Coastal countries have traditionally relied on the existing marine resources (e.g., fishing, food, transport, recreation, and tourism) as well as tried to support new economic endeavors (ocean energy, desalination for water supply, and seabed mining). Modern societies and lifestyle resulted in an increased demand for dietary diversity, better health and well-being, new biomedicines, natural cosmeceuticals, environmental conservation, and sustainable energy sources. These societal needs stimulated the interest of researchers on the diverse and underexplored marine environments as promising and sustainable sources of biomolecules and biomass, and they are addressed by the emerging field of marine (blue) biotechnology. Blue biotechnology provides opportunities for a wide range of initiatives of commercial interest for the pharmaceutical, biomedical, cosmetic, nutraceutical, food, feed, agricultural, and related industries. This article synthesizes the essence, opportunities, responsibilities, and challenges encountered in marine biotechnology and outlines the attainment and valorization of directly derived or bio-inspired products from marine organisms. First, the concept of bioeconomy is introduced. Then, the diversity of marine bioresources including an overview of the most prominent marine organisms and their potential for biotechnological uses are described. This is followed by introducing methodologies for exploration of these resources and the main use case scenarios in energy, food and feed, agronomy, bioremediation and climate change, cosmeceuticals, bio-inspired materials, healthcare, and well-being sectors. The key aspects in the fields of legislation and funding are provided, with the emphasis on the importance of communication and stakeholder engagement at all levels of biotechnology development. Finally, vital overarching concepts, such as the quadruple helix and Responsible Research and Innovation principle are highlighted as important to follow within the marine biotechnology field. The authors of this review are collaborating under the European Commission-funded Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) Action Ocean4Biotech – European transdisciplinary networking platform for marine biotechnology and focus the study on the European state of affairs. ; This publication is based upon work from COST Action CA18238 (Ocean4Biotech), supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) program.AR, KK, and TR: the publication is part of a project that has received funding from the European Union Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under grant agreement no. 774499 – GoJelly project. AR and KK: this research was funded by the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding P1-0245 and P1-0237). AR: this publication has been produced with financial assistance of the Interreg MED Programme, co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund (Project No. 7032, internal ref. 8MED20_4.1_SP_001) – B-Blue project. AB: acknowledges the support from the Research Council of Norway through the grant 267474 from the HAVBRUK2 program. MLC: acknowledges the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (UIDB/04326/2020), the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (MAR2020 OSTEOMAR/16-02-01-FMP-0057 and ALGASOLE/16.02.01-FMP-0058), the European Regional Development Fund (Atlantic Area BLUEHUMAN/EAPA/151/2016 and INTERREG V-A Spain-Portugal ALGARED+), and the European Commision (H2020-MSCA-ITN BIOMEDAQU/766347). MFC: wishes to acknowledge the funding from CEEC program supported by FCT/MCTES (CEECIND/02968/2017); ACTINODEEPSEA project (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-031045) co-financed by COMPETE 2020, Portugal 2020, ERDF and FCT; Strategic Funding UIDB/04423/2020 and UIDP/04423/2020 through national funds provided by FCT and ERDF. MC: financial support from the Programme of the Institute of Oceanology, PAS (grant no. II.3) and National Science Centre in Poland (project number NCN 2016/21/B/NZ9/02304). MCu: acknowledges the funding from the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación of Spain (SAF2009-0839 and RTA 2015-00010-C03-02) and INTERREG-MAC2/1.1b/279 (AHIDAGRO). AD-M: acknowledge financial support from INTERREG-MAC/1.1b/042 (BIOTRANSFER2) and Agustín de Betancourt Programme (Cabildo de Tenerife and Universidad de La Laguna). AD: work has been supported by the ERDF Activity 1.1.1.2 "Post-doctoral Research Aid" of the Specific Aid Objective 1.1.1, Operational Programme "Growth and Employment" (No. 1.1.1.2/VIAA/1/16/048). RJF: funding for this research was provided under the Marine Research Programme 2014–2020, through the Marine Institute of Ireland under grant PBA/MB/16/01 "A National Marine Biodiscovery Laboratory of Ireland (NMBLI)" and through the Food Institutional Research Measure, administered by the Department of Agriculture, Food, and the Marine, Ireland under grant issue 17/F/260 (MaraBioActive). SG: this work was supported by the Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit-UCIBIO which is financed by national funds from FCT/MCTES (UID/Multi/04378/2019). SG thanks financial support provided by FCT/MCTES through grant IF/00700/2014 and OceanTresaures project PTDC/QUIQUI/119116/2010. NID: wishes to acknowledge the funding from the Croatian Science Foundation Project CELLSTRESS (IP-2018-01-5840). MMa and TD: we wish to acknowledge funding from the General Secretariat for Research and Technology (GSRT) and the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) under grant no. 239 (SPINAQUA project). AM-G: acknowledges the financial contribution from the project BYTHOS funded by the European Union's Interreg V-A Italia-Malta Programme under project code C1-1.1-9. HM-M: financial support from National Science Centre in Poland 2016/21/B/NZ9/02304 and 2017/25/B/NZ9/00202. MMe: this work has been supported by the French Government, through the UCAJEDI Investments in the Future project managed by the National Research Agency (ANR) with the reference number ANR-15-IDEX-01. MMe: thanks the Canceropôle Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, and the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Region for the financial support provided to the MetaboCell project. DO: supported by the Doctorate Study program in Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Marine Research Institute, Klaipėda University, Lithuania. CR: we gratefully acknowledge the Research Council of Norway, the Møre and Romsdal County Council and Møreforsking AS for their financial contributions through the PROMAC (244244; www.promac.no), the Norwegian Seaweed Biorefinery Platform (294946; http://seaweedplatform.no/), and the Blå-Grønn (55031) projects. ER: this work benefited from financial support from the PACA Canceropôle, the National Cancer Institute, the PACA Regional Council and the French Government, managed by the National Research Agency as part of the Université Côte d'AzurJEDI Investissement d'Avenir project (ANR-15-IDEX-01). JS: work was supported by the Slovenian Research Agency (P4-0127 and J4-1771). IS: financial support from Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic (project CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/17_048/0007323). XT: the tool "RRI Roadmap" was developed as part of the European Horizon 2020 project MARINA "Marine Knowledge Sharing Platform for Federating Responsible Research and Innovation Communities" under the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under Grant Agreement No. 710566 (2016–2019). OT: his contribution is carried out with the support of the Marine Institute and is funded under the Marine Research Programme by the Irish Government (Grant-Aid Agreement No. PBA/MB/16/01). ; Peer reviewed
ANNOTATION: The article notes that there has been a steady increase in the proportion of the elderly in all regions of the world in recent years, especially distinguished by this characteristic Europe, similar changes are taking place in Ukraine. The agenda of intergovernmental and non-governmental international organizations raises the question of shaping society's attitude to its oldest members as a source of wisdom and experience, recognizing the importance of their contribution to the development of various spheres of public life. At the global and European level, a system of normative acts is being formed aimed at ensuring the enjoyment of fundamental rights and freedoms of the elderly, preventing discrimination on the basis of age and disability, and formulating public policies to promote maximum active and healthy aging. It is emphasized that an understanding of a "decent life" is not limited to the availability of a certain level of material wealth and the availability of social services. Equally important for the elderly is the opportunity for as long as possible (but in accordance with their own desire) to continue working, communicate in a professional environment, maintain a sense of self-importance and need, as well as to receive education. The need for special attention from the state is due to the particular vulnerability of the elderly, in particular, in the conditions of being a client of social institutions and / or in the presence of negative changes in health. The analysis of the Ukrainian social legislation gives grounds to claim that our country does not stand aside from global trends and pays considerable attention to the development of legal norms for improving the quality of life of elderly people. The activities of the Commissioner for Human Rights, the Ministry of Social Policy of Ukraine, employment agencies and public organizations also contribute to this. Much of the work of social workers has to do with the care of the elderly, so it is important to provide quality social services, to build a consciously respectful attitude towards the honor and dignity of social service clients, and to empower older generations to live the lifestyle they desire. Establishing and applying in Ukraine a system of standards for determining eligibility and provision of social services, establishing adequate care payments for the elderly, as well as bringing European standards to the standard of other types of social welfare payments that will contribute to improving the quality of life of the elderly . ; АННОТАЦИЯ: в статье отмечается, что в последнее время наблюдается непрерывное увеличение доли пожилого населения во всех регионах мира, особенно высокими темпами увеличивается количество лиц старше 65 в Европе, эти же процессы характерны и для Украины. Принимая во внимание планетарный масштаб старения населения и неизбежно возникающие при этом вызовы для общества, на повестке дня деятельности различных межправительственных и неправительственных международных организаций возникает вопрос построения соответствующей государственной политики в направлении формирования отношения общества по отношению старейшим своим членам как к источнику мудрости и опыта, признания важности их вклада в развитие различных сфер общественной жизни: экономики, образования, науки, культуры и других. Констатируется, что на мировом и европейском уровне начиная с 80-х годов прошлого столетия и доныне формируется система нормативных актов, направленных на обеспечение реализации основных прав и свобод пожилых людей, предотвращения дискриминации на основании возраста и нетрудоспособности, формирование государственной политики относительно содействия максимально активному и здоровому старению. Отмечается, что категория «достойная жизнь» не может быть ограничена только уровнем материального обеспечения и доступности социальных услуг, ведь не менее важными для пожилых людей являются возможности максимально долго (но в соответствии с их собственным желанием) продолжать трудовую деятельность, общаться в профессиональной среде и получать образование, а также иметь возможность развиваться, получать новые впечатления, путешествовать, наслаждаться достижениями культуры. Необходимость особого внимания со стороны государства обусловлена особой уязвимостью пожилых людей, в частности, в случае пребывания в качестве клиента социальных учреждений или наличия ухудшения в состоянии здоровья. Анализ современного украинского законодательства дает основания утверждать, что наше государство не стоит в стороне от общемировых тенденций и уделяет значительное внимание развитию законодательства в сторону обеспечения качества жизни пожилых людей. Способствуют этому и деятельность по преодолению проблем пожилых людей Уполномоченного Верховной Рады Украины по правам человека, работа Министерства социальной политики Украины, органов занятости и ряда общественных организаций. Значительная часть профессиональной деятельности социальных работников связана с обслуживанием пожилых людей в условиях учреждений социального обслуживания или на дому, поэтому важно обеспечить предоставление качественных социальных услуг, формирование сознательно уважительного отношения к чести и достоинства клиентов социальных служб со стороны тех, кто их предоставляет, максимальное расширение возможностей для представителей старшего поколения вести тот образ жизни, который они пожелают. В этой связи немаловажным представляется общественный и государственный контроль за соблюдением прав пожилых людей в периоды их ограниченной мобильности. Создание и применение системы стандартов по определению необходимых видов и качества предоставления социальных услуг, установление выплат на уход за лицами преклонного возраста на достаточном уровне, как и приведение к европейским стандартам других видов социальных выплат, будет способствовать повышению качества жизни пожилых людей, а следовательно, максимально обеспечит для них достойную жизнь. ; АНОТАЦІЯ: у статті зазначається, що останнім часом спостерігається невпинне збільшення частки населення похилого віку у всіх регіонах світу, особливо виділяється за цією характеристикою Європа, аналогічні зміни відбуваються і в Україні. На порядку денному діяльності міжурядових та неурядових міжнародних організацій постає питання формування ставлення суспільства до найстарших своїх членів як до джерела мудрості і досвіду, визнання важливості їхнього вкладу у розвиток різноманітних сфер суспільного життя. На світовому та європейському рівні нині формується система нормативних актів, спрямованих на забезпечення реалізації основних прав і свобод літніх людей, запобігання дискримінації на підставі віку та непрацездатності, формування державної політики у напрямі сприяння максимального активному та здоровому старінню. Наголошується, що розуміння «гідного життя» не обмежується лише наявністю певного рівня матеріального достатку та доступності отримання соціальних послуг. Не менш важливими для осіб похилого віку є можливості максимально довго (але згідно з їхнім власним бажанням) продовжувати трудову діяльність, спілкуватися у професійному середовищі, зберігати відчуття власної значимості та потрібності, а також здобувати освіту. Необхідність особливої уваги з боку держави обумовлена особливою вразливістю літніх людей, зокрема, в умовах перебування у якості клієнта соціальних установ та/або за наявності негативних змін у здоров'ї. Аналіз українського соціального законодавства дає підстави стверджувати, що наша держава не стоїть осторонь загальносвітових тенденцій та приділяє значну увагу розробці правових норм щодо покращення якості життя осіб похилого віку. Сприяють цьому і діяльність Уповноваженого Верховної Ради України з прав людини, Міністерства соціальної політики України, органів зайнятості та громадських організацій. Значна частина діяльності соціальних працівників пов'язана із обслуговуванням літніх людей, тому важливе надання якісних соціальних послуг, формування свідомо шанобливого ставлення до честі і гідності клієнтів соціальних служб, розширення можливостей для представників старшого покоління вести той спосіб життя, який вони забажають. Створення та застосування в Україні системи стандартів щодо визначення права та надання соціальних послуг, встановлення виплат на догляд за особами похилого віку на достатньому рівні, як і приведення до європейських стандартів рівня інших видів соціальних виплат, що забезпечують життя, сприятимуть підвищенню якості життя осіб похилого віку.
Austrian Federal Ministry of Science, Research and Economy ; Austrian Science Fund ; Belgian Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique ; Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek ; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) ; Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) ; Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) ; Brazilian Funding Agency (FAPERGS) ; Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) ; Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science ; CERN ; Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ministry of Science and Technology ; National Natural Science Foundation of China ; Colombian Funding Agency (COLCIENCIAS ; Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sport ; Croatian Science Foundation ; Research Promotion Foundation, Cyprus ; Secretariat for Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation, Ecuador ; Ministry of Education and Research, Estonia ; Estonian Research Council, Estonia ; European Regional Development Fund, Estonia ; Academy of Finland ; Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture ; Helsinki Institute of Physics ; Institut National de Physique Nucleaire et de Physique des Particules/CNRS, France ; Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives/CEA, France ; Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung, Germany ; Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Germany ; Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren, Germany ; General Secretariat for Research and Technology, Greece ; National Research, Development and Innovation Fund, Hungary ; Department of Atomic Energy, India ; Department of Science and Technology, India ; Institute for Studies in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics, Iran ; Science Foundation, Ireland ; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Italy ; Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning, Republic of Korea ; National Research Foundation (NRF), Republic of Korea ; Lithuanian Academy of Sciences ; Ministry of Education (Malaysia) ; University of Malaya (Malaysia) ; Ministry of Science of Montenegro ; Mexican Funding Agency (BUAP) ; Mexican Funding Agency (CINVESTAV) ; Mexican Funding Agency (CONACYT) ; Mexican Funding Agency (LNS) ; Mexican Funding Agency (SEP) ; Mexican Funding Agency (UASLP-FAI) ; Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, New Zealand ; Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission ; Ministry of Science and Higher Education, Poland ; National Science Center, Poland ; Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia, Portugal ; JINR, Dubna ; Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation ; Federal Agency of Atomic Energy of the Russian Federation ; Russian Academy of Sciences ; Russian Foundation for Basic Research ; National Research Center Kurchatov Institute ; Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of Serbia ; Secretaria de Estado de Investigacion, Desarrollo e Innovacion, Programa Consolider-Ingenio 2010, Spain ; Plan Estatal de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnica y de Innovacion 2013-2016, Spain ; Plan de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Innovacion 2013-2017 del Principado de Asturias, Spain ; Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional, Spain ; Ministry of Science, Technology and Research, Sri Lanka ; Swiss Funding Agency (ETH Board) ; Swiss Funding Agency (ETH Zurich) ; Swiss Funding Agency (PSI) ; Swiss Funding Agency (SNF) ; Swiss Funding Agency (UniZH) ; Swiss Funding Agency (Canton Zurich) ; Swiss Funding Agency (SER) ; Ministry of Science and Technology, Taipei ; Thailand Center of Excellence in Physics ; Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology of Thailand ; Special Task Force for Activating Research ; National Science and Technology Development Agency of Thailand ; Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey ; Turkish Atomic Energy Authority ; National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Ukraine ; State Fund for Fundamental Researches, Ukraine ; Science and Technology Facilities Council, U.K. ; U.S. Department of Energy ; U.S. National Science Foundation ; Marie-Curie program (European Union) ; European Research Council and Horizon 2020 Grant (European Union) ; Leventis Foundation ; A. P. Sloan Foundation ; Alexander von Humboldt Foundation ; Belgian Federal Science Policy Office ; Fonds pour la Formation a la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture (FRIA-Belgium) ; F.R.S.-FNRS (Belgium) under the Excellence of Science - EOS - be.h project ; FWO (Belgium) under the Excellence of Science - EOS - be.h project ; Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) of the Czech Republic ; Lendulet (Momentum) Program (Hungary) ; Janos Bolyai Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Hungary) ; New National Excellence Program UNKP (Hungary) ; NKFIA (Hungary) ; Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, India ; HOMING PLUS program of the Foundation for Polish Science ; European Union, Regional Development Fund (Poland) ; Mobility Plus program of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland) ; National Science Center (Poland) ; National Priorities Research Program by Qatar National Research Fund ; Programa de Excelencia Maria de Maeztu ; Programa Severo Ochoa del Principado de Asturias ; Thalis program - EU-ESF ; Aristeia program - EU-ESF ; Greek NSRF ; Rachadapisek Sompot Fund for Postdoctoral Fellowship, Chulalongkorn University (Thailand) ; Chulalongkorn Academic into Its 2nd Century Project Advancement Project (Thailand) ; Welch Foundation ; Weston Havens Foundation (U.S.A.) ; Estonian Research Council, Estonia: IUT23-4 ; Estonian Research Council, Estonia: IUT23-6 ; European Research Council and Horizon 2020 Grant (European Union): 675440 ; F.R.S.-FNRS (Belgium) under the Excellence of Science - EOS - be.h project: 30820817 ; FWO (Belgium) under the Excellence of Science - EOS - be.h project: 30820817 ; NKFIA (Hungary): 123842 ; NKFIA (Hungary): 123959 ; NKFIA (Hungary): 124845 ; NKFIA (Hungary): 124850 ; NKFIA (Hungary): 125105 ; European Union, Regional Development Fund (Poland): Harmonia 2014/14/M/ST2/00428 ; European Union, Regional Development Fund (Poland): Opus 2014/13/B/ST2/02543 ; European Union, Regional Development Fund (Poland): 2014/15/B/ST2/03998 ; European Union, Regional Development Fund (Poland): 2015/19/B/ST2/02861 ; European Union, Regional Development Fund (Poland): Sonata-bis 2012/07/E/ST2/01406 ; Mobility Plus program of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland): Harmonia 2014/14/M/ST2/00428 ; Mobility Plus program of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland): Opus 2014/13/B/ST2/02543 ; Mobility Plus program of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland): 2014/15/B/ST2/03998 ; Mobility Plus program of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland): 2015/19/B/ST2/02861 ; Mobility Plus program of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland): Sonata-bis 2012/07/E/ST2/01406 ; National Science Center (Poland): Harmonia 2014/14/M/ST2/00428 ; National Science Center (Poland): Opus 2014/13/B/ST2/02543 ; National Science Center (Poland): 2014/15/B/ST2/03998 ; National Science Center (Poland): 2015/19/B/ST2/02861 ; National Science Center (Poland): Sonata-bis 2012/07/E/ST2/01406 ; Welch Foundation: C-1845 ; A search is performed for a heavy Majorana neutrino (N), produced in leptonic decay of a W boson propagator and decaying into a W boson and a lepton, with the CMS detector at the LHC. The signature used in this search consists of two same-sign leptons, in any flavor combination of electrons and muons, and at least one jet. The data were collected during 2016 in proton-proton collisions at a center-of-mass energy of 13 TeV, corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 35.9 fb(-1). The results are found to be consistent with the expected standard model background. Upper limits are set in the mass range between 20 and 1600 GeV in the context of a Type-I seesaw mechanism, on |V-eN|(2), |V-N|(2), and |VeNV *|(2)/(|V-eN|(2)+|V-N|(2)), where V-N is the matrix element describing the mixing of N with the standard model neutrino of flavor = e, . For N masses between 20 and 1600 GeV, the upper limits on |V-N|(2) range between 2.3 x 10(-5) and unity. These are the most restrictive direct limits for heavy Majorana neutrino masses above 430 GeV.
Il D.Lgs. 231/01 (di seguito DECRETO) ha introdotto nel nostro ordinamento giuridico la responsabilità amministrativa per le persone giuridiche rispetto ad una serie di reati presupposto che, nell'arco di questi primi quindici anni di vigenza, sono andati sempre più ampliandosi. Dapprima, infatti, erano previsti soltanto reati dolosi compiuti da soggetti apicali o da persone soggette alla loro direzione e vigilanza nell'interesse o a vantaggio dell'Ente. Nel 2007 sono stati introdotti i reati in materia di salute e sicurezza sul lavoro e nel 2011 sono stati introdotti i reati ambientali, successivamente ampliati nel 2015. Hanno fatto così il loro ingresso anche i reati colposi per i quali viene a mancare la sfera volitiva, l'interesse o il vantaggio dovrebbero in questo caso ricondursi alla condotta inosservante delle norme cautelari. L'art. 6 del Decreto prevede una clausola esimente: l'ente non risponde del reato se prova che l'organo dirigente ha adottato ed efficacemente attuato modelli di organizzazione e gestione idonei a prevenire il reato prima che il fatto si sia compiuto e che il compito di vigilare sul funzionamento e l'osservanza del modello e di curarne l'aggiornamento sia affidato a un organismo dell'ente dotato di autonomi poteri di iniziativa e controllo. L'adozione del Modello di organizzazione, gestione e controllo (di seguito Modello 231) è, quindi, un adempimento facoltativo e si delinea a pieno titolo come una precisa scelta di governance. Tuttavia non si possono non considerare le conseguenze della sua mancata adozione. In particolare la decisione di identificare il rischio-reato e gestirlo, al fine di ridurre la possibilità che il relativo evento si verifichi, rientra in una politica che deve necessariamente essere definita dai vertici amministrativi dell'ente in ossequio alle norme codicistiche che impongono la cura e la vigilanza dell'assetto organizzativo, amministrativo e contabile (artt. 2381, quinto comma e 2403 c.c.; e, con riferimento alle società quotate, art. 149 TUF). Il notevole ampliamento del catalogo dei reati non ha causato un aumento altrettanto rilevante delle imprese che abbiano deciso di dotarsi di un Modello 231. Il motivo principale si può ravvisare nella mancanza di certezza che il Modello adottato sarà valutato idoneo dall'autorità giudiziaria nell'ipotesi in cui dovesse verificarsi uno dei reati presupposto a fronte del costo certo da dover sostenere per la sua implementazione. Nelle piccole e medie imprese, spesso del tutto sprovviste di procedure, il problema del costo relativo all'adozione dei modelli diviene un elemento determinante ai fini della decisione finale. Il Legislatore all'art. 7 ha stabilito che "il modello prevede, in relazione alla natura e alla dimensione dell'organizzazione nonché al tipo di attività svolta, misure idonee a garantire lo svolgimento dell'attività nel rispetto della legge e a scoprire ed eliminare tempestivamente situazioni di rischio.". Il Legislatore, al fine di rendere più accessibile l'adozione del Modello di Organizzazione, gestione e controllo anche da parte delle PMI, per le quali potrebbe risultare eccessivamente oneroso, ha previsto alcune misure di semplificazione: - la possibilità di nominare quale organismo indipendente di valutazione l'organo dirigente; - le procedure semplificate per l'adozione e l'efficace attuazione dei modelli di organizzazione e gestione della salute e sicurezza nelle piccole e medie imprese approvate dalla Commissione consultiva permanente per la salute e sicurezza sul lavoro e recepite con decreto Ministeriale nel febbraio 2014. Al fine di agevolare e di fornire riferimenti validi per la costruzione e l'adozione di Modelli conformi al dettato normativo, giacché la norma non fornisce elementi in merito, il legislatore ha previsto (art. 6 c.2 del Decreto) che le associazioni di categoria rappresentative degli Enti redigessero Linee guida per la costruzione di tali Modelli soggette all'approvazione del Ministero della Giustizia. Le prime Linee Guida ad essere state approvate sono quelle emanate da Confindustria nel 2002 ( aggiornate nel 2014) che costituiscono il maggior punto di riferimento per tutti gli Enti, alle quali sono seguite quelle delle associazioni di categoria specifiche di settore. Nel primo capitolo viene esposto un inquadramento generale del Modello, le sue fasi di realizzazione, le sue componenti ed il rapporto con il sistema di controllo interno, nonché saranno esaminati gli elementi di coordinamento tra i sistemi di gestione aziendale in materia di qualità, ambiente e sicurezza e il Modello 231. Nel secondo capitolo viene presentata l'azienda Ecomar Italia SpA, una impresa di dimensioni medie che opera nel settore della gestione dei rifiuti in possesso di autorizzazione integrata ambientale e dotata di un sistema di gestione integrato per la qualità, l'ambiente e sicurezza che non si è ancora dotata del Modello 231 viene esposta l'analisi di funzionamento dell'azienda e del suo sistema di controllo interno. Il terzo capitolo propone il percorso di elaborazione del Modello dalle fasi di analisi e mappatura dei processi sensibili alla proposta di azioni di risposta al rischio per tre categorie di reati individuate agli artt. 25, 25-septies e 25-undecies del D.Lgs. 231/01. Le linee guida a cui si è fatto riferimento nello svolgimento del percorso sono quelle predisposte da Confindustria e da Fise Assoambiente. Nel presente studio si è cercato di porre in evidenza le possibilità di integrazione tra il sistema di gestione ed il Modello di Organizzazione, Gestione e Controllo 231 nella specifica realtà aziendale. In particolare, lo studio del caso aziendale è volto a cercare di capire se, in un'azienda di medie dimensioni già sufficientemente strutturata, sia possibile sfruttare gli elementi esistenti per ottenere un Modello ex D.Lgs. 231/01 che raggiunga il suo obiettivo, ossia essere giudicato idoneo a prevenire eventuali reati e sia sostenibile in quanto possa prevedere misure alla portata di aziende piccole e medie che evitino l'ingessamento dell'impresa o che richiedano interventi eccessivamente complessi e onerosi in rapporto alla realtà aziendale. Infatti, utilizzare gli elementi del Sistema di Gestione Integrato per analizzarli in ottica di Modello 231 al fine di porre in essere le necessarie integrazioni e far emergere eventuali aree a rischio prive di idonee attività di controllo, dovrebbe al contempo garantire una maggiore concretezza, coerenza ed efficacia al Modello nonché comportare una minore onerosità dei costi di attuazione. Sarebbe, infatti, un inutile spreco di risorse compiere uno sforzo a metà che realizzi un Modello che corrisponda ad un mero adempimento burocratico non sufficientemente calato nella realtà aziendale e che quindi, all'occorrenza, non fosse poi riconosciuto idoneo, oppure realizzare un Modello organizzativo parallelo al Sistema di Gestione che diventerebbe impossibile da mantenere e destinato a restare sulla carta. Nelle conclusioni saranno esposte riflessioni in merito alla convenienza per l'Azienda di adottare un Modello 231 nel suo specifico contesto e sarà operato un raffronto tra i vantaggi che sia possibile conseguire e i costi di realizzazione e mantenimento del Modello.
The European Capital of Culture (ECoC) is a title designated to a European city for a duration of one year, when it can present itself and its cultural life regionally, nationally and internationally. The origin of ECoC goes back in 1983 when then Greek Minister of Culture Melina Mercouri aimed to »bring the people of the Member States closer together« and to »highlight the richness and diversity of European cultures«. Since then over fifty European cities have taken the advantage and held the ECoC title, which has overgrown the original purpose and became today the most established EU's cultural initiative. This Master's Thesis discusses Maribor and Guimarães as the host cities of the ECoC 2012 event. The Master's Thesis considers the ECoC event as a whole and provides a systematic review of the literature on the European cultural policy and on the development of the ECoC, as well as the evaluation of the ECoC in 2012. Therefore, the Master's Thesis is divided into theoretical and empirical part and briefly presented further in this Abstract. The theoretical part first outlines the origins, purpose and definition of the European Cultural Policy. It traces the development of the European Cultural Programme, particularly the legislative and the flagship programme of the ECoC. This part is then followed by the presentation of culture's incorporation into the EU's objectives and the creation of the European cultural space. The second chapter highlights the ECoC event and presents the past ECoC cities from historical perspective and by their particularity. Maribor and Guimarães, as the ECoC 2012 cities, are also presented in detail, from the perspectives of the socio-economic indicators of the cities and the ECoC 2012 event. The next chapters provide a wider discussion on the relationship among the culture and economy. Previous empirical studies have identified the impacts of the ECoC event on the city's economy. Additionally, cities are increasingly using cultural events to improve their image, stimulate urban development and attract visitors. Moreover, the ECoC event attracts great media attention. This Master's Thesis examines the role of such event for tourism, as well as its cultural and promotion effects. In order to determine the effects of the ECoC event on the cities hosting the title in 2012, a comparison analysis of the indicators was performed and the quantitative analysis by the AHP method was undertaken in the empirical part. An evaluation model was formed, in which nine indicators were used to evaluate the effects of the 2012 event on the city's tourism, culture and recognition. On the basis of this Master's Thesis research we confirmed the hypothesis H2 and rejected the hypotheses H1, H3 and H4. We concluded that Guimarães as the ECoC 2012 achieved more favourable results than Maribor with its partner cities almost in all effects ; Maribor was better than Guimarães only as regards the effects on the city's culture. In the last chapter the conclusions and the recommendations for the future are drawn. The results of the Master's Thesis are applicable for institutions that form development strategies, institutions that develop tourist and cultural offer in Maribor and Guimarães and for cities that will host the ECoC event in the future. The research findings are also applicable for the European Commission and general public. ; Začetek projekta Evropska prestolnica kulture (EPK) sega v leto 1983, ko je takratna grška ministrica za kulturo Melina Mercouri podala pobudo, da vsako leto evropsko mesto prejme naziv EPK, s ciljem opozoriti na bogastvo in raznolikost evropskih kultur ter s poudarjanjem skupnih kulturnih temeljev širiti zavest o evropski pripadnosti. Odkar so leta 1985 za prvo EPK izbrali Atene, je doslej dogodek EPK gostilo že več kot 50 mest. Mesta vse bolj uporabljajo kulturne prireditve, da izboljšajo svojo podobo, spodbujajo urbano regeneracijo in zanimanje medijev zanje ter privabljajo obiskovalce in tuje investitorje. Izsledki dosedanjih raziskav so pokazali, da EPK v veliki meri povečuje možnosti razvoja kulturnega turizma, ki velja za enega najbolj dinamičnih gospodarskih sektorjev v EU. Leta 2012 sta dogodek EPK gostili mesto Maribor skupaj s partnerskimi mesti in portugalsko mesto Guimarães. Maribor se je s petimi partnerskimi mesti (Murska Sobota, Novo mesto, Ptuj, Slovenj Gradec in Velenje) povezal v »Vzhodno kohezijsko regijo«. Namen tega magistrskega dela je raziskati učinke dogodka EPK na mesti, ki sta gostili dogodek v istem letu, to je v letu 2012. Glavni namen raziskave magistrskega dela je oceniti katero mesto - Maribor ali Guimarães - je zaradi dogodka EPK doseglo boljše učinke. Za ta namen je magistrsko delo razdeljeno na dva dela, v teoretični in empirični del. V teoretičnem delu predstavimo pomen kulturnih dogodkov za razvoj, povečanje prepoznavnosti in izboljšanje podobe mesta, vsebine in vlogo kulturne politike EU, ključne družbeno-ekonomske značilnosti mest Maribor in Guimarães, kulturno dogajanje v mestih pred dogodkom EPK 2012, učinke dogodka EPK na izbrana mesta, pristope in izsledke obstoječih študij o vrednotenju učinkov dogodka EPK ter pojasnimo vpliv kulture na določene gospodarske sektorje. V empiričnem delu magistrske naloge so naši glavni cilji razviti model vrednotenja učinkov dogodka EPK na mesti Maribor in Guimarães, opredeliti področja in določiti pripadajoče kazalnike učinkov dogodka EPK, ovrednotiti učinke dogodka EPK na mesti po izoblikovanem modelu, primerjati učinke dogodka EPK na turizem, kulturo, prepoznavnost mest, ugotoviti razlike v učinkih ter možne razloge za te razlike ter ugotoviti na katero mesto je imel dogodek EPK večje učinke. Raziskave smo se lotili sistematično in skušali zagotoviti celovito vrednotenje dogodka EPK. V prvem delu smo izvedli primerjalno analizo (s katero smo preverjali hipoteze H1, H2, H3). Nato smo nadaljevali raziskavo z AHP metodo - metodo analitičnega hierarhičnega procesa (s katero smo preverjali hipotezo H4) ter s pomočjo Expert Choice programa izbrali boljšo alternativo (Maribor s partnerskimi mesti ali Guimarães). V raziskavi smo morali ovreči hipotezo H1, saj smo ugotovili, da je imel Guimarães kot EPK bolj ugodne učinke na turizem kot Maribor. Ovrgli smo tudi hipotezo H3, saj je imel dogodek EPK bolj ugodne učinke na prepoznavnost mesta Guimarães kot na prepoznavnost mesta Maribor. Prav tako smo ovrgli najpomembnejšo hipotezo magistrskega dela H4 in prišli do ugotovitev, da je dogodek EPK imel bolj ugodne učinke na Guimarães kot na Maribor s partnerskimi mesti. Na podlagi rezultatov analize smo potrdili le hipotezo H2, saj so rezultati pokazali, da je Maribor kot EPK dosegel boljše učinke za kulturo mesta kot Guimarães. Izsledki magistrskega dela so uporabni za inštitucije, ki oblikujejo strategijo razvoja mesta, turistično in kulturno ponudbo mest Maribor in Guimarães ter za tovrstne inštitucije tistih mest, ki bodo gostila dogodek EPK v prihodnje. Rezultati raziskave bodo uporabni tudi za širšo javnost, saj je namen tega magistrskega dela tudi povečati zavest o pomenu dogodka EPK in izboljšati razumevanje o učinkih EPK na mesta.
Los procesos actuales de desarrollo rural territorial de la Unión Europea persiguen lograr transformaciones productivas e institucionales a nivel local. Pero el verdadero desafío rural consiste en que esas dinámicas de transformación respondan a los retos globales a los que se enfrenta la sociedad europea. Entre las diferentes respuestas posibles destaca la obtención de bienes y servicios relacionados con el medio ambiente y el cambio climático, que pueden presentar estrechas relaciones con la identidad local, entendida en sentido amplio. En cualquier caso, y dada la heterogeneidad de las áreas rurales, esas respuestas ni pueden ni deben ser homogéneas lo que implica que en cada zonal rural se deberá encontrar la estrategia que mejor aproveche los recursos y capacidades locales para responder a los grandes desafíos. Diferentes autores han analizado la relevancia y viabilidad de las estrategias de desarrollo rural basadas en la diferenciación. Para estos autores, la puesta en marcha y el desarrollo de estrategias de diferenciación rural se interpretan como procesos de "construcción social" vinculados a distintas formas de acción colectiva. Por otra parte, la Comisión Europea y algunos Estados miembros vienen potenciando las estrategias basadas en la calidad diferencial de los productos agroalimentarios desde hace años. Por esta vía se pretende aprovechar mejor la potencialidad comercial de los productos de calidad, al margen de la lógica de los mercados globalizados de "commodities". Paralelamente, los sellos de calidad ligada al origen pretenden, además, proteger las formas de producción de ciertos productos de reconocido prestigio basado en su notoriedad y arraigo. Sin embargo, la gran proliferación de este tipo de sellos ha banalizado el objetivo inicial de calidad diferencial, lo que reduce mucho su impacto comercial. Como reacción ante la banalización de los sellos de calidad ligada al origen, algunos territorios rurales de varios países de la Unión Europea se embarcaron en un proyecto de cooperación internacional. Este proyecto es una Marca de Calidad Territorial (MCT) registrada como "Calidad Rural". Se trata de una marca "paraguas" que pretende simplificar en un único sello europeo el mensaje de calidad diferencial dirigido a los consumidores y usuarios. Por lo tanto, esta MCT se ha diseñado como la parte mas visible de una estrategia de desarrollo rural territorial basada en la diferenciación por calidad, y como herramienta para fortalecer las capacidades locales en términos de acción colectiva. En otras palabras: el sello "Calidad Rural" nació con la aspiración de fortalecer o crear los lazos entre los territorios rurales implicados en el proyecto y las zonas urbanas, por un lado, y como estrategia de comunicación y participación responsable hacia los actores de los territorios correspondientes, por otro lado, a modo de nueva forma de contrato social rural urbano. La investigación que soporta esta Tesis Doctoral revisa estos problemas de partida y presenta una revisión del marco teórico concentrado en dos temas: la emergencia del enfoque territorial del desarrollo rural y las estrategias de desarrollo basadas en la diferenciación. La descripción del caso de estudio (el proyecto Marca de Calidad Territorial Europea – MCTE) es abordada en un capítulo específico que sigue a los dos anteriores. La pregunta de investigación que orienta la investigación es: ¿qué factores explican mejor el grado de implantación y desarrollo de una Marca de Calidad Territorial en un proceso de desarrollo rural? Para responder a esta pregunta ha sido necesario diseñar y aplicar una novedosa y original metodología para calcular un Índice Sintético Global (ISG) que. ; Current processes of rural territorial development in the European Union seek to transform both production systems and institutions at the local level. But the real challenge facing rural areas is to ensure that these changes respond to the demands of European society. A possible response to such demands is to procure environmentally-sustainable and climate-friendly goods and services, which are closely linked to the local identity, understood in the broad sense of the term. Given the diversity of rural areas, however, these responses cannot and should not be of only one kind; rather each rural area should pursue the best strategy for leveraging their resources and local capacities to meet the challenges that lie ahead. Several authors have examined the importance and viability of rural development strategies based on differentiation. For these authors, the implementation and development of rural differentiation strategies are processes of "social construction" linked to different forms of collective action. The European Commission and some Member States have actively promoted measures based on the differential quality of food and agricultural products for many years. These measures seek to exploit the commercial potential of quality products more effectively, regardless of the logic of global commodities markets. In a similar manner, origin-linked quality labels also aim to protect production systems and certain products based on their reputation and local roots. However, the ever increasing number of these quality labels has undermined and trivialized the initial goal of achieving differential quality, thus diminishing the commercial success of these products. In response to the trivialization of origin-linked quality labels, some rural areas in several countries of the European Union have embarked on a trans-national project of cooperation: the European Territorial Quality Label (ETQM) registered under the name Rural Quality (Calidad Rural in Spanish). This project aims for the creation of an "umbrella" brand on a European scale in an effort to simplify the quality labels used to convey quality messages to consumers. The ETQM has been designed as the most visible part of a broader territorial rural development strategy based on quality differentiation, and as a tool to strengthen the capacity for collective action on the local scale. In other words, the Rural Quality label was born with the desire to strengthen and build links between the rural areas involved in the project and urban areas, and as a strategy to facilitate communication and participation among local stakeholders as a new form of rural-urban social engagement. The research conducted for this Doctoral Thesis examines these problems and reviews the theoretical framework focusing on two main issues: the emergence of the territorial approach to rural development and development strategies based on differentiation. The description of the case study, the European Territorial Quality Mark (ETQM), is addressed in a separate chapter that follows the two previous chapters. The research question guiding this research is: What factors best explain the degree of implementation and development of a territorial quality label in a process of rural development? To answer this question it was necessary to design and implement a new and original methodology for calculating a Global Synthetic Index (GSI) that reflects the degree of development of each local territorial quality label. To collect the data needed to calculate the GSI, intense field work and a specific protocol to facilitate interaction between local actors and the research team were required. The work to collect and systematize the data (secondary and mainly primary data), as well as the development.
Premi extraordinari doctorat curs 2011-2012, àmbit d'Enginyeria Civil ; El impacto de la contaminación del aire es un tema crítico para el medioambiente y el clima. Una mala calidad del aire es un tema de importancia para la salud pública, especialmente en ambientes urbanos. El material particulado (PM), el ozono (O3) y el dióxido de nitrógeno (NO2) son los contaminantes más problemáticos en Europa y España. La Comisión Europea ha mostrado una gran preocupación por desarrollar técnicas que permitan incrementar el conocimiento sobre la dinámica de los contaminantes atmosféricos para asegurar el cumplimiento de la legislación y para informar a la población acerca de sus niveles. Además, la directiva europea 2008/50/CE establece la posibilidad de usar técnicas de modelización para informar sobre calidad del aire. Esta tesis doctoral está desarrollada en el marco de dos proyectos: El proyecto CALIOPE y el proyecto CICYT CGL2006-08903, ambos basados en la necesidad de desarrollar un sistema de calidad del aire que permita informar y entender los niveles de contaminación en Europa y España, con el objetivo de obtener un preciso pronóstico de la calidad del aire. Con ese propósito, el sistema de modelización CALIOPE se ha desarrollado con alta resolución espacial y temporal sobre Europa (12 km x 12 km y 15 capas, 1 hora), dominio madre, y España (4 km x 4 km y 15 capas, 1 hora), dominio anidado. CALIOPE consiste en un conjunto de modelos que tienen en cuenta la contaminación tanto antropogénica como natural. La disponibilidad del supercomputador MareNostrum, alojado en el Barcelona Supercomputer Center- Centro Nacional de Supercomputación, ha permitido trabajar a tan alta resolución. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es aumentar la confianza científica en el sistema CALIOPE, identificando sus puntos fuertes y débiles con un nivel de detalle que contribuya a establecer necesidades de mejora en el proceso de modelización. Por tanto, el presente trabajo ha evaluado espacial y temporalmente las simulaciones de calidad del aire sobre Europa y España en términos de O3, NO2, SO2, PM2.5 y PM10 en superficie sobre el año completo 2004. Para identificar el origen de las incertidumbres en la modelización del PM, su composición química ha sido también evaluada en ambos dominios. Las evaluaciones han sido realizadas sobre más de 150 estaciones de calidad del aire (más de 2 millones de datos experimentales). Además, esta tesis ha usado el sistema CALIOPE para analizar los patrones de calidad del aire sobre 2004, identificando claramente las áreas de contaminación. Las ideas más importantes que se desprenden de esta tesis son tres. Primero, las condiciones de contorno químicas basadas en un modelo global, como el LMDz-INCA2, son esenciales para modelizar el O3 troposférico sobre los dominios de estudio. Segundo, para simular la concentración de PM en el sur de Europa, tanto a escala rural como urbana, la contribución de polvo procedente del desierto del Sahara deber ser considerada debido a la proximidad al continente africano. La contribución del polvo del desierto a través del modelo BSC-DREAM8b ayuda satisfactoriamente a modelizar los picos de PM10 observados. Tercero, para ser capaz de modelizar la calidad del aire a escala urbana sobre España es esencial (1) una alta resolución espacial y temporal que permita describir fenómenos mesoescalares en áreas de topografía compleja , (2) un modelo de emisiones altamente desagregado como HERMES; (3) unos modelos que representen el estado actual del conocimiento en meteorología y química atmosférica ; The impact of air pollution is a critical topic in environment and climate. Poor air quality is an important public health issue, especially in urban environments. Particulate matter (PM), tropospheric ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are the main problematic pollutants in Europe and Spain. The European Commission has shown a great concern for developing actions that allow increasing the knowledge on dynamics of atmospheric pollutants to assure the accomplishment of legislation and to inform the population about their levels. The European directive 2008/50/EC establishes the possibility of using modelling techniques to assess air quality. This Ph.D. thesis is developed in the framework of two projects: the CALIOPE project and the CGL2006-08903 CICYT project, both based on the necessity to develop an air quality modelling system that allows assessing and understanding the air pollution levels in Europe and Spain, with the aim of obtaining a precise air quality forecast. For that purpose, the CALIOPE air quality modelling system has been developed with high spatial and temporal resolution over Europe (12 km x 12 km, 1 h), as a mother domain; and Spain (4 km x 4 km, 1 h), as the nested domain. The CALIOPE system consists in a set of models that take into account both anthropogenic and natural pollution. The availability of the MareNostrum supercomputer, held in Barcelona Supercomputing Center- Centro Nacional de Supercomputación, has allowed such configuration of the CALIOPE system. The main objective of the present Ph.D. thesis is to increase the scientific confidence on the CALIOPE system, identifying skills and weakness with a degree of detail that contributes to establish necessities of improvements in the modelling process. Therefore, the present work has spatially and temporally evaluated CALIOPE air quality simulations over Europe and Spain in terms of O3, NO2, SO2, PM2.5, PM10 concentrations over the full year 2004. In order to identify the origin of uncertainties in PM modelling, PM chemical composition has been also evaluated in both target domains. Evaluations have been performed across more than 150 air quality-monitoring stations and over more than 2 million of experimental data. Furthermore, this Ph.D. thesis has used the CALIOPE system to assess air quality pattern over the year 2004, identifying clearly the areas of air pollution. There are three major thrusts of the present Ph.D. thesis. First, chemical boundary condition based on a global model, such as LMDz-INCA2, becomes essential to model O3 background concentrations in the target domains. Second, to simulate PM concentration in southern Europe, both regional and urban scales, the contribution of dust from the Saharan desert should be taken into account, since that region is frequently affected by dust outbreaks due to its proximity to the African continent. The contribution of desert dust through the BSC-DREAM8b helps to satisfactory model the observed episodic PM10 concentration peaks. Even more, the contribution of sea-salt aerosol is especially important over coastal areas. Third, to be able to model the air quality in urban scale over Spain it is essential (1) a high spatial (4 km x 4 km and 15 layers) and temporal (1h) resolution that allows describing mesoscale phenomena in very complex terrains; (2) a high disaggregated emission model to describe the sources, such as HERMES; and (3) an state-of-the-science meteorological and chemical models. This Ph.D. thesis has demonstrated that CALIOPE system applied over Europe and Spain is a useful tool which may contribute to (1) forecast air pollution in urban/suburban areas with a pervasive influence of anthropogenic emissions on a local scale and over very complex terrains and meteorology patterns; (2) assess about air pollution, discriminating between anthropogenic and natural episodes; and (3) manage air pollution, by means of modification of urban strategies or requirements of the legislation. ; Award-winning ; Postprint (published version)
L'oggetto conoscitivo del presente elaborato è la valutazione del grado di considerazione dello sviluppo sostenibile da parte degli enti locali italiani nella formulazione dei loro piani strategici, venendo così a trattare due tematiche che hanno generato nel tempo crescenti livelli di attenzione, con particolare riferimento però al contesto imprenditoriale. Con il presente lavoro si intende proporre una visione unitaria dello sviluppo sostenibile e della pianificazione strategica, nell'ambito delle pratiche promosse dagli enti, in considerazione della loro legittima appartenenza al panorama degli studi economico-aziendali. Lo studio si è così interrogato sulle possibili chiavi di lettura da attribuire ai fenomeni menzionati, cercando di rilevarne innanzitutto il grado di diffusione. In secondo luogo, il lavoro ha tentato di capire se la diffusione dei piani strategici con contenuti di tipo sostenibile, fosse riconducibile ad una qualche "moda del momento" oppure, se essa trovi implementazione a seguito di reali bisogni espressi dagli operatori pubblici per rispondere alle mutate esigenze di un contesto ambientale complesso e turbolento. Per dar corpo a queste ipotesi, il metodo di ricerca seguito è quello deduttivo-induttivo secondo cui, partendo da alcune contestualizzazioni, che costituiscono l'imprescindibile bagaglio culturale cui attingere, si passa alla ricerca della loro verifica empirica. Più precisamente, seguendo l'itinerario d'indagine della ricerca empirica (Bryman 1988; Corbetta 1999), il lavoro si è sviluppato in una serie di fasi che coincidono, essenzialmente, con i capitoli in cui si suddivide il contributo. Il primo capitolo è dedicato, infatti, all'esposizione dei fondamenti dell'approccio economico-aziendale. Tale operazione rappresenta un'imprescindibile premessa all'inizio di un lavoro che vede nell'azienda pubblica il suo oggetto di riferimento, in quanto le ricerche in tale ambito richiedono, più che in altre aree, di confrontarsi con le problematiche derivanti da diverse discipline (giuridiche, politico-amministrative, sociologiche, economico-politiche, aziendali, ecc.). La finalità principale del capitolo è pertanto quella di evidenziare, attraverso la lettura dei contributi dei principali e più autorevoli Autori della disciplina economico-aziendale, le origini e le evoluzioni che hanno interessato il concetto di azienda pubblica, giungendo così all'inquadramento dello specifico ambito in cui si colloca l'ente locale, con particolare attenzione alle logiche, ai principi guida ed ai caratteri essenziali che ne orientano e ne regolano il processo decisionale e gestionale. Le considerazioni esposte rappresenteranno la base utile al fine di comprendere le logiche e le motivazioni che nell'ultimo decennio hanno sollecitato alcuni enti locali ad adottare strumenti di pianificazione strategica, volontari e di lungo periodo, in assenza di una specifica e condivisa teorizzazione, in quanto tematica emergente. Lo sviluppo delle ipotesi del lavoro viene invece affidato al secondo capitolo mediante una esposizione mirata delle evoluzioni teoriche che hanno interessato la pianificazione strategica e lo sviluppo sostenibile nella letteratura internazionale e nazionale. In particolare, dopo aver introdotto gli aspetti definitori, le origini e i principali strumenti a supporto della pianificazione strategica nell'ambito degli studi economico-aziendali, viene proposta un'analisi delle caratteristiche che la stessa ed il suo principale strumento, il piano strategico, assumono nello specifico contesto considerato. Partendo dall'esposizione dalle prime concettualizzazioni di piano strategico presentate in letteratura, generalmente riferite all'ambito privato, si passa all'esame delle motivazioni attribuite a supporto dell'introduzione di tale strumento nel settore pubblico, con una particolare attenzione agli elementi che permettono di comprenderne le prassi costitutive, la struttura ed i contenuti. Successivamente, si passa all'inquadramento del concetto di sviluppo sostenibile, partendo dalla sua originaria definizione contenuta nel rapporto, pubblicato nel 1987, dalla Commissione mondiale sull'ambiente e lo sviluppo (WCED), meglio noto come Rapporto Brundtland. In tal modo, procedendo da una analisi della letteratura, si giunge all'esposizione dei principali orientamenti definiti in sede europea per la promozione dello sviluppo sostenibile di lungo periodo a livello centrale, nazionale e locale e degli impegni che gli stati membri hanno assunto con lo scopo di diffondere ed incentivare l'adozione di comportamenti e di politiche in tal senso orientati. Alla luce delle carenze emerse dall'analisi della letteratura effettuata, si propone in conclusione al capitolo una lettura dei primi contributi che hanno cercato di coniugare i due concetti, al fine di cogliere la finalità ultima dello studio, ovvero l'analisi delle pratiche di pianificazione strategica in ottica sostenibile operate dagli enti locali italiani. In questa logica il terzo capitolo, per dare garanzia "non di verità, ma di rigore" (Croce, 2001, p. 19) esplicita le scelte metodologiche effettuate nella realizzazione della ricerca empirica proposta nella tesi. In particolare, nel presente studio, le scelte di natura ontologica ed epistemologica sono state le premesse per operare quelle di natura metodologica. Seguendo il paradigma interpretativista, la realtà indagata, ossia le pratiche di pianificazione strategica sostenibile degli enti locali, può essere ontologicamente investigata secondo una logica costruttivista, ciò che si va a studiare infatti, discende dallo stesso significato che la comunità di studiosi conferisce al tema. Mentre dal punto di vista epistemologico si può rinvenire una certa dipendenza tra ricercatore e oggetto di studio, bisogna evidenziare che essa è mitigata da chiare regole di analisi che non permettono al primo di influenzare il secondo in quanto comunque pre-esistente all'indagine. L'obiettivo è quindi quello di comprendere la realtà dei fatti per poter poi definire alcuni ideal-tipi. In tale ambito, la scelta metodologica si è orientata su un approccio di tipo interpretativo ricorrendo pertanto a tecniche qualitative che meglio permettono l'analisi dei documenti istituzionali selezionati; è stata così scelta, come tecnica di ricerca, l'analisi del contenuto (Holsti, 1969; Weber, 1990; Krippendorff, 2004). Dalle ipotesi del lavoro, sviluppate secondo un approccio economico-aziendale e in base alle scelte metodologiche effettuate, si passa poi, nel quarto capitolo, alla presentazione e al commento dei risultati della ricerca. Al fine di affrontare il tema oggetto d'indagine in modo unitario e coeso, e al tempo stesso coglierne la reale dimensione, è stato necessario porre in essere un suo ragionato approfondimento, ricercandone l'effettiva qualificazione nella realtà italiana e verificando così se nella prassi esistessero delle forme generalizzabili. Si è in questo modo cercato di dare risposta ai quesiti che il presente elaborato si è proposto, individuando, in primis, quanti e quali enti locali hanno adottato percorsi di pianificazione strategica e, tra questi, quali sono giunti alla pubblicazione di un piano strategico. In questo modo si è potuto disporre degli strumenti utili per rilevare in che misura i piani strategici pubblicati si conformano alle indicazioni europee in materia di sviluppo sostenibile e quali sono gli elementi che essi ritengono più rilevanti per il suo conseguimento, valutando, altresì, l'impulso che gli orientamenti europei, sintetizzati nell'ambito della Comunicazione 385 del 2006, hanno dato alle politiche sostenibili degli enti locali italiani. Infine, dalle evidenze empiriche rilevate traggono spunto le conclusioni del lavoro, che indicano alcune formulazioni idealtipiche che può assumere la struttura e il processo di pianificazione strategica sostenibile negli enti locali. Va in tal senso annotato come il contributo di idee che si è cercato di elaborare, compresi i suoi aspetti normativi, nonché la verifica empirica, abbiano carattere propositivo, quale premessa, quindi, per effettuare ulteriori approfondimenti e ricerche che per primi ci si propone di affrontare negli anni avvenire.
Premi extraordinari doctorat curs 2011-2012, àmbit d'Enginyeria Civil ; El impacto de la contaminación del aire es un tema crítico para el medioambiente y el clima. Una mala calidad del aire es un tema de importancia para la salud pública, especialmente en ambientes urbanos. El material particulado (PM), el ozono (O3) y el dióxido de nitrógeno (NO2) son los contaminantes más problemáticos en Europa y España. La Comisión Europea ha mostrado una gran preocupación por desarrollar técnicas que permitan incrementar el conocimiento sobre la dinámica de los contaminantes atmosféricos para asegurar el cumplimiento de la legislación y para informar a la población acerca de sus niveles. Además, la directiva europea 2008/50/CE establece la posibilidad de usar técnicas de modelización para informar sobre calidad del aire. Esta tesis doctoral está desarrollada en el marco de dos proyectos: El proyecto CALIOPE y el proyecto CICYT CGL2006-08903, ambos basados en la necesidad de desarrollar un sistema de calidad del aire que permita informar y entender los niveles de contaminación en Europa y España, con el objetivo de obtener un preciso pronóstico de la calidad del aire. Con ese propósito, el sistema de modelización CALIOPE se ha desarrollado con alta resolución espacial y temporal sobre Europa (12 km x 12 km y 15 capas, 1 hora), dominio madre, y España (4 km x 4 km y 15 capas, 1 hora), dominio anidado. CALIOPE consiste en un conjunto de modelos que tienen en cuenta la contaminación tanto antropogénica como natural. La disponibilidad del supercomputador MareNostrum, alojado en el Barcelona Supercomputer Center- Centro Nacional de Supercomputación, ha permitido trabajar a tan alta resolución. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es aumentar la confianza científica en el sistema CALIOPE, identificando sus puntos fuertes y débiles con un nivel de detalle que contribuya a establecer necesidades de mejora en el proceso de modelización. Por tanto, el presente trabajo ha evaluado espacial y temporalmente las simulaciones de calidad del aire sobre Europa y España en términos de O3, NO2, SO2, PM2.5 y PM10 en superficie sobre el año completo 2004. Para identificar el origen de las incertidumbres en la modelización del PM, su composición química ha sido también evaluada en ambos dominios. Las evaluaciones han sido realizadas sobre más de 150 estaciones de calidad del aire (más de 2 millones de datos experimentales). Además, esta tesis ha usado el sistema CALIOPE para analizar los patrones de calidad del aire sobre 2004, identificando claramente las áreas de contaminación. Las ideas más importantes que se desprenden de esta tesis son tres. Primero, las condiciones de contorno químicas basadas en un modelo global, como el LMDz-INCA2, son esenciales para modelizar el O3 troposférico sobre los dominios de estudio. Segundo, para simular la concentración de PM en el sur de Europa, tanto a escala rural como urbana, la contribución de polvo procedente del desierto del Sahara deber ser considerada debido a la proximidad al continente africano. La contribución del polvo del desierto a través del modelo BSC-DREAM8b ayuda satisfactoriamente a modelizar los picos de PM10 observados. Tercero, para ser capaz de modelizar la calidad del aire a escala urbana sobre España es esencial (1) una alta resolución espacial y temporal que permita describir fenómenos mesoescalares en áreas de topografía compleja , (2) un modelo de emisiones altamente desagregado como HERMES; (3) unos modelos que representen el estado actual del conocimiento en meteorología y química atmosférica ; The impact of air pollution is a critical topic in environment and climate. Poor air quality is an important public health issue, especially in urban environments. Particulate matter (PM), tropospheric ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are the main problematic pollutants in Europe and Spain. The European Commission has shown a great concern for developing actions that allow increasing the knowledge on dynamics of atmospheric pollutants to assure the accomplishment of legislation and to inform the population about their levels. The European directive 2008/50/EC establishes the possibility of using modelling techniques to assess air quality. This Ph.D. thesis is developed in the framework of two projects: the CALIOPE project and the CGL2006-08903 CICYT project, both based on the necessity to develop an air quality modelling system that allows assessing and understanding the air pollution levels in Europe and Spain, with the aim of obtaining a precise air quality forecast. For that purpose, the CALIOPE air quality modelling system has been developed with high spatial and temporal resolution over Europe (12 km x 12 km, 1 h), as a mother domain; and Spain (4 km x 4 km, 1 h), as the nested domain. The CALIOPE system consists in a set of models that take into account both anthropogenic and natural pollution. The availability of the MareNostrum supercomputer, held in Barcelona Supercomputing Center- Centro Nacional de Supercomputación, has allowed such configuration of the CALIOPE system. The main objective of the present Ph.D. thesis is to increase the scientific confidence on the CALIOPE system, identifying skills and weakness with a degree of detail that contributes to establish necessities of improvements in the modelling process. Therefore, the present work has spatially and temporally evaluated CALIOPE air quality simulations over Europe and Spain in terms of O3, NO2, SO2, PM2.5, PM10 concentrations over the full year 2004. In order to identify the origin of uncertainties in PM modelling, PM chemical composition has been also evaluated in both target domains. Evaluations have been performed across more than 150 air quality-monitoring stations and over more than 2 million of experimental data. Furthermore, this Ph.D. thesis has used the CALIOPE system to assess air quality pattern over the year 2004, identifying clearly the areas of air pollution. There are three major thrusts of the present Ph.D. thesis. First, chemical boundary condition based on a global model, such as LMDz-INCA2, becomes essential to model O3 background concentrations in the target domains. Second, to simulate PM concentration in southern Europe, both regional and urban scales, the contribution of dust from the Saharan desert should be taken into account, since that region is frequently affected by dust outbreaks due to its proximity to the African continent. The contribution of desert dust through the BSC-DREAM8b helps to satisfactory model the observed episodic PM10 concentration peaks. Even more, the contribution of sea-salt aerosol is especially important over coastal areas. Third, to be able to model the air quality in urban scale over Spain it is essential (1) a high spatial (4 km x 4 km and 15 layers) and temporal (1h) resolution that allows describing mesoscale phenomena in very complex terrains; (2) a high disaggregated emission model to describe the sources, such as HERMES; and (3) an state-of-the-science meteorological and chemical models. This Ph.D. thesis has demonstrated that CALIOPE system applied over Europe and Spain is a useful tool which may contribute to (1) forecast air pollution in urban/suburban areas with a pervasive influence of anthropogenic emissions on a local scale and over very complex terrains and meteorology patterns; (2) assess about air pollution, discriminating between anthropogenic and natural episodes; and (3) manage air pollution, by means of modification of urban strategies or requirements of the legislation. ; Award-winning ; Postprint (published version)
Within the framework of DaCoTA WP1, an Experts Panel was created and a consultation was launched for the preliminary assessment of knowledge, data and analysis needs within road safety management. The objective of the consultation of this Experts Panel was the assessment of current needs for evidence-based road safety decision making in the European countries, to be used also by other DaCoTA activities. In particular, it was intended to identify specific needs for knowledge, data and tools, which will be taken into account for the development of a data warehouse (DaCoTA WP3) and for the creation of useful and relevant road safety decision support tools (DaCoTA WP4). Moreover, this preliminary consultation of the Experts Panel serves as a first step towards the full assessment of current practices and future needs of knowledge-based road safety management, which will be carried out later on within DaCoTA WP1 by means of a broader consultation of stakeholders. The members of the Experts Panel included members of the CARE National Experts group of the European Commission, as well as persons within the national road safety administration or scientific community of each country suggested by the National Experts. The Panel was complemented with additional persons suggested by the DaCoTA partners. The Panel eventually covers 20 EU Member States and 3 other European countries with different histories and experiences of RS management. The Experts have in-depth knowledge of road safety management processes and needs in their country, being either directly involved in decision making, or working closely with decision makers as advisors. Two parallel consultation methods were implemented; the first concerned semi-directive interviews carried out by members of the DaCoTA WP1 partners with members of the Panel mainly from their own countries, and the second concerned a request for written contributions in case of language or time constraints. Particular emphasis was given to the open nature of the questions, both within the interviews and the written contributions, allowing the experts to describe their own experiences, views and messages and to put emphasis on the issues they consider themselves important, without being "directed" by a detailed questionnaire to specific judgments. The consultation provided a wealth of information on all aspects of road safety management in the European countries. A synthesis of the results of this open consultation was carried out by means of a predefined matrix. In this matrix, the basic road safety management tasks were decomposed into their particular components, and were then cross-tabulated with distinct categories of needs (knowledge needs, data needs, methodological needs, tools needs etc.), allowing the linking of specific aspects of road safety policy making to specific benefits from using the necessary knowledge, data, methods and tools. The matrix allowed for a classification of the opinions provided by the experts in the written contributions as well as in the interviews. Overall, the consultation of the Experts Panel provided valuable information about the current practices and future needs and priorities for evidence-based road safety management in Europe. It was stressed that only through the establishment of appropriate structures and procedures can evidence-based road safety management be achieved. Specific recommendations on such structures and procedures include the institutional arrangements for road safety management to be carried out centrally (at national level) by a single dedicated organization, the establishment of links and processes for smooth and efficient interaction between national and local road safety policies, and the introduction of compulsory consideration of scientific evidence for each road safety decision. Several useful remarks and recommendations on the various road safety management tasks, from fact-finding and assessment of problems to the development of road safety strategies and programmes, and from the planning and implementation of these programmes to the monitoring and evaluation of their effectiveness, were also derived from this preliminary consultation. First of all, the need for setting ambitious yet realistic targets for the improvement of road safety was confirmed. As regards the development of road safety programmes and the selection of measures, a need for methodological advances was identified, including the improvement of cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analyses, so that they can serve both for setting priorities and for assessing the combined effects of road safety measures. Moreover, the creation of handbooks and databases with accumulated international experience on these questions was proposed, with emphasis on the country-specific conditions necessary to take into account in order to reach the maximum benefit of each measure. With respect to the planning and implementation of road safety programmes and measures, the need to gather and harmonise the available information from the international experience of measures implementation was frequently expressed. In particular, the information and data on the procedures, the conditions, the time frame and the costs for implementing the measures need to be made available at European level. Furthermore, the monitoring and evaluation task is considered to be most essential, not only for assessing the effectiveness of road safety measures, but also for identifying needs for further improvement. Several methodological needs were also mentioned, including the need for standardized assessment tools (statistical models, analysis techniques etc.), that will allow for the identification of the reasons and mechanisms leading to the observed safety effect of the measures. Finally, a number of issues concerning the availability and quality of data for knowledge-based road safety management were outlined. They include the need to address the injury under-reporting problem at European level, the need for improved methods for determining accident locations by means of GIS technologies and tools, the need for improved exposure data, for increasingly reliable behavioural data and the need to promote the collection and use of in-depth accident investigation data. The Experts also stressed the need for road safety databases of different types (accident data, health data, exposure data etc.) to be linked and to be made more accessible. The synthesis of the results of the consultation may serve as a first overview of experiences with road safety management in the European countries. Furthermore, it may serve as an outline of expert opinions on the needs and priorities for knowledge, data and tools to support road safety management, as well as on the related needs for better processes and structures, allowing the integration of knowledge and decision support tools into policy making. It is noted that such a consultation was launched for the first time at European level. The main directions and priorities identified for knowledge-based road safety management are presented in detail in the present report. These can be useful not only for the collection (WP3) and analysis (WP4) of data and information intended to support road safety decision making, but they can also be used as a broader guide towards the improvement of road safety management processes and practices both by individual countries and at European Union level (WP1). Finally, the information gathered in this consultation is also relevant for further developments of the ERSO, given the many suggestions made concerning the type of information and tools that should be made available at a European level. ; RAPPORT DE CONTRAT
The process of Lithuanian integration into everbroadening EC structures requires not only principal reorientation of its economics but also radical changes of economic relations. The article covers the aspects of business ethics institutionalisation in companies and society relating them to the concepts of sustainable development, stakeholder, "3-c", "triple bottom line" that have modified modern management strategies and formed attributes of "new economics" and "humanisation of economics".Today in most dcvc:loped countries of EC the new social ethical paradigms are incorporated into modem strategies of economy. The humanistic attitudes are inherent to strategies of sustainable development and appropriate economics ecological and social parameters of progress that arc in equilibrium and harmony. To ensure a company's longevity, its successful long-term operation the workplace environment must be improved and humanized. For this purpose ethics tools can be successfully used. They are necessary to survive under the condition of socially oriented economy, which is becoming prevalent in the EU.The purposeful humanization of economics is being successfully conducted through the process of business ethics institutionalization in organizations and assures real benefit'i to the society. So laws, standards, ethics codes frame order; it becomes the basement to achieve valuable life, and ethics codes and standards - instruments to reach these goals. With regard to Lithuania it is very important to emphasize that not only legal but also ethical regulations are critically needed to "switch on" the appropriate mechanism to establish order in organizations. Ethics infrastructure of a company paves the way for self-regulation. In advanced practice of developed countries the company's activity is developed in accordance with ethical requirements that arc implemented by the appropriate company's ethics infrastructure and by outside ethics mechanisms. These mechanisms arc functioning in the context of human rights set at the legal and moral level in various fields of life (the employee's, the consumer's, the patient's human rights, etc.) in democratic societies. Certain common tendencies typical of modern society can be traced in the practice of developed countries: when administrative and legal norms and sanctions are not effective, ethics tools are instrumentally applied as follows: inside the company they constitute procedures aimed at the development of ethics infrastructure (programs of ethical training, an ethics code, an ethics board / commission or ethics officer, a hot line, an ethics handbook, etc.)The ethics tools improve the quality of social capital, and human resource management, enable more perfect social order. Practically the point of departure in establishing ethics standards initially brings to implementation of ethical minimum, i.e. the standards of social responsibility termed as the bottom line, and nowadays extended to concept of triple bottom line. The latter constitutes three-dimensional basis consisting of the 3 E - Effectiveness, Ecology, Ethics or 3 P - Profit, People, Planet employed in assessment of companies and organizations. Only the ones, which meet these criteria, are considered trustworthy and prestigious. Meeting labour standards means not only compliance with legal norms but also legitimisation of ethical ones. These standards not only provide the employees with good working conditions but also ensure actualisation of human dignity, justice and safety. These arc issues of life quality, which arc not accentuated in company activity. Therefore, it is very important that every company manager should realize the advantages of responsible behaviour. For this, not only development of a businessperson's moral attitudes or comprehension that subjective opinions cannot be relied upon is needed; theoretical knowledge, special education is also required. In the world practice ethics criteria, especially that of business arc objectivized and SA 8000 international standard or ILO regulations evidence it. Employees' rights and conditions that improve workplace environment can be established while implementing social standards or an ethics code. Such regulation of relations between the company and the employees would grant the employees with greater liberties and guarantees as well as form versatile commitments among the company, the employees and the managers. From economic point of view, this is related to growing efficiency, effectiveness and performance quality.With regard to the context of Lithuania's integration into the European Union, the paper tackles actual issues for associations of Lithuanian trade and industry as well as certain companies, which still dare to disregard the new challenges of this epoch. This means that they do not manage risk and consequently doom themselves to potential scandals, losses of partners, markets, investments, profits, etc.In Lithuania like in some other post communist countries such improvement of social life is impeded only by the lack of economic resources, but also by acute lack of innovative management knowledge provided by business ethics along with old stereotypes and attitudes of mentality. Many facts of Lithuanian reality show what the consequences of exceptionally profit orientation are and witnesses a considerable lack of societal orientation in business and professional activity or ignorance of this actual issue. In turn, absence of business subject's responsibility to the society can be also traced back to the soviet, nomenclature-based management tradition in which only the privileged persons were entitled to solving inner issues of the business subject's management.In such relations there arc no equal partnership properties between employers and employees, and their contract is not considered in a wider sense, i.e. as a social contract. The authoritarian management methods inherited by most Lithuanian companies from the soviet period formed such an approach. Thus the need for workplace monitoring and workplace ethics promotion has objectively matured in our country. In Lithuania not many companies really try to improve the workplace conditions promoting appropriate values (human rights related to human dignity, safety, self-esteem, self-realization possibilities).Mature civic societies have managed to prove that economic structures generate social problems and therefore they have to assume responsibility for the consequences of their activity. Democratisation and decentralisation also imply that not the state but the very companies that determine social problems solve them in response to the expectations of citizens (customers). This is the only way they can gain a good name, reputation, and, in turn, increase of sales and consumption, i.e. profit and ability to compete. Therefore, business assumes functions that have never been characteristic to it, e.g. commitment to creation of social well being (first of all inside, then outside) for stakeholders. These are the presuppositions for social contract, compliance with which is monitored or, specifically, self-monitored by social actors.Thus humanization of economics through the development and application ethical infrastructure to the practice of enterprises under the conditions of modern Lithuania is strategically important for its sustainable economic, social development and is the vital precondition of its effective integration into European community. ; Straipsnyje konstatuojama, kad šiuolaikinės inovatyvios vadybos, "Naujosios ekonomikos" (New economics) sampratos yra persmelktos ekonominių santykių humanizacijos paradigma. ES šalyse diegiamos ir sėkmingai funkcionuoja naujos, socialiniais humanistiniais orientyrais paremtos ekonominių struktūrų strategijos. Į jas dabar jau inkorporuotos socialinės etinės dimensijos, todėl humanistinės ekonominės veiklos konstantos yra įmanentiškos ilgalaikės ūkio plėtros strategijoms. Jos derina, subalansuoja ekonominius, ekologinius ir socialinius dorovinius visuomenės raidos parametrus. Straipsnio tikslas - supažindinti su etinėmis ekonomikos humanizacijos, ilgalaikės ūkio plėtros dimensijomis, atkreipti dėmesį į Lietuvoje dar neišnagrinėtus, tačiau nepaprastai svarbius etikos institucionalizacijos įmonėse aspektus, atskleisti naujų integralių socialinių humanitarinių mokslų konceptų daugiaplaniškumą, pateikiant jų gilaus suvokimo būtinybę kaip galimybę įžvelgti dar gerai nepažintus integracijos iššūkius Lietuvos ekonomikai.
2000/2001 ; Nell'ultimo decennio il tema della trasparenza - nozione che, nella sua accezione più propria, implica la conoscibilità da parte dei cittadini dell'attività delle istituzioni lato sensu governanti - ha acquisito specifico rilievo nelle riflessioni sull'assetto istituzionale e i processi decisionali dell'Unione europea. All'ampio consenso che si è manifestato, nella dottrina come nei documenti ufficiali delle istituzioni e degli Stati membri dell'Unione, sull'esigenza di maggiore trasparenza, non ha tuttavia corrisposto una chiara e condivisa percezione di che cosa ciò esattamente significhi e di come questo risultato debba essere perseguito. L'obiettivo della tesi è dunque quello di verificare con che modalità ed entro quali limiti l'affermata esigenza di trasparenza trova realizzazione nell'ordinamento dell'Unione europea. Si intende così contribuire alla sistematizzazione dei contenuti della nozione di trasparenza in questo ordinamento e valutare, in ultima analisi, se sia possibile riconoscere in esso l'esistenza di un principio di trasparenza dotato di autonoma rilevanza giuridica. La prima parte della tesi è volta a illustrare la varietà delle norme e dei principi che, pur perseguendo in via diretta altre finalità, assicuravano un certo grado di conoscibilità dell'attività e dei processi decisionali delle istituzioni e degli altri organi comunitari già prima che si delineasse una particolare attenzione per l'argomento della trasparenza. Nel capitolo I si esaminano alcuni istituti che hanno il proprio fondamento nei Trattati istitutivi delle Comunità europee. Si ha riguardo, innanzitutto, alla pubblicazione e alla motivazione degli atti: alla prima, in quanto istituto che, concepito originariamente come un mezzo cui ricorrere solo nella misura in cui ciò fosse necessario per garantire l'efficacia degli atti, ha poi conosciuto un notevole ampliamento della propria sfera di applicazione, ricollegabile anche a una finalità di informazione del pubblico; e alla seconda, in quanto può consentire di acquisire conoscenze circa le ragioni sottostanti all'adozione degli atti. Nella seconda parte del capitolo ci si sofferma invece sulle diverse forme di controllo interorganico previste dai Trattati. Queste possono infatti essere intese come delle modalità di "trasparenza mediata", la cui rilevanza dipende da tre fattori: l'oggetto del controllo; gli strumenti di informazione e in particolare gli eventuali poteri di indagine di cui dispone l'organo controllante; la pubblicità che è data ai risultati del controllo. Le implicazioni nell'ottica della trasparenza di alcuni dei principi generali rinvenibili nella giurisprudenza della Corte di giustizia e del Tribunale di primo grado sono oggetto di approfondimento nel capitolo II. Particolare attenzione è qui dedicata al riconoscimento di un ampio diritto di accesso ai fascicoli amministrativi quale manifestazione dei diritti della difesa e specialmente del diritto al contraddittorio: delineato nei suoi aspetti essenziali da sentenze relative ai procedimenti in materia di intese e di sfruttamento abusivo di posizione dominante, tale diritto di accesso è ormai espressamente riconosciuto dalle normative che disciplinano anche altri procedimenti amministrativi comunitari, e ha un complemento nell'accesso al fascicolo dello stesso procedimento amministrativo nel corso dell'eventuale procedimento giudiziario ad esso successivo. Pur se in maniera meno palese, anche altri principi generali hanno implicazioni non trascurabili nella prospettiva della trasparenza: nella parte conclusiva del capitolo si illustra come ciò valga in particolare per i principi della certezza del diritto, della non discriminazione, della buona amministrazione e della leale collaborazione. Il rilievo che l'esigenza di trasparenza ha acquisito nell'ultimo decennio nell'Unione europea si è tradotto in un'articolata serie di misure direttamente intese a rispondere a tale esigenza. Queste misure sono oggetto di studio nella seconda parte della tesi. Nel capitolo III si esaminano le modalità "attive" di realizzazione della trasparenza, le quali comportano che le informazioni relative alle istituzioni o comunque in loro possesso vengano messe a disposizione del pubblico su iniziativa delle stesse istituzioni. In questa categoria è possibile far rientrare innanzitutto la previsione della pubblicità delle riunioni degli organi collegiali: al riguardo, tuttavia, una complessiva analisi delle norme rilevanti svela come il principio prevalente nell'Unione europea sia quello della riservatezza, pur con l'eccezione di quanto disposto dal regolamento interno del Parlamento europeo (e da quelli del Comitato economico e sociale e del Comitato delle regioni); negli ultimi anni sono state peraltro introdotte specifiche forme di pubblicizzazione dei lavori del Consiglio, in considerazione dei compiti di natura legislativa che questo è chiamato a svolgere. Alle modalità attive di trasparenza è riconducibile anche la progressiva formalizzazione della partecipazione dei gruppi di interesse alla formazione degli atti, che trova conferma nel recente Libro Bianco della Commissione sulla governance europea. La modalità "passiva" di realizzazione della trasparenza si sostanzia nelle norme volte a consentire al pubblico di accedere, su richiesta, ai documenti che le istituzioni non hanno già divulgato di propria iniziativa. Nel capitolo IV si illustra come il diritto di accesso del pubblico ai documenti si sia dapprima affermato sulla base di regole interne adottate dalle singole istituzioni nell'esercizio del proprio potere di auto-organizzazione; e come il Trattato di Amsterdam abbia poi "costituzionalizzato" tale diritto mediante l'inserimento nel Trattato CE di un'apposita norma (art. 255). L'analisi di questa evoluzione - fino al recente regolamento di attuazione dell'art. 255 del Trattato CE (reg. 1049/2001) e tenuto conto della Carta dei diritti fondamentali dell'Unione europea - induce ad affermare che il diritto di accesso rientra ormai tra i diritti fondamentali riconosciuti dall'ordinamento dell'Unione europea. Anche se tale diritto è espressamente sancito, sia nel diritto primario che nella Carta dei diritti fondamentali, solamente nei riguardi delle tre istituzioni politiche dell'Unione, si ritiene che le modalità di attuazione indicate nel regolamento 1049/2001 rappresentino uno standard al quale anche le istituzioni e gli organi non direttamente vincolati da tale regolamento dovranno adeguarsi, fatte salve peculiari esigenze derivanti dalle rispettive funzioni. Poiché la comprensibilità dell'intero quadro normativo e delle singole disposizioni che lo compongono appare come un aspetto integrante di una effettiva trasparenza, nel capitolo V si esaminano infine le misure attraverso le quali si è cercato, nell'ultimo decennio, di conseguire una più elevata qualità redazionale e la semplificazione del diritto dell'Unione europea, in specie del diritto derivato. Una prima conclusione è quella per cui, nella sua modalità passiva che si concretizza nel diritto di accesso del pubblico ai documenti, la trasparenza pare ormai configurabile come uno dei principi fondamentali dell'ordinamento dell'Unione europea. Le modalità attive di realizzazione della trasparenza sembrano invece per lo più collocarsi - sia pure con l'eccezione delle norme che impongono la pubblicità delle riunioni di alcuni organi collegiali - sul piano della mera prassi o degli impegni di carattere politico. Un secondo rilievo attiene al rapporto tra trasparenza e democrazia. Se una maggiore trasparenza è perseguita anche per il contributo che può dare al superamento del deficit democratico, nelle norme e nelle prassi fino ad oggi adottate per accrescere la trasparenza nell'Unione europea si può cogliere la compresenza di diversi modelli di sviluppo in senso democratico del processo di integrazione. Da un lato, l'attenzione per la pubblicità dei lavori di natura legislativa del Consiglio riflette un approccio alle tematiche istituzionali dell'Unione secondo il paradigma della democrazia parlamentare; dall'altro, la parallela valorizzazione del ruolo dei gruppi di interesse prefigura una possibile evoluzione verso modelli di tipo partecipativo ("democrazia degli interessi organizzati"; "democrazia deliberativa"). ; XIII Ciclo ; 1969 ; Versione digitalizzata della tesi di dottorato cartacea.
Since pension schemes-along with health care and education-absorb the largest amount of social expenditure in all countries, their reform has a potentially major impact both on the fiscal situation of the state and on the life chances of citizens who stand to win or lose from new arrangements. This makes pension reform a highly controversial issue; and, except for the addition of new programmes and benefits, major restructuring of existing pension systems has been extremely rare in advanced industrial democracies. It was also rare in Latin America before the 1980s and 1990s. But there has been a great deal of experimentation within the region during the past decade. This paper examines the larger economic, social and political context of Latin American pension reform and compares experiences in different countries of the region with options available in Western European societies during the same period. The authors argue that the type of pension reform undertaken in Latin America has been an integral part of the structural adjustment programmes pursued by Latin American governments, under the guidance of international financial institutions (IFIs). Although there was a range of possible remedies to the problems of pension systems in different Latin American countries, neo-liberal reformers and the international financial institutions preferred privatization over all others. They claimed that privatization would be superior to other kinds of reform in ensuring the financial viability of pension systems, making them more efficient, establishing a closer link between contributions and benefits and promoting the development of capital markets-thus increasing savings and investment. And they were able to push through some of their suggestions for reform in spite of considerable opposition from pensioners, trade unions and opposition political parties. Interestingly enough, their pressure proved least effective in the more democratic countries of the region. In Costa Rica, for example, citizens preferred to reform the public system-eliminating the last pockets of privilege for public sector workers and ensuring that new levels of contribution would be adequate to provide minimum benefits for the aged and infirm. In Uruguay, citizens forced a public referendum, through which they rejected a proposal for privatization. At a later stage, they did permit the introduction of private investment accounts, but not at the cost of eliminating the public programme. In Argentina and Peru, after the legislature refused to authorize partial privatization, this was eventually pushed through by presidential decree. Only in Chile and Mexico has there been a complete shift to private pension funds-but, in both cases, influential sectors of the elite, including the military, have been allowed to keep their previous, publicly managed group funds. Looking at the only privatized pension system in existence long enough to allow for some assessment of its consequences-that of Chile-the authors find that many of the claims made by supporters of privatization are not substantiated by the evidence. The first discrepancy between neo-liberal predictions and the reality of Chilean pension reform has to do with efficiency. All previous claims to the contrary, private individual accounts have proven more expensive to manage than collective claims. In fact, according to the Inter-American Development Bank, by the mid-1990s administration of the Chilean system was the most expensive in Latin America. The second disproved claim involves yield. When administrative costs are discounted, privately held and administered pension funds in Chile show an average annual real return of 5.1 per cent between 1982 and 1998. Furthermore high fees and commissions-charged at a flat rate on all accounts-have proven highly regressive. When levied against a relatively modest retirement account, for example, these standard fees reduced the amount available to the account holder by approximately 18 per cent. When applied to the deposit of an individual investing 10 times more, the reduction was slightly less than 1 per cent. The third discrepancy involves competition. Although it was assumed that efficiency within the private pension fund industry would be associated with renewed competitiveness-while the public pension system represented monopoly-the private sector has in fact become highly concentrated. The three largest pension fund administrators in Chile handle 70 per cent of the insured. And to reduce advertising costs, public regulators are limiting the number of transfers among companies that any individual can make. A fourth unfulfilled promise of privatization in Chile has to do with expansion of coverage. It was assumed that the existence of private accounts would increase incentives for people to take part in the pension sc heme, but in fact this has not happened. Coverage and compliance rates have remained virtually constant. A fifth major claim was that the conversion of the public pension system into privately held and administered accounts would strengthen capital markets, savings and investment. But a number of studies have recently concluded that, at best, this effect has been marginal. And finally, the dimension of gender equity within a fully privatized pension scheme is being subjected to increasing scrutiny. Women typically earn less money and work fewer years than men. Therefore, since pension benefits in private systems are strictly determined by the overall amount of money contributed to them, women are likely to receive considerably lower benefits. Public pension systems, in contrast, have the possibility of introducing credits for childcare that reduce this disadvantage. Sweden is an example of countries that have embarked on this course. In the latter part of the paper, Huber and Stephens widen their comparative framework to include recent pension reforms in advanced industrial countries. There, where economic crisis was not as severe and where pressure from international financial institutions was not significant, much broader options for reform were available. In fact, although long-established systems were under stress, no developed country opted for complete privatization. Complex measures were taken to strengthen the funding base of national pension systems, including changes in investment procedures and changes in rules for calculating pension benefits. Reforms also increased retirement age, as well as the number of years required to qualify for a full pension. But even the most thoroughgoing reforms retained a central role for public schemes in ensuring old-age benefits. In conclusion, the authors consider steps that can be taken to craft pension reforms with more desirable results than those obtained to date in Latin America. They recommend measures that address the problem of an aging population by increasing the ability of each generation to pay for its own pensions-rather than relying primarily on the contributions of preceding generations of insured workers. Pension payments should be invested in a variety of financial instruments and benefits must ultimately be related to the yields obtained. Such a strategy does not require introduction of privately managed, individually held, investment funds. On the contrary, risk is lessened by relying instead on collectively managed funds, in which accounts can either be identified with individuals or-more equitably-with generations of contributors. Reformed public pension systems should also contain minimum 'citizenship pensions' that guarantee subsistence income in old age to all individuals as a matter of right. Such a measure, financed from general tax revenue rather than from personal contributions, is not beyond the means of medium income countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. In fact, some Nordic countries introduced citizenship pensions when their GNP per capita was lower than that of most Latin American countries today.
This article addresses the most important security challenges existing in the Western Sahel countries, an emerging sub-region encompassing Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger. The sub-region is very much affected by developments in neighboring countries such as Algeria, Libya, and Nigeria, among others. A number of recent processes – the Arab revolts and their effects in Libya and Egypt, the reinforcement of Boko Haram as a regional terrorist threat, etc – have contributed to aggravate insecurity in a region that suffers environmental problems, political instability, inter-communitarian tensions and illegal traffcking since a number of decades ago. All these risks and threats are inviting states and international organizations to become more and more involved in order to provide responses and, eventually, solutions. ; Este artículo se ocupa de los desafíos de seguridad más importantes que podemos inventariar en los países del Sahel Occidental, una subregión emergente que incluye a Burkina Faso, Chad, Malí, Mauritania y Níger. La subregión se ve muy afectada por los procesos que se viven en países vecinos como Argelia, Libia y Nigeria, entre otros. Algunos procesos recientes – las revueltas árabes y sus efectos en Libia y Egipto, el reforzamiento de Boko Haram como amenaza terrorista regiona, etc – han contribuido a incrementar la inseguridad en una región que ya sufre desde hace décadas problemas medioambientales, inestabilidad política, tensiones intercomunitarias y tráfcos ilícitos. Todos estos riesgos y amenazas invitan a los Estados y a las Organizaciones Internacionales a involucrarse cada vez más en el esfuerzo para encontrar respuestas y eventualmente soluciones a los mismos. ; Cet article s' ocupe des défs de sécurité les plus importantes qu' on trouve dans la sub-région du du Sahel Occidentale (le Burkina Faso, le Tchad, le Mali, la Mauritanie et le Nïger). Cette sub-région deviens très touchée par les processus vécus en Algérie, en Libye et au Nigéria, parmis des autres pays voisins. Quelques evénements tels que les revoltes arabes dans la Libye ou en Egypte et aussi le renforcement de Boko Haram en tant que groupe terroriste de dimension régionale ont contribué à aggraver l' insécurité dans la région. En plus, les pays du Sahel Occidentale sont affectés depuis des decenies par des problèmes tels que les crises environmentales, l' instabilité politique, les tensions inter-communitaires et les traffcs illicites. Tels risques et telles ménaces invitent les états et les organisations internationales à designer des réponses et, eventuellement, des solutions a ceux problèmes.
Only Vanderbilt University affiliated authors are listed on VUIR. For a full list of authors, access the version of record at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6965101/ ; Identifying the underlying genetic drivers of the heritability of breast cancer prognosis remains elusive. We adapt a network-based approach to handle underpowered complex datasets to provide new insights into the potential function of germline variants in breast cancer prognosis. This network-based analysis studies similar to 7.3 million variants in 84,457 breast cancer patients in relation to breast cancer survival and confirms the results on 12,381 independent patients. Aggregating the prognostic effects of genetic variants across multiple genes, we identify four gene modules associated with survival in estrogen receptor (ER)-negative and one in ER-positive disease. The modules show biological enrichment for cancer-related processes such as G-alpha signaling, circadian clock, angiogenesis, and Rho-GTPases in apoptosis. ; CAC: We thank all the individuals who took part in these studies and all the researchers, clinicians, technicians, and administrative staff who have enabled this work to be carried out. We acknowledge all contributors to the COGS and OncoArray study design, chip design, genotyping, and genotype analyses. ABCFS: Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Gillian Dite. ABCS: Frans Hogervorst, Sten Cornelissen and Annegien Broeks. ABCTB Investigators: Rosemary Balleine, Robert Baxter, Stephen Braye, Jane Carpenter, Jane Dahlstrom, John Forbes, Soon Lee, Debbie Marsh, Adrienne Morey, Nirmala Pathmanathan, Rodney Scott, Allan Spigelman, Nicholas Wilcken, Desmond Yip. BBCS: Eileen Williams, Elaine Ryder-Mills, Kara Sargus. BCINIS: Dr. K. Landsman, Dr. N. Gronich, Dr. A. Flugelman, Dr. W. Saliba, Dr. E. Liani, Dr. I. Cohen, Dr. S. Kalet, Dr. V. Friedman, Dr. O. Barnet. BIGGS: Niall McInerney, Gabrielle Colleran, Andrew Rowan, Angela Jones. BREOGAN: Manuela Gago-Dominguez, Jose Esteban Castelao, Angel Carracedo, Victor Munoz Garzon, Alejandro Novo Dominguez, Maria Elena Martinez, Sara Miranda Ponte, Carmen Redondo Marey, Maite Pena Fernandez, Manuel Enguix Castelo, Maria Torres, Manuel Calaza, Jose Antunez, Maximo Fraga; Joaquin Gonzalez-Carrero and the Department of Pathology and Biobank of University Hospital Complex of Vigo, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur, SERGAS. BSUCH: Peter Bugert, Medical Faculty Mannheim. CCGP: Styliani Apostolaki, Anna Margiolaki, Georgios Nintos, Maria Perraki, Georgia Saloustrou, Georgia Sevastaki, Konstantinos Pompodakis. CGPS: Dorthe Uldall Andersen, Maria Birna Arnadottir, Anne Bank, Dorthe Kjeldgard Hansen, and the Danish Cancer Biobank. CNIO-BCS: Guillermo Pita, Charo Alonso, Nuria Alvarez, Pilar Zamora, and Primitiva Menendez. CPS-II: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Program of Cancer Registries. The National Cancer Institute Surveillance Epidemiology, and End Results program. CTS: Leslie Bernstein, Susan Neuhausen, James Lacey, Sophia Wang, Huiyan Ma, and Jessica Clague DeHart. Dennis Deapen, Rich Pinder, and Eunjung Lee, Pam Horn-Ross, Peggy Reynolds, Christina Clarke Dur and David Nelson, Hoda Anton-Culver, Argyrios Ziogas, and Hannah Park and Fred Schumacher. DIETCOMPLYF: charity Against Breast Cancer (Registered Charity Number 1121258) and the NCRN. Participants and the investigators of EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition). ESTHER: Hartwig Ziegler, Sonja Wolf, Volker Hermann, Christa Stegmaier, Katja Butterbach. FHRISK: NIHR for funding. GC-HBOC: Stefanie Engert, Heide Hellebrand, Sandra Krober and LIFE. Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nuchter, Ronny Baber. GENICA: Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch [HB, Wing-Yee Lo], German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) [HB], gefordert durch die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) im Rahmen der Exzellenzstrategie des Bundes und der Lander -EXC 2180 -390900677 [HB], Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, [Yon-Dschun Ko, Christian Baisch], University of Bonn, Germany [Hans-Peter Fischer], Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany [UH], Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, Germany [Thomas Bruning, Beate Pesch, Sylvia Rabstein, Anne Lotz]; University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany [Volker Harth]. HABCS: Michael Bremer. HEBCS: Rainer Fagerholm, Kirsimari Aaltonen, Karl von Smitten, Irja Erkkila. HUBCS: Shamil Gantsev. KARMA and SASBAC: Swedish Medical Research Counsel. KBCP: Eija Myohanen, Helena Kemilainen. kConFab/AOCS: Eveline Niedermayr, Family Cancer Clinics and the Clinical Follow Up Study (received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)). LMBC: Gilian Peuteman, Thomas Van Brussel, EvyVanderheyden and Kathleen Corthouts. MARIE: Petra Seibold, Judith Heinz, Nadia Obi, Sabine Behrens, Ursula Eilber, Muhabbet Celik and Til Olchers. MBCSG: Paolo Radice, Jacopo Azzollini, Bernardo Bonanni, Bernard Peissel, Roberto Villa, Giulia Cagnoli, Irene Feroce, and Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory. NBCS: Kristine K. Sahlberg (PhD), Lars Ottestad (MD), Rolf Karesen (Prof. Em.) Dr. Ellen Schlichting (MD), Marit Muri Holmen (MD), Toril Sauer (MD), Vilde Haakensen (MD), Olav Engebraten (MD), Bjorn Naume (MD), Alexander Fossa (MD), Cecile E. Kiserud (MD), Kristin V. Reinertsen (MD), Aslaug Helland (MD), Margit Riis (MD), Jurgen Geisler (MD) and OSBREAC. NHS/NHS2: AL, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, DE, FL, GA, ID, IL, IN, IA, KY, LA, ME, MD, MA, MI, NE, NH, NJ, NY, NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, TN, TX, VA, WA, WY. OBCS: Arja Jukkola-Vuorinen, Mervi Grip, Saila Kauppila, Meeri Otsukka, Leena Keskitalo and Kari Mononen. OFBCR: Teresa Selander, Nayana Weerasooriya. ORIGO: E. Krol-Warmerdam, and J. Blom. PBCS: Louise Brinton, Mark Sherman, Neonila Szeszenia-Dabrowska, Beata Peplonska, Witold Zatonski, Pei Chao, Michael Stagner. The ethical approval for the POSH study is MREC/00/6/69, UKCRN ID: 1137. Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre (ECMC) supported Faculty of Medicine Tissue Bank and the Faculty of Medicine DNA Banking resource. PREFACE: Sonja Oeser and Silke Landrith. PROCAS: NIHR for funding. RBCS: Petra Bos, Jannet Blom, Ellen Crepin, Elisabeth Huijskens, Anja Kromwijk-Nieuwlaat, Annette Heemskerk, the Erasmus MC Family Cancer Clinic. SBCS: Sue Higham, Helen Cramp, Dan Connley, Ian Brock, Sabapathy Balasubramanian and Malcolm W.R. Reed. We thank the SEARCH and EPIC teams. SKKDKFZS: SUCCESS Study teams in Munich, Duessldorf, Erlangen and Ulm. SZBCS: Ewa Putresza. UCIBCS: Irene Masunaka. UKBGS: Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research and NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/ICR NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. WHI: investigators and staff for their dedication. BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A16563, C1287/A10118], the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant numbers 634935 and 633784 for BRIDGES and B-CAST respectively), and by the European Community ' s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme funding source had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing of the report. Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the NIH Grant U19 CA148065, and Cancer UK Grant C1287/A16563 and the PERSPECTIVE project supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant GPH-129344) and, the Ministere de l'Economie, Science et Innovation du Quebec through Genome Quebec and the PSRSIIRI-701 grant, and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. Funding for the iCOGS infrastructure came from: the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement no 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/A12014, C5047/A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978) and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065 and 1U19 CA148112 -the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defence (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer, and Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund. The DRIVE Consortium was funded by U19 CA148065. ABCFS was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia) and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009-4363; 2015-7632]. The ABCTB was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Cancer Institute NSW and the National Breast Cancer Foundation. The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELANFond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). For the BCFRNY, BCFR-PA, BCFR-UT this work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. For BIGGS, ES is supported by NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research Centre, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London, United Kingdom. IT is supported by the Oxford Biomedical Research Centre. The BREOGAN is funded by Accion Estrategica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI12/02125/Cofinanciado FEDER; Accion Estrategica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI17/00918/Cofinanciado FEDER; Accion Estrategica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136); Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur. Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Vigo-SERGAS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grant 10CSA012E, Conselleria de Industria Programa Sectorial de Investigacion Aplicada, PEME I + D e I + D Suma del Plan Gallego de Investigacion, Desarrollo e Innovacion Tecnologica de la Conselleria de Industria de la Xunta de Galicia, Spain; Grant EC11-192. Fomento de la Investigacion Clinica Independiente, Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, Spain; and Grant FEDER-Innterconecta. Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Xunta de Galicia, Spain. The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). CCGP is supported by funding from the University of Crete. The CECILE study was supported by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Agence Nationale de Securite Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council, and Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. The CNIO-BCS was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, the Red Tematica de Investigacion Cooperativa en Cancer and grants from the Asociacion Espanola Contra el Cancer and the Fondo de Investigacion Sanitario (PI11/00923 and PI12/00070). The American Cancer Society funds the creation, maintenance, and updating of the CPS-II cohort. The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is currently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398, UM1 CA164917, and U01 CA199277). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. The University of Westminster curates the DietCompLyf database funded by Against Breast Cancer Registered Charity No. 1121258 and the NCRN. The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Generale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucia, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPICOxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPICOxford) (United Kingdom). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Wurttemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). FHRISK is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. Prof D Gareth Evans is supported by the NIHR Manchester Biomedical Research Centre (IS-BRC-1215-20007). The GC-HBOC is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, coordinator: Rita K. Schmutzler, Cologne). This work was also funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE -Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0, and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The GESBC was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e. V. [70492] and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The HABCS study was supported by the Claudia von Schilling Foundation for Breast Cancer Research, by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society, and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society, and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HUBCS was supported by a grant from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (RUS08/017), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations for support the Bioresource collections and RFBR grants 14-04-97088, 1729-06014 and 17-44-020498. Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (ALF) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Marit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. kConFab is supported by a grant from the National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. LMBC is supported by the "Stichting tegen Kanker." The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419, 110826, 110828], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC) and by funds from the Italian citizens who allocated the 5/1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects "5x1000"). The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer [CA116201], and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous.pngt from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. MCCS cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further supported by Australian NHMRC grants 209057 and 396414, and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry (VCR) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. The MEC was supported by NIH grants CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839 and CA164973. The MISS study is supported by funding from ERC-2011294576 Advanced grant, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Local hospital funds, Berta Kamprad Foundation, Gunnar Nilsson. The MMHS study was supported by NIH grants CA97396, CA128931, CA116201, CA140286 and CA177150. The NBCS has received funding from the K.G. Jebsen Centre for Breast Cancer Research; the Research Council of Norway grant 193387/V50 (to A-L Borresen-Dale and V.N. Kristensen) and grant 193387/H10 (to A-L Borresen-Dale and V.N. Kristensen), South Eastern Norway Health Authority (grant 39346 to A-L Borresen-Dale) and the Norwegian Cancer Society (to A-L Borresen-Dale and V.N. Kristensen). The NC-BCFR and OFBCR were supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The NCBCS was funded by Komen Foundation, the National Cancer Institute (P50 CA058223, U54 CA156733, U01 CA179715), and the North Carolina University Cancer Research Fund. The NHS was supported by NIH grants P01 CA87969, UM1 CA186107, and U19 CA148065. The NHS2 was supported by NIH grants UM1 CA176726 and U19 CA148065. The OBCS was supported by research grants from the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Academy of Finland (grant number 250083, 122715 and Center of Excellence grant number 251314), the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Sigrid Juselius Foundation, the University of Oulu, the University of Oulu Support Foundation and the special Governmental EVO funds for Oulu University Hospital-based research activities. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 19971505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRINL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. Genotyping for PLCO was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health, NCI, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics. The PLCO is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The POSH study is funded by Cancer Research UK (grants C1275/A11699, C1275/C22524, C1275/A19187, C1275/A15956 and Breast Cancer Campaign 2010PR62, 2013PR044. PROCAS is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. PROCAS is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318). The SASBAC study was supported by funding from the Agency for Science, Technology and Research of Singapore (A*STAR), the US National Institute of Health (NIH) and the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation. The SBCS was supported by Sheffield Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre and Breast Cancer Now Tissue Bank. SEARCH is funded by Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124, C490/A16561] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The SMC is funded by the Swedish Cancer Foundation and the Swedish Research Council (SIMPLER, VR 2017-00644). The SZBCS was supported by Grant PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004. The UCIBCS component of this research was supported by the NIH [CA58860, CA92044] and the Lon V Smith Foundation [LVS39420]. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. ICR acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. The USRT Study was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. The WHI program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, the US National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHSN268201100046C, HHSN268201100001C, HHSN268201100002C, HHSN268201100003C, HHSN268201100004C, and HHSN271201100004C). This work was also funded by NCI U19 CA148065-01.