This issue becomes a new opportunity for the national and international scientific community to judge the outcome of each of these proposals. In 2019, we will be celebrating 43 years of publishing and hope that you will continue to accompany us as readers and collaborators of our scientific journal "Cuadernos de Administración". The content of each of these eight articles is the sole responsibility of their authors.In this issue, the first article is entitled "Critical Success Factors in Implementing IT in MSMEs", presents the results of a quantitative study that sought to determine the critical success factors that influence the level of implementation of information technologies within micro and small businesses in the region of northeastern Mexico. "Knowledge management from the organizational culture in call centers in Manizales", is the title of the second article, which shows the results of a descriptive and correlational qualitative research on knowledge management in BPO companies in the city of Manizales, Colombia. The third article "Cultural hybridization in three Colombian indigenous productive organizations" is a qualitative research in three IPOs of the Nasa ethnic group in Colombia; in the end, it presents the results and conclusions of the research process and also some limits of thereto. "Mud, value and welfare. An economic estimation of the impact in the Anchicayá river basin", is the fourth article in this issue of the journal Cuadernos de Administración; its authors present their economic assessment of the environmental impact in projects implemented in territories of the Colombian Pacific Coast.The fifth article is called "Effect of trading on the profitability and solvency of Colombian banks", which discusses the business models adopted by Colombian banking. With the analysis of data panel, they study the effect of diversification of Colombian commercial banks' revenues on profitability and financial solvency, between 2005 and 2014. "Real Returns of Private Pension Funds in Colombia" is the title of the sixth article, related to the performance of the private pension system in Colombia, Individual Benefit Plans Covered by Pooled Contributions, where the returns generated by daily transactions of pension funds from 1995 to December 2016 are analyzed from a database. The authors use the methodology established by the Financial Superintendence of Colombia (SFC) to calculate returns, determining the net profitability of explicit administration costs that the affiliate must bear and adjustment for inflation. The following article is the result of a literature review related to family businesses and socio-emotional wealth, entitled "Diversification of the family business in emerging countries from the perspective of socio-emotional wealth". The authors identify the relevant aspects studied in relation to the diversification of the family business. The reflection is aimed at establishing the influence that family objectives exert on business decision-making."The instruments of public policy. A transdisciplinary look", is the title of the last article in this issue. The authors present the systematization of public policy instruments, disciplines such as public law, public sector economics and political science, especially public policy.The publication of the number 63 of Cuadernos de Administración by the Faculty of Administration Sciences of the Universidad del Valle, allows us to continue consolidating ourselves as a means of disseminating scientific knowledge in our field. Since the first issue in 1976, we have tried to publish, on a continuous basis, different types of scientific research articles, of review or reflection, by national and international authors who have relied on us to spread their knowledge. To each and every one of them, to our authors, to our arbitrators, to the members of the Editorial and Scientific Committees, but especially to you, our readers, we want to thank you for allowing us to continue generating through digitization a greater impact on the sciences of administration. ; Este número se convierte en una nueva oportunidad para que la comunidad científica nacional e internacional, juzgue el resultado de cada una de estas propuestas. En el año 2019, estaremos cumpliendo 43 años de publicación y esperamos que nos sigan acompañando como lectores y colaboradores de nuestra revista científica "Cuadernos de Administración". El contenido de cada uno de estos ocho artículos es responsabilidad exclusiva de sus autores. En este número, el primer artículo tiene por título "Factores Críticos de Éxito en la implementación de TI en la MIPYME", presenta los resultados de una investigación cuantitativa donde buscaban determinar los factores críticos de éxito que influyen en el nivel de implementación de las tecnologías de la información dentro de la micro y pequeña empresa en la región noreste de México. "Gestión de conocimiento desde la cultura organizacional en centros de llamadas de Manizales", es el título del segundo artículo, muestra los resultados de una investigación cualitativa de tipo descriptiva y correlacional, sobre la gestión de conocimiento en empresas BPO de la ciudad de Manizales, Colombia. El tercer artículo "Hibridación cultural en tres organizaciones productivas colombianas", es una investigación cualitativa en tres OPI de la etnia Nasa en Colombia; al final, presenta los resultados y las conclusiones del proceso de indagación ytambién algunos límites de la investigación. "Lodo, valor y bienestar. Una estimación económica del impacto en la cuenca del río Anchicayá", es el cuarto artículo del presente número de la revista Cuadernos de Administración; sus autores presentan la valoración económica del impacto ambiental, en proyectos implementados en territorios de la costa pacífica colombiana. El quinto artículo se denomina "Efecto del trading en la rentabilidad y la solvencia de los bancos colombianos", donde discuten sobre los modelos bancarios adoptados por la banca colombiana. Con el análisis de datos panel estudian el efecto que tiene la diversificación de los ingresos de los bancos comerciales colombianos sobre la rentabilidad y la solvencia financiera, entre 2005 y 2014. "Retornos reales de los Fondos Privados de Pensiones en Colombia", es el título del sexto artículo, relacionado con el desempeño del sistema privado de pensiones en Colombia, Régimen de Ahorro Individual con Solidaridad (RAIs), donde se evalúan los rendimientos generados desde una base de datos de movimientos diarios de los fondos de pensiones desde 1995 hasta diciembre de 2016. Los autores usan la metodología establecida por la Superintendencia Financiera de Colombia (SFC) para el cálculo de rentabilidades, se determina la rentabilidad neta de costos de administración explícitos que debe asumir el afiliado y de ajuste por inflación. El siguiente artículo es fruto de una revisión de literatura relacionada con empresas familiares y la riqueza socioemocional, que lleva por título "La diversificación del negocio familiar en países emergentes, desde la perspectiva de la riqueza socioemocional. Revisión de la literatura". Los autores identifican los aspectos relevantes estudiados en relación con la diversificación de la empresa familiar. La reflexión está orientada en establecer la influencia que ejercen los objetivos familiares en la toma de decisiones empresariales. "Los instrumentos de política pública. Una mirada transdisciplinar", es el título del último artículo de este número. Los autores presentan la sistematización de instrumentos de política pública, disciplinas como el derecho público, la economía del sector público y las ciencias políticas, en especial las políticas públicas. La publicación del número 63 de Cuadernos de Administración de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Administración de la Universidad del Valle, permite continuar consolidándonos como un medio de divulgación del conocimiento científico en el área. Desde el primer número en el año 1976, hemos intentado publicar de manera continua, diferentes tipos de artículos científicos de investigación, revisión o reflexión, de autores nacionales e internacionales que han confiado en nosotros para difundir su conocimiento. A todos y cada uno de ellos, a nuestros autores, a nuestros árbitros, a los miembros de los comités Editorial y Científico, pero en especial a ustedes, nuestros lectores, queremos agradecerles por permitirnos seguir llegando por medio de la digitalización a generar un mayor impacto en las ciencias de la administración.
WOS:000477896800001 ; A search for the production of events containing three W bosons predicted by the standard model is reported. The search is based on a data sample of proton-proton collisions at a center-of-mass energy of 13 TeV recorded by the CMS experiment at the CERN LHC and corresponding to a total integrated luminosity of 35.9 fb(-1). The search is performed in final states with three leptons (electrons or muons), or with two same-charge leptons plus two jets. The observed (expected) significance of the signal for (WWW -/+)-W-+/--W-+/- production is 0.60 (1.78) standard deviations, and the ratio of the measured signal yield to that expected from the standard model is 0.34(-0.34)(+0.62) . Limits are placed on three anomalous quartic gauge couplings and on the production of massive axionlike particles. ; BMWFW (Austria); FWF (Austria)Austrian Science Fund (FWF); FNRS (Belgium)Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS; FWO (Belgium)FWO; CNPq (Brazil)National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq); CAPES (Brazil)CAPES; FAPERJ (Brazil)Carlos Chagas Filho Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ); FAPESP (Brazil)Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP); MES (Bulgaria); CERN; CAS (China)Chinese Academy of Sciences; MoST (China)Ministry of Science and Technology, China; NSFC (China)National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC); COLCIENCIAS (Colombia)Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Innovacion Colciencias; MSES (Croatia); CSF (Croatia); RPF (Cyprus); SENESCYT (Ecuador); MoER (Estonia); ERC IUT (Estonia)Estonian Research Council; ERDF (Estonia)European Union (EU); Academy of Finland (Finland)Academy of Finland; MEC (Finland); HIP (Finland); CEA (France)French Atomic Energy Commission; CNRS/IN2P3 (France)Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS); BMBF (Germany)Federal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF); DFG (Germany)German Research Foundation (DFG); HGF (Germany); GSRT (Greece)Greek Ministry of Development-GSRT; OTKA (Hungary)Orszagos Tudomanyos Kutatasi Alapprogramok (OTKA); NIH (Hungary)United States Department of Health & Human ServicesNational Institutes of Health (NIH) - USA; DAE (India)Department of Atomic Energy (DAE); DST (India)Department of Science & Technology (India); IPM (Iran); SFI (Ireland)Science Foundation Ireland; INFN (Italy)Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN); MSIP (Republic of Korea); NRF (Republic of Korea); LAS (Lithuania); MOE (Malaysia); UM (Malaysia); BUAP (Mexico); CINVESTAV (Mexico); CONACYT (Mexico)Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT); LNS (Mexico); SEP (Mexico); UASLP-FAI (Mexico); MBIE (New Zealand); PAEC (Pakistan); MSHE (Poland); NSC (Poland); FCT (Portugal)Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology; JINR (Dubna); MON (Russia); RosAtom (Russia); RAS (Russia)Russian Academy of Sciences; RFBR (Russia)Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR); RAEP (Russia); MESTD (Serbia); SEIDI (Spain); CPAN (Spain); PCTI (Spain); FEDER (Spain)European Union (EU); Swiss Funding Agencies (Switzerland); MST (Taipei); ThEPCenter (Thailand); IPST (Thailand); STAR (Thailand); NSTDA (Thailand); TUBITAK (Turkey)Turkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu (TUBITAK); TAEK (Turkey)Ministry of Energy & Natural Resources - Turkey; NASU (Ukraine); SFFR (Ukraine)State Fund for Fundamental Research (SFFR); STFC (United Kingdom)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC); DOE (USA)United States Department of Energy (DOE); NSF (USA)National Science Foundation (NSF); Marie-Curie program (European Union)European Union (EU); European Research Council (European Union)European Union (EU)European Research Council (ERC); Horizon 2020 Grant (European Union)European Union (EU) [675440]; Leventis Foundation; A.P. Sloan FoundationAlfred P. Sloan Foundation; Alexander von Humboldt FoundationAlexander von Humboldt Foundation; Belgian Federal Science Policy OfficeBelgian Federal Science Policy Office; Fonds pour la Formation a la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture (FRIA-Belgium)Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS; Agentschap voor Innovatie door Wetenschap en Technologie (IWT-Belgium)Institute for the Promotion of Innovation by Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT); Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) of the Czech RepublicMinistry of Education, Youth & Sports - Czech Republic; Council of Science and Industrial Research, IndiaCouncil of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) - India; HOMING PLUS program of the Foundation for Polish Science; European Union, Regional Development FundEuropean Union (EU); Mobility Plus program of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education; National Science Center (Poland)National Science Centre, PolandNational Science Center, Poland [Harmonia 2014/14/M/ST2/00428, Opus 2014/13/B/ST2/02543, 2014/15/B/ST2/03998, 2015/19/B/ST2/02861, Sonata-bis 2012/07/E/ST2/01406]; Qatar National Research Fund; Programa Severo Ochoa del Principado de Asturias; EU-ESFEuropean Union (EU); Greek NSRFGreek Ministry of Development-GSRT; Rachadapisek Sompot Fund for Postdoctoral Fellowship, Chulalongkorn University (Thailand); Chulalongkorn Academic into Its 2nd Century Project Advancement Project (Thailand); Welch FoundationThe Welch Foundation [C-1845]; Weston Havens Foundation (USA); Science and Technology Facilities CouncilScience & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) [ST/N000242/1] Funding Source: researchfish ; We thank Nathaniel Craig and Skyler Kasko for performing calculations of the cross section for the ALP model and producing generator-level samples used in this analysis. We congratulate our colleagues in the CERN accelerator departments for the excellent performance of the LHC and thank the technical and administrative staffs at CERN and at other CMS institutes for their contributions to the success of the CMS effort. In addition, we gratefully acknowledge the computing centers and personnel of the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid for delivering so effectively the computing infrastructure essential to our analyses. Finally, we acknowledge the enduring support for the construction and operation of the LHC and the CMS detector provided by the following funding agencies: BMWFW and FWF (Austria); FNRS and FWO (Belgium); CNPq, CAPES, FAPERJ, and FAPESP (Brazil); MES (Bulgaria); CERN; CAS, MoST, and NSFC (China); COLCIENCIAS (Colombia); MSES and CSF (Croatia); RPF (Cyprus); SENESCYT (Ecuador); MoER, ERC IUT, and ERDF (Estonia); Academy of Finland, MEC, and HIP (Finland); CEA and CNRS/IN2P3 (France); BMBF, DFG, and HGF (Germany); GSRT (Greece); OTKA and NIH (Hungary); DAE and DST (India); IPM (Iran); SFI (Ireland); INFN (Italy); MSIP and NRF (Republic of Korea); LAS (Lithuania); MOE and UM (Malaysia); BUAP, CINVESTAV, CONACYT, LNS, SEP, and UASLP-FAI (Mexico); MBIE (New Zealand); PAEC (Pakistan); MSHE and NSC (Poland); FCT (Portugal); JINR (Dubna); MON, RosAtom, RAS, RFBR and RAEP (Russia); MESTD (Serbia); SEIDI, CPAN, PCTI and FEDER (Spain); Swiss Funding Agencies (Switzerland); MST (Taipei); ThEPCenter, IPST, STAR, and NSTDA (Thailand); TUBITAK and TAEK (Turkey); NASU and SFFR (Ukraine); STFC (United Kingdom); DOE and NSF (USA). Individuals have received support from the Marie-Curie program and the European Research Council and Horizon 2020 Grant, contract No. 675440 (European Union); the Leventis Foundation; the A.P. Sloan Foundation; the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation; the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office; the Fonds pour la Formation a la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture (FRIA-Belgium); the Agentschap voor Innovatie door Wetenschap en Technologie (IWT-Belgium); the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) of the Czech Republic; the Council of Science and Industrial Research, India; the HOMING PLUS program of the Foundation for Polish Science, cofinanced from European Union, Regional Development Fund, the Mobility Plus program of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, the National Science Center (Poland), contracts Harmonia 2014/14/M/ST2/00428, Opus 2014/13/B/ST2/02543, 2014/15/B/ST2/03998, and 2015/19/B/ST2/02861, Sonata-bis 2012/07/E/ST2/01406; the National Priorities Research Program by Qatar National Research Fund; the Programa Severo Ochoa del Principado de Asturias; the Thalis and Aristeia programs cofinanced by EU-ESF and the Greek NSRF; the Rachadapisek Sompot Fund for Postdoctoral Fellowship, Chulalongkorn University and the Chulalongkorn Academic into Its 2nd Century Project Advancement Project (Thailand); the Welch Foundation, contract C-1845; and the Weston Havens Foundation (USA).
Japan nimmt eine besondere Stellung in der Weltgeschichte ein, indem es als einzige nicht-westliche Macht unter den Großmächten die Geschicke der Weltpolitik im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert mitbestimmte. Als solche spielte es auch eine bedeutende Rolle in der Entwicklung der modernen Völkerrechtsordnung. Innerhalb weniger Dekaden stieg Japan von der Position einer peripheren Nation im Schatten Chinas zur Hegemonialmacht in Ostasien auf und wurde – zumindest formal – gleichberechtigt in die Gemeinschaft der Nationen aufgenommen. Dieser Aufstieg zeigte überdeutlich, dass der souveräne Gebrauch von Völkerrecht nun nicht mehr nur eine Domäne der westlichen Mächte war und dass das Völkerrecht damit endgültig die Grenzen eines ius publicum europaeum hin zu einem "Weltrecht" überschritten hatte. Untersuchungen der Rezeption des westlichen Völkerrechts konzentrieren sich im Wesentlichen auf dieses frühe Kapitel der Rezeptionsgeschichte, sind jedoch bei aller Anerkenntnis der Erfolge Japans erstaunlich verhalten in der Bewertung der Rezeption selbst. So wird diese von vielen als zu passiv, eurozentrisch, "positivistisch" (ein Merkmal mit eher negativer Konnotation in Japan) und epigonal kritisiert. Ein alternativer Interpretationsentwurf sieht Japans Völkerrechtsrezeption zwischen 1905 und 1945 als Vorläufer einer revisionistischen Bewegung, die die normative Vormachtstellung des Westens in Frage stellt und eigene Ordnungsvorstellungen verfolgt. Dieser Diskurs steht in Zusammenhang mit der jüngeren Debatte um sogenannte "Asiatische Werte" und der postkolonialen Kritik an Völkerrecht in jüngster Zeit. Beide Argumentationsstränge sind jedoch, wie ihre innere Widersprüchlichkeit zeigt, irreführend hinsichtlich der Rolle, die das Völkerrecht in den Außenbeziehungen Japans spielte. Dieser Aufsatz möchte daher ein umfassenderes und zutreffenderes Verständnis dieser Rolle ermöglichen, indem es die Geschichte der Rezeption und Anwendung von Völkerrecht in Japan seit Anbeginn im Jahre 1853 bis zum Ende Japans als Imperialmacht im Jahre 1945 nachzeichnet und noch einmal die Frage nach ihrem kritischen bzw. konstruktiven Potential für die allgemeine Völkerrechtsentwicklung stellt. Zusammenfassend zeigt sich, dass das Völkerrecht in Japan anfangs eine rein funktionale Rolle innehatte, insofern seine Observanz gegenüber den westlichen Mächten einen hohen Grad an "Zivilisiertheit" signalisieren sollte und gegenüber den ostasiatischen Nachbarn als argumentative Waffe einer aggressiven Imperialpolitik diente. Japan hatte mit dieser Strategie auch Erfolg und konnte die verhassten "ungleichen Verträge" bereits 25 Jahre nach Abschluss des letzten Vertrages revidieren und sich nach 1905 als Hegemonialmacht in Ostasien etablieren. In Anbetracht dieser Funktion ist es daher kaum verwunderlich, dass japanische Völkerrechtler und Politiker eine eher passive, eurozentrische und "positivistische" Haltung gegenüber dem Recht einnahmen. Eine offene Kritik an der Völkerrechtspraxis vor 1919 hätten Japans Ziele eher gefährdet und wäre, selbst wenn ein solcher Wille dazu bestanden hätte, angesichts der Machtverhältnisse auch weitgehend wirkungslos geblieben. Aus den gleichen Gründen betrachteten japanische Politiker jedoch die liberalen Entwicklungen des Völkerrechts in der Zwischenkriegszeit eher als Bedrohung der japanischen Sonderstellung in Ostasien und schlossen sich dieser nur mit äußersten inneren Vorbehalten an. Dies gilt für den Völkerbund ebenso wie für das Verbot des Angriffskrieges durch den Briand-Kellogg-Pakt, und nur äußeres Prestige und die Furcht vor Isolation bewegten Japan, diesen beizutreten. Zudem wäre es irreführend, den "Positivismus" japanischer Völkerrechtler als Ausdruck eines Mangels an Kritik schlechthin zu verstehen. Kritik und Reserviertheit gegenüber dem westlichen Völkerrecht existierten seit Beginn seiner Rezeption und nahmen mit jeder subjektiv empfundenen Zurücksetzung Japans in der Weltpolitik noch zu. Diese Entfremdung brachte eine Tradition der "kritischen" Völkerrechtswissenschaft in Japan hervor, die insbesondere die politische, wirtschaftliche, soziale und historische Bedingtheit des angeblich "universalen" Völkerrechts in Augenschein nahm. Seine Hochzeit hatte dieser Ansatz in den Kriegsjahren von 1931 bis 1945, als Japan aktiv den status quo der internationalen Ordnung herausforderte und eine eigene normative Ordnung in Ostasien zu begründen suchte. Allerdings waren japanische Völkerrechtler wider Erwarten, auch wenn sie die kontinentale Expansion argumentativ unterstützen, nicht deren glühendsten Befürworter, sondern argumentierten aus einer defensiven Stellung heraus. Angesichts der Herausforderung, ein "Ostasiatisches Völkerrecht" erfinden zu müssen, warnten sie eher vor einer radikalen und irrationalen Abkehr vom normativen status quo und traten für eine graduelle Entwicklung neuer völkerrechtlicher Konzepte auf Grundlage des kritischen Studiums klassischen Völkerrechts ein. Sie suchten damit ihr Gebiet und ihre Profession gegen die zunehmenden Angriffe und Spott in der japanischen Öffentlichkeit zu verteidigen, allerdings mit geringem Erfolg. Die häufigen Verletzungen humanitären Rechts in den Schauplätzen des Krieges zeugen von der zersetzenden Kraft des "totalen Krieges", der ihre Argumente zunichte machte und sie selbst überrollte hätte, wenn nicht die Kapitulation im Jahre 1945 dieser Entwicklung Einhalt geboten hätte. Aus diesem Grund jedoch dient die Völkerrechtsrezeption Japans auch nicht als historisches Beispiel für eine "Herausforderung der normativen Hegemonie des Westens", sondern eher als warnendes Beispiel für die Notwendigkeit eines rationalen und konstruktiven Diskurses um normative Konzepte internationaler Ordnung heute. ; Japan takes a special place in global history as the only non-western power among the great powers which shaped the course of world politics during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Within less than half a century, Japan rose from a peripheral power in the shadow of China to the hegemonic power in Northeast Asia and was accepted as equal power (at least on the formal level) into the hitherto all-European family of nations. As such, it also played a significant role in the development of the modern international legal order as it is today. Japan's accession to the hitherto all-European concert of powers in 1905 demonstrated that the competent use of international law was not the exclusive domain of western powers anymore and that international law had shed its last vestiges of being a merely "European public law" and become a truly universally applied law. And yet, studies of the reception of international law in Japan, which largely focus on the early period between 1853 and 1905, often conclude their analysis with a mixed appraisal of the process, as they characterize it as being overly passive, Euro-centric and "positivistic" (a word of negative connotation in the Japanese context) and therefore merely derivative. An alternative interpretation, however, places Japan at the vanguard of a revisionist movement that challenged the hegemony of western international legal discourse and sought to establish an autonomous order in East Asia in the second phase of its engagement with international law between 1905 and 1945. This discourse ties in with the so-called "Asian values" debate and postmodernist criticism of international law in recent times. However, both narratives, as the inherent contradiction indicates, are misleading in their representation and analysis of the role which international law played in modern Japanese internationalist relations. This article aims to present a more coherent and consistent picture of international law in Japan by pursuing the whole trajectory of its reception and application in Japan's foreign politics, from the opening up of the country in 1854 until the final demise of Japan's imperial project in 1945. It argues that western international law during the initial phase of its reception had a purely functional role, as a signal of "civilization" and co-operation towards the western power, and as an argumentative weapon of expansion towards its East Asian neighbours. As such, it served its overall purpose well, as Japan managed to renegotiate the odious "unequal treaties" twenty-five years after the last was concluded and by 1905 had established itself as the hegemonic power in Northeast Asia. Considering this functional role, it is therefore not surprising that Japanese experts and politicians took a passive, Euro-centric and "positivistic" attitude towards the law. It did not serve Japan's interests to criticize international legal practice until 1919, nor would it be realistic to expect that Japan had the power to change it, even if it wanted to. However, it is also for the same reasons that Japan was inwardly reluctant to go along with the "Wilsonian" changes of international law in the 1920s, as multilateral institutions and the outlawry of war served Japan's purposes less than the classical law. It is merely for reasons of prestige and fear of abandonment that Japan would go along with these developments until 1933. Moreover, it would be erroneous to confuse Japan's apparent "positivism" with a lack of criticism in general. Feelings of estrangement and inner reservations co-existed with the apparent compliance right from the start and were carefully nurtured by successively felt slights and discriminations on the political side, whatever their claims to reality. This estrangement engendered a tradition of critical studies of international law in Japan which specifically addressed the political, economic, social and historical contingency and particularity of "universal" international law. This approach had its heyday during the war years between 1931 and 1945, when Japan actively challenged the political status quo of the international order and tried to carve out its own autonomous sphere in East Asia. However, contrary to expectations, international lawyers, although advising the Japanese authorities and justifying Japan's aggressive policy with their arguments, were not its most ardent supporters, but argued from a defensive and losing position. Faced with the challenge of inventing an "East Asian International Law", they warned against an irrational iconoclasm that would uncritically destroy the normative status quo and argued for a gradual evolvement of normative concepts on the basis of the existing order. Thus they tried to defend the law and their profession against a rising tide of criticism and contempt of international law in the public, with diminishing success. The frequent violations of international law in the theatres of war gave testimony to the eroding forces of "total war" that undermined their position and would have swept them away if surrender had not intervened in 1945. However, it is also for this reason that Japan's reception of international law does not serve as an historical example of "challenging the normative hegemony of the West", as more recent commentators would have it with a view to other rising powers, but rather as a warning reminder of the necessity of rational and constructive negotiation of concepts of normative order today.
Подано інформацію про історію метода лікування кіньми – іпотерапію, її позитивний вплив на здоров'я дорослих і дітей, особливо хворих на дитячий церебральний параліч (ДЦП). Розглянуто необхідні вимоги для створення центрів з лікувальної верхової їзди.Пропонується вважати іпотерапію комплексним багатофункціональним методом реабілітації дітей, де інструментом реабілітації слугують коні, процес верхової їзди і фізичні вправи.Позитивний результат іпотерапії здебільшого залежить від правильного відбору коней та вимог, що до них висуваються (норов, тип конституції, екстер'єр, витривалість та ін.). Розглянуто систему заходів з відбору коней, призначених для іпотерапії, та їх підготовку із врахуванням зоопсихології і взаємодії складових системи «кінь-пацієнт-інструктор-лікар».Робиться висновок, що механізм взаємодії «людина-кінь» потрібно ретельно вивчати, а для збереження здоров'я нації – мати фінансову допомогу держави на розвиток іпотерапії, реабілітаційних центрів та кінного спорту для інвалідів. Positive effects on the health of adults and children are reached with the help of "therapeutic" abilities of pets: cats, dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, and horses. Hippotherapy (ride therapy), a treatment mode based on the interaction of humans and horses specially trained to meet the needs of the patient, is increasingly spreading in the treatment of patients. Today, hippotherapy is used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, diseases and injuries of the musculoskeletal system, cardiovascular disorders, neurological disorders, multiple sclerosis, prostatitis, oligophrenia, infantile cerebral palsy, and others.Medical professionals have proved that communication with a horse calms people well, boosts their self-esteem, gives them a sense of confidence and safety. And the best recovery results are achieved with the use of hippotherapy in the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders and problems with movements' control.During the therapeutic riding, the body swings in three dimensions: left-right, forward-back, and up-down. The affected muscle groups and nervous structures start working. It develops mobility, a sense of balance, and motion coordination in patients suffering from paralysis.In the process of horse riding, all the major groups of body muscles are engaged. This happens at the reflex level, as the rider, moving along with the horse, instinctively seeks to maintain a balance not to fall, thereby inducing both healthy and affected muscles to work actively, without even noticing it. Hippotherapy acts upon the human body in the same way as any other form of physical therapy – under the influence of physical exercises the functions of vegetative systems are enhanced.Hippotherapy has received a well-deserved recognition. Children confined to wheelchair due to their illness, which traditional medicine was powerless to cope with, were up and about again thanks to training with horses. No special simulator has a look in with what a contact with a live horse gives to a child. While the horse is on the move, the rider's body performs the same movements as during their independent walking. Riding a rhythmically moving horse, the rider instinctively seeks to maintain balance. At the same time, all muscles of their body, both healthy and affected by the disease, are engaged. It is achieving the synchrony of the movements of the child and the horse, in other words, creating a unified biological system that is the basis of self-correction of the curved spine.With each hippotherapy session, the patient's back muscles get stronger, and legs muscles and tendons warm up, increasing blood circulation in the limbs and blood supply to the brain. This contributes to the creation of a strong muscle corset around the spine.Positive results in hippotherapy in many respects depend on the correct selection of horses. There are certain requirements to the character, temperament, endurance, type and exterior which the horse that is used for therapeutic riding should meet. In addition, each horse must undergo a special training, which will develop and enhance the necessary qualities, for example, a horse should be able to ease the possible fear of a rider and dampen down their aggression.Therefore, the purpose of the study was to examine the selection parameters for horses intended for hippotherapy and to explore the existing training systems, taking into account the mechanism of "human-horse" interaction.It is hippotherapy and therapeutic (adaptive) horse riding that requires horse's maximum discipline and responsibility, since it's not just about children, but about the children working with whom there is no room for mistake. However, it should be remembered that even a horse with an ideal temper can be spoiled by negligence of an unskilled groom, their rudeness and indifference, harshness of a coach or doctor.In the stables meant for hippotherapy, all those basic humanitarian principles that have been implemented and mastered in the course of many centuries in the relationship between humans and horses must be respected. In view of therapeutic specifics, such relationships are crucial. Horses should have optimal conditions for a full-fledged manifestation of kindness and mercy.Therefore, the most important criterion for selecting a horse is its temperament. Horses used in the therapy should be friendly, trusting, calm, patient and balanced animals. It is important that the horse remains frisky and vigorous, since only such horses may have an appropriate therapeutic step, and it is difficult to work with feeble and apathy animals. Of course, the horses that bite, kick and are aggressive to people cannot be used for the therapy.In hippotherapy, mares and gelded horses are mainly used, which is due to the fact that they have the most appropriate temperament. Stallions, as a rule, are not used, but there are no severe restrictions here. It happens that stallions also work effectively, but in the case there is always a risk factor.Horse's exterior is the next criterion for assessing its suitability. Preferably, it should not be too height (145-160 cm in the withers), as high horses complicate the patient's safeguarding. Being not high, the horse should have a wide and rather long back with well-developed muscles, middle or low withers, and its legs should have the correct position.It has been proved that in view of these characteristics the best breeds are the following: Huzul horses, Arabic horses, Novooleksandrivska Heavy Draft horses and others with a strong balanced type of higher nervous activity. The horses of the elder age (7-10 years old) are selected, mainly gelded horses and mares with a characteristic exterior: short, stretched, with a wide back, with a step at a trot of 80-90 cm, a step of 68-76 cm, with strong limbs, but the main thing is their well-balanced nature.In addition, a horse possessing all the necessary therapeutic qualities should be well prepared for certain exercises during therapy. Therefore, the horse-doctor, whatever happens, should be calm, obedient, and steady, accustomed to be touched everywhere, attentive to the voice of the instructor and to what is happening. Thus, the horse should accept any human action absolutely positively.A comprehensive study of the interaction of all participants of animal-assisted therapy: animals, patients, therapists (instructors, psychologists, doctors) is carried out according to the methodology of animal psychology. Ideally, the instructor and the horse should form a coordinated team, and not only during hippotherapy sessions.Duration of hippotherapy sessions varies depending on the illness and physical fitness of the rider. The loads are given purposefully.It would be wrong to say that horses are recommended only if there is some kind of physical problem. A healthy person will be really amused and delighted after the interaction with these cute and graceful creatures. Taking care of the animal develops a person's communicative skills, helps them overcome emotional barriers, and promotes social rehabilitation.Each horse is a personality. During hippotherapy they are expected to do almost an impossible thing: to become a reliable and safe simulator, to clearly and unconditionally carry out our orders. This can be achieved only if we treat the horse as a partner, with due respect, and give them time and space to satisfy our requirements.Thus, the "human-horse" interaction mechanism needs to be thoroughly investigated, and in order to preserve the health of the nation, the government should provide financial assistance for the development of hippotherapy, rehabilitation centers and equestrian sport for the disabled.
Abstrak Seksisme merupakan suatu hal yang memegang peranan penting dalam film ini. Diskriminasi sangat erat kaitannya dengan kemunculan seksisme. Disini para tokoh yang didasari sifat, bahasa dan latar belakang masing-masing yang memerankan peranan penting dalam munculnya seksisme bahasa di alur cerita dalam studi ini. Dalam film yang di produseri oleh Saul Dibb ini, terdapat empat tokoh yang saling berkaitan dengan masalah internal pernikahan antara Duke dan Duchess dari Devonshire yang membuat keberadaan wanita diremehkan dan dipandang sebelah mata. Teori dari Sara Mills digunakan karena berkaitan dengan bahasa seksis baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung seperti dalam pemilihan kata atau perumpamaan. Terdapat enam tipe bahasa seksis yaitu: kata generik, derivatif, istilah non-paralel yang menunjukkan semantik degenerasi, seksisme dalam pepatah, seksisme dalam kata-kata makian. Melalui hasil tersebut, studi ini mampu menunjukkan efek atau akibat dari keberadaan bahasa seksis dalam film yang berlatar belakang seksisme ini. Kata Kunci: gender, seksisme, bahasa seksis. Abstract Sexism plays an important role in this film. Discrimination is closely associated with the appearance of sexism. The figures here are based on the character personality, language and background of characters which plays an important role in the emergence of sexism in the language of the storyline in this study. The film which was produced by Saul Dibb, there are four interrelated characters with internal marital problem between the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire who makes women presence underrated and underestimated. Sara Mills theory is used because it is associated with sexist language either directly or indirectly as in the choice of words or metaphorical. There are six types of sexist language, namely: the generic, derivative, non-parallel terms that indicate semantic degeneration, sexism in proverb, sexism in swear words. Through these results, this study was able to demonstrate the effect or result of the presence of sexist language in the film which has a sexism background. Keywords: gender, sexism, sexist language. Introduction Socially, women almost differ in terms of social role in the society; they are considered as a person who does not need a high position and education as men had, women are only needed to maintain the housework and caring the children or having a domestic business in order can also keep their babies in the same time. Women always underestimated as the second or lower creature whereas man as the higher than women from any things. This fact will factually create discrimination and gap between men and women. Women is lack of reproductive, sexual harrasment, and men's violence againts women. In brief, the discourse of women discrimination definitely cannot be separated from the discourse of patriarchal culture. It shows in a lot of part in our country that women mistreatment is still and always exist. Attitudes and behaviour based on traditional assumptions about women, the stereotypes of women, sexual roles in society have been become phenomenon and belief in our life. It comes from every people minds to think and behave through that traditional assumptions. We know that as people no matter the sex wants to treat as well and equal in any aspect of life. Women inhabited a separate, private sphere, one suitable for the so called inherent qualities of femininity: emotion, passivity, submission, dependence, and selflessness, all derived, it was claimed insistently, form women's sexual and reproductive organization" (Kent, 1990: 30). Allowing the principle that has been made by men assumption and belief, women consciously made by men like dependence, passive, low and tractable. As Susan Kent observes: "Women were so exclusively identified by their sexual functions that nineteenth-century society came to regard them as 'the Sex'" (Kent, 1990:32). This research studies about some social phenomenon that are found in our society through the visual media such as movie. The aim of this research is to describe the sexist language that used by the characters in The Duchess movie. This research gives understanding of sexist language and the way how it is used in movie dialogue. The kinds of types of sexist language that found in The Duchess movie based on overt sexism and indirect sexism or contextually meaning and the diction based on Sara Mills theory. SEXIST LANGUAGE Researchers are mainly concerned about female and male differences in language use and the reasons behind the phenomenon. They stick to the view that language itself is not sexist, but the society is. The social sexism is transferred to language by human being, and at the same time, sexist and insulting words may reinforce biased view, and changes in the society may be reflected. So language is not only a guide, it is even a mirror that reflects the sexism in social reality, and at the same time, it makes people see the social reality more clearly. Sexist language is language that expresses bias in favor of one sex and thus treats the other sex in a discriminatory manner. In most cases, the bias is in favor of men and against women. All kinds of unequal phenomena in society including gender bias are bound to be reflected on its lexis. Gu Jiazu (2002) thinks English as a sexist language is marked with distinctive sexist factors, among which the lexis is the most important aspect. There also have been many critical feminist surveys of English lexis (Nilsen et al., 1977; Schulz, 1990) which have argued that sexism is inherent in many of the labels which English speakers use. Some feminists have pursued the idea that there exist lexical gaps in the language-aspects of women's lives which are commonplace, but have no words to describe them (Spender, 1985). So it is frequently argued that these usages are sexist. Mills suggests that there are two forms of sexism which are overt and indirect sexism. Overt sexism is clear and unambiguous, while indirect sexism can only be understood contextually in relation to the interpretation of surrounding utterances. Indirect sexism is extremely common and therefore need ways to challenge and analyze its usage in language. (Mills, 2008). OVERT SEXISM According the Sara Mills's theory, there are two types of sexism which are overt sexism and indirect sexism. Overt sexism is one of the parts of sexism which can be clearly be understood with some forms that can be generalized about linguistically and contextually. Overt or direct sexism is the type of usage which can be straightforwardly identified through the use of linguistics markers, or through the analysis of presupposition, which has historically been associated with the expression of discriminatory opinions about women, which signals to hearers that women are seen as an inferior group in relation to males. (Mills, 2008:11). There are some forms of overt sexism such as: Generic nouns, derivational, non-parallel term, sexism in proverb and sexism in swear words. In the other hand, there is also indirect sexism. It necessary to consider more details the proposition. It will be rather difficult to analyze because the reader can be understood because the reader must be really understand with the transparent source of data as like in the script. It shows indirectly in metaphor and irony that usually exaggerate in stereotyping one sex. In society, men are considered the norm of the human species. They are viewed as those representing all the human beings, male and female. Simply, it can be said that "male = "human" norm. This practice makes women invisible in language. In addition, it marginalizes women and reflects a male dominated society. In accordance to that, Sara Mills and some supporting linguists gives a guideline how to identify the linguistic structure differences used in English, we can analyze morphologically by these following ways: a. Generic nouns Another well-known example of generic masculine term is "man". Man and woman as two equal components of human race are actually not equal in English lexicon. Man, besides its reference to male human being can also refer to the whole race. The usage in a general sense of man makes woman invisible. For example; (1) All men must die. (2) Man is a social animal. It is easy to see that "man", and "men" can be used generically to refer to both male and female. In the first sentence the word Men refers to human being. Despite this, in the second sentence also state the word Man in which it is a human species or animal. Thus, man makes males linguistically visible and females linguistically invisible. From this, one can know that in English using "man" or "men" indicates "the human race", they treat man as the center of the society, an embodiment of criterion and totally ignore the existence of woman. b. Generic Pronouns (he, his, him) In English there are a group of nouns of common gender, which refer to either male or female such as student, person, teacher, etc. When such nouns are used with generic reference in single form, the traditional grammar advocates to use the masculine pronouns in the context for the purpose of coherence with generic nouns.( Zhang Zhenbang,1995). Generic pronouns are pronouns that are said to refer, with equal likelihood, to woman and men. But the English language ignores women by allowing masculine terms to be used specifically to refer to males and commonly to refer to human beings in general. According to the rule of traditional grammar when the indefinite pronoun one is used for generic reference, then in the context usually one, one's, or himself is used to be its relevance. But in order to avoid repetition, he, his, him, or himself is chosen, especially in American English (Zhang Zhenbang,1995) See the examples: (1) If one wants to see the ruins, he must find his own guide. (2) Everyone must do his work well. In the first and second sentences, one and Everyone refers to the concept of people, which is a concept of common gender, we do not know they are men or women but it uses masculine pronoun. He and his in the context formally manifests the imagery of men but semantically represents people of either gender. The operation of the grammatical rule conventionally elevates the status of the masculine pronouns and lowers the feminine ones. c. Derivational "In English, derivational morphemes are mainly prefixes and suffixes. These affixes often change the part of the stem. The affixes thereby help us to identify relationships within words". Derivation is a way of word formation. It forms a word with meaning and category distinct from that of its base through the addition of an affix. The original base is the core of the formed word and carries the main complements of its meaning. The affixes are always bound morphemes, which carries information about meaning or function. In English lexicon, one of the most obvious evidences of the sexism is the affixes which lead to a view of women as a derivation from a male term. The feminine one is always derivative of the masculine one by adding a feminine suffix such as -ess and –ette. Actor, for instance, with the meaning of "a person who plays the part of a character in a movie or play", when attached to a feminine suffix –ess, becomes actress with the meaning of "woman with profession similar to those of "actor" and as for –ette, when usher is adhered to –ette, it becomes usherette. Such pairs of the words are of long lists in English lexicon. Here just list some of sexist based on its derivational: Ambassador - ambassadress Prince - princess Poet - poetess Author – authoress Waiter – Waitress Manager – Manageress That some of lists of sexist derivational word have different meaning based on the classification usage for men or women. The examples show and prove that the suffixes -ette and –ess are for woman only. It is considered sexist because when men do not need any affixes to refer to them, women need it. Furthermore, the terms in the right side are the feminine terms which are only indicated to the women only. Those feminine accents in the words ambassadress, duchess, princess and poetess and so on are not referred to the men or even to all human being, but those are especially marked to the women. d. The Non-Parallel Term The non parallel term between men and women are also the real example how sexist the English is. In accordance to that, Lakoff pointed out that words that were once equivalent terms for males and females have often diverged in meaning over time. (Chaika, Elaine.1982:205). Non parallel term or semantic derogation between men and women are also the real example how sexist the English is. In accordance to that, Lakoff pointed out that words that were once equivalent terms for males and females have often diverged in meaning over time. Consider these following examples: Mrs, Ms – Mr Mister – Mistress Governor – Governess Lady –Lord Lady – gentleman From the description above, none of feminine terms in the list connotes the same degrees as the masculine terms and almost all of them acquired as secondary sexual connotation. Lexicographers have noted that, once a word or term becomes associated with women, it often acquires semantics characteristics that are congruent with social stereotypes and evaluations of women as a group, a process that has variously been termed 'semantic derogation' (Shulz, 1975), 'semantic degeneration' (Miller and Swift, 1976) and 'semantic polarization' (Eakins and Eakins, 1978). e. SEXISM IN PROVERBS Proverbs are a short pithy saying in common and recognized use; a concise sentence, often metaphorical or alliterative in form which is held to express some truth as-curtained by experience or observation. The fact that there are many English proverbs which contain the words discriminating, distinguishing women, making women are worry about it. Since proverbs are standard, it is hard to change and create new proverbs substituting the old ones. Consider these following examples of English proverbs: 1."A man is as old as he feels, and a woman as old as she looks" this example implicitly creates an image that this sexist saying suggest that men age better than women. 2. "A man's home is his castle". This example also discriminate the women. It implicitly create an image that the peaceful and lovely house is only man has. 3."A good man is hard to find" the proverbs means that the difficulties for woman to fin a good man that is suitable for them. Or in finding male patner. f. SEXISM IN SWEAR WORDS The swear words is an expression in sometimes conscious or unconsciously said by speaker who is in a bad condition. In some area swear words is a kind of taboo to say, but in the others are very common and probably become a habit. Those swear words are used to insult, to curse, to offend, or to mock at something or someone when the speaker strong emotion which the impact can trivialize women position. Swearing is the way someone uses obscene words orally to insult, to curse or even to offend something (someone or action). Also, for emphasizing when the persons have strong emotion (Hughes, 1991). Usually, when someone has been insulted, someone will feel offended and easy to be angry. According to Crystal (1997) as cited in (Adeoye: 2005), sexist swear words is regarded as an emotive or expressive function of language. Hughes (1991: 224-225) claims that people tend to swear when he/ she angry or disappointed. They are also likely to swear when they would like to express antagonism, frustration, surprise, anger, and shock. Usually some words that belong to this category are fuck, cunt, shit. Swear words are very common in people's ears, because it sometimes said in the public society or even in the movie. There are several reasons why does swearing occur: 1. To express feeling in words rather than in actions, especially if you do not have bigger vocabulary (Crystal, 1995: 156). 2. To express their anger and frustration. 3. To seem brave. 4. To make people afraid when they have been violence by someone in the form of sex or other violence. 5. To imitate what other people do. There are very little swear words have been written for language learners, yet nearly all- native speakers use it in daily communication. The term such as: "fuck", "damn","bastard", "son of a bitch, "motherfucker", "asshole", and "bitch". That can be used as the examples of sexist swear words which provoke the violent confrontation. In other words, according to Eisenson and Boase (in Liedlich, 1973: 107), there is some words that is not supposed to be say in the public society, because it brings the negative meaning for the speaker also the listeners. It also makes a bad habit that the speaker feels very common. If there is someone uses obscene words to swear other people will judge them as people who are impolite, do not have high and well education or having less vocabulary. Those examples above are definitely can refer to both sexes man and women. Unfortunately, in practice those words are mostly indicated to the women behaviors and attitudes. It is the fact that English has linguistic and semantic discrimination through the practice of language usage; it is briefly can be seen in the word motherfucker and bitch. INDIRECT SEXISM According to Sara Mills, she said that indirect sexism is ironising sexism. Since it both challenging overt sexism and keeps it in play. Benwell (2006) terms this type of indirect sexism 'new sexism'. She also adds that it's very reminiscent of, it is not identical to past forms of sexism which clearly shown. It differentiates of they way overt sexism and indirect sexism is used. This type of new sexism is bring the outdated notions of sexism become new term one. That is why Williamson also called this new type of sexism as 'retro-sexism'. The fact that the humor and irony are used when being sexist does not change the nature of sexism itself, but it just only interpreting simply and different way of respond the new sexism. This term of sexism used to categorize a set of stereotypical beliefs about women which cannot be directly related to a certain linguistic usage or features. (Mills, 2008:10). Overt sexism is now largely seen as anachronistic and so it has been driven underground; indirect sexism is one which in some ways attempts to deny responsibility for an utterance, mediating the utterance through irony or disguising the force of the sexism of the utterance through humor, innuendo, embedding sexism at the level of presupposition, or prefacing sexist statements with disclaimers or hesitation (Mills, 1998:135). Indirect sexism can be found in several aspects such as humor and irony, scripts and metaphor. For example in jokes, it is a complex way constituting women as 'minority group' without taking responsibility for that exclusion. Sexist jokes allow generally unacceptable views of women to be expressed, because the person usually tells the jokes generally can claim that they themselves did not make up the joke. (Mills, 2008:71). Metaphor The narrative pathway or script is brought to play in new reports about women and men in a public sphere. This indirect sexism refers to women implicitly. It uses things to refers to the object either men or women. Irony Irony is a common strategy for humorous remarks about women. The term of ironic sexism is often satire the object in polite way. Irony involves a difference or contrast between appearance and reality - that is a discrepancy between what appears to be true and what really is true. RESEARCH METHOD According to Bogdan and Taylor in Moleong (2007:4), descriptive qualitative research is a research procedure that represents data either written or spoken from the people and behaviors which can be observed. In addition, Krik and Miller in Moloeng (2007:4) defines the descriptive qualitative ad a certain tradition in social sciences fundamentally relies on human observation in its own religion and deals with these people in language and terminologies. Qualitative research is mostly associated with words, language and experiences rather than measurements, statistics and numeral figures. Furthermore, in analyzing the types of sexism which are used by the characters of The Duchess Movie, it will be conducted by using the descriptive qualitative research. Qualitative approach is taken because the decided research efforts in discussing, analyzing and finding the social phenomena which is running naturally; it is not a controlled or based on laboratory research. The collected data are the subjects of experiences and perspectives; the researcher attempts to arrive at a rich description of the people, objects, events or conversations and so on. The data are from the words, phrases, clauses, or sentences that found in the dialogues of some characters. The researcher uses this method because she wants to get a brief description and a rich understanding about the expressions of sexist language and the classification which categorized as sexist gender biased based on linguistics terms in The Duchess movie. The source of the data which is used by the researcher is taken from the conversation or dialogues which is in the script and the movie of The Duchess. The characters who will be analyzed are Georgiana as a Duchess, The Duke Devonshire, Lady Elizabeth (Bess), and Charles Grey. In addition, to avoid the research becomes wide and broad, the researcher used a theory to identify and to classify, identify and analyze the types of sexist language. There are some theory which is gathered some sexist theory to support and complete the main theory. This study used the theory of Sara Mills in "Language and Sexism" and Philip M. Smith "Language, The Sexes and Society". It also helpes and completes by some supporting theory from other linguists in describing the types of sexist language in journals. The reason of the researcher gathers and combines the theory because to make the analysis become details and complete. It also adds some information of sexist language types. Most of the data will be found in the types of overt and indirect sexism, because the researcher concern in the words, phrases, utterances or sentences in many setting in this movie. The researcher chooses those characters because the other characters do not influence much about the gender discrimination which appears in the story. The theme of this movie is about internal gender discrimination in The Duke and The Duchess marriage, so it is not possible for other characters to interfere. In the technique of the data analysis, the researcher begins to analyze the data toward the procedures. In conducting the research procedure, the researcher follows three steps. The first, the researcher classifies the data which are words, utterances or sentences in based on its types of sexism orderly. The second, the researcher describes those data based on the two classifications of sexism which are overt and indirect sexism. The data is in the form of words, proverbs and utterances. The third, the researcher describes the existence of the sexist language which exists in The Duchess movie. DISCUSSION The analysis of sexist language or expression in discriminating sexes inappropriately above is used to drawing attention to the way language used to represent women in that movie. According to the data analysis and finding of the types of sexist language linguistically above, the researcher found six types of sexist language in The Duchess movie. They are consist of sexism in word such as the use of generic noun, derivational, non-parallel term which shows semantics degeneration, sexism in proverbs, sexism in swear words, and indirect sexism such as metaphor and irony. Some characters such as The Duke (William Cavendish), Duchess (Georgiana Spencer), The Duke's mistress (Lady Elizabeth Foster) and Georgiana's secret affair (Charles Grey) are used some term in sexist language by Sara Mills in the movie. The generic noun is term which is used to refer both men and women, but in effect it often refers to men only. Generic noun perform very useful function of allowing us to refer to an entire class of entities with a single word, and most if not all languages have one or more forms that can be used to designate members of the human species in general. This term applied when the speaker Georgiana unconsciously says in her speech when The Duke and her held in Bath Assembly room at night. She said that, "only two specimens of this rare bird are known to man." The word man here is used to gather both men and women knowledge about the two rare bird. She uses that word because of the reason for the recent attention surrounding this term is the growth of awareness about the portrait of the social order implied in which the male are half of the species whose members dominate. The word "man" used by Georgiana is because to respect the dominating of male in the society. People often refer to themselves and using nouns that describe an occupation or performance of an activity, such as "Duchess" in the datum (2), "Let them talk! Grey makes me a fallen woman, well and good, now William may divorce me and Bess becomes Duchess of Devonshire!". It seems clear that the great majority of such terms more readily evoke the image of man than of a woman. Some feminists have argued that the addition of diminutive suffix to agent nouns results in the term that have less semantic potency than unaltered counterpart, and that this both causes and reflects a devaluation of those who occupy this agent roles (Smith, 1953:46). Derivational suffix which found in this movie takes when Georgiana or the speaker says emotionally that Bess can become a Duchess of Devonshire in The Duke allows and gives his arrangement to have a relationship with Charles Grey. Based on the definition of the word "Duchess", it means as a noblewoman or a woman holding a rank equivalent to duke in her own right. Duchess (female) can either be a monarch ruling over a duchy or a member of the nobility, historically of highest rank below the monarch. The word "duchess" is added by feminine suffix –ess to identify that the agent noun uses female reference. Based on the representation of Duke and "Duchess", they are different. Duke tends to manage the social economy, politic, and something which is valuable. In inversely different with the job description of "duchess" who is only manage about the simple thing. In addition, the position of "duchess" in this movie shows that also, she has no special except in little space in Whig, and for the rest she only cares about what she should care as a mother. Based on the job description of "duchess", it shows that the position of The Duke always becomes superior. So, when there are agents nouns placed in one sentences, it seems that the old maxim "Duke and Duchess" is more honored in the breach than the observance. In fact, little is known about the psychological significance of the word order pairs like this, and the fact that women often come second or may not signify to the listener that they have less status or importance than the male. In addition, the term of non-parallel implied because of some reason deals with women social status at that time. "Mr", "Mistress", "Lady/ladies - Gentlemen", "Governor", and "Lover" are the sexist language which found in the movie. From those words, we can see that there is no similar meaning from its pairs. Meanwhile, those words have implicit meaning which degenerates women become lower status from the pairs. It can be conclude that most women as the speaker of the words above are aware about the condition of women whom trivialized by men physically and mentally. From the word "mistress", "lady" and "lover", all of them have similar meaning as women who are become a man maid of desire or tend to be having lower status. While the word "Mr", "governor" and "gentlemen" are also treated as sexist because it has higher social status than its pairs. None of feminine terms in the list of data above connotes the same degree of strength or power as its masculine counterpart, and almost all of them have acquired as secondary sexual connotation. The character of The Duke in the datum (8), "That's one way of putting it. Your mother called it 'common decency before personal gratification', or some such thing… the exact words escape me…" shows about the sexism in proverb about the matter of social interest. He tries to give an example from Georgiana's mother quotation which grabs by him. According to the definition of proverb, it means short pithy saying in frequent and widespread use that expresses a basic truth or practical precept. In general use, that proverb states about a general truth or piece of advice to the hearer, Georgiana. That proverb has an implicit meaning that the position of the Duke is always strong in the matter of conducting his wife. In the other words, Georgiana has to follow what her husband as to do. In this circumstance, the position of Georgiana is awry. She has to choose between her children or her desire and affection of Charles Grey which she doesn't get from her husband. As the main Character, The Duke always becomes the centre of the society. He should speak politely. In the other hand, in some cases he cannot put himself in that situation. Based on The Duke character personality, he kinds of man who is introvert, cannot control his emotion and has a switch temper that can be changed in certain time. So, he often expresses his anger or dissatisfaction through something near him. He also often use sexist swear word to release it such as "damn", "hell", and "bastard". Those words are deal with death term which uses to mock or curse people. That term also to express The Duke feeling rather than in action, especially he does not have bigger vocabulary. In the datum (15), "Give me a son and then do what the hell you want, as long as you do it discreetly. Until then you stay here and do as I say." The Duke says "hell" to express his frustration of his failure to obtain a male heir from Georgiana. Furthermore, this sexist swears word helps by his action in intimidates his wife by hurting her in action. The other main characters, Georgiana often use parable or imagery to reflect her own circumstances. The imagery and parable itself categorized as indirect sexism term. The data which treated as indirect in the movie are "male company, "imprisoned", "throw", "you both of another world that does not exist and never will" and "love is an act! It's more than words and undying oaths!" That indirect sexism consists of metaphor and irony. As the definition of indirect sexism, it cannot be understood by linguistics markers but using contextual meaning. Metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable. It can also regards as representative or symbolic of something else, esp. something abstract. In this case, the character of Georgiana often uses this term to symbolize herself which is bridled in her own internal marriage problem. The other character, Bess also express her sadness and disappointment of being left by her husband because of his "mistress" in datum (5). The fact that metaphor and irony are used when being sexist does not change the nature of sexism itself, but it rather simply changes the way it can be responded to. From those terms of sexist languages which found in The Duchess movie, it can be concluded that the sexist language related with those character because of the impact of the sexist theme occurs in that internal marriage problem. The impact of those sexist languages to the theme of the movie is when those utterances make the women participation underestimated more. The significance effects shows when inequality between men and women, social inequalities which women have and the position of men who do not want to be defeated by circumstances of women influence to the theme of the movie. The existence of sexist language is also because the aspects of character personality, language, background and its context. Character personality takes part in the analysis because the speakers unconsciously speak it refers to their character. For example like The Duke, he often uses kind of sexist swear word in order to replace his anger in to the word or someone close. It is because The Duke is introvert, close and has a switch temper which can be changed in certain time. It similar with Charles Grey, as a man, he also temperamental when he knows something inappropriate as like Georgiana fake promise and prefer to go back for her children rather than him. In the other hand, if Georgiana and Bess as representative from women sides they tend to be polite and use their feeling rather than logic in their problem. The choice of word which used by those characters mostly reflects their circumstances as women at that time. From those characters personality, we can see that words which that use reflect each people characters. That choice of words absolutely influences to their language when they speak such as in the term of sexist swear word which mostly expressed by The Duke. Furthermore, character personality and language cannot be separated with the context and background of each people and movie at that time. The speakers will consider the language which they will use based on the context of the talks. The background here used to support the situation of the character based on place and time in their situation or in this case is in Victorian era. The background may be a stereotype or culture of certain gender. The most data commonly found in non-parallel term, indirect sexism and sexism in swear words. It is because the women condition cannot be equated with men. People at that time still holding patriarchal culture which means the position of men is superior and holding every aspect. They often underestimate women self-esteem to become men mistress whom can be throwing away anytime. Women seem like do not have strength to be independent without men position in front of them. Men are allowed to have more than one mistress even they are a centre of society. On the other hand, when women try to express their feeling to other men it considers as improper behavior and taboo. All of utterances which have been said by the characters are reflecting their character personality. Based on the explanation of the existing of sexist language above, there are some reasons that make the women circumstances become weak in physically and mentally. This evolutionary reasoning provided justification for the emotional and mental differences between men and women. At last, sexism can be existing because of stereotype of women and it reflects to the culture. The character personality helps to make it clear where the mental and emotional aspects involve in indicating their existence through language. Those stereotypes create morals and social values that applied until this time. The only way of changing that social structure is to make the position of men and women equally same no matter what. CONCLUSION This chapter presents the conclusion and suggestion based on the analysis and finding in chapter four. The finding shows the sexism by the characters in the movie involves overt and indirect sexism. Overt sexism is a type of usage which can be identified directly through the linguistic markers. While indirect sexism can only be understood contextually in relation to the interpretation of surrounding utterances. However, this term of sexism used to categorize a set of stereotypical beliefs about women which cannot directly analyzed by linguistic features. The linguistics features of sexism are divided into several types, as follows: (1) Sexism in words. The using of man in "Well, only two specimens of this rare bird are known to man" considers as generic nouns which should be referred to both of sex. (2) Sexism in words of using English pairs or word order of words showing non parallel term or semantic degeneration between men and women such as the word Mr "In the play this evening, there was a scene in which Lady Teazle and Mr. Surface discuss their affair", Ladies, gentlemen, and mistress "My husband, Mr. Foster, is enjoying his mistress in Bournemouth, and I wanted some diversion.". This non parallel term shows that there are semantic derogations between men and women position. (3) Sexism in words using suffix –ess in "Let them talk! Grey makes me a fallen woman, well and good, now William may divorce me and Bess becomes Duchess of Devonshire!" as job occupations of profession such as Duchess. This type of sexism in words shown that the discrimination through gender divisions still exists in the matter of word order. (4) Sexism in Proverb. There is only one analysis which found as sexism in proverb as like "common decency before personal gratification". It related to the high power of men than women. This kind of English proverb seems like the metaphorical of men who held to express the position of men that is always unbalance and prioritized than women. (5) Indirect sexism. This new term is not related to the certain set of linguistic usage and features but contextually of a diction which replace and describe their speaker situation. Indirect sexism which found in this research is about metaphor and irony such as "How about 'imprisoned' in my own house'?" and "I'm ill at ease with male company for the moment.". (6) The last is sexism in swear words. There are various kinds of swear words which used by the character of the movie such as "hell" as like this utterance: "Give me a son and then do what the hell you want, as long as you do it discreetly.", "bastard" in this utterance:"Three boys??? Do you think I can make those bastards my heirs? Well, do you?" and the insulting term for women such as "whore", "Be quite you fool! (to Georgiana). Are you his whore?!". The usage of sexist swear words express their disagreement, anger or objectionable depends on the context and problem of the character. In addition, there is no general neutral term to replace the words. The last is In addition, some aspects of sexist language existing in the movie are character personality, language, background and its context. All of those aspects are interrelated and interconnected each other. Based on the finding, the character personality influences more because it reflects to their language they use. Their language will refer to their position as a centre role model that perceived by public. While the background and context reflects women stereotypical knowledge in Victorian era which bring the character of women discriminated by men. SUGGESTION Using a language without regard to the gender classification is expected to minimize the woman discrimination in the language. So, the researcher wants to contribute some suggestion for the next researcher. First, the next researcher can use and complete the analysis by new sexism which is indirect sexism. It used to analyze sexism without directly using linguistics markers but, it uses diction like in metaphorical, humors, irony or satire which trivializes women. Second, the researcher hopes that the next researcher analyzes the source of data by putting the historical background so that they can find out the characteristic of their style of writing. The historical background can use to prove why those sexist languages occurred. Lastly, the researcher hopes that the terms of English indirect sexism will be applied to avoid the use of sexism in written and spoken even it is not linguistically shown in the next research. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Aini, Nur, 2010. The Sexist Swear Words Used by the Characters in Shottas Movie, English Letters and Language Department, Faculty of Humanities and Culture, Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University of Malang. Brannon, Linda. (2002). Gender: Psychological Perspectives. Chapter 7: Gender Stereotypes: Masculinity and Femininity (pp. 152-76). London: Allyn and Bacon. Cameron, Deborah. (1985). Feminism and Linguistic Theory. London: Macmilan Press Chaika, Elaine. 1982. Language the Social Mirror. Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers, Inc. He, Guimei. 2010. Journal of Language Teaching and Research of An Analysis of Sexism in English. Academy Publisher manufactured in Finland: Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China. Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 332-335, May 2010. Holmes, Janet. 1992. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Addison Westley Longman, Inc., New York. Johnson, Allan G. 2000. The Blackwell dictionary of sociology: A user's guide to sociological language. ISBN978-0-631-21681-0. Retrieved November 21, 2011. Kent, Susan. 1990. Sex and Suffrage in Britain 1860-1914. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Lei, Xiaolan. (2006). Sexism in Language. Northwest Polytechnic University, China. Vol. 5, No.1. Lewin, Miriam (Ed.), In the shadow of the past: Psychology portrays the sexes. New York: Columbia University Press. Lexy J. Moleong, 2007. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif, Bandung: PT. Remaja Rosda Karya. Linda Sofia, 2008. The Sexist Language of Jokes Column in Hello Magazine. Thesis, English Letters and Language Department, Faculty of Humanities and Culture, The State Islamic University of Malang. Mills, Sara. 2008. Language and Sexism. Cambridge University Press, New York. Parks, J. B. & Roberton, M. A. (1998). Contemporary arguments against nonsexist language: Blaubergs (1980) revisited. Sex Roles, 39(5&6), 445-461. Smith, Philip M. 1953. Language, Sexes and Society. Basil Blackwell Inc, New York. Wardaugh, Ronald. 1986. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Page Bros. INTERNET SOURCE http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Sexism.aspx (accessed in January 10th 2013) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexism). (accessed in January 10th 2013) http://digilander.libero.it/mgtund/sexism_in_language%202.htm (accessed in March 1st 2013) http://www.victorianweb.org/gender/sextheory.html (accessed in March 28th 2013) http://webpage.pace.edu/nreagin/tempmotherhood/fall2003/3/HisPage.html (accessed in March 28th 2013)
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Die Lehrerbildung befindet sich inmitten des größten Umbruchs seit vielen Jahren. Aber schaffen es die Kultusminister, ihren Reformen eine stimmige und gemeinsame Richtung zu geben? Die Ständige Wissenschaftliche Kommission der KMK präsentiert dazu ihr lange erwartetes Gutachten.
Foto: Katerina Holmes, Pexels.
LANGE GEPLANT kommt das Gutachten jetzt mit einer Aktualität, die man sich gar nicht hat wünschen können: Drei Tage nach Bekanntgabe der historisch schlechten deutschen PISA-Ergebnisse veröffentlichte das wichtigste wissenschaftliche Beratungsgremium der Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK) am Freitagmittag seine Empfehlungen "zur Lehrkräftegewinnung und Lehrkräftebildung für einen hochwertigen Unterricht". Zuvor hatten die 16 Experten der Ständigen Wissenschaftlichen hin Kommission (SWK) ihr Gutachten in vertraulicher Runde den Kultusministern vorgestellt.
Die Vorschläge der SWK kommen auf den ersten Blick teilweise wenig radikal daher, doch würde ihre Umsetzung die Schulen in Deutschland nachhaltig verändern – und die KMK gleich mit.
Insgesamt elf Empfehlungen umfasst das Gutachten, sortiert nach vier Kapiteln. Mit die wichtigste Forderung: Es muss endlich eine vernünftige Datenbasis her. Denn bislang ist die KMK noch jedesmal von der Entwicklung der bundesweiten Schülerzahlen überrascht worden, auch hat sie die Änderungen der bildungspolitischen Rahmenbedingungen (etwa den Ausbau von Inklusion oder Ganztagsschule) nie ausreichend in ihren Modellierungen abgebildet. Im Gegensatz etwa zu den Prognosen, die der Essener Bildungsforscher Klaus Klemm im Auftrag der Bertelsmann-Stiftung erstellt hat und die fast immer näher an den tatsächlichen Lehrerbedarf herankamen.
"Sonst kommen wir nie zu einer verlässlichen Prognose"
Warum? Lange hatte die KMK ihrer Modellrechnungen zu selten aktualisiert, das immerhin hat sie inzwischen abgestellt und sammelt die Rückmeldungen der Bundesländer in jährlichem Abstand (allerdings ist aktuelle Veröffentlichung weit überfällig). Doch ändert dies laut Olaf Köller, dem Ko-Vorsitzenden der SWK, nichts daran, dass die Grundlage der KMK-Berechnungen, die Länderzumeldungen, nicht so recht zusammenpassen. "Es fehlt die Transparenz über in die Annahmen, die die Länder jeweils ihren Prognosen zugrundelegen", sagt Köller, im Hauptberuf Direktor des IPN Leibniz-Instituts für die Pädagogik der Naturwissenschaften und der Mathematik. "Darum müssen die Daten künftig systematisch und vergleichbar in allen Ländern erhoben werden, unter Berücksichtigung des tatsächlichen Bedarfs, und alle Länder müssen etwaige Datenlücken schließen, sonst kommen wir nie zu einer verlässlichen Prognose."
Eine solche Systematik würde freilich eine andere KMK voraussetzen: eine, die in der Lage ist, die für eine Vergleichbarkeit nötigen Datendefinitionen herzustellen und, in Form ihrer Verwaltung, des KMK-Sekretariats, dann selbstbewusst von den Ländern die nötige Datenqualität einzufordern. Was, nebenbei gesagt, nur beschleunigen würde, was die Kultusminister bei ihrem Treffen in Berlin ohnehin, je nach Bundesland und Perspektive mehr oder weniger begeistert, diskutiert haben: die überfällige grundlegende Reform der KMK, ihrer Prozesse und Verfasstheit.
Zweites großes Thema des SWK-Gutachtens: den Ausbildungserfolg der Lehramtsstudierenden erhöhen. Auch hier, das zeigte zuletzt eine Analyse des Stifterverbandes eindrucksvoll, handelt es sich zu einem guten Teil um ein Datenproblem. Viele lehrerbildende Universitäten können nämlich gar nicht sagen, wie viele ihrer Lehramt-Studienanfänger bis zum Abschluss kommen – geschweige denn, warum sie zu welchem Zeitpunkt entscheiden, doch nicht Lehrer zu werden. Von einer "großen Forschungs- und Datenlücke", die es zu füllen gelte, sprach im Sommer der Stifterverband, "denn nur auf Basis belastbarer Befunde können bildungspolitische Maßnahmen ergriffen werden, die letztendlich einen Bildungsnotstand verhindern."
Genau diese Datenlücke will die SWK schließen und fordert, die Studierbarkeit der Lehramtsstudiengänge müsse "datengestützt" verbessert werden, zudem müsse die soziale und akademische Integration in die Hochschulen gestärkt werden. Das entscheidende Mittel für beides: ein funktionierendes Qualitätsmanagement und verlässliche Abstimmungsstrukturen, die auch die erste Phase der Lehrerbildung, das Studium, mit der zweiten, dem Vorbereitungsdienst, verbinden. Beide Phasen laufen bislang oft nebeneinander, umso mehr gilt das für die dritte, die Fort- und Weiterbildung der bereits berufstätigen Lehrer.
Hoffnung Ein-Fach-Lehrer
Womit die SWK beim Kern ihrer Empfehlungen angekommen ist, der künftigen Gestaltung der Studiengänge, man könnte auch sagen: ihrer zumindest teilweisen Neugestaltung. Denn die Experten empfehlen, neben dem klassischen grundständigen Studium einen "wissenschaftsbasierten, qualifizierten zweiten Weg in den Lehrkraftberuf" zu eröffnen. Oder weniger verklausuliert formuliert: den seit einer Weile viel diskutierten Ein-Fach-Lehrer einzuführen. Genaus das hatte der Wissenschaftsrat im Sommer bereits im Sommer vorgeschlagen, allerdings nur bezogen aufs Mathematikstudium.
Das Modell der SWK ist schnell erklärt: Bewerber haben einen fachlichen Bachelor oder Master, beispielsweise in Germanistik. Dann starten sie in einen viersemestrigen Master of Education, der ihnen das gesamte pädagogische Rüstzeug mitgibt, um Lehrer zu werden: die Fachdidaktik, die Bildungswissenschaften, dazu die Praktika und einen Spezialisierungsbereich wie Digitalisierung, Inklusion, Sprachbildung oder Berufsorientierung. Nach diesem Master folgt der Übergang in ein reguläres Referendariat und anschließend die volle Lehrbefähigung – allerdings nur für ein Fach.
Berufsbegleitend soll es dann die Option geben, ein zweites Fach hinzuzustudieren – aber nicht verpflichtend. "Hier setzen wir auf die Motivation der Lehrkräfte", sagt die Berliner Professorin für Schulpädagogik, Felicitas Thiel, neben Köller Vorsitzende der SWK. Hier dürfte das Gutachten der Kommission größere Diskussionen auslösen: Andere Erziehungswissenschaftler warnen nämlich davor, dass Ein-Fach-Lehrer in den Schulen zu einseitig belastet würden, den Unterrichtsbedarf nicht ausreichend abbilden und die Stundenplanorganisation verkomplizieren könnten. Weshalb ihre Ausbildung, wenn man sie zulasse, mit der Verpflichtung einhergehen müsse, ein zweites Fach nachzuholen. Doch schon der Wissenschaftsrat hatte diese Gründe nicht als plausibel genug für eine verpflichtende Zweit-Fach-Weiterbildung erachtet.
In jedem Fall aber ist diese SWK-Empfehlung für die Schulwirklichkeit wohl die weitreichendste. Denn auch wenn es hier und da bereits gut funktionierende wissenschaftliche Aufbau-Masterprogramme gibt: Vielerorts besteht derzeit nur die Wahl zwischen dem traditionellen Lehramtsstudium und aus der Not geborenen Seiteneinsteiger-Programmen, die zwar flexibel sind, denen jedoch vielfach, wie nicht nur die SWK klagt, die Wissenschaftsbasierung fehlt. Würde es der KMK gelingen, einen Ein-Fach-Lehramt nach einheitlichen Maßstäben zu etablieren, wäre der Zugang zum Lehramtsstudium dauerhaft flexibler – auch über den aktuellen dramatischen Lehrkräfte-Mangel hinaus.
Absage an ein duales Lehramtsstudium
Für die Debatten unter den Kultusministern schon bei der Vorstellung des SWK-Gutachtens dürfte unterdessen gesorgt haben, dass die Experten einem anderen bei Bildungspolitik und lehrerbildenden Hochschulen in Mode gekommenen Reformvorhaben eine Absage erteilen: dem dualen Lehramtsstudium. "Wir können nicht verstehen, wo da eigentlich die Euphorie herkommt", sagt Felicitas Thiel. Schon außerhalb des Lehramts gelinge in dualen Studiengängen die Verschränkung von Theorie und Praxis nicht wirklich gut, hinzu komme: "Wer soll, wenn wir an manchen Schule nur noch zehn Prozent grundständig ausgebildete Lehrkräfte haben, noch nebenbei die aufwändige Begleitung dual Studierender übernehmen?"
Anders sieht das unter anderem der Wissenschaftsrat, der, schwer kritisiert unter anderem vom Deutschen Philologenverband, im Sommer seine Empfehlungen zur Zukunft des Matheunterrichts vorgelegt hatte, inklusive einem Plädoyer zur Entwicklung des dualen Studiums.
Ebenfalls keine Unterstützung von der SWK erhalten Überlegungen, komplette Lehramtsstudiengänge zumindest für die beruflichen Schulen auch an Hochschulen für angewandte Wissenschaften laufen zu lassen. "Es gibt bereits 34 Universitätsstandorte, die in der Lehrerbildung mit HAWs kooperieren", sagt SWK-Mitglied Isabell van Ackeren, Professorin für Bildungssystem- und Schulentwicklungsforschung an der Universität Duisburg-Essen, die an der Ausarbeitung des Gutachtens maßgeblich beteiligt war. Um ausreichend wissenschaftsbasiert und berufsfeldbezogen zu sein, sagt sie, würde die Abwicklung eines kompletten Lehramtsstudiums aber erhebliche zusätzliche personelle Ressourcen und organisationale Strukturen an den HAWs erfordern. "Das halten wir nicht für zielführend, weitere Kooperationen hingegen schon."
Wofür die SWK sich indes ausspricht: die Einführung sogenannter Assistenz-Lehrkräfte, die auf der Grundlage eines Bachelorabschlusses und einer Weiterqualifizierung an die Schulen kommen könnten. Ohne Berechtigung zum eigenständigen Unterricht, aber in Anbindung und zur Unterstützung an eine voll qualifizierte Lehrkraft. Eine Idee, die so ähnlich schon vor zwei Jahrzehnten mit der Einführung der Bologna-Studiengänge im Lehramt diskutiert wurde, sich aber nie hat durchsetzen können.
Zweite Chance für die Assistenz-Lehrkraft?
"Anders als damals gibt es jetzt aber ein funktionierendes Vorbild aus der Medizin, den Physician Assistent als zusätzliche Karriereoption für Pflegekräfte", sagte Felicitas Thiel. "Das hat macht uns optimistisch, dass wir es jetzt auch in der Lehrerbildung schaffen, in einem vielfältigeren System von Karrierewegen zu denken, mit unterschiedlichen Verantwortlichkeiten in der Schule, aber immer auf Augenhöhe." Eine Debatte darüber, so Thiel, sei überfällig – auch um klare Kriterien und Kompetenzen festzulegen.
Apropos klare Kriterien: Länder wie Brandenburg etablieren bereits neue, stark umtstrittene Lehrer-Laufbahnen auf Bachelorebene – allerdings dann mit vollständiger Lehrbefähigung. "Genau das wollen wir nicht", betont Thiel – wohl ahnend, dass die SWK-Vorschläge genau mit solchen Modellen in einen Topf geworfen werden könnten, etwa von den Lehrergewerkschaften.
Und sonst? Schlagen die SWK-Experten vor, den Vorbereitungsdienst einheitlich auf zwölf Monate zu verkürzen, allerdings nur unter Voraussetzung eines Gesamtkonzepts, das wie gefordert erste und zweite Phase und Berufseinstieg sowie Theorie und Praxis besser verknüpft, vor allem in Form eines über die Phasen hinweg kohärenten Curriculums, das außerdem Mentoren und Fachseminarleiter wissenschaftsbasiert qualifiziert und die Unterrichtsverpflichtung während Referendariat und Berufseinstieg möglichst gering hält.
Außerdem fordert die Kommission einen ländergemeinsamen Qualitätsrahmen für ein in sich stimmiges, qualitätsgesichertes Forbildungssystem, von dem die SWK das Bildungssystem trotz einer (theoretischen) Fortbildungsverpflichtung in allen Ländern weit entfernt sieht. Stichworte sind hier zertifizierte Module der wissenschaftlichen Weiterbildung etwa für ein weiteres Unterrichtsfach in Mangelfächern, für andere Unterrichtsbereiche, für eine sonderpädagogische Fachrichtung oder zur Nachqualifizierung für eine andere Schulform, außerdem der Ausbau von Master- und Promotionsstudiengänge etwa für Leitungspositionen und Koordinationsfunktionen.
Dicke Bretter, klare Ansagen
Dicke Bretter und klare Ansagen – in dem, was die SWK gut heißt, genauso aber, wovon sie abrät. Jetzt ist es an der Bildungspolitik. Im März wollen die Kultusminister ihren eigenen Aufschlag zur Zukunft der Lehrerbildung beschließen, auf der Grundlage des SWK-Gutachtens und weiteren Papieren wie den Empfehlungen des Wissenschaftsrats zum Mathestudium. Auch der Stifterverband hatte vor wenigen Wochen einen ambitionierten Reformkatalog vorgelegt.
Vieles von dem Vorgeschlagenen, werden die Kultusminister argumentieren, gebe es schon. Stimmt. Allerdings, und das ist der entscheidende Punkt der SWK-Experten, fehlt derzeit zweierlei in der deutschen Lehreraus- und weiterbildung: Stimmigkeit und Systematik. Beides will das neue Gutachten erreichen. Ob die KMK ihm folgen kann, selbst wenn die Kultusminister es wollten? So, wie sie im Augenblick ist, an vielen Stellen vermutlich nicht. Ein Grund mehr, sie zu reformieren.
Nachtrag am 08. Dezember, 12.45 Uhr:
Was die Kultusminister zum SWK-Gutachten sagen
Von einer "klaren Positionierung für hohe Qualitätsstandards in der Lehrkräftebildung", sprach KMK-Präsidentin Katharina Günther-Wünsch (CDU), im Hauptberuf Berliner Bildungssenatorin. "Die Kultusministerkonferenz wird sich eingehend mit den vorgeschlagenen Empfehlungen auseinandersetzen und entsprechende Maßnahmen formulieren." Zur Absage der SWK an ein duales Lehramtsstudium sagte Günther-Wünsch, der Begriff der Dualität sei ungünstig gewählt. Nichts desto trotz gebe es Debatten in den Bundesländern über die Verkürzung der Studiendauer und Verknüpfung der Praxisanteile, und man werde darüber nun mit der SWK weiterdiskutieren, vielleicht dann unter einer anderen Überschrift als "duales Studium".
Hamburgs Schulsenator Ties Rabe, der die SPD-Bildungspolitik in den Ländern koordiniert, sagte: "Die Idee, neben dem klassischen Lehramtsstudium einen zweiten Weg mit einem neuen Studiengang in den Lehrberuf zu eröffnen, erschließt ganz neue Chancen für Studierende." Die Verkürzung des Referendariats durch eine bessere Verzahnung von Studium und Praxis sollte sorgfältig geprüft werden.
Rabes Gegenüber auf CDU-Seite, Hessens Kultusminister Alexander Lorz, sagte, er begrüße insbesondere die Ansätze, "neue Personengruppen für den Beruf als Lehrkraft zu erschließen, ohne dabei den Qualitätsanspruch aus dem Blick zu verlieren". Die etablierte und qualitätsgesicherte grundständige Ausbildung unserer zukünftigen Lehrerinnen und Lehrer durch alternative Formen zu gefährden, lehnt die SWK ab. "Dem schließe ich mich an."
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Contemporary cities are facing a global, complex and dynamic scenario, which is based on three main challenges, an exponential process of urbanization and therefore the rapid growth of cities with its respective consequences on urban planning, the environment and city services; secondly, the digital revolution generated by the fourth industrial revolution that has digitally transformed processes and products in all contexts; and thirdly, the power of data and information in a society largely dominated by technology, the economy and communication. In this context, changing urban arrangements will mean that by 2050 almost 70% of the world's population will be living in cities. This will generate transformations in the relationship between local communities and their governments, challenging cities, countries and states to be smart. This imposes challenges and opportunities for national and local governments associated with the formulation and implementation of Smart Cities policies and plans to keep up with the constant and changing demands of citizens. Smart Cities are transforming the vision of cities from the local level. Hence, comprehensive planning is required that takes into account the actors, resources and components necessary for their implementation, through public policies that express the approaches defined by governments. The objective of this research sought to analyze the main challenges and opportunities faced by the Colombian government for the formulation and implementation of a public policy and a national Smart Cities plan, since it is estimated that in 2050, 86% of its population will live in cities. The research sought to analyze, contrast and evaluate, based on a proposed theoretical model and policy documents, the results of the main global measurements and case studies in the field of Smart Cities. Likewise, the proposals made by the National Government in the documents of the National Council of Economic and Social Policy and in the normative proposals, as well as by the municipal governments, through the formulation and implementation of development plans and land use plans. The document contains a quantitative, qualitative and statistical analysis; it also includes the objectives, justification, hypotheses, variables and tools used such as Artificial Intelligence algorithms and findings. It is concluded that it is necessary to adopt a model containing enablers, pillars, components and dimensions, since evidence showed that those countries that lead policies and plans from the central government, their main cities are placed in better positions in global indexes and contribute to improve the quality of life of their citizens; Thus giving effective solutions to their demands, advancing towards sustainable development, and towards the implementation of the fourth industrial revolution in the city; it is also concluded that in Smart cities three cities coexist, the physical and infrastructure city, the digital and data city and the social city, together they must be integrated synergistically as a means for social and economic progress. Likewise, it is concluded that the challenges and opportunities faced by the Government are of different nature, complexity and scope and that the solution to the problem that was tested through formal methods of statistical data analysis, raises the need for the formulation and implementation of a policy and a National Smart Cities Plan for Colombia, the articulation between institutional actors, and the deepening of knowledge and implementation of technologies and services in this field, since smart cities become means to face the challenges of Society 5.1. ; Las ciudades contemporáneas se enfrentan a un escenario global, complejo y dinámico, que se fundamenta en tres principales retos: un proceso exponencial de urbanización y por ende el rápido crecimiento de las ciudades con sus respectivas consecuencias en la planificación urbana, en el medio ambiente y en los servicios de la ciudad. En segunda instancia, la revolución digital generada por la cuarta revolución industrial que ha transformado digitalmente los procesos y los productos en todos los contextos; y, en tercer lugar, el poder de los datos y de la información en una sociedad ampliamente dominada por la tecnología, por la economía y por la comunicación. En este contexto, el cambio en las disposiciones urbanas, traerá como efecto que para el año 2050 cerca del 70% de la población mundial vivirá en las ciudades. Esto generará transformaciones en la relación entre comunidades locales y sus gobiernos, lo que le imputa a las ciudades, países y Estados el reto de ser inteligentes. Lo anterior impone desafíos y oportunidades para los gobiernos nacionales y locales asociados con la formulación e implementación de políticas y planes de Smart Cities para estar a la altura de las constantes y cambiantes demandas de los ciudadanos. Las Smart Cities están transformando la visión de las ciudades desde lo local. De allí que se requiere de una planeación integral, teniendo en cuenta los actores, recursos y componentes necesarios para su implementación, a través de políticas públicas que expresen los planteamientos definidos por los gobiernos. El objetivo de esta investigación buscó analizar los principales desafíos y las oportunidades que enfrenta el gobierno de Colombia para la formulación e implementación de una política pública y de un plan nacional de Smart Cities, pues se estima que en el año 2050 el 86% de su población vivirá en las ciudades. La investigación buscó analizar, contrastar y evaluar desde un modelo teórico propuesto y desde los documentos de política, los resultados que arrojan las principales mediciones globales y casos de estudio en el campo de las Smart Cities. Asimismo, los planteamientos hechos por el Gobierno Nacional en los documentos del Consejo Nacional de Política Económica y Social y en las regulaciones propuestas, así como, los gobiernos municipales, a través de la formulación e implementación de los planes de desarrollo y los planes de ordenamiento territorial. El documento contiene un análisis cuantitativo, cualitativo y estadístico; asimismo, incluye los objetivos, la justificación, la hipótesis, las variables y herramientas que se utilizaron tales como algoritmos de Inteligencia Artificial y los hallazgos encontrados. Legando a la conclusión que es necesaria la adopción de un modelo que contenga habilitadores, pilares, componentes y dimensiones, pues la evidencia demostró que aquellos países que lideran políticas y planes desde el gobierno central, sus principales ciudades se ubican en mejores posiciones en los índices globales y contribuyen a mejorar la calidad de vida de sus ciudadanos; dando así, solución efectiva a sus demandas, avanzando hacia el desarrollo sostenible, y hacia la implementación de la cuarta revolución industrial en la ciudad; también se concluye que en las Smart cities, conviven tres ciudades, la física y de la infraestructura, la digital y de los datos y la ciudad social, juntas deben integrarse sinérgicamente como medios para el progreso social y económico. Asimismo, se concluye que los desafíos y las oportunidades que enfrenta el Gobierno son de diferente índole, complejidad y alcance y que la solución al problema que se probó mediante métodos formales de análisis estadístico de datos, plantea la necesidad de la formulación e implementación de una política y de un Plan Nacional de Smart Cities para Colombia, la articulación entre actores institucionales, y la profundización en el conocimiento y en la implementación de las tecnologías y los servicios en este campo, pues las ciudades inteligentes se convierten en medios para afrontar los retos de la Sociedad 5.1.
La mejora de la gestión de los residuos sólidos urbanos (RSU) es un tema importante para la sostenibilidad de cualquier territorio, y más importante aún en islas turísticas. Baleares y Canarias constituyen casos de estudio interesantes ya que pueden ser consideradas como sistemas casi cerrados. La insularidad implica una triple repercusión desde el punto de vista socioeconómico, político y medioambiental. Una adecuada gestión de RSU exige disponer de infraestructuras de almacenamiento y tratamiento de residuos para su minimización, reutilización, valorización y eliminación, con el objetivo de poder cumplir con las metas establecidas por la Unión Europea en cuanto a lograr reutilizar o reciclar un 55% de los RSU en 2025, un 60% en el 2030 y un 65% en 2035. Además, hay que limitar el envío a vertederos de los RSU hasta un 10% en 2035, y reducir la generación de residuos orgánicos en un 30% en 2025 y el 50% en el año 2030. Actualmente, ambos archipiélagos están lejos de dichas metas. En Baleares los ratios de reciclaje solo alcanzan el 15.81% y en Canarias el 11.18% en 2018. El objetivo de esta investigación ha sido obtener una metodología y una serie de herramientas prospectivas que proporcionen instrumentos para mejorar la planificación y gestión de los RSU en zonas insulares. Se aplican modelos econométricos para determinar las variables claves que afectan a la generación de residuos, el método fuzzy TOPSIS para encontrar la mejor alternativa (tratamiento de residuos) del problema de decisión multicriterio planteado, reduciendo la incertidumbre ya que la información a analizar es obtenida de manera cualitativa y cuantitativa. Por último, se aplican la Dinámica de Sistemas y el Análisis de Escenarios, ya que ambos son métodos efectivos para estudiar las condiciones dinámicas y cambios en sistemas complejos. La Dinámica de Sistemas nos ayuda a predecir el comportamiento futuro de ciertas variables bajo diferentes escenarios y a aplicar distintas estrategias para su mejora, mejorando la toma de decisiones y la planificación estratégica. Los modelos econométricos fueron validados mediante test estadísticos, tales como: normalidad en los residuos, autocorrelación, multicolinealidad, heterocedasticidad, causalidad de Granger, entre otros, permitiendo encontrar los principales "driving forces" de la generación de residuos e identificar cuales tenían mayor influencia sobre la misma. Para la validación del modelo en Dinámica de Sistemas se utilizaron los test de verificación de la estructura, verificación de los parámetros y el test de condiciones extremas sobre los parámetros. Las previsiones esperadas para el escenario base tendencial hasta 2035 sin aplicar mejoras al sistema actual, muestran bajas tasas de recuperación, separación, reciclaje e incineración; por el contrario, aplicando las estrategias establecidas en los escenarios alternativos proyectados, a corto y largo plazo, se obtendrían mejoras mas consistentes, pero para ello es necesario implementar nuevos modelos de gestión mas sostenibles para frenar y controlar la generación de residuos. La principal conclusión de esta investigación es que los actuales modelos de gestión de residuos en estas áreas de estudio deben ser mejorados. Los altos niveles de generación son consecuencia de hábitos de consumo insostenible, un mercado interno limitado y una economía muy dependiente del sector turístico. El resultado es que las tasas de generación aumenten, y los residuos siguen siendo derivados a vertederos incontrolados. En síntesis, la gestión de RSU en zonas insulares presenta una serie de problemas que pueden ser analizados mediante la metodología y herramientas de apoyo a la toma de decisiones desarrolladas con el fin de mejorar su gestión. ; The improvement of the municipal solid waste (MSW) management is an essential issue for the sustainability of any territory, and even more critical in tourist islands. The Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands constitute interesting case studies since they can be considered as almost closed systems. Insularity implies a triple impact from the socio-economic, political and environmental point of view. Proper MSW management requires the availability of waste storage and treatment infrastructures for its minimization, reuse, recovery and elimination, to be able to meet the goals established by the European Union in terms of achieving reuse or recycling 55% of MSW in 2025, 60% in 2030 and 65% in 2035. Besides, it is mandatory to reduce landfilling to 10% by 2035 and the organic waste generation by 30% in 2025 and 50% in 2030. Currently, both archipelagos are far from these goals. In the Balearic Islands, the recycling ratios only reached 15.81% and in the Canary Islands 11.18% in 2018. The objective of this research has been to obtain a methodology and a series of prospective tools that provide instruments to improve the planning and management of MSW in island areas. Econometric models are applied to determine the key variables that affect the generation of waste, the fuzzy TOPSIS method to find the best alternative (waste treatment) of the multi-criteria decision problem posed, reducing uncertainty since the information to be analysed is obtained from the qualitative and quantitative way. Finally, System Dynamics and Scenario Analysis are applied, since both are effective methods for studying dynamic conditions and changes in complex systems. Systems Dynamics helps us to predict the future behaviour of certain variables under different scenarios and to apply different strategies for their improvement, improving decision-making and strategic planning. The econometric models were validated using statistical tests, such as normality in the residuals, autocorrelation, multicollinearity, heteroscedasticity, Granger causality, among others, allowing to find the main "driving forces" of the generation of waste and to identify which ones had the most significant influence on the same. For the System Dynamics model validation, the verification tests of the structure, verification of the parameters and the test of extreme conditions on the parameters were used. The expected forecasts for the trend base scenario until 2035 without applying improvements to the current system, show low rates of recovery, separation, recycling and incineration; On the contrary, applying the strategies established in the projected alternative scenarios, in the short and long term, would obtain more consistent improvements, but for this, it is necessary to implement new, more sustainable management models to curb and control the generation of waste. The main conclusion of this research is that current waste management models in these study areas must be improved. The high levels of generation are the consequence of unsustainable consumption habits, a limited domestic market and an economy highly dependent on the tourism sector. The result is that generation rates increase, and waste continues to be diverted to uncontrolled landfills. In summary, the management of MSW in island areas presents a series of problems that can be analysed using the methodology and decision-support tools developed in order to improve their management.
Objective: The present research aimed to identify which competences are desirable to the accountant from the perspective of the accounting professionals who work in the offices of the city of Vitória de Santo Antão, in Pernambuco. Methodology: A descriptive field survey research was carried out, with a quantitative approach and the use of a specific questionnaire, applied to a sample of 26 accounting firms. The study considered the classification of competencies of the standard established by the IFAC International Federation of Accountants (2012), categorized as: intellectual; technical and functional; personal; interpersonal and communication; and organizational and business management, as well as the use of the set of competencies defined by the studies of Cardoso (2006), Callado and Amorim (2017). The research data were collected in person and by email, being treated with the aid of Microsoft Excel software, enabling the construction of tables for analysis. Results: The competences of the accountant indicated by the professionals of the area working in the offices located in the city of Vitória de Santo Antão, in Pernambuco, were consistent with those provided by IFAC (HEI 3), highlighting them with the highest level of importance, among the five categories classified in that standard: ability to identify problems, acting in accordance with the legislation, acting with ethics and integrity, working in a team, knowing how to manage and organize time well. One notices a trend towards the new role of the accountant, who is no longer seen as a mere "bean counter" but as a "business partner". Study Contributions: Identifying and understanding which are the competencies required of the accounting professional can assist in the growth and development of the same in organizations, since even though there are several investigations on this subject, it is consensual the understanding that the competence of the accountant is a construct in formation, thus not consolidated. Another contribution is to present to the accounting science courses in the region what the market expects from students, so that they can organise a political pedagogic project. By recognising which competences are considered relevant from the perspectives of the professionals themselves, discussions are enabled that seek to find suggestions for improvements to their education, and also about their social role, considering changes in the political, economic and technological spheres. ; Objetivo: La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo identificar cuáles son las competencias deseables para el contador desde la perspectiva de los profesionales de la contabilidad que trabajan en las oficinas de la ciudad de Vitória de Santo Antão, en Pernambuco. Metodología: Se llevó a cabo una encuesta de campo descriptiva con enfoque cuantitativo mediante un cuestionario específico aplicado a una muestra de 26 empresas de contabilidad. El estudio consideró la clasificación de competencias del estándar establecido por la IFAC International Federation of Accountants (2012), categorizadas como: intelectuales; técnicas y funcionales; personales; interpersonales y de comunicación; y organizativas y de gestión empresarial, así como el uso del conjunto de competencias definidas por los estudios de Cardoso (2006), Callado y Amorim (2017). Los datos de la investigación se recogieron en persona y por correo electrónico, siendo tratados con la ayuda del programa informático Microsoft Excel, lo que permitió la construcción de tablas para su análisis. Resultados: Las competencias del contador indicadas por los profesionales del área que trabajan en oficinas ubicadas en la ciudad de Vitória de Santo Antão, en Pernambuco, fueron consistentes con las proporcionadas por la IFAC (HEI 3), destacándose con el mayor nivel de importancia, entre las cinco categorías clasificadas en esa norma: capacidad de identificar problemas, actuar de acuerdo con la legislación, actuar con ética e integridad, trabajar en equipo, saber administrar y organizar bien el tiempo. Se observa una tendencia hacia un nuevo papel de los contables, que ya no se consideran meros "contadores de cuentas", sino "socios comerciales". Aportes del estudio: Identificar y comprender cuáles son las competencias requeridas para el profesional contable puede ayudar al crecimiento y desarrollo de las mismas en las organizaciones, ya que si bien existen diversas investigaciones sobre el tema, es consensual el entendimiento de que la competencia del contador es un constructo en formación, por lo tanto no consolidado. Otra contribución es presentar a los cursos de Ciencias Contables de la región lo que el mercado espera de los estudiantes, para que puedan organizar un proyecto pedagógico político. Al reconocer cuáles son las competencias que se consideran relevantes desde la perspectiva de los propios profesionales, se habilitan debates que buscan encontrar sugerencias para mejorar su formación, y también sobre su papel social, considerando los cambios en las esferas política, económica y tecnológica. ; Objetivo: A presente pesquisa objetivou identificar quais são as competências desejáveis ao contador sob a ótica dos profissionais contábeis, que trabalham nos escritórios da cidade de Vitória de Santo Antão, em Pernambuco. Metodologia: Realizou-se uma pesquisa de campo levantamento (survey), descritiva, com abordagem quantitativa e utilização de um questionário específico, aplicados a uma amostra de 26 escritórios de contabilidade. O estudo considerou a classificação de competências da norma estabelecida pelo IFAC International Federation of Accountants (2012), categorizadas como: intelectuais; técnicas e funcionais; pessoais; interpessoais e de comunicação; e organizacionais e de gerenciamento de negócio, bem como a utilização do conjunto de competências definidos pelos estudos de Cardoso (2006), Callado e Amorim (2017). Os dados da pesquisa foram coletados pessoalmente e por e-mail, sendo tratados com o auxílio do software Microsoft Excel, possibilitando a construção de tabelas para análise. Resultados: As competências do contador indicadas pelos profissionais da área atuantes nos escritórios localizados na cidade de Vitória de Santo Antão, em Pernambuco, foram consoantes com aquelas previstas pelo IFAC (IES 3), destacando-as com maior nível de importância, entre as cinco categorias classificadas na referida norma: capacidade para identificar problemas, atuação em conformidade com a legislação, agir com ética e integridade, trabalhar em equipe, saber administrar e organizar bem o tempo. Repara-se uma tendência voltada para o novo papel do contador, deixando de ser visto como um mero "contador de feijão" para um "parceiro de negócio". Contribuições do Estudo: Identificar e compreender quais são as competências requeridas ao profissional contábil pode auxiliar no crescimento e no desenvolvimento do mesmo nas organizações, visto que ainda que existem diversas investigações sobre esta temática, é consensual o entendimento de que a competência do contador é um construto em formação, sendo assim não consolidado. Outra contribuição é apresentar para os cursos de ciências contábeis da região o que o mercado espera dos discentes, podendo estes organizar um projeto político pedagógico. Ao reconhecer quais as competências consideradas relevantes nas perspectivas dos próprios profissionais atuantes, possibilita-se discussões que busquem encontrar sugestões de melhorias para sua formação, e ainda sobre o seu papel social, ponderando mudanças no âmbito político, econômico e tecnológico.
Das Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit ist die Analyse der Motive der Mutterschaft und der Emanzipation in den Romanen "Lagerfeuer" und "Die Mittagsfrau" der deutschen Schriftstellerin Julia Franck, die 1970 in Ost-Berlin geboren wurde. Der Hauptcharakter des Romans "Lagerfeuer" ist Nelly Senf, eine junge Mutter zweier Kinder, die wegen des Selbstmordes ihres Geliebten und Vaters ihrer beiden Kinder trauert und in den Westen Deutschlands zieht. Neben ihrer Verzweiflung und Schmerzen, die sie während der Flucht erleidet und der schweren Situation zwischen ihr und ihren Kindern, wird im Roman durch die Figur der Nelly Senf auch das Motiv der Mutterschaft und Emanzipation behandelt. Im zweiten Roman "Die Mitagsfrau" gibt es zwei Mütter mit verschiedenen Charakteren und Eigenschaften. Im Verlauf des Romans wird anhand dieser beiden Figuren gezeigt, wie sich eine Mutter nicht verhalten sollte und wie sich eine Frau im Verlauf der Zeit und in im tristen Alltag zurechtfindet. Der Roman "Die Mittagsfrau" handelt von der unglücklichen Lebenssituation der Helene Würsich und ihrer Mutter, Alice Sehmisch, von ihrer Geburt in Bautzen im Jahr 1907 bis zu dem Zeitpunkt, als sie ihren siebenjährigen Sohn Peter 1945 auf einer Bahnhofsbank auf dem Weg nach Berlin verlässt, weil sie verhindern möchte, dass ihr Sohn nicht bei einer emotional kalten Mutter lebt, wie sie es selbst musste. Helene bemüht sich, ihrem Kind das Bestmögliche zu bieten. Den Hauptteil der Zeit widmet sie ihrer Karriere, um das gemeinsame Leben mit ihrem Sohn zu verbessern. Julia Franck beschreibt die Traumata aus Helenes Kindheit als emotionale Entfremdung, die Helenes junges Leben von Anfang an bestimmten. Helene verwandelt sich in eine apathische Mutter, die am Ende ihr eigenes Kind verlässt, um sich nicht selbst zu verlieren. Im Roman "Lagerfeuer" ist der Hauptcharakter Nelly Senf, eine junge Mutter zweier Kinder. Sie ist eine gebildete Frau, die ihre Lebensziele genau kennt. Nelly beweist, wie eine Frau gleichzeitig eine Ausbildung machen kann und eine gute Mutter sein kann, die sich um ihre Familie kümmert. Nelly Senf hat zwei Kinder, Katja und Aleksej. Beide Kinder wechseln in eine andere soziale Umgebung, verändern ihre Gewohnheiten und die Schule. In einigen Abschnitten des Romans liest man, wie Nelly eine verständnisvolle und liebevolle Mutter ist, während andere Stellen ihren emotional kalten Standpunkt beschreiben, der nicht zu einer Mutter passt. Anhand der Analyse beider Werke kommt man zum Schluss, dass die Mutterschaft und Emanzipation aus der Sicht dieser drei Mütter und Frauen, verschieden ausgelegt, verstanden und gelebt werden kann. Alle drei Mütter haben verstanden, dass die Mutterschaft eine Herausforderung ist, allerdings sind sie sich nicht alle darüber bewusst, dass sie auch eines der schönsten Dinge im Leben ist. Alle drei sind nicht stark genug, um diese Herausforderung richtig anzunehmen, zusätzlich hinterlassen das falsche Verhalten und die schlechte Erziehung, die sie selbst durchlebten, auch negative Folgen bei ihren eigenen Kindern. Aufgrund des großen Drucks der damaligen politischen Situation, der Zeit einer ausgeprägt politischen Ideologie, des Nationalsozialismus, geben sich einige von ihnen selbst auf. Am Beispiel der Nelly Senf sieht man, dass man trotz dieser schwierigen Zeiten seine Wünsche mit seinem Leben in Einklang bringen kann, wenn man nur einen ausreichend starken Charakter hat. Was das Motiv der Emanzipation betrifft, stellt dieser Begriff für Helene und Nelly ein Imperativ dar, während Selma sich immer mehr in sich selbst zurückzieht. Die Emanzipation bietet den Weg in eine bessere Zukunft, während andere sich mit ihrem Schicksal, wie immer es auch ausfällt, abfinden. ; Tema ovog diplomskog rada je analiza motiva majčinstva i emancipacije u romanima "Lagerfeuer" (2003; "Zapad") i "Die Mittagsfrau" (2007; "Poludnica") njemačke književnice Julije Franck, rođene 1970. godine u istočnom Berlinu. Središnja figura romana "Lagerfeuer" je mlada majka dvoje djece, Nelly Senf, koja dok prelazi na zapad žali zbog samoubojstva svog ljubavnika, oca svoje djece. U romanu se kroz lik Nelly Senf ističe motiv majčinstva i emancipacije. Roman "Die Mittagsfrau" prikazuje dvije majke različitih osobina i karaktera. Prikaz ženskih likova omogućuje uvid u majčinstvo kakvo ne bi trebalo biti i uvid u bitku koju žena vodi s vremenom i neprilikama koje joj život nosi. Roman "Die Mittagsfrau" nesretna je životna priča Helene Würsich i njene majke. Radnja prati razvoj događaja od njenog rođenja 1907. godine do trenutka kad 1945. godine napušta sedmogodišnjeg sina Petra na kolodvorskoj klupi na putu za Berlin. Julia Franck pokazuje kako je emocionalna otuđenost od početka odredila čitav život ove mlade žene. Djetinjstvo lišeno emocija Helene pretvara u apatičnu majku, u majku koja na kraju napusti svoje dijete kako ne bi izgubila sebe zauvijek. U romanu "Lagerfeuer" glavni je lik majka dvoje djece, Nelly Senf, obrazovana žena koja jasno zna svoje ciljeve. Nelly pokazuje kako žena i majka dvoje djece može postići svoje obrazovne ciljeve, a ujedno brinuti i o obitelji. Analizom djela dolazimo do zaključka da životna priča jedne žene i uloga kao majke ne sliči drugoj. Kada govorimo o motivu emancipacije, taj je pojam za Helene i Nelly imperativ, dok ga Selma zatomljuje duboko u sebi. Emancipacija jednoj znači put prema boljoj budućnosti, dok se druga miri s postojećom sudbinom. ; The theme of this thesis is the analysis of the motifs of motherhood and emancipation in the novels "Lagerfeuer" (2003; "West") and "Die Mittagsfrau" (2007; "The Blind Side of the Heart") by the German writer Julia Franck, born in 1970 in East Berlin. The central figure of the novel "Lagerfeuer" is the young mother of two, Nelly Senf, who laments the suicide of her lover and father of her children, as she travels to the West. With all the suffering and pain that she describes as she moves to the West and the troublesome situations Nelly and her children experience, the novel emphasizes the motif of motherhood and emancipation through her character. In the second novel, "Die Mittagsfrau", there are two mothers, of different traits and characters, who throughout the novel show what motherhood should not be and how one woman copes with time and difficulties her life carries. The novel "Die Mittagsfrau" is an unhappy life story of Helen Würsich and her mother, Alice Sehmisch, from her birth in Bautzen in 1907 until she left her seven-yearold son Peter in 1945 on the train station on his way to Berlin. With the desire that her child does not grow up as she did, with an emotionally cold mother, Helen strives to provide the best she can. She devotes most of her time to education and building a career that will make her life easier. Nevertheless, childhood traumas mark her. Julia Franck shows how emotional alienation has defined this young woman's life from the beginning. Helen's emotionless childhood turns her into an apathetic mother, who eventually abandons her child in order to save herself. In the novel "Lagerfeuer", the main character is the mother of two children Nelly Senf, an educated woman who clearly knows her goals. Nelly shows that it is possible for a woman, a mother with two children, to achieve the level of education she craves for and to care for her family. Both of her children, Katya and Alexey, are changing their living environment and habits, as well as their school. Their mother, in this difficult part of their lives, must comfort and support them. In some parts of the novel, Nelly's mother figure is full of understanding and love, and in others she shows a cool emotional attitude which is not fit for her role. Analysing the novels, motherhood and emancipation can be understood differently from the perspective of three mothers and women. All three mothers are aware that motherhood is hard work, but they are not aware that it is also the most beautiful job in the world. Likewise, not all of them are strong enough to do the job properly and to see that bad behaviour and poor upbringing have an effect on their children. Due to great pressure and the political situation of the time, great political ideologies and National Socialism, some of them give up. The example of Nelly Senf shows how everything can be done when desire and will are aligned. When it comes to the motif of emancipation, Selma obscures it deep within, while for Helen and Nelly this is an imperative. Emancipation marks the path for a better future for one mother, while the other reconciles with destiny as it is.
As the principal conveyor of transportation, roads are a determinant of population well-being. Nevertheless, the budgets for the maintenance of public infrastructure keep on shrinking in most countries, along with the overall quality of road pavements. Literature has shown that a substantial surface deterioration leads to road vehicle overconsumption – in fuel, tires and suspension spare parts – with financial, macroeconomic, social and environmental impacts. Thus, considering road pavement-vehicle interactions is crucial to maintain roads in a ustainable way: we developed such a method to compare pavement resurfacing programs on a sustainable point of view for French intercity roads.First, an analytical then systemic approach led to an inventory of the stakeholders of road maintenance, and to develop indicators to quantify the impacts of different pavement overlay strategies on these stakeholders. The eleven indicators chosen to assess the sustainability of road maintenance are: the discounted expenses for the road manager; the discounted expenses and the time spent for the users; the road noise and health damages to local communities; the damages to non-renewable resources and to biodiversity for the environment; the national production and employment, the tax collection and the overall cost for the Nation.This assessment model is integrated, on the life-cycle. The calculation of indicators combines well-known methods used in other sectors and adapted to the studied subject: environmental life-cycle and life-cycle cost assessments, input-output analysis, financial and socioeconomic appraisals. We completed these methods with new data and statistical models about road maintenance techniques, environment, acoustics and economy. We sent a questionnaire to the managers of the different kinds of intercity roads in France to refine our models. Based on these answers with good representativeness, we built environmental Life Cycle Inventories and prices of road overlay techniques for the French market.We then applied this method to a ten-kilometer-long highway section in France to compare 5 scenarios of resurfacing, and highlighted few lessons learnt from this case study for sustainable highway maintenance programs. We first presented the studied road section – its characteristics, the current maintenance strategy of the manager – then explained the parametrization and scenario development to use the method, before analyzing and interpreting the results. The baseline scenario consisted in overlaying the road with 2.5 cm of hot mix asphalt every T=13 years period of time. Based on it, we quantified gains for the different stakeholders to change this period according to the following alternative scenarios: "Minimal Investment": T=19.5 years; «50% Increased Investment »: T=9.8 years; « Ambitious Practices »: T=7.8 years; « Maximal investment »: T=5.7 years.An increased investment would lead to gains in terms of production, employment, environment (health, biodiversity, non-renewable resource consumption) and user expenses. Optima of public health return and user savings on maintenance investment have been spotted around +50% of investment compared to current practices: gains reach up to 700€ for local communities' health and 4€ for users for each extra euro spent in road resurfacing program. On the contrary, rising the road maintenance investment entails losses in terms of tax incomes for the Nation, road manager expenses and time spent by users.Sensitivity analyses have also been conducted over three parameters: the traffic level, the resurfacing techniques and the speed of road surface deterioration. These analyses show that the more important traffic and speed of deterioration are, the higher environmental gains and users savings are. Moreover, environmental gains do not depend on road pavement materials: almost 100% of the environmental gains or losses come from the fuel consumption dependence on road surface condition. ; Le transport routier est un déterminant de notre bien-être: nous y dépensons 4 ans de nos vies, 10% de nos revenus, et un tiers de nos émissions de GES. Entretenir de manière optimale le réseau d'infrastructures qui le supporte selon des objectifs de durabilité avec des budgets toujours plus contraints nécessite un outil d'aide à la décision adapté. Les outils de gestion patrimoniale routière sont focalisés sur les contraintes techniques et financières. Les méthodes préconisées par le Ministère (ESE, EIE) évaluent partiellement les performances sociales et environnementales de projets de construction. De plus, le ralentissement de l'entretien des routes des 20 dernières années s'est accompagné d'une déformation des chaussées, provoquant une augmentation des consommations des véhicules (carburant, pneumatiques et pièces de suspension). Dès lors, le véritable enjeu dans l'arbitrage de stratégies durables d'entretien des routes est d'expliciter comparativement la distribution au sein des parties prenantes des coûts et avantages des différents programmes d'entretien, en tenant compte des interactions chausséevéhicule qui génèrent potentiellement des transferts d'impacts importants (hypothèse).Nous avons développé une méthode répondant à ces enjeux, basée sur une approche analytique puis systémique de l'entretien des routes, dans un souci d'équité de représentation des parties prenantes et d'exhaustivité des impacts majeurs de l'entretien. Le modèle développé permet l'évaluation quantitative, multicritère et sur cycle de vie, des stratégies de resurfaçage des routes interurbaines françaises. Adossé à une représentation physique de l'entretien du tronçon routier, il combine ensuite des méthodes d'évaluation éprouvées dans d'autres secteurs et ajustées ici à l'objet étudié : analyse environnementale et économique du cycle de vie, analyse Input-Output, évaluations financières et socioéconomiques. Sa batterie d'indicateurs inclut toutes les parties prenantes de l'entretien: usagers, riverains, gestionnaire, environnement, et société. Il utilise des données et modèles nouveaux en techniques routières, environnement, acoustique et économie, construits dans le cadre de la thèse. Une enquête que nous avons réalisée auprès des gestionnaires routiers français nourrit le propos et la modélisation du point de vue qualitatif et quantitatif sur les pratiques française d'entretien des routes. Un apport particulier est également fourni en nouvelles données d'Inventaires de Cycle de Vie pour l'entretien des routes (resurfaçage et consommations véhiculaires) et en coûts des techniques routières.Le modèle est appliqué à un tronçon autoroutier français de 10 km. Comparé à la stratégie d'entretien actuelle de cette autoroute, un entretien accru mènerait à des gains pour l'emploi et la production nationale, l'environnement (santé, biodiversité, ressources), et l'usager (dépenses). Des optimums d'entretien - sanitaire et financier - apparaissent autour de +50% d'investissement par rapport aux pratiques actuelles : les gains atteignent alors 4€ pour les usagers et plus de 700€ en vie humaine (riverains sur la supply chain complète) pour chaque euro supplémentaire dépensé en resurfaçage. En revanche, le bilan des dépenses du gestionnaire, des recettes pour l'État, et du temps passé par l'usager est amélioré par une baisse de l'entretien. Nous proposons des pistes de réflexion pour aligner les différents intérêts du modèle économique de l'entretien autoroutier en France.Des analyses de sensibilité sur le trafic, la vitesse de dégradation de surface routière et le type de technique d'entretien permettent de vérifier la robustesse des conclusions. De plus, elles montrent que, sur autoroute, la performance environnementale des politiques d'entretien ne dépend pas de celle des matériaux routiers utilisés. Enfin, notre hypothèse est confirmée : l'interaction chaussée-véhicule est dimensionnante de la performance de l'entretien autoroutier. La validation expérimentale de certains sous-modèles reste préconisée. De plus, des analyses complémentaires devront être menées avec notre modèle sur d'autres types de routes afin de se prononcer sur l'entretien des réseaux à moindre trafic.
As the principal conveyor of transportation, roads are a determinant of population well-being. Nevertheless, the budgets for the maintenance of public infrastructure keep on shrinking in most countries, along with the overall quality of road pavements. Literature has shown that a substantial surface deterioration leads to road vehicle overconsumption – in fuel, tires and suspension spare parts – with financial, macroeconomic, social and environmental impacts. Thus, considering road pavement-vehicle interactions is crucial to maintain roads in a ustainable way: we developed such a method to compare pavement resurfacing programs on a sustainable point of view for French intercity roads.First, an analytical then systemic approach led to an inventory of the stakeholders of road maintenance, and to develop indicators to quantify the impacts of different pavement overlay strategies on these stakeholders. The eleven indicators chosen to assess the sustainability of road maintenance are: the discounted expenses for the road manager; the discounted expenses and the time spent for the users; the road noise and health damages to local communities; the damages to non-renewable resources and to biodiversity for the environment; the national production and employment, the tax collection and the overall cost for the Nation.This assessment model is integrated, on the life-cycle. The calculation of indicators combines well-known methods used in other sectors and adapted to the studied subject: environmental life-cycle and life-cycle cost assessments, input-output analysis, financial and socioeconomic appraisals. We completed these methods with new data and statistical models about road maintenance techniques, environment, acoustics and economy. We sent a questionnaire to the managers of the different kinds of intercity roads in France to refine our models. Based on these answers with good representativeness, we built environmental Life Cycle Inventories and prices of road overlay techniques for the French market.We then applied this method to a ten-kilometer-long highway section in France to compare 5 scenarios of resurfacing, and highlighted few lessons learnt from this case study for sustainable highway maintenance programs. We first presented the studied road section – its characteristics, the current maintenance strategy of the manager – then explained the parametrization and scenario development to use the method, before analyzing and interpreting the results. The baseline scenario consisted in overlaying the road with 2.5 cm of hot mix asphalt every T=13 years period of time. Based on it, we quantified gains for the different stakeholders to change this period according to the following alternative scenarios: "Minimal Investment": T=19.5 years; «50% Increased Investment »: T=9.8 years; « Ambitious Practices »: T=7.8 years; « Maximal investment »: T=5.7 years.An increased investment would lead to gains in terms of production, employment, environment (health, biodiversity, non-renewable resource consumption) and user expenses. Optima of public health return and user savings on maintenance investment have been spotted around +50% of investment compared to current practices: gains reach up to 700€ for local communities' health and 4€ for users for each extra euro spent in road resurfacing program. On the contrary, rising the road maintenance investment entails losses in terms of tax incomes for the Nation, road manager expenses and time spent by users.Sensitivity analyses have also been conducted over three parameters: the traffic level, the resurfacing techniques and the speed of road surface deterioration. These analyses show that the more important traffic and speed of deterioration are, the higher environmental gains and users savings are. Moreover, environmental gains do not depend on road pavement materials: almost 100% of the environmental gains or losses come from the fuel consumption dependence on road surface condition. ; Le transport routier est un déterminant de notre bien-être: nous y dépensons 4 ans de nos vies, 10% de nos revenus, et un tiers de nos émissions de GES. Entretenir de manière optimale le réseau d'infrastructures qui le supporte selon des objectifs de durabilité avec des budgets toujours plus contraints nécessite un outil d'aide à la décision adapté. Les outils de gestion patrimoniale routière sont focalisés sur les contraintes techniques et financières. Les méthodes préconisées par le Ministère (ESE, EIE) évaluent partiellement les performances sociales et environnementales de projets de construction. De plus, le ralentissement de l'entretien des routes des 20 dernières années s'est accompagné d'une déformation des chaussées, provoquant une augmentation des consommations des véhicules (carburant, pneumatiques et pièces de suspension). Dès lors, le véritable enjeu dans l'arbitrage de stratégies durables d'entretien des routes est d'expliciter comparativement la distribution au sein des parties prenantes des coûts et avantages des différents programmes d'entretien, en tenant compte des interactions chausséevéhicule qui génèrent potentiellement des transferts d'impacts importants (hypothèse).Nous avons développé une méthode répondant à ces enjeux, basée sur une approche analytique puis systémique de l'entretien des routes, dans un souci d'équité de représentation des parties prenantes et d'exhaustivité des impacts majeurs de l'entretien. Le modèle développé permet l'évaluation quantitative, multicritère et sur cycle de vie, des stratégies de resurfaçage des routes interurbaines françaises. Adossé à une représentation physique de l'entretien du tronçon routier, il combine ensuite des méthodes d'évaluation éprouvées dans d'autres secteurs et ajustées ici à l'objet étudié : analyse environnementale et économique du cycle de vie, analyse Input-Output, évaluations financières et socioéconomiques. Sa batterie d'indicateurs inclut toutes les parties prenantes de l'entretien: usagers, riverains, gestionnaire, environnement, et société. Il utilise des données et modèles nouveaux en techniques routières, environnement, acoustique et économie, construits dans le cadre de la thèse. Une enquête que nous avons réalisée auprès des gestionnaires routiers français nourrit le propos et la modélisation du point de vue qualitatif et quantitatif sur les pratiques française d'entretien des routes. Un apport particulier est également fourni en nouvelles données d'Inventaires de Cycle de Vie pour l'entretien des routes (resurfaçage et consommations véhiculaires) et en coûts des techniques routières.Le modèle est appliqué à un tronçon autoroutier français de 10 km. Comparé à la stratégie d'entretien actuelle de cette autoroute, un entretien accru mènerait à des gains pour l'emploi et la production nationale, l'environnement (santé, biodiversité, ressources), et l'usager (dépenses). Des optimums d'entretien - sanitaire et financier - apparaissent autour de +50% d'investissement par rapport aux pratiques actuelles : les gains atteignent alors 4€ pour les usagers et plus de 700€ en vie humaine (riverains sur la supply chain complète) pour chaque euro supplémentaire dépensé en resurfaçage. En revanche, le bilan des dépenses du gestionnaire, des recettes pour l'État, et du temps passé par l'usager est amélioré par une baisse de l'entretien. Nous proposons des pistes de réflexion pour aligner les différents intérêts du modèle économique de l'entretien autoroutier en France.Des analyses de sensibilité sur le trafic, la vitesse de dégradation de surface routière et le type de technique d'entretien permettent de vérifier la robustesse des conclusions. De plus, elles montrent que, sur autoroute, la performance environnementale des politiques d'entretien ne dépend pas de celle des matériaux routiers utilisés. Enfin, notre hypothèse est confirmée : l'interaction chaussée-véhicule est dimensionnante de la performance de l'entretien autoroutier. La validation expérimentale de certains sous-modèles reste préconisée. De plus, des analyses complémentaires devront être menées avec notre modèle sur d'autres types de routes afin de se prononcer sur l'entretien des réseaux à moindre trafic.
