Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 613 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 211 ha (35%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 376 ha (61%) in the microwatershed is covered by rock outcrops and about 25 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 9 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. An area about 35per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 12 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to deep (75 - 150 cm) and 23 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available manganese (>1.0 ppm) and copper (>0.2 ppm) are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 70(11) Guava - 63(10) Maize - 46(7) Sapota - 63(10) Bajra - 80(13) Pomegranate - 63(10) Groundnut - 72(12) Musambi 1(<1) 62(10) Sunflower - 62(10) Lime 1(<1) 62(10) Redgram - 63(10) Amla - 79(13) Bengal gram - 8(1) Cashew - - Cotton - 8(1) Jackfruit - 62(10) Chilli - 71(12) Jamun - 1(<1) Tomato - 71(12) Custard apple 38(6) 41(7) Brinjal - 80(13) Tamarind - 1(<1) Onion 39(6) 41(7) Mulberry - 71(12) Bhendi 38(6) 42(7) Marigold - 71(12) Drumstick - 72(12) Chrysanthemum - 71(12) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed among them 6 (17.65 %) were landless, 14 (41.18 %) were marginal farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were small farmers, 4 (11.76 %) were semi medium farmers and 3 (8.82 %) were medium farmers. The data indicated that there were 91 (54.49 %) men and 76 (45.51 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.33, marginal farmers' was 4.92, small farmers' was 4.28, semi medium farmers' was 5.5 and medium farmers' was 6.66. The data indicated that, 36 (21.56 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 61 (36.53 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (32.93 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (8.98 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Yadgiri Rf-2 had 70.06 per cent illiterates, 10.18 per cent of them had primary school, 1.80 per cent of them had middle school, 8.98 per cent of them had high school education, 2.40 per cent of them had PUC, 0.60 per cent of them had Masters education and 1.20 per cent of them had Degree education. The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 67.65 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 cent of the household heads were General Labour. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 7.19 per cent of the household members, 67.66 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.60 per cent were in general labour, 0.60 per cent were private service, 16.77 per cent were students, 1.20 per cent were housewives and 5.99 per cent were children. The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 14.71 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 67.65 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 20.59 per cent of them possess Pucca/RCC house. The results show that 47.06 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.82 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 14.71 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 20.59 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Tempo and 82.35 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,343, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,166, Bicycle was Rs. 1,500, motor cycle was Rs. 34,714 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,864. About 23.53 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 50 per cent of the households possess plough, 38.24 per cent of them possess Seed/Fertilizer Drill, 2 14.71 per cent of them possess sparyer, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler and 41.18 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 12,875, plough was Rs. 4,047, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 3,492, sprayer was Rs. 2,540, sprinkler was Rs. 1,166 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 132. The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 17.65 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 14.71 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 2.94 per cent of the households possess Poultry birds. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.03, average own labour (women) available was 1.79, average hired labour (men) available was 9.61 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.70. The results indicate that, 70.59 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed possess 28.32 ha (75.42 %) of dry land and 9.23 ha (24.58 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.43 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 8.81 ha (90.44 %) of dry land and 0.93 ha (9.56 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.86 ha (58.54 %) of dry land and 3.44 ha (41.46 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.22 ha (56.14 %) and 4.86 ha (43.86 %) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 370,658.86 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 411,666.67. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 602,092.13 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 376,683.51 for dry land and Rs. 859,130.45 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 267,583.33 for dry land and Rs. 348,705.88 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 128,645.84 for dry land and Rs. 370,500 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 1 De-functioning and 2 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning open wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.88 per cent of the farmers and Canal and Open Well were the irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.94 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.29 meters. The results indicate that, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.93 ha and 3.36 ha respectively. 3 The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (2.83 ha), green gram (7.91 ha), groundnut (4.25 ha), Paddy (1.21 ha), Jasmine (2.11 ha), red gram (16.23 ha), Onion (0.81 ha) and sorghum (2.02 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, groundnut, Jasmine, sorghum, cotton and green gram. Small farmers have grown red gram, green gram, onion and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram, green gram and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown red gram, green gram, Jasmine, cotton and sorghum. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed was found to be 73.97 per cent. The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households have bank account and 64.71 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 8.33 per cent of the households have borrowed from Friends/Relatives and 41.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from Grameena Bank. The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs. 55,000.08. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from private sources for the purpose of Household consumption. The results indicated that, 87.50 per cent of the households Un paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources and 12.50 per cent of the households Partially paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources. The results indicate that, 75 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 12.50 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from easy accessibility of credit and Higher rate of interest. The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 32406.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54751.67. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 22344.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.69. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 37433.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42691.58. The net 4 income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 5258.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.14. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 27567.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 94209.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 66641.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 3.42. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 33006.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54609.16. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 21602.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.65. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 39494.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33417.64. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -6076.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.85. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 39803.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82333.33. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 42530.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.07. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 34350.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 85913.05. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 51562.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.5. The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 67,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 166,778.57, for small farmers it was Rs. 242,715.43, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 192,500 and medium farmers it was Rs. 191,666.67. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 12,459.04. For landless households it was Rs. 5,277.78, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,194.87, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,068.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 29,600 and medium farmers it was Rs. 34,111.11. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut, 29 Custard apple, 4 lime and 7 mango tree in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 50 Eucalyptus, 53 Neem, 4 Acacia, 3 Banyan and 10 tamarind trees in their field. The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,441.18 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,294.12 for Irrigation facility, households have an average investment 5 capacity of Rs. 1,470.59 for improved livestock management and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,470.59 for Subsidiary enterprises. The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development, 8.82 per cent for irrigation facility. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 2.94 per cent for subsidiary enterprises. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development. The results indicated that, cotton and paddy was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, Green gram was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, Onion was sold to the extent of 97.5 per cent, Paddy was sold to the extent of 91.67 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 91.95 per cent and sorghum to the extent of 84.62 per cent. The results indicated that, about 23.53 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 76.47 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Regulated Market. The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation and 11.76 per cent of the households have used Truck as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 38.24 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent have adopted Field Bunding, 5.88 per cent have adopted Farm Pond and 2.94 per cent have adopted Bore Well Recharge Pit. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the Bore Well Recharge Pit structures were good, 50 per cent each of the Farm Pond structure was good and slightly damaged and 100 per cent of the Field Bunding structures were good . The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent of the conservation structures were constructed with own funds and 8.82 per cent of the conservation structures were used govt funds. The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel, 20.59 per cent of the households used Kerosene and 23.53 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 58.82 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households in micro watershed and Solar Lamp was the major source of light for 2.94 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. 6 The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards and 2.94 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL cards and Not Possessed. The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 67.65 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 79.41 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 32.35 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 8.82 per cent and Milk and were adequate for 17.65 per cent. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 29.41 per cent of the households, Pulses were inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 67.65 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82.35 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 91.18 per cent, Milk were inadequate for 76.47 per cent, Egg were inadequate for 97.06 per cent of the households and Meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 79.41 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (70.59 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases and High cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.35 %), Inadequacy of irrigation water (58.82 %), High rate of interest on credit and Low price for the agricultural commodities (79.41 %), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (64.71 %), Inadequate extension services (44.12 %) and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (61.76 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Issue 27.5 of the Review for Religious, 1968. ; EDITOR R. F. Smith, S.J. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. ASSISTANT EDITORS Ralph F. Taylor, S.J. John C. Treloar, S.J. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS EDITOR Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. C~orrespondence with the editor, the associate editors, and the assistant editor, as well as books for review, should be sent to KEVIEW FOR RELI~3IOUS; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63io3. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's Church; 32~ Willings Alley; Philadelphia, pennsylvania ~91o6. + + + REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Edited with ecclesiastical approval by faculty members of the School of Divinity of Saint Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63103. Owned by the Missouri Province Edu-cational Institute. Published bimonthly and copyright ~) 1968 by REvmw FOR RELm~Ot3S at 428 East Preston Street; Baltimore, Mary-land 21202. Printed in U.S.A. Second class pos!age paid at Baltimore, Maryland. Single copies: $1.00. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $5.00 a year, $9.00 for two years; other countries: $5.50 a year, $10.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order paya-ble to Rzvmw Fort R~LIGIOUS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR. RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Renewals and new subscriptions, wher~ accom-panied by a remittance, should be sent to REvIEw ~Oa RELIGIOtJS; P. O. BOX 671; Baltimore. Maryland 21203. Changes of address, business correspondence, and orders not accompanied by a remittanct should be sent to REvmw FOR RELIGIOUS ; 4~8 East Preston Street; Baltimore, MaD, land 21202. Manuscripts, editorial cor-respondence, and books for review should be sent to R~vmw ~oa RELIGIOUS; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to the address of the Questions and Answers editor. SEPTEMBER1968 VOLUME 27 NUMBER 5 JOSEPH FICHTNER, O.S.C. Signs Charisms, Apostolates "Signs of the times" is a phrase that has been bandied about for so long in ecclesiastical circles that it has be-come part of our Christian vocabulary and has helped to define the relationship between the Church and the world.1 It is a category which sums up and expresses the Christian interpretation.of human, history---of the events which give evidence of and vindicate God's pres-ence and activity in the world through human agency. It has been empl'oyed in papal and conciliar documents not as a pious exhortation but in order to draw attention to the Christian duty of recognizing, analyzing, and assessing the events and movements of !aistory as so ma.ny opportunities for evangelisation. The Church will have a dynamic and effective apostolate in the world only if she discerns and assesses the values to be found in the world today. The charisms or gifts with which the Spirit of Christ endows the Church enable her not only to interpret contemporary history but to meet the needs of peoples. Pope John XXIII first used the expression "signs of the times" in the apostolic constitution Humanae salutis, proclaiming the Second Vatican Council3 "Indeed," he said, "we make ours the recommendation of Jesus that one should know how to distinguish the 'signs of the times' (Mr 16:4), and we seem to see now, in the midst of so much darkness, a few indications which augur well for the fate of the Church and of humanity." After 1 See M.-D. Chenu, O.P., "Les signes des temps," Nouvelle revue thdologique, v. 87 (1965), pp. 20-$9; "The Church and the World," Documentatie Centrum Concilie, n. 52; "The Christian Value of Earthly Realities," ibid., n. 157; "A Pastoral Constitution on the Church," ibid., n. 205. = Walter M. Abbott, S.J., and Joseph Gallagher (eds.), The Docu-ments o[ Vatican H (New York: America Press, Guild Press, Associa-tion Press, 1966), p. 704. All translations of Vatican II documents throughout the article are taken from this edition. Joseph Fichtner, O~S.C., is a faculty member of the Cro-sier House of Stud-ies; 2620 East Wal-len Road, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805. VOLUME 27, 1968 + + ÷ $oseph Fichtner, 0.$.C. listing several indications he himself had noticed, he added: "And this facilitates, no doubt, the apostolate of the Church . " The phrase was given a little more precise applica-tion by the same pontiff in his encyclical Peace on Earth,~ most significant for addressing itself not only to members of the Church but to "all men of good will." Here John XX!II observed how our age is distinguished by three characteristics: (1) the promotion o[ the working classes; (2) the entry of women into public life; and (3) the emancipation of colonized peoples. All three together signi[y that sweeping socialization whose Christian value the Church embraces with the arms of her catholicity. The recourse she may have to such signs of the times is not. a matter of opportunism but the result of understanding the spirit of the times and how the Spirit o[ Christ is at work in them. In his first encyclical Ecclesiam Suam,4 Pope Paul VI retained the term aggiornamento coined by John XXIII and associated it with the "signs of the times" as a pro-gram of action: "We want to recall it to mind as a stim-ulus to preserve the perennial vitality of the Church, her continuous awareness and ability to study the signs of the times and her constantly youthful agility in 'scrutiniz-ing it all carefully and retaining only what is good' (I Thes 5:21) always and everywhere." As John XXIII made the signs of the times the nerve center of his en-cyclical and the reason [or his optimistic outlook upon the health of the world, so did Paul VI comment upon them favorably after his return from Jerusalem on J.anuary 8, 1964, asking the faithful to understand, reflect upon, and learn how to go about deciphering them. Finally, despite some hesitation about accepting the phrase because of its biblical derivation, it was taken up into the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World:5 "To carry out such a task [of service], the Church has always had the duty of scrutinizing the signs of the times and of interpreting-them in the light o[ the gospel . We must therefore recognize and understand the world in which we live, its expec-tations, its longings, and its often dramatic characteris-tics." The same article sketches by way of contrasts some of the contemporary characteristics: social, economic, and cultural transformation versus the uncertainty about the direction man is giving it; abundant wealth, natural resources, economic power, and the accompanying hun- 3 William J. Gibbons, S.J. (ed.), Pacera in terris (New York: Paul-ist Press, 1963), nn. 39-45. ~ The Pope Speaks, v. 10 (1965), p. 271, n. 20. The translation given above differs somewhat from the reference. 3 Article 4. ger and poverty; the unity and solidarity of the world versus the threat of total war; exchange of. ideas and diverse ideologies; a better world movement without equal zeal for spiritual betterment;'hope and anxiety. Its use in Matthew 16:4 has rendered the ph~rase sus-pect, for in the Matthean context the term "signs" refers to the miracles Jesus Worked, which is far from the meaning attached to it by either the popes or the recent council. What the latter had in mind were the events, not necessarily miraculous or extraordinary, taking place in the course of human history having spiritual and symbolic significance. The events, what-ever they may be, have both historical and theological significance. This means that beyond their immediate, brute, historical content, they have a value because they are an expression of an other reality. One can, for exam-ple, envision the forms of civilization---industrialization, socialization, urbanization, decolonialism--simply as historical trends, and then again, as the Pastoral Con-stitution on the Church in the Modern World would have us do, .as pointers to a higher reality. They open to man "spiritual vistas long unsuspected." 6 ,Perhaps their spiritual and symbolic significance can be seen more clearly when we recognize them to be signs of the times.7 The Church's duty, if her mission is to be accredited by God,. is to see that the question of God be not left out of any understanding ~ of contemporary history. The Church is dealing here with a "theophany" that has been termed "theonetics," the study of God in change. She is living in a messianic age with an escha-tological thrust--toward the end of time. Christ appeared in the one unique kairos, in the "fullness of time," and the Church is to. appear in His stead, as His' Body, con-tinuously and permanently in the process of time. Her mission in the course of human history is to interpret events and phenomena in such a way as never to let the world lose sight of its creative and redemptive reality, the transcendent and immanent in it. The Church bears witness to the economy of salvation as she sees it unfold-ing itself in history. The times furnish her with the Signs whereby she can be both sensitive to the movement of history and docile to the Holy Spirit helping her inter-pret the signs. She is in the same situation as Israel was when Yahweh was dealing with her in the concrete history Of her people. Failing this task to read the signs. of the times and to recognize their theological implica-tions, the Church abandons the world to its blind his-torical events. Chenu, "Les signes,'; p. 32. See E. Jenni, "Time," The Interpreter's Dictionary o! the Bible, ,1.4. sig,~, Chaa.~, Apostolates VOLUME ~7, ~.968 4, $oseph Fichtner, O$.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOU~ Part of the difficulty of such a task is that though the Church is distinct from the world, she is linked up with it. The emphasis throughout her history has fallen upon either of the two, the distinction or the link. Whenever the Church felt the distinction from the world most keenly, she shied away from her duty of evaluating earthly realities or else failed to understand them entirely or too glowly.8 It is far easier to insist upon the current categories of the temporal-spiritual, profane-sacred, civilization-evangelization, creation-redemption, history-salvation, Church-world, nature-grace, than to grasp their interrelationship. If the dualisms emerge too sharply, the Church may treat them too much apart, pass abstract judgment upon them, so that "never the twain shall meet." ¯ Granted, evangelization is not of the same order as civilization. To promote culture is not to convert to the faith. To feed the hungry and give drink to the thirsty is a duty of Christian charity, but it is not equivalent to preaching the word of God, teaching catechetics, or administering the sacraments. And yet the many earthly values are the common capital of all men, believers and unbelievers alike. Wherever they may be found, they afford the good ground for evangelical growth. Without such positive values as order, justice, right, freedom, and so forth, the work of God would have to operate in a vacuum. All human enterprise, personal as well as social, so long as it promotes the good, the true, the just, and the beautiful, is the fulfillment of that hidden potential man has in himself as an image of his Maker. Humanity itself served an incarnational purpose for the Son of God; all the good works of humanity subserve.the further goal of evangelization. All such works and the values attaching to them, because they signal the gradual development of man, his humanisation, are to be considered the prevenient signs and predispositions for the diffusion of the gospel. Man, confronted by the immense resources of nature, including his own almost infinite capacities, becomes more human through the advance of science, technology, culture, and socialization. At the same time he is left open to spiritual values, his personal and social life as it develops presents positive dispositions for the incar-nation of. divine life. For example, the closer he comes to fulfilling his aspiration for peace, the more likely he is to receive "a peace the world cannot give." 9 Major improve- 8 S~e Heinrich Tenhumberg, "The Role of Church Authority in Investigating the Signs of the Times," Third Session Council Speeches of Vatican H, ed. William K. Leahy and Anthony T. Massimini (New York: Paulist Press, 1966), pp. 172-3. See also Paul Gouyon, "Reading the.Signs of the Times," ibid., pp. 154-7. 8 Jn 14:27. ments upon mass communications help the Christian to spread the message of the gospel universally. So in every instance where he is an agent of truly human progress he renders himself fit for or subject to .grace. What scholastic theology calls the "obediential potency" of men is nothing else than man radically-good but now more than ever open and receptive to grace because of .the development of his capacities.10 Popes John and Paul and the Vatican Council have called our attention to the social dimensions of this obediential.potency. A fair illustration and parallel to our times can be taken from early Christianity when the fathers of the Church observed a major and universal phenomenon of their own stage of human evolution, the civilization of the Roman Empire. The socialization in .our day is comparable to the" civilization in theirs. They were ready to describe the civilization of the Roman Empire as an evangelical preparation. The cultural value of language alone, such as the Greek and the Latin, helped them to proclaim the gospel far and wide, though they could have been tradition-bound by the language of their Founder. The worldwide extension of social and political values, moreover, provided them the good ma-terial for the construction of the kingdom of God. They found the Roman Empire to be a meeting, place for Christianity; its cobblestones were the stepping-stones for "the feet of one who brings good news." 11. Earthly realities, however,, do not always and every-where contain pure or undiluted values; their values oftentimes are ambiguous, contaminated by error or sin. The fathers of the Church realized this fact too, but it did not prevent them from sifting the important values from an admixture of good and evil. In the grandeur of nature, though occasionally troubled in land, sky, and sea, they discovered the vestigia Dei, and in the grandeur of a tainted human nature an imago Dei. Mined ore has its measure of slag before its refinement in a smelting furnace. The same is true of labor organization, agrarian reform, social charity, and so forth. The ultimate per-spective of human projects, faulty as they may be in their hesitant beginnings, may go far beyond their im-mediate realization. This is why it is so ne.cessary to read the signs of the times correctly and not let ourselves be confused over realities.which onesidely seem to be stumbling blocks or idols for mankind. In rendering service to the world we cannot help but expose our own weaknesses and limitations. This exposure is unavoidable, and the a0St. Thomas Aquinas, De virtutibus incommuni, a.10, ad 13; 1-2, ci.ll3, a.10. n Is 52:7. Signs~ Chhrisms, Apostolates VOLUME 27~ 1968 77i Church herself admits it in her Pastoral Constitution On the Church in the Modern World: ". the mission of the Church will show its religious, and by that very fact its supremely human character." x2 There will certainly be risks to assume while drawing the good out of all possible resources for building the kingdom of God. But the risks will be diminished to the extent that we recognize and receive the values of the world in the light of the gospel and instinct with faith" and charity. Faith fed by an intensive prayer life will. have to be on the alert to follow God's designs in .the progress of nations. If the risk is great on the one hand, there is no less risk, for lack of faith and discernment, in failing to see the divine interventions in the events of today. Vatican CounCil II was mindful of this risk when it exemplified a discernment of the signs of the times by way of con-trasts, Such a discernment inspired by the Holy Spirit reveals the Spirit working within the signs: "The whole creation is eagerly waiting for God to reveal his sons." in Re.ligious institutes cannot rest content with the papal and conciliar exhortation to discern the signs of the times, nor are they generally qualified to do so without the charisms or gifts of the Holy Spirit. What the Church i~s able to analyze and assess universally, the various religious groups should do locally and periodically, always ready to seek out new solutions for new problems, How else is adaptation to circumstances possible? They might ask themselves questions such as these: What are ¯ the needs of the local community, civic and religious? Do signs of the times show themselves locally, pointing the way for a religious community to promote and take action? Housing projects, job opportunities, educational facilities, cultural programs, ecumenical activities, social charities, and a host of other situations--do they not cry out for that cooperation without which God will not intervene in human events excepting miraculously? As fast as science and technology are moving ahead into the future, can the religious apostolate afford not to re-examine itself periodically? One of the characteristics of the new-style religious life would seem to be presence in an ever changing society. Members are determined to share in the suffering, sacrifice, and conflict affecting society today. ,~÷ But is there not a subtle temptation in thinking'one ,.4. .has to leave his milieu behind in order t.o go "where the ¯÷ action is" ? The local apostolate, along with the charisms befitting it, may well be the first obligation of a religious group. Heinrich Tenhumberg, Auxiliary Bishop of Mfinster, Joseph Fichtner, 0.$.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS !772 Article 11. Rom 8:19. Germany, in a speech to the Council Fathers on October 26, 1964, commenting upon the schema of the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, raised the question why in her past the Church too rarely acknowledged the free action of her members who aptly recognized the signs of the times. Fie laid down what he thought were the four conditions for rightly investigating and interpreting the signs of the times, one of which was that "room must be given to a new evaluation of the charisms and gifts of the Holy Spirit among the People of God." 14 Without aspiring to such a mature and correct understanding of the signs of the times, he felt the Church would not be able to "fulfill the will.of God in time." The question Bishop Tenhum-berg raises does not touch upon the fidelity of God to His Church in the modern world, as if He might forsake her in an hour of need; he simply asks whether the Church always utilizes the prophetic gifts which keep her au courant. Of course, the same question can be directed to religious institutes as belonging to the char-ismatic character of the people of God. "Charism" is the near transliteration of a Greek term typically Pauline. It is to be found in the Pauline Epistles and once in the First Epistle of Peter. The latter more or less encapsulates the Pauline idea of a charism: "Each of you has received a special grace, so, like good stewards responsible for all these different graces of God, put yourselves at the service of others." 15 Paul, too, regards the charisms as given to members of the Christian com-munity in trust for the common good of that community. The four lists of charisms he provides indicate how diversified these gifts are, yet none of the lists nor all of them together are ~xhaustive.16 In this enumeration there is no hint of Paul prognosticating about the future needs of the Church and how his lists of charisms are sufficient for them. To envisage the function of each charism for the bene-fit of the whole community, Paul ~onjures up the image of the human body with all of its members contributing to its welfare.~7 The multiplicity of the charisms, rather than manifesting conflict with one another within the totality of the body or tearing it apart, tend toward its 14 Tenhumberg, "The Role," p. 174. The first, second, and fourth conditions are: a renewed theology of the Holy Spirit and of His life and activity within the Church; a renewal of biblical and patris-tic theology; a new style of Church authority and a new method for it to act, watch, and judge. ~ 1 Pt 4:10. See a preconciliar explanation of the charismatic element in the Church by Karl Rahner, The Dynamic Element in the Church (New York: Herder and Herder, 1964), pp. 42-83. an I Cor 12:8-10, 28-30; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11. a~ See Rom 12:4-6. + + + Signs, ~harisms, Apostolates VOLUME 27, 1968 77~ ÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph Fichtner, O.S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS unity. In this connection it is interesting to compare the Pauline idea of this totalizing effect of the charisms with the opinion expressed by St. Hippolytus of Rome in his introduction to the Apostolic Tradition, a third-century document. He asserts that "all charisms which from the beginning God gave to man in accordance with his will, restore to man the image which was lost." The early Church thought of the apostolate as the first of the spiritual gifts entrusted to her by Christ. It was itself a charism. Scripture, particularly the Pauline writings, witness to the fact that the Twelve did not lay exclusive claim to the title of "apostle." Probably because they felt the need of the assistance of others, they invested the rest with some of their own power and called them "apostles." The apostolate and the prophetic spirit was, for Paul, the foundation of the Church, with Christ as its cornerstone,is The apostolate was a spiritual gift he treasured much, and that is why he so frequently re-ferred to it. A closer investigation into the charisms of the early Church and their meaning and use bears out the fact that the early Church was so convinced o~ her charismatic role under the influence and guidance of the Holy Spirit that it has led some scholars, peering back into that time, to be-lieve the Church to have been entirely charismatic and not at all hierarchical and institutional. Relating the role of the Holy Spirit to the mystery of the Church, the Dog-matic Constitution on the Church takes issue with such a stand, stating: "He [the Holy Spirit] furnishes and directs her [the Church] with various gifts, both hierar-chical and charismatic, and adorns her with the fruits of His grace (cf. £ph 4:11-12; 1 Cor 12:4; Gal 5:22)." 19 Part and parcel of her charismatic structure is the re-ligious life, and only within this structure does it find its authentic ecclesial dimension. Paul esteemed the apostolate to be a gift and a de-manding task at one and the same time. It would be foolish of us to think the early Christians were buoyed up by a host of fancy, even magical, spiritual gifts and had to exert no effort of their own. We do them an in-justice in imagining their life was surrounded with the miraculous. A good glance at some of their charisms will tell how much need there was for personal and communal effort. Works of mercy--nursing, almsgiving, adminis-tration, fraternal help of every kind--cost effort on their part. So did the preaching, teaching, and discernment of spirits. All such charisms had to be met halfway by men of good will .and selflessness; they demanded that same See Eph 2:20. Article 4. human enterprise and exertion which we ~aw had to be put into a periodic reappraisal of thh signs of the times. For some time before Vatican II theology was reluc-tant to teach that charisms belong to the contemporary Church. Theology was wont to confine the charisms to the primitive Church and to limit them characteristically to the miraculous or extraordinar~y. Vatican II changed all that theological opinion. Little and great charisms have existed throughout the history of the Church. As we read in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, the Holy Spirit "distributes special graces among the faith-ful of every rank . These charismatic gifts, whether they be the most outstanding or the more ,simple and widely diffused, are to be received with thanksgiving and consolation, for they are exceedingly suitable and useful for the needs of the Church." 20 There seems to be no reason then to hold the early Church to have been more richly endowed with charisms than the Church today. In the Church then as now charisms are spiritual gifts bestowed freely especially for the benefit of others. Wherever one discovers the incon-spicuous service of the Church, no matter how small the ecclesial operation, there, in such gifts, one will likely detect some sort of divine intervention. However slight a manifestation of loving service, it may conceal a gift of the Spirit of Christ. Charisms may be found together wherever one sees the accumulated effect of a sign. Charismatic gifts are not only rare and extraordinary but common and ordinary. Anyone who is willing to expend himself for Christ in heroic fidelity to common-place, everyday things is gifted with a charism. Under the common thing the hidden grace. The gifts of the Holy Spirit are deeper, more hidden and widespread or pervasive than we know. Who is to set limits upon His gifts in our life? Are we too inclined to look for gifts only in the spectacular, the colossal, the newsworthy, like finding a solution to wars, social problems, ecclesias-tical enigmas? Many are the gifts wrapped in the small packages of fidelity to duty, kindness, sincerity, purity, courage, truthfulness, trust, love. At this point it may be time to push Bishop Tenhumberg's argument one notch further by asking if there is any possibility at all of interpreting the signs of the times unless charisms are better employed? How closely interconnected, in fact, intermingled are charisms with the signs of the times? Do we have to speak of them as "values" to observe how they overlap? St. Paul never meant to enumerate all the Charisms of Article 12. ÷ ÷ ÷ Signs, Chazisms~ Apostolates VOLUME 27, 1968 + + ÷ .loseph Fichtner, O .S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS the Spirit at work in his day, possibly because he did not discern them all; nor is it possible for us to list them in our own day, excepting to mention, as he did, that there are varieties of gifts, all of which are intended for the good of the Church. Gifts of nature, talent, skill, com-petence, which often are the substratum of grace and are not easily told apart from it, are not to be hoarded or stingily communicated. Were it possible to paraphrase I Corinthians 12, we would have to say that the variety of gifts discloses itself somewhat differently now than in early Christianity. Perhaps this variety shows up in in-telligence or scholarship or scientific research, social reforms, artistic talent, catechetical skill, pediatrics, ger-ontology, the schooling of exceptional children, liturgical zeal, youth programming, public relations, apostolic en-deavor, mystical bent, and so forth. Gifts of all kinds, specializations, are useful and necessary in the Church in the modern world and are not to be bottled up or hidden. Nor will they function properly if restricted to a loner or a clique. They will dictate the abandoning of some apos-tolates and the assuming of others. Various gifts of the Spirit should enable Christians to work together harmoniously in the Church, for though the gifts are many they are one in the Spirit. In the Decree on the Apostolate of ~he Laity the unity of the apostolate is accentuated, however variously it may ex-press itself: "From the reception of these charisms or gifts, including those which are less dramatic, there arise for each believer the right and duty to use them in the Church and in the world for the good of mankind and for the upbuilding of the Church." ~ Since no one can claim all the gifts, their very diversity can do service in many apostolates and fit together into a fine pattern of apostolic activity. St. Paul wrote about this unity because he himself was faced with the Corinthian quarreling over gifts as though they were held in contention or competition: "There is a variety of gifts but always the same Spirit, there are all sorts of service to be done, but always to the same Lord; working in all sorts of different ways in different people, it is the same God who is work-ing in all of them." ~z Whereas Paul had in mind char-isms belonging to individuals, it seems more appropriate to think that nowadays the charisms are diffused among groups of men and women who are willing to pool their capabilities and resort to consultation and con-certed action. The Spirit confers communal charisms as well as individual. Charity, according to Paul, is their unifying factor, and therefore he stresses the fact that charity outranks ~XArticle 3. =1Cor 12:4-6. them all. Charity motivates the recipients of the gifts to employ them for the common good of mankind. Charity too allows us who live in a community to appreciate the variety of gifts distributed among the members, so that each person can be different because of them even when we do not comprehend why he is so gifted or how he is so effective with his gifts. We must leaim to be patient, tolerant, and sensitive to one another, letting another employ his gift(s) as he sees fit as long as he is not misguided in his zeal and effort (how can a so-called charism square with" an otherwise questionable life?).- The function of gifts cannot be legislated in complete detail, nor can everybody in every circumstance abide by such detail. Practical matters simply cannot be regula.ted unanimously. But it may take charismatic courage to say "No" to a trend or policy or spirit which proves to be wrong and damaging to the Church. Egotism sometimes blinds us to the divine goodness in the many splendid achievements, the human values, round about us. Humility, contrariwise, prompts us to behold the marvels of God's grace. Charismatic goodness is to 'be found abundantly in the Church' and society if we would only peel from our eyes the scales of our selfish-ness. We are tempted to look only for the things which suit our fancy. ,At times, no doubt, the charismatic may frighten us or appear threatening because it is novel and catches us by surprise. It may be shocking, and yet upon investigation it may reveal a hidden or unknown contlnmty with something of the past. Liturgical change, for example, may startle today but in itself be a revival of a tradition dating back to the early Church. Charismatic leaders ¯ may be criticized for their bumptiousness or impetuosity; -they may obe called untraditional or subversive; their spirit may be attributed to a yen for change. They and their gifts may meet with contradiction, apathy, sloth, delay, distrust, because not all others discern their true value or the Spirit introducing them into the Church and society. Difficult as it is to sense the Spirit at work among charismatic leaders, it is no less difficult for the charis-matic leaders themselves to be sure of their own inspira-tions and enthusiasms. The uncertainty within themselves is compounded by the opposition they inevitably meet from without. Men like Gandhi, John XXIII, and Martin Luther King, Jr. exemplify the point at hand. We who are caught up .in the crosscurrents sweeping through the Church at the present time easily recognize the signs of opposition. They are like the churning waters left behind by a ship, the wake of its effort to plow ahead through the rampaging sea. + + Signs, Charinm, Apostolates ~OI.UME 27, 1968 777 + ÷ ÷ ]o, seph Fichtner, . . 0.$.~,. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 7.78 This opposition is mild in comparison with the re-jection the true apostle has to contend with while follow-ing Christ in the modern world: rejection by his enemies because what he upholds or promotes is hostile to them, and rejection by his own who fail to understand him or his gift(s). The cost of apostleship and discipleship is sul~ering-- the sacrifice of earthly ties, possessions, life itself. What uncompromising zeal is necessary for the disciple as he assumes the cost of his charism. Christ expected His followers to encounter suffering, at least the pain of carrying out the burden or responsibility of a charism.23 It is painful to realize charismatic limitations, painful to be humbled by other charismatic activities which clash with ours. Not all gifts are operative in the Church at the same time, so they will have to bide their time. The important thing to remember is that the charisms meant for the apostolate place their recipients in the service of Christ who was a suffering Servant for His people. Since Vatican Council II considered the religious way of life to be charismatic and apostolic, it is only to be expected that this life should suffer through its current attempts at self-renewal. The charism of the religious founder was the germ of "the original inspiration of a given community," 24 which has to undergo the pain of growth. The retention or modification of that charism which he injected in his community can cause suffering especially when the personal charisms of members are in conflict with it. The Spirit communicates a "spirit" determinative of "the particular character of each com-munity," which can put the community at odds with ecclesiastical authority and occasion large-scale dissatis-faction. 25 Thus the vital principle of a religious com-munity can be at one and the same time the source of its sanctity and the cause for the purification of its orig-inal gift. The most agonizing encounters with ecclesias-tical authority occur in the field of the apostolate, a fact confirmed by contemporary examples. Yet Vatican II admitted it was "by divine plan that a wonderful variety of religious communities' grew up" with "the diversity of their spiritual endowments." 2n This is an admission that the Spirit of Christ communi-cates directly and not necessarily or always through "~ See Lk 14:25-35. ~ Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Lile, Article 2. See M. Olphe-Galliard, s.J., "Le charisme des [ondateurs religieux," Vie consacrge, v. 39 (1967), pp. 338-52. ~Decree on the Bishops' Pastoral O0~ce in the Church, Article 35.2." 28Decree on the Appropriate Renewal oI the Religious Lile, Ar-ticle 1. hierarchical channels. By their initiative and creativity, in accordance with their special gifts, religious com-munities initiate movements which only later may be taken up by authority. Their apostolates lie at the fron-tiers of the Church, supported by the gifts, small and great, of the Holy Spirit. The ultimate norm of the religious life is "a following of Christ as proposed by the gospel." z7 The gospel pic-tures Jesus addressing himself to the J.ews who were accusing Him of blasphemy, speaking of Himself as "someone the Father consecrated and sent into the world." 28 Christ in turn called others to this same ~onsecration and same mission, that is, ap6stolate. They had to give up all things to follow Him. Religious have appropriated to themselves the word spoken by Peter the Apostle: "We have left everything and fol-lowed you." 29 Christ called fishermen and a tax collector to the apostolate: "Follow me.''30 This call to obedience meant adherence to the Person of Jesus Christ and fellowship with Him. Before Christ entrusted any offices to His followers, He established a community among them with Himself at the center; He shaped them into a Christocentric community. The early apostolic life was not motivated by some form of hero worship but by obedience to the Son of God. The Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Re-ligious Life devotes an entire article to a discussion of the apostolate.31 After explaining in Article 5 that the life of religious is "an act of special consecration [to Christ] which is deeply rooted in their baptismal con-secration and which provides an ampler manifestation of it," the decree shows how its basic unity is diversified in two vocations, corttemplative and apostolic. The special consecration can be lived in two ways because of its twofold orientation. Vatican Council II was look-ing at the religious life phenomenologically: it saw therein two principal orientations, one toward con-templation, the other toward the apostolate. The religious apostolate then must stem from the special consecration to Christ; it is an apostolic con-secration. The religious apostolate is not simply a gesture, a sort of outward and incidental manifestation of the love consecrated men and women have for Christ. It is ~ Ibid., Article 2. 's Jn 10:36. =~ Mt 19:27. ~ Mk 2:14. ~ Article 8. See £. Pin, S.J., "Les instituts religieux apostoliques et le changement so¢io-culturel," Nouvelle revue thdologique, v. 87 (1965), pp. 395-411. ÷ ÷ ÷ Signs, ~Tharisms, Apostolates VOLU~E ~7; i~3 779 ÷ Joseph Fich0t~n.e(~r,. REV[EW FOR RELIGIOUS rather a concrete and unmistakable love expressed in a life '!committed to apostolic works." 32 In Article 8 we read about the "various aspects of the apostolate," how religious groups make diversified con-tributions to the common good of the Church. These contributions, the decree points out, derive from the varieties of gifts given to the groups by the Holy Spirit. The varieties of gifts determine to a large extent, though not fully, the specific apostolic orientation a religious group takes--teaching, nursing, social work, home and foreign missions, and so forth. Although the decree does not refer to it explicitly, it implicitly wants religious to consider the interrelationship of signs of the times, charisms, and apostolates: "Communitie.~ should promote among their members a suitable awareness of contem-porary human conditions and of th~ needs of the Church. For if their members can combine the burn-ing zeal of an apostle with wise judgments, made in the light of faith, concerning the circumstances of the modern world, they will be able to come to the aid of men more elfectively."3a Such studies as psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, political science, can be the humanistic basis for the charisms to be more under-standing of and productive in the world. In a second paragraph within Article 8 the council links closely two spirits that should dominate each other in the religious life, the religious and the apostolic. Without such interlinking the religious life would suffer and die. The key statement to this effect is the following: "Flence the entire religious life of the rdembers of these communities should be penetrated by an apostolic spirit, as their entire apostolic activity should be ani-mated by a religious spirit." Here we touch upon a delicate point of the spiritual renewal asked "for by Vatican II--the possibility of failure to renew a spirit while changes are made "on behalf of contemporary needs." "Indeed such an interior renewal must always be accorded the leading role even in the promotion of exterior works." a4 Of course it is impossible to set any determinate, calculable hours apart for each, prayer and apostolate, but it is essential to realize that the two go hand in hand. In order to avoid the idea that perhaps apostolic works will lead to the danger of activism, to a self-seeking in the apostolate, to immoderate desire for action, to some sentimental involvement in the lives of others, the council asserted that "apostolic activity should ~ See the first reference in footnote $1. ~ Article 2. ~ Decre~ on th~ ,4ppropriate Renewal o/th~ Religious Life, Arti-cle 2. result from intimate union with" Christ.35 It would not have a Christlike spirit and would be torn from an apos-tolic witness, a body of Christianity without a Heart. The prayer itself of religious should be apostolic. Normally they will make their own the petition in Christ's prayer: "Thy kingdom come"--all the spiritual interests confided to the community. Daily community prayer will embrace all the persons who are in the in-timate care of the community: personnel, students, patients, fellow religious, all who depend upon the community for their spiritual sustenance. Instead of being an evasion of apostolic duty, wrongly inspired by the idea that the community can cure every evil and help everyone with prayer alone, its apostolic prayer will be a catharsis and a strength .for apostolic activity. Its members will not dilute their prayer life with all the worry and anxiety they experience throughout their daily apostolate. Apostolic prayer will be for them a humble and confident conversation with Christ who may find them worthy of His own fiery love for the people His Father committed to Him to redeem. A community closely bound together is prone to feel that its communitarian link conditions its form of presence and activity in the world. Community life of itself is not necessarily opposed to an effective presence and activity in the world. But its members obligate them-selves to live this tension between presence in the world and presence in a community till the' eschatological day when the Church and world will be entirely one. No matter how well they try to regulate their life, there will inevitably be some tension between religious observance and apostolic works, between the structural and the ~harismatic. It would be an easy solution to turn the time for observances into an apostolically disordered life. The regular community observance has apostolic meaning and purpose. Perhaps this tension can be eased by better budgeting and managing of time and service. Better management will help to avoid the two extremes of a rigid formalism on the one hand and a disordered and frantic life on the other. The former is harmful to the apostolate, the latter arouses anxiety or qualms of conscience. All the discussion nowadays against structure and the institutional Church can do harm to what is good and useful of structure and the institutional Church. Some sort of structure and a prudently regulated observance is an indispensable aid to religious life and to the apostolate. To take an example from family life--how much family life remains if members come and go as they Ibid., Article 8. 4- 4- 4- Signs, Charisms, Apostolates VOLUME 27, 1968 781 ÷ ÷ ÷ $oseph Fichtner, O.S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS please without any recourse to a schedule for meals, sleep, work, recreation, and especially to a steady inter-communication? The same holds true for religious life:. a moderate observance is a precious boon to it. On the other hand, observance for its own sake is obnoxious. It is bound to incite a harmful restlessness, to sap energy, paralyze effort, or invite either pharisaical regu-larity or intentional neglect. Vatican II was rather in-sistent that this point of observance be looked into and brought up to date. The decree carefully notes that a high-spirited and level-headed apostolate will itself nurture rather than ruin the love for God and neighbor. The question is, how will it nurture this love? First of all, by putting to rest that old fear of an apostolate, genuine and sincere, somehow detracting from the love of God. The council will go down in history, particularly for its Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, in seeing signs of the times which hold promise of much good for the human community. While speaking of the religious apostolate, it remarks about this same good as the field for religious to harvest. The religious apos-tolate, therefore, will nurture love in two ways: first by peace, secondly by stimulus. Peace will accrue from it because the religious will learn that his effort and fatigue are the sincere and au-thentic expression of his love for God. There is much comfort in knowing, deep down in his heart, that he is doing the will of God in the apostolic task assigned to him and for which his charism suits him. Obedience to an assignment with all the hardship and suffering it entails, is a participation in the obedience of Christ. Christ felt real contentment in the fulfillment of His duty toward His Father. "My food is to do the will of the one who sent me, and to complete his work." 86 At the same time the apostolic religious will be stim-ulated to love more, for the apostolate will impress him with need for fidelity to prayer and to a rule of life. He will recognize at once that any lack of zeal on his part amounts to a lack of love, zeal being the fruit of love. Insufficient love springs from an insufficient union with God. Christ turned to prayer in the midst of a busy apostolate and denied Himself sleep in order to pray often and for long spells. Such prayer instilled in His heart a greater love for souls, greater patience, and more courage. This has been an endeavor to weave together the complementary aspects of the signs of the times, charisms, and apostolates especially as they pertain to religious ~ Jn 4:34. institutes. Religious institutes too, inasmuch as they have a charismatic role in the Church and society, have to examine the signs of the times locally and periodically in order to see what apostolates are open~to them and whether they have the charisms most suited to contem-porary needs. All three--signs of the times, charisms, and apostolates--mesh into a single program of life and work under the guidance o[ the Holy Spirit and in the light o[ faith and charity. Signs, Charisrns, Apostolates VOLUME 27, 1968 KEVIN F. O'SHEA, C.Ss.R. The "Security Void" + ÷ Kevin F. O'Shea, C.Ss.P., writes from St. Mary's Monas-tery; Wendouree; Ballarat, Victoria; Australia. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Two years ago Dan Herr wrote in The Critic of a "piety void": the deep loss felt by many people since older "devotions" have been downgraded and have lost their force, and the new "liturgy" is not yet meaning-fully established. The "piety void" is only one aspect of the "security void": a deep unhappiness experienced by many, since older "securities" have been challenged and nothing seems to have replaced them. This diagnosis contends that two basic types of security are in conflict: a security of absolute norms, and a security of committed love. It analyses them only in the area of external au-thority and obedience (though it might well take in areas of moral conscience, faith and doctrine, and voca-tional role and ideal). Each of the two "approaches" to security to be out-lined here could claim (and has claimed) roots in St. Thomas. It is necessary to distinguish between theory, translation of theory into experience, translation of experience into inspirational-motif, translation ol in-spirational- moti[ into formula, translation o[ [ormula into a workable living pattern. Any fully developed "ap-proach" to a profoundly human value (like security) includes all five: theory, experience, inspirational-motif, formula, and workable living pattern. Of the two ap-proaches to security to be developed here, the first (the "older") can be considered initially as "fully developed" in this sense; the second ("the modern") cannot. Both could agree at root in the theory of St. Thomas; each then develops a different experience and inspirational-motif; the "older" possesses its clear formulas and work-able living patterns, which are now challenged by the "modern"; the "modern" is not yet equipped with these elements, and for that reason is deprecated by the "older." Here lies the problem of analysis: here lies finally the root of the "security void" itself. A security of absolute norms is the fruit of a rational-ized approach to society. Accepting the common aim and the need for organized action to attain it, the members of a society accept also a human authority that will give it firmness, sureness, stability, and "security" in the I'face of conflicting human attitudes within it. When a superior, in whom such authority is vested, make~ an authoritative precept, it becomes normative for the society; only in obedience to that norm can that society continue with security. Security is conceived as unified and efficiently ordered action; it stems from "managerial authority." When the subjects obey, they conform their practical thought and action to the authoritative precept given them, out of respect for authority and out of love for the well-ordered existence of the society and its "security." Their obedience is intelligent, even rational: it is logical for them to obey, given their commitment to such values. When in fact their theoretical assessment of a situation differs from the dictate of authority, they will then sacrifice the advantage they believe they might bring to the common interest, to the greater good of the unchallenged reign of authority and for the noble end it serves, the societyrs "security." This is no infantile submission to the "will" of a master: it is the manly conformity of those who see greater value in their sacrifice than in their independent achievement. Their con-science is honored; and they have the personal, ful-fillment of being rightly ordered to the values they cherish, rather than the less esteemed fulfillment of mastery through their own pattern of action. At .times, recourse might duly be had to higher authority; but always in the interests of greater security for the com-mon interest. This is the theory; it has been lived in a way that subtly turns authority into something more absolute. It is assumed in'practice that the order ~1: the society to its common aim, its security, and its continued existence, depend on absolute obedience to its authority at all times. Despite the theory (which would allow for the balance of one human law with another, and with natural and divine law, andfor the use of epikeia as a x;irtue and not simply as a legal loophole), visible division from authority in any matter commanded is considered a supreme, scandal and an absolute evil. We suspect here a practical transition from general policies (the principle of respect for authority) to particu-lar details (the absoluteness of this dictate, in which the whole meaning of authority is seen to be at stake); we sus.pe~t a practical equation of what is authorized for the society with what is objectively good (and best) for the society--of the practical .and the theoretical advantages of the society; we suspect even that authority is almost conceived as the end of the society itself. In this way the basic theory has been hardened through experience towards a stress on absolute loyalty to authority at all VOLUME 27, 1768 785 + ÷ ÷ Kevin O'Shea, C.Ss.R. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS costs, as the~ esprit de corps and inspirational-motif of society. The formulas of the basic theory are read in this sense, and the workable living patterns enshrine it. In practice, then, it is in the "absolute norms" of authority that man finds his security in society. For an "older" generation such unchallenged security alone was possible. This same approach underlies even a mystical view of the Church as the Body of Christ growing to its fullness under the guidance of the Spirit. It is through the charisms that the Spirit rules the Church; and to some He gives the charism of discerning the direction that might be taken with profit; to others He gives the charism of expressing .this conviction publicly; while to the apostolic hierarchy alone He gives the charism of placing God's definitive seal of approval on any plan. It . is through the hierarchy alone that salvation history can finally and authoritatively be formed: the word of the hierarchy is the word of the Lord. When a member of the Church obeys the hierarchy, he acts out of deep reverence for their office and for the divine plan of history in the Church. He thinks it is better for Christ to be revered in His bishops than for Christ to be helped by independent action but dishonored by an apparent. schism between His members. He gives up .what he hitherto thought to be the desire of the Spirit, for the word of the hierarchy, which He authentically knows to be the desire of the Spirit. This is the theory, and it is not hard to see how it has absolutized the practice of obedience in the church. An episcopal command has been regarded as a divinely absolute norm in which alone the Church can continue to live and grow in Christ. The apostolic placer is the will of God and is the security of the Church. It is the absolute norm for a Christian who wants to live in the Church and follow God's plan. We suspect here the root of the attitude of simple acceptance in many of the faithful who look on all pronouncements of ecclesiastical authority as though they were of the same univocal value; we suspect here a certain voluntarism by which God's ideal plan for man in the Church is identified with God's here and now (permissive?) will expressed through the hierarchy. A mystique of security in the Church stems from this lived attitude. A personal approach to community today suggests another kind of security--the "security of committed love." It begins with the axiom that man is a living and loving person. He is called to give himself to others in generosity, sacrifice, and service. In this "self-spending" he really "becomes" a person. There is in man, then, a native instinct (blunted by sin but given new point by grace) to yield, in love, to others whom he serves. It could be called "obedience," but it is not what is strictly and technically described as social obedience. It is prior to the existence or recognition of any social au-thority; it is an intrinsic function of love. It goes far beyond the demands of organization; it is directed to persons not to abstract values. Man then has to live his life in situations in which he experiences in his conscience the call to such love and serf-giving to others. In this call he hears the voice o[ love itself, which is God. In it he recognises the eter-nal law of absolute Love. He needs these situations if he is going to meet this Love and experience its challenge; they channel it to him as "mediations" of Love. He also needs these situations if he is going to respond to this Love and live up to its demands; they are the ambient, the milieu in which he can grow in it. Such human situations, which are. not of man's mak-ing, are in no way opposed to man's love. His love acts, not against them, but within them. As human, his love needs them. The basic situation thus needed is the situation of "personal community." We do not refer, to a community of traditions and practices, or to a community of meth~ ods and pooled skills, but to a community of persons who strive to live together in a. truly personal and serf-giving way. They are a "people" together, a true "comm.unity," blending together their instinctive desire for love and self-giving. Within such a community, the call to Love is heard and answered; the community is the "mediation" and the "milieu" of the eternal law of Love. Love can find itself only within such a community; it is an intrinsically demanded "structure" of love, a permanent, developed, and basic situation of human love. Considerably more is meant here, of course, than what is usually read into the concept of a society, effi-ciently organized to achieve a common aim. In com-munity, persons experience a sense of belon~,tng, of. "being together," of loving together. The integration_ of person with person, of personal attitude and ideal with personal attitude and ideal, as they yield to one another and serve one another and together serve others, is the basic horizon needed for all human life. In this sense, community "serves" man. Within such a community, there is need for celebra-tioh; such real love and togetherness need to be sym-bohzed and feted. Within such a community, there is also need for leadership; such love needs to be given open and significant expression within the community Security Void VOLUME 27, 1968 Kevin O'Shea~ REVIEW FOR RELI~IOUS 788 and radiated outward to those who do not yet know it. Such celebrations and leading-actions are the high-points of community life. Without them, the community does not live, symbolically, in the hearts of the persons who form it, and does not supply them with action-situa-tions for ever deeper personal love. The community needs such events, and therefore it needs within it an oOice responsible for assuring their presence. Those who bear this office are rightly considered to have special eminence in the community, and to them the open-ness of all members of the community is especially directed. Those who bear this office are in a real sense the pivots and sttpports of the community-structure which serves personal love. The acceptance, the reverence, and the "obedience" they are given is fundamental to the commitment of community love and transcends the limits of merely social obedience. At the same time, the office we describe is not strictly social authority but something prior to it. If in fact in a given community there is also social authority (and thus also social obedience), they/viii be fully integrated, on their lower level, into these primary values. Authority must spring spontaneously from the community-office of celebration and leadership; obedience must spring spon-taneously from integration into community, availability to the action of the community, and reverent acceptance of those who hold office in the community. It is clear that when in fact such true social obedience is called for, it will possess a unique a~ective tone. It wi!l be an obedience within community love. It will simply pinpoint the readiness to yield which is there in the community prior to any legal precept. It is more a privilege than a duty. There are two major differences between this and the pattern of obedience previously described in the "older" approach. First, it claims the right to integrate the external com-mand into the claims of Love as heeded in conscience and lived in the community. The subject to whom the external authority speaks "hears" the dictate externally and then asks himself what it "means,' to him in his community-conscience, as a moral imperative of Love. He does not assume, absolutely and universally, that every external command will always automatically mean such a demand of Love. He does not assume, absolutely and universally, that always and in every ~case personal sacrifice must be made to the higher role of this authority. He will not grant, beforehand, that' authority is the main thing in a given situation but will assess the claims of authority in relation to the claims Of community love itself. He will'make this assessment as a person, in open-ness with the persons who form his community and hold office and authority in it. He will grant that normally and in many cases authority-claim (legal imperative) will mean community-claim and love-claim (moral imperative): but he will not a priori equate the two. He will grant that he must make his decision in this matter in deep responsibility of conscience, but he will think that such responsibility is part of his duty in a community of this kind. This first point is claiming more than the simple state-ment that a true imperative (legal and therefore moral) can objectively be in point but may or may not be grasped subjectively by a given person in invincible ignorance because of environmental circumstances. It is an expres-sion o[ an attitude to obedience that springs from the inspiration of the community-love theme. In theory it may not be saying more than is said in classic positions concerning epikeia and the balance of laws and incon-veniences, but it is said in the spirit of an experience different from the experience that has concretely inter-preted and presented the classic positions. Whatever our final judgment of it, a new point of view is expressed here. Secondly, by way of balance, in this obedience there is always a willingness to go beyond legal demands and to go beyond the hard and fast line of what is obligatory by authority. It does not like to stop at what must be done; it looks for what can be done. The final criterion of action is not what legal authority says (or does not say); it is what the situation really demands of the conscience of those involved. The external authority and its statement are respected as part of the total situa-tion in which the imperative of conscience is seen and in which it must act, but it is recognized that the total situation may at times and even often require more than the external authority has stated. Such obedience must be recognized as magnanimous: it acts, not in con-straint, but in love. Once again, it is an expression of attitude that is in point here, flowing from the basic inspiration of the meaning of community. In theory, it is saying no more than the classic position says of the primacy of charity over social obedience, the unity of all the virtues in love, and the rights of personal conscience. But it is expressed in a new enthusiasm arising from a new ex-perience. It is a different point of view from the "old." In the concrete the obedience morally recognized by the person in a given situation will be a determination of the tension between the first and second point: be-tween the right of personal integration into his respon-sible community love, and the duty of personal tran-÷ ÷ ÷ Security Void VOLUME 27, 1968 789 ÷ ÷ Kevin O '.SShs.eRa.~ REWEW FOR RELIGIOUS 790 scendence of the limits of an external command. If this resolution were consistently in the direction of ignoring the external command, it would not be authentic to its own inspiration; for it would not be recognizing the genuinely "normative" character of authority in the community.It is not the "norm" that is refused; it is the assumption that the norm is "absolute." When this obedience is given, it is not lacking in the formal motiva-tion of social obedience, for it does yield to authority as such, but within a community context. The real ques-tion is: When this obedience is not given (in the usual form of conformity to the external command), is it objectively defective in the essential moral value of obedience? But the question is not one of theory, as we have repeatedly shown; it is one of interpretation of the "formula" used as a guideline, as a workable living pattern. It is less a question of what is externally done (or not done) on a particular occasion; it is more a ques-tion of what is the psychology behind it and how it could stand with, and not destroy, the genuine psychol-ogy of social obedience. For a person who forms his mind on these personalist lines cannot have a psychological security of absolute norms. He must find a new type of security elsewhere: in the absoluteness of his commitment to Love and to self-giving and to community in the sincerity of his own conscience; in the relative service that he finds for this in the structures of community, with its members, and their offices, and their common acdon. His is the security of committed love and appreciated structures. The "absoluteness" here is genuine but new: it includes the impredictability of human love, and the incalculable progress of providence. This same personalist approach underlies a sense of the Church as the "people" of God, impelled by the Holy Spirit of Love. The Church is a divinely created, supernaturally indefectible home-situation of truly per-sonal love and sacrifice. It is through and in the Church as a community that the voice of eternal Love in Christ comes to the conscience of her members. It is through and in the Church as a community that her members respond to this voice and live their self-gift to others and to Love itself. Ttie Church is being rediscovered as a community; the Constitution on the Church of Vatican II places its chapter on the "people of God" prior to its discussion of the place of the hierarchy within the people of God. The community of the Church is the natural horizon of our love as it is divinized in Christ; the Church in this sense is indeed the pillar and the very "ground" of Love. In this sense she serves the mystery of human love by creating the conditions for it to. be real. In the Church, the hierarchy, vested with the office of liturgical celebration and of missionary ex-pansion of the Church's mystery of love, and vested also with true social authority to rule the people of God, be-comes the pivot and the support of this "ground" of love. This is why the members of the Church, .as they carry each other's burdens and so fulfill the law of love, look on the Church with reverence as their "mother," even when they see her humble limitations. It is not initially a sense of duty and of obedience that binds them to the Church and to the hierhrchy; it is a sense of vocation and of belonging, since they are meant for her and cannot truly love outside of her. "Outside of m~, you can do nothing." This is why the same nuance of obedience enters here within the Church as we noticed on the gen-eral level: the entire problematic of authority-obedience itself serves the deeper problematic of community-love. At pre~ent there is a conflict, within and without the Church, between those who maintain a long established modus vivendi based on and leading to security of ab-solute norms, and those who demand the creation of a new modus vivendi based on and leading to security of committed love. It is certain that the "older" pattern is well established. It is only recently that it has been challenged; and the challenge has been resented, with shock, by the "older" generation. They have experienced a unique insecurity on seeing the very principles of their security openly questioned, on finding the present age disenchanted with the absoluteness of the old ways and seemingly submerged in the pure relativism of love. They have been asked, implicitly at least, to approve patterns of action in others that are completely at variance with their own inner orientation to norm-security and even to accommodate their own mentality and pattern of action to them. They cannot believe that their own generous sacrifice and 'heroic loyalty over a lifetime have been unnecessary and that their conscious foundation of security is chimerical. They tend to harden the "essential" theory of authority-obedience- security, in the language they have always known it, into the one and only workable living pattern they have known and to admit no other. They feel now that the essential props of their security are under attack. It is certain too that the "new" pattern is noble in its inspiration. Because it is noble and even more because it is new, it tends to remain as yet in the order of ideals and even of inspirational "slogans" (for example, "personal fulfillment," the need for "dialogue") and has not yet formed for itself a realistic working pattern. Its ÷ ÷ ÷ Security Void VOLUME 27, 1968 791 + + Kevi~t O'Shea, C.Ss.R. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS idealism is tender to attack and resents the fact that others cannot understand it but reject it and even regard it as harmful. The "new" generation cannot believe that they ought honestly regard their ideals as unreal and settle for the pseudo-satisfaction of security through absolute norms and legal authority. They tend to stiffen their allegiance to their principles and to be insecure precisely because they know they are not yet accepted or put into practice at community level. It is Strange that precisely here the "new" generation may be rather unfaithful to its own principles. Instead of placing their real security in committed love and self-giving, they seem to insist---immediately---on the security of acceptance in the "older" community; they want their values upheld and identified as legitimate and valid, they want to be understood by others and not thought rebels, they want to be integrated, as they are, into their community's way of life and tradition which they feel that they do not violate but practice in a new way. Would that they have all this; but is it primary to their own principles? At all events, a certain paralysis is taking hold of protagonists of both points of view, which is deepening their insecurity. It happens especially where there has been little attempt at renewal of commonity living structures; where a tradition of legalistic obedience has set up a quasi-divine right of the establishment; where a system of bureaucracy or a veil of anonymity or a pro-tection of prestige has been used to give firmness to the status quo without facing the issues; where a policy of "via media" or of "prudence" is used merely to cover a refusal to do anything; where there is a visible split into parties "for" and "against" the new idealism; where in such mental alienation of one group from another, action comes mainly from party politics, dominant personalities, or emotional enthusiasms created by prop-aganda; where unkind name-slinging is used to make real dialogue and acceptance impossible. Here a critical impasse is soon reached; only the external signs of true community remain. Even those who try to remain tran-quil are misjudged; they are thought insincere in the face of a common anxiety. Men go through the motions of what they have always done, or would wish to do, without the fulfillment that ought to come from it. They live in a "security void." It is made acute when they refuse the obvious dilemma of the situation: rebel or accept. The malaise can be cured by neither; neither by open irreverence, public agitation, mental alienation from the whole situation, refusal to cooperate, invocation of one's rights (from legal authority or from conscience), retreat into one's , I work; nor by timidly coveting up and finding a false refuge in permission (of authority or of conscience), or by the cowardice of giving away all serious attempt at idealism (of whatever form) and settling for no security at all. Those who rightly refuse these false avenues know that they have no anchorage left; they are nonplused and beaten. There is a "credibility gap" between themselves and any founded security, a wavering of trust in asking completely serious questions at all. In this fundamental disillusionment they cease to live in the presence of a liberating truth (since they refuse the falsehood of double truth, one of idealism and another of reality). Their life becomes shallow and superficial, and. their work is not reliable. This is the "security void." This study is a diagnosis, not a solution. It can con, dude with a simple suggestion of seven thoughts, to .be pondered in the present crisis. (1) The theory behind the "new" personalist position is m reality no different from the theory behind the "older" essentialist position. On the general level, it is simply expressing the primacy of the person over society and the primacy of charity over the social virtues. On the particular level, the cases where it might admit a refusal of conformity to the authoritative dictate of a superior can well be reduced to cases already well known in traditional moral theology: epikeia, balance of laws, inconveniences, rights of conscience, and so forth. It is true that the expression given to these cases is new; it is emotive and enthusiastic and thereby tending to more difformity than has been allowed in the older working pattern. But this does not prove the theory is incorrect; it proves only that it is ambiguous in its expression as reduced to a working pattern. It is therefore on the level of that working pattern, in practice, that any incor-rectness should be removed. At least, there is room for real "dialogue" in a theoretical agreement on founda-tions. (2) The spirit of the personalist position, as it is typi-cally expressed at present, does not appear to allow suffi-ciently for the role of social authority within a personal communityi and this defect comes from its idealism. Let us grant thi~ idealism absolutely, but let us remember that we are asking it of men who live in a sin,situation and who carry within themselves profound inclinations contrary to gene.rous and sacrificial self-giving in love. The first evidence of these inclinations is the tendency for groups to isolate within a community and to consider the expressions of love that-correspond to their .own idealism without due consideration of the interests and peculiar form of love of other groups. On the very prin-ciples of total lov~ within the total personal community, .!- ÷ ÷ Security Void VOLUME 27, 1968 793 + ÷ ÷ Kevin O'Shea, .Ss.R. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS granting the intrinsic weakness of man, there must be some human authority to determine the forms of authen-tic love for all when need arises; and this authority must be conceded a per se place in the community. The typ-ical personalist expositions at present stress the idealism of what man is called to do somewhat at the expense of the necessary regime for its human realization, a vital part of which is authority. It is possible to rethink the meaning of authority as an inner demand of the personal community. In this way, the tendency to conceive an opposition between the expressions of a responsible authority and the inherent claims 9f love and conscience will weaken; at least, a better balance between the two will be achieved in practice, and in due time the formnlas and the working patterns will be rightly adjusted. (3) But if sin has abounded, grace has abounded even more. In assessing the present situation, we may reason-ably judge that mankind is on the threshold of a sig-nificant evolution in its living experience o[ community and of the meaning of personal love. We must not poison the wells of this inspiration. We must therefore admit, in theory and in practice, that the older static unchal-lenged working pattern of community must also evolve to be more in accord with the new inspiration. Any at-tempt to pin one's security finally in the unchanged positions of old is doomed to failure. To back down before the challenge of the present in the name of the weakness of human nature, which needs a lower stand-ard, is a practical denial of the triumph of grace. (4) This evolution in the living of community-love must of its nature be slow: "i(ll great matters must come to ripening slowly" (Congar). Those who live through the present transition and cause it must have a peculiar patience: a deep-rooted existential conviction that history is slowly changing through the measured pace of their lifetime. To the extent that their love and self-giving is really great, it will have the patience of the times, seconding and not subverting the dynamism by which God is bringing His gracious design to com-pletion in His own manner. It is perhaps in this fidelity to what is perceived as the bvolving character of provi-dence, that a genuine security can be found. Paradox-ically, it is~ patience that engenders hope, and not the reverse! (5) If social authority can and must be given a place de se in the personal community, it can and must also be found a special place de facto in the currently evolving form of personal community. Our original frailty is showing itself in a new facet: our inability to assure the tranquil passage from the older order to the new, evi-denced in the intransigence of some and the impetuosity of others, and the imprudence of all. There is need of a new awareness of humility if we are to engage correctly this exciting and dangerous transition of history. And there is need for,,social authority to recognize a new responsibility: that of assisting, with its own power of juridic firmness, the pattern of change and of progress from one order to the other. In the exercise of this office, social authority will slowly commend itself more truly to the humility our times must learn. (6) St. Thomas once described .the effects of human law as disciplina et pax. No doubt, he envisaged these mightly mysteries in the static culture of his day; but they remain valid, and needed, in the day of dynamic evolution of human living forms that is ours. Our current emergence to greater times must not be turbulent but tranquil; and the tranquility we need we must learn. We can only learn it if all those who make up the human community at present, "old" as well as "new," play their proper roles together. An "o]-der" point of view is neces-sary today to show the new inspiration, which it accepts at root, the realistic way to find its own survival. A "new" point of view is the soul of the upsurge, and its cry is for a love and a self-gift to all; it is necessary that it learn the peace of the future by establishing its own peace in the present, by accepting "togetherness" with those who do not yet appreciate its value and teaching them by deeds what it has not succeeded in communi-cating to them in words. The most unusual trait of the "new order" of love is that it can be created by real love in ariy conditions; it does not depend on special structures or circumstances but relies on its own dyna-mism. If it is to have more desirable conditi6ns in .the future, it must learn to give its own peace to those of the present. (7) Finally, those involved in this development, which means all of us, should be big enough to overlook mis-takes in detail for the greatness of the cause. We must become conscious of who we are in our times and in history; we must live with a sense of our call to the greatness of love together. In this sense, we must know not a "security void" but a "security fulfillment." + ÷ ÷ Security Void VOLUNE.27, 1968 PAUL MOLINARI, S.]. Renewal of Religious Life according to the Founder's Spirit Paul Molinari, s.J., writes from Borgo Santo Spirito, 5; Rome 00100, Italy. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 796 In presenting these few thoughts, I should like to clarify some theological points which have not, I believe, been sutticiently understood when we speak of a return to the origins of each religious institute. The conciliar decree Perfectae caritatis insists on a life of union with Christ, leading us to consider Him not only as the exemplar of the life of a religious but as the very form of this life.I think that this aspect has not been sufficiently stressed, because the wealth of mean-ing of certain rich but very concise expressions of the decree has not been adequately understood. The decree deliberately avoids detail in order not to bind religious life to concrete forms, identical for all, which would pre-vent it from developing freely in Christ. Rather, it sought above all to emphasize that we must make an ef-fort to conceive and live our religious life as one of donation to Christ, in which we must share His way of livin~g, His spirit. Hence the insistence on a supernatural principle. W~ must always keep in mind that the mis-sion of the Church is a continuation of the mission of Christ and that the mission of Christ is specifically su-pernatural. We must realize, therefore, that in order to participate in the mission of Christ, in order to continue it, we must of necessity adopt His criteria. It is pre-cisely a question of a gift of life--the Word made flesh in or,der to give supernatural life, divine life, to man. Participation in the life of Christ is what gives vitality to the Church. Participation in the redeeming sacrifice is what gives life to man. It is the sacrifice of Christ giving His life for the Church that ought to lead re-ligious to give their life for the Church, that is, for the supernatural good of all of the People of God, for a more abundant communication of divine life to the entire fam-ily of man. I insist on this point precisely because today there is, at times, a tendency to stress almost exclusively the necessity of adapting the exterior apostolate and of bringing it into line with the possibilities offered by modern technological society or to concentrate almost exclusively on the social apostolate of the Church. We must not forget, however, that Christ's apostolate is not only, nor even principally, a social apostolate but a supernatural apostolate: the communication of divine life. This presupposes that we can and often ought to see to the material needs of man and interest ourselves in serious and pressing questions of social justice, but our apostolate does not stop there. We must above all consider the supernatural value of religious life as such, the value of this self-donation which, even though it may remain unperceived, attains something very precious for others on a supernatural level precisely because it is a donation, a sacrifice of self, In this context, I would like to point out that we tend too easily to overestimate the criterion of exterior effi-cacy and of visible success. Is it not true that, when Christ died on the cross, the efficacy of this sacrifice of His entire life could not be seen? It is important to emphasize this at a time when the profound value of self-donation is being called into question precisely be-cause so little is said about the guiding principle of the Lord in His apostolate. Moved by the Spirit, He spent Himself, He delivered Himself on the cross. That is the force of the Spirit. We find ourselves here in the realm of faith. In the light of faith we begin to understand the value of a life hidden in Christ, of a life of im-molation, a life of love, a life which gives up its life for others--and nothing is more beautiful than to lay down our life for others. The ultimate solution to the crisis in contemporary religious life can be found in the realization of religious life as a life of self-donation. Not that religious life should lead merely to the interior life. On the contrary, it will lead us to a great activity; it must express itself exteriorly but in such a way that it is supernatural in character. It is along these lines that we can find a solution to today's problems, particularly those concerning the social apostolate. At this point, I quote those beautiful phrases contained in the decree Per[ectae caritatis: Fired by the love which the Holy Spirit pours out in their hearts, they live their lives ever increasingly for Christ and for his Body which is the Church. Consequently, the more fervent their union with Christ through this giving of themselves, which includes the whole of their lives, the richer the life of ÷ ÷ ÷ Founder"s Spirit VOLUME 27, 1968 797 REVIEW FOR RELIG~OU5 798 the Church becomes and the more fruitful her apostolate (n. 1). The gospel brings out that the characteristic note of Christ's mission was His docility to the Holy Spirit. I think that this is why the decree insists so much~ on the Holy Spirit, His action in the Church and in the soul of founders. If Christ, the head of the Church, began His mission led by the Spirit, the Incarnation itself being the work of the Spirit, the Church, which is the Mysti-cal Body of Christ, likewise ought to be docile to the Spirit. The Church, as such, tries to be so, and she has the permanent assistance of the Holy Spirit, her soul: Christ, having been lifted up from the earth, is drawing all men to himself. Rising from the dead, he sent his life-giving Spirit upon his disciples and through this Spirit has established his body, the Church, as the universal sacrament of salvation. Sitting at the right hand of the Father, he is continually .active in the world, leading men to the Church and through her joining them more closely to himself and making them par-takers of his glorious life by nourishing them with his own body and blood. Therefore, the promised restoration which we are awaiting has already begun in Christ, is carried forward in the mission of the Holy Spirit, and through him continues in the Church (Lumen gentium n. 48). In virtue of the same principle, each member of the Church should likewise follow the motions of the life-giving Spirit. We are touching here on one of the most fundamental principles of the religious life and of the Church. As the conciliar document Perfectae caritatis says, the Holy Spirit has raised up in the Church men and women who founded religious families. These souls were called to a providential mission in the Church and were particularly docile to the action of the Holy Spirit: Indeed from the very beginning of the Church men and women have set about following Christ with greater freedom and imitating him more closely through the practice of the evangelical counsels, each in his own way leading a life dedi-cated to God. Many of them, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, lived as hermits or founded religiou~families, which the Church gladly welcomed and approved by her authority. So it is that in accordance with the Divine Plan a wonderful variety of religious communities has grown up which has made it easier for the Church not only to be e~u!pped for every good work and ready for the work of the mlnxstry--the build-ing up of the Body of Christ--but also to appear adorned with the various gifts of her children like a spouse adorned for her husband and for the manifold Wisdom of God to be revealed through her (Perfectae caritatis, n. I). The Spirit who led Christ is the same Spirit who leads those who are united to Christ and in whom, as with docile instruments, He can more freely carry on the salvific mission of communicating divine life to His Church and to all mankind. With these theological principles in mind, it is easier to understand that while the. cardinal point of renewal is the Gospel and total, unconditional surrender and consecration to the redeem-ing Christ, another is precisely the docility and fidelity of members of a religious institute to the spirit of their founder. Actually, the mission of Christ is not yet completed; it continues in the Church which must remain faithful to His inspiration. This is why charismatic graces, that is divine inspirations given in view of certain apostolic necessities, continue to be given to the Church. These graces are evident in a special way in all those who have truly given their heart to the Lord and who, without setting any conditions or limits, allow themselves to be guided by God, that is to say the saints and those great charismatic leaders, the founders and foundresses of re-ligious families. But while this action of the Holy Spirit is particularly visible in the soul of founders, it does not stop with them. The same Spirit, wishing to continue the mission that He has entrusted to the founders ~for the sake of the Church, acts in the soul of each member of the People of God and calls some of them to follow our Lord and dedicate their lives to the institutes established by these holy men and women. It is as i£ the Holy Spirit sent a ray of light which filled the soul of: the founder. This ray continues on, through the founder, until it reaches the soul of those who are called to a certain religious family. It is a ray of light which has its own particular characteristics and limitations. It is thus that institutes receive a specific mission from the Holy Spirit. For this reason there is a variety of institutes in the Church, which are all necessary. And the Holy Spirit inspires and continues to inspire the members of all religious families but in different ways, according to their specific task in the Church. It is in this sense that St. Paul, while dealing with the Mystical Body, speaks of the di-versity of functions within the Church; and there is no doubt that this variety is very good for the Church. It is extremely important, therefore, that religious know what the authentic spirit of their founder or foundress is and that they share it consciously. This is what the Council intended when it invited religious, especially in view of the renewal of their life, to discover anew the riches of this spirit and to find life-giving in-spiration in it. For that reason, the motu proprio Ec-clesiae sanctae says it is essential for each religious family to study the sources and to go down to the real roots of their institute. It is, therefore, indispensable in 4- VOLUME 27, 1968 ÷ ÷ Paul Molinari~ $.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 8OO the preparation for special chapters charged with putting into practice the Council's teachings and directives, to engage in serious and searching study concerning the charism of the founder or foundress and to discover new depths concerning the authentic inspiration which gave birth to any given institute. It is obvious that in many cases a good number of studies have already been made on this precise point, and these studies can and ought to be judiciously used. It would be an error, nevertheless, to limit such research to an analysis of these studies, because each generation has its own sensitivity, its own special g~ace for discovering certain accents, and is struck by elements which previous generations prob-ably knew of but did not make use of with the same de-gree of explicit understanding. What happens in biblical exegesis and in the authentic evolution of dogma and theology is likewise true of the progressive understanding of what the Holy Spirit wished to start with founders and continues, through their mediation, throughout the ages in the institutes which He raised up in the Church. Precisely because we are dealing here with an interven-tion of God Himself in the history of the Church and of an initiative that He wishes to prolong and renew, not only today but also in the future, it is imperative that this search for the true spirit of a founder or foundress be done with complete objectivity. In no way is it permis-sible to base such a study on feelings or on interpreta-tions and intuitions which are more or less subjective. Reverence for the work of God in the soul of the founder as well as reverence for the divine vocation by which we were called to become a member of our religious in-stitutes requires that we remain humbly open to God's light. In no way should we try to make the divine grace given to the founder coincide violently or arbitrarily with our limited personal ideas. On the contrary, the action of the Holy Spirit in the soul of the founder ought to be our point of reference ]n examining our own way of thinking and acting. Much is being said today about the discernment of spirits. But this is exactly what the Church has been concerned with in regard to founders. We have the as-surance that they were acting under a charismatic im-pulse. We, in turn, participate in this same impulse to the degree that we are faithful to the grace which called us to our religious family, and that we let it de-velop and grow in us. It must be noted in this context that while the Church invites us to recognize loyally the spirit of our origins, she does not at all exclude the possibility that this spirit may find different expressions throughout the .ages. There is a tendency, at times, to identify the spirit of the founders with their works. But the spirit gave life to a work; it determined its beginning. It can happen that, as time passes, a work, begun with an intention largely determined by the needs and circumstances of the age and place in which the founder lived, has changed. In present day conditions, it may no longer b~ possible to continue these same works or, due to exterior circum-stances, to carry them on in the same way as when they were begun. Fidelity to the letter can thus become in-fidelity to the spirit of the founder. In other words, it is not sufficient simply to make an historical catalog of our works. We must try to see them, spiritually and integ-rally,~ from the inside, in order to seize the inspiration which animated the founder when he acted. It is only if we succeed in grasping this profound inspiration that we shall find, at the same time, that true fidelity to the founder which the Church is asking usa to preserve in deciding what adaptations are to be made. If the spirit of the founder is a living reality to us, we shall likewise be able to formulate it adequately in modern language, fully in accord with the contemporary situation. To be truly faithful, we must go to the very heart of the mat-ter, that is, go to the very root of the reasons why the founder acted and discover the ultimate criteria of the choices he made. We must not be content with discover-ing what the founder did; we have to discover why, whether we have grasped the inner inspiration. While reflecting so openly and clearly on this essen-tial principle, I want to make a brief point dictated by charity, justice, wisdom. It is well known that on the occasion of special chapters in all religious institutes, there is an atmosphere of unrest among truly generous religious who are loyal both to the Church and to their institute. This uneasiness is ultimately caused by an in-adequate understanding of the principles which have just been stated. On the one hand, there are religious who do not understand clearly enough that the concrete expression of the identical spirit of the founder c/m, and even ought to change according to the circumstances and mentality of succeeding generations. Every innovation, consequently, seems' to them to be a departure from the authentic spirit of the founder and, as such;' inadmissi-ble. On the other hand, there are also religious who, with a certain naivet~ which is no less serious, proclaim loudly that only the present generation has discovered the true spirit of the founder and that former genera-tions did not understand it at all. The mutual error of these two tendencies is simply that they both think that one, and only one, generation can discover once and for all what the authentic spirit of the founder is, exhaust the wealth of its possibilities, and determine defi'nitively 4, 4, Fou~w~$ ,Sp~r~g " VOLUME 27, 1968 4" 4" 4" Paul Molinari, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 8O2 all possible authentic expressions of this spirit. But, as we have already said, such a conception errs by not taking into account human limitations and historical sense. Each generation of religious has its own strong points and its own deficiencies, it own profound intui-tions as well as its own task. It is precisely along these lines, with the greatest reverence and objectivity, that each generation of rel.igious should look towards the authentic origins of their institute and delve into the heritage of its founder's authentic inspiration. In this process of humble and reverent seeking, which is at the same time both painful and liberating, each generation should make the charism of the founder and the in-stitute their own. Each generation, through prayer, med-itation, and study, should seek to find out, according to the spirit of the founder, what ought to be kept or abandoned in the present day. As can be seen, this work is both very necessary and very delicate, requiring hum-ble and utter abnegation. But if we understand that the true patrimony of the Church and the task of renewal are at stake, we shall not be afraid to renounce personal points of view or preferences in order to go wherever the Holy Spirit may lead us. Experience teaches us, moreover, that such a return to the authentic origins of an institute is not only possible but also extraordinarily fruitful. There is immediately a very keen and positive reaction when anyone speaks with competence to religious men and women about the documents left by their founder or about his life. I am sure that we have all already experienced this. Can it be explained in any other way except by the fact that men-tion was made of something that the Holy Spirit had already put in the heart of these religious? If they are put into direct contact with the sources of their institute, they explicitly find in them what they were formerly more or less conscious of and which had led them to one particular religious family and not another. The Spirit of God gives a certain sort of interior spiritual sensitivity and a spontaneous inclination towards the spirit of the founder and its authentic manifestations. If religious are brought into direct contact with the spirit of the founder, they are moved to ever greater generosity and immediately pass to a higher plane. Many people can thus be helped to overcome their difficulties, precisely because the very root of their life has been touched. It goes without saying, moreover, that this life-giving con-tact with the authentic inspiration of the founder greatly facilitates responsible adaptation to conditions and cir-cumstances of time and place. This is obviously the reason why the conciliar decree Per[ectae caritatis de- clares that any adaptation ought to come forth as a pre-cious fruit of interior renewal, that is of a return to the gospel and to the authentic spirit Of. the founder. Let us now say a word about the concrete manner of proceeding in this extremely delicate and important matter. Experience seems to bear out the following: Af-ter the religious have been informed of work done on the sources and after they have been invited to meditate on the different aspects of renewal and even to give their opinions in writing, it is a good practice to gather to-gether those who have showed special interest in the subject, especially those who likewise have a good scien-tific preparation. Ask them to study the documents and everything that has been done previously in the way of research and analysis in order to bring to light the outstanding elements, that is, those which recur con-stantly in the thought of the founder. The outcome will not all be the same because each one has his own per-sonality and way of looking at things; but by comparing the results, a sufficiently objective view will be obtained which will permit the characteristic elements of the life and thought of the founder to be isolated. These in turn will help orient the work of renewal. When it is time to rewrite the constitutions, they can be based on the discoveries made, without fear of changing or modi-fying illegitimately the thought of the founder which these objective studies will have brought out more clearly. The next step is to compare these results with the life, constitutions, and works of today. This will be rela-tively easy if the fundamental points have already been clarified. The various editions of the constitutions, pro-mulgated at different stages in the history of the in-stitute, should be examined to see what elements have been forgotten or not sufficiently emphasized. This type of research can contribute notably to a greater direct knowledge of the sources and will bring to light again the true thought of the founder. If this research is car-ried on according to these objective criteria and is al-ways inspired by theologically and spiritually sound principles, a naive desire of change for the sake of change will be avoided. On the contrary, if changes are necessary or opportune, they will be made without great interior difficulty because all will see more clearly what Gods wants of us and how. He is asking us to mani-fest our fidelity to the authentic spirit of the founder. It is equally obvious that, in the same way, we can more easily avoid those distressing internal divisions among members of the same institute since all will have the conviction that the changes proposed are based on a ÷ ÷ ÷ Founder's Spirit VOLUME 27 19e,8 80,~ , 4. .4. Paul Molinari~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 8O4 common desire to correspond fully to what is under-stood to be the true spirit which gave rise to the in-stitute and its authentic charism. In the same way,-it will likewise be easier to decide What changes must be made in the exterior life and even in the works of the institute. We say that it will be easier, because when it comes to works, there are naturally other problems which are generally very seri-ous and which cannot be naively ignored. But I am con-vinced that if, first of all, everyone is in agreement on the essential lines of renewal according to the spirit of the founder, courage will more easily be found when all are working together in the solidarity of a chapter. If, for example, the members of a chapter 'clearly see that today certain works no longer correspond to what the founder wanted in his day, it should be easier /or the chapter to take clear and decided decisions, without causing profound dissensions, without sidestepping the solution and without leaving all the most serious deci-sions to the sole authority of the superior general and. his council. Would it not be better for the chapter, which truly represents the institute, to take essential decisions, basing them on a greater knowledge of the spirit and charism of the founder and his work, and thus tracing the way for times to come? In answer to Christ's call, religious left all things to ,follow Him, that is, to go with Christ wherever He wishes to go. It seems evident that Christ wishes to go where the needs are the most urgent. One of the things that we would do well to consider when we speak of union with Christ in the religious life is that it is not simply a question of going out to the poor but of leaving all things, and following Christ in a spirit of donation and complete availability. This can sometimes mean leaving well established works that are running well but which, having reached the point where they do run well, no longer need us. In such cases, led by the spirit of the founder, we should go where social condi-tions are more or less similar to those that prompted the founder to act in his day. It is then that we have truly vital contact with the authentic spirit of the founder. In a certain sense, it can be said that where this spirit adaptatioh is' found, religious live in closer union with the spirit of the founder. Indeed, when, as it were, the very soul of the founder has been refound, there is no crisis in religious life and vocations are not lacking. It is clear that those souls who have followed their founder .most closely have found, under the motion of the Holy Spirit, what they were seeking. Naturally, it would be absurd to maintain that all present-day works of religious should be abandoned or that all need to be adapted or again that all changes should be made instantly. We must, however, have the courage to face these questions honestly and to solve them with the same courage that characterized the action of founders, the courage of the saints. It is worthwhile meditating, in this light, on the fol-lowing words of His Eminence, Cardinal Agagianian, Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith: Evolution has considerably modified the physiognomy of Christianity and the sign value of this type of Institution. Where formerly there were charitable works to answer press-ing social needs there is now state socialization or the national-ization of an entire sector. If this has not been done yet, it is at least the intention of young governments and is being planned by large official international organizations. Are not our institutions, which were begun with such generosity and which answered such authentic social needs, now anachronistic, technically .surpassed, not viable financially, lacking true Christian witness value since other official organisms which are better equipped have taken charge of this sector? We must therefore avoid duplication, useless waste, unequal competi-tion, and rethink our activity, which must be missionary to the greatest possibl~, degree and carried on in the light of an apostolic vision which is more freshly evangelical. It is a ques-tion of discovering the true exigencies of the hour, of estab-lishing priorities, and of effectuating our own "reconversion" by turning to work which is doubtlessly socially less spectacula~ but which is more specifically a work of the Church, a work which is directly missionary in scope and character. At the present time, religious must be very open to the grace of the Spirit in order to follow Christ effectively and continue His mission. We should all clearly un-derstand that the charismatic grace given to the founder and his institute is a call from God, a talent which has been confided to us. God asks that the talents He gives be well used. We must not be afraid to make them fructify. Such a fear should never paralyze our generosity and our donation to Christ. It is therefore not enough, necessarily, to keep works just as they are. They must be made to bear the greatest amount of fruit possible. How can this be done? That is where the difficulty lies. It is certainly not permissible simply to keep the capital. If the apostolic return amounts only to 2% or 3%, we must ask ourselves if this capital could not be used in a better way. If we consider the exigencies of the Lord, we can more calmly envisage the fact that the decisions to be taken will sometimes lead to very serious changes, but we must accept them in a spirit of love and fidelity to the true charism of the founder and his work. But we must consider more specifically and more ex-plicitly the ecclesial dimension of our personal vocation as well as the vocation of our institute. The institute is part of the Church and it has a specific function within ÷ ÷ ÷ the Church. It is a living part of the Church and it will have life insofar as it accepts its function for the sake of the Church. This will help us to penetrate more and more into our vocation of being available for the service of Christ and His Church. We will experience the joy of giving life, the consciousness of being the grain of wheat which falls to the ground and dies, and to bear fruit a hundredfold. Problems will find their solution in this deeper vision of religious life as a life of union with Christ in order to continue, in Him and with Him, His mission of communicating divine life to man. 4, ÷ Paul Molinad~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 80fi SISTER M. DENIS, S.O.S New Trends in Community Living Something which has existed since the beginning, that we have heard, and we have seen with our own eyes; that we have watched and touched with our hands: the Word who is life-- this is our subject. That life was made visible; we saw it and we are giving our testimony, telling you of the eternal life which was with the Father and has been made visible to us; we are telling you so that you too may be in union with us, as we are in union with the Father and with his Son Jesus Christ. --1 John 1: I-3 In* these opening lines of John's First Epistle, he is trying to translate into a multiplicity of feeble human concepts and words, Life itself which is not many but one, not a thing but a person--the triune Person of the Godhead. When discussing the "new trends in commu-nity living" with you, I shall attempt to follow the exam-ple of John. Words are a very necessary component of human communication, but nevertheless annoying. As soon as we describe a reality we break it into parts and tend to give the impression that if every part described is present, we have the reality itself. Rather, the reality of community that I hope to translate into practical and concrete terms, is not composite but one--permeated with the dynamism of that divine incarnated union John spoke of. Unfortunately, that dynamism cannot be put into Words; it must be lived and experienced. Therefore, the approach in this paper will be experi- * This is the text of an address given in May, 1968, to a meeting of Canadian major superiors. ÷ ÷ ÷ Sister M. Denis, S.O.S., writes from 62 Hargrave St.; Winnipeg 1, Mani-toba; Canada. VOLUME 27, 1968 80~ ÷ ÷ Sister M. Denis~ $.0.5. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 808 ential and practical and not a rephrasing of the excellent literature on community with which you are familiar. First, we shall examine the bases or principles upon which community is created, investigate the trends evi-dent in community living today, attempt to describe the type of community life that is unfolding from these trends, and propose some practical ways of effecting the transition from the present structures of community life to that form toward which we are evolving. Rather than burden you with another definition of community, I would prefer a descriptive approach. We are well aware of the different kinds of communities that exist among men. There is the natural community of the family and the artificial or contrived community of the organization, society, or state. All too often, we have described the religious com-munity solely in terms of one ot~ these two societies: our terminology of mother, father, brother, sister, reflects the familial concept; and our highly structured religious corporations betray the organizational concept. Al-though religious community can benefit from aspects of these two basic human groupings, we must with deep faith live the essence of religious community as an en- Spirited or Spirit-filled community: "Father, may they be one in us, as you are in me and I am in you, so that the world may believe it was you who sent me" (Jn 17:21). To the individual person who has embraced the re-ligious life, what then is community? I enter community so that I may begin to gift myself to others, to give the life I have to another, and to re-ceive from them in the same way; and this transmitting, this sharing of life, of wholeness is carried over into my apostolate. This life is given and received in faith be-cause the life or dynamism of community that permeates it is not my own--it is the life of the Spirit, the Spirit of Christ who shows us the Father; my gift to God-~a gift which has come from Him in the first pIace--is to give life to others by the life that is in me. True community, therefore, is created, not structured or legislated. PRINCIPLES The principles or bases upon which an en-Spirited community is created must be grasped, not only intel-lectually, but also experientially by every member in the community, although not necessarily to the same extent or depth. None of these principles stand alone; rather they are interdependent and interrelated. Trinitarian The ultimate model of en-Spirited community is the trinitarian life as it is lived by Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. We have heard this so often that we tend to dis-miss it as another cliche. What does it mean in actual practice? It means that each person in community must be and do what God Himself through Christ and in the Spirit is and does: namely, He gathers, unites, establishes communion. How? By communication. Supportive words, other means of communicating love give life to another, as the Father begets His Son, the Word. This gift to one another and the response from one another engenders love--the Spirit. It is at this point where Trinity and en-Spirited community merge. ~lgape. If this trinitarian love-life is incarnated and experi-enced, the cohesive bond in community is the living agape of Christ, not the force of rule or custom. We must have the courage to examine and question the place of rule in religious life. In actual fact, which has frequently taken precedence---our holy rule or the gospel? The experience of agape is an entirely new human ex-perience. It is this gift of God--the Spirit. Pagans could only look at the early Christian community and exclaim: "See how these Christians love one another." But the words "love" or "charity" are, at best, a weak transla-tion. Agape is the knowledge and love of God--that very dynamism of the Trinity itself--which, through a free gift of God, has been incarnated, embodied in human community--a Spirit-filled community. Peace and joy, in which are contained all the other fruits of the Spirit, characterize such a religious community. The ultimate expression of agape is the love feast itself--the Eucharist. The en-Spirited or agape community is effected by the liturgy--when members are conscious of communicating or uniting themselves together in Christ. In turn, their liturgical expression is intensified by their community life. Incarnational Spirituality In order that community reflect trinitarian life or agape--which are different expressions of the same real-ity- the spirituality upon which it is based must be truly incarnational. Again we are back to the importance of faith. If the Son of God, the Word, became flesh, be-came incarnate, then the world, the whole world is "shot through with the grandeur of God," as Hopkins wrote. We cannot arbitrarily determine which particular ma-terial signs signify the presence of Christ; this is an in-sidious form of idolatry. Worse still, we cannot attempt first to establish a relationship with the transcendent God and then go out to other people. Because of the Incarnation, the transcendent God has been revealed to + ÷ Community Living VOLUME 27, 1968 809, ÷ ÷ Sisger M. Denis, $.0.S. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 810 us precisely as immanent. This immanence is continued in the world through the gift of the Spirit. The experi-ence of agape, the witness of a Spirit-filled community, is the experiential embodiment of this transcendence. In community agape we realize the fullness of the In-carnation. Respect for the Integrity of the Individual Person Community is not achieved through uniformity; but in practice our preoccupation with uniformity often militates against that respect for tl~e integrity of the individual person so necessary for the developme.nt of an en-Spirited community. This respect involves accept-ance first of ourselves as we are--not as we would like to be. We must risk taking off our masks, not only to others, but also to ourselves, and be truly authentic. I never realized what a mask the traditional habit could be until a few summers ago at the Superior's Conference in Portland, Oregon. During the day we walked around very conscious of religious decorum and dignity. When the magic hour of 2:00 p.m. struck, we converged on the swimming pool. As each layer of clothing came off, the person emerged. This respect [or the integrity of the person involves acceptance ot another in the same way---as they are and not as we would like them to be. If we love only those who share our ideas, our thoughts and aspirations, then we are merely loving an extension of ourselves. We must love what is truly the other--in which there is nothing of oneself. This acceptance is a respect based not on toleration or on charity or even because we see Christ in another; rather this respect is based on the unique dignity created in that person by God Him-self. Often we bypass this unique dignity for "good and noble reasons." Our acceptance and love should always be based on the person, not dependent on their actions. This is a great danger in community life, where we do 'not have the natural ties of blood as in the family and where much stress is placed on uniformity. Community, as we have been describing it, is not necessarily the common life. This communal acceptance involves a sharing, an openness with one another dictated not on my terms but by the other person's real needs for growth. In listening to the conversation of some religious I get the impression that self-fulfillment is selfishness, not selflessness. We only"receive when we give. And very often giving hurts. Serf-fulfillment is the very mystery of the death-resurrection of Christ incarnated and re-peated in the lives of men and women. Originality, Creativity The external structures of the en-Spirited community --structures which may take many and varied forms according to times and places--should always leave room for the development of originality and creativity among its members. I am merely stating in concrete terms the theological problem of institution versus charism. Spontaneous .4 ction Closely related to the need for originality and crea-tivity is the need for spontaneous action in community. A few years ago I read an examination of conscience in which was the question: "Have I organized myself so intensely that I have no time for spontaneous generos-ity?" We might well ask the question on the com-munal level. Is our day so laid out, charges so spelled out, that members function as automatons--cheerfully perhaps, but not spontaneously? Responsibility Finally, true community fosters responsibility, the ability to respond. Men and women can come to good-ness only through a knowing and free choice. The other side of the coin is a sharing in the authority on which responsibility depends; and this authority, in turn, is derived, from the community. Members are responsible to one another personally and to the group collectively. The religious or Spirit-filled community, therefore, is based on the agape-life of the Trinity as incarnated among men. Its growth and development depends upon the respect for the integrity of the individual person with the necessary correlatives of personal authenticity and acceptance. Desirable structures permit and foster originality, creativity, responsibility, and spontaneous action both individually and collectively. CURRENT TRENDS With these principles in mind we shall now attempt to describe the current trends among religious in Can-ada, trends which will affect community living. These trends were gleaned from the recent reports of the eight round-table discussion teams which were organized across Canada by the Canadian Religious Congress to contribute to a survey of religious life. In this era of post-Vatican II, we are coutinually reminded to be alert to the signs of the times, to significant indications or movements in a parti.cular direction. Whether the trend be evaluated as good or bad, as desirable or un-desirable, it remains, nevertheless, the voice of the Spirit speaking to us. Discernment of the message is not as easy as discernment of the trend. 4. ÷ Community Living VOLUME 27, 1968 811 Sister M. Den~s, $.0~. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ,4 ttitudes Very evident is the evolution of new and more posi-tive attitudes among religious. In relation to the in-stitution, there is a greater respect for the person and the charisms of the individual. Religious place a priority of being over seeming, of the person over the actions. The false dichotomy between body and soul is diminished. A new appreciation for the "world" which has lost many of its former negative connotations is evidenced in an understanding of eschatology as be-ginning here below in the form of earthly happiness. Therefore, there is less stress on the'negative aspect of sacrifice and a grea~er emphasis on a joyful, more positive asceticism. Resurrection, not death is predomi-nant. There is a tendency to diminish the artificial distinction between the natural and the supernatural. Thus, the religious sees his or her dedication to Christ and to mankind as one. This unifying trend involves a rejection of the logical distinction between the transcend.- ent God and the immanent God, where the existential is concerned. Spirituality The incarnational spirituality that has evolved from these attitudes integrates human values and identifies "human experience" and the "experience of God." God is encountered .at work in the world present in and through human realities. Throughout the entire study there was evidence of a strong trend toward assuming a more personal responsi-bility for one's life of faith involving a renewed self-commitment. Thins desire for personal responsibility and the previously mentioned attitudes have strongly in-fluenced the trends in the prayer life of Canadian re, ligious today. In the search for new and authentic forms of prayer, none of the traditional forms have escaped honest scrutiny. Although religious believe in the necessity of prayer, the form or expression of this prayer is radically changing, primarily due to a new understanding of prayer in which there is no separation between prayer and action. Looking upon everything as prayer, especially encounter with others, was a very pronounced trend. Therefore, religious desire more freedom in their prayer life--with a structural minimum that gives more consideration to personal needs, that encourages authenticity, and that is adapted to the rhythm suited to the life each one is leading. The daily obligation for Mass is. questioned because of the need for' respecting the personal spiritual rhythm of the religious. In the celebration of the Eucharist, the re- ligious insist less on the idea of sacrifice and more on the notions of communion and gathering. There is an increased trend toward community encounter in the Eucharist within the parish community. Because of their strong faith in the value of interpersonal relationships and group accomplishment, the trends indicate the de-sire of religious for group reflection in prayer. Prayer is no longer a private matter but is becoming a means fulfilling the need for an expression of friendship and human support. The place of God in prayer is not thereby lessened, because of the identity of "human experience" and "the experience of God." The starting point of prayer--personal or communal --is likewise incarnational--an event, something con-nected with themselves, the needs of the world as re-vealed in continuing salvation history--more than the speculative knowledge of a transcendent God. Institution Religious from coast to coast are questioning--not theoretically but existentially--the meaning and purpose of religious life itself. The reports indicate, however, that this scrutiny is not negative, but positive--in spite of the front page articles in the NCR. Structures are not disregarded but desired if they help real personal commitment. Community of life, however, takes prece-dence over institution which is understood as something to help community of life, to make and keep its mem-bers more fully human persons. The institution is re-jected under certain aspects because of unfortunate ex-periences resulting from harshness, impersonalism, legal-ism, and paternalism. Rule Regarding the rule, the trend is toward getting away from the traditional rule because it no longer measures up to the needs of the time. Also evident is a lack of regard for unnecessary canonical legislation. Religious women, in particular, are resentful of the paternalism manifested toward them by the Sacred Congregation of Religious and in canon law. External Signs Also strong is the trend to reject archaic signs of identification as religious. These externals, such as the habit, the canonical cloister, the rule, community con-trols, are seen as objectionable to the extent that they separate the religious from the secular world. These religious wish to remove the barriers imposed by monastic influences of another age. ÷ ÷ ÷ Community Living VOLUME 27, 1968 813 Silence Closely connected to their notions on spirituality, prayer, and religious structures are the views of religious on silence. They admit the value of silence but not according to traditional concepts. Personal silence is valuable as a means to encountering the other; it is closely related to charity. Rather than an absence of words, silence is an inner attitude. Thus, they refuse to keep a conformist silence or silence of rule considered for its own sake. Size oI Community Especially strong are the desire and the realization of riving in small homogeneous groups because of the need for human interpersonal relationships, for authenticity, for the development of the person. In this way, religious desire to bear effective witness both to poverty and to service. Thus there is a trend toward experimen-tation in this more fraternal way of life: some are living in smaller groups; others are living in apartments. Secular World Today's religious desire to socialize more naturally wid~ other people. In fact, there is evidence of a trend toward seeking fraternity outside the usual religious community group. On the one hand, some see this trend as a reaction against an incorrectly understood type of ¯ community life; on the other hand, some see this as an overflow of the love that is established in true com-munity. Whatever be the case, we must attempt to read the signs of the times; if a person does not find accept-ance and human fellowship within the community, he will seek it elsewhere. Increased activity in the secular world is practically a fait accompli for most religious who are now reading contemporary books, going to movies, taking part in politics, and maintaining contact with the world of art and artists. 4- 4- 4- Sister M. Denis~ S.0.5. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS .4 uthority Religious admit that they will readily sh~re personal experiences with their fellow religious but less willingly with one who is in authority--a spiritual director or a superior. The authority figure in practice is not yet seen as a friend. Strongly rejecting paternalism, religious do not wish to be dependent upon a superior. Authority itself is not rejected; religious still see the necessity of someone in charge of the group. But this person--the superior--should be an available and approachable moderator--one among brothers. Authority is seen as service and coresponsibility. There is a trend, but not yet clearly defined, toward a concept of shared authority with joint responsibility in view of the good of the group. Because of the dignit
L'arròs (Oryza sativa L.) és un dels cultius alimentaris més importants del món, sent Colòmbia el segon productor d'arròs d'Amèrica Llatina, després del Brasil. L'arròs es classifica com el tercer producte agrícola en extensió de país, després del cafè i el blat de moro. En el present estudi es va determinar la qualitat de l'arròs cultivat i comercialitzat a Colòmbia, atenent a paràmetres microbiològics, fisicoquímics i toxicològics (presència de micotoxines), i es va plantejar com a objectiu general estudiar la incidència d'aflatoxines, zearalenona i desoxinivalenol en l'arròs produït a les principals zones arrosseres de Colòmbia. Durant l'any 2017 es van prendre 62 mostres d'arròs paddy cultivades per sistemes "reg" i "secà", procedents de les principals zones arrosseres de Colòmbia. L'any 2018, el nombre de mostres recollides va ser de 58, provinents dels dos sistemes de cultiu. Aquestes mostres es van analitzar microbiològicament (coliformes totals, Escherichia coli, i Fongs i Llevats) i es van determinar les seves característiques fisicoquímiques (pH, activitat d'aigua -Aw- i contingut d'humitat). Finalment, les mostres van ser analitzades per a la detecció i quantificació d'aflatoxines (AF) (B1, B2, G1 i G2), zearalenona (ZEA) i desoxinivalenol (DO). Per fer això, es van aplicar tècniques analítiques estandarditzades reconegudes per l'Associació Oficial de Química Analítica dels Estats Units (AOAC). Dels resultats obtinguts, en les mostres recollides durant l'any 2017, es va observar una incidència global del 46% de coliformes totals (CT) en les mostres procedents de sistema "reg" de totes les zones arrosseres. En les mostres de sistema "secà", la incidència observada va ser del 50 %. La incidència de Fongs i Llevats (F i Ll) va ser alta, i va oscil·lar entre el 96 i el 100 %, sense importar el sistema de cultiu emprat. Escherichia coli va presentar una incidència de el 8 % en el sistema "reg", mentre que no es va detectar la seva presència en les mostres cultivades pel sistema "secà". En l'arròs conreat l'any 2018 pel sistema "reg" la càrrega microbiana, tant de bacteris com de fongs, va disminuir considerablement; només el 13 % de les mostres van presentar recomptes de CT. Els fongs van estar presents en el 76 % de les mostres. Pel que fa a el sistema "secà", el 23 % de les mostres van presentar contaminació amb CT, i el 54 % amb F i Ll. La presència de fongs en el gra en cultiu va ser molt elevada a tot el país, tot i que l'any 2018, es va apreciar una disminució generalitzada en la incidència en totes les zones arrosseres. En relació a les variables fisicoquímiques, les mostres procedents de sistema "reg", van presentar durant 2017 valors mitjans de pH entre 6,39 i 6,75, i de 0,65 i 0,74 d'Aw, amb uns valors d' humitat entre 7,48 i 11,74 %. Les mostres cultivades pel sistema "secà" van evidenciar valors mitjans de pH entre 6,72 i 7,00, de 0,70 i 0,75 de Aw, i humitats compreses entre 6,87 i 10,09 %. En les mostres procedents de sistema "reg" de l'any 2018, els valors de pH van oscil·lar entre 6,68 i 7,37, els de Aw entre 0,71 - 0,74, i els d'humitat entre 7,78 i 10,12 %, mentre que les de sistema "secà" van presentar valors de pH entre 6,44 i 6,75, de 0,65 i 0,74 d' Aw, i entre 7,11 i 8,39 % d'humitat. Aquestes propietats fisicoquímiques i les seves interaccions són els principals determinants etiològics en la regulació del creixement fúngic i de la producció de metabòlits secundaris. L'any 2017, la micotoxina de major incidència al país va ser AF, seguida de ZEA. La zona més crítica per la presència d'AF va ser la zona "Nord". Al 2018, ZEA passar a ser la micotoxina de major incidència, especialment en el sistema de cultiu "reg". En contrast, DO va ser la micotoxina de menor incidència. Sense distinció de sistema de cultiu aplicat, en les mostres recollides durant els dos anys, no es va evidenciar la presència de AFG1 i AFG2. En les mostres cultivades pel sistema "reg" en 2017, la presencia d'AF va correspondre al 15 % de les mostres, amb concentracions que van variar entre 0,1 mg/kg i 1,83 mg/kg, mentre que la ZEA es va detectar en un 13 % de les mostres, amb concentracions entre 53, 5 mg/kg i 2,57 mg/kg. No es va detectar la presència de DO en cap mostra. En les mostres procedents de sistema "secà", es va observar la presència d'AF en un 43 % de les mostres (2,1 - 119,5 mg/kg) i ZEA en un 7 % (271,9 mg/kg). La incidència d'AF en l'arròs conreat pel sistema "reg" l'any 2018 es va reduir en comparació amb l'any anterior, amb presència només en un 2 % de les mostres (0,9 mg/kg). No obstant això, es va denotar una major incidència de ZEA, present en el 31 % de les mostres (98 µg/kg - 5,19 mg/kg). En aquest cas, va ser destacable l'aparició de DO en el 7 % de les mostres analitzades (0,87 - 5,86 mg / kg), procedents de les zones "Centre" i "Plans Orientals" del país. En les mostres obtingudes pel sistema "secà" es va detectar la presència d'AF i de ZEA, però no es va observar DO en cap zona. La incidència d'AF va ser del 31 % (1,6 - 22,4 mg / kg) i la de ZEA del 15 % (67 mg / kg). Dels aïllaments fúngics obtinguts a partir de les mostres d'arròs en cultiu corresponents al mostreig de l'any 2017, Aspergillus va ser el gènere amb més freqüència (74 %) seguit de Penicillium (20 %). Es van aïllar 19 soques de fongs aïllades de l'arròs conreat l'any 2017, caracteritzant-les fenotípica i molecularment. Disset d'elles van correspondre a Aspergillus flavus. El 52 % de les soques van presentar fluorescència UV a ALC i es va verificar la seva capacitat aflatoxigénica. No es va detectar la presència ni de CT ni tampoc d'E. Coli en cap de les 16 mostres d'arròs comercial analitzades, procedents de les diferents zones arrosseres de Colòmbia, però sí es va detectar la presència de F i Ll. La incidència d'AF en aquestes mostres va ser del 50 % (2,4 - 93,9 mg/kg) i la de DO del 6 % (128 mg/kg), superant-se en el 31 % de les mostres el valor màxim permissible establert per les legislacions colombiana i europea. No es va evidenciar la presència de ZEA en cap de les mostres analitzades. ; "El arroz (Oryza sativa L.) es uno de los cultivos alimentarios más importantes del mundo, siendo Colombia el segundo productor de arroz de América Latina, después de Brasil. El arroz se clasifica como el tercer producto agrícola en extensión del país, después del café y el maíz. En el presente estudio se determinó la calidad del arroz cultivado y comercializado en Colombia, atendiendo a parámetros microbiológicos, fisicoquímicos y toxicológicos (presencia de micotoxinas), y se planteó como objetivo general estudiar la incidencia de aflatoxinas, zearalenona y desoxinivalenol en el arroz producido en las principales zonas arroceras de Colombia. Durante el año 2017 se tomaron 62 muestras de arroz paddy cultivadas por sistemas "riego" y "secano", procedentes de las principales zonas arroceras de Colombia. En el año 2018, el número de muestras recogidas fue de 58, provenientes de los dos sistemas de cultivo. Estas muestras se analizaron microbiológicamente (Coliformes Totales, Escherichia coli y Mohos y Levaduras) y se determinaron sus características fisicoquímicas (pH, actividad de agua -Aw- y contenido de humedad). Finalmente, las muestras fueron analizadas para la detección y cuantificación de aflatoxinas (AF) (B1, B2, G1 y G2), zearalenona (ZEA) y desoxinivalenol (DON). Para ello, se aplicaron técnicas analíticas estandarizadas reconocidas por la Asociación Oficial de Química Analítica de los Estados Unidos (AOAC). De los resultados obtenidos, en las muestras recolectadas durante el año 2017, se observó una incidencia global del 46 % de Coliformes Totales (CT) en los granos procedentes del sistema "riego" de todas las zonas arroceras. En las muestras del sistema "secano", la incidencia observada fue del 50 %. La incidencia de Mohos y Levaduras (M y L) fue alta, osciló entre el 96 y el 100 %, independientemente del sistema de cultivo empleado. Escherichia coli presentó una incidencia del 8 % en el sistema "riego", mientras que no se detectó su presencia en las muestras cultivadas por el sistema "secano". En el arroz cultivado en el año 2018 por el sistema "riego" la carga microbiana, tanto de bacterias como de hongos, disminuyó considerablemente; sólo el 13 % de las muestras presentaron recuentos de CT. Los mohos estuvieron presentes en el 76 % de las muestras. En cuanto al sistema "secano", el 23 % de las muestras presentaron contaminación con CT y el 54 % de M y L. La presencia de hongos en el grano en cultivo fue muy elevada en todo el país, aunque en el año 2018, se apreció una disminución generalizada en la incidencia en todas las zonas arroceras. Con relación a las variables fisicoquímicas, las muestras procedentes del sistema "riego", presentaron durante 2017 valores promedio de pH entre 6,39 y 6,75, y de 0,65 y 0,74 de Aw, con unos valores de humedad entre 7,48 y 11,74 %. Las muestras cultivadas por el sistema "secano" evidenciaron valores promedios de pH entre 6,72 y 7,00, de 0,70 y 0,75 de Aw, y humedades comprendidas entre 6,87 y 10,09 %. En las muestras procedentes del sistema "riego" del año 2018, los valores de pH oscilaron entre 6,68 y 7,37, los de Aw entre 0,71 - 0,74, y los de humedad entre 7,78 y 10,12 %, mientras que las del sistema "secano" presentaron valores de pH entre 6,44 y 6,75, de 0,65 y 0,74 de Aw, y entre 7,11 y 8,39 % de humedad. Estas características fisicoquímicas y sus interacciones son los principales determinantes etiológicos en la regulación del crecimiento fúngico y la producción de metabolitos secundarios. En el año 2017, la micotoxina de mayor incidencia en el país fue AF, seguida de ZEA. La zona más crítica por la presencia de AF fue la zona "Norte". En el 2018, ZEA pasó a ser la micotoxina de mayor incidencia, especialmente en el sistema de cultivo "riego". En contraste, DON fue la micotoxina de menor incidencia. Sin distinción del sistema de cultivo aplicado, en las muestras recolectadas durante los dos años, no se evidenció la presencia de AFG1 y AFG2. En las muestras cultivadas por el sistema "riego", se detectó la presencia de AF en el 15 % de las muestras, con concentraciones que variaron entre 0,1 µg/kg y 1,83 mg/kg, mientras que la ZEA se detectó en un 13 % de las muestras, con concentraciones entre 53,5 µg/kg y 2,57 mg/kg. No se detectó la presencia de DON en ninguna muestra. En las muestras procedentes del sistema "secano", se observó la presencia de AF en un 43 % de las muestras (2,1 - 119,5 µg/kg) y ZEA en el 7 % (271,9 µg/kg). La incidencia de AF en el arroz cultivado por el sistema "riego" en el año 2018 se redujo en comparación con el año anterior, detectándose solo en un 2 % de las muestras (0,9 µg/kg). No obstante, se denotó una mayor incidencia de ZEA, presente en el 31 % de las muestras (98 µg/kg - 5,19 mg/kg). Fue destacable la aparición de DON en el 7 % de las muestras analizadas (0,87 - 5,86 mg/kg), procedentes de las zonas "Centro" y "Llanos Orientales" del país. En las muestras obtenidas por el sistema "secano", se detectó la presencia de AF y de ZEA, pero no se detectó DON en ninguna zona. La incidencia de AF fue del 31 % (1,6 - 22,4 µg/kg) y la de ZEA del 15 % (67 µg/kg). De los aislamientos fúngicos obtenidos a partir de las muestras de arroz en cultivo correspondientes al muestreo del año 2017, Aspergillus fue el género aislado con mayor frecuencia (74 %) seguido de Penicillium (20 %). Se aislaron 19 cepas de moho aisladas del arroz cultivado en el año 2017, caracterizándolas fenotípica y molecularmente; 17 de ellas correspondieron a Aspergillus flavus. El 52 % de las cepas presentaron fluorescencia UV en ALC y se verificó la capacidad aflatoxigénica de las mismas. No se detectó la presencia ni de CT ni tampoco de E. coli en ninguna de las 16 muestras de arroz comercial analizadas, procedentes de las diferentes zonas arroceras de Colombia, pero sí se detectó la presencia de M y L. La incidencia de AF en estas muestras fue del 50 % (2,4 - 93,9 µg/kg) y la de DON fue del 6 % (128 µg/kg), superándose en el 31 % de las muestras el valor máximo permisible establecido por las legislaciones colombiana y europea. Sin embargo, no se evidenció la presencia de ZEA. ; Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important food crops in the world, with Colombia being the second largest rice producer in Latin America, after Brazil. Rice has been classified as the third largest agricultural product in the country, behind coffee and corn, respectively. In the present study, the quality of rice grown and commercialized in Colombia was determined, taking into account microbiological, physicochemical, and toxicological parameters (presence of mycotoxins); furthermore, the general objective of this inquiry was to study the incidence of aflatoxins, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol in rice produced in the main rice-growing areas of Colombia. During 2017, 62 samples of paddy rice grown by "irrigation" and "dry" systems were taken, from the main rice-growing areas of Colombia. In 2018, the number of samples collected was 58, from the two cultivation systems. These samples were microbiologically analyzed (Total Coliforms, Escherichia coli and Molds and Yeasts) and their physicochemical characteristics (pH, water activity -Aw- and moisture content) were determined. Finally, the samples were analyzed for the detection and quantification of aflatoxins (AF) (B1, B2, G1 and G2), zearalenone (ZEA) and deoxynivalenol (DON). For this reason, standardized analytical techniques recognized by the Official Association of Analytical Chemistry of the United States (AOAC) were conducted. The results obtained from the samples collected during 2017, a global incidence of 46 % of Total Coliforms (CT) was observed in the grains from the "irrigation" system all over the rice-growing areas. Regarding the "dry" sample system, the observed incidence was about the 50 %. The incidence of Molds and Yeasts (M and L) was high, ranging between 96 and 100 %, regardless of the culture system used. Escherichia coli presented an incidence of 8 % in the "irrigation" system, while its presence was not detected in the samples grown by the "dry" system. In the rice cultivated in 2018 by the "irrigation" system, the microbial load (both of bacteria and fungi) decreased considerably, in which only 13 % of the samples had CT counts. Molds were present in 76 % of the samples. Comcerning the "dry" system, 23 % of the samples presented contamination with CT and 54 % with M and L. The presence of fungi in cultivated grain was very high throughout the country, although in 2018 there was a generalized decrease in the incidence in all rice-growing areas. In relation to the physicochemical variables, the samples from the "irrigation" system presented during 2017 average pH values between 6,39 and 6,75, and of 0,65 and 0,74 of Aw, with values of humidity between 7,48 and 11.74 %. The samples cultivated by the "dry" system showed average values of pH between 6,72 and 7,00, of 0,70 and 0,75 of Aw, and humidity between 6,87 and 10,09 %. In the samples from the "irrigation" system in 2018, the pH values ranged between 6,68 and 7,37, those of Aw between 0,71 - 0,74, and those of humidity between 7,78 and 10, 12 %, while those of the "dry" system presented pH values between 6,44 and 6,75, of 0.65 and 0,74 of Aw, and between 7,11 and 8.39 % moisture. These physicochemical characteristics and their interactions are the main etiological determinants in the regulation of fungal growth and the production of secondary metabolites. In 2017, the mycotoxin with the highest incidence in the country was AF, followed by ZEA. The most critical area for the presence of AF was the "North" one. In 2018, ZEA became the mycotoxin with the highest incidence, especially in the "irrigation" cultivation system. In contrast, DON was the mycotoxin with the lowest incidence. Regardless of the cultivation system applied, in the samples collected during the two years, the presence of AFG1 and AFG2 was not evidenced. In the samples cultivated by the "irrigation" system, the presence of AF was detected in 15 % of the samples, with concentrations that varied between 0,1 µg/kg and 1,83 mg/kg, while the ZEA was detected in 13 % of the samples, with concentrations between 53,5 µg/kg and 2,57 mg/kg. The presence of DON was not detected in any sample. In the samples from the "dry" system, the presence of FA was observed in 43 % of the samples (2,1 - 119,5 µg/kg) and ZEA in 7 % (271,9 µg/kg). The incidence of AF in rice cultivated by the "irrigation" system in 2018 was reduced compared to the previous year, being detected only in 2 % of the samples (0,9 µg/kg). However, a higher incidence of ZEA was found present in 31 % of the samples (98 µg/kg - 5.19 mg/kg). The appearance of DON was remarkable in 7 % of the samples analyzed (0,87 - 5,86 mg/kg), coming from the "Central" and "Llanos Orientales" areas of the country. In the samples obtained by the "dry" system, the presence of AF and ZEA was detected, but DON was not detected in any area. The incidence of AF was 31 % (1,6 - 22,4 µg/kg) and that of ZEA was 15 % (67 µg/kg). About the fungal isolates obtained from the cultured rice samples corresponding to the sampling of the year 2017, Aspergillus was the genus isolated with the highest frequency (74 %) followed by Penicillium (20 %). 19 strains of mold isolated from rice grown in 2017 were isolated, characterizing them phenotypically and molecularly; 17 of them corresponded to Aspergillus flavus. 52 % of the strains showed UV fluorescence in ALC and their aflatoxigenic capacity was verified. The presence of CT or E. coli was not detected in any of the 16 commercial rice samples analyzed, from the different rice-growing areas of Colombia, but the presence of M and L was detected. The incidence of AF in these samples were 50 % (2,4 - 93,9 µg/kg) and that of DON was 6 % (128 µg/kg), exceeding the maximum permissible value established by Colombian legislation in 31 % of the samples and European. However, the presence of ZEA was not evidenced.
nvironmental risk posed by emissions of chemicals contained in products is an important issue that has been, so far, investigated to a relatively limited extent. In response, the research program ChEmiTecs was set up specifically to improve the understanding of mechanisms, magnitude of emissions on the national Swedish scale, as well as perception about, and management strategies of emissions of additives and other organic substances from articles to the environment. Additives are, as the name indicates, added to a material. This is done with a purpose to improve the properties of the product in its intended use. The societal benefit of, e.g., flame retardants is immense as they contribute to reduce the risk of fire. In order to maintain the purpose of the additive, it should stay in the product. The fact that additives are nevertheless released to some extent is therefore rather an unwanted consequence. In order to understand the mechanisms and magnitude of the emissions, different methods were combined: A product – material – substance inventory was developed of the flows and stocks of the relevant articles and their material constituents with their content of relevant substances, typically organic functional additives. The inventory was based on national trade statistics and well-informed estimates of life length, areas of the articles, and additive content as inventory elements. The research showed that it is possible to use national trade statistics as a starting point to estimate societal stocks of additives, and a total amount of 3×106 tonnes of organic chemical additives was estimated to be stored in plastic materials in articles within the Swedish technosphere. Product categories of particular interest are plastic products such as pipes and hoses, films and boards, and the plastic components of other products such as insulated wires and cables, furniture (sofas), and passenger cars including tires. Chemicals stored in large amounts are typically plasticizers (including the groups phthalates and adipates), organic pigments and flame retardants (for example brominated or phosphorous-based flame retardants). Computational models were applied for calculating product-group and nation-wide emissions based on the inventory. A simple model selected from literature was used to provide a rough estimate with the widest possible coverage for National scale emissions with manageable data need. An advanced computational model was also developed in the program. This model was calibrated by controlled emission chamber experiments for a small sample of test cases, and was then applied to a limited number of detailed product inventories. Results of these data-intensive calculations in the advanced model were also validated against measured concentrations in the environment. The results were then compared with results of the rough model, to get an idea of the accuracy of the national estimate. The ChEmiTecs assessments indicate national molecular emissions to air of plastics additives from the societal stock of material and products NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 8 during their service life to be in the order of 500 tonnes per year. As an approach to getting an idea of the severity of these emissions, a comparison was made with intentionally released biocides. As chemical substances may have very different properties in terms of potential harm to the environment, a direct comparison in terms of mass flow is not very meaningful. Instead, substance emissions were recalculated to ecotoxicity scores with a model developed in the life cycle assessment science domain. The scores obtained indicate lower overall ecotoxicity potential of emissions of additives on the national Swedish scale compared to biocides. The results need to be taken with great precaution as there were significant data gaps. Emissions from waste and waste management were also not included in this calculation. The mechanisms determining the emissions are complex. But at least the results from the research confirm some basic circumstances: - Products with a large surface area (e.g. upholstered furniture, pipes and hoses, polymer films, etc.) were identified to favour emissions. Given a certain combination of material and additive, the emissions will be roughly proportional to the area of the object. - Smaller molecules are more likely to be emitted than big ones. "Small" and "Big" may refer to the molecular weight, but also to the shape of the molecule, so that stretched out molecules with long branches are getting more entangled in the matrix material than compact molecules with short branches, and therefore tend to emit more slowly. - Higher temperature will typically result in higher emissions, which was exemplified with releases of Tri-phenyl-phosphate (TPP) from flat computer screens. - The specific affinity of the additive to the matrix material is important, but it is a complex issue, as it depends on properties for both the additive and the matrix. - An additive's tendency to transfer to the surrounding medium is typically expressed as a partitioning coefficient. For semi-volatile and low volatility chemicals, to which groups additives often belong, the release rate is more determined by the molecule's tendency to transfer from the surface to the surrounding medium than the migration rate within the matrix. To summarize, it appears evident that the combined properties of the material and the molecule as well as the surrounding conditions are crucial for the emissions. Emissions from articles cannot fully explain the environmental occurrence of the substances in a certain location or Nation, thus other sources such as direct industrial releases and/or atmospheric long-range transport may be equally or more important. However, in the indoor environment, consumer products including building materials are more or less the sole sources of many organic chemicals, and may thus have a significant contribution to overall human exposure. Chemicals of particular interest are plasticizers and flame retardants, e.g. phthalates and organophosphates. Common for NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 9 these substances are that many of the products they occur in are used in the indoor environment (plastic flooring, furniture). Accounting for article lifetime and typical release rates as calculated in ChEmiTecs and supported by other work in literature indicates very clearly that more than 90 % and in most cases more than 99 % of the added chemical additives remain in the products at the end-of-life, which means that the major share of the originally added substance of the substances will enter the waste and recycling streams. This is important to consider as they may be eliminated if the products are incinerated, or re-circulated into new materials and products if the material is recycled. According to the surveys conducted within the program with consumers and producers during the year 2012, emissions from articles are not generally perceived to be of major concern from a health or environmental perspective. Producers were of the opinion that they have the necessary tools to perform risk assessments, and they are reasonably content with the current legislation. Consumers were mostly concerned with potential risks for workers and to the local environment near production plants. Studies carried out within ChEmiTecs also showed that the Swedish environmental goals are in general terms not important drivers towards voluntary agreements to change chemical contents in consumer articles. Here, stricter requirements are therefore needed to promote change. The following recommendations were formulated on the basis of the outcome of the research: • The accessible information about content of additives and other chemicals in articles is quite limited. Supply chains consist of several steps, and companies selling articles on the market are often not aware of the additives content of their products. Article 33 in REACH is in theory a mechanism requiring such companies to know their articles' content. Ideally, this additive content information should be combined with the collection of statistical information on trade. A requirement from authorities and a registry of additive content in articles, analogous to the "Product registry" for chemicals and blends operated by the Chemicals Agency, could potentially be a suitable mechanism to push for such information. This is essentially a pre-requisite for reliable estimates of stocks of chemicals from products in the future. • Within its Environmental monitoring activities, Swedish EPA carries out regular screenings campaigns of chemicals in the environment. Screening activities of chemical content in products would be a good complement, which would contribute to knowledge on additives and other chemicals content in articles. Similarly, we emphasize the need for new requirements on emission testing of a wider range of chemicals. Providing sufficient data availability, the NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 10 ChEmiTecs emission model could be an important tool to assist in such assessments. • It should be evaluated whether product specific rules could be suitable as a complement to REACH for consumer articles where hazardous chemicals are present and the use is widespread, such as textiles and building products. • Producers should strive to minimize the content of chemicals with hazardous properties in general and in particular in products made of porous materials and/or of large surface areas aimed for use in the indoor environment. • Emissions from multilayer products and via migration and abrasion need to be further investigated. More recent research indicates that direct migration to dust can contribute significantly to the levels found in the indoor environment. • Since the major share of the chemical additives are estimated to remain in articles at the end of their life there is a need for alertness among waste managers and recycling industry to handle this. Information about the content of goods that reach the waste stream could contribute to this. ; n Varor (Organic Chemicals Emitted from Technosphere Articles - ChEmiTecs) var ett forskningsprogram som löpte under åren 2007-2013 och som finansierades av Naturvårdsverket. Målet med programmet var att öka förståelsen av mekanismer, omfattningen och konsekvenserna av utsläpp av organiska ämnen från varor. I samarbete med myndigheter, tillverkare och nedströmsanvändare identifierades tekniska och sociala aspekter som bidrar till problemet med utsläpp från varor, i syfte att skapa en gemensam förståelse för problemet och dess sammanhang. En urvalsstrategi togs fram i syfte att identifiera problematiska ämnen, varor och användningsmönster. Därefter kvantifierades utsläpp av ett litet urval av ämnen från varor och uppskattades med hjälp av modellbaserad extrapolering för ett stort antal andra ämnen. Betydelsen av dessa utsläpp bedömdes bland annat i förhållande till andra utsläppskällor. Forskningen visade att det är möjligt att använda den nationella handelsstatistiken som en utgångspunkt för att bedöma mängden av kemiska ämnen som är upplagrade i samhället, och totalt uppskattades den upplagrade mängden av organiska kemiska additiv i plastmaterial i varor i den svenska teknosfären till 3×106 ton. Produktkategorier av särskilt intresse är rör och slangar, plastprodukter såsom plastfilm och skivor, isolerade ledningar och kablar, möbler (soffor) samt personbilar inklusive däck. Kemikaliegrupper som är upplagrade i stora mängder är framför allt mjukgörare (inklusive grupper såsom ftalater och adipater), organiska pigment samt flamskyddsmedel (till exempel bromerade och fosforbaserade flamskyddsmedel). Emissioner av kemikalier från varor bedömdes genom att kombinera olika skattningsmetoder med beräkningsmetoder som kalibrerats med hjälp av kontrollerade experiment samt genom dubbelkontroll där spridningsmodeller anpassades med stöd i empiriska miljödata. De beräkningar som gjorts inom programmet tyder på att den enkla modell som tillämpades för att beräkna emissioner på nationell skala för ett brett antal produktgrupper överskattar utsläppen av plasttillsatser från produkter. Resultat från den mer avancerade beräkningsmodellen som utvecklades inom programmet tyder på att utsläppen från varor i medeltal motsvarar ca 0.2 promille av de additiver som finns upplagrat i varorna. För vissa produktgrupper kan dock utsläppen uppgå till några procent av den upplagrade mängden. Utifrån antagandet att 0.2 promille av de upplagrade kemikalierna emitteras från varor, uppskattades de årliga nationella utsläppen av plasttillsatser i den samlade materialstocken till i storleksordningen 500 ton. Uppskattningen 500 ton per år enligt ovan måste ses som en grov och relativt osäker skattning, eftersom mekanismerna för ämnens avgång från ett material är komplexa. Det är de kombinerade egenskaperna hos materialet, molekylen och omgivande miljön som är avgörande för utsläppen. Vissa samband kan lyftas fram: NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 12 - Produkter tillverkade med en stor ytarea (till exempel stoppade möbler, rör och slangar och bildäck) verkar ge upphov till höga utsläpp. - Små molekyler emitteras i större grad än stora molekyler. Här hänvisar små och stora molekyler både till molekylvikt men även till molekylstruktur, där avlånga förgrenade molekyler ofta hindras av materialet i matrisen och därmed tenderar att emitteras långsammare. - Temperatur är en viktig faktor som påverkar utsläppen. Högre temperatur kan leda till högre utsläpp, vilket inom programmet påvisats med försök på utsläpp av trifenylfosfat (TPP) från LCD-skärmar. - Additivets affinitet till materialmatrisen är en viktig men komplex faktor som påverkar utsläppen, då affiniteten påverkas av egenskaperna hos både additivet och materialet. - Additiver kategoriseras vanligen som semiflyktiga eller lågflyktiga ämnen. Avgången av dessa ämnen från ett matrismaterials yta verkar avgöras i många fall i högre utsträckning av ämnets benägenhet att gå över till omgivningsmiljön, t ex förångas från ytan, än av migrationshastigheten i matrismaterialet. Med produktens livslängd i beaktande uppskattades mer än 90 % och i de flesta fall mer än 99 % av de tillsatta kemiska additiven finnas kvar i produkterna i slutet av dess livslängd, vilket innebär att de flesta av additiven kommer in i avfalls- och återvinningsleden. Där kan de elimineras om produkterna förbränns, eller så kan additiven återcirkuleras in i nya material och produkter vid materialåtervinning. Forskningen inom programmet visar att utsläpp från produkter inte helt kan förklara förekomsten av ämnena i den yttre miljön. Således kan andra källor såsom industriella utsläpp och långväga transport via luft även vara viktiga. När det gäller inomhusmiljön är konsumentprodukter, inklusive byggmaterial mer eller mindre de enda källorna till förekomsten av många organiska ämnen (till exempel ftalater och organofosfater), vilket kan ha betydelse för människors exponering. Enligt de undersökningar som gjordes inom programmet under år 2012 med avseende på konsumenters och producenters inställning till emissioner från varor är slutsatsen att utsläpp från varor i allmänhet inte uppfattas som ett stort hälso- eller miljöproblem. Producenter var av den uppfattningen att de har de nödvändiga verktygen för att utföra riskbedömningar, och de är ganska nöjda med den nuvarande lagstiftningen, vilken också är den starkaste drivkraften i deras miljöarbete. Konsumenterna var av uppfattningen att riskerna är störst för arbetstagare och den lokala miljön i närheten av produktionsanläggningar. I allmänhet föredrar konsumenter märkning för att kommunicera produktinnehåll. I syfte att belysa problematiken vad gäller risker för miljön gjordes en jämförelse av möjlig giftpåverkan på vattenmiljö (potentiell ekotoxicitet) mellan plastadditiv och biocider med hjälp av en beräkningsmodell som traditionellt används inom livscykelanalysforskningen. Beräkningarna visar att den totala möjliga giftpåverkan av utsläppta NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 13 tillsatsämnen från plastprodukter i Sverige är lägre än den är från avsiktligt utsläppta biocider. Dock omfattar denna analys inte alla relevanta effektmått och det var heller inte möjligt att bedöma samtliga plastadditiv på grund av databrist. Utsläpp från avfallsledet finns heller inte med i denna beräkning. I allmänhet är kunskapsluckorna fortfarande stora när det gäller egenskaper och toxicitet av kemiska tillsatser i konsumentprodukter, vilket minskar möjligheten till en gedigen utvärdering och dimensionering av hälso- och miljöpåverkan av kemikalier i varor ur ett riskperspektiv. Studierna inom ChEmiTecs visade att de svenska miljömålen i sig inte utgör några viktiga drivkrafter för att träffa frivilliga överenskommelser med syfte att ändra kemikalieinnehåll i konsumentvaror. Studierna indikerade också att marknadstrycket för att få producenter att ändra innehåll är ganska svagt, även om arbete pågår inom vissa branscher. Drivkrafter i dessa fall är typiskt kommande lagstiftning eller förväntad kommande lagstiftning. Resultat framtagna inom ChEmiTecs-programmet visar även på ett behov av att stärka den produktspecifika lagstiftningen som ett komplement till REACH i syfte att minska riskerna med farliga ämnen för vissa produkter, exempelvis byggprodukter och textilier. Följande rekommendationer formulerades på grundval av resultatet av forskningen inom programmet: • Information om additivinnehåll i varor är fortsatt starkt begränsad. I många fall är nedströms varuproducenter också begränsat medvetna om förekomsten av additiver i materialen i sina produkter. Artikel 33 i REACH föreskriver att leverantörer ska kunna förmedla information om ämnen på kandidatlistan över föreskriven halt i sina produkter, vilket indirekt innebär ett krav på att veta det faktiska innehållet i varor. En mekanism för att åstadkomma bättre information om upplagring av additiver i varor i samhällets materialstock, och emissioner av dessa, vore att ha ett register över varors innehåll liknande Kemikalieinspektionens Produktregister för kemikalier och beredningar, kombinerat med dagens statistik över med Industrins varuproduktion och varuimport och –export. • Som komplement till dagens screeningprogram som mäter upp och övervakar halter av kemikalier i miljön, rekommenderar vi att det via lämpliga marknadskontrollmyndigheter och Naturvårdsverket satsat på ett "screeningprogram" för kemikalier i varor. En del av en sådan satsning kan också vara att implementera nya krav på utsläppstester, t ex med hjälp av emissionskammare, av ett bredare spektrum av ämnen. Sådana krav kan till exempel kopplas till ovan nämnda produktspecifika lagstiftning, för att driva utveckling mot lägre konsumentexponering från varor. • Lagstiftare bör utvärdera om produktspecifika regler skulle kunna vara ett lämpligt komplement till REACH för konsumentprodukter där farliga ämnen NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 14 förekommer och användningen är utbredd, såsom t ex textilier och byggprodukter • Producenter bör sträva mot att minimera innehållet av ämnen med farliga egenskaper i produkter tillverkade av porösa material eller som har stora ytor, i synnerhet i sådana produkter som är avsedda för användning inomhus. • Utsläppen från flerskiktsprodukter och via direkt migration till damm samt via slitage behöver utredas ytterligare. Aktuell forskning visar att direkt migration från produkter till damm kan ge ett betydande bidrag till kemikalienivåerna som påvisas i inomhusmiljön. • Eftersom huvuddelen av tillsatta kemiska additiv bedöms finnas kvar i produkterna i slutet av deras livslängd behöver det finnas beredskap i avfalls- och återvinningsleden att hantera detta. Information om varornas innehåll som även når avfallsledet skulle kunna bidra till denna hantering.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Katrahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 444 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 90 per cent is covered by soil and 10 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below The soils belong to 14 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils. About 3 per cent is sandy (loamy sand) at the surface, 15 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 72 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface. About 56 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) available water capacity. An area of about 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 77 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 50 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 40 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 86 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 4 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in 31 per cent of the soils. Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 5 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 85 per cent of the soils. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 64 per cent area of the soils. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 42 per cent of the area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in <1 per cent of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area. The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 127 (29) 157 (35) Pomegranate 48(11) 267(60) Maize 69 (16) 217 (49) Guava 14(3) 140(31) Bajra 82(18) 269(60) Jackfruit 48(11) 105(24) Redgram 34(8) 145 (32) Jamun 34(8) 168(22) Bengal gram 58(13) 234(53) Musambi 106(24) 209(47) Groundnut 14(3) 179 (40) Lime 106(24) 209 (47) Sunflower 93 (21) 165 (37) Cashew 48(11) 105(24) Cotton 93(21) 193(43) Custard apple 154(35) 227(51) Chilli 82(18) 14(3) Amla 95(22) 285 (64) Tomato 82(18) 14(3) Tamarind 95(22) 285(64) Drumstick 48(11) 240(54) Marigold 69(16) 215(49) Mulberry 48(11) 263(59) Chrysanthemum 69(16) 215(49) Mango 34(8) 39(9) Jasmine 69(16) 53(12) Sapota 48(11) 105(24) Crossandra 69(16) 141(32) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data on households sampled for socio economic survey in Katarahalli microwatershed indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Katarahalli microwatershed among them 5 (14.71 %) were landless farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were marginal farmers, 10 (29.41 %) were small farmers, 5 (14.71 %) were semi medium farmer, 6 (17.65 %) were medium farmers and 1(2.94 %) were large farmers. The data indicated that there were 95 (56.21 %) men and 74 (43.79 %) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of large farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.4, small farmers' was 5.8, semi medium farmers' was 6, medium farmers' was 4.5 and large farmers' was 5. The data indicated that, 28 (16.57 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (42.60 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (30.18 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.65 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Katarahalli had 27.22 per cent illiterates, 19.53 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.06 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.02 per cent of them had high school education, 15.98 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.18 per cent of them had Diploma, 1.78 per cent of them had ITI, 7.10 per cent of them had degree education and 0.59 per cent of them did Masters. The results indicate that, 50 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 47.06 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 per cent of the household heads were in Trade & Business. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 26.04 per cent of the household members, 33.14 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.78 per cent were in government service, 5.33 per cent were in private service, 2.37 per cent were in trade and business, 22.49 per cent were students, 2.96 per cent were housewives and 3.55 per cent were children. The results show that, 0.59 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in Gram Panchayat, Dairy Cooperative and Raitha Sangha. The results indicate that 64.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 14.71 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 20.59 per cent of them possess semi pucca house. The results show that 76.47 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.94 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD Player, 58.82 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Refrigerator, 26.47 per cent of them possess bicycle, 52.94 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94per cent of the households possess Computer/Laptop and 91.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2 The results show that the average value of television was Rs 5,807, DVD/VCD Player mixer was Rs 2,000, grinder was Rs 2,350, Refrigerator was Rs 12,000, bicycle was Rs 5,425, motor cycle was Rs.38,250 mobile phone was Rs. 1,998 and Computer/Laptop was Rs. 45,000. About 5.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 26.47 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent of them possess Irrigation Pump, 5.88 per cent possess tractor, 17.65 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler, 76.47 per cent of them possess weeder, 23.53 per cent of them possess Thresher, 2.94 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 2.94 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,500, plough was Rs. 1,820, Irrigation Pump was Rs.7,000, tractor was Rs 350,000, sprayer was Rs.3,828, Sprinkler was Rs. 8,000, average value of weeder was Rs. 159, Harvester was Rs. 84,000, Thresher was Rs. 277, average value of chaff cutter was 3,000 and the average value of earth mover/duster was Rs. 15,000. The data regarding the Livestock possession by the households in Katarahalli micro-watershed is presented in Table 13. The results indicate that, 8.82 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 17.65 per cent of the households possess local cow, 23.53 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 5.88 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 5.88 per cent of the households possess Goat. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.41, average own labour (women) available was 1.19, average hired labour (men) available was 13.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.23. The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 5.88 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Katarahalli micro-watershed possess 17.74 ha (36.01 %) of dry land and 31.51 ha (63.99 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.30 ha (85.80 %) of dry land and 0.55 ha (14.20 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 5.65 ha (52.11 %) of dry land and 5.19 ha (47.89 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.90 ha (58.47 %) of dry land and 4.19 ha (41.53 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.89 ha (16.56 %) of dry land and 14.56 ha (83.44 %) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 7.03 ha (100 %) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 431,108.83 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 382,220.36. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 726,470.58 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.67. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 398,101.72 3 for dry land and Rs. 731,566.65 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 237,336.99 for dry land and Rs. 441,497.59 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 553,501.40 for dry land and Rs. 322,651.47 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers, the average land value was Rs. 113,824.88 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 22 functioning and 17 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 64.71 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 48.68 meters. The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium, medium farmers and large farmers had an irrigated area of 1.09 ha, 7.31 ha, 4.96 ha, 11.91 ha and 2.83 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown Bajra (2.91 ha), Bengal gram (2.18 ha), Cotton (5.26 ha), Drumstick (1.26 ha), Groundnut (3.79 ha), maize (12.01 ha), Sorghum (0.88 ha), Onion (1.76 ha), Red gram (.96 ha), bajra (2.91 ha) and Pearl millet (8.10 ha). The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Katarahalli micro-watershed was found to be 74.72 per cent. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 47751.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33186.64. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -14564.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.69. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 51818.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74236.52. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 22418.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.43. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 318503.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78255.19. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. -240248.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.25. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 57538.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 52673.65. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -4864.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.92. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 113731.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 195184.89. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 81453.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.72. 4 The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46264.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 107609.70. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 61345.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.33. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 51344.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23903.22. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -27441.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.47. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 60030.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32057.96. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -27972.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.53. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Drumstick was Rs. 40072.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 223096.78. The net income from Drumstick cultivation was Rs. 183024.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 5.57. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 78158.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61688.25. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -16470.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.79. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 29807.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38285. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. 8477.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.28. The results indicate that, 26.47 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and dry fodder was inadequate for 17.65 per cent of the households. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 2,400 for landless households, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 89,571.43, for small farmers it was Rs. 184,770, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 103,200, for medium farmers it was Rs. 126,208.33 and for semi large farmers it was Rs. 138,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 18,960.57. For landless households it was Rs. 600, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 14,234.69, for small farmers it was Rs. 24,260, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 22,400, for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,069.44 and for large farmers it was Rs. 115,000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 68 coconut trees in their field and1 in backyard, 3 Custard apple trees in their field, 5 Guava trees in their field, 10 Lemon trees in their field, 19 Mango trees in their field, 4 Pomegranate in their field and 3 lime in their field. . 5 The results indicate that, households have planted 40 Teak, 47 neem, 2 tamarind and 7 banyan trees in their field. Also, 1 neem trees in their backyard. The results indicated that, Bengalgram, Cow Pea, Drumstick, Garlic, cotton and Redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent, bajra was sold to the extent of 91.83 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 40.38 per cent, Maize was sold to the extent of 98.01 per cent, Onion was sold to the extent of 64.14 per cent, Sunflower was sold to the extent of 62.5 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 86.67 per cent. The results indicated that, about 61.76 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 2.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market, 8.82 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Cooperative marketing Society and 52.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Agent/Traders. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 73.53 per cent of the households used firewood, 20.59 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel and 2.94 per cent of the households used Kerosene and Biogas as a source of fuel . The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 67.65 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 32.35 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card. The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 67.65 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 41.18 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 61.76 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 100 per cent, milk was adequate for 88.24 per cent, Fruits was adequate for 11.76 per cent, eggs were adequate for 29.41 per cent and meat was adequate for 47.06 per cent. The results indicated that, Cereals were inadequate for 32.35 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 58.82 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 38.24 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 50 per cent, milk 6 was inadequate for 2.86 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.29 per cent and meat was inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 44.12 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (50 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (47.06 %), inadequacy of irrigation water (35.29 %), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (52.94 %), high rate of interest on credit (47.06 %), low price for the agricultural commodities (35.29 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50 %), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20.59 %), less rainfall (38.24 %) and source of agri-technology information (26.47 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Maslapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 510 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 92 per cent is covered by soils and 8 per cent by rock outcrops, habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. About 10 per cent has sandy soils at the surface, 78 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and 4 per cent has clayey soils at the surface. About 6 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 6 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 86 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 22 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 70 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 35 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) and 56 per cent are very neutral (pH pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 31 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed. An area of about 34 per cent are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 50 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 336 (66) Sapota 18 (4) 70 (14) Maize - 336 (66) Pomegranate 18 (4) 79 (15) Bajra 26 (5) 383 (75) Musambi 18 (4) 79 (15) Groundnut 26 (5) 377 (74) Lime 18 (4) 79 (15) Sunflower - 53 (10) Amla 44 (9) 382 (75) Red gram - 53 (10) Cashew - 88 (17) Bengalgram 9 (2) 257 (50) Jackfruit 18 (4) 70 (14) Cotton - 336 (66) Jamun - 97 (19) Chilli - 327 (64) Custard apple 44 (9) 382 (75) Tomato - 327 (64) Tamarind - 27 (5) Brinjal 26 (5) 284 (56) Mulberry 18 (4) 95 (19) Onion 26 (5) 284 (56) Marigold - 336 (66) Bhendi - 284 (56) Chrysanthemum - 336 (66) Drumstick 18 (4) 51 (10) Jasmine - 327 (64) Mango - 18 (4) Crossandra - 327 (64) Guava - 88 (17) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The result indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Maslapur-2 micro watershed among them 5(14.29%) were landless, 4 (11.43%) were marginal farmers, 16 (45.71%) were small farmers and 10 (28.57%) were semi medium farmers. The data indicated that there were 98 (58.68%) men and 69 (41.32%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.75, small farmers' was 4.56 and semi medium farmers' was 5.40. The data indicated that, 27 (16.17%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (44.31%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (29.94%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16(9.58%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Maslapur-2 had 30.54 per cent illiterates, 49.70 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.80 per cent of them had middle school education, 8.38 per cent of them had high school education, 4.79 per cent of them had PUC, 0.60 per cent of them had diploma and ITI education, 2.99 per cent of them had degree education and 0.60 per cent of them did other education. The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 20.96 per cent of the household members, 56.29 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.80 per cent was in private sector, 20.36 per cent were students and 0.60 per cent was children. In case of landless farmers, 8 per cent were agriculturist, 60 per cent were general labourers and 32 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 20 per cent of them were practicing agriculture, 40 per cent were agricultural labourers, 6.67 per cent were in private service and 33.33 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 21.92 per cent were agriculturists, 58.90 per cent were agricultural labourers and 19.18 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers 25.93 per cent were agriculturist, 55.56 per cent were agriculture labourers, 3.70 per cent were in private service, 12.96 per cent were students and 1.85 per cent was housewives. The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 51.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 40 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess Pucca house. The results showed that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 80 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 91.43 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2 The results show that the average value of television was Rs.4906, mixer grinder was Rs.1332, bicycle was Rs. 1650, motor cycle was Rs.33583 and mobile phone was Rs.1707. Data showed 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 31.43 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess both power tiller and tractor, 28.57 per cent of them possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.86per cent of them possess chaff cutter. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18500, plough was Rs.2029, the average value of power tiller was Rs.30000, the average value was tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.3368, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.17. The results indicate that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess both bullocks and local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess both crossbreed cow and sheep respectively. In case of marginal households, 25 per cent of them possess bullocks, local cow and sheep respectively. 43.75 per cent of the small farmers possess bullock and local cow correspondingly, 6.25 per cent of the small farmers possess crossbred cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 30 per cent of households possess bullock and local cow respectively. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.80, average own labour (women) available was 1.63, average hired labour (men) available was 6.80 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.09. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 7.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.50. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was 1.63, average hired labour (men) was 8.94 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.25. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.90, average hired labour (men) was 5.20 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.30. The results indicate that, 97.14 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Maslapur-2 micro watershed possess 23.43 ha (61.01%) of dry land and 14.97 ha (38.99%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.59 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 18.81 ha (88.74%) of dry land and 2.39 ha (11.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.03 ha (13.90%) of dry land and 12.58 ha (86.10%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 243,202.62 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 460,746.14. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,812.21 for dry land. In case of small famers, the 3 average land value was Rs. 207,250.43 for dry land and Rs. 753,559.31for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 147,609.56 for dry land and Rs. 405,178.51 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning and 14 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 42.86 per cent of the farmers in micro watershed. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 29.52 meters. The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40ha, 3.48 ha and 11.05 ha of irrigated land respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (14.71 ha), groundnut (8.40 ha), bajra (1.88 ha), Sunflower (1.62 ha), Bengal gram (1.21 ha), Red gram (1.21 ha), Sorghum (1.21 ha), castor (0.81 ha), Tomato (0.81 ha), water melon (0.81 ha) and Banana (0.49 ha) in kharif season and also grown maize (1.62 ha) and groundnut (1.21 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra, sunflower and Bengal gram. Small farmers had grown maize, groundnut, bajra, Bengal gram, paddy, red gram, sorghum, castor and banana. Semi medium farmers had grown maize, groundnut, sunflower, tomato and watermelon. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Maslapur-2 micro watershed was found to be 92.65 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 92.25 per cent and in case of semi medium it was 92.18 per cent. The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of the households have bank account and 85.71 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 60 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27663.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28612.58. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 949.39, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.03. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53510.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54452.62. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 942.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.02. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 30927.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 43172.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.4. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for water melon was Rs. 37280.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69160. The net income from water melon cultivation was Rs. 31879.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86. 4 The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for banana was Rs. 95816.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 679249.97. The net income from banana cultivation was Rs. 583433.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.09. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 58817.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 156227.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 97410.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.66. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 45612.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45960.53. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 348.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 27395.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50931.76. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 23535.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 21266.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20729.50. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -537.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 14285.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31369. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 17083.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13687.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31122.00. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 17434.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Castor was Rs. 32673.72. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from Castor cultivation was Rs. -3033.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91. The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. The results indicate that, in landless farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 43000, in marginal farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.27500, wage was Rs.23750, agriculture was Rs.28025 and goat farming was Rs.10000. In small farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.5312.50, wage was Rs.24187.50, agriculture was Rs.64390.63 and dairy farming was Rs.3937.50. In semi medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs.13500, agriculture was Rs.69100 and dairy farming was Rs.800. 5 The results indicate that, in case of landless the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs. 17000. In marginal farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.5000, wage was Rs.8333.33, agriculture was Rs.14750 and goat farming was Rs.15000. In small farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.7133.33, agriculture was Rs.31875 and dairy farming was Rs.5800. In semi medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.10000, agriculture was Rs.29000 and dairy farming was Rs.1333.33. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 24 coconut, 2 lemon trees and 13 mango trees in their fields. The results indicate that, households have planted 55 neem trees and 5 tamarind trees in their field and also planted 1 neem tree in their back yard. The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 7342.86, for irrigation facility Rs. 1057.14 and for improved crop production Rs. 285.71. The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 85.71 per cent of the households for land development, 22.86 per cent of the households for irrigation facility and 5.71 per cent of the households for improved crop production . The results indicated that, banana, Bengal gram, castor, red gram, sorghum, tomato and water melon crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, maize, paddy and sunflower crops were sold to an extent of 92.05 per cent, 92.02 per cent, 98.89 per cent, 88.89 per cent and 28 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets. The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 87.50 per cent of the small farmers and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent of the households were using bore well for drinking water in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 6 The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, 100 per cent of the marginal, 6.25 per cent of the small and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 60 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 54.29 per cent, fruits were adequate for 82.86 per cent, milk was adequate for 45.71 per cent, eggs were adequate for 60 per cent and meat was adequate for 60 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 40 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 20 per cent, milk were inadequate for 17.14 per cent and egg was inadequate for 31.43 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (28.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (51.43%), high rate of interest on credit (8.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (8.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (25.71%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20%), less rainfall (62.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (14.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
AMÉRICA LATINALópez Obrador acusa al PRI de comprar cinco millones de votos.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/10/content_15565230.htm http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/07/world/americas/mexico-elections/index.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341854235_769141.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/lpez-obrador-pedir-la-nulidad-de-las-elecciones-en-mxico_12013582-4 http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/05/12570126-mexicos-president-elect-shrugs-off-claims-of-vast-vote-buying-coercion-in-election?lite http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/09/world/americas/mexico-election/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Masiva marcha en México para condenar el triunfo del PRI.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488821-masiva-marcha-en-mexico-para-condenar-el-triunfo-del-pri http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/08/12622028-tens-of-thousands-protest-in-mexico-against-president-elect-alleging-vote-fraud?lite http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/06/world/americas/mexico-elections/index.html http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2012/07/09/mexique-les-manifestations-hostiles-au-nouveau-president-continuent_1731173_3222.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341710466_799097.html Legislativas mexicanas: PRI tendrá poco margen de maniobra. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/B0D5AED1-A987-48D9-8D05-5C606ADE78C2.htm?id={B0D5AED1-A987-48D9-8D05-5C606ADE78C2} Hallan 43 muertos en distintas partes de México, 7 de ellos policías.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/muertos-en-mxico_12016401-4 http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/onze-pessoas-morrem-em-emboscada-no-norte-do-mexico-5434512#ixzz20DVo0c4yHuracán Emilia se acerca con fuerza a costas mexicanas. Para más información: http://usnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/10/12660912-emilia-becomes-powerful-category-4-hurricane-off-mexico?lite http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/10/world/americas/pacific-hurricanes/index.html Argentina condena a 50 años de cárcel al dictador Videla por el robo de bebés. Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/06/12592712-wasnt-just-one-or-two-children-ex-argentine-dictators-jailed-for-baby-thefts?lite http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/05/actualidad/1341478049_436607.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/05/world/americas/argentina-baby-theft-trial/index.html Sin apoyo externo, el paraguayo Franco afronta ahora el aislamiento interno.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488915-sin-apoyo-externo-franco-afronta-ahora-el-aislamiento-interno http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489390-los-colorados-preparan-su-regreso#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/paraguay-es-un-pas-en-soledad_12010505-4 Descarta la OEA suspender a Paraguay y critica al Mercosur.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489389-descarta-la-oea-suspender-a-paraguay-y-critica-al-mercosur#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/insulza-rechaza-suspender-a-paraguay-de-la-oea_12017170-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/5FFD5269-B04F-4517-A7C3-746DC07E0CE4.htm?id={5FFD5269-B04F-4517-A7C3-746DC07E0CE4} Mercosur hace frente a la doctrina de Hugo Chávez.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/mercosul-testa-doutrina-de-hugo-chavez-5433450 Caracas cede cada vez más el control de su industria petrolera a China.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489118-caracas-cede-cada-vez-mas-el-control-de-su-industria- Lula a Chávez: "Tu victoria será nuestra victoria".Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/07/actualidad/1341623066_440627.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488742-fuerte-respaldo-de-lula-a-chavezChávez dice que se encuentra "totalmente libre" del cáncer.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/chavez-diz-que-esta-totalmente-livre-do-cancer-voltou-correr-5431942#ixzz20DVaaC8w http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48127346/ns/world_news-americas/#.T_1cD5HMqw5 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489116-chavez-dice-que-se-encuentra-totalmente-libre-del-cancer#comentarCierran una radio opositora en Ecuador. Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488743-cierran-una-radio-opositora-en-ecuador Nicaragua busca tener canal interoceánico. Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/nicaragua-busca-tener-canal-interocenico_12012306-4 Dilma alienta el consumo de productos nacionales.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488945-dilma-alienta-el-consumo-de-productos-nacionales Preocupación en Cuba por un nuevo brote de cólera.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/10/12656866-cholera-kills-at-least-3-in-cuba-bad-water-wells-blamed?lite http://america-latina.blog.lemonde.fr/2012/07/09/cuba-retour-sur-laffaire-padilla/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489344-preocupacion-en-cuba-por-un-nuevo-brote-de-colera#comentar Ejército abandona las favelas que fueron bastión de los narcos en Río de Janeiro.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489115-el-ejercito-abandona-las-favelas-que-fueron-bastion-de-los-narcos-en-rio-de-janeiro#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/la-singular-estrategia-de-paz-en-las-favelas-de-ro_12010831-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/AC562F1F-46DC-40DE-A2FF-7BE82BDAA16C.htm?id={AC562F1F-46DC-40DE-A2FF-7BE82BDAA16C} Bolivia estatizará concesión de plata.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/bolivia-estatizar-concesin-de-plata_12016287-4 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341821141_720801.html Ascenso de los evangélicos en Brasil, el país más católico del mundo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/ascenso-de-los-evanglicos-en-brasil-el-pas-ms-catlico-del-mundo_12013663-4 Argentina: se concreta fractura de central obrera. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/F9138ADB-53CD-4D1C-B393-5251B78854B1.htm?id={F9138ADB-53CD-4D1C-B393-5251B78854B1} Indígenas colombianos se enfrentan al ejército. Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18791301ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁ Obama estancado en un empate con Mitt Romney. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/_portada/noticias/CC8294A8-6DEC-4BB7-B791-EA60DE261C19.htm?id={CC8294A8-6DEC-4BB7-B791-EA60DE261C19} http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/no-mes-em-que-mais-arrecadou-obama-segue-atras-de-opositor-5432399#ixzz20DVzysuaObama va por extensión de reducción de impuestos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/obama-pide-terminar-con-rebajas-fiscales-a-ricos_12013882-4 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/barack-obama-propone-que-los-ms-adinerados-se-metan-la-mano-al-bolsillo_12016285-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489101-obama-pide-que-la-clase-media-pague-menos-impuestos#comentar http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/obama-insiste-em-imposto-maior-para-ricos-5433578 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567815.htm Obama mantiene la ventaja en doce estados clave de cara a las elecciones.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341852907_521683.html http://elpais.com/tag/elecciones_eeuu_2012/a/ Romney lidera en la recaudación de fondos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489102-romney-lidera-en-la-recaudacion-de-fondos#comentar Hillary Clinton visita Laos . Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18792282Peor incendio en la historia del estado de Colorado, casi bajo control.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/peor-incendio-en-la-historia-de-estado-de-colorado_12011204-4Congresista estadounidense homosexual contrae matrimonio.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/congresista-estadounidense-homosexual-contrae-matrimonio_12015133-4EUROPAItalia no descarta pedir un rescate a la Unión Europea. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15568009.htm http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489387-tambien-italia-abrio-las-puertas-a-un-rescate#comentar http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489497-italia-no-descarta-pedir-un-rescate-a-la-ue#comentarRajoy lanza nuevos recortes para combatir el déficit. Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/ayuda-del-eurogrupo-a-espaa-hasta-100000-millones-de-euros_12017462-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18792427 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489110-presionada-por-la-ue-espana-ajusta-mas#comentar A cambio del rescate Madrid debe renunciar al control de sus bancos. Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/858086.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489421-la-ue-avanza-sobre-espana-y-le-recorta-soberania#comentar Diversos medios hacen referencia a la crisis económica europea.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21558257 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489112-bajo-la-lupa-los-lideres-tambien-se-aprietan-el-cinturon#comentar http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2012/07/09/le-mes-un-fmi-a-l-europeenne-qui-doit-encore-trouver-sa-place_1731118_3234.html Grecia continúa haciendo frente a medidas de austeridad. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-greece-resignation-20120710,0,1715490.storyParís y Berlín quieren refundar Unión Europea. Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/09/world/europe/germany-and-france-celebrate-their-bond.html?ref=world&gwh=F31516EB7E884932259193FE0B5E9652 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341743167_271675.html 54 migrantes africanos mueren en intento por cruzar a Italia. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567645.htm http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18794548 Más de 140 personas mueren por causa de fuertes lluvias en Rusia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/09/world/europe/russia-floods/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/09/world/europe/putin-tours-flood-stricken-black-sea-region.html?ref=world&gwh=6533565A0D4BC183840BD4138B5015EB http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/mais-de-140-pessoas-morrem-por-causa-de-chuvas-no-sul-da-russia-5417115#ixzz20DYdU1OE http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341741179_622677.html La UE alerta que Al Qaeda tiene misiles para derribar aviones en el Sahel.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/07/actualidad/1341696955_789895.htmlEta mantiene renuncia a las armas, pero cuestiona que no haya diálogo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/estrasburgo-se-opone-a-la-doctrina-parot-y-pide-excarcelar-a-una-etarra_12016481-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2012/07/09/eta-accuse-paris-et-madrid-de-bloquer-le-dialogue_1731169_3214.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/eta-mantiene-renuncia-a-las-armas-y-dice-que-madrid-y-pars-no-avanzan-hacia-el-dilogo_12012484-4 Rusia hace ejercicios con buques de guerra en el Mar Negro. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567096.htmReinician juicio contra Mladic en La Haya.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/78575.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48144578/ns/world_news-europe/#.T_1b1ZHMqw5 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/19/actualidad/1340065013_444531.html http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/testemunha-descreve-massacre-em-julgamento-de-ratko-mladic-5427938#ixzz20DYvURT2 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18795203Alemania reformará los servicios secretos tras el escándalo de grupo neonazi.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341739420_437202.html Gran Bretaña vota una histórica reforma de la Cámara de los Lores.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/09/12637862-london-bomber-widow-samantha-lewthwaite-recruiting-female-terror-squads-in-somalia?lite http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-britain-lords-20120711,0,2351369.story http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489216-gran-bretana-vota-una-historica-reforma-de-la-camara-de-los-lores#comentar http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-russia-floods-20120708,0,3779381.storyLondres se prepara para las Olimpíadas. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/C66745FA-E3AF-4BBB-B255-BDBE47981E4E.htm?id={C66745FA-E3AF-4BBB-B255-BDBE47981E4E} http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/05/world/europe/uk-security-incident/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9 Los mineros españoles protestan contra los recortes con una "marcha negra" por Madrid.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489403-los-mineros-espanoles-protestan-contra-los-recortes-con-una-marcha-negra-por-madrid#comentar Los bosques radiactivos de Chernobyl, una bomba dormida. Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489052-los-bosques-radiactivos-de-chernobyl-una-bomba-dormida#comentar Según autoridades rusas dejarían de vender armas a Siria. Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/russia-vai-suspender-venda-de-armas-para-siria-diz-autoridade-5426247#ixzz20DYau3Lt Hollande lanza una cumbre social para reformar el modelo francés.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341840770_252931.html ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEKofi Annan asegura que acordó un nuevo plan de paz con régimen sirio.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/siria-acuerdan-nuevo-plan-de-paz-con-bashar-al-asad_12012983-4 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567761.htm http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/78574.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/10/world/middleeast/bashar-al-assad-meets-with-kofi-annan.html?ref=world&gwh=24DB32B019FC2DE1935A2D140E746CBF Assad afirma que no va a terminar como Gadafi o Mubarak. Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/assad-diz-nao-temer-destino-de-kadafi-ou-mubarak-5430021#ixzz20DZ4cIsS Annan busca apoyo de Irán e Irak frente a crisis siria. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/FE35F23F-BA99-40AE-890B-B7178FA2CA68.htm?id={FE35F23F-BA99-40AE-890B-B7178FA2CA68} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341816579_934773.html Repudio internacional por ejecución pública de joven afgana acusada de adulterio.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/09/12639235-unspeakable-cruelty-outrage-grows-after-afghan-womans-execution-caught-on-video?lite http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/08/12627795-us-afghan-officials-condemn-public-execution-of-afghan-woman?lite http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489214-conmocion-por-el-brutal-asesinato-en-publico-de-una-mujer-en-afganistan#comentar http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/afeganistao-video-mostra-mulher-sendo-executada-por-adulterio-5422494#ixzz20DYyNkmQ http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/08/world/asia/afghanistan-public-execution/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Irán prueba misiles.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567884.htm http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/01/world/meast/iran-missiles/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 China desafía al mundo e invierte 20.000 millones de dólares en Irán.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489014-china-iran-inversiones#comentar China advierte freno en economía.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-china-slowdown-20120710,0,3626338.story http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488944-china-advierte-que-se-frena-su-economia#comentar http://www.economist.com/node/21558307Japón y China en disputa por una isla. Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18792556 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghan-roadside-bombing-20120709,0,7742430.story Ataque en Afganistán mata a 6 militares estadounidenses.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/10/world/asia/gunmen-in-pakistan-kill-6-soldiers-and-a-policeman.html?ref=world&gwh=883D5C77A6960B664276A9D77BEB75D2 http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-china-slowdown-20120710,0,3626338.story http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/08/12627789-6-us-soldiers-killed-in-roadside-bomb-attack-in-eastern-afghanistan?lite Los aliados darán a Afganistán 13.000 millones de ayuda en tres años.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341757800_037533.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/09/world/asia/afghanistan-is-pledged-16-billion-for-civilian-needs.html?ref=world&gwh=716276436265F935ACD6ADED912FE74D Sacerdote preso por desafiar al gobierno chino. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/A946EE57-B9C4-4F25-8083-B5F0028742AB.htm?id={A946EE57-B9C4-4F25-8083-B5F0028742AB} El 'tercer sexo' será oficializado por medio de una ley en Nepal.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/ley-oficializara-el-tercer-sexo-en-nepal-_12016981-4 Aung San Suu Kyi mantiene su asiento en parlamento de Myanmar.Para más información: http://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/09/12638373-aung-san-suu-kyi-takes-her-seat-in-myanmar-parliament?lite Trabajadores de medios surcoreanos en huelga por independencia de medios de comunicación.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-korea-media-strike-20120711,0,5422254.story"CNN" analiza qué pueden aprender los líderes japoneses de la crisis nuclear en Fukushima.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/06/opinion/takeshita-fukushima-management/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7ÁFRICAEl Constitucional egipcio censura al presidente por restablecer el Parlamento.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/10/world/middleeast/egypt-tension-after-order-to-reconvene-parliament.html?_r=1&ref=world&gwh=9D2DE4022C04A357E903195CA2BC3A53 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2012/07/libyas-electionhttp://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2012/07/egypts-politics http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/10/12659862-future-constitution-at-heart-of-egypt-power-struggle?lite http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-parliament-20120711,0,7892069.story http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/09/world/meast/egypt-politics/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Desafío de Morsi a los militares egipcios.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488914-desafio-de-morsi-a-los-militares-egipcios http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/06/23/world/middleeast/The-Leaders-of-The-Egyptian-Military-Council.html?ref=world&gwh=4BFBFEBC95E1F52E7DA308015B315475 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15568011.htm http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341760888_873837.html Se aleja en Libia el fantasma islamista: ganan los liberales. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15568011.htm http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18799065 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2012/07/libyas-election http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488910-se-aleja-en-libia-el-fantasma-islamista-ganan-los-liberales http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48111019/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.T_1btpHMqw5 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/09/world/africa/libya-election/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/09/world/africa/libya-election-latest-results.html?ref=world&gwh=5D6E6EFEE759B5007C364EE0B568B654 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341843623_669452.html "MSNBC" analiza: 120 doctores para 8 millones de personas en Sudán del Sur.Para más información: http://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/10/12658825-120-doctors-for-8-million-people-south-sudans-health-care-gap?liteCorte Penal Internacional condena a 14 años a líder rebelde congoleño.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/C11C434B-39A6-4F8C-979C-A797628DB0B7.htm?id={C11C434B-39A6-4F8C-979C-A797628DB0B7} http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/_portada/noticias/8745E475-BD7D-4163-9597-EB71364AE508.htm?id={8745E475-BD7D-4163-9597-EB71364AE508}OTRASEl FMI advirtió que la desaceleración de Brasil, China y la India frenarán aún más elcrecimiento este año, que será inferior al esperado. Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488508-duro-pronostico-para-la-economia-global"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21558323
In: Tsiamis , K , Palialexis , A , Connor , D , Antoniadis , S , Bartilotti , C , Bartolo , A G , Berggreen , U C , Boschetti , S , Buschbaum , C , Canning-Clode , J , Carbonell , A , Castriota , L , Corbeau , C , Costa , A , Cvitković , I , Despalatović , M , Dragičević , B , Dulčić , J , Fortič , A , Francé , J , Gittenberger , A , Gizzi , F , Gollasch , S , Gruszka , P , Hegarty , M , Hema , T , Jensen , K , Josephides , M , Kabuta , S H , Kerckhof , F , Kovtun-Kante , A , Krakau , M , Kraśniewski , W , Lackschewitz , D , Lehtiniemi , M , Lieberum , C , Linnamägi , M , Lipej , L , Livi , S , Lundgreen , K , Magliozzi , C , Massé , C , Mavrič , B , Michailidis , N , Moncheva , S , Mozetič , P , Naddafi , R , Gladan , Ž N , Ojaveer , H , Olenin , S , Orlando-Bonaca , M , Ouerghi , A , Parente , M , Pavlova , P , Peterlin , M , Pitacco , V , Png-Gonzalez , L , Rousou , M , Sala-Pérez , M , Serrano , A , Skorupski , J , Smolders , S , Srébaliené , G , Stæhr , P A , Stefanova , K , Straeke , S , Tabarcea , C , Todorova , V , Trkov , D , Tuaty-Guerra , M , Vidjak , O , Zenetos , A , Žuljević , A & Candoso , A C 2021 , Delivering solid recommendations for setting threshold values for non-indigenous species pressure on European seas : Marine Strategy Framework Directive Descriptor 2, Non-Indigenous Species . Publications Office of the European Union, JRC . https://doi.org/10.2760/035071
Marine Non-Indigenous Species (NIS) are animals and plants introduced accidently or deliberately into the European seas, originating from other seas of the globe. About 800 marine non-indigenous species (NIS) currently occur in the European Union national marine waters, several of which have negative impacts on marine ecosystem services and biodiversity. Under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) Descriptor 2 (D2), EU Member States (MSs) need to consider NIS in their marine management strategies. The Descriptor D2 includes one primary criterion (D2C1: new NIS introductions), and two secondary criteria (D2C2 and D2C3). The D2 implementation is characterized by a number of issues and uncertainties which can be applicable to the Descriptor level (e.g. geographical unit of assessment, assessment period, phytoplanktonic, parasitic, oligohaline NIS, etc.), to the primary criterion D2C1 level (e.g. threshold values, cryptogenic, questionable species, etc), and to the secondary criteria D2C2 and D2C3. The current report tackles these issues and provides practical recommendations aiming at a smoother and more efficient implementation of D2 and its criteria at EU level. They constitute a solid operational output which can result in more comparable D2 assessments among MSs and MSFD regions/subregions. When it comes to the policy-side, the current report calls for a number of different categories of NIS to be reported in D2 assessments, pointing the need for the species to be labelled/categorised appropriately in the MSFD reporting by the MSs. These suggestions are proposed to be communicated to the MSFD Working Group of Good Environmental Status (GES) and subsequently to the Marine Strategy Coordination Group (MSCG) of MSFD. Moreover, they can serve as an input for revising the Art. 8 Guidelines.
Tese de Doutoramento em Arquitetura com a especialização em Desenho e Computação apresentada na Faculdade de Arquitetura da Universidade de Lisboa para obtenção de grau de Doutor. ; Os aglomerados urbanos em rápido crescimento contribuem e enfrentam hoje, as consequências de crises globais, como a poluição, as alterações climáticas, a diminuição dos recursos naturais, conflitos sociais e migrações em massa. O planeamento e projecto do ambiente construído são essenciais para uma correcta organização da vida urbana, de modo a reduzir a poluição, distribuir recursos de maneira justa, fortalecer laços sociais e comunitários e prosperar economicamente. Projectar cidades incentivando a pedestrianização como meio de transporte constitui uma contribuição para esses objectivos, facilitando a mitigação da poluição, o acesso livre e democrático aos recursos urbanos, revitalizando as ruas e consequentemente apoiando as economias locais. Embora a investigação sobre a pedestrianização e caminhabilidade do ambiente construído já tenha décadas, temos hoje dados urbanos atualizados e ferramentas mais precisas do que nunca, que permitem uma análise detalhada dos factores que promovem a pedestrianização, podendo suportar decisões baseadas em evidências para o desenvolvimento de uma mobilidade mais sustentável. Tais ferramentas de planeamento viabilizam também uma melhor integração destes dados nos processos de projecto bem como a sua comunicação aos vários agentes participantes na decisão. Esta dissertação defende a necessidade de um método de análise 3D à escala da rua para informar soluções flexíveis de projecto urbano baseadas em dados urbanos rapidamente actualizáveis e acessíveis remotamente, obtidos sem a necessidade de pesquisas no local. Este método preenche uma lacuna existente na literatura propondo um fluxo de trabalho semi-automático. Este fluxo de trabalho propõe-se solucionar a desconexão entre a investigação no campo da pedestrianização, as ferramentas existentes e os processos de planeamento e projecto urbano. Argumenta-se que essa desconexão resulta da priorização de preocupações financeiras nos processos de planeamento e desenho urbano e da falta de métodos de avaliação rápidos e práticos aplicáveis nas várias etapas e escalas de projecto e de um modo fragmentado ou holístico. Além disso, os métodos existentes de avaliação da caminhabilidade que avaliam contextos urbanos nestas escalas e detalhe, não são capazes de avaliar ruas através de dados urbanos acedidos remotamente, recorrendo geralmente a auditorias ou pesquisas onerosas e morosas no local. O fluxo de trabalho proposto neste estudo visa responder a esta necessidade; combina um modelo 3D de uma unidade de vizinhança desenvolvido num ambiente de programação visual, SIG e códigos personalizados, e utiliza um modelo de análise morfológica chamado Convex e Solid-Void, combinado com técnicas de Web-scrapping e reconhecimento de imagem. A dissertação contribui para a investigação sobre caminhabilidade, propondo um fluxo de trabalho de análise de caminhabilidade em escala micro, em 3D, e remotamente aplicável, além de distinguir indicadores aplicáveis a ruas com diferentes formas e usos. O método promove o modelo computacional de análise urbana, Convex e Solid-Void, apresentando a sua primeira aplicação ao problema urbano da caminhabilidade. Também demonstra a integração de fontes de dados acessíveis remotamente, incluindo imagens de Street View obtidas de uma plataforma de mapas on-line e dados de redes sociais geo-localizados, para a avaliação quantitativa dos espaços urbanos. De futuro, pretende-se desenvolver o método para permitir o acesso remoto da avaliação a várias dessas fontes de dados. Tal é possível pelo uso combinado de SIG com representações espaciais 3D e ferramentas de programação integradas no mesmo fluxo de trabalho. Estes ambientes, que facilitam a associação de elementos espaciais com informações semânticas por meio de bases de dados, possibilitam a utilização de quaisquer dados que possam ser processados em análise espacial para alimentação de processos de projecto gerativo. O resultado desta pesquisa apresenta-se na forma de recomendações de planeamento e desenho urbano e também pretende ser um recurso prático a ser usado em projectos de reabilitação urbana. Como parte do modelo Convex e Solid-Void usado neste estudo, apresenta-se uma nova unidade espacial 3D "Street-Void", na qual todos os dados coletados são agregados para análise. Identificam-se indicadores específicos para avaliar com mais precisão os espaços das ruas, primeiro distinguindo entre ruas e praças e depois avaliando quantitativamente espaços semelhantes a ruas e espaços semelhantes a praças, e ainda espaços residenciais e de uso misto. Com base nos resultados da aplicação do método a quatro bairros estudados nas cidades de Istambul e Lisboa, e uma classificação das ruas usando os indicadores identificados, apresenta-se um conjunto de recomendações, que se atribuem a intervalos de valores próprios das tipologias específicas de ruas. Estas recomendações são formuladas para que possam ser aplicadas holisticamente ou de maneira fragmentada em diferentes fases de projecto ou cenários de melhoria urbana. Este estudo amplia o conhecimento sobre pedestrianização, sugerindo diferentes indicadores e faixas de valor para a avaliação de ruas, relacionando caminhabilidade com a variação das suas formas e usos. A tese está organizada da seguinte forma. No capítulo de introdução, são apresentados brevemente os objetivos da pesquisa, a contribuição e importância para o tema, metodologia, resultados e conclusão. No segundo capítulo, são apresentadas as questões de investigação a que a tese responde e a hipótese construída sobre essas questões. Estas questões podem ser listadas da seguinte maneira. Como podem a caminhabilidade e seus critérios serem integrados nos processos de desenho urbano (à escala do bairro)? Quais as qualidades do ambiente urbano construído que devem ser consideradas para a avaliação da caminhabilidade, para que as decisões de projecto possam ser informadas com mais eficácia? Como podemos avaliar a pedestrianização de um bairro num ambiente urbano complexo e em constante mudança? O terceiro capítulo apresenta uma revisão da literatura no tema da pesquisa, incluindo os temas do projecto urbano centrados no ser humano, investigação existente sobre a medição da caminhabilidade e sobre ferramentas de projecto algorítmico desenvolvidas para a escala urbana e em particular para a escala do bairro. No quarto capítulo, são explicados o método do estudo realizado e os princípios do fluxo de trabalho acima apresentados. Discute-se o processo de selecção utilizado para determinar os atributos quantitativos para a medição da caminhabilidade. As "características" sob as quais esses atributos são agrupados são a densidade, diversidade, conectividade, escala humana, complexidade, clausura (enclosure), forma, inclinação, permeabilidade e infraestrutura. Estas características e atributos são reduzidos posteriormente através de um processo de eliminação aos seus componentes principais. O quinto capítulo apresenta os estudos de caso dos bairros que são utilizados no desenvolvimento do fluxo de trabalho de medição, a interpretação dos atributos de caminhabilidade face aos dados medidos e uma análise inicial desses dados quantitativos. No sexto capítulo, o uso de dados de redes sociais e imagens street view como representantes de caminhabilidade são testados por métodos estatísticos e os espaços das ruas analisados são classificados com base nos atributos medidos (através de um método de clustering). Tipologias de rua com atributos específicos são identificadas nas várias classes (clusters) obtidas. Os atributos são avaliados com base na comparação de seus resultados quantitativos para cada tipologia de rua e são reduzidos através de um processo de filtragem. O sétimo capítulo inclui uma reclassificação das ruas com base em suas formas e usos e uma avaliação das medidas dos seus atributos com base na comparação dos seus resultados para essas classes. Através dessa avaliação, diferentes intervalos de valores foram determinados para serem aplicados aos diferentes atributos das ruas, e as descobertas obtidas por este método foram convertidas num guia destinado a informar os processos de desenho e planeamento urbano. O oitavo capítulo resume a produção geral da tese, a sua contribuição para o conhecimento, bem como para os processos de projecto e planeamento urbano. Partindo dos seus aspectos inovadores, fornece também uma visão geral dos estudos futuros que a tese pode proporcionar. No presente desenvolvimento, o método proposto nesta tese para a medição da caminhabilidade e respectivas recomendações para os processos de projecto e planeamento podem ser utilizadas como parte de serviços de consultoria a ser prestados a municípios, consultoria particular e a profissionais de projecto e planeamento. Em estudos futuros, pretende-se tornar o fluxo de trabalho apresentado numa ferramenta que pode ser utilizada diretamente por projectistas e planeadores. Prevê-se que tais estudos sejam desenvolvidos através da multiplicação dos contextos estudados, melhorando a qualidade e a precisão dos dados urbanos utilizados, aumentando o nível de detalhe capturado pelo modelo de análise e aplicando a análise a fenómenos urbanos que não sejam somente a caminhabilidade. Devido às semelhanças dos seus ambientes construídos, os bairros utilizados no presente estudo, que são Kadikoy e Hasanpasa em Istambul e Chiado e Ajuda em Lisboa, permitiram a avaliação de um conjunto consistente de ruas, oferecendo variedade suficiente. Mais especificamente, devido às semelhanças em termos de escala e uso, quando os espaços das ruas desses bairros foram classificados com base nos atributos utilizados, revelaram-se 6 tipologias diferentes de espaços de rua. Prevê-se que essas tipologias sejam multiplicadas pela aplicação do método a contextos diferentes em termos de escala, forma e uso. Devido à disponibilidade de dados detalhados e a uma variedade de espaços nas ruas em termos dos critérios mencionados, Nova York, Singapura e Amsterdão são exemplos de cidades que poderão ser estudadas como novos casos de estudo. ; ABSTRACT: Today, rapidly growing urban populations both contribute to global crises such as pollution, climate change, diminishing natural resources, social conflicts and mass migrations and face the consequences. The built environment, its planning and design are critical in organizing urban life so that we pollute less, distribute our resources fairly, strengthen social and communal ties and thrive economically. Designing our cities to support walking as a means of transport contributes in these goals through facilitating pollution free and democratic access to urban resources, supporting local economies and enlivening the street. While research on walkability of the built environment is decades old now, we have more up-to-date, accurate and large-scale urban data than ever and our developing tools make it possible to feed this data into design and management processes to create and sustain more walkable environments. This dissertation argues for the necessity of a street-scale, 3d analysis method to inform flexible urban design solutions based on rapidly updatable and remotely accessible urban data obtained without the necessity of on-site surveys, proposing a semi-automated workflow to fill this gap in existing literature. The workflow combines a 3d neighborhood model in a visual programming environment, GIS and custom codes, utilizing a morphological analysis model named Convex and Solid-Voids, together with web scraping and image recognition techniques. A 3d street space unit "Street-Void" is presented within the Convex and Solid-Void model in which all gathered data is aggregated for analysis. Specific indicators are identified to more accurately assess street spaces, first by distinguishing between and then quantitatively evaluating street-like and square-like, residential and mixed-use streets. Based on the findings from the application of the workflow to four neighborhoods studied in the cities of Istanbul and Lisbon and a classification of street spaces using the proposed attributes, a set of recommendations are presented, with value ranges applicable to specific street typologies. These recommendations are formulated so that they can be applied holistically or in a fragmented way at different stages of planning and urban improvement scenarios with their projected impact grouped under direct/physical or indirect/perceptual. The dissertation contributes to walkability research by proposing a micro-scale, 3d and remotely applicable walkability analysis workflow as well as distinguishing between indicators to be applied to street spaces of different shapes and uses. It furthers the computational urban analysis model Convex and Solid-Voids by presenting its first-time application to the tangible urban problem of walkability. It also demonstrates the integration of remotely accessible data sources including street view images from an online map platform and location based social network data to the quantitative evaluation of urban street spaces. With urban planning and design recommendations, it demonstrates the practical application of the findings to urban improvement scenarios. The study is envisioned to be developed by future work through multiplying the contexts that are studied, improving the quality and accuracy of urban data utilized, increasing the level of detail captured by the morphological analysis model and applying the analysis to other urban phenomena other than walkability. ; N/A
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanakapura-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 410 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 79 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops, 14 per cent by mining/industrial, 1 per cent by railway and 5 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 16 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 6 Land Management Units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm). About 8 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 27 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 44 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 61 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 21 per cent area of the microwatershed is nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 54 per cent area of the microwatershed is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 4 per cent area of microwatershed is gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands. An area of about 29 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 50 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 69 per cent soil are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 10 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 51 per cent area. An area of about 14 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 64 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 51 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 28 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in 1 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 78 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) and 21 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content. Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content. Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in available zinc content. The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 18(4) 103(25) Sapota 18(4) 84(20) Maize 18(4) 113(27) Pomegranate 18(4) 138(34) Bajra 21(5) 148(36) Guava 16(4) 85(21) Groundnut - 183(45) Jackfruit 18(4) 84(20) Sunflower 18(4) 102(25) Jamun 2(<1) 154(13) Cotton 2(<1) 119(29) Musambi 18(4) 138(34) Red gram 18(4) 102(25) Lime 18(4) 138(34) Bengalgram 54(13) 70(17) Cashew 16(4) 108(26) Chilli 21(5) 46(11) Custard apple 21(5) 276(67) Tomato 21(5) 46(11) Amla 21(5) 276(67) Brinjal 64(16) 216(52) Tamarind 2(<1) 115(28) Onion 61(15) 219(53) Marigold 18(4) 104(25) Bhendi 61(15) 219(53) Chrysanthemum 18(4) 104(25) Drumstick 18(4) 217(53) Jasmine 18(4) 50(12) Mulberry 18(4) 275(67) Crossandra 18(4) 49(12) Mango 2(<1) 61(15) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 94 (53.11%) men and 83 (46.89%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 4.08, small farmers' was 3.60, semi medium farmers' was 5.10 and medium farmers' was 7.50. The data indicated that, 27 (15.25%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 90 (50.85%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (27.12%) were in 36-60 years of age and 6 (6.78%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Kanakapura-1 had 32.20 per cent illiterates, 20.34 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.34 per cent of them had middle school education, 20.34 per cent of them had high school education, 9.60 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.82 per cent of them had ITI, 3.95 per cent had degree education, 0.56 per cent of master and 2.82 per cent others. The results indicate that, 91.89 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 8.11 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture labour. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 40.68 per cent of the household members, 21.47 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.56 per cent of the households industry, 2.82 per cent were in private service, 23.16 per cent were in students, 6.78 per cent were housewives and 2.26 per cent were in children. The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that, 51.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 8.11 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 40.54 per cent of them possess semi pacca house The results show that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 48.65 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 8.11 per cent of them possess bicycle, 45.95 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 45.95 per cent of them possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 7,299, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,625, bicycle was 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 47,352, and mobile phone was Rs. 2,078. About 8.11 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.70 per cent of them power tiller, 5.41 per cent of them tractor, 2.70 per cent of them possess sprayer and 37.84 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of plough was Rs. 1,400, power tiller was Rs. 200000, tractor was Rs. 550,000, sprayer was Rs. 5000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.29. 2 The results indicate that, 18.92 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 29.73 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.11 per cent possess crossbreed cow and buffalo respectively and 2.70 per cent possess sheep. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.31, average own labour (women) available was 1.27, average hired labour (men) available was 3.41 and average hired labour (women) available was 2.92. The results indicate that, households of the Kanakapura-1 micro-watershed possess 11.55 ha (31.70%) of dry land and 24.87 ha (68.30%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.70 ha (71.91%) of dry land and 2.23(28.09%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 3.78 ha (77.92%) of dry land and 1.07 ha (22.08%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.06 ha (13.81%) of dry land and 12.88 ha (86.19%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.70 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 701,261.82 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 548,576.31. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 929,758.50 for dry land and Rs. 1,482,000. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 554,759.35 for dry land and Rs. 1,398,113.16 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 339,019.61 for dry land and Rs. 454,101.20 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 344,811.54 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 16 functioning bore wells and 1de-functioning bore well in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there were 5 functioning Open wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well and open wells were the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 43.24 per cent and 13.51per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 35.29 meters and Open well was found to be 3.38 meters. The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.70 ha, 1.07 ha, 11.51ha and 10.76 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (12.13 ha), bajra (4.75 ha), cotton (4.21ha), sunflower (3.7 ha), redgram (2.24 ha), sugarcane (2.11 ha), cow pea (2.06 ha), greengram (0.85 ha), paddy (0.81), sorghum (0.81), groundnut (0.46ha), onion (0.4ha) and tomato (0.4 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, redgram, greengram, sorghum and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, sunflower, redgram and onion. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, sunflower, sugarcane, greengram and paddy. Medium farmers have grown bajra, sunflower, maize, cowpea and sugarcane. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kanakapura-1 micro-watershed was found to be 87.86 per cent. 3 The results show that 13.51 per cent of the households possess bank account and saving. The results show that 5.41 per cent of the households possess borrowing status. The results show that 25 per cent for friends/ relative and 75 per cent for Grameena bank of the households possess credit availed. The results show that Rs.51250 of the households average credit amount status. The results show that among 100 per cent of the households purpose of credit borrowed - Institutional credit for agricultural production. The results show that among 100 per cent of the households purpose of credit borrowed - private credit for agricultural production. The results show that 100 per cent of the households helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The results show that 100 per cent of the households helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 37230.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46287.02. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 9056.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24. The total cost of cultivation for bajra+redgram was Rs. 19640.10. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31238.23. The net income from bajra+redgram cultivation was Rs. 11598.13. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.59. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 60582.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59800.00. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -782.20. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99. The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 41256.23The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50093.01. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8836.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.21. The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 35927.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47954.59. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 12027.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33. The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 87301.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 168979.36. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 81678.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.94. The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 80494.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55575.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. -24919.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.69. The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 55759.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. - 6359.25.Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89. 4 The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 23473.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640.00.The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 6166.88. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.26. The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 47588.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63232.00. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 15643.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33. The total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 22280.33 gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640.00. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 7359.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33. The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 7811.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 7278.98. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. -532.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.93. The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 48836. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49111.08. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 275.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01. The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 22275.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60206.25The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 37931.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.7. The results indicate that, 29.73 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and 21.62 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 46,000.00 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 51,915.38, for small farmers it was Rs. 66,200, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 91,700 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 62,750. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,560.36. For landless households it was Rs. 3,480, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,494.87, for small farmers it was Rs. 10,260, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,310 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 21,375. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 90 coconut and13 mango trees in their field and 3 coconut and 1 mango trees in backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 2 cashew and 57 neem, 1tamarind and 11banyan trees in their field. The results indicated that, cotton sugarcane and sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent, tomato was sold to the extent of 93.33 per cent, bajra was sold to the extent of 71.55 per cent, redgram was sold to the extent of 62.96 per cent, greengram ground nut was sold extent of 50 per cent paddy was sold to 45 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 16.67 per cent. The results indicated that, about 62.16 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders. 37.84 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 27.03 per cent of them sold their produce through regulated market. 5 The results indicated that, 21.62 per cent of the households used head load, 29.53 per cent of the households used cart and 75.68 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 10.81 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 18.92 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 89.19 per cent of the households used firewood and 13.51 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 45.95 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 48.65 per cent of the households and 2.70 per cent of the households used Canal/Nala in micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 97.30 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 45.95 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 89.19 per cent of the sampled household's possessed BPL card and 10.81 per cent not possessed card. The results indicated that, 54.05 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.89 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 70.27 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 27.03 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 45.95 per cent, fruits were adequate for 54.05 per cent, milk was adequate for 72.97 per cent and meat was adequate for 54.05 per cent. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 8.11 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 29.73 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 70.27 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 54.05 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 35.14 per cent, milk were inadequate for 16.22 per cent, egg was inadequate for 37.84per cent and meat were inadequate for 35.14 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 59.46 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (43.24%),frequent incidence of pest and diseases (56.76%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (54.05%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (48.65%), low price for the agricultural commodities (27.03%),inadequate extension services (16.22%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (51.35%), less rainfall (51.35%) and source of Agri-technology information (24.32%) . ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Full TextThe Barn Owl The Barn Owl (Tyto alba) is a medium-sized, tawny coloured owl that, with the exception of Antarctica, has worldwide distribution. Like most owls the Barn Owl is considered to be nocturnal. Like all owls, it is predatory bird. In the Barn Owl's case, members of the species are said to enjoy (or specialize, in the biological parlance) in small ground mammals—rodents, for example. In Eastern North America, the majority of their diet would include Meadow Voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and Deer Mice (Peromyscus maniculatus). Barn Owls strike a distinct-look with their lack of ear tufts (a misnomer of sorts as the tufts—the "horns" of a Great Horned Owl, Bubo virginianus—are not ears and not associated with hearing at all) and their distinct heart-shaped facial disc (which is associated with hearing, but that's another story for another time). As their common name suggests they can be found living in barns, on a nest made from the regurgitated un-digestible remains of those Meadow Voles and Deer Mice they hunt. Of course Barn Owls are not just limited to barns, but nest in silos, abandoned buildings and tree cavities too. Arguably, this should make their name "Barn, Silo, Abandoned Building & Tree Cavity Owl" but that doesn't really roll off the tongue in the same way. These attributes and distinguishing features are all things to keep in mind if you find yourself out birdwatching near a barn in Southern Ontario. During your explorations, while there are certain to be Rock Pigeons (Columba livia) fluttering about, if you happen to come across a Barn Owl in this setting, you should take notice. Seeing a Barn Owl in Southern Ontario (especially a living Barn Owl) is something to make special note of—it's not a regular occurrence. Part of the significance of seeing a Barn Owl lies in its relative in-abundance. While individuals identified as Tyto alba enjoy a cosmopolitan reputation, Southern Ontario has been considered the northern range of the species ("Ontario Barn Own Recovery Project," 2005) and it has been suggested that Barn Owls have always found, say, other places more to their liking. Because of this, the Barn Owl is a special bird in Canada: it is officially endangered, recognized by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) ("Ontario Barn Own Recovery Project," 2005). It seems as though Barn Owls living in Ontario have had bad luck of late— of the "handful" ("Ontario Barn Own Recovery Project," 2005 ¶ 4) that have been seen since 1999, two were roadkills ("Ontario Barn Own Recovery Project," 2005) and no breeding pairs have been "confirmed." The Barn Owl of February 27th 2006 If you are a serious birder in Ontario, with a computer and internet access, it is likely that you are aware of the electronic mailing list called Ontbirds. Ontbirds is presented by the self-proclaimed provincial birding association, the Ontario Field Ornithologists. The electronic mailing list (or listserv) is meant to be a clearing-house of bird sightings and directions for interested birders: you read about a bird you would like to see, get the directions and off you go on a (perhaps literal) wild goose chase. On average, four to seven sightings are posted daily. As might be expected, more posting occurs on the weekend, and more postings occur seasonally during spring and fall migration. Typical emails follow a standard form: the subject line contains the bird or birds seen and their location while the body of the email contains more specific information about the birds and precise directions to the location they might be found. While thorough, the information shared is, generally speaking, pretty uncontentious stuff. So, it was with interest that a seemingly normal post on February 28th, 2006 took on new dimensions: whispers of deception, accusation of fraud and, more interestingly for my work, questions of what is normal, known and natural all emerged. On February 28th, 2006, a simple posting appeared in mailboxes of subscribers outlining how a photograph had been taken of a Barn Owl and posted on a webbased photography site. A URL was given linking to the photograph. It was noted that the photographer had not reported seeing the bird on the Ontbirds listserv, but that there was a link to the location where the bird was seen. That same day, the moderator of the listserv posted reminding the subscribers that the Barn Owl was considered "endangered" on breeding territory and that there were rules about posting about endangered birds on the listserv; all of the requirements that needed to be met prior to posting were created in order to reduce the likelihood that an observed bird would abandon a nest or breeding attempt. The following day, March 1st, a conversation had begun via the listserv. Another respondent was interested in knowing more details about the sighting and if the bird had been seen again. The next email later that day was from the photographer himself. In the email, he explained that though he did not remember exactly where he saw the bird, he used Google maps to locate the general location and road names. According to his directions, the Barn Owl was seen in Eastern Ontario, in the Ottawa region. As well, he shared the story of finding the owl, taking the photograph and watching the bird fly away from him. The author also stated that his initial reason for going out birding that day was to find Snowy Owls to photograph and that he had no luck in finding those birds that day. On March 2nd, another email arrived from another Ontbirds subscriber. In it, the author began to question the authenticity of the photograph. This email suggested that the owl's feet have been "doctored," as though something was removed after the photograph had been taken. The author reminded those reading that the Barn Owl is rare for Ontario and especially so where the photograph was taken—the implication being that the bird is so rare that it most likely didn't exist. A third email followed on March 2nd in which the author suggests that there is nothing in the photograph that appears unusual or doctored. The author offered another suggestion about the authenticity of the owl. He reminded us that there was a Barn Owl sighting in a different part of Ontario earlier in the winter and attributes the owl's presence not to digital photographic magic, but to efforts undertaken on the part of humans to help the species recover. Yet, this claim to reality does not seem to be working. Later in the afternoon on March 2nd, a fourth email arrived that supports the initial hypothesis that the photograph has been doctored. The author shared that the bird looks like one he had seen at Parc Omega, a wildlife park in Québec, and provides a URL to a photograph of the Parc Omega Barn Owl. The pull of the network to make the photograph unauthentic, and in turn, the owl, continues to mount. In a fifth email, the author shared the contention that the fencepost the Barn Owl is pictured perching on was specially made for captive birds to land on. The author also suggested that given the lighting of the photograph and kind of weather that was observed on the day that the photograph was supposed to have been taken, the photograph could not be discounted as being genuine. This is where the conversation ends on Ontbirds. At 5:30 pm on March 2nd, the listserv co-ordinator posted a message that states that the current conversation on the photographed Barn Owl is inappropriate. The coordinator reminded readers that Ontbirds is not a discussion list and is for "reporting birds period." The closing line in the email reminds readers that not following the guidelines could result in the restriction or loss of being able to post to the listerv. This does not mean, however, that the conversation ended. In following the network thread to a website that catalogues rare birds from the Ottawa area, the sighting details for the Barn Owl seen on February 27th is prefaced with the words "LIKELY HOAX." The page author outlines a litany of evidence that supports his claim that the image has been manipulated. The webpage author concludes his outline with the statement "let the viewer beware." Enacting birds: reflection on the Barn Owl of February 27th I have spent some time thinking about the birders and the Barn Owl. I have read and reflected on the emails and the allegations. From this, themes have emerged concerning the construction of what is natural as well as insights into the creation of what Donna Haraway (2003) calls "naturecultures." Most importantly, this event, be it framed as authentic bird sighting or elaborate hoax, helps enact and make visible a topology of inter-species ethical relations between those who watch birds and the birds they watch. Networks Ontbirds operates within an established network of relations. People post their sightings to share with other interested birders. The process through which experiences are transcribed from embodied encounters to textual references is seemingly an invisible one. In this case, there were visible deviations from the established network. Within the birding community that posts to Ontbirds, the claim to have "found" a bird is an important one. In posts where the author is reporting a first-sighting and they did not find the bird themselves, the name of the bird finder (skilled, lucky or otherwise, as it is never suggested the kind of effort it took to come across the bird) is included. In this example, the finder did not make a submission to Ontbirds to report a rare bird. Rather, it seems like in this case, the original post came via an on-line gallery created by the finder that had the photograph and birding information on it. While never overtly stated, I believe that the authenticity of the Barn Owl was partially called into question due to the fact that the finder of the bird did not post his sighting to the listserv. Additionally, I find interesting to note that in the finder's one email to the Ontbirds listserv, he did his best to fit into the established network. However, problematic for him, he was not familiar with the area where he took the photograph. Part of the established Ontbirds network is knowing where you observed a bird; the more detailed the description of location and directions, the better. In networks, effort is required to maintain the relationships of the actors. The listserv tends to operate with little of what I would call boundary policing on the part of the co-ordinator. What is particularly interesting about the Barn Owl postings was the need of the Ontbirds co-ordinator to make comments concerning the type and quality of postings over the three day period, all referencing the mail about the Barn Owl. In well-established networks, subtle deviations from the established routine lead to powerful reactions: networks tend to become visible when they are threatened. The questioning of the authenticity seems to be such a reaction. What this suggests for a birding network is the power that lies in the focus on names, dates and details. This hybridity that exists between birders and the electronic mailing list certainly has implications in shaping what is considered normal, known and natural for those who subscribe to the list. Birds are enacted through Ontbirds as realities "out there" to be discovered, recorded and reported. While this is not necessarily that surprising, it does, in turn have an impact on other enactments of birds, especially visible in the multiple objects created. Multiple objects In this case there was an exceeding focus by birders on the rarity of the bird, to the point where I believe that the Barn Owl became a multiple object. Emerging from the field of Science and Technology studies, the idea of multiple objects opens a different way to think about the taken-for-granted: objects are often thought of as rigid and immobile in their existence - a Barn Owl will always be a Barn Owl (for a detailed discussion of multiple objects, see Law, 2004; Mol, 2002). In response to this, a multiple version of the object counters this notion of singularity. In focusing on the fractal nature of "reality" and in attending to difference, I believe that this perspective requires attention be paid to the enactment of objects. Enactment, in this sense, is the claim that "relations, and so realities and representations of realities.are being endlessly or chronically brought into being in a continuing process of production and reproduction, and have no status, standing or reality outside those processes" (Law, 2004, p. 159). Enactment is different than constructivism as it does not "imply convergence to singularity," in opposition to the fixing of objects' identities, "but takes difference and multiplicity to be chronic conditions" (Law, 2004, p. 158). Difference suggests that multiple versions of the same object can exist simultaneouslythis occurs because while objects are enacted in practice, these practices can be different. If the practices are different, then so too must be the objects (Law, 2004). Yet these multiple versions-or multiple objectsare, more often than not, able to cohere together. So, if these coherences shape our reality, then reality: is not in principal fixed or singular, and truth is no longer the only ground for accepting or rejecting a representation. The implication is that there are various possible reasons, including the political, for enacting one kind of reality rather than another, and that these grounds can in some measure be debated. (Law, 2004, p. 162) As such, a focus on the enactment of objects is filled with attention to the many ways that actors, human and otherwise, engage to create a reality: a reality described through investigation, a reality that is not the only one "out there" and a reality that focuses on heterogeneity and difference. In the move to collapse multiple realities into one, a distinctly political move is made, where one reality, one particular enactment of an object gains primacy over the others. In this particular becoming of the Barn Owl, the enactment of rarity overshadowed the other ways the bird was known (see Figure 1). Rather than having to pass judgement on if I think the Barn Owl was properly enacted, I think it is more valuable to examine the ways the bird was enacted. Let me outline the different ways (that I can see): - as a rare bird species (through the Ontbirds coordinator, external web pages and some birders' previous knowledge) - as a biological reality (through the email that suggested the Owl was a result of species rebound and human conservation efforts) - as digital magic (many of the claims to digital alteration of the photograph enacted this Barn Owl) - as an Eastern Ontario Barn Owl (through the initial posting) - as an Québec Barn Owl (through the claims it came from Parc Omega) There have also been subtle and tacit ways that the authenticity has been enacted, framed through the network of discovery, recording and reporting previously described. Through these discourses, the Barn Owl has been enacted as a: - valuable, wild bird - feral bird of ambivalent worth - wildlife park captive and therefore does not count In this multiplicity, the Barn Owl lost value in the eyes of some birders as its authenticity was called into question. What is implicit in this questioning is the understanding that there is some kind of a continuum that reported birds are judged against. It seems that the gold standard of authenticity is one that is wild, rare and (relatively) easy to find. It goes without saying that this perspective is not entirely unproblematic. This, in part, helps explain why there are not any postings to Ontbirds describing a flock of Pigeons seen in a ubiquitous habitat, such as the urbanized core of Anytown, Ontario. A Pigeon simply does not match up to the gold standard of valuable birds. In deciding what gets to "count" in knowledge-making endeavours, and what counts as the gold standard, other birds disappear from what is noticed. In that disappearance, the bird moves to the hinterland. I turn to that next. The hinterland and otherness Hinterland's are an attempt to engage with the act of disappearing. Law puts forward three kinds of Hinterland's: the first, he suggest are "in-here objects" (Law, 2004, p. 55); the second are "visible or relevant out-there contexts" (Law, 2004, p. 55); and the third are "out-there processes, contexts, and all the rest, that are both necessary and necessarily disappear from visibility or relevance" (Law, 2004, p. 55). I would deploy an artistic metaphor of positive space and negative space here: that which is present is the positive space of an image and that which is absent is negative space of an image. It is often difficult to decide if it is the negative or positive space that bounds the image: each side depends on the other such that if one is not there, the known image would disappear. Perhaps, if I expand the metaphor, the hidden absent is that which is not within the frame of the image. Importantly, all that lies outside the frame, while unnecessary in the composition of the image, is only unnecessary because it has been selectively ignored in the composition of the image. Emerging from this perspective on the hinterland is the acknowledgement that a relationship with the unknown, or the other, is necessary; rather than simply ignoring the disappearance, it is an attempt to acknowledge that disappearance is integral to any kind of knowing. Thus, if birding, as an act, continues the "process [of] enacting necessary boundaries between presence, manifest absence and Otherness" (Law, 2004, p. 144), then the various activities taken up in the name of coming to know these organisms are each a distinctly political move, moves that shape and reaffirm (mostly conventional) ways of knowing the nonhuman. For example, the second post in this chain made explicit that the individual Barn Owl was, in fact, part of larger species, Tyto alba and that species was considered to be an endangered one. The term endangered species does just that: focus on species, at the expense of the individual. In this organism's identification as a member of a species, it loses any ability to be something else; what could be has been othered. This act of othering is at times common in birdwatching. It occurs more than once in the Barn Owl discussion: through the questioning about the validity of the sighting, the focus subtly shifts from the sighting to determining the authenticity of the photograph. Again, in this move the individual owl disappears. The Barn Owl was not the only member of the order Aves to be othered in this particular natureculture assemblage. It is also interesting to note that the Snowy Owls, the birds that were the original objective of the outing that produced the Barn Owl, have disappeared. Likely, there were other birds seen during that trip, but for whatever reason (perhaps not rare, not big, not charismatic), they were ignored. For my purposes, I consider this othering problematic, in part, because it does little to acknowledge the lived experiences of nonhuman individuals. The challenge here is that the act of othering, in and of itself, is not inherently wrong. Rather than focusing on what might be out there, I believe that it is important to be able to recognize enactments that are politically aligned with the kind of relationships that ought to exist. So, one needs to develop the skill of attending to what is observably cast to the hinterland and what is brought to the forefront. In a sense, this is what I've attempted to do with my analysis of the Barn Owl narrative and the creation of the enacted set of relations in Figure 1. In creating this particular map of relations, I attempt to move beyond the established frame and re-focus on those multiple enactments that have been cast aside. In so doing, political actions and entrenched positions are more easily visible, while others can re-emerge from obscurity. It is true that there might be other unknowable enactments that exist in the hinterland-but let me suggest that acknowledging that, at best, partial perspectives (Haraway, 1991) are our best version of reality (as a nod to multiplicity does) offers more space for other realities to emerge. Thinking more generally about our dominant cultural relationship with the nonhuman, the promise of attentiveness to the various enactments of animals offer the opportunity to intentionally enact a reality that is more in line with one's own ethics. In asking what practices of birding are good or which practices ought we to be enacting, attention can be turned to current enactments to ask: "Ought they be enacted in this way?" This simple question, paired with the knowledge that there are other enactments hidden, could be enough to continue to question some of our Western culture's taken-forgranted assumptions about what it is to be human and otherwise. References Haraway, D. (1991). Situated knowledges: The science question in feminism and the privilege of partial perspective. In Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: the reinvention of nature (pp. 183-202). Routledge: New York. Haraway, D. (2003). The companion species manifesto: dogs, people, and significant otherness. Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press. Law, J. (2004). After method: mess in social science research. London: Routledge. Mol, A. (2002). The body multiple: ontology in medical practice. Durham: Duke University Press. Ontario Barn Own Recovery Project. (2005, February 7). Retrieved March 4, 2006, from http://www.bsc-eoc.org/regional/barnowl.html
This doctoral dissertation evaluated the use of sustainable biomass sources (agri-food waste and residues, and industry streams) in anaerobic digestion with the goal of replacing maize silage in a large-scale biogas production and investigated alternative pathways of biogas utilisation incorporated in energy systems operating with high share of renewable energy sources. The methods applied in the research included elements of chemical and mechanical engineering in order to create a holistic approach that could be applicable to various biogas plant cases. Experimental investigations showed the biogas yield of residue lignocellulosic biomass of 0.192-0.275 Nm3/kgTS, and bulk food waste of 0.252-0.566 Nm3/kgTS. Meat and bone meal and wastewater sludge were shown to be co-substrates with antagonistic effect in biogas production, however they increased the reaction rate of overall degradation. Pyrolysis of digestate showed lower energy requirements and higher biochar yield (38%) compared to direct pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass (24%). The gate fee business model for receiving biodegradable waste and the implementation of new technologies, namely biogas upgrading, are the most likely options for biogas plants in the future. A robust mathematical model of power-to-gas integration showed that the installation of 18 MWel of wind and 9 MWel of photovoltaics with an additional import of 16 GWhel from the grid could produce 36 GWh of renewable methane which could be economically competitive with natural gas if the feedstock gate fee in the proposed system was -120 €/t. Geospatial availability of an energy potential of biogas production from examined feedstocks, combined with Life Cycle Assessment of the alternative biogas utilisation pathways created the synergistic effects in terms of reduced environmental burdens by 4-36 times compared to the current operation. Based on the applied methods and outcomes of the doctoral thesis, the research hypothesis "Applying holistic approach on biogas plants, both on the production and utilisation side, can increase economic profitability and environmental benefits over current subsidised operation" was tested and confirmed. The economic feasibility of biogas plants after exiting subsidy schemes will include the implementation of the gate fee business model for substrates, new investments in biomass pretreatment lines, increase of on-site biogas storage capacity and additional investments in renewable methane production system, primarily biomethane. Environmental burdens of such actions will be reduced through a contribution of biowaste management on urban and rural level, combined with the utilization of biogas for production of biomethane as a replacement to natural gas. ; Biomasa je obnovljiv izvor energije (OIE) te ima važnu ulogu u diverzifikaciji opskrbe energijom u Europskoj Uniji (EU) [1]. Ona doprinosi ravnoteži ugljikovog dioksida (CO2), stvaranju radnih mjesta, smanjenju emisija stakleničkih plinova (eng. Greenhouse gas, GHG) te osiguravanju dostupnosti resursa i njihovom ekonomičnom gospodarenju [2]. U Republici Hrvatskoj biomasa je definirana prema Zakonu o obnovljivim izvorima energije i visokoučinkovitoj kogeneraciji kao "biorazgradivi dio proizvoda, otpada i ostataka biološkog podrijetla iz poljoprivrede (uključujući tvari biljnoga i životinjskoga podrijetla), šumarstva i srodnih proizvodnih djelatnosti, uključujući ribarstvo i akvakulturu, kao i biorazgradivi dio industrijskoga i komunalnog otpada" [3]. Biomasa se može direktno koristiti kao gorivo za dobivanje energije (npr. drvna biomasa u kotlovima), ili se može biokemijskim, kemijskim, ili termokemijskim postupcima pretvoriti u materijal dodane vrijednosti – biogorivo, čime se postiže njezina šira primjenjivost u energetske svrhe [4]. Biogoriva prve generacije dobivena iz prehrambenih usjeva kao uzgojene biomase [5] naišla su na neodobravanje znanstvene zajednice i šire javnosti, primarno zbog korištenja obradivih površina za njihov uzgoj. Napredna biogoriva (druge i treće generacije [5]) proizvedena su iz biomase koja nije kompetitivna s proizvodnjom hrane, a u nju spada otpadna biomasa iz kućanstva i industrije, poljoprivredni ostatci, neprehrambeni usjevi te alge. Ova doktorska disertacija stavlja fokus na korištenje biomase u procesu anaerobne razgradnje za dobivanje bioplina. Cilj istraživanja je ostvariti sinergijski učinak između ekonomičnog korištenja otpadne biomase i proizvodnje energije u sustavima s velikim udjelom OIE kako bi se postiglo smanjenje utjecaja na okoliš u usporedbi s trenutnom praksom u bioplinskim postrojenjima koja uključuje korištenje kukuruzne silaže i proizvodnju električne energije uz zajamčenu otkupnu cijenu. Mjesto nastanka, tip biomase, te njezine količine bitan su faktor za strateško pozicioniranje novih bioplinskih postrojenja, te za planiranje novih lanaca opskrbe sirovinama u postojećim postrojenjima. Geografski informacijski sustav (eng. Geographic Information System, GIS) [6] prepoznat je kao vrijedan alat za mapiranje potencijala izvora biomase, kao i određivanje transportnih udaljenosti od mjesta nastanka biomase do postrojenja. GIS analiza na razini EU pokazala je ukupni energetski potencijal za proizvodnju bioplina iz poljoprivrednih ostataka i životinjske gnojovke na godišnjoj razini jednak 0.7 EJ (oko 195 TWh) [7], što je dvostruko više nego proizvodnja bioplina iz tih supstrata ostvarena u 2016 godini u EU. Primjenom GIS alata na lokalnoj razini u Grčkoj, Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama i Finskoj pokazano je da ekonomski prihvatljive transportne udaljenosti za supstrate mogu varirati između 10 i 40 km [8–10]. Povećanjem radijusa raspoloživosti biomase povećava se i kapacitet postrojenja čime je moguće ostvariti veću proizvodnju obnovljive energije, no istovremeno stvara se dodatan teret na okoliš, kako je još uvijek većina biomase transportirana teretnim vozilima na fosilna goriva [10]. Ono što također treba uzeti u obzir prilikom procjene korištenja biomase u bioplinskom postrojenju je njezina tržišna vrijednost, odnosno plaća li bioplinsko postrojenje za biomasu, ili dobiva naknadu za njezino gospodarenje (eng. Gate fee, GF). U postojećim okvirima proizvodnje bioplina, cijena kukuruzne silaže je između 15 i 40 € po toni sirovine [11], dok alternativni izvori biomase (npr. miješani komunalni biootpad i otpadna hrana) postižu GF u iznosu od -60 do 0 €/tona [11]. Nakon što biomasa uđe u prostor bioplinskog postrojenja, potrebno ju je adekvatno pripremiti za proces anaerobne razgradnje. U tu svrhu mogu se koristiti metode predobrade koje se služe termičkim, mehaničkim, kemijskim ili biološkim postupcima (ili nekim njihovim kombinacijama) [12]. Metode predobrade služe kako bi potaknule proces razgradnje kompleksnih polimernih molekula prisutnih u organskoj tvari, čime se postiže viša konverzija biomase u bioplin [13]. Uspješnost razgradnje biomase te proizvodnje bioplina, kao i stabilnost u procesu određuju se eksperimentalnim mjerenjima, pri čemu se prate procesne varijable kao što su sadržaj suhe tvari (eng. Dry Matter, DM, ili Total Solids, TS), proizvodnja i sastav bioplina, pH, koncentracija hlapljivih masnih kiselina (eng. Volatile Fatty Acids, VFA), ukupni anorganski ugljik (eng. Total Inorganic Carbon, TIC), prisutnost amonijakalnog dušika (eng. Ammonium-nitrogen, NH4-N), koncentracija soli, teških metala i ostalo [14]. Na temelju vrijednosti navedenih procesnih varijabli operatori bioplinskih postrojenja znaju odvija li se proces unutar dozvoljenih vrijednosti te kako reagirati ukoliko je primijećena nestabilnost u procesu. Eksperimentalni podatci također služe za modeliranje kinetike anaerobne razgradnje [15] pri čemu se ovisnosti o kompleksnosti ulaznih podataka i traženih rezultata mogu primijeniti razni kinetički modeli [16–18]. Složeniji modeli zahtijevaju veći broj ulaznih podataka, ali također daju i detaljniji uvid u mehanizam reakcija i otkrivanju tzv. uskog grla procesa koji određuje ukupnu brzinu nastanka bioplina. Osim bioplina, drugi proizvod anaerobne razgradnje je digestat kojeg čine nerazgrađeni ostatci biomase u tekućoj fazi [19]. Tekuća frakcija digestata je obično bogata makronutrijentima – dušikom (N), fosforom (P) i kalijem (K), što ju čini primjenjivom kao gnojivo za tlo [20]. Čvrsta frakcija digestata također sadrži P, ali i zaostali organski ugljik (C) što ga čini prikladnim za poboljšavanje karakteristika tla, kompostiranje [21] ili za neki od oblika energetske oporabe [22]. Prednost korištenja digestata u opisanim načinima leži u činjenici da je njegova tržišna vrijednost mala, tek 2-4 €/t [23]. Proizvedeni bioplin najčešće se koristi kao gorivo u kombiniranoj proizvodnji električne i toplinske energije, kogeneracija (eng. Combined Heat and Power, CHP). Proteklih desetljeća na razini EU mehanizmi subvencija za bioplinske kogeneracije u vidu feed-in-tariffa i feed-in-premija rezultirale su intenzivnom penetracijom bioplina u elektroenergetski sektor [24]. Razina subvencija je definirana na nacionalnoj razini, ali u svim članicama EU nije niža od 80 €/MWhel, što je gotovo dvostruko veći iznos od prosječne veleprodajne tržišne cijene električne energije u EU [25]. Također, ono što je važno napomenuti jest da su subvencije izdane na određeni period (12-20 godina od statusa stjecanja povlaštenog proizvođača električne energije [26]) nakon čega će bioplinska postrojenja morati razmotriti neke druge načine iskorištavanja (eng. Utilisation) bioplina da bi zadržale ekonomski isplativo poslovanje. Prema podatcima Europske udruge za bioplin (eng. European Biogas Association, EBA) u 2020. godini u Europi je bilo instalirano 18,943 bioplinskih postrojenja, od kojih je 18,214 (96%) radilo u kogeneracijskom načinu, a ostalih 4% kao postrojenja za proizvodnju biometana kroz tehnologiju poboljšavanja bioplina (eng. Biogas upgrading) odnosno uklanjanje svih ne-CH4 komponenti bioplina [27]. Ova doktorska disertacija detaljno razlaže inovativnije načine iskorištavanja bioplina u budućim energetskim sustavima, što će uključivati rad kogeneracijskih postrojenja u tržišnim okvirima [28], pretvorbu bioplina u biometan te proizvodnju e-metana kroz implementaciju power-to-gas (P2G) koncepta [29] u sustavima s visokim udjelom energije iz varijabilnih OIE. Primjena procjene životnog ciklusa (eng. Life Cycle Assessment, LCA) [30] može otkriti utjecaje promjene politika sirovina u proizvodnji bioplina i njegovog iskorištavanja u sprezi s budućim energetskim sustavima u odnosu na okoliš. Usporedba LCA performansi za bioplinsko postrojenje koje koristi životinjsku gnojovku i energetske usjeve pokazala je da bioplin za proizvodnju električne energije stvara uštede od oko 300 kgCO2-eq/MWhel, dok upgrading bioplina u biometan i njegovo ubrizgavanje u plinsku mrežu štedi oko 191 kgCO2-eq za proizvedeni MWh biometana [31]. Za preglednije tumačenje opisanih rezultata potrebno je izraziti emisije istom jedinicom, ali i prezentirati podatke o sastavu miksa električne energije (eng. Electricity mix). Za slučaj Irske, LCA je pokazao da integracija P2G koncepta za upgrading bioplina, uz korištenje električnog miksa od 85% OIE, može rezultirati smanjenjem GHG emisija za 70% u odnosu na fosilna goriva [32]. Na temelju pregleda literature (detaljniji prikaz u poglavlju Introduction), dosad nije zabilježeno istraživanje u području anaerobne razgradnje koje povezuje mapiranje i korištenje ostatne i otpadne biomase za proizvodnju bioplina sa njegovim iskorištavanjem u budućim energetskim sustavima. Ova doktorska disertacija je ocijenila takav cjeloviti pristup i predstavila rezultate istraživanja iz perspektive jednog, odnosno više bioplinskih postrojenja. Interdisciplinarni i cjeloviti pristup prema promatranoj temi koristio je elemente kemijskog i strojarskog inženjerstva za ispunjavanje četiri glavna cilja istraživanja: • • Kvantificirati proizvodnju bioplina koristeći nove supstrate biomase kao što su lignocelulozni ostatci iz poljoprivredne proizvodnje, otpadna hrana i industrijski nusproizvodi koji nisu konkurentni proizvodnji hrane, kao što je to slučaj s kukuruznom silažom u sadašnjoj proizvodnji bioplina. • • Procijeniti kinetičke parametre anaerobne razgradnje novih supstrata kombinirajući matematičko modeliranje i eksperimentalne podatke kako bi utvrdili utjecaj kemijskog sastava supstrata na stabilnost procesa i eventualna ograničenja u procesu. • • Utvrditi ekonomski isplative načine budućeg rada bioplinskih postrojenja na naprednim energetskim tržištima nakon što bioplinska postrojenja ostanu bez financijskih potpora i zajamčene cijene električne energije. • • Procijeniti utjecaje na okoliš različitih načina korištenja bioplina integriranih u buduće energetske sustave s visokim udjelom obnovljivih izvora energije. Ostvareni ciljevi istraživanja te rezultati prezentirani su široj znanstvenoj zajednici kroz sedam objavljenih znanstvenih radova (šest radova u kvartilu Q1 te jedan rad u Q2). Znanstveni članak 1 (ARTICLE 1) [33] prikazuje detaljnu analizu lanaca vrijednosti biomase iz različitih poljoprivrednih ostatka, nusproizvoda i otpada (eng. Agricultural wastes, co-products and by-products, AWCB). Rad opisuje faze u kojima i kako nastaje otpad kroz tri specifična koraka u lancu vrijednosti: proizvodnja/uzgoj, obrada u industriji te potrošnja/konzumacija. Analiza uključuje razdoblje od 7 godina, od 2010. do 2016. u 28 zemalja članica Europske unije (EU28) te uključuje četiri različita sektora sa 26 analiziranih dobara (eng. Commodity) i prikladnim vrstama otpada koji se pojavljuju u tim sektorima. Za izračun tehničkog potencijala AWCB korišteni su javno dostupni podaci iz EUROSTAT i FAOSTAT baze, a metoda proračuna uključivala je upotrebu specifične količine AWCB po analiziranim dobrima i sektoru. Rezultati su pokazali da je u analiziranom periodu u EU28 procijenjena količina AWCB iznosila oko 18,4 milijarde tona, a prema udjelima: animalni sektor ~ 31%, sektor povrća ~ 44%, sektor žitarica ~ 22% te sektor voća ~ 2%. Analizirajući pojedine sektore i količine nastalog AWCB, daljnje istraživanje bilo je usmjereno na evaluaciju korištenja određenih AWCB iz lanca vrijednosti biomase u procesu anaerobne razgradnje s ciljem proizvodnje bioplina. Znanstveni članci 2, 3 i 4 pokazuju rezultate takvog pristupa uz primjenu istraživačkih metoda kemijskog inženjerstva. ARTICLE 2 [34] istražuje upotrebu lignoceluloznih ostataka trave kao zamjene za silažu kukuruza u anaerobnoj razgradnji. Uzorci trave prikupljeni su s područja koja nisu kompetitivna s proizvodnjom hrane: neobrađeno zemljište, obala rijeke Save u gradu Zagrebu te bankina autoceste. U istraživanju je određen svježi i suhi prinos biomase, njezin kemijski sastav, prinos te sastav proizvedenog bioplina, a primjenom Anaerobic Digestion Model No. 1 (ADM1) modela određeni su kinetički parametri razgradnje trave. Ujedno, na kraju je dana usporedba okolišnijih učinaka zamjene kukuruzne silaže ostatnom travom u proizvodnji električne i toplinske energije. Rezultati istraživanja su pokazali da je najveći prinos ostatne trave utvrđen za obalu rijeke, sa prosječnom vrijednošću od 19 t/ha svježe mase i 2.6 t/ha suhe mase. Svi uzorci trave pokazali su zadovoljavajuće parametre za primjenu u anaerobnoj razgradnji − omjer C/N između 16.6: 1 do 22.8: 1. Ostvareni biokemijski potencijal metana u monorazgradnji (monodigestiji) ostataka trave su: 0.275 Nm3/kgTS za travu s neobrađenog zemljišta, 0.192 Nm3/kgTS za travu s obale rijeke i 0.255 Nm3/kgTS za travu s bankine autoceste. Procijenjeni kinetički parametri razgradnje trave razlikuju se od do sada objavljenih rezultata, prvenstveno zato što prijašnje analize uključuju specifične tipove travnate biomase, a ne ostatnu (miješanu) travu. Procijenjeni okolišniji utjecaji zamjene kukuruzne silaže travnatom biomasom u proizvodnji električne i toplinske energije pokazali su prednosti u smislu ostvarenog doprinosa kvaliteti ekosustava (eng. Ecosystem quality) i ljudskog zdravlja (eng. Human health), no također i nešto veće emisije GHG uzrokovane izgaranjem fosilnih goriva u poljoprivrednoj mehanizaciji i povećanim transportom trave zbog nižeg prinosa bioplina u odnosu na silažu. Čvrsta frakcija digestata dobivena u procesu monodigestije trave korištena je u znanstvenom članku 3 (ARTICLE 3) kao ulazni materijal za istraživanje procesa pirolize. Cilj istraživanja u ARTICLE 3 [35] bio je odrediti utjecaj anaerobne razgradnje na sastav lignocelulozne biomase korištenjem termogravimetrijske analize (eng. Thermogravimetric analysis, TGA). Također, procijenjeni su iznosi energije aktivacije i modificiranog predeksponencijalnog faktora za travu i njezine digestate, kao i prinos konačnog ostatka pirolize (eng. Biochar). Rezultati su pokazali da je procijenjena količina razgrađene celuloze i hemiceluloze u istraživanim uzrocima trave oko 44–50%. Nadalje, digestati trave pokazali su veći prinos biochar-a (oko 38%) u odnosu na uzorke trave (oko 24%). Kombinirani proces anaerobne razgradnje trave i pirolize njezinih digestata pokazao je manje vrijednosti procijenjenih kinetičkih parametra što upućuje na niže energetske potrebe takvog procesa u odnosu na direktnu pirolizu trave. ARTICLE 4 [36] bio je izrađen u suradnji sa industrijom biomase i bioplina. U radu je eksperimentalno istražena razgradnja otpadne hrane (eng. Food waste, FW) iz bioplinskog postrojenja zajedno s nusproizvodnima iz kafilerije (eng. Rendering plant): mesno-koštano brašno (eng. Meat and bone meal, MBM) i mulj sa otpadnih voda (eng. Wastewater sludge, WWS). Prvo je provedena termička predobrada uzoraka FW (FW1 i FW2) pri temperaturi od 35 °C i trajanju 5 dana u koju su bili dodani MBM i WWS u udjelima od 5, 10 i 15% TS. Nakon toga slijedila je anaerobna razgradnja pri 40.5 °C u trajanju od 40 dana. Uvjeti termičke predobrade i proizvodnje bioplina u laboratorijskom mjerilu replicirani su iz rada samog bioplinskog postrojenja. Također, za vrijeme procesa u laboratoriju bile su praćene sve procesne varijable kao i u radu digestora na postrojenju. Kao rezultat predobrade kemijska potrošnja kisika (eng. Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD) ispitivanih uzoraka povećala se za 7 – 26%. Dodavanjem MBM u FW1 došlo je do povećanja vrijednosti COD kao i NH4-N, dok se u slučaju dodatka WWS u FW2 postiglo smanjenje, što je i bilo očekivano, budući da je WWS materijal s niskim udjelom organske tvari. Kao rezultat testa anaerobne razgradnje dobiveni su sljedeći prinosi bioplina: za FW1 – 0.566 Nm3/kg TS, za FW1-MBM – 0.499 Nm3/kg TS, za FW2 – 0.252 Nm3/kg TS i 0.195 Nm3/kg TS za FW2-WWS. Tako širok raspon vrijednosti rezultat je heterogenosti FW (FW1 i FW 2 uzete su s vremenskim razmakom od dva mjeseca na istom postrojenju). Prema sastavu proizvedenog bioplina, kao i ostalim procesnim varijablama može se zaključiti da su FW1 i FW2 vrlo slični po sastavu, ali da je istovremeno postojao neki uzročnik inhibicije u proizvodnji bioplina za uzorak FW2, koji se nije mogao procijeniti na temelju dostupne opreme i provedenih mjerenja. Tek su mjerenja električne vodljivosti ukazala na to da uzorak FW2 sadrži nešto veću koncentraciju soli koja bi mogla biti uzročnik smanjenog prinosa bioplina. Nusproizvodi kafilerije dodani u 5%-tnom udjelu uzrocima FW rezultirali su smanjenjem proizvodnje bioplina za 12% u slučaju MBM i 23% u slučaju WWS, ali nisu utjecali na stabilnost proizvodnje. Štoviše, analizom kinetike razgradnje ustanovljeno je da MBM i WWS ubrzavaju proces razgradnje FW što se vidi iz višeg iznosa reakcijske konstante. Također, pokazano je da ispitivani uzorci najbolje koreliraju sa kinetikom prvog reda što je vidljivo iz najniže ostvarene vrijednosti RMSE (eng. Root mean square error) koja je iznosila 0.015 Nm3/kg TS. U znanstvenom članku 5 (ARTICLE 5) [37] provedena je tehno-ekonomska i scenarijska analiza rada bioplinskog postrojenja nakon isteka subvencija za proizvodnju električne energije. Vođenje takvog sustava temeljilo se na iznosu cijena električne energije i biometana (eng. Unit commitment with economic dispatch) koje su određivale koja od jedinica za prihvat bioplina: CHP, upgrading ili spremnik ima najveću ekonomsku isplativost u danom trenutku. Za opis dinamike korišten je program MATLAB/Simulink, a za ekonomsku analizu MS Excel. U prvom scenariju prikazan je utjecaj cijene proizvodnje električne energije u bioplinskom postrojenju (eng. Break-even point of electricity production, BECPel) na broj radnih sati kada ono može ostvariti svojevrstan profit na dan-unaprijed tržištu (eng. Day-ahead market) električne energije. Rezultati su pokazali da kada vrijednost BECPel postane 40 €/MWhel, bioplinsko postrojenje može ostvariti (neki) profit radeći samo 4,000 sati godišnje, kako je ostalo vrijeme cijena električne energije na tržištu niža od cijene proizvodnje. Kada BECPel postane 100 €/MWhel bioplinsko postrojenje ne može ostvariti nikakav profit radeći na dan-unaprijed tržištu. Kao jedno od rješenja koje se nameće za smanjenje vrijednosti BECPel je korištenje supstrata s negativnom cijenom (GF model) koja je detaljnije prikazana u članku 6 (ARTICLE 6). Drugi scenarij uključivao je instaliranje upgrading jedinice i proizvodnju biometana, a proizvodnja električne energije ovisila je o cijenama na tržištu uravnoteženja (eng. Balancing market). Takav pristup je pokazao da bioplinsko postrojenje i uz relativno visoku cijenu biometana od 80 €/MWh, može u određenim trenutcima ostvariti i veći profit ako radi na balancing tržištu. Treći scenarij za bioplinsko postrojenje uključivao je integraciju industrijskog otpada iz proizvodnje šećera za proizvodnju bioplina i njegovo korištenje za proizvodnju procesne topline u vrijeme šećerne kampanje. Takav pristup pokazao se relativno neisplativim za bioplinsko postrojenje kako je cijena prirodnog plina na veleprodajnom tržištu još uvijek dosta niska i bioplin joj ne može u tom smislu biti konkurentan. ARTICLE 6 [38] predstavlja rezultate integracije P2G koncepta u rad bioplinskog postrojenja koje se nalazi u GF poslovnom modelu, odnosno prima naknadu za ulazni supstrat pri proizvodnji bioplina. Cilj istraživanja bio je razviti robustan matematički model na satnoj razini za procjenu optimalnih kapaciteta vjetroelektrane i solarne elektrane, veličine spremnika za bioplin te kapacitete elektrolizera, upgrading jedinice i metanatora (eng. Methanation unit) koristeći linearno programiranje i besplatni (eng. Open source) programski jezik Julia. Kao funkcija cilja korištena je minimizacija ukupnih troškova. Matematički model testiran je na postojećoj bioplinskoj elektrani instalirane snage 1 MWel. Utvrđeno je da P2G koncept zahtijeva integraciju 18 MWel vjetra i 9 MWel solara na lokaciji, uz dodatan uvoz električne energije iz mreže u iznosu 16 GWhel kako bi se na godišnjoj razini proizvelo 36 GWh obnovljivog metana. Analiza je pokazala da GF (u promatranom slučaju za otpadnu hranu) značajno doprinosi ekonomskoj održivosti obnovljivog metana: promjena GF za 100 €/toni rezultira smanjenjem troškova njegove proizvodnje za 20-60%. Ustanovljeno je da za vrijednost GF=-120 €/tona obnovljivi metan iz prikazanog koncepta postaje cjenovno konkurentan prirodnom plinu. Robusna priroda modela pokazala je da nesigurnosti povezane s proizvodnjom električne energije iz vjetra i solara na lokaciji mogu povećati troškove proizvodnje obnovljivog metana za 10-30%. ARTICLE 7 [39] integralno obuhvaća rezultate svih dotad objavljenih radova u sklopu izrade doktorske disertacije i smješta ih u kontekst testiranja hipoteze. U njemu je provedena geoprostorna analiza (eng. Geospatial analysis) bioplinskog sektora korištenjem javno dostupnog programa QGIS te procjena okolišnijih utjecaja pomoću programa SimaPro. Cilj rada bio je mapirati energetski potencijal otpadne trave, industrijskih nusproizvoda i otpada, te komunalnog biootpada (otpadne hrane) za zamjenu kukuruzne silaže u postojećoj proizvodnji bioplina te planiranje proširenja bioplinskog sektora. Kao studija slučaja (eng. Case study) korištena je Sjeverna Hrvatska (eng. Northern Croatia), područje s intenzivnim bioplinskim sektorom te snažnom industrijom, poljoprivredom i velikom gustoćom stanovništva. Rezultati su pokazali da bi navedene sirovine mogle zamijeniti 212 GWh bioplina iz kukuruzne silaže u postojećim bioplinskim postrojenjima te stvoriti dodatnih 191 GWh biometana u novim postrojenjima. Također, geoprostorna analiza je pokazala da su neka bioplinska postrojenja izgrađena u neposrednoj blizini plinske transportne mreže (<2km udaljenosti) i da imaju potencijal za utiskivanje biometana u plinsku mrežu. Cjelokupna analiza utjecaja na okoliš postojećih bioplinskih postrojenja pokazala je da integralni pristup proizvodnji i korištenju bioplina stvara sinergijske učinke u smislu smanjenja opterećenja na okoliš, što izravno dokazuje hipotezu studije. Kompleksnost P2G koncepta i njegovi intenzivni energetski zahtjevi čine ga trenutno nepovoljnijim u usporedbi sa klasičnim upgradingom bioplina, no isti dolazi do izražaja kada se u razmatranje uzmu budući energetski sustavi s visokim udjelom OIE. Znanstveni doprinosi ovog rada ostvareni su kroz provedena istraživanja te prikazani kroz objavljene rezultate u radovima kako slijedi: • Eksperimentalnim istraživanjem anaerobne razgradnje novih supstrata biomase odredit će se potencijalne prepreke u proizvodnji bioplina, poput pojave inhibicije ili utjecaja tipa biomase na stabilnost procesa: ARTICLE 2: Ustanovljeno je da lignocelulozna biomasa u obliku ostatne trave ne sadrži fizikalno-kemijske karakteristike koje bi ograničile njezinu upotrebu za proizvodnju bioplina. Štoviše, pokazalo se da ista uzrokuje poboljšanu kontrolu pH što doprinosi stabilnosti proizvodnje bioplina. Nedostatak njezinog korištenja je taj što je za ostvarivanje većih prinosa potrebno primijeniti neki oblik predobrade. ARTICLE 4: Heterogenost otpadne hrane utječe na vođenje procesa za što je potrebno ustanoviti robusnu kontrolu procesnih varijabli. Pokazalo se da i na razini bioplinskog postrojenja postoje neke varijable koje se ne prate na dnevnoj razini (prisutnost soli i metala), a koje mogu uzurpirati proizvodnju bioplina. Ustanovljeno je da kafilerijski nusprodukti i otpad u manjim količinama mogu doprinijeti povećanju brzine razgradnje otpadne hrane. • Predložiti alternativne mjere za trenutni sektor bioplina uzimajući u obzir tržišne cijene i analizu utjecaja na okoliš koristeći pristup procjene životnog ciklusa. ARTICLE 5: Alternativne mjere za bioplinski sektor u vidu proizvodnje biometana i rada bioplinskih postrojenja na day-ahead i balancing tržištu električnom energijom pokazala se kao najvjerojatnija opcija nakon napuštanja poticajnih sustava za proizvodnju električne energije. U takvim okvirima tranzicija s kukuruzne silaže na supstrate alternativne supstrate postati će prihvatljiva operativna odluka uz dodatne investicije u novu opremu. ARTICLE 6: Integracija varijabilnih OIE u rad bioplinskih postrojenja pokazala je da će se u budućnosti paradigma bioplinskih postrojenja kao takvih promijeniti – više neće biti samo pasivni proizvođači struje, nego će postati aktivni sudionici na tržištima energijom. ARTICLE 2: Pokazano je da otpadana trava više doprinosi kvaliteti ekosustava i ljudskom zdravlju nego kukuruzna silaža, iako uzrokuje veće emisije stakleničkih plinova, prvenstveno zbog intenzivnijih potreba za transportom na fosilna goriva. ARTICLE 7: LCA predloženih mjera za sektor bioplina koje uključuju zamjenu kukuruzne silaže alternativnih oblicima biomase te iskorištavanje bioplina u sustavima s visokim udjelom OIE pokazala je sinergistički efekt u smislu smanjenja cjelokupnog tereta na okoliš. Analiza je također pokazala da je integracija P2G u promatranim okvirima još uvijek neatraktivna zbog kompleksnosti sustava i energetski intenzivnih procesa. • Napredni model geografskog informacijskog sustava mapiranja novih izvora biomase koji će u kombinaciji s različitim načinima korištenja bioplina integriranim u sustave visokih obnovljivih izvora energije u naprednim energetskim tržištima rezultirati robusnim matematičkim modelima primjenjivim na različite slučajeve bioplinskih postrojenja. ARTICLE 6: Razvijeni robusni model integracije P2G koncepta u rad bioplinskog postrojenja pokazao je sinergiju između GF poslovnog modela te integracije obnovljive električne energije i topline koji su objedinjeni u postavljenoj matematičkoj formulaciji nivelirane cijene obnovljivog metana (eng. Levelized cost of renewable methane, LCORM). ARTICLE 7: Razvijeni GIS model obuhvaća analizu postojećih bioplinskih postrojenja i pozicioniranje budućih biometanskih postrojenja na temelju geoprostorne analize dostupnih alternativnih supstrata i položaja plinske mreže. Hipoteza ovog istraživanja je da je primjenom cjelovitog pristupa u radu bioplinskih postrojenja, i na strani proizvodnje i iskorištavanja bioplina, moguće povećati ekonomsku profitabilnost i doprinos zaštiti okoliša u usporedbi s trenutnim subvencioniranim radom. Kroz provedena istraživanja hipoteza je testirana i potvrđena uzevši u obzir sljedeće: • Ekonomska profitabilnost bioplinskih postrojenja nakon napuštanja subvencija i ograničenja u korištenju kukuruzne silaže bit će teže ostvariva. Uključivat će implementaciju GF poslovnog modela za supstrate za što će biti potrebne nove investicije po pitanju linije za predobradu, povećanje kapaciteta za spremanje bioplina na lokaciji kako bi postrojenje bilo fleksibilnije na tržištu električne energije te dodatne investicije u sustav za proizvodnju obnovljivog metana, prvenstveno biometana. • Cjeloviti pristup pokazao je da će doprinos budućeg bioplinskog sektora smanjenju okolišnih tereta ići kroz dvostruki doprinos: iz gospodarenja otpadom za proizvodnju bioplina koji će uključivati prvenstveno komunalni i industrijski biootpad u urbanim bioplinskim postrojenjima, a poljoprivredne ostatke u ruralnim bioplinskim postrojenjima, te iskorištavanja bioplina za proizvodnju obnovljive energije u vidu biometana.
Sturgeons (Family Acipenseridae) are one of the largest and most primitive fish families on Earth. Although they have always been typically distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, during the last decades wild populations have declined due to anthropogenic factors such as overfishing, poaching, pollution, and habitat loss. The situation is particularly dramatic for Atlantic sturgeon, one of the most ancient species among the family, which is currently extinct in Europe. In order to reintroduce the Atlantic sturgeon in Europe, several Baltic countries have been working together for more than two decades to build an ex-situ broodstock locally with fish derived from Canada, where the populations are not threatened, and releasing juveniles into the rivers flowing to the Baltic Sea.However, rearing fish aimed for restocking in the same manner as aquacultured fish has been shown to impact the post-release survival of juveniles in the long term. For example, in aquaculture conditions, fish are often maintained in high densities, at constant photoperiod and temperature conditions, and feeding on commercial pellets, leaving them cognitively naïve when released into natural environments. Additionally, increased water temperatures due to global warming have a strong influence on the geographic distribution of the species, resulting in local extinctions and population shifts. Although the effect of heat and cold stress on the juvenile and embryonic development have been assessed for several sturgeon species, most studies on gene expression have looked at a very limited number of genes due to the lack of sequence information and genomic resources. Also, most studies use other sturgeon species such as Siberian, Japanese, and white sturgeons, which are widespread aquacultured species. Exposing fish to temperatures higher than the optimal can trigger phenotypic adaptations leading to increase thermotolerance and potentially improve postrelease survival, however the impact of temperature-training protocols on the response to a subsequent heat shock has not yet been assessed in sturgeons. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis was to generate genomic and transcriptomic resources for Atlantic sturgeon, which are essential to improve and promote research in many fields, such as ecology, physiology and evolutionary studies. Moreover, it provides a reference for RNAseq-mediated transcriptome mapping. Additionally, we have used these resources to develop and evaluate the impact of novel rearing techniques toward improving restoration success, focusing on temperature training. First, we have assembled a high-quality de novo transcriptome, made an inventory of all the heat shock protein (HSP) gene family members and exposed a cell line derived from Atlantic sturgeon larvae to a moderate and severe heat shock in order to identify all heat-responsive genes using an RNAseq approach (Paper I). We found 76 HSP genes in the Atlantic sturgeon transcriptome, only 16 of which were responsive to at least one of the applied heat shock protocols, and only 5 of which were consistently upregulated after both moderate and severe heat shock at all the tested timepoints. After building the reference transcriptome and annotating all the HSP genes, we have evaluated the differences in liver transcriptome between temperature-trained and nontrained juveniles upon exposure to a new heat shock (Paper II). After four weeks of treatment, fish exposed to temperature training showed between 2 to 4 fold less dysregulated genes in response to a new heat shock than the non-trained group, indicating their improved ability to maintain transcriptomic homeostasis during a new heat shock. Again, like in the in vitro experiment, very few of the annotated HSP genes were dysregulated in response to heat shock in the liver transcriptome, namely hspa1, hspc1 and dnajb4. Overall, the response to heat shock in the liver transcriptome was milder than the in vitro response, which is likely a consequence of the activation of compensatory mechanisms. These mechanisms include the neuroendocrine system and result in increased tissue protection and thermogenic capacities, especially in the trained fish. We therefore propose that temperature-training protocols like the one tested in this thesis should be included in the set of new rearing techniques for fish used for restocking; however, other protocols should be investigated. Since the main bottleneck in the evaluation of the effect of such training is the lack of sequence information and a reference genome for RNAseq experiments, we have additionally assembled a reference genome for Atlantic sturgeon using a combination of short and long-read sequencing technologies (Paper III). The assembled genome provides for the first time clear evidence of a sturgeon-specific whole-genome duplication event (SR), independent from the American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), which is the main representative of the sister Family (Polyodontidae) within the same Order (Acipensiformes). The presence of duplicated Hox clusters, together with synteny and phylogenetic studies of these developmental genes, and the results of microsatellite loci analysis, suggests that sturgeons have a paleotetraploid origin, and that a rediploidization process is still ongoing. In summary, the results presented in this thesis advance the field of sturgeon research. We hypothesized that temperature training has a positive effect during the exposure to a subsequent heat shock, but its potential to improve post-release survival in the long term should still be assessed. We therefore suggest that future work should be aimed at the optimization of rearing methods for stocking programs and that a reference genome should be used. ; Stør (Familie Acipenseridae) er blant de største og mest primitive familier av benfisk. Mens de opprinnelig var utbredt over hele den nordlige halvkule, er mange populasjoner nå kritisk truet på grunn av menneskeskapte faktorer som overfiske, forurensning og tap av habitat. Situasjonen er spesielt dramatisk for atlantisk stør, en av de eldste artene i familien, som er utdødd i Europa. For å gjeninnføre atlantisk stør, har flere baltiske land arbeidet for å etablere en ex situ stamfiskpopulasjon basert på fisk fra Canada (hvor bestanden ikke er truet), for produksjon av yngel til utsetting i baltiske vassdrag. Imidlertid gir produksjon av settefisk etter samme prinsipper som for oppdrettsfisk svært lav overlevelse i naturen. Eksempelvis vil høy tetthet, konstant fotoperiode og vanntemperatur, og fôring med pellets til faste tider gi en kognitivt naiv fisk som ikke klarer seg i det fri. I tillegg kommer økte vanntemperaturer som resultat av global oppvarming, og som har stor innvirkning på den geografiske fordelingen av arter, som igjen resulterer i lokal utryddelse og forflytning av populasjoner. Selv om effekter av vanntemperatur har blitt undersøkt på embryonal- og yngelutviklingen i flere størarter, har de fleste studier fokusert på et lite sett av gener fordi genomiske ressurser har manglet. I tillegg er de fleste studiene utført på andre arter som er vanlig i akvakultur, slik som sibirsk, japansk og hvit stør. Eksponering til vanntemperaturer som er høyere enn artens optimum, kan utløse fenotypiske tilpasninger som fører til økt termotoleranse og potensielt forbedre overlevelse i naturen. Men effekten av slike temperaturtreningsprotokoller på responsen på et påfølgende varmesjokk er ikke studert i stør. Hovedmålet med denne avhandlingen var å generere genomiske og transkriptomiske ressurser for atlantisk stør, som en viktig faktor for å forbedre og fremme forskning innen økologi, fysiologi og evolusjon. Videre gir avhandlingen en referanse for RNAseq-mediert transkriptomkartlegging. Disse ressursene er så benyttet til å utvikle og evaluere virkningen av nye oppdrettsteknikker for settefisk, med fokus på temperaturtrening. Først har vi satt sammen et høykvalitets de novo transkriptom, deretter karakterisert genfamilien av varmesjokkproteiner (HSP), og så eksponert en cellelinje avledet fra atlantiske størlarver for et moderat og et kraftig varmesjokk for å identifisere alle varmeresponsive gener ved bruk av RNAseq (Artikkel I). Vi fant 76 HSP-gener i transkriptomene fra atlantisk stør, hvorav 16 responderte på minst en av de testede varmesjokkprotokollene, og bare 5 av disse ble konsekvent oppregulert etter både moderat og kraftig varmesjokk ved alle testede tidspunkt. Etter å ha bygget referansetranskriptomet og karakterisert alle HSP-gener, evaluerte vi forskjellene i levertranskriptom mellom temperaturtrent og ikke-trent yngel ved eksponering for et nytt varmesjokk (Artikkel II). Etter fire ukers behandling viste fisk som ble utsatt for temperaturtrening mellom 2-4 ganger færre dysregulerte gener som svar på et nytt varmesjokk sammenlignet med den ikke-trente gruppen. Dette antyder en forbedret evne til å opprettholde transkriptomisk homeostase under et nytt varmesjokk. I likhet med in vitro eksperimentet var svært få HSP-gener dysregulert som respons på varmesjokk i levertranskriptomet, nemlig hspa1, hspc1 og dnajb4. Totalt sett var responsen på varmesjokk i levertranskriptomet mildere enn in vitro responsen, noe som sannsynligvis skyldes ulike kompensatoriske mekanismer. Disse inkluderer det nevroendokrine systemet og resulterer i økt vevsbeskyttelse og termogen kapasitet, spesielt i trent fisk. Selv om andre protokoller bør undersøkes nærmere, foreslår vi at protokoller for temperaturtrening lik den som ble testet i denne avhandlingen bør vurderes i nye oppdrettsprotokoller for settefiskproduksjon av stør. Siden den viktigste flaskehalsen i evalueringen av effekten av slik trening er mangelen på sekvensinformasjon og et referansegenom for RNAseq-eksperimenter, har vi i tillegg produsert et referansegenom for atlantisk stør ved bruk av ulike sekvenseringsteknologier for korte og lange reads (Artikkel III). Genomet gir for første gang klare bevis for en størspesifikk helgenomdupliseringshendelse (SR), uavhengig av spadestør (Polyodon spathula), som er hovedrepresentanten for søsterfamilien (Polyodontidae) innenfor samme Orden (Acipensiformes). Tilstedeværelsen av dupliserte klynger av hox-gener som er sentrale i tidlig utvikling, i tillegg til hox-gen synteni og fylogeni, og mikrosatellitt loci-analyser, antyder at stør har en paleotetraploid opprinnelse, og at en rediploidiseringsprosess fortsatt pågår. Oppsummert vil de forbedrete genomiske og transkriptomiske verktøy presentert i denne avhandlingen åpne for nye muligheter innen størforskning. Videre har temperaturtrening en positiv effekt ved eksponeringen til varmesjokk, men potensialet for temperaturtrening og dermed økt overlevelse ved utsett bør undersøkes videre. ; Os esturións (Familia Acipenseridae) pertencen a unha das familias de peixes mais grandes e primitivas da Terra. Aínda que sempre estiveron distribuídos no hemisferio Norte, nas últimas décadas as poboacións salvaxes teñen diminuido debido a factores antropoxénicos como a sobrepesca, a caza furtiva, a contaminación e a perda do hábitat. A situación é especialmente dramática para o esturión Atlántico, unha das especies máis antigas da familia que se atopa extinta en Europa na actualidade. Co fin de reintroducir o esturión Atlántico en Europa, varios países bálticos levan traballando xuntos durante máis de dúas décadas para construír un núcleo reprodutor con peixes derivados de Canadá, onde a poboación non esta ameazada, e liberar xuvenís nos ríos que flúen ao Mar Báltico. Non obstante, cultivar peixe destinado ao repoboamento utilizando as mesmas técnicas típicamente utilizadas en acuicultura afecta negativamente á supervivencia a longo prazo. Por exemplo, en condicións de acuicultura os peixes adoitan producirse en altas densidades, baixo condicións abióticas constantes (fotoperíodo e temperatura), e aliméntanse de pellets comerciais, producindo animais congitivamente inxenuos cuando son libertados no ambiente natural. Ademais, o aumento das temperaturas da auga debido ao quentamento global ten unha forte influencia na distribución xeográfica das especies, dando lugar a extincións locais. Aínda que os efectos do estrés térmico no desenvolvemento embrionario e etapas xuvenís xa teñen sido avaliados en varias especies de esturións, a maioría dos estudos de expresión xénica céntranse en un número moi limitado de xenes debido á falta de recursos xenómicos. Ademáis, a maioría dos estudos utilizan outras especies de esturións como o branco, siberiano ou xaponés, mais comúns en acuicultura. A exposición dos peixes a temperaturas superiores ás óptimas pode desecandear adaptacións fenotípicas resultando nun incremento da tolerancia térmica e potencialmente unha mellora da supervivencia no hábitat onde son libertados. Sen embargo, os efectos do réxime de temperatura utilizado durante a cría na resposta a un choque de calor posterior non teñen sido avaliados. Por todo isto, o obxectivo principal desta tese foi xerar recursos xenómicos e transcriptómicos para o esturión Atlántico, esenciais para mellorar e promover a investigación en moitos campos da ciencia como a ecoloxía, fisioloxía e a xenómica evolutiva, ademais de fornecer unha referencia para o mapeado do transcriptoma. Ademais, empregamos estes recursos para desenvolver e avaliar o impacto de novas técnicas de cultivo para mellorar o proceso de repoboación, centrándose na xeración de individuos termotolerantes. En primeiro lugar, temos ensamblado un transcriptoma de alta calidade, fixemos un inventario de todos os membros da familia das proteínas de choque térmico (HSP) e expuxemos unha liña celular isolada a partir de larvas disgregadas de esturión Atlántico a un choque de calor moderado e severo para identificar xenes sensibles ó calor (Artigo I). Atopamos 76 HSP no transcriptoma de esturión Atlántico, dos cuáis só 16 foron sensibles a polo menos un dos protocolos de choque de calor avalidado, e 5 foron sensibles a ambos choques térmicos idenpendentemene do momento da amostraxe. Utilizando as secuencias dos xens HSP e o trancriptoma de esturión ensamblado no Artigo I como referencia, temos avaliado as diferenzas no transcriptoma hepático en resposta a un choque térmico entre xuvenís criados baixo un réxime de temperatura constante e en réxime fluctuante (Artigo II). Despois de catro semanas de tratamento, os peixes criados en réxime de temperatura fluctuante mostraron entre 2 e 4 veces menos xens diferencialmente expresados en resposta a un novo choque térmico que os peixes criados en réxime de temperatura constante, indicando a súa mellor capacidade para manter a homeostase transcriptómica durante un novo choque térmico. Como xa indicaron os resultados in vitro, moi poucos HSP foron diferencialmente expresados en resposta ó choque de calor no transcriptoma hepático, concretamente hspa1, hspc1 e dnajb4. En xeral, a resposta ao choque térmico no transcriptoma hepático foi máis leve que a resposta in vitro, o que é probablemente consecuencia da activación de mecanismos compensatorios. Estes mecanismos inclúen o sistema neuroendocrino e teñen como consecuencia un aumento da protección dos tecidos e das capacidades termoxénicas, especialmente no peixe criado a temperaturas fluctuantes. Polo tanto, propoñemos que a cría de peixes a temperaturas fluctuantes debe ser incluida no conxunto de novas técnicas empegadas en peixes criados con fins de repoboamento, non obstante, outros protocolos de temperatura deben ser investigados. Dado que unha importante limitación para a avaliación de novas técnicas de cría é a falta dun xenoma de referencia para experimentos de mapeado do transcriptoma, no Artigo III temos ensamblado un xenoma de referencia para o esturión Atlántico, combinando tecnoloxías de secuenciación de curta e longa lectura. O xenoma do esturión Atlántico evidencia por primeira vez a presenza dun evento de duplicación específico de esturión (SR) e independente do peixe-espátula (Polyodon spathula). A presenza de xenes Hox duplicados, xunto con estudos filoxenéticos e de sintenia e os resultados da análise de loci microsatélite suxire que os esturións teñen unha orixe paleotetraploide e que a rediploidización é aínda un proceso activo. En resumo, os resultados presentados nesta tese avanzan no campo da investigación con esturións. Os nosos resultados suxiren que a cría de peixes baixo un réxime de temperatura fluctuante ten un efecto positivo durante un choque térmico subsecuente, pero a influencia de esta nova técnica de cría na supervivencia dos xuvenís tras a súa liberación no habitat a repoboar aínda debe ser avaliada. Contudo, suxerimos que o traballo no futuro ten que estar centrando na optimización dos métodos de cría en programas de repoboación e que o xenoma de referencia debe ser usado. ; The European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 642893: Improved Production Strategies for Endangered Freshwater Species, "IMPRESS".
Abstrak Patriarkiadalah salah satumasalahbesar bagisetiapwanita di dunia, masalah iniakhirnyadiwakilidengankarya sastra, dansalah satunya adalahAtiqRahimiBatuKesabaran.Terdapat Perempuan, sebagai karakter utamadiceritakandengan semuakesedihan, menikahdengan dipaksa, menikahdengan foto, sampai diaharus membuathamil dengantanpajalan dandia memilikibayi daripria laindia tidak pernahtahu. Berdasarkanfakta-fakta, ini memberikan dua pertanyaanutama sebagairespondarimasalah, adalah(1) GambaranbelenggupatriarkimelaluisuaradiamPerempuandiAtiqRahimiBatuKesabaran?(2) DampaksuaradiamPerempuandiAtiqRahimi, BatuKesabaran?Untuk mengatasi hal itudengan analisis, membutuhkanmetode yangmembaca, mengumpulkan data, dan interpretasi, teknik yang digunakanadalahinterpretasi, dan pendekatanmimesis. Sebagaihasil dariini, itu akanmenemukan sesuatu, suaradiamPerempuan, dan initerjadidi Afghanistan, oleh karena itu,dapat dikatakanbahwa sistempatriarkibisa mengambilhak-hak perempuan, dan apahal-hal yangdapat memberikanPerempuanadalahsuaradiam,suarayang dapat menjadigerakan feminisuntuk setiapsimpatiuntuknya. Ini mewakili, untukberkatadalam bisikanyang sangathalus yangmasih adaketimpanganyang disebabkan olehpatriarki, danWanitatidak dapatberbuat apa-apa. Kata Kunci: Patriarki, perempuan, suaradiam, danfeminisme. Abstract Patriarchy is one of the great problem for every women in the world, this problem finally is represented to a literary work, and one of it is AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone. There, the Woman, as the main character is told with all sorrow, marrying by being forced, marrying with a photo, until she has to make pregnant with regardless the way and she has baby from another guy she never knows. Based on the facts, it delivers two main questions as the response of problems, they are (1) Depiction of patriarchy's handcuffthrough the Woman's Silent Voicein AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone? (2) The impact ofthe Woman's Silent Voice in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone? To solve it by analysis, it requires a method that is reading, collecting data, and interpretation, the used technique is interpretation, and the approach is mimesis. As the result of this, it will find something, the silent voice of the Woman, and this is happen in Afghanistan, therefore, it can be said that patriarchy system can grab the rights of women, and what things that the Woman can deliver is the silent voice, the voice that can be a feminist movement for every sympathy to it. It represents, it says in very smooth whispers that there are still inequality caused by patriarchy, and the Woman cannot do anything. Keywords: Patriarchy, women, silent voice, and feminism. INTRODUCTION Human lives in the world are like corrosion on the ply of metal in the process of abrasion. What the core of this analogy is the way human wear their brain shell to think and find the solution of every problem they face to. Human are divided in to two genders normally, they are men and women. Men, a creature whose penis sticks strongly with dignity and power to dig every hole in front of it. Women, a creature whose vagina decorates beautifully with softness and warmness for everything that prepares for digging it. Based on the differences of the two, the conflicts arise. It starts when women begin realizing that what they think is their right, is grabbed by the creature, called men. In addition, this thought probably can be supposed as the basic thought of feminism movement. Before going further to the meant feminism, it is important to see what feminism fights to, and it is patriarchy system. Patriarchy system is a system that has been rooted in society generally. Erich From asserts that Patriarchy system is where men is fated to dictate/control women, and it rules to all part in the world. (Fromm, 2002: 177). To add it, to make the establishment of this system of men, chronologically there are some experts that give distance between men and women where men are supposed to be the better one. Classically, women are inequality creature, and it is added by Aristotle who views women as an imperfectness of nature (Beauvoir, 2003:ix). Francis Bacon comments that the more negative assertion that women are the jail of men because women give bad effect or influence to men (Arivia, 2002:40). Kant even says that women does not have any ability to use their cognitive ability therefore women should not be allowed to deliver what they think (Arivia, 2002:40). While, St. Thomas supposes women as "imperfect men", women are creature who are created not deliberately, and it is proven by the symbolic story where Eve is portrayed by Bossuet as a creature who is made of the "Adam's Rib" (Beauvoir, 2003:xi). According to Cixous, the term of men and women pinpoints to the difference of the two where the first term must posit the higher or better meaning, and it is placed by men. Therefore, men are self and women are the Liyan. Women live in men's world, therefore women are considered as the Liyan for men. (Tong, 2009: 292). Based on those facts, society finally construct a system where men dominate the whole contents of social life. J. Douglas (1976: 34) adds that many feminists use the term patriarchy as a generic term for male privilege, supremacy, and domination, referring to their current as well as past forms. The attraction of this usage is readily apparent: first, its rhetorical punch and strongly pejorative connotations; second, its reminder of the tenacity and continuity of male domination. Despite earth-shaking social changes, not the least of which are the women's Movements of the nineteenth and twentieth century, male power remains. Therefore, what the things that can be inferred into these facts are the problems between men and women. Feminism moves to throw everything that involves in men's domination because they dictate women, women seem to live in a coop. It means that what women fight is the system of men. In general, feminism is the theory of women's liberation since the intrinsic in all its approaches is the belief that women suffer injustice because of women's sex (Humm, 1989: 74). From the inequality that exists between both gender, women want to search equality in the society, they start to speak up their voices in the publicarena. Women themselves must articulate who they are and what role they play in the society. Most importantly, they must reject the patriarchal assumption that women are inferior to men. This started the feminist movement. It was started by the reality that male-female relations is a form of power structure in which men dominate women (Thebaud, 1994: 290). From this starting point the feminist believe that existing inequalities between dominant and marginalized groups can and should be removed. In the practive the feminist scholars attempt to examine beliefs and practices from the viewpoint of the "other", in this case women, treating them as subjects, not merely objects. Based on those views, it can be said that feminism simply is a thought that focuses on the equality between men and women, especially to talk about the rights of women. Therefore, what things that can be put into the main topic of this, is the all things relates to the inequality between men and women where men are supposed to be the superiority ones. Feminism itself is part of cultural studies in literature, which arises since women feel discredited and being treated unequal to men as human. Yet, what is not acceptable is the differentiation in position, that men are superior to women. That awareness prompts women to rise up and fight for their rights. Feminism deals with freedom, appreciation, and fair treatment for women. It is not women's disability to sit equal with men, but the systems in their social life discourage women to gain self-assertion to actualize themselves as well as men. Meanwhile, women want to grow as human beings who have equal role and opportunity in their own life and society. In the West and East alike, feminists were up against home-grown patriarchalist opponents who used sundry means to denigrate feminism and its supporters. In the West, detractors portrayed feminists as man-haters. In the East, enemies branded feminists as agents of cultural subversion and, ironically in so doing 'colluded' with westerners in declaring feminism western. (Kynsilehto, 2008: 26). Therefore, what can be integrated from this Islam feminism understanding is the way Islam see the equality between men and women, from the agents of truth about the equality between men and women, not creating women to hate men just to beg an equality as what west feminism says to. It is clear to see that this problem finally inspires some authors to write it down in beautiful work, and one of it is AtiqRahimi with his novel entitled The Patience Stone. The main thing that is hidden in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone is the way feminism is shown up. This novel, especially the main character, the woman, erodes the feeling of the readers to give sympathy and tears on what has happened to the woman. The woman cannot fight to the system of men he faces on, but she just can deliver it through a telling to her comate husband, which is not changing anything to her fair life. Specifically, in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone, there is told a woman sits in front of his comate husband. She tells everything she never confesses before because of some reasons. She is the wife of a soldier who is lying unconscious with a bullet in his neck, and she calls her husband withThe Patience Stone or "Sang-e Saboor," it is a mythical stone accords to Persian folklore that absorbs the pain of those who confide in it, until it eventually explodes. When the novel opens, the man has been comatose for over two weeks, and shows no signs of recovery. Frustration and despair on the woman's part gradually turns to angry rebellion and, uncertain whether or not he can hear her words, she becomes ever more talkative and outgoing as she gathers over their ten-year marriage. The thing that is important to know is that the couple didn't meet before their wedding, nor even during it, since he was away fighting. Instead a ceremony was performed between the teen bride (the Woman) and a photograph, after which she spent three years as a married virgin. She is not allowed to be out of house of seeing friends and family. When the Husband returns, she discovers that she is married to a violent, because the Husband brutally detaches sex at the first sex time. It can be seen that the woman as main character reflects "handcuff" of women life against patriarchy in the social life of the novel. The Women uses her inability to comprehend and talk back to tell him things that she will not dare to say otherwise. With his disability she has been left to feed herself, her two children and continue buying medicine to keep her husband alive. The only job available for an Afghan woman in her desperate situation it seems is prostitution. It is an interested topic to explore because AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone is part of a Persian myth about a stone that has this phenomenal strength to listen to stories of suffering and sorrow. What sorrow that is delivered is from the heart voice of a woman that lives in the unfair world. The unfair world is caused by the inequality. Thus, to respond it, the readers must have attention to give sympathy to the woman indirectly, and to call this feeling, it is not too naïve when it said as the feminist movement that calls everyone in talking the equality women should have. To classify it, this thought belongs to first wave, where women have voice to utter although it is not a fight directly. Then, the voice that is not changing anything significantly to what the Woman faces, is the silent voice. Silent voice is the voice that is not heard, listened, and sensed. However, this voice exists, and the existence gnaws sympathy to see how unequal the social system the Woman faces, the sympathy that dribbles to feminism thought indirectly to get the equal rights. Based on the reasons above, this thesis then conveys analysis on the life and some aspect of main characters thorough feminism approach accords to patriarchy concepts and understanding in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone. Finally, the planned title can be written as The Woman's Silent Voice toward Patriarchy's Handcuff Reflected in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience. For more additional support that this thesis uses credible object, it is important to see that AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone is the winner of Prix Goncourt Prize in 2008. Therefore, this thesis hopefully can be a great product and be great donation of literary critics and analysis. Indeed, the decision to select AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone rather than the other works of him is caused by the main topic of the work. AtiqRahimi's The Patience Stone delivers more complex problem between men and women, that finally grabs the problem of Patriarchy and Feminism, while the feminism that is used is based on the glasses of Islam because the setting is in Afghan. In AtiqRahimi'sEarth and Ashes is told about the patriotic father that struggle with his blind son during the Russia invasion in Afghanistan, while in AtiqRahimi'sA Thousands Room of Dream and Fear delivers a student who exiles form his life because he is chased, he loves someone saves him. Based on the two reference, AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone becomes the best one to analyze accords to men and women problem culturally. RESEARCH METHOD This study is taking one of the Atiq Rahimi's stories entitled The Patience Stone as the primary source. In case of analyzing this story, library research is used in order to find some theories, which are relevant to the topic. Finally, Mimesis approach will be used in analyzing this story because the topic that will be discussed about the main character's silent voice as a woman against patriarchy in her social life as the universal truth. In collecting data, this research focuses on analysis and citations. The first step is reading novel. In this step, novel becomes the object of the research. The novel is entitled The Patience Stone, written by Atiq Rahimi. This is to reach the understanding all contents completely with all possibilities both intrinsically and extrinsically. The second is inventorying data. This step is collecting data through noting the quotations related to the statement of the problems and objectives of the study, it is including in words, sentences, and discourse that can represent patriarchy and feminism in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone. The third is classification data. This step to classify the data based on the statement of the problems including the portrayal patriarchy and the way the Woman posits herself against it. The fourth is tabling the data. It is to simplify reading the data and classify data that is used in the analysis for the readers. Those collected data are continuosly intrepreted to react the statement of the problems. The handling of a technique is a duty to do, it is to keep the analysis not jumping out of the limitation in order to solve the statement of the problems. Furthermore, it is significant to be on familiar terms with the data that it is from the novel entitled The Patience Stone, written in 136 pages plus 4 pages of brief introduction by KhaledHossaeni. It is written by AtiqRahimi with original title of SynguéSabour. Pierre de patience, published with ISBN: 9780701184102, and by Chatto&Windus. It is addressed at Random House, 20 Vauxhall Bridge Road, in London at 7wiv 25a. The book design is created Chatto and Windus group and translated by Polly McLean. On the dark cover, there is laid a stamp of Goncourt Winner 2008. CULTURAL APPROACH The term culture is a description of a particular way of life, which expresses certain meanings and values not only in art and learning but also in institutions and ordinary behavior (Frow, 1996: 8). Frow also states that culture is the way of life and is the meanings and values in that way of life. Therefore, basically a cultural approach is a way to think about a literary text based on the ideas or customs of certain society in which the text is made. According to Stanley Fish, J. Hillis, and Michael Foucault, language helps create what we call objective reality, thus reality is a social construct since it is created from language which is a product of customs produced by certain society. (Bressler, 1999: 264) Each society or culture contains in itself a dominant cultural group which determines that culture's ideology, its dominant values it sense of right and wrong, and its sense of personal self worth. (Bressler, 1999: 264) Culrural approach is divided into some theories. Those are: Marxism, post colonialism, new historicism, and feminism (Bressler, 1999: 178). As stated above, cultural approach investigates the domination and the dominated groups. Therefore, this approach will be used to analyze Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone and since the dominated group in this novel is women, the theory of feminism will be used for further analysis. Before going deeper to the feminism, it is important to see that feminism that will be used is the feminism from the glasses of Islam. In the West and East alike, feminists were up against home-grown patriarchalist opponents who used sundry means to denigrate feminism and its supporters. In the West, detractors portrayed feminists as man-haters. In the East, enemies branded feminists as agents of cultural subversion and, ironically in so doing 'colluded' with westerners in declaring feminism western. (Kynsilehto, 2008: 26). Therefore, what can be integrated from this Islam feminism understanding is the way Islam see the equality between men and women, from the agents of truth about the equality between men and women, not creating women to hate men just to beg an equality as what west feminism says to. This thought is also influence to the way of the culture move by times, Eastern as universal truth sees, is culturally have features of moral, politeness, differences, and those all shape a unity of eastern culture that is very cultural. While, in Western, thought, rationality, and will or dreams becomes the subjects that move them to be better, and it shapes their mind and finally becomes the culture of west, therefore, the freedom of women seems to be radical rather that to grab the equality. PATRIARCHY Patriarchy system is a system that has been rooted in society generally. Erich From asserts that Patriarchy system is where men is fated to dictate/control women, and it rules to all part in the world. (Fromm, 2002: 177). Engels gives different perspective that patriarchy system is begun when human have already understood about privacy owning, and it marks the birth of system of class. (Budiman, 1981: 21). What Engels means, must reflect to the birth of system of class of men and women. To add it, to make the establishment of this system of men, chronologically there are some experts that give distance between men and women where men are supposed to be the better one.Classically, women are inequality creature, and it is added by Aristotle who views women as an imperfectness of nature (Beauvoir, 2003:ix). Francis Bacon comments that the more negative assertion that women are the jail of men because women give bad effect or influence to men (Arivia, 2002:40). Kant even says that women does not have any ability to use their cognitive ability therefore women should not be allowed to deliver what they think (Arivia, 2002:40). While, St. Thomas supposes women as "imperfect men", women are creature who are created not deliberately, and it is proven by the symbolic story where Eve is portrayed by Bossuet as a creature who is made of the "Adam's Rib" (Beauvoir, 2003:xi). According to Cixous, the term of men and women pinpoints to the difference of the two where the first term must posit the higher or better meaning, and it is placed by men. Therefore, men are self and women are the Liyan. Women live in men's world, therefore women are considered as the Liyan for men. (Tong, 2009:292). Based on those facts, society finally construct a system where men dominate the whole contents of social life. J. Douglas (1976: 34) adds that many feminists use the term patriarchy as a generic term for male privilege, supremacy, and domination, referring to their current as well as past forms. The attraction of this usage is readily apparent: first, its rhetorical punch and strongly pejorative connotations; second, its reminder of the tenacity and continuity of male domination. Despite earth-shaking social changes, not the least of which are the women's Movements of the nineteenth and twentieth century, male power remains. These all continuously give a perspective that women are really controlled, handled, and dictated by men particularly in society. The representation of society can be found in family. Family is the crucial institution in society (Millet, 1972: 33) because it can represent to what happens in the society. In a family the women mostly being the victim of oppressed by their husband or brother. Furthermore, feminist knowledge develops and becomes more sophisticated throughout the 1970s; the family comes to be an important object of analysis. In many cases, it is the crucial site of women s oppression, the space where, unheeded by the world outside, women are at the mercy of fathers or husbands; where the law of patriarchy holds its most primitive form (Pilcher&Whelehan, 2004: 44). Engels as quoted by Millet explains that the ideal type of the patriarchal family and the ancestor is the Roman family, whence come both the term and the legal forms and precedents in the west. Engels informed the word familiaas follow: signify the composite ideal of sentimentality and domestic strife in the present day philistine mind. Among the Romans it did not even apply in the beginning to the leading couple and its children, but to the slave alone. Famulus means domestic slave, and familia is the aggregate number of slaves belonging to one man the expression [familia] was invented by the Romans in order to designate a new social organism the head of which had a wife, children and a number of slaves under his paternal authority and according to Roman law, the right of life and death over all of them(Millet, 1972: 123—124). In family, Gough as quoted by Jo, mentions that men and women cooperate through a division of labor based on gender. Child care, household tasks and crafts closely connect with the household, tend to be done by women; war, hunting, and government by men. Besides that, men in general have higher status and authority over the women of their families, although older women may have influence, even some authority, over junior men (Jo, 1984: 84). Therefore, what things can be inferred to those all understandings, are the problem that is faced by women in the society, the society is like the jail of women and it is sourced by thoughts where place men in a good position to control women. This is also what things reflected on AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone that finally makes the main character, the woman, whispers something as the silent voice in the middle of patriarchy system. This reaction potentially can be said as the thing to get attention and sympathy about what happens to women in Afghanistan, and this can be said as the movement of feminism. FEMINISM In general, feminism is the theory of women's liberation since the intrinsic in all its approaches is the belief that women suffer injustice because of women's sex (Humm, 1989: 74). From the inequality that exists between both gender, women want to search equality in the society, they start to speak up their voices in the publicarena. Women themselves must articulate who they are and what role they play in the society. Most importantly, they must reject the patriarchal assumption that women are inferior to men. This started the feminist movement. It was started by the reality that male-female relations is a form of power structure in which men dominate women (Thebaud, 1994: 290). From this starting point the feminist believe that existing inequalities between dominant and marginalized groups can and should be removed. In the practive the feminist scholars attempt to examine beliefs and practices from the viewpoint of the "other", in this case women, treating them as subjects, not merely objects. Based on all general understanding, it is important to sharpen it into the good shape for not going out of the limitation and wasting buss of explanation of the theory. First of all, it is a long discussion of talking about feminism and its complex sources. To maintain the stability of this research that uses feminism as the knife to slice the discourse of patriarchy reflected in AtiqRahimi's The Patience Stone, thus the first feminism, the main slicer, continuously will be the main point of theory to discuss. The first wave of feminism appeared in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when women's suffrage was at the pole position of an industrializing world. In other word, it happened at the age of Victorian age. In 1800, women had little control over their lot in life. The average married female gave birth to seven children. Higher education was off-limits. Wealthier women could use limited authority in the domestic scope but possessed no property rights or economic autonomy. Lower-class women toiled alongside men, but the same social and legal restrictions applied to this stratum of society as well. Somewhat ironically, religion fueled some of the initial social advancements women made at the beginning of the 19th century. The Second Great Awakening, which started in 1790, emphasized emotional experience over dogma, allowing women more leadership opportunities outside of the home. Abolition and temperance movements that shared Protestant undercurrents activated women as well. It is like to what Stuurman, as quoted by Bryson, says that feminist theological arguments were further elaborated in the seventeenth century: for example, some writers used the creation story to argue that Eve was superior to Adam because she wascreated last, or because she was created out of Adam's rib rather than out of mud and slime (Bryson, 2003: 6). Thus, it can be seen, that in religion, or theologically, the inequality women have, has been rooting to put them down under the knee of men. That means, men are taking higher position in human life where men and women separate them. To talk about the theologically term about the inequality, then women want to get the equality, means that women have something different from the way theology thinks about it and the way of thought is Cartesian with all rationality to think. Bryson notes that the inspiration for these new ways of thinking (feminisms) was the revolution in western philosophy, which had been started in the first half of the seventeenth century by Descartes. According to Cartesian philosophy, all people possess reason, and true knowledge, which is based on experience and self-discovery rather than study of the classics or sacred texts, is in principle available to all. This means that traditional authority is rejected in favor of rational analysis and independent thought, and that customs and institutions which are not in accordance with reason should be rejected. (Bryson, 2003: 6). Therefore, what has been done by feminist is breaking the old thought that is sourced by the empirical way of theology. Moreover, what becomes the main point of this born is the equality that is thought as the right that has been robbed by men and their all system. The first-wave of feminism began in the United Kingdom and the United States around the nineteenth century and lasted until the early twentieth century. The focus of this movement at this time was on de jure inequalities, or officially mandated inequalities. There were many people during this time who were considered to be feminists, Mary Wollstonecraft, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, Olympia Brown, and Helen Pitts; there are countless more. The first-wave of feminism was monumental to the movement, however, without the continuing second-wave, there would be no hope for feminism in current times, for each wave is connected and dependent on the other's history. In simpler words, feminism is not some simple thing that people can generalize, like it is just an excuse for women to kick men in the balls, and not take care of themselves, or that men and women must be equal at all costs. Feminism is a movement, which has been incredibly important to the success and failures of this country and has been a necessary journey for the women in our country to travel upon so that they can discover and create their own unique place in society. First wave feminists spent hundreds of years in activism, writing, protesting and working for the betterment and equality of their sex and gender. First wave feminists worked not only for suffrage, or the right to vote, but also for the right to an education, the right to work, the right to work safely, the right to the money they earned when they worked, the right to a divorce, the right to their children and the right to themselves and their own bodies. Rights for women can be traced back to the Middle Ages in the Middle East when early reforms under Islam gave women greater rights in marriage, divorce and inheritance. Women in other cultures were not afforded such rights until centuries later. Further improvements of the status of Arab women included things such as the prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. The things mentioned above are necessary and were necessary, and in some case, came at the end of long efforts. First wave feminists had to work against this impression, and they had to work against the society that allowed an unmarried woman to be property of her father and a married woman to be property of her husband. The first wave of feminism was the longest, and it is the most taken for granted. It is common now to speak with women who do not identify as feminists who think that feminism is a dirty word, who simultaneously pursue careers and an education, who exercise their right to vote, who own property and benefit from the fruits of their labor. Understanding the history and the efforts of feminism, understanding how much progress they made and how long it took them is important both to those who think they are not feminists, and those who identify as feminists and who live life trying to better the world by the feminist ideal. (Retrieved from uic.edu and pacificu.edu). Victorian feminism is a difficult concept to analyze. On the one hand, some of the greatest reforms of women's social and legal position before those of the late twentieth century occurred in a few decades of the nineteenth century; on the other, many of those women who were active campaigners—Caroline Norton, Florence Nightingale, Emily Davies, and Barbara Bodichon—were ambivalent about the extent of their own feminism, and over-anxious to distance themselves from unconventional lifestyles and behavior. Moreover, they seemed concerned mainly with the plight of intelligent middle-class single women. Their commitment to respectability gave them something of a timorous or half-hearted allegiance to a more wide-ranging kind of feminism; in any case, their contribution to the feminist cause was often narrowly specialized as they concentrated on a particular campaign—whether for women's colleges at Cambridge or child custody rights—to the exclusion of others, and many still relied on men to help them with the legal or parliamentary part of their activism. For some, however, it was impossible to avoid being drawn into a wider examination of women's rights, as happened with Caroline Norton and Harriet Martineau, for example, and by the end of the century, most of the major journals were carrying heated debates about the unsatisfied needs of the modern woman. Beginning initially with spasmodic bursts of activism, first wave feminism gathered pace through the work of specific individuals working for specific ends, until the momentum of events made concern for women's full participation in social and political life a matter of public interest across the whole political spectrum. This in itself was no mean achievement (Gamble, 2006: 24). According to those all explanations about first wave feminism, that is majorly from west, then it is continued to see this based on the glasses of Islam feminism reflected to AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone. There is a woman that faces a fact of patriarchy system, she cannot do anything except confessing something about the inequality that indirectly getting sympathy for anyone who read to pay the pity about equality of thee Woman should have. The equality is something has been robbed by the patriarchy system, and the way the Woman acts, can be said as feminist movement. As Muslim, this thought can be clearly is seen as east feminist movement. It is like to what Kynsilheto says that it was in this context that some of us reported that Muslim women were subverting the patriarchal Islamist project through what appeared to be a new form of feminism-in-the-making which Muslim women in different parts of the world would soon call Islamic feminism. (Kynsilehto, 2008: 26). Therefore, the understanding of this feminism toward this research goes clearer to see as the relevant theory that will be used to slice the data just to become a good shape of analysis without going out of the limitation. STATUS WOMEN IN AFGHANISTAN The position of women in Afghanistan traditionally has been inferiorto that of men. This position has been continuing to age, socio-culturalnorms, and ethnicity. In fact, Afghan women, even until the beginning of 20thcentury are still being the slaves of their father, husband, father-in-law, and elder brother. Thus, it can be said that the status of women are silence and obedience. The essence of attitude towards women could be clearly seen in the relationshipof the family after the birth of a female baby.The birth of a female baby,particularly in those cases where the mother gives birth to several girls, is the main cause of contracting a second marriage, and it is still happened until nowadays. Girls areusually raised to be good mothers and tolerant housewives. Thus no one pays attention to their education, except in very rare cases in some well-to-do families. Furthermore, they are married to young and even to very old men, in most caseswealthy ones between the ages of 13 and 16, and in certain cases between the ages of 10 and 12, if their parents desire. They were exchanged for what is called "Toyana" or marriage price. Young girls had no right to choose theirfuture husbands, or question their engagement, which is arranged by theirparents. Early marriage is the main cause of suffering for girls in Afghansociety. Such marriages are both physically and psychologically unhealthy,and often resulted in sickness and psycho-neurotic diseases. Many youngmothers pass away during releasing it because of physiological reasons and earlymotherhood.Divorce is an easy act if the husband wants it. Afghan women do not have any right to ask for divorce. The man is the governor, the controller, the dictator, of every authorizing in divorcing. It is a slur for both families.Occasionally, wives were deprived of their rights and claims on their ownchildren. Traditional women refer to their husbands as "Sahib", the lord. Wives aregreatly trusted by their husbands. This great confidence rendered byhusbands has led Afghan wives towards great honesty, chastity, courage, andproper manners. Women are mainly occupied with rearing children, cooking,sewing, milking, weaving, spinning, and other similar house-works. For thosewho can pay for servants, their servants free them from the burden of home duties. Women take part in social occasions and family entertainments,but they separate from men. On all occasions where both sexes take part,they remainsto be separated. According to Scharmann (Kakar, 1971), thedivision of men and women into two separate worlds is pronounced inAfghan society. In entering the world outside their homes, women are toveil themselves. They usually try to hide their faces from men, calling them "Namahram", though the exception was for women in upper class families,the number of which was very small. Afghan women are patriotic. They love their native land. That is whyAfghan women in time of war helped Afghan warriors in the battle fields byproviding services such as carrying supplies, removing bodies, helpingwounded soldiers, etc. For example, in the second Afghan war with theBritish, Maiden Malalyis known as the symbol of courage at Maiwand war.At present, women take an active part in defending the revolution. They areorganized in committees for such defense. Based on the paraphrasing of Wali M. Rahimi in his book Status of Women: Afghanistan that is supported by UNESCO, therefore it can be accepted that what things happen to the Woman in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone, is not only a kind of play of the plots of a fiction, but it can be related to the reflection of the reality world, where women are still living in the jail, they live in the armpits of men that are very rotten. HOW AL-QURAN VIEWS PATRIARCHY As a religion that is always involved in patriarchy, Islam actually seems to be like a scapegoat religion. By the showing from the first creature of Adam, the duty of men of being a leader and women should follow their husband, until the greater rights of wealth heritage. Those all constantly strike Islam as a religion that gives privilege to men rather than to women. This all happen, potentially from the miss understanding toward the interpretation of Al Quran.In Al Quran, the holly book of all Muslim, there is told some reason of those wrong perceptions. In a verse from Surah An-NAhl. There is written, Anyone who works righteousness, male or female, while believing, we will surely grant them a happy life in this world, and we will surely pay them their full recompense (on the Day of Judgment) for their righteous works(16:97). This is what is said as the equality of Men and Women. Both men and women are treated with same treatment, and those all based on what they do in the world with regardless what sex they have. Additionally, there are some verses and Surah that show Islam give similar position between men and women, and the difference of the two is not a hierarchal system, but difference of patching each other. This is very different to what patriarchy understands about, therefore, there is no reason to call Islam as patriarchal religion. SILENT VOICE This is a new term that will be a source of question, what does it mean? How can this term raise among all problems that this thesis emerges up? And many questions follow to trace with no end. However, this term is actually taken from the basic problem of the Woman, as the main character, in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone. The Woman faces problems of patriarchy system, she cannot do anything except following that system. She is just woman, and she has no voice to demonstrate what she feels, but, when her husband comes back in comate condition, she finally can utter everything she feels. Based on this fact, it can be said that the Woman has a chance to say what she feels from the comate condition of her husband, with that moment she says. She voices something, something that is always hidden and repressed. This repressed voice, finally can be seen as the silent voice, because silent literally mean cannot be uttered directly, it exists but it is not heard and listened, even it cannot be heard nor listened. The voice symbolically shows the heart, the feel, and experience. Therefore, it is completely seen as the silent voice of the Woman, definitely. DEPICTION OF PATRIARCHY'S HANDCUFF THROUGH THE WOMAN'S SILENT VOICE IN ATIQ RAHIMI'S THE PATIENCE STONE The things become the crucial issue in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone is the problem that is faced by the Woman. The Woman here is unnamed character, she has a comate husband after taking back from the war. Here, the Woman delivers everything she has kept, hid, and buried. These feelings are blown up by what she utters to the "dead" husband. Here the conflict emerges as long she delivers it. To start it, the conflict can be rushed to the conflict where the Woman has a sex with her husband at the first night, 'Oh yes bleeding…I was lying to him, of course.' She glances keenly at the man, more mischievous than submissive. 'Just as I've lied to you…more than once!' she pulls her legs up to her chest and wedges her chin between her knees. 'But there is something I'd better tell you…' (Rahimi, 2010: 28). There is something different going wrong in this case. On the quotation, the Woman admits to her comate husband that she has been lying to him. What she lies, is the thing happens when they firstly sleep in gathering. Pulling the plot before, the man comes after homing from war. He is as nervous as the woman in facing the first having sex. Then, they finally have a sex. The Husband feels happy because he thinks that the woman is still virgin. The proof is, the blood melts down while the Husband penetrates his penis down. It is accepted because, in oriental countries, culture, women are like the special things. Therefore, the virginity of women is the crucial thing every man should have got. It can be thought carefully when it is compared with western culture. In western culture, a man and a woman can live together although they have not been married, but it is not accepted in mostly eastern culture, moreover in Afghanistan. To get it, men's culture construct a jail where women are prohibited to be out of house in order to make them saves of being not virgin. However, the blood that melts on the Woman's vagina is the blood of menstruation. The Husband does not know, and he does not want to know. The way the Husband does it, the way the Husband treats his wife with regardless the condition of the wife appears something. It is a kind of a force, the insisting seems that the Husband, as a man, has a power and right to do everything to the wife. This authority can be belonged to an action of domination of a man to his wife. Further explanation, the way these two creatures marry, is not in a proper equal right. What is meant by this statement is, the Woman marries to her husband in a condition where she has to be sit with a photo because the Husband in on process of war. That is the pity thing for every woman to marry with someone she never sees directly and physically. This marriage happens because the Woman is believed as a woman who has been already of being married. With regardless the love, the feeling, and the desire to marry, the Woman is insisted to marry. This is harsh thing, the hard thing for women to neglect it. Women are poisoned by this system, because if women try to make a move of changing it means that women have not been ruling the law, and it is considered as fighting to God's rule. As it can be mirrored directly that, this system, this marriage gives something pleasant for the men because they (men) do not have to be so serious in facing the marriage because they can represent their appearance, their existence, in the ceremony. Another fact is, when the Husband has a sex with the Woman, actually the Woman is in the period that means she has menstruation. However, what thing that can stick to every eye is the fact that the Husband firstly meet the Woman, his wife, three years after they marry.'When you and I went to bed for the first time after three years of marriage, remember! Anyway, that night, I had my period.' (Rahimi, 2010: 28).From the quotation above, it can be read unmistakably that the Woman meets her husband firstly after three years passed. This is added the explanation above that the Woman is jailed in the system of patriarchy. The Woman cannot break the rule, she has to follow the rule, she has to be laid down on the feet of a man. It can be imagined, how can a marriage is not attended by one of the couple? It is really strange and seemed not to be a fair marriage. Additionally, the Woman marries to her husband is caused by the time she has to marry. Moreover, her sister has been sold to a man because her father cannot pay the debt after being lost in his bet. After having a sex, the days after, the Husband should go to the war again. It means that he has to leave his wife again. The Woman, as a woman generally in the world, must feel sad of being left by the husband. Therefore, the Husband looks to be a pride thing for everyone in Afghanistan, because he struggles for nation, for religion, for Afghanistan. Although, what the Husband does is sacrificing the happiness of the Woman. This is the voice of the Woman in front of the comate Husband. She utters everything she feels, what she utters means that she has been keeping, holding, and defending her emotion and anger because of the relation with her husband. She marries with a man, and during the marriage, for ten years, she never speaks, she never does something husband-wife does generally such a chit-chatting, joking, giving romantically action, and other actions. The coming of the Husband is only run out by drinking, partying, and laughing with all his friend, then he wants to have sex with his husband, the Woman. Therefore, it means that the woman is only an object of sexuality, object to deliver the Husband desire of sexuality, the object that is only for satisfying his ambition of the desire. Within this context, within this culture that asks every woman to fulfill the desire of the husband, becomes the thing that can be good and bad. Generally, it is good for a normal relation that has good husband and wife. For example, the filling what husband desires can strengthen the relation of the two, between the husband and the wife. However, the context that the Woman faces is different. She is very seldom of meeting with his husband, she never speaks, talks, and make conversations. Then the Husband comes home, and wants to have sex after drinking and partying. Can it be looked as a duty for every woman in the world to fill what the husband wants? This is unfair thing. This is the thing that can slice the feel of every woman. Women are also creature, they are human being, they also have feeling and desire. They want to be felt, they want to treated humanely. If the Husband just want to throw out his desire and after that he goes off again. It makes the impression of the Woman that she just a whore of the man, she is just a slut of the Husband, she is only a harlot of his husband. This s irony, but this is what happens to the Woman in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone. Because the setting is in Afghanistan, it can be reflected that something happens to the Woman, is what the things happen to some women in Afghanistan. Talking about Afghanistan, it must relate to the system they use. Afghanistan is a complicated country. Therefore, what can be inferred from the explanation has been noted in the understanding before about the position women in Afghanistan, is the women have no freedom to move, to express something, to say something such as "Excuse me, I want to divorce you." Or something like "Um… Sorry we need to discuss it before." The fate of women seems to have been robbed out. They do not have anything in the world, everything they want to say, everything they want to deliver based on what they feel, based on what they think is unfair, is unsaid, and it is kept in heart. What else that has to be said that this system is called as patriarchy system. Indeed, it is Islam, but it is longer used as what equality in Islam has been written on the holy Koran. This is caused by the wrong interpretation of human, the wrong interpretations are finally used as the culture, and for the God's sake, it is inherited. The Quran makes it clear that Women and Men are equal in the eyes of God. This is the weakness of human, to see something they always see it by what they can accept, although God has different point of view. One of the most misunderstood areas in Islam is the position, the situation, and the condition of women in the religion. The universal view in the West is that Muslim women are subjugated and almost seen as property or the object of men. Although, not all Muslims deal with that statement that women as inferior, this is unfortunately true in some segments of the Muslim world and this treatment is supposedly reasonable thing by the religion. However, when it is looked at the basis of the religion, the Quran, it can be seen a different picture. In the Quran God makes it very clear that men and women are equal. Their Lord responded to them: "I never fail to reward any worker among you for any work you do, be you male or female - you are equal to one another. Thus, those who immigrate, and get evicted from their homes, and are persecuted because of Me, and fight and get killed, I will surely remit their sins and admit them into gardens with flowing streams." Such is the reward from GOD. GOD possesses the ultimate reward. (3: 195). The only criterion for distinguishing among the people. Based on what those show, it can be articulated that God seems to have no distinguishing, or special thing to differ between men and women. The two can have sins, the two can hbe living in the paradise, the promised place. If the God seems to say that, why men creates their own understanding to control women in their armpits, is that a kind of breaking the rule of God whereas God say that there is no difference between men and women, the two can live in paradise and have sins. If the paradise is for good human, and men try to be good by slaving women, and women try to be good women by being slaved by men, is that a kind of justice? Men can live freely by slaving women in the world, and slaving is kind of joyful action. They do not have to be pregnant, they do not have to be working at house, wiping the shits of the baby, feeding the baby, menstruation, and busy of massaging their husband. If they (women) have to do so as their duty, they should have the same result of what they have done, the same right of not being slaved. They should have similarity, because of what they do for men are rightfully consisted of rights. However, men, the culture of men, the system of men, the wrong interpretation, makes them fall to the disgusting thinking about women. How can that clear verses be ignored? Why are women treated so poorly in some Muslim communities? The answer lies in the fact that those communities take other sources besides the Quran as the basis of their religion. There are many Hadiths that degrade women. In addition, the pre-Islamic cultures of much of the Muslim world do not value women and have little use for them. The following verses demonstrate this fact: Long and complicated, the tradition that brings and leads the system of men to mostly Muslim nations, here is Afghanistan. However, it can be traced that what makes this becomes the intimate problems of Afghanistan is their condition. Their variety of religion and the territorial that is surrounded by West and East culture makes them are easy to be got down, especially in their rule. Islam, where the verses are delivered beautifully, but it is interpreted wrongly, and makes the wrong system of men. There are difference between men and women, but the difference does not mean they are not equal. They have same duty and right, the same means to the effect rather than the direct meaning of duty, so does the right. However, this right does not longer exist for many women, and it can be represented by the Woman in AtiqRahimi. Again, she has to admit that to be married with the Husband is not what she wants. 'Your mother, with her enormous bust, coming to our place to ask for the hand of my younger sister. It wasn't her turn to get married. It was my turn. So your mother simply said, "no problem, we'll take her instead!", pointing her fleshy finger at me as I poured the tea. I panicked and knocked the pot over.' She hides her face in her hands.in shame, or to dispel the image of a mocking mother in law. 'as for you, you didn't even know this was happening. My father, who wanted nothing more, accepted without the slightest hesitation. He didn't give a damn that you weren't around! Who were you, really? No one knew. To all of us, you were just a title: the hero! And, like every hero, far away. Engagement to a hero was a lovely thing, for a seventeen year old girl. I said to myself. (Rahimi, 2010: 53—54). Here is told that the Woman does not have any right to choose which man she wants to be married to, because her mother selects the man for her. It shows that the power of parents is strongly grabbing the children, and the children that gets the bigger grab is woman. Women are considered as slow, weak, and brittle. Thus, it is not right if women are given a chance to choose men. Furthermore, the Women does not love the man she marries. It is a kind of insisting. Why should be woman? This is the patriarchy system, the system that control women. The more ironical thing happens to the Woman in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone is, she marries with a man she never knows, and even in the marriage ceremony, she marries to a photo. '… they celebrated our engagement without the fiancé. Your mother said. "don't worry, victory is coming! It will soon be the end of the war, we will be free and my son will return!" Nearly a year later, your mother came back. Victory was still a long way off. "It's dangerous to leave a young, engagement woman with her parents for such a long time!" she said. And so I had to be married, despite your absence. At the ceremony, you were present in the form of photo and that wretched khanjar, which they put next to me in place of you. (Rahimi, 2010: 54). Based on the quotation above, it can be read obviously that the Woman marries to a man she never knows and during the marriage ceremony, she just sits next to a photo, not the man she marries to. This is an irony fact, the Woman must feel sad, besides the force of marrying the man she never knows, she must also feel sad of this moment. This is an unfair thing for woman, and can it be said that this is the fair thing for woman to marry with a photo? Furthermore, for years the Woman is not allowed to jostle, to join with a group, with neighbors, and friends. She has to be in home, doing everything in home. The home is like the jail of her, she is prohibited of talking to anyone. And I had to wait another three years. Three years! For three years I wasn't allowed to see my friends, or my family…it was not considered proper for a young married virgin to spend time with other married women. Such rubbish1 I had to sleep in the same room as your mother, who kept watch over me, or rather my chastity. And it all seemed so normal, so natural to everyone. To me, too! I didn't even know how lonely I was.' (Rahimi, 2010: 54). The way her mother in law treats her can be analogized that the Woman seems like a prisoner. She is forbidden to interact with the other side of the house, she has to sleep with her mother in law while the Husband is in war. The mother always keeps watching on her, and it is like a guard in the jail, and the woman is the prisoner. She is like a creature who is born to be kept watching, with no right to do, every move she makes is something her mother in law catches.When she is like a prisoner, she must be the fault one whether she is fine or doing a mistake. It is portrayed to this below quotation. Those all are what the Woman feels and it is portrayed in a conclusion where patriarchy system in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone is drawn. The Woman is the representation of this portrayal, she feels in jail, she feels like a prisoner, no right and no freedom to move. She marries to a man she never knows, her sister becomes the stake of her father's bet, and she forced to be pregnant although the Husband is the unfertile one. She is insisted to meet someone like a priest to consult the pregnant, and the priest is actually a procurer. She is asked to get in a room, and a man with blindfolded penetrates her until she gets pregnant. The way her mother insists her to get pregnant with not knowing the condition of her son, makes the Woman has a baby from a man she does not know. This the cruel of the patriarchy, when women do not have any right to speak something, they are jailed, and the only one thing the Woman in the story can do is, delivering everything she feels to her comate husband. With a silent voice, she utters and posits herself. THE IMPACT OF THE WOMAN'S SILENT VOICE IN ATIQ RAHIMI'S THE PATIENCE STONE As the response of facing this problem, the Woman cannot do anything except telling the truth of what she feels, what she hides, what she wants to deliver, because she does not want to hurt anyone. Therefore, she wants to tell it to no one, besides that she must be afraid of telling what she feels because what she faces is the culture, the misunderstood religion, and social truth. This problem is delivered through this below quotation, she thinks that it is better to keep silent and to tell to no one. 'I never wanted anyone to know that. Never! Not even my sisters!' she leaves the room, upset. Her fears echo down the passage. 'He's driving me mad. Sapping my strength.Forcing me to speak.To confess my sins, my mistakes.He's listening to me. Hearing me.I'm sure of it. He wants to get to me…to destroy me!' (Rahimi, 2010: 60—61). This is what happens to the Woman's sister. Her sister is forced to marry, her father sells her sister because her father defeats in bet. However, what can the Woman do? She is just a woman, she has no voice, her voice is not to be heard or listened, she is just a creature that is created by not deliberation, therefore, woman should be in room, cooking, bearing baby, feeding baby, and doing "female" activity. She does not have to have something like man, like voicing voice. This shows that the Woman posits herself in a mute, in silence, and in the broken heart with no fight back. The culture has constructed them t be like this, silence and mute. This is the best position the Woman can replace because if she wants to break the rule, she must be destroyed, tortured, and punished by the law the men create. One of the best way, besides keeping silence, is telling the truth to God. When her husband is comate, the Woman always prays on her Husband. Her Husband is just comate, cannot respond, cannot do anything. A hand, a woman hand, is resting on his chest, rising and falling in time with his breath. The woman is seated. Knees pulled into her chest. Head sunk between her knees. In the other hand, the left, she holds a long string of black prayer beads. She moves them between her fingers, telling them. Silently.Slowly.In time with her shoulders. In time with the man's breath. Within reach, open at the flyleaf and placed on a velvet pillow, is a book, the Koran. Her plump, dry, pale lips are softly and slowly repeating the same word of prayer. (Rahimi, 2010: 2—3). This is what the Woman does, he prays for the Husband, although everyday it seems no worth, no use, and it even seems to be in vain. However, as a Good wife, she always prays, and never quits for stopping praying. This is the way the Woman posits herself, although she gets unfair life, although her life is grabbed by the system of men, although her happiness is robbed by the injustice, she just tries and keeps trying to be a good wife fro her evil Husband. The way the Husband keeps silence and receives all things the Woman tells, is analogized as the Patience Stone. It is the mythical stone for Muslim in Hajj, the stone that is very soft and can release all burden. Probably, this is why the Woman tells it to her comate Husband. There are so many internal conflicts the Woman faces, and she almost has a plan to leave her comate Husband. However, she is a god wife, and she is so sorry of having it. It is reflected on this below quotation. 'Forgive me', as she strokes his arm. 'I'm tired. At breaking point. Don't abandon me, you're all I have left.' She raises her voice : 'Without you, I have nothing. Think your daughters! What will I do with them? They're so young…' She stops stroking him. 'The Mullah won't come today,' she says with some relief (Rahimi, 2010: 14—15). In this quotation, it shown and portrayed that the Woman is almost surrendered, she almost quits, she is almost getting tiring. Her frustration is caused by the condition of the Husband that is not different days by days. However, she remembers about her daughter, and it adds something in her heart not to leave the Husband. Based on this fact it can be seen that the Woman is trying to posit herself in a god way, she is just trying to be a good wife, a good Muslim who works the rule of not leaving the Husband and doing everything for the Husband, although the Husband is in comate condition. This portrayal, is the form of faith, the Woman is really special woman, by the condition that can strike her, the situation that can make her angry, the experience that can make her has a revenge for the injustice, she keeps having a feeling to take care of her Husband. Then, the reflection of the Woman to posit herself is clearly seen b this quotation. As a good mother, the Woman also treats her children with lovely treatments. It is shown by this quotation below that shows that the children are not allowed to disturb the comate father. 'Don't be frightened, darling. I'm here.' The mother reassures her : 'I wasn't shouting. I was talking to your father.' They walk away from the door. 'Why are you calling my father Al-Qahhar? Is he cross?' 'No, but he will be if we disturb him.' The little girl falls silent (Rahimi, 2010: 17). The way the Woman asks to her children not to disturb their father who is comate shows that the Woman keeps the Husband, she does not want her Husband gets worse by the disturbing. This is showing the Woman posits herself in treating her Husband. Based on the experience when she has to marry with a photo, the experience where she has to be penetrated while she has menstruation, until her Husband's brothers who always spy the Woman while she takes a bath, she does not have any revenge. If she has, she must kill the Husband easily because the Husband is between the condition of dead and alive. He is comate, and it is very easy for everybody to kill him, no exce