied. Some institutes, especially of women, appear to follow the l~rinciple that the religious may die but the horarium must go on. In this era of enlightened and pru.dent adaptation the higher superior is to look carefu11~r'into the matter of customs. Some of these are meaningless, antiquated, originate from the self-interest of the few, or serve only to imprison the soul of the religious life in a labyrinth of formality and detail. It - danuar~l, 1953 CANONICAL VISITATION would be unwise to conclude that the need of a~laptation extends only to religious women, not to religious men and priests. 9) Opening of the visitatiqn. A visitation customarily begins with an exhortation to the community by the visitor. "Fhe topic of this exhortation should ordinarily be a virtue or principle distinctive of the religious life, a virtue especially necessary for the particular in-stitute, or a present problem of the religious life or of the institute. 1 O). Precept of the vow of obedience. Some institutes oblige the visito~ at the opening of the visitation to.imi~ose a precept in virtue of the ",;ow of obedience on the members of the community to reveal serious offenses. A few institutes extend the precept to anything else the religious may think necessary for "the good of the community. This precept does not extend to conduct that has been completely re-formed and obliges only with regard to matters that are external, certain in fact, and serious.6 11 ) Prelirninar!/interviews. It would be profitable for the visi-tor to have a preliminary interview on the state of the community alone with the superior, with the entire group of councillors, at which the superior is not present, and for their respective fields with such officials as the bursar, the master of novices, of postulants, of junior professed, and of tertians, with the dean, principal, adminis-trator, or director of the school, hospital, or institution. In these preliminary interviews the visitor should cover such topics as the gen-eral religious discipline of the community, fidelity to spiritual exer-cises, silence, cloister, observance of pove, rty, whether necessities are obtained from the community or externs, whether material necessities are adequately supplied by the community, whether the quan.tity and quality of material things are. observed according to the tradi-tions of the community, the possession of. money by individual reli-gious, excesses or imprudences in contacts with externs, the more common defects of religious discipline, the general level of spirituality and charity in the community, the success in general of the com-munity in its work, obstacles to this success, whether all the activities. of the community are profitable, activities added or dropped, whether the community is overworked, the material and financial state of the house, state of the community in relation to the superior and:~fficials, whether the council is properly consulted, the s~.ate of the external relations of the community with the local O~dinary, the parish clergy, diocesan director of schools, hospitals, or., other institutions, 6. Bastien. n. 302 ~" JOSEPH F. GALLEN ReView for Religioud 'with the chaplain~ the confessors, and with secular authorities and agencies. Inquiry is to be made about the adjustment of the junior professed to the active life, their formation, care, direction, instruc-tion, and education. In a novitiate, an even more diligent inquiry is to be made on these headings about the novices and postulants. 12) Interoiews with indiuidual religious. The following is a suggested outline of topics for the interviews with the individual' re-ligious. It.is b~; no means necessary that all of these be covered with each religious. The visitation will be more helpful if the visitor suc-ceeds in getting the religious to talk spontaneously and if he directly and indirectly suggests topics rather than adheres to a formal ques-tionnaire. The visitor should, make a notation of any important matter. A notation is of great efficacy in mollifying a, tempestuous soul. a) Health. Sufficient rest? recreation? food? any particular ail-ment? it~ nature? care? the opinion of the doctor.?. b) Work. Success? progress? difficulties? sufficient time for preparation? according to the system and traditions of the institute and directions of' tho~e in authority? overwork? direction of extra-curricular activities? relations .with head of school, hospital, institu-tion? the level of moral and Catholic life among the students? the influence of the community and the individual on these? c) Studies. Studies taken during the year or the summer? in what? how profitable and practica.l? what success? What work is the individual inclined to?. thinks he will do his best in? Is there an~" time to advance by private study and reading during the year? , d) Companions. Getting along with them? Making an effprt to do so with all? Any particular difficulty with anyone or any type? Neglecting some and associafing with only a few? Any coldness, antipathy, anger? Divisions, factions, cliques in 'the com-munity? Their cause? Any cause of 'lack of peace, harmony," happi-ness, charity in the community? " e) Religions life. Any difficulty in attendance at common spir-itual exercises or in performing those prescribed? Any dispensatio, ns necessary? Why?'Any obstacle to profi.t from religious exercises? Any .problem in the observance of poverty?~ Any difficulty in securing ma-terial necessities from the communi.ty-? How is obedience going? With the superior? With officials? Sufficient opportunity for confession? Supply of spiritual books adequate? Does work, community duties, domestic duties interfere with the interior life? Sufficient opportunity 28 danuar~l, 1953 CANONICAL VISITATION to deepen and intensify the dedication to the interior life? Days of recollection, tridua, retrea~s profitable? f) Superiors and officials. Any external obstaCle to a spirit of faith towards superiors and officials? Any misunderstanding? Any hesitancy or diffidence in approaching them? g) Anything else? Any suggestions? complaints? difficulties? permissions? Everything he needs spiritually and temporally? Any-thing, else he wishes:to say? 13) Some principles for the individual interviews. The visitor , must cultivate the dexterity of giving each subject sufficient but not excessive time. The ability to end an interview promptly bui gra-ciously is an enviable gift for the life of a superior. All of us have to beware of the natural tendency to find greater truth in the story first ¯ told or greater force in the argument first presented. Fairness, judg-ment, patience, and prudence are necessary for any visitor who ~ishes .to be objective and to learn the objective truth. The fact that the subject is a friend, the possession of an attractive personality or man-ner, or a facile and orderly presentation is not an infallible criterion of truth. Our enemies and the unattractive and inarticulate are not always wrong.' The passing of the poetry of life teaches' us that man, and woman also, .too often knows only what.he desires to know, too often sees only what his inclinations want, and all too frequently finds in the objective oi~der what exists only in the desires or rebellion of his own heart. The visitor is,to ascertain the individual state of each subject. He is not to conclude too readily that a problem is. exactly the same as something in his own past life or that it possesses no distinctive note. The constant pronominal subject of the visitor's thought'should be ¯ you, nbt I. We rarely solve another's problem by the history of our own lives. The subject.should be made to feel that there is a sincere interest in him, An,interruption, exclamation of surprise, or calm remonstrance should be used to restrain any flow of words that is outracing the mind. Reluctant and forced replies, especially with re- ~gard to oneself, are very frequently suspect,in their objectivity. This is the suitable and expected time for the higher superior to administer necessary correction to individuals. The visitor should first make certain of the facts, hear all sides patiently, and correct calmly. A higher superior who never corrects should not be too quick to thank God for the fervor of his institute. The omission of correction is sometimes prudence. Sometimes it is sloth, or lack of courage, or 29 JOSEPH F.,GALLEN Reo~eto for, Rehgtous, human respect. Many a higher superior has prolonged his sleepless ~ nights by exclaiming: "Oh, if the,generals or provincials had onIy~ done something about him (or her) years ago! Now it is impossible to do anything." But now also is the time for him to do for futu're higher, superiors what he would have had done for himself: 14) The field of conscience and of religious government.~ The" forum or fieId of conscience consists strictIy of actions that are in- 'terior, or external but not readily knowable by others, provided eil~her is the type of action that one V~uld not care to reveal to an-other except under a-pledge of secrecy. The field of conscience thus consists of all completely interior acts, such as .graces: lights: good desires, inclinations, "attractions, affections, and motives; interior progress; consolation; desolation; desire of progress; conquest of self; acts and habits of virtue; interior acts of prayer; imperfect and evil attractions, propensities, aversions, and motives; interior trials ¯ and dangers; imperfections, sins, and habits of sin; and lack of in-terior effort in prayer and spiritual duties. All external actions not readily knowable by others are also restricted to the forum of con~ science. Such interior matte'rs as the ,knowledgeof. how to pray, to make the examen of conscience, the difficulty or ease in usin'g par-ticular methods of prayer or examen, the attraction or repulsion for particular types of spirituality, people, or occupations are not strictly matters of conscience, since one would not hesitate to speak of these to a friend .without a pledge of secrecy? Unless the Institute is Clerical and has the privilege of imposing the obligation of a manifestation.of conscience~ the visitor is forbid-den to inquire about any matters that appertain strictly to the forum , of conscience. If such interrogations are made, thesubject riaa.y lic-itly reply by a mental reservation. However, a subject is not forbid-den to reveal any of these matters voiuntarily to a visitor, even if the latter is a brother, ntin, or sister. All religious ale even counselled by canon 530, §'2 to manifest their consciences to superiors. If the superior is not a priestl this counsel does not extend to sin, tempta-tion, and any other matter that demands the knowledge and trair~ing of a priest. The. subject is not forbidden to reveal these n~atters also ~ to a visitor or any superior who is a brother, nun, or sister. The field of religious government consists of all external and 7. Bastien, n. 212, 3; Beste, p. 350: Creusen-Ellis, n. 128; Jone, 444; Schaefer, n. 684; Verrneersch-Creusen, I, n. 650. 3O danuar~,1953 CANONICAL VISITATION readily kriowabl~'conduct of a religious. Superiors may legitimately question a subject about such personal conduct, and the subject is obliged to answer truthfully,s Religious may therefore be questioned by the visitor or any superior on such matters as rising on time, ex-ternal performance of spiritual duties, prompt attendance fit common 'exercises, observance of silence, external charity, neglect of study, external neglect of the duties of one's offic.e, whether one went out of the house without permission, or without a companion, mailed .l~t-ters without permission, etc. 15) Denunciation of the conduct of a companion. Denunciation is the technical term that signifies the revealing of the conduct of a comp.anion to a superior." Religious do not and should not revealthe petty and purely personal defects of companions. This alone is to be classified as talebearing. Religious may certainly reveal the faults and defects of others that are of no serious malice but are disturbing, interfere with. one's own work, peace, or happiness, or with those of some others, or of the.entire.community. A religious is not obliged to lose a great deal of sleep or suffer headaches because a companion nearby tyl6es most of.the night and whis~tles most of the day. ,The door slammers, radio addicts, midnight bathers, corridor and cubicu- .lar orators and vodalists, and the nocturnal religious who flower into the life of work and talk only at night fall under this principle. A visitor or any superior may inquire and subjects are obliged to ankwer truthfully about an offense in external r~hdily khowable con-duct of ~/companion: a) if the religious by the particular law of their institute have re-nounced the righ't to their reputations to the extent that any sin or defect may be immediately denounced to the superior.9 Such a re-nuncxation is practically never found in the law of lay institutes. .b) if there exists a rumor or founded suspicion of the commission of the offense by the particular religious.I° c) if a truthful answer is necessary to avoid the danger of serious harm to the institute, the province, the house, an innocent third 8. Berutti. 109: Beste, pp. 336: 350: Creusen-Ellis, nn. 89, 2: 128: Geser. q. 510: Jombart. I. n. 839. 3°: Van Acken. q. 164; Vromant. n. 402. 9. Cf. Summary of the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus. nn. 9-10: Com-mon Rules, n. 18. 10. Augustine. VIIi,: ,~19-520: Coronata I, n. 540: Fanfani. n. 72: Geser. q. 377; Pruemmer. q. 110: Sipos. 339. 31" ¯ JOSEPH F. GALLEN~. Revie~o fdr Religious party, or the.delinquent himself,n This reason alone permits the revelation of the matter of an entrusted secret of counsel or official secret. 12 A religious maq reveal the offense of a companion spontaneously or in answer to the question of the visitor, since in the religious life the offense of another may always,, practically speaking, be immedi-ately denounced fo a superior without the necessity of a .previous fra-ternal- correction.13 Conduct that has been completely corrected is not to be revealed, and it is evident that a ~ubject has no right to in-ves'tigate the conduct of his companions.Subjects should be prayer-fully attentive/to the case listed above under c). In practice such a matter should be~revealed.to the superior as soon as possible. Reli-gious are apt to excuse themselves from such a revelation lest even "their own conscience accuse them of talebe.aring. Later they may painfully and shamefully hear their consciences condemn them as the cause of a human disaster and of the suffering of many or all of their fellow-keligious. Whenever the name of a companion oCcurs in a conversation with a superior, conscience should immediately signal the red warning of truth. The facts and their source should first be studied, not in the imaginative and exciting glow of the evening, but in the cold and gray stillness of the early morning. Any denunciation to a superior should also be preceded by a searching examination of conscience on one's purity of motive. An impure motive stains the soul and als9 discolors fZct. Superiors should remember that the voice, the.face, and even the bristling hair of the criticism of others often bear a.striking resemblance to those of defense of self. 16) The visitor rna~t use u2hat he has learned in the visitation. The purpose of the visitation is not mere spiritual direction but gov-ernment and evideritly gives the visitor the right of using what he has learned in the Visitation. The visitor may therefore do such things as instruct, reprehend, correct, change the employment, office, or house of a religious, or place him under the vigilance of a local supe-rior because of what he has learned in the visitation. ~ In the use of information on an~" matter that is not commohly known~in tlie 11. Abbo-Hannan, I, 523; Augustine, III, 139-40; Bastien, n. 236; Beste, p. 336; Cocchi, VIII, n. 302 b) ; Creusen-Ellis, n. 89, 2; De Carlo, n. 95; Fanfahi, n. 72; Gerster, 264; Geser, q. 377; Pruernmer~ q. 110; Sipos, 339; Vroraant, n. 402 ¢). 12. Vromant0 n. 402. '~ 13. Coemans, n. 231; Fine, 1067; Regatillo, I, n. 658; Wernz-Vidal~ III, n. 149. 32 danuary, 1953 CANONICAL VISITATION community the visitor is to be careful to protect the reputation of the subject. He is forbidden to use, outside of the interview itself, any-thing learned in a voluntar~l manifestation of conscience without the express consent of the subject. 17) Revelation of things learnedin "the visitation. To reveal is . to tell others. In general, the visitor is forbidden to .reveal secret matters learned in the visitation. This obligation of secrecy clearly does not extend to matters that are commonly known in the. com-munity, but a prudent superior avoids indiscriminate conversation on anything that even appears to have been learned in virtue of his office. Some superiors could foster a greater intimacy with secrets. The visitor is to keep secret the identity of the one who gave the in-formation, but the importance of the matter to be corrected Can in some cases prevail over this obligation. Evidently the superior should not apologize for his duty of correction by even obscurely and guardedly hinting the name of' the one who gave the information, This would be to imitate the soldier who had enlisteti for the music of the bands but not for,the whine of the bullets. .Neither should the superior strive to make it appear that the sole reason for the c0r. rection is that the matter was reported to him. The mere mention of this fact often destroys any effcacy that the correction might have had. The visitor may reveal secret matters learned in the visitation, to a higher superior or to his councillors if this is jhdged necessary for a more permanent and efficacious correction. It is always forbidden to reveal anything learned ~in a manifestation of conscience without " the express consent of the subject.14 18) Closing of the visitation. The visitor frequently gives an exhortation also at the close,of the visitation on a topic of the same nature as that used to open the visitation. 19) Instructions and regulations. The visitation will be par-tially ineffective unless means are taken to further the good that the community is doing, to bring it to dffect the good that is being left undone, and to correct abuses. The visitor should write out instruc-tions on these points. It will usually be sufficient to reaffirm existifig obligations without enacting new regulations foi the community, New laws are to be regarded at mo~t asa se'asonal delicacy, not as our daily bread. The visitor should retain a copy. of the instructions. According to the custom of the institute, these instructions may be 14. Cf. Coemans, n. 501 b): Voltas. CpR. I. 85, nota 6; Wernz-Vidal, III, n. 210, nota 57. ~ 33 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Reoieto t:oc Religious the topic.of the closing talk of the visitor, be.given only to the supe-rior, who is always charged with their enforcement, or at least part of them may be read to the community, preferably .after the visitor has left. The initructions should begin with something sincerely complimentary, which can always, be found. The defects listed should be frequent and quite common violations of religious disci-pline. Other defects are to be taken care of by individual correction. The visitor is also to strive in the instructions to further positively the spiritual life and the work of the house or province and is to avoid concentration on the negative aspect of the correction of defects. 20 Pertinent canons on visitation. Canon 51 I. Higher superior~ of religious institutes who are obliged to visitation by the constitutions must visit personally or, if they are legitimately impeded, through a delegate, all the houses subject to them at the times determined in the constitutions. Canon 513, §' 1. The visitor has the right and the duty oi: ques-tioning the religious that be thinks should be questioned and of ob-taining information on matters that appertain to the visitation. All the religious are obliged to reply truthfully to the visitor, Superiors are forbidden to divert them'in any manner whatever from this obli-gation or otherwise to binder the purpose of the visitation. Canon 2413, § I. Superioresses who after the announcement of a visitation have transferred religibus to another" house without the consent of the visitor; likewise all religious, whether superioresses or sub jerrY, who personally or through others, directly~,or indirectly, have induced religious not to reply or to dissimulate in any way or not sincerely to expose the truth when questioned by the visitor, or who under any pretext whatever have molested, others because of an-swers given to the visitor shall be declared incapable by the visitor of holding any office that involves the government of other religious and, if superioresses, they shall be deprived of their otffce. § 2. The prescriptions of the preceding" paragraph are to be ap-plied also to religious institutes of men. Canons 513, § 1 and 24.13 apply to the canonical visitation also of the local Ordinary or his delegate. The hindering of the purpose of the visitation prohibited by canon 513, § 1 can be effected in many ways, for example, by concealing objects or falsifying records or documents. The great importance that the Church places on the canonical danuarq, 1953 CANONICAL VISITATION visitation is manifest in all these canonsbut especially in the penal canon, 2413. The permanent or temporary transfer forbidden to any superior is one whose purpqse is to separate a religious from the visitor and thus to prevent the revelatibn or interrogation of the reli-gious. This purpose is presumed if made after the announcement of the visitation and without the consent of the visitor. The interference with' iegitimate interrogation' prohibited to all religious includes that done pe.rsonally or through anyone else, whether directly, by inducing or commanding others expressly to conceal the truth, or indirectly, by praise, promises, special attention or .treatment intended for the same purpose but. without expressly mentioning this purpose. To be' punishable the interference must cause the religious actually to be silent, to dissimulate, or to be insin-cere when questioned by the visitor. . The forbidden molestation can be accomp!ished in various ways, for example, by transferring a religious, changing his employment, by punishment, public or private reprehension, or by other signs of displea.sure because of replies given to the visitor. Recourse against false replies is to be made to th~ visitor or a highei superior. The offices referred to in the penalty as involving the ,government of others are, for example, general, provincial, or local sup~erior, mas-ter of novices, of junior professed, of tertians, of postulants, probably_ also deans, principals, administrators, and directors of schools, hos-pitals, or other institutions. Such a punishment demands;a serious violation of the law. The natural tendency is to conclude that this penalty, enacted by canon law, is a canonical penally and that it can be inflicted only by one possessing jurisdiction in the external forum.Is However, Larraona gives the at least probable and safe opinion that this penalty is not strictly canonical and that it may be . inflicted also by" visitors who possess only dominative power in clerical non-exempt and lay institutes and thus also by visito)s who are brothers, nuns, or sisters with regard to those subject to them either habitually or by reason of the Visitation.16,x7 15. Cf. ~'anon-2220, § 1; Augustine, VIII, 521 and note 9. 16. :L~rraona, CpR, X, 369, note 4; 370 and notes.7, 8; Bowe, 64-65: Jombart, IV, n. 1323; Reilly, 169-170. Cf. the same opinion in the interpretation of canon 2411 in: Brys, II, n. 1091: Cloran, 313: Cocchi, VIII, n. 298 d). 17. The authors and documents cited are: Abbo-Hannan, The Sacred Canons; Augustine, A Comme.marg. on Canon Law; Bastien, Directoire Canonique; Berutti, De Religiosis; Beste, lntroductio in Codicem; Bowe," Religious Supe-rioresses; Brys, Juris Canonici Compendium; Cloran, Previews and Practical 35 BOOK NOTICES BOOK NOTICES In LENGTHENED SHADOWS, Sister Mary Ildephonse Holland, R.S.M., records in considerable detail the hundred-year history of the Sisters of Mercy of Cedar Rapids, Iowa. In a style that in all reverence might be called "chatty," the author, a former mother-superior, tells (1) of the founding of the'Sisters of Mercy by Mother McAuley, .(2) of the motherhouse, (3) of the twenty-eight other houses, (4) -of some senior Sisters. The book has an unusually large section of glossy prints and useful appendices,, includin~ one of chronology and lists of the living and the dead. In his foreword, the Archbishop of Dubuque, His Excellency Henry P. Rohlman, speaks of the fivefold purpose of the book. It should be of interest to the Sisters of Mercy, to Other Sisters, to pastors, to the laity, and a challenge to many young women. It certainly should. (New York: Bookman Associates~ 42 Broadway. Pp. 337. $4.50.) Some years ago Sister Mary Berenice Beck, O.S.F., R.N., ~ub-lished a little book entitled The Nurse: Handmaid of the Dfofne Ph~.tsician. The object of the book was to cbver all the various as-pects of the spiritual care of patients, as well as to offer the nurse some practical helps for her own spiritual life. That first edition was good. But the revised edition, entitled simply HANDMAID OF THE DIVINE PHYSICIAN, is s.uperior to it in every way. Content, arrange-ment, printing, and binding--all are excellent. (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1952: Pp. xviii + 31~I.: $3.00.) ' Cases; Cocchi, Commentarium in Codicem ~luris Canonici: Coemans, Com-mentarium in Regulas Socletatis lesu; Coronata, [nstitutiones Juris Canonid; Creusen-Ellis, Religious Men and Women in the Code; De Carlo, dus osorum; Fanfani, De lure Reliqiosorum; Fine, lus Regulate Quo Regitur So-cletas lesu; Gerster a Zeil, lus Religioso~um; Geser. Canon Lau~ concerning ,Communities o[ Sisters; Jombart. Trait3 de Droit CanOnique: Jone, Com-mentarium in Codicem luris Canonici; Larraona, Commentarium Pro Religi-osis; Normae Secundum Quas S. Congr. Episcoporum et Regularium iOrocedere Solet in Approbandis Novis lnstitutis ,Votorum Simplicium. 28 iun. 1901: Piatus Montensis, Praelectiones duris Regularis. ed. 2; Pruemmer, dus Re,u-latium Speciale; Regatillo, Institutiones luris Canonici; Reilly. Visitation ~Religious; Schaefer, De Retigiosis; Sipos, Enchiridion luris Canoni6: Sum-marg of the Constitutions of the Societg of Jesus: Van Acken. A Handbook for Sisters; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome [uris Canonici: Voltas, Commen-tarium. Pro Religiosis; Vromant, De Personis; Wernz-Vidal, Ius Canonicum, HI, De Religiosis. 36 The ,reat:es!: Moment: in !:he Hospit:al Day Thomas Sullivan, C.S.V. SEVEN A.M. is the dawn of another busy day in the hospital. A hustling corps of hospital personnel stream into the hospital entrances, crowd the elevators, and soon swing into action¯. A burst of activity greets the quiet hallways. Ni~rses hurry to the chart desks~ to relieve their weary sisters; laboratory technicians fan out to. all parts of the hospital; nurses' aids begin their chore.s; tray girls and surgery personnel are on the move. At this time of greatest activity, there;is in our Catholic hospitals a momentary pause. The sound'of the silver bell is heard and all stop in reverent prayer. A patient or stranger who hears it for the first time will naturally ask, with the blind man of the Gosp~l who heard a crowd passing on the road to Jericho, "What might this be?" , He will be rightfully told, as the blind man was, "Jesus of Nazareth is passing by." He has but to view the respect and courtesy of every-one to know a great Visitor is passing by. Truly this is the greatest moment of the day. Each of our hospitals is greeted by the Eternal Word: "Today salvation has come to this house." More especially for the Catholic patient who receives is this the greatest moment. We all have need of the food of eternal life, but for the sick this need is acute. And' therefore the 'invitation of the Lord is more pressing. His sacred banquet is especially prepared for them, for He says, "Go out quickly into the streets and lanes of the city and bring in the poor, and the crippled, and the blind, and the lame.'" "Come to me,," 3esus says, "all you who labor and are bur-dened, and I will give you rest." Most frequently our patients need to be reminded of the Lo~d's invitation. They should desire to receive every day while at the hos-pital. To arouse this desire, it is not sufficient that they be conscious in an. abstract way of the Catholic ,doctrine of the Holy.Eucharist, that Christ is present, Body, Blood, Soul and Divinity. They must have the truth of faith alive and.real, and be convinced in a practicai way that here is the Food of the Soul, that this is the Bread come down from heaven. And this on the authority of the Great Physi-cian who prescribes: "He who eats .my flesh and drinks my blood 37 THOMAS SULLIVAN abides in me and I in him." In the first place the devoted nurses and chaplains should arouse in themselves a zeal for better disposed communicants among their patients. Let them meditate upon the marvelous effects of this Sacr,a-menl~ whose effect is in part conditioned by the dispositions of the recipient. Scripture and spiritual books provide ~ wealth of material., ~ The bread the angel fed the prophet .Elias prefigures the effects of the Eucharist. Most patients find themselves in a predicament simi-lar to tha~ of the p~ophet of the Old Testamen't, who was worn out with trials, tortured by his enemies, wandering weak and sick through the.wilderness. In desperation Elias prayed, "Lord, it is enough for me, take away my soul." He fell asleep under the shadow of a juniper tree, and an angel awoke him, s~ying, "Arise an'd eat.'" He ate and drank and fell asleep again. The angel of the.Lord came to him a second time, "Arise, eat, for thou bast yet a great way to go." Elias .arose and ate, and the Scripture states, "He walked in the stre.ngth of that food forty days and forty nights, unto the mount of God, Horeb." (Kings 19:1-8.) What a fitting parallel to the "living bread that has come down ¯ from heaven," and how like Elias is the person in sickness! In his misery and anxiety' be may be moved t'o exclaim with the prophet, "Lord, it is enough for me, take away my soul. The angel of the sick, the nurse., is at hand to arouse him, "Partake of the bread of life." In this bread he will have strength to continue his journey to the mount of God; to heaven, for-be will have "life everlasting~ and I will raise him upon 'the last day~" ViatIinc ugmiv iinn gd athneg efra iotfh fduela tthh,e tphree C.cheuprtc ohb tleiagcinhges t htheem i mtop roerctaenivcee. tohfe having Christ with us on the journEyfrom this earth. "This Sacra~ ment is called the'Viaticum by sacred writers, both because it is the spiritual food by which we are sustained in our pilgrimage ,through this life, and also because it paves our way to eternal glory and hap-piness" (Catechism of 'the Council of Trent, McHugh and Callan, p:215). Next ~ve are reminded of the health-giving properties of the Eu-charist, since it is called an eternal ~emedy of body and soul. ~If the woman suffering twelve years from h.emorrhage was restored to health merely by touching the tassel of our Lord's cloak, '~hat is the blessed effect upon the pbrson who takes Christ's body upon his tongue and receives Him into his heart? For "this is the Bread that .,38 , danuarg, 1953 COMMUNION IN HOSPITALS comes down from heaven, so that if anyone eat of it he will not die." In the prayer beforehis Communion the priest :s.ays, "By Thy mercy, may the partaking of Thy Body, O Lord'3estis Christ, be profitable to the safety and health both of soul and body." After Communion he prays, "What we have taken with our mouth, O Lord, may we re-ceive with a pure heart; and 6f a temporal gift may it become to us an everlasting healing." (Roman Missal.) And recall the prayer of the priest as he gives Communion to the faithful, "May the Body of Our Lord 3esus Christ preserve thy soullunto life everlasting." In the OffiCe of Corpus Christi we read in the second noc.turn., "of all, the Sacraments none is more health-giying, for by it sins are washed away, virtues are'increased, and the soul is fedwith an abundance of all spiritual gifts." In comparison with this health-giving food all the scientific medications and treatments available in the ~nodern hospital pale into significance. The so-called "miracle drugs" are at the best but temporary helps to better ,health. The Eucharist 'is the only real, permanent, miraculous medicine. Other medicines and treatments merely postpone the inevitable death; this keeps the soul for life ever-lasting. The great philosopher, St. Augustine, describes tile riches of this Gift of God, in these words: "God, all-wise though He be, knows nothing better; all-powerful though He be, can do nothing more excellent; infinitely rich though He be, has nothing more pre-ciou~ to give, than the Eucharist." Now, how may these truths enter into the thinking of the patient and dispose him to receive Holy Communion? This will haveto be achieved through the usual routine procedures. Neces'sarily there must be rputine, otherwiseduring the busy evening and the more busy, Morning there wo.uld be nothing done. But judgment and intelli-gence, faith and zeal, will put, Christian value in what otherwise is merely mechanical. For instance, the simple detail of drawing up the Communion list, can be done with a faith and enthusiasm that will make the patient realize the 'Lord's invitation. This can be done without catechizing or giving a discourse on the Sacrament. Tl~e initial step is most important because it involves the decision of the patient; it is the mofft delicate because people so easily miscon-strue our interest and concern ~ibout their religious'practice. The more ¯ objective and impers0n~il the nurseis in explaining the opportunity for Holy Communion the less chance there is to draw resentment from the sensitive who feel that ",it is none of your business." In 39 THOMAS SULLIVAN Reoiew for Religious giving expression to the Lord's invitation, the nurse, like St. Paul, must be all things ,to all people. This simple routine is the first step in what might be called the remote preparation of the patient for Holy Communion. The next might be notifying the chaplain, should the patient want to go to -confession. Especially in the case of a patient who is to have surgery~ the next morning is this very necessary. If the patient is not in a. private room, the nurse should arrange for con'fession in a place where there can be privacy; and, too, she should advise the ch~plai'n of the best time to come so as to avoid the rush of surgery proce-dures. The chaplain will want to take greater pai.ns with his patient~ penitents, and it will be his absolution in the Sacrament :of Penance that will make ready the "large upper room furnished." The Master says, "Make ready the guest chamber for.Me'." Do we need another reminder? Then, reflect on the care and pains of the hospital procedures before surgery.' The success of surgery depends much on the proper preparation of the patient and his physical and mental condition. For this it is necessary that the patient be in the hospital the night before, that all tests and precautions,be taken. There is a striking parallel in the reception of Holy Communion, counseling us to exercise some care to make ready the patient-com-municants. A contrary parallel follows. Surgery at the hands of even the most skilled surgeon is a great risk to the life of a person in poor physical condition. So likewise this most health-giving Food can mean eternal death to the one. not proper!y disposed. Remem-ber the severe words Of the Lord to the guests who had not on the ,wedding garment. Think; too, of what St. Paul says of those who eat and drink condemnation to themselves. Ther~ is an immediate preparation for Holy Communion that is also very important. At an early hour of the morning the nurse will awaken the patient; and, while she is tidying up the room, seeing that things are clean and in order, and a fresh sheet on the bed, she. has the opportunity to explain the reason, the coming of a great Visi-tor. All. must be clean and neat, especially the soul of the recipient. If 'the patient has a prayer-book and rosary, place them conveniently at his reach. Many hospita.ls hav.e a special card with prayers before-and after Communion. If the patient is unusually drowsy, as is the case so often with those who have taken sedatives, the night nurse should see that the patient is again aroused shortly before the priest comes. The priest 40 danuarv, 1953 will often hesitate, except in the~case of Viaticum, abofitgiving Holy Communion to a person who is too sleepy to keep awake. It goes without saying that the patient should not be ~listurbed for some ten minutes to allow for s, uitable thanksgiving. Tests and trays and shots can be delayed a few minutes; these moments after Holy Communion belong to God. The patient should be alone with His Gbd. , Language cannot express adequatery the great benefits of Hol.y Communion and the hospital cannot do too much to help the patient profit by each Communion. But even the most zealous efforts in establishing p~oper hospital procedure to assure worthy recipients of the Sacrament are not sufficient. Human efforts are necessary, but it "is God's grace that is more so. Our Blessed Lord in His famous dis-course on the Eucharist in St. ~ohn's Gospel reminds us, "No one can come to me unldss he is enabl.ed to do so ~by the Father." This is why we must invoke the angels and the saints t0 assist our weak human efforts to help patient-communicants be better dis- ~posed. St. John the Baptist could well be selected as the patron for worthy reception of Communion, since it was his vocation to "make ready the way of the Lord." Such is the mind of the Church in the Liturgy, as in the Confiteor we pray, "the Blessed Mary ever Virgin, the blessed John the Baptist, the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and all the saints, to pray to the Lord our God for me." The priest fore distributing Communion begs God to send His angel down from" heaven "to guard, cherisl~, protect, visit,, and defend all that,assemble in this dwelling." MEDICO.MORAL PROBLEMS Part IV of the series of booklets entitled "Medico-Moral Problems, by Gerald Kelly, S.J., contains the article, "The Fast Before Communion," formerly pub-lished in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS,. March, 1'945. Other topics treated in the book-let concern the consent of the patient, the need of having and 'following consulta-tion, the relationship of doctor~ and department supervisors, induction "of labor, unnecessary surgery, the papal teaching on rhythm, and so forth. The booklet also contains a critical list of recommended readings for doctors. Taken together, the four b~oklets cover most of the practical ethical and reli-gious problems that confront doctors and hospital personnel. For the most part, the articles are commentaries on various sections of the Catholic hospital code, Ethical and Religious Directives for Catholic Hospitals. Price of the code, 25 cents: of 'each part o~ Medico-Moral Problems, 50 cents: of the complete set of five booklets, $2.00. Reductions on quantity orders. Order from: The Catholic Hospital As-sociation, !438 So. Grand Blvd., St. Louis 4, Mo. 41 Congress in Rome THE first International Congress of Mothers General was held in I. Rome September 11 to 13, 1952. The address" of the Holy Father to the delegates in a special audience on Sdptember 15 was printed inthe November number of the Reoiew (pp. 305-308). The present incomplete report on the congress itself is based on notes sent us by some of the delegates and on the newspaper accounts of the event from-L'Osseroatore Romano (September 11, 12, and, 14, 1952). Perhaps other delegates can supplement this material by sending communications with their own impressions. The congres.s of mothers general of pbntifical institutes was con-vened by the Sacred Congregation of Religious to discuss and co-ordinate more efficiently the religious and technical training of mem-bers of the apostolate. The papers prepared for the congress described the conditions and needs at the present time, gave helpful suggestions, and put forward the idea of establishing at Rome a pontifical, uni-versity for religious women and a commission of mothers:general to facilitate communication and liaison betw.een ecclesiastical superiors and individual institutes. The latter, it was said emphatically, is not to be a kind of "super-government.". The superiors general and tl~ose who represented and accompan-ied them came in Such large numbers that the, meetings v~ere trans-ferred from the assembly room of the Sacred Congregation of Reli-gious to that of the Gregorian L'lniv~rsity. after the first morning. An eye witness writes of the first afternoon session: "I counted the num-ber of Sisters in the Gregorian assembly room, since I didn't u~nder-stand the .Italian. My count was 800." Of these, 200 were dele-gates representing 800 religious institutes for women. Countries represented inelude~i Italy, Australia. India, France, Germany, Eng-land. Spain; Canada, and the 'United States. The opening address was given by the Most Rev. Arcadio Lar-raona, C.M.F., the secretary Of the Sacred Congregation of Religious. He pointed out that the purpose of the meeting was not "reform-- for which, thank God, there was no need but improveme'nt, by bringing up to d~te the ideals 6f the founders and foundresses with a willing, intelligent adaptation of means to the end. "We. r~ust do today what our founders would do if they were alive." The next speaker, the Rev. Riccardo Lombardi, S.J., stressed the grave~ resp6nsibility of superiors general to make the best use of their 42 CONGRESS IN ROME subjects' talents. To waste them or leave them unused is a fault just hs much as wasting one's own talents through carelessness or sloth. Natural capabilities and qualities of heart, and mind, which would have given a Sister considerable influence in the world had she not entered religion are to be cultivated by good training. The general subject introduced by Father Lombardi, the training for the apostolate, was next developed in four talks which indicated specific modifications for different parts of the world. The Rev. A. PlY. O.P. "the editor of La Vie Spirituelle. reportedon the training of religious in France. The representative for Spanish-speaking peo-ples. Father Leghisa. C.M.F., made a special plea for a better local distribution of various apostolic efforts. Mother Bernarda Peeren-boom. 0.S.U.' spoke for Germany, and Mother Magdalen Bellasis. O.S.U. for English-speaking countries. 'Mother Magdalen pointed out that some prevailing conditions in English-speaking countries .would call for greater emphasis on cer-tain aspects of training. Greater temporal prosperity (not i~ Eng-land since the war) underlines the need to stress poverty of spirit: "They must learn to want to be poor, to prefer to have less rather than more." The spirit of self government and the earlier emanci-pation of women reqmres more stress on-and explanation of the principles of religious obedience. The fact that Catholics are a mi-nority is a spur to.zeal, but it demands of faith. "There is a certain danger selves in a small minority, will suffer which, prevents energetic action. They that they have something splendid to solid instruction in the truths that.Catholics, feding them-from an inferiority compl~x must be given the conviction offer to the world and that their religion is something to be proud of." Monsignor Giovanni Battista Scapinelli,.under-secretary of the Shcred Congregation of Religious, gave a long, documented account of the co-operative efforts and .the movements toward federation in various countries and then proposed the formation of a central" and international co-ordination of forces. 'As an example of a co-operative effort, he proposed the foundation in each country of a hos-pital reserved for sickSisters. (It seems that in some countries Sis-ters- have to be cared for in pfiblic.hospitals.) The study of u'nit~- was continued in the three talks the fol-lowing morning. D6n Secur~do de Bernardis, S.D.B. ~poke of the need of gr.eater mutual knowledge and complementary co-operation among the different institutes. Then Mother M. Vianney, O.S.U., read a pap,r on the advantages of having a permanent Commission 43 CONGRESS IN ROME Review for Religious of Superiors General a[ Rome. The third speaker, Monsignor Luigi Pepe. the General Secretary of the Congress, spoke of the need of higher studies in religion. He urged provision for such studies in each country and proposed a financial plan for founding a faculty of religious studies at Rome for nuns and women' engaged in apostolic work.~ An auditor 'called the afternoon talk by the Rev. l~mile Bergh, S.3., "a soul-stirring conference." The heart of this talk was a,n examination of conscience for the past twenty-five years. This examination is given in the present number on page 14. He also gave some suggestions for the future. For instance, he mentioned that real days of recollection and retreat be organized that would provide a rest for the body too so that the soul might be ableto profit more from these exercises. After this, Father Larraona gave some practical directions of the Holy See for apostolic work in the field of education, re-education, care of the sick, and social wbrk. On Saturday morning he met with the superiors general while the other religious held group discussion in their own language groups. The congress was then closed with a brief address by His Eminence Cardinal Pizzardo, the secretary of the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Studies. , Observations . , The foregoing is a running, factual account of the congress as we. have been able to piece it together from our sources. To this we might. add a few of the more personal observations made by some Ameri-cans who attended the congress. ¯ Several have noted that there seemed to be very little realization in Italy of what we already have in this country. For example, we already have a splendid system of Catholic schools providing higher st.udies for women, not excluding religious. Also, many of our hos-pitals provide special care'for Sisters. As was noted in the Holy Father's address, previously published in the Review, he recommended modifications in the religious habit when this is necessary for hygiene or the better accomplishment of the work of the institute. We have not yet' obtained a copy of Father Larraona's address, but we have heard that when he mentioned this question of modifying the habit, he said that permission would readily be granted if the iequest was sponsored by amajority of the members of. an institute, and if the change could be made without ,]anuarg, 1953 CONGRESS IN ROME loss of harmony. The main thing, he said, is to keep peace in the family. (Not his exact words, but a good English equivalent.) And this reminds us bf another observation made by an Ameri-can delegate. "Looking at the habits that garb som~ of these dear, good religious,, we can't wonder that the Father of us all would like to see us clad in less grotesque and more unostentatious dress! Ours is surely the simplest here.'" Then she added: "'But it may be that everyone else, thinks tbe~same of hers!" (We have supplied the italics.) We c~onclude with another observation from an American mother ger~eral: "It was a grand and glorious assembly, and since we were there in obedience to the wish of our Holy Father, our being in Rome was grand and glorious too. However, the language q(~estion was a great drawback. We realized that it was international, but we felt that we lost too much since we, so many of us, had no knowl-edge of Italian. We were generally given a resum~ of the talk in the various languages, but that wasn't too satisfactory." SUMMARY OF THE CONGRESS ~ The superiors general, reunited in Rome, 'in response to the de-sires and directives of the Holy See, consider it opportune to sum-marize the work and conclusions Of the Congress as follows: The superiors general with their council will ~ollaborate in the holy movement of revitalizing the religious spirit, conforming to the needs of the Church and of the world in this historic moment. This revitalizing of the religious spirit must be basedon the spirit of our founders and fo~ndresses and of their outstanding disciples, while adapting itself to present needs and utilizing the immense resources at band in order to reach hearts and minds with the same broad vision and courage which the holy founders and foundresses would have bad today; Points for the Ascetical Life 1. Particular care must be taken to develop the personality of each religious in the exercise of Christian virtue and in the generous. dedication to religious virtue. 2. Maternal care must be taken of the health of the' religious; the work of each must be 'orderly and moderate; each religious must have time for her exercises of piety. 3. The schedules must always be reasonable and adapted to the various regions and apostolic ministries today confided to religious; 45 ¯ CONGRESS iN ROME Review for Religious 4. Care must be taken of the sick with promptness and exquisite charity. , Superiors must co-oper~lte in the organization of hospitals and s~anatoriums for religious. 5. In their individual houses, the superiors general will make it possible for al~ religious to lead a Christian life, by giving ample bp-portu. nity to receive the sacraments, and to carry out the duties im-posed on them by their consecration to God, by providing time for days of retreat, Spiritual exercises, and devotional practices common to the individual institute. Points regarding Government , I. It must. be remembered that we have need of superiors arid of teachers W.ho are well~balanced, nobl~-minded, refined holy souls or those strongly resolved to become so. They m!~st be ,well pre-pared for their sacred mission and, forgetful of themselves, give gen- ¯ erousI~ to their offide, striving to evaluate justly the natural and supernatural gifts of their subjects. 2. S.ubjects gifted With prudence and foresight should be chosen for superiors and for such offices as mistress ~)f novices and postu-lants. Young religious should not be excluded from higher office if they have the necessary natural and spiritual qualifications. Care must be taken not to ask more than canon law exacts nor should we be obstinate in the question of re-election. It is the mind of the Church that her laws and the cons'titutions of the institute be ob-served, both of-which prescribe the change of superiors so that no religious superior may be deprived pf the blessing of obedience. ,.' It is to be noted that when conditions are equal between a superior in office and a new carJdidate, preference should.be given to the new candidate. In :this way unpleasant situations'can be avoided and a greater num-ber of religious will be formed for governing. 3. In governing, in making the necessary decisions, such as changes, transfers, the equal distribution of work, one must "be guided by wisdom and charity. ' 4, In making ;¢isitations all the necessary time should be taken to examine well everything regarding the subjects, the houses, the registers, and the like. Each religious should be given an opportunity to speak freely and privately. The superiors and religious charged with various offices should enjoy a certain amount of' trust, while they sh0t~ld always remember that they are religi0u,s, subject to dis-cipline according to their respective offices. 46 d~nuarg, 1953 CONGRESS 'IN) ROME Special, Training 1. The creation of institutes of" higher education similar to those already existing for religiousorders of men. In these institutions the religious will study at least the essential' elements of Christian asceti-cism, of the religious li~e, of theology, of philosophy, of pedagogy, of psy~chology, of canon and civil lav~, and other subjects necessary for the direction of cofisecrated souls. 2. The introduction of a cours~ in orientation. This course may be given in the individual institute or tothe religious of various con-gregations grouped together. The. aim of this course is to acquaint religious with the needs and the trends .of the times in their various fields of activity. ~= 3, The diffusion among the religious of reviews of general and specific interests that may be of value'to them in their apostolate.~ 4. An intelligent, study of the documents of the Holy See. The Apostolate 1. It must 'be remembered that the apostolate is a grace, a voca-tion to which one must correspond, faithfully fulfilling the new ob-ligations which have been aisumed. The spiritual values must be main.tained,"tbe spirit of. prayer must be re-awakened, and the tell- ¯ gious'must be given 'the opportunity of making their spiritual re-treats. They must have the benefit of courses an'd have access to lit-erature that will enrich' their spiritual life. 2. It must b~ remembered that the apostolate is also a science and an art and that the Holy S~e ir~sists on high standards in literary, .technical, and profession.al training of religious, on the necessity of degrees required for the exercise of the various prbfessions; on the ne-cessity of aspiring to a greater degree of proficiency, never thinking that one's training is adequate for the present need. 3. It must be remembered what great profit can be derived from the formation of secretariates for apostolic works" both in the single provinces and in the entire congregation. Collaboration' It is sad to say. that religious frequently are indifferent to one an-other in their apostolic work. Perhaps this is more noticeable among superiors than among the members. There is a tendency to act and to think as though we were not perfect Christians bound fraternally to those who like ourselves are, striving for religious perfection. Milch harm is done to the Church and to souls by this indifference and 47 danudr~,1953 many worthy apostolic works are hindered in their development by this deplorable lack of union. By fraternal collaboration we can in-tensify our common actions for the greater glory of God and ,thus realize works which would be impossible to the individual congrega- ,tions. , The superiors general conforming to the designs of the Sacred Congregation and following the example of the superiors of the reli-gious orders of men, will constitute a committee to provide a com-mon center of information, of co-ordination, and of collaboration. General Aims of Committee 1. To gather in accordance with the Secretary of the Central Commission, already existing .at the Sacred Congregation of Reli-gious, that information which could be useful to the congregation ,regarding. various problems such as questions of the apostolate, ori-entation, defense, propaganda, administration, and authoritative reports. 2. To promote congresses, conferences, and courses of general and particular interests which are deemed necessary or useful and to organize them, after having informed the proper authorities. 3. To. reply to questions that may be asked by the Holy See. 4. To present to the Sacred Congregation of Religious any in-formation that might reflect the needs and the desires of the various~ congregations. 5. To serve as a secure and rapid means of t.ransmitting~com-munications of importance to the religious 'congregations. 6. To organize works of common interest and benefit or, at leasi~, to study the concrete projects that may be presented. Particular Aims of the Committee i. To create a pontifical institute of higher religious education. 2. To suggest the organization in various countries of courses for the ascetical and pedagogical formation, both for the religious in general and for specialized groups such as superiors, mistresses of novices, and prefects of study. ;. 3. To collect sVatistics regarding the distribution' of work, ,vari-ous apostolic needs, the fruits obtained, the difficulties encountered, ~and the like. 4. To formulate conclusions on common problems to be sub-mitted to the Sacred Congregation of Religious. 5, To promote the organization of schools for higher education by groups of congregations. ' 48 Shunfing Facilities Albert Muntsch, S.3. RAILROAD yards possess shunting facilities which enable the yard-master to move quickly a row of cars ~to a siding to make room for incoming or outgoing trains. The more complete such provisions, the less danger of collision at times of heavy traffic and travel. As we go thrdugh life we all need, at times, facilities, of escape-from spiritual or moral dangers that threaten ruin 1~o the immortal soul. We need them also to find relief from the worry, depression, and disappointments that beset every traveler through the pilgrimage of life to the eternal homeland. We may regard such avenues of escape as spiritual shunting facilities. Fortunately we have them in abun-dance. Like the "rare day in ,lune" they are free to all. And what is more, these "shunting facilities" have a beneficent effect. They will surely work if we do not place an obstacle in the way. Some of the great heroes whom we honor in the calendar of (he saints tell us that a reverential glance at the crucifix was to them a source of courage and of spiritual strength in the hour of trial.~ It is easy, to imitate them. We carr~y,the cross on our rosary. How easy ¯ ¯ to look devoutly and with confidence at the sweet symbol of salva-tion! Surely there is always hope and healing for the troubled soul in the cross of Christ. Pragers consisting of three or four words--prayers which may be uttered on the crowded street, as well as in the quiet of the home, are an easy way to gain new strength and much-needed hope. Let us try to cultivate this practice of utteri,ng such ejaculatory prayers. "My 3esus, mercy," is a familiar example. We shall become the richer s~iritually for forming this excellent habit. It can provide a good avenue of escape from many of the little'worries, that eat into the~ heart and make the soul unfit for larger efforts in God's Kingdom. A brief visit to the chapel--what a wonderful means for fighting . off weariness in well-doing and for laying up new resources against the,.hour of temptation! We are in God's house.Perhaps we see other souls praying for the same graces we need in the spiritual journey. It is always edifying to enter St. Peter's Church, near the D~ar- 49 ALBERT MUNTSCH born,Station in Chicago, at any hour of the day, and become one of the man,y dev6ut clients of the Sacred' Heart. There ~ill be scoies of men and women frbm all walks of life who have turned aside from the busy street and the roar of commerce to find hea!ing for the soul. Rich and pgor, young.and old, saint and ~inner, native son and im-migrant all on the same high quest. They needed a spiritual siding so they turned into God's holy house~to avoid some snare or spir-itual danger or to lay up strength for the day's, ceaseless conflict. With a song of g.ladness from the heart we may take up anew life's daily burden. We are not like those who are without hope. We see a light ever-shining. There are many beacoi~ lights even in the darkest hour. For a loving Providence has providedus weary pil-grims, with many a station at which to stop for second wind while press!ng forward to the goal. Now such spiritual shunting facilities are of immense value to, and even of great necessity for r~li~ious. Many are engaged 'in the splendid work o~ Catholic hospitals, following in the footsteps of Christ, the Divine Physician. But both patients and nurses may. at times become wearied and their hearts may become oppressed with bitterness. They need a spiritual._siding. Religious persons should often dwell on one of the g[eatest prob-lems the problem 9f human suffering. It is contemplation on the su.fferings, of Christ which will enable them to find thoughts of hope and inspiration for their suffering patients who are about to give up the struggle, abandon ~hope, and listen to the tempter'of souls. An eminent physician refers to the immense value of the "simple habit of prayer" for those who are nervously depressed. This simple habit of prayer and an act of faith in the divine value of suffering patiently borne may provide spiritual shunting facilities.for both the nurse and heb patient. "The drudgery of the classroom" has become, almost a proverbial expression. When the duties of teaching seem hard, it would'be well for teachers to realize that in ten or twenty years the boys or girls, who~ are now often a sourde of trouble, will be young men and women. They will be on the front line and may be exposed to seri-ous temptations. Under the tutelage of the Catholic teacher, they fnust prepare themselves now for victory in that critical hour. T~his vision of the future will help provide shunting facilities for the tem-porary snarl of discouragement. The vision should prove an inspi-ration to persevere .faithfully in the Christian apostolate of teaching. 50 ( uestdons an.cl Answers When H01y Saturday services are held in a convent chapel on Satur-day evening, terminating with the Mi.dnlght Mass, what is the correct order for the Divine Office on Holy Saturday, and what versicles, re-sponses, and prayers should be used for' grace at the noon and evening meal? Should the Alleluia be omitted at grace when the Holy Saturday services take place in the-evenlng? The answers concerning'the Office are contained in a Decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, dated January 11, 1952 (Acta Apos-toticae Sedis, January 25., i§52, pp. 50-63), giving_ directions for the c~lebration of the Easter Vigil on Holy Saturday evening with the Easter Mass followiiag about midnight. Regarding the grace at ~able, which is not covered by the Decree, confer below. The pre-scriptions for the Divine Office are as follows: MATINS and LAUDS are not anticipated-.on Friday ev,ening, but are said Saturday.morning at.a convenient hour. At the end of Lauds the antiphon Christus factus est is ~epeated with a Pat'-'r Nos-ter, but the psalm Miserere is 6mitted. and the following prayer is substituted for the Respice quaesumus: Concede, quaesumus, Omnipotens Deus: ut qui Fitii tui resurrec-tionem devota expectatione praeuenirnus; ejusdem resurrectionis glo-riam- consequamur. The conclusion Per eundem Dorninum is said silently. SMALL HOURS are ~aid as on Holy Thursday, en~ling with the antiphon Cbristus factus est and a Pater Noster. The psalm Miserere is omitted, but the new prayer Concede is said as indicated above at Lauds. VESPERS are 'said at a.convenient h6ur in /he afternoon as on Holy Thursday, with the following changes: Antiphon 1: Hodie agtictus sum valde, sed cras solvam uincula Antiphon for the Magnificat: Principes sacerdotum et pharisaei munierunt sepulcrum, signantes lapidem, cure custodibus. The antiphon for the Magnificat is repeated and the Christus factus est, Pater Noster, and Miserere are omitted. The prayer noted above for Lauds is said: This concludes ~espers. COMPLINE is omitted on Holy Saturday evening. 51 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Revietv ?or Religious Until the Sacred Congregation of Rites issues an official text for grace at meals,, the f,ollowing, which keeps the parallel between the Office'and the meal prayers to be found in t'he Breviary at present, is suggested as a form which may be used on Holy Saturday: AT THE NOON MEAL: Cbristus factus est pro nobis obediens usque ad mortem, mortem autem crucis and a Pater Noster. Then recite the new prayer Concede, given above at the end of Lauds, ter-mmat! ng it with Per eundem Dominum "to be said silently. AT THE EVENING MEAL: V. Principes sacerdotum et pharisaei munierunt sepulchrum. R. Signantes lapidem, cure cus-todibus. Then a Pater Noster and the prayer Concede as given abo~e with its silent ending. The Alleluia will not occur in the Office or grace at table on Holy Saturday because it has not yet been su.ng officially. This will occur during the Easter Vigil. ~2m Throughout ~he year we chant the Little Office of Our Blessed Lady in choir. During the last three days of Holy Week we replace this¯ by the Office of the Roman Breviary. However, at Matins on these days we spy only the first nocturn. Is this a proper'and permissible omission? In his Hol~l Week in L. arge and Sm~ all Churches, Father Law-rence J. O'Connell states the following: "Tenebrae.services may be .held not~0nly in cathedral, collegiate, conventual, and parochial churches,.but also i,n chhpels of convents and other institutions where the Blessed Sacrament is habitually reserved . If all three nocturns of Matins cannot be sung, it is sufficient to sing the first nocturn and the Benedictus.'" (See also W'apelhorst, n. 360, 6!). The custom of replacing the Little Office of Our Lady with the Divine Office during the Sacred Triduum seems reasonable and jus-tifiable. In a congent where the Holy Week services are not held, when is it proper to uhcover the crucifix on Good Friday? There does not seem to be any special legislation on the .subject. Hence it is suggested that the crucifix be uncovered after the services held in the parish church in whose territory it is situated. Our constitutions state that if anythlncj is left over it is to be sent to the provincial house. Sometimes we have to send our salaries before we 52 Januarg, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS pay our food and book bills. We have to make so many excuses when the collector comes. This cjives us a bad local reputation, and our credit is not good. Hence firms expect us to pay cash. Is it proper to