Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hatti-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 387 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 88 per cent is covered by soil, two per cent by rock out crops and 10 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below The soils belong to 10 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 2 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm). About 23 per cent is sandy at the surface, 33 per cent is loamy and 32 per cent has clayey soils at the surface. About 88 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m). An area of about 11 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 77 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 26 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 62 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 7 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0 to 6.5), 53 per cent has neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3) soils, 11 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 5 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4) ,7 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 4 per cent soils very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 38 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 34 per cent of the soils. Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 69 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 19 per cent of the soils. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 11 per cent area of the soils. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 75 per cent of the area. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in entire the area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area. The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 54 (14) 55(14) Pomegranate 35(9) 151(39) Maize 36(9) 73(19) Guava - 114(29) Bajra 36(9) 150(39) Jackfruit 35(9) 79(20) Redgram 35(9) 50 (13) Jamun 35(9) 126(32) Bengal gram 18(5) 91 (24) Musambi 53 (14) 133 (34) Groundnut - 231(60) Lime 53 (14) 133 (34) Sunflower 53(14) 56 (15) Cashew 1(<1) 149(39) Cotton 53 (14) 56(15) Custard apple 54(14) 287(74) Chilli 36(9) 1(<1) Amla 36(9) 305 (79) Tomato 36(9) 1(<1) Tamarind 35(9) 49(13) Drumstick 35(9) 192 (50) Marigold 35(9) 74(19) Mulbery 35(9) 306(79) Chrysanthemum 35(9) 74(19) Mango 35(9) 31(8) Jasmine 35(9) 2(<1) Sapota 35(9) 79(20) Crossandra 35(9) 26(7) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 2 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change.SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 126 (55.75%) men and 100 (44.25%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 8, small farmers' was 6.75, semi medium farmers' was 5.9 and medium farmers' was 6.4. The data indicated that, 46 (20.35%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 108 (47.79%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (23.89%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (7.96%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Hatti-1 had 40.27 per cent illiterates, 0.44 per cent functional literate and masters, 27.43 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.54 per cent of them had middle school education, 12.39 per cent of them had high school education, 4.42 per cent of them had PUC education and 4.87 per cent had diploma education. The results indicate that, 58.33 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 33.33 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture labour and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were private service. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 31.86 per cent of the household members, 34.51 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.44 per cent were in government service, 2.21 per cent were in private service, 19.47 per cent were in students, 3.98 per cent were housewives and 4.42 per cent were in children. The results show that, 100 per cent of of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 2.78 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 61.11 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 19.44 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 16.67 per cent of them possess semi pacca house. The results show that 86.11 per cent of the households possess TV, 75 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder player, 5.56 per cent of them possess bicycle, 41.67 per cent o f the households possess motor cycle, 8.33 per cent of the households possess landline phone and 86.11 per cent of them possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8,193, mixer grinder was Rs. 2,100, bicycle was 1,750, motor cycle was Rs. 44,722, landline was 4,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,769. About 16.67 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 11.11 per cent of them possess plough, 2.78 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill ,transplanter/grinder and tractor, 5.56 per cent of them possess irrigation pump 2 and harvester, 22.22 per cent of them possess sprayer, 13.89 per cent of them possess sprinkler and 66.67 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,333, plough was Rs. 1,770, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 3,000, transplanter/grinder was Rs. 5,000, irrigation pump was Rs. 10,000, tractor was Rs. 600,000, sprayer was Rs. 1,800, sprinkler was Rs. 3,500, weeder was Rs.57, and the average value of harvester was Rs. 80. The results indicate that, 38.89 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 44.44 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent possess crossbreed cow and buffalo, 11.11 per cent possess sheep, 5.56 per cent possess goat and 8.33 per cent possess poultry birds. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.59, average own labour (women) available was 1.30, average hired labour (men) available was 12.15 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.52. The results indicate that, 72.22 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Hatti-1 micro-watershed possess 26.24 ha (48.12%) of dry land and 28.29 ha (51.88%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.92 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 7.49 ha (11.78%) of dry land and 2.31 ha (23.55%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 11.78 ha (56.18%) of dry land and 9.19 ha (43.82%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (19.42%) of dry land and 16.79 ha (80.58%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 327,656.95 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 438,168.81. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 685,159.50 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 387,189.19 for dry land and Rs. 866,666.66 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 254,464.29 for dry land and Rs. 413,298.11 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 172,900 for dry land and Rs. 392,913.96 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 41.67 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 50.65 meters. The results indicate that small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.31 ha, 9.19 ha and 16.36 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (10.95 ha), groundnut (7.53 ha), lemon (0.51ha), maize (34.26 ha), sunflower (9.72 ha), sorghum (10.16 ha), 3 green gram (4.53 ha), Bengal gram (3.03 ha) and sajje (6.17 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra and maize. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize and sajje. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, lemon, maize, sajje and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, sajje and maize. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hatti-1 micro-watershed was found to be 79.37 per cent. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 27094.51. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22929.65. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -4164.85. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53213.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67512.18. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 14299.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.27. The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 34426.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42187.75. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 7761.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23. The total cost of cultivation for lime was Rs. 56737.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 291732.29. The net income from lime cultivation was Rs. 234994.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:5.14. The results indicate that, 50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 27,400 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61,250, for small farmers it was Rs. 91,062.50, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 106,825 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 228,857.14. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 12,642.66. For landless households it was Rs. 3,320, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 10,375, for small farmers it was Rs. 23,218.75, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,250 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 21,183.67. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 37 coconut, 261 lemon and 7 mango trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 2 eucalyptus and acacia, 108 neem, 3 tamarind and banyan trees in their field. The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 128.14 per cent, ground nut was sold to the extent of 98.59 per cent, lime was sold to the extent of 100 per cent and maize was sold to the extent of 102.25 per cent. The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,500 for land development, Rs. 1,166.67 for irrigation facility, Rs. 944.44 for improved crop production, Rs.222.22 for improved livestock management and Rs.83.33 for orchard development/ maintenance. 4 The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 11.11 per cent for land development and improved crop production, 8.33 per cent for irrigation facility and 5.56 per cent for improved livestock management. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.78 per cent of the households for land development, improved crop production and orchard development/ maintenance and 5.56 per cent for irrigation facility. The results indicated that, about 44.44 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders. 58.33 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 16.67 per cent of them sold their produce through regulated market. The results indicated that, 2.78 per cent of the households used head load, 25 per cent of the households used cart and 91.67 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 8.57 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 25 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 77.78 per cent of the households used firewood and 22.22 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 58.33 per cent of the households; bore well was the source of drinking water for 36.11 per cent of the households and 2.78 per cent of the households used lake/tank in micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 47.22 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 41.67 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.22 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 25 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 41.67 per cent, milk and egg was adequate for 75 per cent and meat was adequate for 61.11 per cent. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 27.78 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 58.33 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 55.56 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 63.89 per cent, milk and egg was inadequate for 25 per cent and meat were inadequate for 33.33 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 11.11 per cent of the households. 5 The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 27.78 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (50%),frequent incidence of pest and diseases (36.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (33.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (36.11%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (41.67%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.22%),inadequate extension services (5.56%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.67%), less rainfall (58.33%) and source of Agritechnology information (25%) . ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tigari-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 635 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 84 per cent is covered by soils, 14 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 14 soil series and 22 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. About 61 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface and 32 per cent loamy soils at the surface. About 55 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. Entire area of about 94 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 44 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 50 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 17 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4), 26 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 51 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in organic carbon. Entire area in about 94 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. Entire area in about 94 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (0.6 ppm) in the entire area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 235 (37) 155 (24) Sapota 101 (16) 146 (23) Maize 88 (14) 302 (47) Pomegranate 101 (16) 147 (23) Bajra 244 (38) 176 (28) Musambi 101 (16) 146 (23) Groundnut 10 (2) 341 (54) Lime 101 (16) 146 (23) Sunflower 101 (16) 146 (23) Amla 244 (38) 176 (28) Red gram 101 (16) 147 (23) Cashew 62 (10) 182 (29) Bengalgram 1 (<1) 363 (57) Jackfruit 101 (16) 146 (23) Cotton 39 (6) 350 (55) Jamun 38 (6) 207 (32) Chilli 222 (35) 167 (26) Custard apple 245 (39) 175 (28) Tomato 222 (35) 167 (26) Tamarind 38 (6) 63 (10) Brinjal 206 (32) 156 (24) Mulberry 88 (14) 158 (25) Onion 72 (11) 289 (45) Marigold 88 (14) 302 (47) Bhendi 72 (11) 290 (46) Chrysanthemum 88 (14) 302 (32) Drumstick 101 (16) 147 (23) Jasmine 88 (14) 301 (47) Mango 38 (6) 62 (10) Crossandra 101 (16) 289 (45) Guava 101 (16) 146 (23) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 91 (62.33%) men and 55 (37.67%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers was 3.5, small farmer was 4.3, semi medium farmer was 5.0, medium farmers were 6.3 and for large farmers it was 7.7. The data indicated that 10 (6.85%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 68 (46.58%) were in 16-35 years of age, 47 (32.19 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 21 (14.38%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that micro watershed had 22.60 per cent illiterates, 40.41 per cent of the people had primary school education, 22.60 per cent of them had high school education, 9.59 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.05 per cent of them had degree education and another 2.05 per cent of them had done masters. The results indicate that, 96.77 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 3.23 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 3.23 per cent were in government service. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 36.99 per cent of the household members, 50 per cent were agricultural labourers, 10.96 per cent were students, 0.68 per cent were in government service and private service. The results show that only 2 (1.37%) households have participated in self help groups, 1 household each has participated in NGO and dairy cooperative and remaining 97.26 per cent of the sampled households have not participated in any local institution. The results indicate that 100 per cent of the households possess Katcha house in the micro watershed. The results shows that 90.32 per cent of the households possess TV, 64.52 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 12.9 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 64.52 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 103.23 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 6.45 per cent of the households possess computer/laptop. The results shows that the average value of television was Rs. 4107, mixer grinder was Rs.1636, bicycle was Rs.1125, motor cycle was Rs. 33750, mobile phone was Rs.1818 and computer/laptop was Rs.27500. About 51.61 per cent of the households possess plough, 25.81 per cent of them possess bullock cart and 61.29 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 9.68 per cent of the households possess tractor, 6.45 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 16.13 per cent of them possess chaff cutter, 9.68 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster and 90.32 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1428, bullock cart was Rs.23750, sprayer was 2 Rs.2575, tractor was Rs. 300000, sprinkler was Rs. 8000, weeder was Rs.27, chaff cutter was Rs.2000 and earth remover or duster was Rs.26000. The results indicate that, 38.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 12.9 per cent of the households possess local cow and 9.68 per cent of the households possess crossbred cows. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.71, average own labour (women) available was 1.42, average hired labour (men) available was 22.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 0.68. The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 80.65 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Tigari-2 micro watershed possess 4.66 ha (9.06%) of dry land and 46.77 ha (90.94%) of irrigated land. The average value of dry land was Rs. 364813 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 262902. There were 21 functioning and 2 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. There was also one live open well reported among the sampled households in the micro watershed which belonged to a small farmer. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 74.19 per cent of the farmers and open well was the source of irrigation for 3.23 per cent of the farmers. The average depth of bore well was found to be 124.87 meters and the depth of open well was 0.98 meters. The results indicate that, marginal farmers had 2.97 ha, small farmers had 7.38 ha, semi medium farmers had 8.23 ha, medium farmers had 7.94 ha and large farmers had 11.30 ha of irrigated area. The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (16.98 ha), Bajra (14.37 ha), Sugarcane (4.94 ha), Cow pea (2.52 ha), Cotton (1.42 ha), Kharif-Bengal gram (0.91 ha), Jowar (0.81 ha), Brinjal (0.81 ha), Black gram (0.43 ha), Water melon (0.4 ha), Rabi-Bengal gram (0.15 ha), Onion (0.12 ha), Summer-Bengal gram (0.12 ha). The cropping intensity in Tigari-2 micro watershed was found to be 79.22per cent. In case of Marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, for small farmers it was 58.47 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 99.70 per cent, for medium farmers it was 99.49 per cent and for large farmers it was 73.04 per cent. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 36020.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42939.81. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 6919.22, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.19. 3 The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 35575.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22847.50. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs.-12727.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.64. The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 519317.15. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 343571.96. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. -175745.20, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.66. The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 26044.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55702.06. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. 29657.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.14. The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 27808.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69865.71. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 42056.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.51. The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 89544.80. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 173584.96. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 84040.16. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.94. The total cost of cultivation for jowar was Rs. 31467.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18543.42. The net income from jowar cultivation was Rs. -12923.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.59. The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 18391.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39396.50. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 21004.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.14. The total cost of cultivation for blackgram was Rs. 41872.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 192007.56. The net income from blackgram cultivation was Rs. 150135.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.59. The total cost of cultivation for watermelon was Rs. 73118.51. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 2119260. The net income from watermelon cultivation was Rs. 2046141.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:28.98. The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 269811.70. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs.2119260. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 2046141.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:28.98. The results indicate that, 135 tonnes of dry fodder available among the sampled households and it is available 71 days in a year. About 87 tonnes of green fodder available among the households and it is available for 57 days in a year. No households opined that dry fodder was adequate in the micro watershed. Around 48.39 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. Around 58.06 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 209233. For marginal farmers it was Rs 154274, for small farmers it was Rs.136733, for semi 4 medium farmers it was Rs.177216, for medium farmers it was Rs. 227000 and for large farmers it was Rs. 656196. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 36111.11. For marginal farmers it was Rs.23700, for small farmers it was Rs.10956, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.25694.44, for medium farmers it was Rs.58222.22 and for large farmers it was Rs. 151666.67. The results indicated that, Bengal gram, brinjal, cotton, jowar, onion and water melon were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Around 96.77 per cent of the farmers sold their produce in regulated markets, 16.13 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society and 6.45 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement. Around 96.77 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transport and 25.81 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 48.39 per cent of the households used fire wood as a source of fuel, 41.94 per cent of the households used LPG and another 9.68 per cent of the households used biogas as a source of domestic fuel. Bore well was the major source for drinking water for 96.77 per cent of the households and open well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. Around 45.16 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 10 per cent of the marginal, 11.11 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium, 100 per cent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 70.97 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 29.03 per cent possessed APL card. Around 48.39 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 40 percent of the marginal, 22.22 per cent of the small, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 66.67 per cent large farmers. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 25.81 per cent of the households, vegetables were adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households, milk was adequate for 32.26 per cent of the households and egg was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households, meat was adequate for 9.68 per cent of the households. Oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were market surplus for 70.97 per cent, 54.84 per cent, 22.58 per cent, 6.45 per cent, 12.90 per cent and 35.48 per cent respectively. 5 The results indicated that, wild animal menace on farm field was the constraint experienced by 3.23 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (41.94%), inadequacy of irrigation water (6.45%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (32.26%), high rate of interest on credit (6.45%), low price for the agricultural commodities (9.68%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (29.03%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (38.71%), less rainfall (100%) and source of agri-technology information was a constraint for 83.87 per cent of the people. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of credit card knowledge and financial self-efficacy toward credit card misuse and intention to reuse credit card. The technological breakthroughs and regulatory reforms of the past decades have brought payment media to the forefront of business, social and political interest. This research is a survey research that is conducted to understand the causal relationships between variables with the use of questionnaire as the instrument to obtain data. The questionnaire is distributed to 100 sample who fulfill the requirements. The sample of this research are adults in Pontianak that are at least 21 years old. In this research, the data analysis method used is Structural Equation Model Partial Least Square (SEMPLS) method. To conduct analysis using PLS method, this research is using smartPLS 3.0 software. The hypothesis of the research is H1 : Credit card knowledge have significant influence on credit card misuse, H2: Financial self-efficacy have significant influence on credit cards misuse, H3: Credit card knowledge have significant influence on intention to reuse credit cards, H4: Financial self-efficacy have signficant influence on intention to reuse credit cards, H5: Credit card misuse have significant influence on intention to reuse credit cards. The result of this research shows that H1, H4 and H5 are accepted but H2 and H3 are rejected.References A, F. (1984). "Many sides of the coin: The psychology of money usage. Personality and Individual Differences. 501-509.Ackert, L., & Church, B. (2015). Credit cards, financial responsibility, and college students: an experimental study. International Journal of Behavioural Accounting and Finance, Vol. 5 No. 1, 1-26.Aghazadeh, H., & Esfidani, M. R. (2007). Internet Marketing Strategies. 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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Raghunathanahalli West-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 238 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 97 per cent is covered by soils and 2 per cent is by water bodies and less than one per cent by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 9 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 6 Land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm). About 55 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface and an area of 42 per cent has loamy soils. About 42 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 84 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands and 14 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) lands. About 80 per cent area is slightly eroded (e1) and about 18 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) lands. Major area of about 81 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) to very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) and 16 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 38 per cent area. An area of about 57 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 30 per cent area. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 3 per cent area. Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 25 per cent area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 52 per cent area. Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 194 (82) Pomegranate - 89 (38) Maize - 104 (44) Guava - - Bajra - 113 (47) Jackfruit - - Groundnut - 104 (44) Jamun - 89 (38) Sunflower - 89 (38) Musambi - 89 (38) Cotton 27 (11) 167 (70) Lime - 89 (38) Red gram - 89 (38) Cashew - 4 (2) Bengalgram 27 (11) 114 (48) Custard apple 27 (11) 171 (72) Chilli - 113 (47) Amla - 198 (83) Tomato - 104 (44) Tamarind - 89 (38) Drumstick - 89 (38) Marigold - 194 (82) Mulberry - 31 (13) Chrysanthemum - 194 (82) Mango - - Jasmine - 105 (44) Sapota - - Crossandra - 140 (59) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 105 (58.99%) men and 73 (41.01%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers' was 5.2, small farmers' was 5.15, semi medium farmers' was 4.6, medium farmers' was 10 and large farmers' was 3. The data indicated that, 23 (12.92%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 75 (42.13%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (35.96%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (8.99%) were above 61 years The results indicated that Raghunathanahalli West-2 had 22.47 per cent illiterates, 34.83 per cent of them had primary school education, 5.62 per cent of them had middle school education, 19.10 per cent of them had high school education, 4.49 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.69 per cent had diploma and masters, 0.56 per cent did ITI and 5.06 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and private service. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 66.29 per cent of the household members, 8.99 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.12 per cent were in general labour and government service, 0.56 per cent were in artisans, trade and business and housewives, 3.93 per cent were in private service, 15.17 per cent were student and 1.69 per cent were children. The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 5.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 71.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 11.43 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and semi pacca house. The results show that 77.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.86 per cent of them possess DVD/VCD player, refrigerator, land line and computer/ laptop, 68.57 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 57.14 per cent of them possess bicycle, 51.43 per cent of them possess motor cycle, 5.71 per cent of them possess auto and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 3151, DVD/VCD player was Rs.1300, mixer grinder was Rs. 1383, refrigerator was Rs.12000, bicycle was Rs.1033, motor cycle was Rs. 28,485, auto was Rs. 21,000, land line was Rs. 1,200, mobile phone was Rs. 802 and computer/laptop was Rs. 30,000. About 14.29 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, plough and tractor, 2.86 per cent possess seed/ fertilizer drill, 28.57 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2 88.57 per cent of them possess weeder 11.43 per cent possess chaff cutter and 5.71 per cent possess earth remover/ duster. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 12,800, plough was Rs. 2,360, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 35,000, tractor was Rs. 240,000, sprayer was Rs. 2,650, weeder was Rs.62, Chaff cutter was Rs. 1,650 and the average value of earth remover/ duster was Rs.10,000. The results indicate that, 5.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20.00 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.57 per cent possess buffalo and 2.86 per cent of the households possess goat. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.11, average own labour (women) available was 1.60, average hired labour (men) available was 11.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.26. The results indicate that, 888.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Raghunathanahalli West-2 microwatershed possess 82.57 ha (92.87%) of dry land and 6.34 ha (7.13%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.60 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 17.50 ha (96.93%) of dry land and 0.55 ha (3.07%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 22.67 ha (88.79%) of dry land and 2.86 ha (11.21%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.92 ha (100%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 34.80 ha (100%) of dry land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 108,954.57 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 378,544.07. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 328,982.42 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 191,362.16 for dry land and Rs. 360,583.94 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 121,251.34 for dry land and Rs. 489,108.92 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 273,684.22 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers it was Rs. 11,488.37 for dry land. The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.86 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 2.61 meters. The results indicate that semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.49 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (7.27 ha), bengal gram (12.96 ha), green gram (4.59 ha), groundnut (2.83 ha), maize (5.57 ha), navane (0.55 ha), red gram (2.43 ha), sorghum (11.91 ha) and sunflower (18.61 ha). Marginal 3 farmers have grown bajra groundnut, red gram, sorghum and sunflower. While small farmers have grown bajra, Bengal gram, navane, sorghum, sunflower and maize. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, Bengal gram, green gram, groundnut, maize, red gram, sorghum and sunflower. Medium farmers have grown sunflower and Bengal gram. Large farmers have grown Bengal gram and sorghum. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Raghunathanahalli West-2 micro-watershed was found to be 75.10 per cent. The results indicate that, 34.29 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. The results indicate that, 34.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 20534.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24896.58. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 4361.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.21. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 29001.41. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 43669.40. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 14668.00. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.51. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 17450.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30372.61. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 12922.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.74. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 35453.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41303.89. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 5850.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.17. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for jowar was Rs. 18725.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27559.83. The net income from jowar cultivation was Rs. 8834.00. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.47. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 31548.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48720.69. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 17172.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.54. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 30370.30. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56251.09. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 25880.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.85. 4 The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 20232.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28960.75. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 8728.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.43. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 20948.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23650.01. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 2701.03. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.13. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 23157.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35766.20. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 12608.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.54. The results indicate that, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate for 25.71 per cent of the households. The results indicate that the annual gross income for marginal farmers it was Rs. 98,350, for small farmers it was Rs. 92,320.77, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 132,700, for medium farmers it was Rs. 488,000 and for large farmers it was Rs115,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 16,211.77. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,363.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 8,565.02, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 152,433.33, for medium farmers it was Rs. 170,000 and for large farmers it was Rs. 100,000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 44 coconut trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 6 yeak, 44 neem and 15 tamarind trees in their field. The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 96.3 per cent, Bengal gram, green gram, groundnut, jowar, maize, red gram and sunflower was sold to the extent 100 per cent, Navane was sold to the extent of 83.33 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 98.25 per cent. The results indicated that, about 34.29 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders, 80 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 20 per cent of them sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement. The results indicated that, 14 per cent of the households used cart and 120 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. 5 The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 74.29 per cent of the households used firewood and 28.57 per cent of the household used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 48.57 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 40 per cent, open well and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 2.86 per cent of the households in micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL, 88.57 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 8.57 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card. The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 94.29 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 65.71 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 34.29 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 68.57 per cent, milk was adequate for 62.86 per cent and meat were adequate for 2.86. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.86 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 31.43 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 45.71 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 17.14 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, milk was inadequate for 31.43 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 65.71 per cent and meat was inadequate for 57.14 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 17.14 per cent of the households and vegetables was market surplus for 11.43 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 57.14 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (71.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (22.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (74.29%), high rate of interest on credit (62.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (60%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (65.71%), inadequate extension services (2.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (54.29%) , less rainfall (45.71%) and source of agritechnology information (22.86%) ; Not Available
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Naregallu-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 551 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm). Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface. About 89 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 8 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 90 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands. An area of about 51 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 48 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 37 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 61 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed is low (1.0 ppm) in available boron content. An area of about 22 per cent is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) and 76 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content. Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content. Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc content. The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 207(38) 284(52) Sapota 34(6) - Maize 33(6) 459(83) Pomegranate 34(6) 400(73) Bajra 34(6) 457(83) Guava 34(6) - Groundnut 34(6) - Jackfruit 34(6) - Sunflower 172(31) 262(48) Jamun 34(6) 310(56) Cotton 175(32) 318(57) Musambi 172(31) 262(48) Red gram 34(6) 345(63) Lime 172(31) 262(48) Bengalgram 206(37) 286(52) Cashew 34(6) - Chilli 34(6) - Custard apple 207(38) 285(52) Tomato 34(6) - Amla 34(6) 458(83) Brinjal 33(6) 459(83) Tamarind 34(6) 310(56) Onion 33(6) 2(<1) Marigold 34(6) 458(83) Bhendi 33(6) 459(83) Chrysanthemum 34(6) 458(83) Drumstick 34(6) 400(73) Jasmine 34(6) 57(10) Mulberry 34(6) 345(62) Crossandra 34(6) 166(30) Mango 34(6) 116(21) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 94 (56.29%) men and 73 (43.71%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 3, marginal farmers' was 4.2, small farmers' was 3.83, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 4. The data indicated that, 18 (10.78%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (41.32%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (38.32%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (9.58%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Naregallu-3 had 36.53 per cent illiterates, 35.33 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.19 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.77 per cent of them had high school education, 7.19 per cent of them had PUC education and 1.20 per cent had diploma and ITI. The results indicate that, 97.5 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 2.5 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 23.95 per cent of the household members, 61.68 per cent were agricultural labourers and 14.37 per cent were student. The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 5 per cent of the households possess thatched house and 95 per cent of the households possess katcha houses. The results show that 70 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.5 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 7.50 per cent of them possess bicycle, 35 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.50 per cent of them possess auto and landline phone and 90 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,732, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,700, bicycle was 1,175, motor cycle was Rs. 32,357, auto was 300,000, landline was 4,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,492. About 12.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 17.50 per cent of them possess plough, 5 per cent of them possess seed/ fertilizer drill,2.5 per cent of them possess sprayer, 12.50 per cent of them possess weeder, and 17.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. T he results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,060, plough was Rs. 2800, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 8,000, sprayer was Rs. 2,000, weeder was Rs. 21 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 441. The results indicate that, 22.50 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 7.50 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.50 per cent possess buffalo and goat. 2 The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.40, average own labour (women) available was 1.85, average hired labour (men) available was 6.25 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.4. The results indicate that 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Naregallu-3 micro-watershed possess 29.15 ha (59.87%) of dry land and 19.54 ha (40.13%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.84 ha (86.61%) of dry land and 0.90 ha (13.39%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 14.26 ha (84.63%) of dry land and 2.59 ha (15.37%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 9.05 ha (40.66%) of dry land and 13.21 ha (59.34%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.83 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 264,006.11 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 450,207.13. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 530,630.63 for dry land and Rs. 1,218,385.64 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 238,308.74 for dry land and Rs. 694,687.49 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 132,498.88 for dry land and Rs. 400,949.47 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 211,714.29 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 11 functioning and 6 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 27.50 per cent of the farmers and open well was the major source of irrigation for 2.50 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 13.72 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.05 meters. The results indicate that marginal, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.78 ha, 2.55 ha and 11.92 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (31.79 ha), sunflower (4.91 ha), sorghum (4.61 ha), Bengal gram (2.14 ha), paddy (1.62 ha), chilly and jowar (1.21 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize and Bengal gram, while small farmers have grown maize, sunflower, sorghum, Bengal gram paddy and jowar. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, sunflower, sorghum, paddy and chilly. Medium farmers have grown maize. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Naregallu-3 micro-watershed was found to be 88.20 per cent. The results indicate that, 55 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. 3 The results indicate that, 55 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 81.82 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 4,55 per cent of them borrowed from friends/relatives, grameena bank and money lender, 9.09 per cent of the households borrowed from SHGs and CBOs. The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 59,409.09. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the household's availed credit for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources. The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the credit borrowed from private credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 33037.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45231.00. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 12193.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.37. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 57632.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89969.75. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 32337.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.56. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 57632.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89969.75. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 32337.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.56. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 57632.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89969.75. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 32337.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.56. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 28263.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 88272.38. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 60008.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.12. 4 The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 28263.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 88272.38. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 60008.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.12. The results indicate that, 7.50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, green fodder was adequate for 2.50 per cent of the households and 20 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was in adequate. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 68,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 64,250, for small farmers it was Rs. 79,483.33, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 98,566.67 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 160,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,928.42. For landless households it was Rs. 4,200, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,682, for small farmers it was Rs. 5,366.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,409.72 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 40,000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 37 coconut tree trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 1 teak 14 neem, 6 tamarind, 9 acacia and 4 banyan trees in their field. The results indicated that, Bengal gram was sold to the extent 52.63 per cent, chilly was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 96.01 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 52 per cent, sorghum was sold to the extent of 54.55 per cent and sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. The results indicated that, about 2.50 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 82.50 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market and 12.50 per cent of them sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement. The results indicated that, 95 per cent of the households used tractor and 2.50 per cent of them used flight as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 67.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 95 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.5 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 45 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 55 per cent of the households in micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. 5 The results indicated that, 2.50 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card and 95 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 62.50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.50 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 17.50 per cent, vegetables and egg were adequate for 7.50 per cent, fruits were adequate for 12.50 per cent, milk was adequate for 5 per cent and meat were adequate for 2.50 per cent. The results indicated that, cereals were in adequate for 10 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 27.50 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 65 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 70 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 67.50 per cent, milk was inadequate for 82.50 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 90 per cent and meat was inadequate for 75 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 15 per cent of the households,vegetables were market surplus for 20 per cent of the households, fruits were market surplus for 7.50 per cent of the households and meat were market surplus for 2.50 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 72.50 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (75%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (45%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (30%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.5%), inadequate extension services (10%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25%), less rainfall (60%) and Source of Agri-technology information (37.5%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hatti-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 555 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 12 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 51 per cent and high (>320 ppm) in 48 per cent soils. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 78 per cent area and 22 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm). Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 60 per cent and 39 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 75 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71 (13) 247 (44) Sapota 68 (12) 31 (6) Maize 58 (10) 260 (47) Pomegranate 68 (12) 49 (9) Bajra 70 (13) 267 (48) Musambi 68 (12) 49 (9) Groundnut 55 (10) 323 (58) Lime 68 (12) 49 (9) Sunflower 55 (10) 62 (11) Amla 99 (18) 427 (77) Red gram 55 (10) 99 (18) Cashew 2 (<1) 143 (26) Bengalgram 13 (2) 309 (56) Jackfruit 68 (12) 31 (6) Cotton 13 (2) 340 (61) Jamun - 97 (17) Chilli 58 (10) 242 (44) Custard apple 113 (20) 414 (75) Tomato 58 (10) 242 (44) Tamarind - 68 (12) Brinjal 44 (8) 428 (77) Mulberry 68 (12) 270 (49) Onion - 440 (80) Marigold 58 (10) 260 (47) Bhendi - 458 (83) Chrysanthemum 58 (10) 260 (47) Drumstick 68 (12) 137 (25) Jasmine 58 (10) 242 (44) Mango - 68 (12) Crossandra 58 (10) 278 (50) Guava 55 (10) 44 (8) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 104 (57.46%) men and 77 (42.54%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers' was 4, small farmers' was 4.8, semi medium farmers' was 5, medium farmers' was 5.5 and large farmers' was 6. The data indicated that, 31 (17.13%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 78 (43.09%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (26.52%) were in 36-60 years of age and 24 (13.26%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Hatti-1 had 33.15 per cent illiterates, 1.66 per cent functional literates, 32.04 per cent of them had primary school education, 11.60 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.26 per cent of them had high school education, 2.21 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.55 per cent did ITI and 3.31 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicate that, 94.74 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 5.26 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.63 per cent were in private service. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 60.22 per cent of the household members, 12.71 per cent were agricultural laborers, 3.31 per cent were general labourers, 3.31 per cent were in private service, 16.02 per cent were students and 2.76 per cent were children. The results show that, 0.55 per cent of the households participated in raitha sangha and 99.45 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 89.47 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 2.63 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 7.89 per cent of them possess semi pucca house. The results show that 2.63 per cent of the households possess radio, 84.21 per cent of the households possess TV, 36.84 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.63 per cent of them possess refrigerator, 47.37 per cent possess bicycle, 34.21 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 89.47 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of radio was Rs.1,000, television was Rs.6,125, mixer grinder was Rs.1,583, refrigerator was Rs.6,000, bicycle was Rs.1,080, motor cycle was Rs. 36,428 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,511. About 18.42 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 18.42 per cent of them possess plough, 7.89 per cent of them possess tractor, 2.63 per cent possess thresher, 10.53 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.63 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 18.42 per cent of them possess weeder. 2 The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,000, plough was Rs. 1,337, tractor was Rs. 500,000, sprayer was Rs. 3,000, thresher was Rs.5,000, chaff cutter was Rs.3,000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.50. The results indicate that, 23.68 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 23.68 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.63 per cent possess crossbred cow, 13.16 per cent possess buffalo, 13.16 per cent of the households possess sheep and 10.53 per cent possess goat. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.87, average own labour (women) available was 1.50, average hired labour (men) available was 4.86 and average hired labour (women) available was 4.77. The results indicate that, 89.47 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Hatti-1 micro-watershed possess 44.23 ha (72.31%) of dry land and 16.93 ha (27.69%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.91 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 15.57 ha (90.58%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (9.42%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 8.09 ha (77.40%) of dry land and 2.36 ha (22.60%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 14.65 ha (75.10%) of dry land and 4.86 ha (24.90%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 8.09 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 363,222.02 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 413,240.92. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 743,874.04 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 327,450.03 for dry land and Rs. 555,750 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 255,645 for dry land and Rs. 422,945.19 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 266,104.97 for dry land and Rs. 267,583.33 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 469,300. The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 10.53 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 3.63 meters. The results indicate that semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.27 ha. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (4.17 ha), bengalgram (5.02 ha), chilly (0.81 ha), cotton (1.26 ha), Greengram (30.74 ha), groundnut (0.81 ha), jowar (2.12 ha), maize (5.85 ha), onion (2.83 ha) and sunflower (1.72 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, Greengram, groundnut, jowar, maize and sunflower. Small farmers have grown bajra, chilly, cotton, groundnut, maize and 3 onion. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, Bengalgram, groundnut and maize. Medium farmers have grown bajra, Bengalgram, Greengram, groundnut and maize. Large farmers have grown maize and sunflower. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hatti-1 micro-watershed was found to be 75.38 per cent. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 33255.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28782.57. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -4472.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 38493.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 11121.88. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -27371.96. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.29. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27554.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21962.28. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -5592.41. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.8. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 28703.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 8346.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 31782.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28208.89. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -3573.95. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 15212.54. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 8910.30. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. -6302.24. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.59. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 30106.44. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32110. The net income from greengram cultivation was Rs. 2003.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.07. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 30562.47. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22641.67. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -7920.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.74. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 19418.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from 4 chilly cultivation was Rs. 17631.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.91. The results indicate that, 31.58 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate for 36.84 per cent of the households. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 24,325 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 81,992.31, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 65,016.67, for medium farmers it was Rs. 20,775 and for large farmers it was Rs. 126,430. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11,398.17. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,179.86, for small farmers it was Rs. 17,940.17, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 14,111.11, for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,250 and for large farmers it was Rs. 13,361.11. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 81 coconut trees, 6 mango trees and 5 lime trees in their field. Also, farmers have grown 6 coconut trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 50 eucalyptus trees, 50 teak trees, 172 neem trees, 7 tamarind trees, 1 acacia tree, 11 banyan trees and 1 peepul tree in their field. Also, 1 neem tree in their backyard. The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except cotton, groundnut and maize which were sold to the extent of 90 per cent, 95 per cent and 98.58 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, about 13.16 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 2.63 per cent of the farmers sold in regulated markets and 115.79 per cent of them sold their produce through local/village merchants. The results indicated that, 89.47 per cent of the households used cart, 39.47 per cent of the households used tractor and 2.63 per cent of them used head load as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 10.53 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 42.11 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 5.26 per cent have also used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 68.42 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 7.89 per cent, open well was the source of drinking water for 7.89 per cent and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 15.79 per cent of the households in micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 5 The results indicated that, 44.74 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 97.37 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 2.63 per cent of them possess APL card and 2.63 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card. The results indicated that, 39.47 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.37 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 94.74 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 34.21 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 23.68 per cent, fruits were adequate for 13.16 per cent, milk was adequate for 50 per cent, eggs were adequate for 50 per cent and meat was adequate for 34.21 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.63 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 5.26 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 57.89 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 76.32 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 81.58 per cent, milk was inadequate for 44.74 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 44.74 per cent and meat was inadequate for 50 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 7.89 per cent of the households and milk was market surplus for 2.63 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 68.42 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (81.58%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.42%), inadequacy of irrigation water (44.74%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (52.63%), high rate of interest on credit (44.74%), low price for the agricultural commodities (44.74%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (39.47%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (36.84%), inadequate extension services (15.79%), less rainfall (50%) and source of agritechnology information (18.42%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kinhalu-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 591 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 86 per cent is covered by soils and 14 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 10 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. About 14 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and 71 per cent has clayey soils at the surface. About 81 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 10 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 75 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 23 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 62 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 48 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 34 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 3 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 85 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of about 86 per cent in the microwatershed. About 24 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 61 per cent soils are high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 14 per cent and high (>320 ppm) in 72 per cent soils. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 27 per cent, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 54 per cent and high (>1.0 ppm) in 5 per cent area. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 66 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 79 (13) 276 (47) Sapota 45 (8) 10 (2) Maize 8 (1) 346 (59) Pomegranate 45 (8) 253 (43) Bajra 45 (8) 309 (52) Musambi 79 (13) 219 (37) Groundnut 37 (6) 152 (26) Lime 79 (13) 219 (37) Sunflower 79 (13) 219 (37) Amla 79 (13) 428 (72) Red gram 45 (8) 253 (43) Cashew 45 (8) 9 (1) Bengalgram 34 (6) 321 (54) Jackfruit 45 (8) - Cotton 71 (12) 284 (48) Jamun 37 (6) 251 (42) Chilli 45 (8) 34 (6) Custard apple 79 (13) 428 (72) Tomato 45 (8) 43 (7) Tamarind 37 (6) 252 (43) Brinjal 8 (1) 500 (84) Mulberry 45 (8) 235 (40) Onion 8 (1) 190 (32) Marigold 45 (8) 310 (52) Bhendi 8 (1) 500 (84) Chrysanthemum 45 (8) 310 (52) Drumstick 45(8) 154 (26) Jasmine 45 (8) 57 (10) Mango 37 (6) 89 (15) Crossandra 45 (8) - Guava 45 (8) - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 99 (59.28%) men and 68 (40.72%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.2, marginal farmers' was 4.63, small farmers' was 5.3 and semi medium farmers' was 4.3. The data indicated that, 37 (22.16%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 63 (37.72%) were in 16-35 years of age, 53 (31.74%) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (8.38%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Kinhalu-1 had 31.14 per cent illiterates, 30.54 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.79 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.77 per cent of them had high school education, 7.19 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.60 per cent had diploma, 1.80 per cent did ITI and 3.59 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicate that, 66.67 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 33.33 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 34.73 per cent of the household members, 35.33 per cent were agricultural laborers, 2.99 per cent were in private service, 0.60 per cent were in trade and business, 21.56 per cent were students, 2.99 per cent were children and 1.80 per cent were housewives. The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 22.22 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 61.11 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 16.67 per cent of them possess semi pucca house. The results show that 69.44 per cent of the households possess TV, 61.11 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 5.56 per cent of them possess bicycle, 33.33 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 7,280, mixer grinder was Rs. 3,636, bicycle was Rs. 4,500 motor cycle was Rs. 37,016 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,391. About 5.56 per cent of them possess plough, 5.56 per cent of them possess irrigation pump, 2.78 per cent possess tractor, 2.78 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.78 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 8.33 per cent of them possess harvester, 2.78 per cent of them possess thresher and 47.22 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of plough was Rs. 2,000, irrigation pump was Rs. 55,000, tractor was Rs. 500,000, sprayer was Rs. 1,500, sprinkler was Rs. 500, harvester was Rs.72, thresher was Rs.60 and the average value of weeder was Rs.80. 2 The results indicate that, 13.89 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 13.89 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent possess buffalo, 2.94 per cent of the households possess sheep, 2.78 per cent of them possess goat and 2.78 per cent of them possess poultry birds. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.25, average hired labour (men) available was 11.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.07. The results indicate that, 77.78 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Kinhalu-1 micro-watershed possess 13.62 ha (38.55%) of dry land and 21.17 ha (61.45%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.84 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 5.54 ha (55.65%) of dry land and 4.42 ha (44.35%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.24 ha (15.77%) of dry land and 17.29 ha (84.23%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 594,385.03 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 589,301.02. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 908,695.66 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 558,905.11 for dry land and Rs. 882,142.85 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 185,250 for dry land and Rs. 514,462.91 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 18 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 50 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 55.88 meters. The results indicate that small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 4.42 ha and 16.23 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (2.32 ha), cotton (3.44 ha), maize (22.31 ha), paddy (7.56 ha), sugarcane (0.4) and sunflower (0.4 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra and maize while small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, paddy and maize. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton, maize, paddy, sugarcane and sunflower. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kinhalu-1 micro-watershed was found to be 83.03 per cent. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 41518.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40694.61. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -824.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 34232.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30298.67. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 3933.94. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89. 3 The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 83699.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 52578.55. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 31121.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.63. The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 53220.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50635. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. - 2585.55. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.95. The results indicate that, 16.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate for 27.78 per cent of the households. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 21,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 27,012.50, for small farmers it was Rs. 67,100 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 84,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 4,054.40. For landless households it was Rs. 2,480, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 1,892.86, for small farmers it was Rs. 7,380 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 3,431.95. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 18 coconut trees and 2 mango trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 2 eucalyptus, 40 neem, 1 tamarind and 4 banyan trees in their field. The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,750 for land development, Rs. 250 for irrigation facility, Rs. 1,277.78 for improved crop production and Rs. 55.56 for improved livestock management. The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 2.78 per cent for land development and for 2.78 per cent for improved crop production. Own funds were the source of additional investment for 38.89 per cent for land development, for 8.33 per cent for irrigation facility and for 36.11 per cent improved crop production. Soft loans were the source of funds for additional investment for 2.78 per cent for improved crop production and for 2.78 per cent for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except paddy which was sold to the extent of 98.39 per cent. The results indicated that, about 55.56 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 41.67 per cent of them sold their produce to agents/traders and 2.78 per cent of them sold their produce through regulated market. The results indicated that, 11.11 per cent of the households used cart and 88.89 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 38.89 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 41.67 per cent have shown interest in soil test. 4 The results indicated that, 58.33 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel, 38.89 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.78 per cent of the households used dung cake as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 63.89 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 25 per cent and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 11.11 per cent of the households in micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.78 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card. The results indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 83.33 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 19.44 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 52.78 per cent, fruits were adequate for 11.11 per cent, milk was adequate for 97.22 per cent, eggs were adequate for 88.89 per cent and meat was adequate for 77.78 per cent. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 2.94 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 94.12 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 14.17 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 100 per cent, milk was inadequate for 5.88 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 88.24 per cent and meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 5.56 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 41.67 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (63.89%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (52.78%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.89%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (47.22%), high rate of interest on credit (30.56%), low price for the agricultural commodities (5.56%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (25%), less rainfall (44.44%) and source of agri-technology information (16.67%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mattur microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 448 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 76 per cent is covered by soils and 24 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 200 mm/m) in available water capacity. Entire area of about 6 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 70 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 43 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 33 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 6 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH pH 7.8-8.4), 43 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 28 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in entire area of the soils. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in entire area of about 76 per cent in the microwatershed. About 54 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 22 per cent soils are high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (0.6 ppm) in about 4 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 1 (<1) 287 (64) Sapota - 34 (8) Maize - 289 (65) Pomegranate - 153 (34) Bajra 1 (<1) 335 (75) Musambi - 153 (34) Groundnut - 43 (10) Lime - 153 (34) Sunflower - 148 (33) Amla 1 (<1) 337 (75) Red gram - 130 (29) Cashew - 6 (1) Bengalgram - 330 (74) Jackfruit - 6 (1) Cotton - 288 (65) Jamun - 107 (24) Chilli 1 (<1) 35 (8) Custard apple 1 (<1) 337 (75) Tomato 1 (<1) 63 (14) Tamarind - 101 (23) Brinjal 1 (<1) 290 (65) Mulberry - 128 (29) Onion - 38 (9) Marigold - 289 (65) Bhendi - 291 (65) Chrysanthemum - 289 (65) Drumstick - 150 (34) Jasmine - 141 (32) Mango - 101 (23) Crossandra - 54 (12) Guava - 6 (1) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 106 (52.74%) men and 95 (47.26%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.50, marginal farmers' was 4.83, small farmers' was 5, semi medium farmers' was 6.38 and medium farmers' was 6. The data indicated that, 17 (8.46%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 106 (52.74%) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (28.86%) were in 36-60 years of age and 20 (9.95%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Mattur had 33.33 per cent illiterates, 0.50 per cent functional literate, 18.41 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.98 per cent of them had middle school education, 26.37 per cent of them had high school education, 10.95 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.50 per cent had diploma, 1.49 per cent had ITI and 2.49 per cent of them had degree. The results indicate that, 70.27 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 29.73 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 48.26 per cent of the household members, 30.85 per cent were agricultural labourers, 3.48 per cent were in private service, 12.44 per cent were student, 3.98 per cent were housewives and 0.50 per cent were children. The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 2.70 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 70.27 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 8.11 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 18.92 per cent of the households possess semi pucca house. The results show that 75.68 per cent of the households possess TV, 27.03 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 8.11 per cent of them possess bicycle, 37.84 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.70 per cent of them possess tempo and landline phone and 94.59 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,928, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,260, bicycle was Rs. 1,200, motor cycle was Rs. 31,071, tempo was 500,000, landline was 2,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,347. About 24.32 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 21.62 per cent of them possess plough, 2.70 per cent of them possess tractor, 8.11 per cent of them possess sprayer, 48.65 per cent of them possess weeder, 2.70 per cent of them possess harvester and 5.41 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,777, plough was Rs. 1,780, tractor was Rs. 500,000, sprayer was Rs. 4,500, weeder was Rs. 52, harvester was Rs. 5,000 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 825. 2 The results indicate that, 32.43 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 27.03 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.70 per cent of them possess crossbred cow, 8.11 per cent possess buffalo and 2.70 per cent of them possess poultry birds. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.33, average own labour (women) available was 1.94, average hired labour (men) available was 6.22 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.14. The results indicate that 81.08 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 18.92 per cent opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Mattur micro-watershed possess 11.53 ha (27.70%) of dry land, 28.76 ha (69.09%) of irrigated land and 1.34 ha (3.21%) of permanent fallow. Marginal farmers possess 5.36 ha (75.67%) of dry land, 0.87 ha (12.34%) of irrigated land and 0.85 ha (11.99%) of permanent fallow. Small farmers possess 5.67 ha (100%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.17 ha (30.49%) of dry land, 13.59 ha (67.11%) of irrigated land and 0.49 ha (2.40%) of permanent fallow. Medium farmers possess 8.64 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 428,133.33, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 401,761.64 and the average value of permanent fallow land was Rs. 254,484.85. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 585,343.40 for dry land, Rs. 800,462.98 for irrigated land and Rs. 352,857.16 for permanent fallow land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 652,785.71 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 291,540.98 for dry land, Rs. 357,587.13 for irrigated land and Rs. 82,333.33 for permanent fallow land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 266,213.68 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 22 functioning and 5 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 59.46 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 67.39 meters. The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.34 ha, 5.26 ha, 14.03 ha and 8.94 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (21.26 ha), Bengalgram (4.64 ha), onion (3.3 ha), bajra (3.17 ha), cotton (2.43 ha), groundnut (1.62 ha), sorghum (2.02 ha), cowpea (1.28 ha), sugarcane (1.21 ha) and wheat (0.81 ha). The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Mattur micro-watershed was found to be 81.42 per cent. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 31242.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76824.86. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 45581.96. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.46. 3 The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 19242.89. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44460. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 25217.11. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.31. The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 29582.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59280. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 29697.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2. The total cost of cultivation for Bengal grma was Rs. 35740.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39942.37. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 4202.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.12. The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 19033.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22233.19. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. 3200.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.17. The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 50248.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 145418.29. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 95169.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.89. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 19973.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44460. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 24486.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.23. The total cost of cultivation for wheat was Rs. 36026.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 17043. The net income from wheat cultivation was Rs. - 18983.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.47. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 53039.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45570.78. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 7468.43. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.86. The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 35308.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69557.94. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 34249.74. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.97. The results indicate that, 35.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 40.54 per cent opined that green fodder was adequate. Also, 16.22 per cent opined that dry fodder was inadequate and 5.41 per cent opined that green fodder was inadequate. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 20,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 109,025, for small farmers it was Rs. 101,642.86, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 92,746.15 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 203,333.33. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 17,392.16. For landless households it was Rs. 6,750, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 18,611.95, for small farmers it was Rs. 23,642.86, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7,064.10 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 49,777.78. 4 The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 155 coconut trees in their field and 11 coconut trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 1 cashew tree, 2 teak trees, 60 neem trees, 1 pongamia trees and 9 banyan trees in their field. The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 98.39 per cent, Bengalgram was sold to the extent of 86.15 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 83.57 per cent, onion was sold to the extent of 78.34 per cent, sorghum was sold to the extent of 52.38 per cent. Cotton, cowpea, groundnut, sugarcane and wheat were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. The results indicated that, about 32.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders, 56.76 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 27.03 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market and 2.70 per cent of them sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement. The results indicated that, 8.11 per cent of the households carried head load, 40.54 per cent of them used cart and 70.27 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 29.73 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 29.73 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 81.08 per cent of the households used firewood and 18.92 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 56.76 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 43.24 per cent of the households in micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 27.03 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 97.30 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.70 per cent of the sampled households did not possess any PDS card. The results indicated that, 54.05 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 94.59 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 67.57 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 27.03 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 37.84, fruits were adequate for 8.11 per cent, milk was adequate for 62.16 per cent, eggs were adequate for 59.46 per cent and meat were adequate for 54.05 per cent. The results indicated that, cereals were in adequate for 2.70 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 29.73 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 40.54 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 54.05 per cent, fruits were inadequate 5 for 56.76 per cent, milk was inadequate for 21.62 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 5.41 per cent and meat was inadequate for 8.11 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 29.73 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 5.41 per cent of the households, fruits were market surplus for 2.70 per cent of the households and eggs were market surplus for 5.41 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 72.50 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (75%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (45%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (30%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.5%), inadequate extension services (10%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25%), less rainfall (60%) and Source of Agri-technology information (37.5%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hire Bagnalu-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 485 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 82 per cent is covered by soil, 13 per cent by rockout crops, 150cm) soils. About 66 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 17 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface. About 23 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 3 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 80 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 11 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 72 per cent is moderately eroded (e2). An area of about 8 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0 to 6.5), 19 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3), 22 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) and 34 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75 %) in entire area of the microwatershed. Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) 49 per cent area of the soils. Available potassium is low (20 ppm) in 8 per cent area of the soils. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 51 per cent of the area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 50 per cent of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 16(3) 204(42) Sapota 16(3) 104(21) Maize 16(3) 204(42) Pomegranate 16 (3) 139(29) Bajra 16(3) 308(64) Guava - 120(25) Redgram 16(3) 35(7) Jackfruit 16(3) 104(21) Bengal gram 35(7) 148(3) Jamun 16 (3) 139(29) Groundnut - 328(68) Musambi 16(3) 139(29) Sunflower 16 (3) 35(7) Lime 16(3) 139(29) Cotton 16(3) 204(42) Cashew - 154(32) Chilli 16(3) 169(35) Custard apple 16(3) 382 (79) Tomato 16 (3) 169(35) Amla 16(3) 382(79) Brinjal - 188(39) Tamarind 16(3) 58 (12) Onion - 187(39) Marigold 16(3) 204(42) Bhendi - 187(39) Chrysanthemum 16(3) 204(42) Drumstick 16 (3) 74(15) Jasmine 16 (3) 169(35) Mulberry 16(3) 212(44) Crossandra 16 (3) 169(35) Mango 16(3) - - - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 111 (61.67%) men and 69 (38.33%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.16, marginal farmers' was 5.33, small farmers' was 5, semi medium farmers' was 5.3 and medium farmers' was 5. The data indicated that, 39 (21.67%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (41.11%) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (32.22%) were in 36-60 years of age and 9 (5%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Hire Bagnalu-3 had 32.22 per cent illiterates, 41.11 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.22 per cent of them had middle school education, 4.44 per cent of them had high school education, 7.78 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.56 per cent did diploma, 2.22 per cent of them did ITI and 1.67 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicate that, 86.11 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 8.33 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 2.78 per cent were general labour. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 17.78 per cent of the household members, 55.56 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.56 per cent were general labour, 1.67 per cent were in private service, 21.67 per cent were students, 0.56 per cent were housewives and 2.22 per cent were children. The results show that 99.44 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions; only 1 per son participated in NGO. The results indicate that 8.33 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 69.44 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 22.22 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house. The results show that 58.33 per cent of the households possess TV, 27.78 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.56 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 38.89 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 66.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,761, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,760, bicycle was Rs. 3,000, motor cycle was Rs. 44,285 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,115. About 19.44 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 27.78 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent possessed irrigation pump, 2.78 per cent of the households possess power tiller, 11.11 per cent possess tractor, 16.67 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.78 per cent of them possess thresher and 41.67 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 15,714, the average value of plough was Rs. 1,166, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs.1,300, 2 power tiller was Rs.1,50,000, tractor was Rs.575,000, thresher was Rs.300, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 5,600 and the average value of weeder was Rs.29. The results indicate that, 36.11 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 41.67 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent were crossbred cow and 2.78 per cent were buffalo. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.89, average own labour (women) available was 1.43, average hired labour (men) available was 13.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 13.31. The results indicate that, 97.22 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Hire Bagnalu-3 micro-watershed possess 16.64 ha (33.11%) of dry land and 33.61 ha (66.89%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.17 ha (88.69%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (11.31%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.69 ha (89.03%) of dry land and 0.95 ha (10.97%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.78 ha (33.21%) of dry land and 11.61 ha (66.79%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 20.64 (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 294,405.25 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 303,395.95. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 630,102.03 for dry land and was Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 260,000 for dry land and was Rs. 633,333.36 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 155,781.35 for dry land and Rs. 395,888.50 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 217,941.18 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 20 functioning bore wells and 21 nonfunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 55.56 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 32.17 meters. The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 0.81 ha, 11.98 and 16.23 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (29.41 ha), bajra (6.6 ha), paddy (6.32 ha), sugarcane (3.24 ha), groundnut (1.62 ha) and pearlmillet (1.21 ha). Marginal and small farmers have grown maize and bajra. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, paddy, sugarcane and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, paddy, sugarcane and pearlmillet. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hire Bagnalu-3 micro-watershed was found to be 70.93 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, 3 small farmers it was 84 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 70.70 and medium farmers it was 63.80 per cent. The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sugarcane was Rs. 55529.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 133380. The net income from Sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 77850.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.4. The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 28961.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36880.47. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 7918.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.27. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 96761.57. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31769.74. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 64991.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.33. The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 36805.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54441.97. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 17636.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.48. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 37934.72. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61132.50. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 23197.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61. The results indicate that, 16.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25 per cent opined that dry fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 38,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 32,333.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 47,666.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 97,150 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 103,987.50. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 3,447.45. For landless households it was Rs. 1,250, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,033.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,138.89, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 4,070 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 4,859.38. The results indicate that, households have planted 139 coconut trees and 8 mango trees in the field. Also, they have planted 100 coconut trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 53 neem trees, 212 teak trees, 1 tamarind tree and 1 acacia trees in their field. The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 5347.22 and for improved crop production Rs. 727.78. 4 The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.78 per cent for land development and for 2.78 per cent for improved crop production. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 22.22 per cent for land development and for another 11.11 per cent for improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 25 per cent for land development and for 5.56 per cent for improved crop production. The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 80 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 25 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 95.02 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 96.67 per cent and sugarcane was sold to the extent of 69.09 per cent. The results indicated that, about 25 per cent of the famers have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 75 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce to regulated market and 2.78 per cent of the farmers have sold through contract marketing arrangement. The results indicated that, 11.11 per cent of the households have used cart, 88.89 per cent used tractor and 2.78 per cent used truck as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 77.78 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 52.78 per cent of the households and piped supply was the source of drinking water for 47.22 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 66.67 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.22 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 77.78 per cent, oilseed were adequate for 30.56 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 36.11 per cent, fruits were adequate for 44.44 per cent, milk was adequate for 19.44 per cent and eggs were adequate for 33.33 per cent. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 25 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 63.89 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 58.33 5 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 44.44 per cent, milk were inadequate for 38.89 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 58.33 and meat was inadequate for 2.78 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 80.56 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (75%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (33.33%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.67%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (11.11%), high rate of interest on credit (8.33%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.22%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (13.89%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25%), source of agri-technology information (13.89%) and inadequate extension services (11.11%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tavaregere-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 788 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soil, four per cent by rock out crops and less than one per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below The soils belong to 11 soil series and 44 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils. About 9 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 79 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 7 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface. About 73 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 10 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 85 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 32 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 64 per cent is moderately eroded (e2). An area of about 6 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5 to 6.0), 24 per cent is slightly acid (pH6.0-6.5), 41 per cent has neutral soils, 12 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 8 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 4 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 57 kg/ha) in 81 per cent of the soils. Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 2 per cent area of the soils. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the soils. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 76 per cent of the area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 41 per cent of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area. The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 168(21) 198 (28) Pomegranate 86(11) 279(35) Maize 168 (21) 198 (25) Guava 86(11) 279(35) Bajra 229(29) 200(25) Jackfruit 86(11) 279(35) Redgram 86(11) 216 (27) Jamun - 245(31) Bengal gram 14(2) 352(45) Musambi 86(11) 279(35) Groundnut 147(18) 378 (61) Lime 86(11) 279(35) Sunflower 86 (11) 216 (27) Cashew 154(20) 223(28) Cotton - 365(46) Custard apple 215(27) 536(68) Chilli 154(20) 184(23) Amla 215(27) 536 (68) Tomato 168(21) 170(22) Tamarind - 121(15) Drumstick 86(11) 475(60) Marigold 154(20) 212(27) Mulberry 86(11) 602(46) Chrysanthemum 154(20) 212 (27) Mango - 121(15) Jasmine 154(20) 212(27) Sapota 86(11) 279(35) Crossandra 154(20) 184(23) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 104 (54.45%) men and 87 (45.55%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 5.4, semi medium farmers' was 7 and medium farmers' was 5.5. The data indicated that, 40 (20.94%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 75 (39.27%) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (28.80%) were in 36-60 years of age and 21 (10.99%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Tavaregere-2 had 29.32 per cent illiterates, 0.52 per cent functional literate and ITI, 45.55 per cent of them had primary school education, 13.61 per cent of them had high school education, 5.76 per cent of them had PUC education and 2.62 per cent had degree education. The results indicate that, 80 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture labour. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 15.18 per cent of the household members, 55.50 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.09 per cent were in private service, 24.08 per cent were in students, 2.62 per cent were housewives and 0.52 per cent were in children. The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 45.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 37.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 20 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house. The results show that 94.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 91.43 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder player, 31.43 per cent of them possess bicycle, 45.71 per cent o f the households possess motor cycle and 88.57 per cent of them possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,636, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,707, bicycle was 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 33,187 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,500. About 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 31.43 per cent of them possess plough, 45.71 per cent of them possess sprayer, 100 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.86 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,625, plough was Rs. 1,730, sprayer was Rs. 2,876, weeder was Rs.57, and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3,000. The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 28.57 per cent of the households possess local cow, 11.43 per cent possess buffalo and 5.71 per cent possess sheep. 2 The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.10, average own labour (women) available was 1.9, average hired labour (men) available was 6.52 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.74. The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Tavaregere-2 micro-watershed possess 31.31 ha (64.21%) of dry land, 32.47 ha (32.47%) of irrigated land and 1.62 ha (3.32%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 4.4 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 13.94 ha (85.74%) of dry land and 2.32 ha (14.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.28 ha (53.96%) of dry land and 6.22 ha (46.04%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5.69 ha (38.94%) of dry land, 7.30 ha (49.97%) of irrigated land and 1.62 ha (11.09%) of permanent fallow land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 217,086.72, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 366,206.54 and the average value of permanent fallow land was Rs. 216,125. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 454,044.11 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 222,328.69 for dry land and Rs. 603,490.39 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 150,944.44 for dry land and Rs. 353,776.04 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 105,480.43 for dry land, Rs. 301,386.57 for irrigated land and Rs. 216,125for permanent fallow land. The results indicate that, there were 10 de-functioning and functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there were 1 de-functioning and functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the bore well and 2.86 per cent of the open well was the irrigation source in the micro water shed. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 18.90 meters and 0.17 meters The results indicate that small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.32 ha and 7.29 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (19.95 ha), bajra (12.34 ha), groundnut (7.91 ha), mango (5.56 ha), Bengal garm (0.91 ha), cotton and paddy (0.81 ha) and sunflower (0.49 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut and bengal gram. Small farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut, mango, cotton and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut and mango. Medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut, mango and paddy. 3 The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Tavaregere-2 micro-watershed was found to be 73.01 per cent. The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 22307.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19018.26. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -3289.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 58641.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63763.38. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 5122.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09. The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 29687.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27748.28. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. - 1939.38. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.93. The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 59922.80. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 459720.57. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. 399797.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.67. The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 74765.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 58045. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 16720.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.78. The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 46034.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400.00. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 3365.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.07. The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 40006.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800.00. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 58793.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.47. The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 52520.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76067.26. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 23546.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45. The results indicate that, 42.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 81,300 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 63,200, for small farmers it was Rs. 84,792.31, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 156,942.86 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 137,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,359.30. For landless households it was Rs. 8,800, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,777.78, for 4 small farmers it was Rs. 3,840.24, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,355.10 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 10,375. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 86 trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 9 teak, 18 neem and 2 tamarind trees in their field. The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,829.33 for land development, Rs. 3,531.95 for irrigation facility, Rs. 2,285.86 for improved crop production and Rs.600.09 for improved livestock management. The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 77.14 per cent for land development, 42.86 per cent for irrigation facility and improved crop production and 11.43 per cent for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 55.25 per cent, Bengal gram was sold to the extent of 68.75 per cent, cotton and mango was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, ground nut was sold to the extent of 93.06 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 97.24 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 60 per cent and sunflower was sold to the extent of 87.50 per cent. The results indicated that, about 105.71 per cent of the farmers sold their produce through regulated market. The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the households used cart and 102.86 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households used firewood and 5.71 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 8.57 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households in micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent of the households not possessed PDS card. The results indicated that, 41.67 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 14.29 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5 57.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 34.29 per cent, fruits were adequate for 42.86 per cent, milk were adequate for 28.57 per cent and meat was adequate for 34.29 per cent. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 27.78 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 85.71per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 20 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 62.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 28.57 per cent, milk was inadequate for 40 per cent and egg were inadequate for 57.14 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 82.86 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (31.43%),frequent incidence of pest and diseases (37.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (28.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40%), high rate of interest on credit (5.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (17.4%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%), inadequate extension services (34.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (22.86%), less rainfall (31.43%) and source of Agritechnology information (2.86%) . ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Issue 12.5 of the Review for Religious, 1953. ; A.M.D.G. Review for Religious SEPTEMBER 15, 1953 Pleasure and Ascetical Life . Joseph P. Fisher intergroup Relations " Wiiliam H. Gremley The Religion Teacher . Sls~er M. Acjneslne Practice of the Holy See ¯ Joseph F. Gallen Discipline . c.A. Herbst Questions and Answers Rural Parish Wo~'kers VOLUME XII NUMBER RI VII:::W FOR RI::LI IOUS VOLUME XlI SEPTEMBER, 15, 1953 NUMBER 5 CONTENTS SOME THOUGHTS ON PLEASURE AND THE ASCETICAL LIFE-- Joseph P, Fisher, S.J . 225 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 230 ABOUT BOOKS . 230 SOME DEVELOPMENTS IN INTERGROUP RELATIONS-- William H. Gremley . . . . . 231 A YEAR WITH THE RURAL PARISH WORKERS . 242 PAGING THE RELIGION "TEACHER--Sister M. Agnesine, S.S.N.D. 248 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE--Joseph F. Gallen, S.J .2.5.2 DISCIPLINE--C. A. Herbst, S.J . 272 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 25. Second Year of Novitiate . 276 26. Authority of Superior and Novice Master . 278 27. Sleeping Quarters of Novices . 279 28. Fugitive Religious and Dowry . 280 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September, 1953, Vol. XII, No. 5. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Jerome Breunig, S.J., Augustine G. Ellard, S.J., Adam C. Ellis, S.J., Gerald Kelly, s.,j., Francis N. Korth, S.J. Copyright 1953, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is her.eby gra,nted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Before wrlt;ncj to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. Some Thought:s on Pleasure and !:he Ascet:ical Life Joseph P. Fisher, S.J. ¯|T IS ALMOST INEVITABLE that a good many young reli- | gious, especially among the more fervent, run into certain difficul-ties in squaring their attitude toward pleasure and their acceptance of it with certain ascetical ideals. Practically all ascetical literature, as in a certain sense it must, enlarges on the danger of pleasure and sometimes almost gives the idea to inexperienced minds that pleasure is evil in itself. Likewise there is the insistence that the harder, the more painful, a thing is, the better. While this is true ~rightly under-stood, . young minds frequently make. no qualifications and hence fall into error. Often enough the lives of the saints seem to confirm their exaggerations. The, attitude of mind engendered by such misunder-standings makes for certain practical difficulties in the conduct of these young religious. They are constantly ill-at-ease when faced with pleasure. They feel their ascetical ideals conflict with the mode of action encouraged by customs, by more experienced religious, friends, or relatives. On certain occasions, for instance, feast days, picnics, visiting, it seems they are expected t~o enjoy food, entertain-ment, comforts of various kinds. But they feel that to do so means they must go back on the truest ascetical principles. Or it may be that they are encouraged to enjoy literature but feel that to do so would be. to lessen their ideals. As a matter of fact in the more. ex-treme cases a young religious may have his or her outlook so shaped by the conviction that pleasure is evil (or at least always very. sus-pect) and pain always good that the whole spiritual life is nothing but a kind of self-torture. As is evident, all religious should know the truth about this mat-ter. In general it may be said that not only is it no sin ~o enjoy moderate pleasure but it can easily be an act of virtue. And the goodness of the act can be indefinitely increased by the inte.ntion of directing it to a higher and nobler end, and even actually and ex-plicitly to our ultimate end. For example, a religious who likes honey may eat it with relish and glorify God by so doing. The religious knows there is no sin in such an action and implicitly understands that the action is in accord with God's designs for human life. As a 225 JOSEPH P. FISHER Reoiew ~or Religious matter of fact, the religious could make this an act of the love of God by quietly considering the Wisdom and Goodness of God manifested in this expe.rience of human life. And so with the various simple pleasures that might conceivably, come into an ordinary day. Thdre is a field of pleasure that may well call for special atten-tion. Nowadays many religious are called upon to teach the fine arts, whose whole purpose is to please. This does not mean of.course that this pleasure may be regarded as man's absolutely last end, but it is a relatively ultimate end. Unlike "practical" arts, the fine arts are not aimed at producing something useful, but something beautiful, which causes pleasure. Now if what w,e said above about the possibility of elevating the goodness of sensible pleasures is true, this possibility is even truer in regard to the pleasures of art. For the pleasure of art is a nobler pleasure than that of eating, for instance. Accordingly, it ought to be easier to sublimate the "good" present in an aesthetic ex-perience. Some may doubt this, recalling what they have heard about the immorality of artists of various kinds a~id the. warnings against being a vapid aesthete. And it must be admitted that for certain temperaments there is a danger. Father Graham, in his book, The Looe of God, puts !t stronglywhen.he says: "Artistic sensibility can and should, when controlled by prudence, lend grace and attractive-ness to the moral life. But it frequently happens that the allure-ments of beauty prove so strong that the response to them tends to degenerate into mere aesthetic indulgence. The lover of beauty is con-cerned above all else with the joyous experience of what is pleasing; when unchecked by other considerations he seeks logically an ecstatic existence of perpetual intoxication, through eye and ear and mind, with beautiful objects." It may be added that if a person is of such a temperament and gives in to it, he will undoubtedly do it to the neglect of duty. Even those who are not especially sensitive to beauty can at times be drawn from stern duty by the siren of pleasure. However, it seems that among Catholics and certainly among religious such aesthetes are rather rare. The difficulty is oftentimes the other way about. Even those whose duty it is to study literature and other works of art try to do so without apprec,iating and enjoying the beauty of them. Such an approach is obviously wrong, for unless literature and the other works of art are enjoyed, they are not correctly comprehended. And one who himself does not comprehend can hardly expect to teach others with any success. So it comes about that some rather fail in 226 September, 1953 PLEASURE AND ASCETICAL LIFE their du~;y by not enjoying what is God's Will that theyshould enjoy than by over-indulgence. For example, if Brother Aquinas is pre-paring to teach English and fears to allow himself aesthetic pleasure in reading Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, he certainly will fail to a great extent in both his studies and his teaching. Moreover, it would be well for men if the right kind of people created and appreciated beauty. Too often the enjoyment of beauty appears to be the monopoly of sentimental, anti-intellectual, or at least non-intellectual, and irreligious escapists. "All things are yours" (I Cor. 3/33) but they won't be if we fear immod'~rately, unreasonably, the enjoyment of the beautiful. Since there is an intimate relationship between nature ahd art. it will help to see first something about the enjoyment of nature. Ac-cording to St. Paul, "All the creatures of God are good and nothing is to be rejected that is received with thanksgiving . " (I. Tim. 4/4). And "From the foundations of the world men have caught sight of his invisible nature, his eternal power and his divinity, as they are knowri through his creatures" (Romans, 1/20). The beau-ties of nature ought to lead us to God, Who is reflected in nature, the work of His bands. Many misunderstand the place of "creatures" in God'splan for men. They are normally the means by which man rises to a knowledge and love of the Creator. Too many look upon them as "absolutes," things apart from God, things which, if appre-ciated, draw us to themselves and away from God. Such a view is based upon a n.isunderstandlng of. their true nature. Creatures, finite beings, are of their very nature dependent beings, relative beings, not absolutes. They must, if properly understood, be related to the In-finite; they point to the Infinite; their participated qualities are finite reflections of the infinite attributes and should more than remind us of their prototype. For one who understands the truth about the nature of finite beings, they ought to be stepping stones or rather springboards by Which he rises to that full Being Who is the ever-active cause of their ever-dependent existence. "The Contemplation for Obtaining L6ve," which crowns the Exercises of St. Ignatius, tries to impress men with this truth, but many, satisfied with a super-ficial approach, never really understand it. But the saints have understood it. It is a commonplace that St. Francis of Assisi made much of the sacrament of nature. A biographer relates "the following of St. Francis during his last days. "Meanwhile Francis was suffering greatly. Yet amidst his bodily 227 JOSEPH P. FISHEI~ agonies .be continued to find a~ absorbing sweetness in meditating upon the be.auty of God ifiHis creationl All the.crea'tion seemed to sing of the glory of its Creator to his pain-racked senses: and this is the more wonderful when w~ rememb& ho'~ 'pain is 'apt to turn all sensible comfort into bitterness. One day,' when he was suffering more than u~ual in eyes ~ifid head, he had a great desire to hear the viol. One of the brothers attending him, had been a violist in the world. Francis called for him and said: 'Biother, th~ children of th~ world do not understand divine sacraments: and musical instru-ments, which in former times were set apart for. the praise of God, man's wantonness has converted to the mere delight of the ear. Now I would hav~ you go secretly and borrow a vi01 and bring comfort with some honest melody to Brother Body who is so full of pains.' " Now without entering into controversy about the relationship between nature and art, we can certainly transfer 'much 6f what we have said about nature and God to art and God. Whether you say that art copies nature, perfects or .sublimates nature, or helps one ap-preciate nature, in any case, artistic works ~re finite participations of Infinite Beauty an'd, if appreciated as such, can and should aid one to appreciate this Infinite Beauty. In o{her words, art ~can help one use creatures for "contemplation." A man who is impressed by finite beauty can thereby be better prepared to appreciate the Source of all beauty. One may, for instance, never have realized how a cloud re-flects God's beauty Until he has read and appreciated Shelley's poem, ."The Cloud." Pleasure, though an end in its own o~der, may, if handled prop-erly, be a means of drawing closer to God. A certain puritanical bent of mind prevents many from appreciating this fact. This is not to deny that one can practice virtue" by foregoing the enjoyment of l~gitimate pleasure. It is often said that such abstinence from legiti-mate pleasure strengthens the will so,that it wili be strong in temp-tation. There is certainly much truth in this statement, but it is well to rememberthat motivation rather than exercise is the best means of strengthening the will. However, it is clear that a religious would scarcely be imitating Christ very seriously if he endeavored to fill life with every legitimate pleasure. Christ being rich became poor for us. All who are in the way of the love of Christ know that they can manifest and add to their love by sacrifice. Even here it is well to remember that' ChriSt made use of at least some.pleasures of Ills, ¯ such as the enjoyment of friendship and of.natur~al beauty. And 228 September, 19~ 3 PLEASURE AND ASCETICAL LIFE theology will not allow us to forget the fact that all His life Christ enjoyed the Beatific Vision, even though it is true at least at times the proper effects were divinely withheld. As to whether Christ enjoyed the beauty of human art, we do not have much evidence. If he did not, it would seem that was Simply due to circumstances; cer-tainly the enjoyment of finite beauty is a very worthy human ex-perience, and Christ was a complete man. God it is who has given the artistic urge and God it is Who has created the arts in which man "imitates" the Creator. The artist, even though unconsciously, casts an illuminating light on some facet of a created good, and aids us to appreciate more fully, the beauty .of God's handiwork. Of course Christ did not need this aid, but there were many things Christ did not need that He made His own to be like us and give us an example. The question as to how far an individual religious ought togo in the renouncemen(' of even legitimate pleasure is a very personal question. Even one who wishes to go far in this regard ought to understand the truth of the matter, so that he knows to what he is bound and where he begins to practice supererogation. It is likewise well to remember that what may be or appear objectively best is not always subjectively so. An individual's nature, vocation, training, ¯ and the grace of God must always be considered in settling such questions. What is good for one may be bad for another. A novice in the spiritual life cannot do what a tried religious can do; an active religious cannot do what a contemplative can. It dbes seem that most active religious, at least in the early years of their religious life, may well use pleasure, the higher pleasur.es and even moderate sensible pleasures, to help them rise to the knowledge and love of their Cre-ator. In doing this they should not feel that they are turning their backs on Christ, for as they 'get to know His "mind" better and begin to love Him more, they will spontaneously and with peace.and equanimity begin to give themselves to what St. Ignatius styles the Third Degree of Humility, the imitation of Christ in s~ffering and humiliations through love. Certain young religious seem to think that what is really the strong meat of the mystic way is already for them early in their reli-gious lives, for they try to get to God without the use of creatures. Cardinal Bellarinine points them the way quite clearly: "But we mortal men (as it seemeth) can find no other ladder whereby to ascend unto God, but by the works of God. For those who by the singular gift of God have (by another way) been admitted into 2.29 ~JoSEPH P. FISHER Paradise to hear God's secrets, which it is not lawful for a man to speak, and are not said to have a'scended, 13ut to have been wrapt.". At death some religious who have been striving to fly without wings will agree v~itb this statement of Father Martindale: "But may not one of the great 'difficulties' of dying be this--not that yo~u. have worshipped idols--loved created things ~oo much--but that you have not loved them nearly enough? What suddenly appals one is,' that God surrc~unded one with a myriad things of unbeliev-able beauty--like butterflies, or the sea, or uneducated p, eople--and that one has allowed them to slip by almost unnoticed." Certainly one reason many do not get more out of life is that they fail to make Christlike use of one of God's good creatures-- pleasure. "For all things are yours, whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas; or the world, or life, or death; or things present, or things to cg.me--all are yours, and you are Christ's, and Christ is God's" (I Cor. 3/22:23). OU R CONTRIBUTORS ¯ "JOSEPH P. FISHER is master of novices at the Jesuit novitiate, Florissant, Mo." WILLIAM H. GREMLEY is Executive Secretary for the. Commission on Human Rela-tions, Kansas City, Mo. SISTER M. AGNESINE is nationally known as an expert on methods of teaching religion. JOSEPH F. GALLEN is professor of canon law at Woodstock Coll~ge, Woodstock, Md. C. A. HERBST is on the faculty of the Jesuit juniorate .at Florissant, Mo. ABOUT BOOKS It will be noticed that in this number of the REVIEW; book reviews, book. notices, and book announcements are conspicuous by their absence. The' reason for this is that the varied summer assignments of the editors made it impossible to do the ol~ice work necessary for organizing reviews, notices, etc. The deficiency will be remedied in the November number. 230 Some Developments in Intergroup Relations William H. Gremley IT IS almost anti-climactic these, days to dwell at length on the importance of social and political problems in America occasioned by intergroup relationships. The volume of press stories and magazine articles on the subject,, such as Supreme Court decisions, legislative action of one kind or another or "incidents," either posi-tive or negative in nature, increases daily and 'has come to be almost routine. Scarcely a Week passes without some high official, go+tern-ment or civic, making a major address regarding the international aspects of this issue. That it may be one of the most important topics of our day can-not be denied since, in degree, it permeates almost all other major nation~il concerns, yet, like all social or political issues, it must have proper perspective to be abso'rbed and understood. Unfortunately, the drama and emotion inherent in the problem is a barrier to this perspective. All ioo often the negative--the headlines on race-riots, the grim warnings that we are losing overseas allies, the economic loss from discrimination--dominates the over-all picture with scant emphasis on the positive. And, all too often, the positive is usu~illy limited to gome assertion that "ihe Negro has come a long way since slavery." A brief analysis of some developments in intergroup relations over the past ten years will disclose some positive aspects of far more importance and profundity than the latter remark. The objectives of this article will be to present some analysis of those developments, primarily as they relate to daily situations familiar to most readers. and to attempt a balance of both fiegative and pgsitive aspects so as to present a proper over-all perspecttive. " I Initially, some definitions may be of value as follows: t) The terminology of the problem has, in the past, often been misunderstood. To call it a "Negro problem" is a. misnomer for, in actuality, there is no such thing as a. N, eoro problem in the. United ~tates--nor,.for that matter, a ,Jewish, Mexi.c.o.n, or Puerto Rican .231 X~qlLLIAM H. GREMLEY Review/:or Religious problem or any other issue involving people of one race, .religion, or national origin. The problem, in. terms of a situation demanding attention or correction, is one involving re[ationsfiips between mem-bers of different groups. It is, thus, more accurate to define it as a Negro-white, Jewisb-Gentilel etc., relationship problem. Nothing in the entire range of group discrimination or prejudice has roots solely in one group. A sub-problem, for example, of employment discrimination against Jews or Negroes is dynamically related to the fears, myths, and prejudices of the white Gentile em-ployer. Moreover,. defining the issue as a "Negro problem"-implies a detached and overly-objective attitude toward 15,000,000 people that is quite unrelated to the facts of group discrimination. 2) The term, "intergroup relations" is replacing, in g~neral, such terms as "race-relations" or "human relations." The word "intergroup" obviously pinpoints the is~sue far more than either a phrase excluding religious or nationality conflicts or one embracing all personal relationships, both "inter" a'nd "intra." 3) "Minority groups," as a phrase, is confined solely to a group that, because of some facet of assumed ~roup identity--skin color, religion, language, or group, custom--suffers social, economic, or political discrimination against it. Actually, however, i'minority group" is divisive in itself since it segments people from others and should be used with caution and clarity. 4) " The phrase "civil rights" is distinct from "civil liberties" in that the latter refers to the political or quasi-political freedoms guar-anteed to all by Constitutional safeguards. These would include freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, or right to petition or bear arms. On the other hand, "civil rights" ~ire much rffore social in nature, referring to rights involving places of piablic accommoda-tion, public or privately owned, employment, housing, health and welfare facilities, recreation or education. Somewhere in between the two terms would come rights concerning voting and police pro-tection. II. Perhaps tb~ most important single,development in intergroup relations in the last decade has been th~ establishment of official city agencies to deal with urban problems of this type. Known, for the most part, as "commissions" or "councils" followed by the words "on civic unity," "community relations," or "human relations," they represent a significant phase in the over-all advancement toward September, 1953 INTERGROUP RELATIONS solutions of these problems. In essence,, such, city agencies mean a full realization of and acknowledgement by city authorities that in-tergroup relationships in the diverse populations making up most of America's urban areas can no longer be left to chance or haphazard methods. Just as in decades past, public health, transportation, wa-ter supply, street maintenance, and a host of other various civic con-cerns have been progressively added to the functions of American city government, so too the concerns of intergroup violence, dis-crimination, and individual civil rights are now the official tax- " supported duties of more than 60 American cities. The origins of such city agendes, most of which are goyerned by city ordinance, date from the Detroit race riots of 1943. Shortly after that catast~rophe, a group of Chicago citizens, headed by the late Edwin Embree, then head of the Rosenwald Fund, persuaded the late Mayor Edward Kelly to establish the first such agency. In time, other cities followed suit ~nd today the list includes such arras as Detroit, Milwaukee, Cleveland, Buffalo, Toledo, Kansas City (Mo.), St. Louis, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, Denver. Seattle, and scores of others. In addition, many cities, both North and South. lacking a tax-supported agency, have privately supported groups working to-ward similar ends. Basically, these agencies, composed, for the most part, of mayoral appointees serving without salary but with a paid professional staff, have three aims: 1) To prevent or lessen intergroup violence~ u~hether of the col-lective mob type or as an isolated action (i.e., a bombing or an indi-vidual attack). The most singular success in this regard has taken place in Chicago where the police force, after utilizing the guidance and resources of the Chicago Commission on Human Relations, has achieved a high degree of efficiency in the prevention of intergroup mob violence. (The Cicero riot of 1951 is a case in point. So strict and effective were police measures taken to prevent a "spilling"'over Of ¯ this affair into Chicago that, while law and order broke down com-pletely in Cicero--adjacent to Chicago-the prevalent tensions in the latter city were kept completely in check.) 2) To d~oelop harmonious relationships bettveen all groups And eliminate the causes of group friction and. prejudice. In this regard, such~ city~ag.encies have,available.,a vast.amount of resource material built up over the last ten years. The material available to schools of 233 WILLIAM H. GREMLEY Review for Religious all type~ and a~ all levels will illustrate. Audio-visual aids, teacher training workshops, and curriculum and school-community relation-ship material are some of the areas where resources may be obtained. In addition, ~xtensive tl~eoretical and practical research has been ac-complisbed regarding such problem areas a~ community organization, employment, housing, health, welfare, recreatiom and civil rights. 3) To safeguard and protect the ci~)il rights" of all groups. A greater divergence among such agencies is found in this objective th~an in the other two for an obvious reason~ The degree of civil rights legally accorded to citizens, for the most part, depends on the local or state laws on the subject. Many states, like New York and Rhode Island, have effective Fair Employment PracticeLaws. In addition, New York has a Fair Education Practice Law that prohibits school "quotas" based on group differences. Conversely the s~gregation laws of the South deny civil rights to manycitizens. Thus an inter-group city agericy relies on laws if they exist and persuasion to pro-tect such rights. In "border" states like Missouri, the agency must depend on persuasion alone to accomplish this objective. In general, the types of intergroup probiems faced by a city agency will depend on the population make-up of the city itself. In cities like Chicago, Detroit, and Kansas City, perhaps 90% of such problems spring from Negro-white relationships. New York City with a Puerto-Rican population of.some 500,000 must consider this particular problem along with Negro-white and Jewish-Gentile con-cerns. West Coast cities with people of Japanese descent comprising large .segments of the Ipopulation, Texas urban areas containing sig-nificant percentages of Mexican-Americans, and Rocky-Mountain or North Mid-West states with American Indian reservations, all have different kinds of problem areas sometim_es calling for different kinds of treatment techniques or materi~ils. III An inevitableconsequehce or ,concomitant.of the growth of both" intergroup city agencies and the extensive resource material men-tioned has beeh the development of the 'intergroup relations "pro-fessioni" For the most part, the usual frame ofreference associated with any profession--research material, academic courses and,degrees, job personnel standards, establishment of a national organization (in this case the National Association of Intergroup Relations,Offi-cials)--- characterize intergroup, relations. Over and above these cri- 234 Sgptember, 1953 teria, however, certain premises exist regarding this'field Which have strong foundation~ not only in law where the c'ase may be but, in all cases, in democratic and religious principles as well. -It may be un-necessars; to ~dd that such principles are wholly consonant with those of the two major religious traditions in America. Both Judaic and Christian concepts of individual dignity, of course, are clear and defined. Man is an individual with God-given rights as well as .God-given responsibilities. In addition, it is inher-ent in his nature to mingle and commune.with his fellowmen. Both singly and collectively, he has rights and responsibilities to others and to himself in'a social sense. It ,is thus essential to th~ nature and work of these city agencies that the premise of natural rights for all should underscore and per-meate their functions and programs. The assumption that the hu-man family is one under God, that variations between peoples of genes or customs do not detract from this assumption., and that, in keeping with this "oneness" under God, all are equally entitled, to basic rights, are fundamental four~ations for inte, rgroup wozk' not only of.the "official" city agency type but in the private an'd volun-teer area as well. Some exa.mples may help, to illustrate these concepts. Labor 1) The dignity of labor, exalted by Christ and sustained by the Popes through encyclicals, certainly means the right to fully utilize one's skills. Yet the record ~f denial ofthis righ[ by r~fusals to hire or to upgrade extends back to the mid~lle 19th Century when (and continuing almost to the 20th Century) such denial to Irish Cath-olics was illustrated by factory signs--"Help Wanted--No Irish Need Apply." Tod~y, through cultural assimilation, neither the Irish immigrant nor those of Irish descent suffer this indignity. In their place, the Negro or those of Jewish. faith.are the major victims of job discrimination. It may be said that, to some extent, every racial, religious, or nationality group whether indigenous or not to America has suffered this type of injustice. Recent advances, however, in this problem 'area give hope for the future. The numerous state and city FEPC laws, the changing atti-tude of many industries, aware of the great economic loss in wasted skills, the strong stand of the American Catholic hierarchy as well as other religious bodies against job discriminatioh--all developments INTERGROUP RELATIONS 235 WILLIAM H. GRE/vlLEY Review/:or ReligiOus for the most part of just the "past decade--indicate .a point in time when this problem will no longer be major. Health 2) Perhaps no area of life involves more compassion or human feelings than suffering brought about by sickness or accident, and in this area, perhaps above all others, divine precepts of mercy and brotherly .love should prevail. Yet, this compassion is, strangely lacking in many American cities when hospital facilities for Negroes are considered. Segregation, even in many Northern cities is the rule despite worthy exceptions and it would be impossible to estimate the amount of loss of life or unnecessary pain caused by refusals of hos-pitals to admit Negro patients. 'For example, in the Kansas City area recently, a young Negro woman, injured in an auto accident, was refused admittance to or hastily transferred from four different hospitals because of her color. Eventually taken to her home, she died shortly after. Competent medical authorities definitely asserted that, with prompt and adequate attention, she might well have survived. ' Adding to this problem is the inability of qualified minority-groups doctors, nurses, and medical technicians to obtain staff ap-pointments to hospitals practicing discrimination. Thus the ,hos-pital rationalizes--"We have no Negro doctors so we don't have Negro patients." In this aria as well as employment, however, encouraging prog-ress has been made in ~ecent years. Laws in many states have been .passed prohibiting hospitals from refusing emergency patients Because of race, color, creed, or national origin. Many single hospitals in ~ities like Chicago, New York, Kansas City, and others have taken the initiative in eliminating color bars and given Negro or Jewish doctors and nurses staff appointments. The number of Negro medi-cal students in formerly all-white attended schools is on the increase, and Negro graduates are finding it easier to obtain interr;ships, par-ticularly in municipal hospitals. Education 3) In the, field of education as well, divine concepts of justice and decency to all mankind are just as strong as the above, but school segregation, with its foolish emphasis on the "separate but'~qual" tbegry, at a time when equal facilitiesAor .minority grqups i.s .p.hy.~si.-~ cally and economically t;nfeasible, continues as a burning, national 236 September, 1953 INTERGROUP RELATIONS issue. The waste, not only in dollars but in imperfect or thwarted personal development because of these barriers amohg children is in-calculable. To fully equalize, for example, the separate public schools of the State of Missouri alone wduld cost $20,000,000 according to a re-cent surveyl--without counting the cost of continuing extra trans-portation for Negro pupils. 'On the other hand, it was estimated that approximately $.1,150.000 a year of tax-monies could be saved by integrating the Missouri public school system. It is in the field of education, however, that the record of ad-vancement in the last decade is brightest. U.S. Supreme Court deci-sions have opened ~graduate schools in the South to all applicants. (Those in the North, for the most part, have been integrated sinc'e the 19th Century.) The forthcoming Supreme Court decision on public school segregati.on may well mean thd eventual end of this-anomaly on American democracy. The record of Catholic school authorities in school segregation matters is most significant. In community after community, in-cluding' Kansas City and St. Louis and even in Deep South areas where school segregation was deep-rooted custom, boId and cou-rageous action by diocesan' or arch-diocesan officials have integrated Catholic schools at all l~vels. Jesuit colleges and high schools, in particular, have a record of many "firsts'" in this respect, welcoming all stu~tents in communities otherwise strongly segregated. " IV Despite the. admirable record of Catholic schools in eliminating school segregation, many serious problems still remain to be faced. Perhaps chief among these is that regarding the efficacy of teachers as well as curriculum material in instilling sound intergroup attitudes among pupils. Chiefly. because of existing residential segregation of minority groups in most American cities, the elimination of segregation in Catholic schools where ~t has been.accomplished does not always mean extensive integration. As a rule, a school attended wholly by white pupils remained white-attended With the reverse true for schools Wholly attended by Negroes or children of Mexican descent. It has been usually in the "fringe" areas--where the population was 1"The Cost of Segregated Schools"--Study by Stuart A. Queen, Washi~gtoa Uni-. versity. Available from Missouri Association for Social Welfare, 113 ~ West High Street, Jefferson City, Missouri. " " 237 WILLIAM H. GREMLEY mixed racially or ethnically--that significant integration of different groups took place. Such "fringe" schools are usually in a minority compared to the total number in any given urban community. Ex-ceptions should be made with reference to any isolated Negro-occupied areas outside .the main such area in an urban center. Even in those cases, however, usually not more than a handful of new Negro pupils were registered after the integration order. This residential segregation has, in some areas where the popu-lation is predominantly Catholic, stimulated several situations of racial violence in which the role of the Catholic school has severely been called into question. Following the Cicero anti-Negro riot of 1951, which occurred in a community estimated to be 65 % Cath-olic, the writer interviewed an official of a local Catholic ~chool. In response to questions concerning the use of curriculum material pro-moting positive intergroup attitudes, it" was indicated, that the teaching of such attitudes was confined to the history classes. Worthy as such teaching may be, it was hardly sufficient to relate present-day intergroup problems to the pupils. Since many of the youthful par-ticipants in that affair were observed wearing Catholic insignia of some type, such limitations were not effective as a deterrent to vio-lence. The Peoria Street violehce of 1949 in Chicago, in which extreme ¯ anti-Semitism as well as anti-Negro prejudice took the form of severe assaults and beatings on bystanders allegedly "3ewish-looking," oc-curred in an area estimated to be 90% Catholic. Teen-agers in both incidents played a predominant role in the violence. It is true, of course, that such incidents of racial and religious violence are by no means confined to areas predominantly or heavily Catholic in population. Numerous other disturbances equally or even more severe than those cited have occurred in urban localities pr(~dominantly non-Catholic. The immediate concern, however, is with the role of the local Catholic school, in social situations involv-ing pre.judice and intergroup violence and in localities where ~ignifi-cant portions of the population¯ are of the Catholic faith. Something Lacking? The percentage figures and role of teenagers in the above two af-fairs pose an important question--what was lacking in the teaching techniques of the local Catholic school that could have prevented such expressions of violence and prejudice at least by participants who 238 September, 1955 INTERGROUP RELATIONS may have been Catholic? That something was--perhaps is-- lacking is obvious. While it may be that such a lack is due to com-munity pressures and mores hostile toward p~ople of different color or religion, it is possible that lack of awareness by teachers of the problem coupled with teaching materials that possibly create disre-spect and prejudice for different groups, may also account for this deficiency. For example, in one type of reader used in Catholic ele-mentary schools, the following quotation is f6und: (The reference is to the American Indian.) "Hello, Mother," cried Tom, as he ran into the apartment house where he lived. On the table in the kitchen Tom saw a large white cake. 'Tm glad that I'm an American boy tonight," he said. "Indians never had cake for supper, did they. Mother?" "I'm afraid not, Tom," answered his mother. "They didn't wash their faces before supper, either, but American boys do that.''2 Apart from the "1o, the poor Indian" attitude implied, it is manifestly unfair to deprive tbe native American of his nationality. The matter of bodily cleanliness, of course, varied in custom among the numerous Indian tribes. It is hardly possible that- respect and dignity for the American Indian as an individual created by God could be implanted in children's minds from this passage. On the other hand, an example of the type of curriculum material that can advance positive attitudes in a realistic social situation sense is found in another reader containing the story, "Toward a Promised Land.''3 Dealin~ with effort~, based on race prejudice; to oust a competent Negro doctor from a hospital, the tale. resolves the situa-tion satisfactorily from both a moral and practical viewpoint. The efforts fail, the ~doctor is retained, and his little son sees another ad-vance toward "a promised land." Both examples above perhaps will illustrate the social impor-tance of developing proper intergroup attitudes among children, ad-mittedly often a difficult task in the face of possible parental prejudice and objections. This social importance, however, is far overshadowed by the spiritual importance. To permit or ignore the development in children of prejudiced attitudes, unchecked or not counteracted in 2"This is Our Town," Faith ~ Freedom Series, Book 3, by Sr. M. Marguerite, 'Ginn E4 Company, 1952, p. 46~ 3"These Are Our Horizons," Faith ~3 Freedom Series, Book 7, by Sr. M. Charlotte, and Mary Syron, LL.D. Ginn E4 Company, 1945, p. 136. 239 WILLIAM H. GREMLEY Review for Religious the school, may be almost as much a negation of. ~hrist'~ ~eaching.as the actual encouragement of group prejudice or bigotry. The re-sponsibility, ofcourse, is no less in the home than in.the school, but in the Catholic school the duty to ~each the'ethics of the brotherhood of man unde~ the Fatherhood of God seems of particular concern. The concern is that of Christ. In her excellent study4 on attitudes towards Jews~ by .Catholic school children, Sr. Mary Jeanine Gruesser states: "Interest in the social attitudes of Catholic children is bound up with Catholic belief and practice. Today the. tremendous~octrine of the Mystical Body of Christ is being .preached and taught with new stress and emphasis. In language that he can understand, the youngest Catholic school child is learning to live the fact that all are members, one of another, in Christ. But the teacher who is really concerned that the child take this lesson away from the classroom and back to his play group in the neighborhood, rnus~ know some-thing about the situations and conditions of intergroup interaction of which the child is.a part, of the attitudes toward other people, other religious and nationality groups, that be has already formed. These are the realities to which the doctrine' must be applied, but the two must be related t:or th~ child." Having stated and, it is hoped, adequately illustrated the prob-lem, some positive resources may be listed that may be of value. Available Resources 1) As indicated, a local city intergroup agency can be of as-sistance in suggesting acceptable audio-visual and curriculum ma-terial designed to counteract prejudice and develop healthy and wholesome attitudes in children regarding people of different groups. ~2) Private agencies such as local community relations bureaus,. some school or teacher associations or local offices of the National, Conference of Christians and Jews also have resources ~eadily avail-able for this purpose. 3) Teacher workshop~ in intergroup r61ations are now available each summer in practically every section of the country. For tb~ most part, these workshops are given at local universities and colleges. A lis[ of them may be secured from the office of the National Associa- 4"Categorical Valuations of Jews Among Catholic Parochial School Children," St. Mary Jeanine Gruesser. Dissertation, Catholic University of America Press, Washington, D. C., 1950, p. 8. 240 September, 1953 INTERGRouP RELATIONS tion of Intergroup Relations Offici'als.s Most of these institutes are secular in nature and sponsorship. They are open to all applicants and usually held during the day. A special workshop designed for Catholic religious teachers has been instituted in the Shell School 6f" Social Studies in Chicago. 4) Competent rating scales for determining children's attitudes toward members of other groups are available. Examples are the "Wrightstone Scale of Civic Beliefs," the "Bogardus Social Distance Scale," and the "Grice Scale for.Measuring Attitudes Toward Races and Nationalities." (The latter is available in Sr. 3eanine's study.) As initial steps, such s~ales are extremely valuable in determining an inventory of such .attitudes and measuring the extent of such prob-lems existing in any school. V In conclusion, the international significance of official city agen-cies as resources leading to solutions of group problems of education, employment, health, or welfare facilities is manifest. In essence, they indicatd a "coming of age" for America, a growing realization that America must and can fight its own dilemma on its own grounds. For too long the Communists have pointed a distorted finger of shame at this dilemma in our democracy withoutwas is natural for them--mention of the earnest and valiant efforts made to work 6ut these problems within the framework of our democratic tr'aditions. That we can and will continue to do so, that all group~ and re-ligious bodies, Catholic and 'iaon-Catholic alike, will strive to give substance and body to our great political and religious heritage, is inevitable. Despite the discordancies, whether of violence, discrim-inations, or prejudice, the record of progress in the over-all march of American democracy toward its fulfillment for all, is clear and pro-. found. SNational Association of Intergroup Relations Officials, 565 North Erie Street, Toledo 2, Ohio. "'Opposed to all of these and a billion times rhore powerful is that Love repre-sented by the Sacred pierced Heart of Christ. It is the love for all men, who have equal opportunity tOoshare that tremendous Love, and to return it according as they will, for it has "first loved them and gone down to death for them singly and col-lec/ tively. Such a Lo~,e, even more than the common hand of the Creator unites all men before God. Can men be so callous as to remember race-hatred while kneeling around the Cross of the Crucifie~[ Christ?" '(The Most Rev. Vincent S. Waters, 'Bishop of Raleigh, in his Pastoral Letter of June 12, 1953.) 241 A Year wit:h the Rural Parish Workers [EDITORS' NOTE: The Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King are laywomen de-voted to works oi~ the apostolate in rural areas. Father Edward A. Bruemmer, in whose parish they bare worked for several years, says of them: "[ am convinced that theE are as essential to the welfare of a rural parish as the teaching sisters in the parish school. Perform!ng the corporal and spiritual works" of mercy on a scal~ hitherto undreamed of, they have renovated the face of the earth here." We had planned to give a rather complete sketch of the beginning and growth~ of this work but it is impossible to do that in our present issue. We hope however, to give it later, because we believe it is very important for our readers to know about the va-rious possibilities ot: the lay apostolate. For the present, we content ourselves with printing this informal article written by a Rural Parish Worker who signs herself, Miss Mary. The material in this article can be obtained in brochure form from: The Rural Parish Wokers of Christ the King, Route 1, Box 194, Cadet, Mis-souri.] THE residence and center of the Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King (laywomen dedicated to the service of their neighbors in rural areas) is at Fertile.in the large rural parish of St. ,Joa-chim, Washington County, Missouri'. This is picturesque with its rolling hills, great trees and valleys, but there is evidence of poverty everywhere to mar its beauty. The inhabitanl~s for the most part are a poor, uneducated, generous, loving, and appreciative people. The Rural Parish Workers, cooperating with the pastor, do much to edu-cate, see social justice done, relieve want, spread Catholic Action in the area. I'm spending a year with the Rural Parish Workers, participating in their work and sharing in all their activities. This means sharing in the spiritual life also . . . daily Mass, Prime and Compline or Lauds and Vespers in English, individual recitation ot: the. Rosary, reading and study. This summer when I first arrived, along with two other volun-teers, Miss Pat and Miss Christina, plans for the Open House were already under way. This project is given yearly under the sponsor-ship of a group of men to make new friends for the Parish Workers and spread word of their work. We three pitched right in, helping clean up house and grounds with the neighbors and others who came to help. A week later the big day came. So did 1000 visitors. About the middle of the afternoon Mol~her .Nature came along with the 242 RURAL PARISH WORKERS biggest rain of the season! Many persgns hurried home, but many stayed, so we served food all over the house and on the porches until everyone was happily fed. That night we washed up the biggest gobs of mud and thanked God for a very wonderful day in spite of the rain. Not long after Open House we had a Clothing Giveaway for the needy people. Several times we went on visits in different parts of the parish which is 150 square miles in size. Can you imagine people who live only 50 miles from St. Louis being so isolated as not to see other human beings for weeks at a time? Well, I can state this is the truth. In 3uly a neighbor took us to visit such a family. You can imagine how glad the old couple were to see us. Even though we had been jostled around on the back of a truck (the only way we could get through the woods) and then soaked in a sudden down-pour of rain! Baptisms During another visit a littl~ girl came running across the road. "Could we come over right" away?" A neighbor's new-born baby was dying and the parents wanted Miss LaDonna or Miss Alice to baptize it. So we thankfully watched another child added to God's family in the car of the doctor who was taking the baby to the hos- ¯ pithl. We were present for many weddings in the parish church this summer. But one morning the celebration was for a different reason ¯ . . the baptism of an entire family instructed by Miss LaDonna. We volunteers were happy to witness the event and to take part in 'their joy. Although life with the Parish Workers is anything but routine, there are some things that must be done regularly. Each of us kept her own room neat and clean, and helped with the thorough weekly cleaning. We took turns, two together, in preparing meals and washing the dishes. Each evening one of us volunteers got to milk the goat. This was quite a thrill for us city girls. We volunteers helped Miss Alice with the outside work such as tying up grape vines, wa-tering trees, pulling weeds, raking gravel in the newly-made drive, etc. The Parish Workers' clean-up activities aren't limited t6 their own home, however. One afternoon we all went to watch the completing of the purifi-cation of the spring used by the people of the immediate area. The 243 RURAL PARISH WORKERS Reoieu) for Religious Parish Workers had had the spring cleaned and enclosed in 'concrete with a pipefor'tbe water to run through. This prevents people from dipping their buckets into the .waterand has greatly improved the health of the children in the neighborhood. After an especially b,u~y week we were all preparing for a day of rest when an elderly man came to the door. He bad walked several miles to tell us that his grandson was suffering from a brain tumor and must be rushed to the hospital ira.mediately. Could we get him in? So, this ended our day of rest and sent us on an errand of mercy. Several times this summer Father Bede, O.S.B., spiritual director of the Rural Parish Workers, visited us and gave us many interesting and enlightening talks which broadened our knowledge of the lay ¯ apostolate and helped our spiritual growth. Seven Weeks for doing something you thoroughly enjoy are too short as we three volunteers discovered when the Summer Session came to an end. We all left with heavy hearts. Miss Pat had to re-turn to school. Miss Christina was needed at borne. And I went borne to prepare my winter clothing and tell my family that I in-tended to return in September for a year.of service. Instructions Upon my return [ entered more fuIly into the life of a Parish Worker. Activities began with the start of weekly religious instruc-tions for the public scl~ool children. My class of twenty youngsters is made up of 2nd to 4th graders who have received their First Holy Communion. I find them very attentive and well-behaved with a thirst for knowledge. I had returned to Fertile when the country was most beautiful and the large pears on our tree were ready for picking. I donned a ¯ pair of blue jeans and an old shirt and had the time of my life climbing the tree and shaking down the pears, using the garden rake for the hi~hest branches. Seven bushels of delicious fruit were added to our pantry and shared with our neighbors. In October we entertained the members of the Parish Workers' Advisor~ Board and their wives ata buffet supper. Miss Par'and Miss Christina came to help with this gala affair., We all had so much fun together they were reluctant to leave. But plans were made to get together again when time came for selecting and packing Christmas gifts for.the 250 children in the families we assist during the year. 244 September, 1953 RURAL PARISH WORKERS Travel The distribution and sorting of clothes for these families has been given me as my special project, and I must admit I find it both interesting and helpful. Interesting because of a natural woman's instinct wondering what I will discover in each box I open, for these boxes and packages come to Fertile from all over, sometifnes from as far away as NeW York. And helpful, for in this exploited area wages are very low. Many times we bear of a child out of school bedause of no shoes or other clothing. And for many families the only new baby clothes are those we are able to supply in the layettes generously donated by women and college girls interested in this apostolate I am learning to drive. " If you ask'the Parish Workers how I am doing they ~vill answer, "Wonderfully well." But if.y6u put the question to me ~ am afraid you would receive a different answer. However, I shall keep on-, for often I could help out if I were able to drive the station wagon myself. We travel many miles,each month. Over two thousand is the average now. A number of trips are made to St. Louis, eSl~ecially to clinics and hospitals. One such trip concerned my special ,family. While visiting them one day I noticed the baby looked ill. He was terribly undernourished anyway, and I was truly worried about him. We telephoned a St. Louis hospital and the Sister told us a bed'would be available as soon as we could get.him there. The familywere un-able to pay anything but the baby remained in the hospital seven weeks and is now doing wonderfully. From.time to time I ~ake visits with ~ne of thd Parish Workers. One morning it was necessary to make a trip to the courthouse to see the judge about a f~imily we were helping. I was more than giad to be risked to go along as I would get the opportunity to meet some of the civic officials and learn how,they and the Parish Workers work together to help others. Since I have been here I have learned much about Secularigm and Communism and the inroads tb~y baremade in our country. I am also learning how to detect their prop~an~la in radio programs, newspaper articles, etc. Accompanying Miss LaDonna to the Well-Baby Clinic was al-ways a pleasure., until one day she pulled a fastone and asked the County nurse to give me a typhoid shot. Of course I knew about"it beforehand, but being a city girl I really h~d.~'tthought, much about it., We take pure drinking, water, for gr~inted' in the city, but out here 245 RURAL PARISH WORKERS Review for Religious it's different. All the water is from creel~s and springs like the one the Parish Workers fixed up last summer. The home of the Parish Workers is an old brick house. Major remodeling has made it into a modern home with many conveniences so that they may devote as, much time as possible to their apostolate of serving others. Minor work in the house proceeds slowly, one room at a time, and furniture is supplied by donations. Most of it we repair or repaint, but recently a women's group brought out a complete flew bedroom outfit which the Parish Workers placed in .my room. "Harmonious surroundings help in the development of a Christian home'," they always say. I know for sure they are relaxing at the end of a busy day. The apostolate of the Rural Parish Workers is not well known, although for several years, under the patronage of the Most Reverend Archbishop of St. Louis, they have been quietly working among the poor and downtrodden. So now we send out a monthly memo of recent news to The King's Men, an auxiliary of the Parish Workers. This and other secretarial work enables me to make good use of my typing learned in high school. Christmas There is always activity here at Fertile, but preparations for Christmas are something to behold. First, making of the Advent wreath. Three days before Advent we gathered pine from a large pine forest nearby. I had the pleasure of helping make thewreath, which we hung from the living room ceiling. ¯ With its four candles. magenta-colored ribbons and fresh green l~ine it was a beautiful re-minder of the season of preparation for the great Feast of the Nativ-ity as well as of the long period of waiting for the first "coming .of Christ over 1900 years ago. Decorations in the house were c.hanged to conform with the spirit of the season, and each evening after sup-per, as we lit the candles, one the first week, two the second, and so on, and asked God's help and blessing, we seemed to come closer to the Divine Infant soon to be born again in our hearts on Christmas Day. It was during one of these evenings when all felt in a gay and joyous mood that we selected the °"jewels" for our decorated cross. We finally all agreed on the selection and then could hardly wait for Christmas to hang the beautiful cross with its sparkling stones of red, yellow and blue. Several trips were made to St. Louis and near- 246 September, 1953 RURAL PARISH WORKERS by towns for Christmas shoppi.ng ~and to pick up clothes, canned goods, toys and candy donated by generous friends for "the needy. Also to distribute gifts to our families and friends~ Miss Pat and Miss Christina returned for a week-e.nd to help with the toys, sacramentals, and candy for the children. We were all busily engaged in this task when the Auxiliary Bishop, Most Reverend Charles H. Helrrising, arrived for a short visit with the ¯ Parish Workers. He .gave us his blessing and told us to tell others ot the need for volunteers in this rural apostolate. The following week we packed food for all the needy people of the area. We could gix;e large boxes, due to the generosity of our friends. Gifts and candy were also prepared for our children in the Sunday classes. Several trips were made to the parish church with the station wagon full of people. We live eight miles from church and "many neighbors .would have no way to get to. confession or Holy Mass if it were not for the Parish Workers. Even on the day before Christmas as we worked on the Crib and tree, time was taken so that no one would miss the opportunity to receive Holy Communion on the great feast. As we finished trimming the tree we realized the season of prepa-ration bad ended. Gifts had been hung on the tree ready for the children when they came to visit during Christmas week. They would come with hearts full 6f joyand expectancy to receive their gifts. And we were ready, too . . ." for the greatest Gift of all, ~he Son of God Himself. At Vespers on Christmas Eve the lights from the four candles of the wreath flickered and caught in the jeWels of the decorated cross. A feel!ng of peace and joy filled each of us. Later when we drove with our neighbors to Midnight Mass we could almost hear the Angels singing, "Glory to God in the.highest . . ." And afterwards the gently falling snow seemed to enhance the feeling of peace and love as all exchanged the Merry Christmas greeting. I have written of many things during my first six months with the Rural Parish Workers. There are many more, all pointed to the development of Christian homes, wi~:h interest in government, edu-cation, culture and religious welfarel But you have not the time, ¯ nor I the space to include them here. UPon reading this you may. ti~ink all is Work and no play. But that is not true. Recreation is impor~tar~t in the life of a Parish. Worker. And in the evening you may find us reading, listening to. 247 SISTER M. AGNESINE, Review [or Religious the radio, playing cards, doing hand work according to one's inte~- "ests, and occasionally going to a movie. This summer we even took time out to, go swimming, hiking, picnicking, or for an evening drive. You see, we are just one happy family and all share in one another's joys or" sorrows, working, praying and p, laying together for the glory of God and the service, of.our neighbors. " If I intend becoming a Rural Parish Worker I must spend a pe-riod of reading and instruction, and learning what my duties would be in this area or any area to which I may be sent. Already I have seen the need of the work and the good the Parish Workers are doing. So I say, "God bless them and all their under-takings, and please send more workers for this vineyard." Paging !:he Religion Teacher Sister M. Agnesine, S.S.N.D. " " THE story is told of a prosperous business man who claimed that allMs success was due to a single statement left him as a legacy by his father: "My son, when everything goes wrong with you and ill luck seems to pursue you, then look around and see where you are mismanaging things." Instead of throwing up our hands in despair, as we realize the cryi~ag needs of a world strayed far from its. Maker, suppose that we, too, look around to see whether by any chance we religion teachers might be mismanaging things. Making Religion a Living Reality Granted that we are thoroughly equipped, theologically and in-tellectually, what else is required to assure our success? Let us as-sume that we teach our religion classes regularly and cgnscientiously. We may even boast that our pupils know all the answers. But have we any assurance that they also accept these truths and are prepared to live them? In other words, have we set their hearts on fire with love and motivated their wills with .a strong determination to live their religion intelligently and consistently all th'rough life? Their words alone are not sutticient assurance: neither is their more or less praiseworthy conduct in school. Their religion must be a-living re-ality. It must be~:gme so much a part, of their being that they can- 248 SeptemSer, 1953 PAGING THE RELIGION TEACHER not. lose it without losing life itself. To imbue children with such. a living faith means more than merely teaching Christian Doctrine. It means keeping in mind the fundamental needs of our times and directing pupils to meet these needs according to God's plan. It means, therefore, to help them un~derstand and appreciate God's complete ownership of the world and all it holds, and instilling in them a deep reverence for His au-thority. ,It means helping them to evaluate the things of time in the light of eternity; of making them seeall of life from God's point of view. It means preparing them to meet the problems of life, whether as humble employees, as members of a Christian family, or as leaders of a nation. It means impressing them with a sense of responsibility not only toward God but toward their fellowmen, whom they must recognize as members of the My.stical Body of Christ. It means, finally, giving them a sense of direction, so that they will always and above all things keep clearly in view their eternal destiny. Knou)ing Not Onlg What But Also Hou) to Teach How can the religion teacher,acco, mplisb so tremendous a task? He dare not excuse himself by saying that it is primarily the function of the home to train theyoung for Christian living. For, while he cannot, exempt parents from their duties, the wise teacher will first re-establish Christian ideals in the home through the boys and girls in his classes by teaching them to understand and accept the responsi-bilities of Christian marriage and Christian family life. All of this means more than imparting knowledge. It is not the printed or spoken word alone, no matter bow important in itself, that is necessarily convincing. If the teacher is to gain the desired effect, be must know not only u)bat to teach but how to teach. He must not only inform the pupil's mind but also aim to arouse his emotions to love the faith and to move his will to accept and live it. "Religion is no use" says Father Drinkwater, "until it is accepted and" lived." Teaching b~j Example To teach religion for Christian li~ing, therefore, we must pene-trate the thick shell of modern materialism which surrounds the n~en-tality of even our Catholic pupils. But to be able to do so, we must first of all be living examples of the truths we teach. To the young--. and to the old as well--we are the Church, ~ve are religion, we are 249 SISTER M. AGNESINE Review [or Religious Christ. And unless we outrival in all that is ¯good and true,.in all that is. noble and beautiful in the highest sense Of tl~e ~word, those who, knowingly or otherwise, contrive to shape .the aims, the atti-tudes, and the ideals of the young, we cannot hope to influence them for life. If we.teach that religion must take prec.edence over all other values in life and that therefore the religion lesson is the most imPor-tant of all subjects on the program, then we ourselves ¯will have to put first things first and prove by our regularity and zeal that we mean what we say. Then, too, we will quite naturally do all in our power to make the lesson the most fascinating and interesting sub-ject taught in the school. That means, ir~ the second place, that the teacher must have some knowledge of the techniques of teaching. All too many instructors of religion are still under the impression that all they need to do is to explain the subject ~ind that the child will naturally imbibe what is being said. They do not realize that in spite of a seemingly atten-tive attitude, the pupil is often miles ~way during the religion period : like the boy who, after hearing a long explanation of what it means to be selfish and unselfish, innocently asked the teacher what kind of fish that was. Making the Lesson Purposeful and Effectit)e The following questions may help the teacher to see more clearly whether the proper means are being used to make the lesson effective. Do I know how best to appeal to the child's heart, in language adapted to his age and ability? Do I strive not only to teach the Catechism lesson but more particularly to give children a lasting love and appreciation of those sacred truths? If they are leaving the Cath-olic school or study group shortly after these instructions, am I rea-sonably sure that I have instilled into their hearts the desire to grow in the knowledge and love of their faith, through the grace of the sacraments and also through a desire for further study and readir~g? Do I have a fund of convincing illustrations and stories, prefer-ably out of everyday life, that come close to the experience and un-derstanding of my pupils, so that they will the more' readily retain what I have tried to impress upon. them? Do I giye my students an opportunity to do things for them-selves, to ask questions, and think things througb.? Or do I do all the talking myself and take it for granted that th~ pupils are thinking and learning? 250 SISTER M. AGNESlNE, Review for Religious Do I know how to motivate their wills to action so that th~ knowledge of the truths they have learned will carry over to future years? When I teach the Mass, for example, do my pupils giadually learn to live and apply its beautiful prayers and lessons to themselves, not only for the present but especially for th~ years to come? Do I aim to bridge the gap between the day's seemingly unrelated lesson to tomorrow's realities? The sacrament of matrimony with all its implications is a case in point. How well do I prepare espe-cially those pupils who are about to leave the Catholic school, to ac-cept and appreciate the Church's teachings on the subject, and to lay firm hold on high ideals of Christian family life for future use? Am I familiar with the many teaching aids that are at my dis-posal to make my work more interesting and to help deepen the im-pression? Do I know how to use them to the best advantage? There are charts and pictures, fil~ns and slides in abundance. Can I distin-guish between what is most helpful and what is merely ~ntertaining? Do I realize the importance of making careful preparation for the daily.lesson? To outline my objectives? To divide the subject mat-ter according to its imporian~e and time allotment? To test pupil knowledge and particularly to evaluate my own teaching? reading By wrong, things. Acquiring Skill in Techniques How can the religion teacher acquire a fuller knowledge of those procedures that will best insure success? Here are a few suggestions: By accepting wholeheartedly the~ responsibility to teach ~eligion for living, that is, in a manner that will help those whom he teaches to lead fully integrated Christian lives. By keeping an open mind and realizing that no matter how ex-perienced or learned he may become, there is always room for im-- provement. " By prayerfully and conscientiously preparing the daily lessons and by carefully thinking the subject matter through himself, so that he may present it most effectively. .By keeping in touch with modern methods of teaching, through and lectures, and by observing experts in the field. looking around occasionally, especially when things go to see whether by any chance he might be mismanaging If, then, we are willing to face our problems and to set about en-thusiastically learning how to meet them, we may hope to add our little share in the great work of restoring 'all things in Christ. 251 Prac :ice: ot: !:he I-Ioly . ee Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. ~ T IS both profitable and commendable for religious to study the ~ d0~uments of the Holy See that affec~ their state of life., .This is particularly true at present, when the Sacred Congregation of Religious is exercising a more .positive and directive influence on the lives of religious. This article is devoted prin~ipally to' documents addr,essed to individual religious institutes. These are evidently not a matter of general knowledge but they are of general utility, since they reveal the practice and thee principles of the Holy See. I. ERECTION AND PONTIFICAL. APPROVAL OF CONGREGATIONS 1.Constituti.ons of. a new diocesan congregation. For at least the licit erection of a new diocesan congregation, the local Ordinary must first consult the Sacred ,Congregation of Religious.1 This. con-sultation is to be addressed to the S. C. of the Propagation of the Faith for the .erection of native congregations in missionary countries. Diocesafi constitutions should be compiled in conformity with the Code of Canon Law and the practice of the Holy See as found in the approved constitutions of pontifical congregations. They ate to dif-fer from pontifical constitutions only in the matters proper to dioce- .san congregations. For the attainment of this end the practice of the S. C. of the Propagati~'n of the Faith had already commanded that after the erection of the new congregation: "The Constitutions of the new congregation, in Latin and in the vernacular (at least six copies), must as soon as possible be submitted to this Sacred Congregation so that they may be duly examined, amended, and returned with suit-able remarks to the Ordinary, to be approved by him.''2 The S. C. of Religious now follows the same practice and demands that the local Ordinary present the complete text of the 'constitutions with the con-sultation for the erection of the new diocesan congregation.3 At least one author had previously recommended such a practice to local Or-dinaries.~ The fear, already expressed by some authors, that this oractice 1Can. 492. § 1. 2Bouscaren, II, 158, n. 10. 3Larraona, CpR, XXVIII (1949), 228, nota ). 4Muzzarelli, n. 53. 252 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE will ~ause an excessive similarity in the constitutions of various insti-tutes can be avoided by greater care in the. compil~tion of the spir-itual, as distinct from the canonical, ~rticles of the constitutions. The practice will also preclu,de the opposition that often arises when the ihstitute wishes to become pontifical. This opposition is usually con-cerned" with matters that are thought to be new but which should have been contained in the diocesan constitutions of the congregation, for example,~e system of delegates for the. general chapter and the six-year term~'Bf the superior general. 2. Mbtters to be presented fora decree of praise. A diocesan con-gregat! on ordinarily becomes pontifical by a decree of praise, With which the Holy See practically always now grants an experimental approval of the constitutions for seven years. The conditions neces-sary for pontifical approval are: the congregation by a sufficient test~ of time should have given proof of stability, religious observance, and of spirituai profit in its work; it is sufficient that the congregation number one hundred and fifty ~nembers and.is not necessary that the congregation have houses in more than one diocese. These facts are established primarily from the testimonial letters of the local Ordi-naries. To obtain a decree of praise the following matters are to be sent to the S. C. of Religious: a) A petition for the decree, of praise addressed to the Ron~an Pontiff and signed by the superior general and his or her c~uncillors. b) The testimonial letters of all the local Ordinaries in whose dioceses or territories the congregation has houses. Each local Ordi-nary is to send his letter directly to the S. Congregation. c) The"number of religious and houses. The S. Congregation will be aided in its judgment on the system of delegates for the gen-eral chapter !f the houses are listed in a tabular form that gives sepa-rarely the number of professed of perpetual and temporary vows in each house. d) The name in religion, full name in the world, and a brief biography of the founder or foundress and of the first superior of the congregation. e) The S. Congregation is to be informed of any extraordinary facts, such as visions and the like, .that occurred at the foundation of the congregation or thereafte~ and also of the special devotions and special and. favored religious exercises of the congregation. f) A copy of any special book of prayers in use in the congrega-tion. 253 ,JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious g) A colored picture of the habit of the professed and of the novices. h) 30 typed copies of the constitutions. These should prefer-ably be in Latin, but French or Italian is admissible. The constitu-tions should have been revised, for the new pontifical status and have been previously examined and approved by the local Ordinary of the motherhouse. They are to conform to the Code of Canon Law and the practice .of FheHoly See, and are to contain the norms and safe-guards necessary for attaining the special end of the c~regation. A recent form letter of the S. Congregati6n appears to demand only two copies of the constitutions, but it is not certain that the former num-ber of thirty is no longer obligatory,s i) Information is to be given as to the number of members who were formerly in other religious institutes. j) An historico-juridical account of the congregation from its beginning. k) A quinquennial report, which may be in the vernacular, for the five years immediately preceding the petition and compiled ac-cording to the questions of the new quinquennial report for pontifical institutes. 'A question that can apply only. to a pontifical institute will obviously not be pertinent. ¯ l) It is to be stated whether there are other religious institutes in the diocese with the same special purpose. m) If the congregation is a third order, an attestation of aggre-gation from the superior general of the first order must accompany the petition. n) The. superior general, with the consent of the local Ordinary of the motherhouse, is to designate a secular or religious priest resident in Rome to act as agent for the matter with the S. Congregation. 3. Miscellaneous details. The expense incurred at Rome for the de:- cree of praise is to be classed as insignificant. The. process can be quite slow. One American congregation mailed the necessary mat-ters to Rome in June, 1950, and received the reply in March, i953. During the pontificate of Pius XII (1939-1952) the decree of praise has been obtained by ninety-two congregations; the highest number in any one year was twelve;" and eight of the congregations listed have their motherbouses in the United States.6 4. Continuance of superiors in ottice. Muzzarelli states that on the scf. Guti,%rez, CpR, XXXIV (1953), 129. 6Cf.Guti~rrez, ibid., 130-138. 254 September, 1953 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE occasion of obtaining pontifical approval .or of a new approbation of the constitutions the general, provincial, and local superiors.remain in office but only for the time for which they had been elected or ap-pointed. At the expiration of this period a new election or appoint-ment is necessary. The ~ame principle is to be applied to general, provincial, and local councillors and officials. Canon la.w regulate.s precisely the duration in office of a local su-perior, who may not have more than two successive full three-year terms in the sam~ house inclusive of the time in office hnder the for-mer and the new constitutions. However, in the case of higher su-periors the Code merely.prescribes that they are to be temporary and leaves the determined legislation on the duration.and re-election or re-appointment to the constitutions. The almost universal practice of the Holy See in approving constitutions now gives the superior gen-eral a term of six years and permits an immediate re-election only for a second ttrm. A mother general who had two full six-year terms expiring after the approval of the new constitutions is fully eligible for a six-year term, and even for immediate re-election on the expira-tion of this term, under the newly approved constitutions. The time spent in office under the former constitutions is not to be computed, since these have now lost all force.7 II. LAW 1, Observance ot: laud. It is evidently the duty of superiors to en-force the exact observance of all the pertinent laws of the Church on religious, the Rule, and the constitutions. Negligence in the observ-ance of inual[dating laws on religious can have most serious conse-quences, and this is especially true of invalidating laws on the novice-. ship and professions. The S. C. of Religious gently admonished the superiors of one institute to be more diligent in the future in com-plying with all the laws on the noviceship and the professions. 2. Exaggerated custom books. Customs are necessary for order, effi-ciency, and reasonable uniformity, but some custom books have been too minute and oppressive. From unofficial reports and summaries this appears to have been the thought at the meeting of superioresses general of pontifical institutes held at Rome in September, 1952. Greater attention is to be given to the spirit of the law, since the law of any institute should be the incarnation of its spirit. Not many prayers, but prayer is what is necessary. Formalism, legalism, and ;Muzzarelli, pp. 206-207. 255 JOSgPH F. GALLEN ' Revietv for Religious externalism are to be avoided. The centering of the religious life in the fulfillment of innumerable details, formalities, and observances should be abandoned. Religious are magnanimgus souls who have sacrificed everything to attain and intensify the love of God, not fussy externalists. III. HABIT OF RELIGIOUS WOMEN 1. Form o~ the "~abit. Pius XII expressed the. general principle on the habit of religious women when he state~l that it should manifest the consecration to Christ, religious simplicity and modesty, and be in conformity with time, place, work, and hygiene.8 This norm does not demand any universal and fundamental change in the traditional habit of religious women. Furthermore, the prin, ciple is not new in the practice of the Holy See. The Normae of 1901 stated that the habit in material, form, arrangement, and color~ should conform to religious dignity, gravity, modesty, and poverty, and that "it should exclude any adornment that was apt to l~rovoke adverse comment or ridicule.9 In its typical constitutions for diocesan missio.nary con-gregations the S. C. of tl~e Propagation of the' Faith enjoined: "The habit is to be simple, accommodated to the usages of the people and the climate and not to European customs.''1° In the Statutes for Ex-tern Sisters the S. C. of Religious cdmmanded that the habit of these sisters was to be suitably adapted to their external work and also to external and local circumstances.1~ Sincere reverence for the religio~s habit does not exclude neces-sary modifications. The more practical doubts that arise about some habits seem to be of the following nature: Is sufficient allowance made in .the habit as a whole for the heat of summer and the cgld of winter? The cove~ing of tl~e head and face often causes a questiQn in the chance observer by its stiffness, closeness, ornateness, the time evi-dently necessary for laundering, the extension of the covering beyond the face, and in a.few cases this part of the habit appears to be pro-vocative of adverse comment. We may be permitted one illustration of these observations. The extension beyond the, face does not con-tribute to safety in driving an au.tomobile, frequently makes conver-sation somewhat unnatural, and ~nust be an obstacle in such cases as working on .a patient with a doctor. This is not the most serious SAAS, 43 (1951), 741; 44 (1952),.825. . 9Normae of 1901, nn. 66-67. ' lONormae pro Constitutionibus" Cong(egationum luris Dioecesani, n. 19. IIStatuta a Sororibus Externis Seruanda, n. 26. 256 September, 1953 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE defect that has b~en noted in some religious habits. The sane and practical principles of the Holy See are clear in themselves. Each habit should be sincerely examined on its conformity with these prin-ciples. 2. White habit. The Holy See has f~equently approved in constitu'- tions an ;irticl~ permitting the use of the white habit to hospital sis-ters and to those for whom such dress is necessitated or counselled by other duties or the climate. This habit is accordingly in use in sev-" eral institutes in the infirmary, kitchen, in teaching home economics, and. in similar duties. We can argue safely from the practic~ of the Holy See that such a use of th~ white habit is permitted in all insti-tutes of religious women. The white habit should be as similar as possibl'e to the ordinary habit within the demands of hospital effi-ciency, which is its primary use. The ordinary habit does not have. to be worn under the white habit. 3. Change in the habit. A change in the habit of a pontifical insti-tute or of a diocesan congregation whose habit had been submitted to the judgment of the Holy See may not be made wit,ho,ut the permis-sion of the Holy See; in other diocesan congregations the permissior{ of all the Ordinaries in whose dioceses the congregation has houses is necessary and sufficient.12 Since the habit ik prescribed by the consti-tutions, a change must also have been previously approved by the general chapter. It can be safely held that only a change in the ex-ternal appearance of the habit demands these formalities. The Nor-mae of 1901 required the permission of the S. Congregation only for a change in the appearance (t:orrna) of the habit,13 and the Holy See approves constitutions that demand the permission of the S. Congre-gation only for a change-in the form or color. These constitutions. permit the mother general with at least the advice of her council to, make other changes in the habit, for example, in the material, and this norm should be followed by all institutes for a change that does hot affect the externa! appearance of the habit. IV. DOWRY AND RENUNCIATION OF PATRIMONY IN CONGREGATIONS l. Dowrg. The dowry'is and always has been proper to institutes of women. An amount larger than the one prescribed may be re-ceived as a dowry. An institute that does not exact a dowry may ~2Can. 495, '§ 2. 13Normae of 1901, n. 70; cf. n. 69. 257 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Reviev2/:or Religious receive a dowry that is f~eely offered as such. A subject may give, comple'te, or augment a dowry during the novic~ship and after first or final simple profession. In all the cases listed above the amount that may be given is unlimited, but any amount accepted as a dowry is subject to the laws on the dowry. ' These statements are accepted canonical doctrine.14 2. Renunciation of patrimong in'a congregation of women. The point here can be more clearly proposed in the form of a case. Sister M. Anita, a professed sister in a congregation, has a patrimony of $50,000. She wishes to give the entire amount to her institute, but can. 583, 1°, forbids her, whether her congregation is pontifical or diocesan, to give away this money during her life without a _dispensa-tion from the Holy See. When asked recently for such a dispensa-tion, the S. Congregation replied that the sister, without any permis-sion. of the Holy See~ could give the money to her institute as a dowry or as an increase in her dowry. If the institute wishes to spend any part of the $50,000, permission of the Holy See will be necessary, because can. 549 forbids the expenditure of the dowry. This per-missio, n will be given if the. institute furnishes satisfactory guarantee of returning the capital sum to the sister in the event of her departure from the institute. The interest on the $50,000 is acquired abso-lutely by the institute, but the capital sum must be restored to Sister M. Anita if she definitively leaves the institute, licitly or illicitly, whether her vows have been dispensed or not,15 This is the prefer-able solution of the case, since it was proposed by the S. Congrega-tion itself. The same solution may be followed in any congregation of reli-gious women for either a professed or a novice. A dowry given during the noviceship passes into the revocable proprietorship of the institute only at first profession and thus is not a violation of can. 568, which invalidates any renunciation or obligation that a novice places on his or her patrimony during the noviceship.16 The institute is the mere depositary of the dowry, without p~oprietorship, use, or usufruct during the postulancy and noviceship. 3. Renunciation of patrimonV in a congregation of men or women. The prohibitior~ of can. 583, 1°, quoted above, applies to all congre-gations of men Or women. However, according to the common in- 14Cf. q. 194 of the Quinquennial Report [or Pontifical Institutes. 1SCan. 551, § I. 16Cf. Larraona, CpR, XIX (1938), nora 17. 258 September, 1953 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE terpretation, this prohibition does not ~xtend to the case in which t'he patrimony is given away, wholly or partially, on the agreement and with secure guarantee that it will be restored if- the religious should leave the institute or be dismissed. Professed religious in congrega-tions of men may thus follow this solution, for example, to give their patrimony to their institute. If this solution is follbwed, no law of the Code obliges the institute to secure the permission of the Holy See for the spending of the money. 4. Partial renunciation of patrimony in a congregation of men or women. Without any permission .of the Holy See, professed reli-gious iri congregations of men or women may with safe pr6bability give away absolutely to anyone even a large part of their patrimony provided the amount retained is sufficient to take care of the support of the religious in the event of departure from the.institute. A patri-mony that is. so small as to be entirely inadequate for such support does not fall under the prohibition of can. 583, 1% and may be given away absolutely to anyone,a7 5. New tendency in povert~l of congregations. There are indications that some wish the poverty arising from the simple vow in congre-gations to be made the same or at least to approach more closely the poverty effected by solemn profession, for example, by permitting the professed of simple perpetual vows in congregations to give away all their patrimony.~8 Only one known concession has thus far been granted by the Holy See in this matter. An institflte of religious women of simple vows obtained the following indult from the Holy See in February, 1951: "With the consent of the Prioress General and of bet Council, and upon a favourable report from the Mother .I_n_st_ructor, the religiou.s __m_a.y.at. tb.e _e.n_~ of .tb_e!_r tert.ianship, that is, about ten years after their first profession in the Institute, and pro-vided they have made perpetual vows, renounce their personal prop-erty present and future in favour of the persons or institutions whom they judge before God to merit their preference." V. ADMISSION OF ASPIRANTS The following articles, found in some constitutions recently ap-proved by the Holy See, will be of interest to other institutes. The candidate is obliged to present a testimonial of her free state, that is, lvCf. Bastien, n. 543, 3; Larraona. CpR, II (1921), 71-76. lSCf. Acta et Documenta Congressus Generalis de Statibus Perfectionis, I, 377,429- 431. 259 3OSEPH'F. GALLEN " Ret~ietu for .Religious ¯ of her freedom from impediments. The testimonial of good character is to ,be obtained from the pastor or another known priest. ,The S. Congregation inserted the following article in one set of' constitu-tions: "The Mother General is to interrogate accuratgly on the mat-ter of health, especially concerning diseases that are classed as heredi-tary, and she is to record in writing the replies of both the aspirant and her.parents or guardians." VI. P0STULANCY Although the practice of the Holy See was said to demand that the time of the postul~ncy be accurately determined in the constitu-tions, thre'e sets of constitutions recently approved for congregations of sisters state this time only indefinitely, that is, "for .at least six months," and "not less than six months." A. congregation 6f sisters, whose postulancy is six months, re-quested and,received from the Holy See an indult for fivel years to prolong the postulancy two and a half months for all. This pro-longation will make it possible to complet~ a full coll~ge year during the postulancy. The Apostolic Delegate possesses the faculty of shortening or prolonging the postulancy prescribed by canon law.19 VII. SECOND YEAR OF NOVICESHIP 1. Dispensation. Canon law commands only one year of novice-ship, but many institutes prescribe a second year by the law of their own constitutions. The Holy See evidently does not wish an insti-tute to make a ~practice of asking dispensations from this second year. One pontifical congregation added the second year only recently, and {he Holy See granted an indult for three yeats to one of its provinces to have only. one year of noviceship. The province was.in extra-ordinary and urge.nt need of personnel. 2. Ernptogment in external" works. On November 3, 1921, the "S. C. of Religious issued an Instruction for all congregations, pon-tifical and diocesan, on the employment of novices in the external works of the institute during the second year of noviceship. " The Holy See inserts the principles of this Instruction in the constitutions of pontifical congregations. They should, therefore, be contained also in'diocesan constitutions, either approved 6riginally or revised after the promulgation of the Instruction.' These princil~!es are: (a) The spiritual formation proper to the noviceship.must be pri- 19Bouscaren, 1948 Supplement, 131. 260 September, 1953 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE mary in the second year, employment in external works secondary. (b) This employment is allowable only if permitted by the consti- . tutions, custom, or usage of the congregation. (c) The only licit motive for such employment is the instruction of the novices, never th,e utility or advantage of the congregaiion. (d) The employment is to be carried out witb.~ruderice and moderation. Novices are never to have the sole charge of any external employment but are to work under the direction and supervision of an experienced and exemMary religious. (e) Novices may not be sent out of the novitiate house for such employment unless this is permitted by the constitutions, custom, or usage and the motive is exceptional, extraordinary, seri-otis, and based solely on ~be requirements of the. novice's t~aining, never on the necessity or advantage of the congregation. (F) All such employments must be given up for the two full months pre-ceding first profession, and this time is to be devoted wholly to svir-itual formation and to preparation for profession in the novitiate house?0 A congregation of sisters stated simply in a quinq.uennial report that i~ employed the second-year novices in external works. The reply of the Holy See contained the statement that the Instruction quoted above was to be observed.21 An unofficial summary of the Roman meeting of superioresses general quotes the Secretary of the S. Congregation, Father Larraona, as having r~asserted the principles of the Instruction. He is also reported as having stated that there are always dangers attendant upon this work outside the novitiate. The motive for a second year of noviceship has b~en the necessity of a deeper spiritual formation in institutes, devoted to a very active life. This motive is verified in practically all modern congre, gations. No one experienced in the training of young religious will deny that two years are too brief a period for a proper spiritual formation. It is not very reasonable to prescribe prudently a second year of novice-ship in law and then imprudently overturn the law in fact. This is the reason why the S. Congregation insists on the fundamental prin-ciple that the second year must be maintained as a year of novicesbip. Employment outside the novitiate house should be even mor~ care-fully avoided. The practical consequence of separation from the master or mistress o'f novices is almost always'the lack of any spir-itual formation proper to a noviceship. A sincere examination of the ~°Bouscaren I, 302-304. ¯ 21Cf. q. 176 of the Quinquenn:,al Ro~ort for Pontifical Institutes. 261 JOSEPH F. (3ALLEN ReOiew for Religio,,s effects of employing the second-yehr novices in external works will lead to a more universal observance of this most important Instruc-tion of the Holy See. VIII. PROFESSION I. Dispensation from longer period of temporary vows. The Code of Canon Law prescribes that a perpetual profession, solemn or simple, is invalid unless preceded by three full years of temporary vows.zz Only the Holy See may wholly or partially abbreviate this triennium in any institute; since the abbreviation would be a dispen-sation from the law of the Roman Pontiff. The same principle and reason are true with regard to permitting perpetual profession before the completion of the twenty-first year.23 Some institutes impose a longer period of temporary vows by the law of tfieir own constitutions. This period is usually five, much more rarely six, years. These added years are required only for the liceity o~ perpetual profession unless the constitutions certainly de~ mand them for validity. The latter is practically never permitted by the Holy See in approving constitutions. The constitutions of one pontifical congregation of brothers state that the prescribed five years of temporary .vows are required for the validity of its simple per-petual profession. ¯ In diocesan congregations the local Ordinary may dispense from the entir~ added duration of temporary vows if it is required only for the liceity of perpetual profession24 and probably also when it is demanded for the validity of the latter,25 since he is the legislator for such congregations.~6 Many canonis~s would very likely demand that the dispensation be secured from the Holy See in the latter case, if we mawr argue from their similar doctrine on a dispensation from the second.year of noviceship. The local Ordinary has no power to dispense in this matter in pontifical congregations. Some authors .permitted the religious superior who admits to perpetual profession to abbreviate briefly the added duration of tem-porary vows, for example, to dispense from three months of a six-year period, but they restricted this faculty to the case. in which the 2ZCan. 572, § 2; 574, § 1. ~Can. 572, § 1, I°;. 573; 574, § 1. z4Cf. Bouscaren, II, 167. 25Cf. Regatillo," Interpretatio et lurisprudentia, 172; Instituti'ones furls Canonici, I, n. 698. Z6Can. 492, § 2: 495, § 2; 80. 262 September, 1953 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE added duration was required only for the liceity of perpetual pro-fession. 27 However, in the constitutions of pontifical congregations recently approved, the S. C. of Religious ,has been adding the clause that the Holy Seealone may dispense wholly or partially from the added duration, even when required only for the liceity of perpetual profession. Therefore, the faculty of abbreviation given to religious superiors in the doctrine of authors quoted above is more probably not true. The better doctrine is that they possess this power only if it is expressly granted to them by a general or. particular principle of their law. Otherwise any dispensation from the added duration in pontifical congregations should be secured from the Holy See .and in diocesan congregations from the local Ordinary. 2. Prolongation of temporary prot:ession beyond six years forbidden. The point here also can be more clearly proposed in a case. Brotl~er Francis Joseph made his temporary profession at the age of seven-teen. His profession extended to the completion of his twenty-first ~'ear. At the latter time and after the brother has spent four years in temporary vows, his higher superior is doubtful of his suitability for perpetual profession. May this superior prolong the temporary vows for another three years? Tlhe source of the difficulty is can. 574, § 2, which states: "The legitimate superior may prolong this period but not beyond a second term of three years . " The more probable interpretation of this canon has been that a pro.longation is illicit if thereby the entire pe-riod of temporary vows exceeds six years. The. contrary opinion was admitted to be probable and safe. One of the arguments for the first opi.nion has been the practice of the Holy See. The S. C. of Religious has constantly admitted a prolongation of only one year when the constitutions prescribed five years of temporary vows and has excluded any prolongation when the constitutions imposed six years of temporary vows. It was con-cluded that the S. Congregation did not wish the period of temporary vows to exceed six years. This argument is strengthened by the cur-rent practice of the S. Congregation, since recently approved consti-tutions contain the explicit statement that the entire period of tem-porary vows may not exceed six years. Furthermore, Larraona states that the 1)emporary profession may never be prolonged beyond six years without violating the Code and affirms that this has been de- 27Cervia, 128; Goyeneche, CpR, IX (1928), 325; Schafer, n. 973. 263 J(~SEPH F. G?~LLEN for Religious tided in plenary sessions of the S. Congregation and in audiences.28 He and Guti~rrez state that this same doctrine is based on a reply of the Code~ Commission, has been the constant in(erpretation and prac-tice of the S. CongrFgation, and conclude that a prolongation beyond six years in any institute demands an indult of the Holy See?9 This conclusion is justified by the arguments, even though the reply of the Code Commission has not been published. The solution of the case given at the beginning of t.bis number is accordingly that the vows of Brother Francis Joseph may be pro-longed for two years but a prolo,ngation beyond the six years de-mands an indult from the Holy See, whether the institute is pontifical or diocesan. 3. Place of first ternporar~lprofession. Can. 574, § 1, commands for liceity that the first temporary profession be made in the novitiate house. The Code prescribes nothing concerning the place of sub'se-quent temporary professions nor of perpetual profession, solemn or . simple. Constitutions frequently explicitly state that these may be made in" any house of the institute. For a proportionate reason, the S. C. of Religious.will grant a dispensation permitting the first temporary profession to be m~ide outside the novitiate house. If a motherhouse is under the authority of the one local superior and consists of a novitiate, juniorate, ter-tianship, and an academy for girls, the first profession may be made in any part of such a motberhous~ without a dispen.sation from the Holy See. The canon does not demand that the first profession be made within the part of the house reserved for or used by the novices but in the novitiate bourse. Th.erefore, a first profession m~ide any- .where in the latter satisfies the prescription of this canon. 4. Private devotional renetoal of vows. Constitutions approved by the Holy See often counsel th~ freqiient private .renewal of vows, especially after the reception of Holy Communion. Such constitu-tions usually add that special indulgences are attached t'o the latter ¯ practice. It is true that an indulgence, of three years is attached to such a renewal after the celebration of Mass or the reception of Holy Communion,3° but it is difficult to see why such a fact should be men-tioned in the constitutions, which are to contain.the more funda-mental laws of the institute. ,- 2SLarraona, CpR, XXVIII (1949), 196, nota 17. ~Larraona-Guti~rrez, ibid., 332~ .nota 42. 3ORaccolta, n. 695. 264 September, 1953 5. Special vows. The Holy~ See manifested from at least 1892 that it would no longer approve special vows in new institutes.31 The -same principle has been reaffirmed on more than one occasion. congregation of sisters, approved by the Holy See before 1850, re-cently asked the S. Congregation of Religious for an authentic inter-pretation of its constitutions on the. existence of a fourth and fifth vow. The S. Congregation in its first reply affirmed the existence of ¯ both vows, since the language of the formula of profession and the history of the matter clearly indicated that these were intended as special vows. The fourth vow was the ser'~ice of the poor, sick, and ignorant. This is especially the 'type of vow'that the Holy See will not ~dmit in new institutes, since it constitutes the special end of the institute, is already an obligation of the constitutions, and is accordingly pri-mary remot~ matter of the vow of obedience. The fifth vow, taken also in temporary profession, was that ofperseverance. A. second reply of the S. Congregation clarified this fifth vow: "The fifth vow of persevering in the same vows is to be understood in the following sense. The obligation of persevering temporarily or perpetually, ac-cording to the mind and practice of this Sacred Congregation, is in-cluded in the temporary or perpetual profession. Accordingly the words of the formula of profession on perseverance are not to be ¯ understood in th~ sense of another vow." The Holy See and authors have also defined the special vow of stability, taken in imitation of the Benedictine vow, as being con-tained in the obligation of perpetual profession,aa The vow of s~a-bility of Benedictine Sisters is defined: "By the vow of stability the Sisters attach themselves to the hbuse of their profession and ufiite themselves with the religious family there existing, and promise never to 'wrest their necks from under the yoke of the Rule.' " It is not impossible to find different and approved definitions of these special vows in theconstitutions of pon.tifical institutes, for example, that of stability. IX. TELEPHONE AND RADIO In a recent approval of the constitutions of a congregation of sis-ters, the H01y See inserted the.article: "The use of the telephone and alBattandier, n. 186¯ 32Normae'of 1901, n. 102¯ 33Bastien, n. 481. 2: Battandier, n. 187. 265 ,JOSEPH F. (3ALLEN ,Review [or Religious radio is to be regulated by the superior." In its reply to the quin-quennial report of the same type of congregation, the Holy See stated: "Listening to the radio in private does not appear becoming; therefore it would be better to forbid it." X. WORKS OF THE INSTITUTE § 1 Teaching Sisters and School~ 1. duniorates. This section on the works of the institute contains the most practical matter of this article. Unless otherwise noted, the articles quoted in this section have been inserted by the Holy See in constitutions approved during the past two or three years. The articles on the juniorate are: "After their profes,sion the Mother General shall assemble the junior professed in houses of formation, where, under the direction of a competent, l~Iistress, they shall attend Catholic schools, if. such exist. They shall be supplied with all m~ans necessary' for the pur-pose and shall apply themselves diligently to the attainment of diplo-mas that will be recognized also civilly." ¯ "During this time of formation it will be profitable to supple-ment the classes with lectures and instructions by learned Catholics, who shall emphasize the relation of teaching with Catholic faith and morals." The question of juniorates was discussed at the meeting o~ the superioresses general in Rome. The value and necessity of juniorates were clearly seen, but their immediate initiation, program, extension, and duration were left. to the individual institutes. The necessity of appointing a special Mistress of Junior Professed, distinct from the local superior, . was stated more categorically. It is to be noted that the article quoted above is far more absolute than the unofficial ,re-ports of the Roman meeting. I doubt that any experienced higher superior of congregatio,ns of brothers or sisters denies the necessity of juniorates for the proper spiritual formation and education of subjects. I personally believe that the necessity of juniorates has passed the point of discussion and opinion; it is now a matter of conviction and urgency. Congrega-tions of brothers and sisters should immediately institute a juniorate. This means that the junior professed will not be applied to the ex-ternal works of the institute until they. have completed their under-graduate studies. Extyerience proves that there is only one way of attaining this supremely important object: the superior general must 266 September, PRACTICE OF THE HOLY rise to his or her strongest moment and command it. Let no one swell the low notes of those who chant mournfully that it cannot be done: whaf has been done can be done. If the argument is proposed that the junior professed should be tested in the external works and life of the institute before perpetual profession, the answer is easy. The institute can study the expediency of increasing, with proper permission, the prescribed period of temporary vows to five or six years. The juniorate for those destined to be nurses will require study and investigation for the attainment of a suitable program. 2. Preparation for perpetual profession. This number and the pre-. ceding apply equally to brotbe~s and sisters destined for works other than teaching. At the Roman meeting of superioresses general the withdrawal of the junior professed from the ordinary life of the in-stitute for one or several months of renovation of spirit and of deeper and more mature spiritual formation before perpetual profession ap-pears to have been authoritatively favored. However, this can scarcely be held as necessary if the institute has an-adequate junior-ate. It will also be very close to the noviceship, since most institutes have only three years of temporary vows. While I do not deny the merit of this suggestion, it seems to me to be far more necessary for institutes of brothers and sisters to study the initiation of such a program several years after perpetual profession, when the religious has spent more years in the ordinary life and works of the institute and is in the age group of thirty to thirty-five. This is the critical age for religious. The vision and heart of spiritual youth have often suffered a slow death from worldliness, selfishness, the gradual e'xclu-sion of mortification, the abandonment of real prayer, and the de-structive, disillusioning, and even embittering example of others. It is. the age that needs spiritual revivification and rejuvenation. If this is not had, the soul can readily grow old with the body and crawl into eternity as enfeebled by mediocrity as the body is by age. A longer period is desirable, but it would be sufficient to devote one full summer to such a renovation. This plan does not exclude the advisability of the renovation before perpetual profession, but the necessity, value, intensity, and duration of such a renovation would depend on the length of the noviceship, the existence of a juniorate, the number of years spent in the active life, and the adop-tion of the later renovation here recommended. 3. Continuation of studies after the junforate. "After they have received their diplomas, it is the duty of the 267 JOSEPH F.'GAIzLEN Rebiew For Religious Sisters t6 advance their k~towledge by unremitting study anal reading of the books that are constantly being published." Th~ sense of this article admits no doubt, but its present observ-ance is more than doubtful; It is safe to assert that the daily average time granted to sisters for preparation for class and advancement is about an hour. If this is sufficient for preparation for class and ad-vancement, it seems equally safe to hold that only a genius may am-bition the life of a sister. ¯ The article is merely a dictate of common sense for instittites de-voted, to teaching. It will never be properly observed unless careful thought is given to such headings¯ as the following: learning is not incompatible with true piety: a solid and inspiring education in the juni0rate; the elimination of interminable vocal prayers in common: the realization tbat some spiritual duties may be made privately; the quick and painless death of the restlesshorarium that finds peace only in the clangor of. the bell; peaceful acquiescence in the fact that study in'one's room or cell is not forbidden by the natural'or canon law:~ sufficient sleep, holidays, and vacations; .a notable lessening of the time given to domestic work; the employment of more lay teachers and more secular help for domestic work; finally and especially; the elimination of the present totally unreasonable overwork. We can aptly add the admonition given by the Holy See in its reply to the quinquennial report of one institute. There are very few institutes of brothers and sisters that cannot profit by. this ~idmoniti6n: "If possible, something should be done to correct the situation whereby the' sisters, exhausted by excessive labor, are apparently exposed to many difficulties and dangers and consequently fail in carrying out, the religious life." An unofficial summary of the Roman meeting ~f superioresses general contains some very pertinent thoughts on this heading. Let us hope that the superiors subscribed .to these thoughts as actualities to be attained and not as 'the dreams of a waning summer. These thoughts are: "Maternai care must be taken of the health of the religious; the work of each must be orderly and moderate; each religious must have time for her exercises of piety." "The schedules must always be reasonable and adapted to the various regions and apostolic ministries today confided to religious." "In their individual houses, the Superiors General will provide for all the Religious the possibility and facility; 'of a Christian life 268 September, 1953 PRACTICE OF: THE HOLY SEE (with the Sacraments, the Word of God, Spiritual Direction, etc.) and of Religious life with the posiibility of carrying out the duties imposed on them by their consecration to God (day~ of Retreat, Spir-itual Exercises, and spiritual practices common to the individual In-stitute) ." "It must be remembered that the a~ostolate is also a science and an art and that the Holy See insists on the elevation of the literary. technical and professional culture of the Religious, on the absolute necessity of degrees required for the exercise of the various profes-sions: on the necessity of aspirin~ to a greater degree of proficiency, never thinking that one's culture is adequate f9r the present need." 4. Progress and annual meeting. "The Congregation is to adopt, the prhisewortby custom of an annual meeting of all the Sister teachers, under the presidency of the Mother General. for a discussion of methods of teaching and of the traditional pedagogy of the Congregation, in order that the schools of the Congregation may not only equal but surpass secular schools." 5. Subjects at~o to be studied. The following article will encourage those who are promoting courses of theology for brothers or sisters. Such a course should be partially completed in the juniorate. "They ar~ to study also dogmatic and moral theology, ecclesiasti-cal history, sociology, liturgy, Gregorian chant, and similar matters. For all of these studies the Sisters are to be" supplied with books for their individual and constant use." 6. Library. The community library, especially in small religious houses, can readily be neglected. If we had the pen and unction of Kempis, we would lament that the food of the modern monk is more abundant than his books. The library should be augmented con-stantly with books appert~aining to the subjects taught in the school and also with newly published spiritual and cultural books. The article of the Holy See On the library is: "Each house shall have a library containing Catholic books on the entire field of pedagogy." 7. Teaching of Christian doctrine. "The Sisters shall not forget that they must be approved by the local Ordinary for the teaching of Christian doctrine." "In explaining Christian doctrine, the Sisters .shall proceed gradually and, as far as possible, they shall aim to instill into the minds ,of their, pupils a thorough knowl~edge of the tt, u_ths of o~faith rather than to have them commit to memory a series of formulas." 269 JOSI~PH F. GALLEN Review For Religious The following articles were inserted' by the Holy See in the con-stitutions of a congregation especially dedicated to the teaching of Christian doctrin~ and approved finally by the Holy See in 1949. "Since the sacred sciences are especially helpful to an' understand-ing of Christian doctrine, the Sisters shall place great emphasis on the .study bf dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology, eccl~siastical history, and similar subjects. A collection of books on Christian doctrine, especially ~f recent worthwhile publications, is to be ac-cessible to the Sisters and others who devote themselves to the teaching of Christian doctrine." ""It will be very advantageous for the Sisters, with the proper authorization', to publish and distribut~ printed works on Christian doctrine." 8. Some norms of teachin~l. , "The Sisters. shall take care that order and cleanliness are ob-served in the classroom." "They should stu.dy the character and disposition of mind of all their pupils and are to unite a certain gentleness of treatment with strictness, when/he latter is necessary." "The 'inordinate inclinations oi the children are to be corrected gradually, and they are to be aided in the acquisition of good habits by the stimulus of admdnition, opportune advice, and by bringing to light the law Of conscience, which,'as is well known, appears from the earliest years." "Offensive speech~ blows, and intemperate anger are to be avoided in punishments. A moral sense of responsibility for theii actions rather than servile fear is to be inculcated in the minds of the chil-dren." "The Sisters are to refrain absolutely from partiality and prefer-ence in their relations with the children. The deportment and coun-tenance of the.Sisters should manifest an evenness of disposition and kind.heSS united with something of reverence." "" "Experience proves that the fostering of the interior life, which is developed by good actions, faith in God, and self-sacrifice, appears even in young children as the right and safe path along which life is to be guided." "A love of modesty is to be developed in girls with regard to dress, deportment and their conduct with others." 270 " September, 1953 .PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE § 2 Sister Nurses arid Hospitals 9. Training and.continued pr6gress. "['he problem of overwork is particularly acute in the case of brothers and sisters applied to hos-pitals. In some religious hospitals a weekly holiday is apparently unknown. The continuation of this practice is unthinkable. Every brother and sister nurse should have at least one day a week that is completely free from hqspital duties, and it would contribute' much to 'their health, quiet of mind, and spirituality to spend as often as possiblea notable part of this weekly holiday awa.y from the hos-pital environment. Overwork will not facilitate the continued study and progress demanded by th~ following article that is inserted in constitutions by .the Holy See: "The Sister nurse must strive to increase her knowledge after she has secured a diploma valid also according to civil law." I0. Medical ethics. "A Sister is to refrain from administering medicines or assisting at Operations that are forbidden by the Church. In cases of doubt she is to consult the Superior." "Especially in extraordinary and important cases where there are at stake .the preservation of a human life, reverence for the human person, and care for the conscience of the patient, even if it is a case of extreme pain and gi.ves rise to such questions as euthanasia and others of similar nature,, the Sister shall be careful to give no help to an ac-tion that is contrary to Catholic principles." 11. Mod~stg¢. The Holy See has been inserting the following article in constitutions for several years past: "In certain cases where the care to be given is Of a particularly delicate nature, the Sisters shall dvail themselves, if possible, of the services of .the secular personnel or of the members of the sick per-son's family; for extraordinary cases the Superior should designate Sisters of proven piety and mature age who are williog to perform such works of chhrity. It is the duty of the General Chapter or Council to enact measures in this regard, to which the Sisters must con form." 12. Education as doctors. The following article, proposed to the Holy See in the genera] revision of the constitutions of two. congrega-tions, was approved by the S. C. of Religibus: "The Sisters assigned to the hospitals must be thoroughly pre-pared for the efficient discharge oftheir duties. There should be some Sisters educated as doctors and qualified for th6 various .departments 271 , C. A. HERBST Review for Religious ¯ of the hospital." Canon law does not forbid clerics or religious to study medicine or surgery. Canons 139, § 2, and 592 forl~id clerics and religious of both sexes to devote themselves avowedly, habitually, and for profit to the practice of medicine or surgery. Religious institutes devoted to nursing have by their approbation as such permission to practice the medicine and slight surgery demanded of nurses. Local Ordinaries in missionary countries may permit their missionaries, priests and re-ligious men or women, to practice medicine and surgery provided they are skilled in these arts, demand no payment, and observe rood-esty intreating the opposite sex. In other countries clerics, brothers, and sisters Who wish to i~ractice medicine or surgery must secure an indult from the Holy See. The article quoted above and approved by the Holy See implicitly grants to the two congregations a dispen-sation from th~ canonical prohibition of the practice of medicine and surgery for those qualified as doctors. Care is always to be taken to secure prbper civil authorization for the practice of these arts. [EDITORS' NOTE: Father Gallen's article will be concluded in November.] Discipline C. A. Herbst, S.J. It"I"HE very first step towards wisdom is the desire for discipline, .,| .and how should a man care for discipline without loving ~t, or love it without heeding its laws, or heed its laws with-out winning immortality, or .win immortality without drawing nearer to God" (Wis. 6:18, 19) ? Who could explain more clear!y or_show more beautifully than the Holy Spirit Himself does the place of discipline in the life of one who really wants to love God? "Order is heaven's first law" the proverb says. ¯ This conformity to law comes from discipline. Discipline in the passive sense is con-trol gained by enforcing obedience or order. There is order even in heaven, where God is supreme and the angels are ministering spirits. Where there is disorder chaos soon appears and it is impossible to at-tain the end of any organized society, which is the common good. The modern "autonomous man" is a law unto himself, a tyrant, an outlaw. Were the order established by discipline removed, "the bounded waters would lift higher than the shores," as Shakespeare says~ ?and make,a sop bf, all this.solid globe.';o ~ Then might, is right, "and the rude son should strike his father dead." Unleashed from 272 September, 1953 DISCIPLINE discipline, power obtained by our modern Hitlers and Stalins whets the appetite for more power. "And appetite, an universal wolf, must make perforce an universal prey, and last eat up himself." (Troilus and Cressida, I, iii.) Discipline corrects. This is its first function: a negative one, surely, but basic and important ever since the beginning when man short-circuited his powers through original sin and "to err is human" became a proverb. It is only too clear that in younger religious fre-quent correction is necessary. It helps to make away with the "old man," and who can put on the "new man" before putting off the old? The ways of the world (and they are gaining mightily with each decade) are not God's ways. In men of good will. which we presume aspirants to the religious life to be, correction should lead to prompt reform, or at least to a prompt attempt at reform. In those. who have already spent some time in religion it should lead not only to prompt but to thorougl~ and lasting reform. ReForm. That is a distasteful word to the worldling but opens up a vast field white for the harvest for the ease-loving religious. And we need not look across the table and plan reform for him. As Father said: "If ever you want to start a reform, start on yourself." "Charity begins at home" is true even in this negative aspect. Reform is the correlative and result of correction, and d'iscipline's first work is to correct. Discipline molds. It forms a religious after thi~ likeness of Christ. It shapes him. A character, a soul, is like clay in the hands of the p.otter. As defects are removed by correction the new man takes form under the interior influence of grace and the external influence of dis-cipline. It is exhilarating to see the young religious grow. That an earnest and fervent religious does grow even those who live with him can see. Those, however, who had known him i'n the world and after a few years see him as a religious are the ones who are really amazed at the change. The religious life is a school of perfection. One ex-pects a school to teach and mold and form and change and enlighten. ¯ .Discipline educates a soul, "leads out" its powers, the mind and the will, and induces them to make the most of the wonderful gifts God has given to each one of His children. Discipline strengthens. It gives one moral and spiritual power to act, live, and carry on enduringly and vigorously. This is conspicu-ous in the athletic world. Those who achieve fame in the field of sports do so because they have acquired physical strength, speed, and" accuracy of sense and muscle through long and severe disciplinary 273 C. A. HEI~BST Review for Religious train!ng. This extended and careful practice, their abstinence from food and luxuries and entertainment, is more rigorous than most re-ligious have to submit to. ."And they for a corruptibl( crown, but we for an incorruptible one." ~ Through discipline we store up resources of moral and spiritual strength whict~ we may draw upon in times of trial and temptation. A well-trained sc~ldier will come through many a difficult'and dang(r- ~ ous battle where an undisciplined one will succumb, as we found out in World War II. Through'discipline one acquires a great power of resistance. Discipline causes a soul to become effective and efficient in the direction~ of spiritual achievement, and to be foiceful in its life and work. A strong soul is ardent and zealous, too, and enthusiastic for, the things of God. Neither is a well-disciplined soul easily injured, subdued, or taken in. He is like a fortress, strong and firm. It is vigorous, healthy~ and tough, like an oak. Discipline makes a soul sturdy and unyielding. In the religious life we consider religious discipline in connection v~ith obedience. From an analysis of the word itself, discipline means teaching, training. "Considered in the authority which governs, re-ligious discipline is the sum total' of the rules with their ~anction. By the rules superiors teach the way which is to be followed; by pen- "ances in ~ase of infraction they bring back those who have strayed and repair the scandal given. Considered in inferiors, discipline is also c~lled regular observance, and is the ,faithful observance of the rules, in which observance all the members of the community unite in holy harmony. So important is religious discipline that it must be con-sidered as morally necessary for the conservation of the order as a whole, for that of.the religious life in a community, and for that of the spiritual life in each individual. According to what has been said, it is easy to see that superiors are under grave obligation to maintain religious discipline in the community; and in this regard, "connivance. on their part can easily become a consideiable sin" (Cotel, Catechism of the Vows, 137- 140.), In this connection we might note Canon 593: "Each and every religious, superiors as well as. subjects, must not only keep faithfully and completely'the vows they have taken, but also lead a life in conformity with the rules and constitutions of their own in-stitute and thus strive ~fter the perfection of their state." The rule of each religi0us.institute urges regular observance on ¯ all Each institute must first and foremost, of course, observe the law 274 ' September, 1953 D~SCIPLINE of the Church for religious. In Canons 594-612 we have mentioned especially the careful observance by all of th~ common llfe with re-gard to food, dress, and furniture; the careful performance of gpir-itual exercises; the wearing of the religious habit;
The Marriott,Slaterville City Oral History Collection was created by the residents of the town to document their history. Each participant was provided with a list of questions asking for; stories about their childhood, schools they attended, stories about their parents and grand,parents, activities they enjoyed, fashions they remember, difficulties or traumas they may have dealt with, and memories of community and church leaders. This endeavor has left behind rich histories, stories and important information regarding the history of the Marriott,Slaterville area. ; 31p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in.; 1 videodisc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Abstract: This is an oral history of Julian Morris Powell. It was conducted September 23, 2007 and concerns her recollections of the history of the Marriott-Slaterville area. JP: I am Julian Morris Powell. I was born January 20th, 1911. I am getting a little older now. I am ninety-six years old. I don't think quite as fast as I used to. My dad was Thomas Ezra Powell and my mother was Catherine Morris Powell. I am the only child born of the two of them. I don't have any full brothers or sisters. My dad had a family and his wife passed away, my mother and him lived in the Marriott ward close together for years and years and their partners had left and my dad had six children and my mother had three. They married, and I am the only child of that marriage. Dad and mother and ten children and I was the youngest of any of them. Here is a picture of the Marriott ward basketball team. I will talk real short about them. Well over here in this left side is Clyde Hipwell. His dad Bill, moved over there from West Weber, and his mother was born and raised in Marriott where he was born. Deloss Bingham was the son of Dell Bingham. He was born in Marriott and grew up there and lived there all his life. His mother died when he and Delbert were just young children. The other one is Cornelius DeFriez. He is next to the youngest in the big family of the DeFriez family. He played basketball with us for maybe a year or two, but not too much. The next one is Marvin Buck. He was born and raised in Marriott, a son of Luther and Sara Buck. He lived there all his life until a few years after he was married. The next one is Euki DeFriez. He played with us for several years. He is an exceptionally good ball player. I would have to say at this point that he was the best athlete in the DeFriez famiy. There were quite a few of them and they were tall but he played with us several years and a good all around player and fast man. The next one is Clyde Morris. He played with us some and then he went and played up at the Agricultural College in Logan. He and his brother and Delbert Bingham went up and played and won the championship up here in high school. Then they went up and played, the four of them, up in the Utah State Agricultural College and they won the championship up there. The other DeFriez one that I said was Wesley and he played with us several years. The next one is Wayne Stanger. He played with us a few years. The next on is myself. We went to the Salt Lake tournament eight consecutive years and then the war came on and we were out for a couple of years. Then we went back again and I coached the Marriott team and we went to Salt Lake for the finals eight consecutive years and then we went back another two or three years. The next one is Elmer Slater. He didn't play with us too much. He was kind of short and small but he was always on the job and did the best that he knew to do. The one sitting over in this left hand corner was Delbert Bingham and the one on the right hand side down was Jay Clifford Blair. He coached us for several years. We went up here in Weber and Ogden City and we went down there under his direction as the coach for about five years. Then he quit and I took over as a player and the coach for several years. Clifford was an exceptionally good athlete and he played for the Farm Bureau for Marriott. The Farm Bureau league has one of the best catchers in Weber County. Well this was a good team. This picture doesn't have one of the better players that was on the team named Sam DeFriez. He wasn't as fast as some of the players but he was real tall and he was real strong. A lot of times he would never come back on defense. We played a five man defense and a lot of times he would never come back on defense because he would stay close to the basket and very few times he would miss. He shot if he was close to the basket. One of the best players—he didn't play with us too many years, but when he did play I would say he was the best score man that we had. We were playing up in the Weber gym up 24th street in a tournament and he said to me, "When I put up one finger I want the ball and I want it now." He put up his finger for me to throw it and get him the ball. He was in a good position to score and a kid from up in the balcony hollered down, Sam and his family all came here from Holland and this kid from up in the balcony hollered down and said, "Where's your wooden shoes?" He turned to look up there to shake his fist at them and I had let the ball go. The ball hit him right on the side of the head and dropped him just hard right down, and he hit on his shoulder. I ran over to him and rubbed him and got him up, and he played the rest of the game but he hit right on his shoulder. I thought maybe it had hit his head but it didn't. It knocked him flat down. He was an exceptionally big man and a good player. One time I was playing and about five or six players were under the basket pushing it up trying to get it in, he didn't jump, he stood there and he had his one leg bent and I just ran in and the ball was up bouncing around the basket. I ran in and I stepped right just above his knee right on his leg with a basketball rubber shoe and tipped the ball to his brother Euki and he scored. Sam come back and was rubbing his leg. He said, "I wonder what went wrong with my leg." But I had stepped on it with a rubber sole and it had kind of burned his leg but he was an exceptionally good player. Never to give up. We went down eight consecutive years from this area to play in the church finals in Salt Lake. We went eight consecutive years and then missed a few. We were playing and they notified us—I was coaching them then—and they said that they had one too many teams in the tournament at Salt Lake for the finals. Then we'd flip a coin to see if we went or if we didn't go. I said, "Well who is the other team?" And they said, "You and a basketball team from Pocatello, Utah were tied to go in," and it was up to one of us to go. He said, "Would you like to flip a coin?" And I said, "No. Send them down and we will play them." They sent them down and we beat them. Then one time, nothing to do with the church basketball but they had a tournament up at Malad, Idaho and they sent a team from down here up there. They went up for one night and played at Malad. Marriott got beat so the kid that was going to drive that day said he wasn't going up to play anymore because they got beat. So we had a guy working there, his name was Lee Dopp. He had his car in the shop getting it fixed and they would give him a V8 Ford. So we got our heads together and Clyde and Floyd Morris and Delbert Bingham, and Riley Shaw who was my brother-in-law and me. We had to drive fast to get up there to play that afternoon. We didn't know we were going until noon. We drove up to Malad and played in a tournament there and we played the Fort Hall Braves and we beat them in the afternoon and we went out and got something to eat and came back and played the Mendon Wildcats again that night for the championship. We beat the game in the afternoon and we won the next one again at night. When we came back they had fixed his car from the Ford motor company and they came out to bring his car back to him and his wife said, "Well he is out of town." They said, "Where is he?" She said, "He is in Malad." They said, "Oh he can't take that car across the state line!" But we came back, we got back after midnight. We went up the next morning to the Ford motor company and I said well we was broke down and this guy took us up there and brought us back and they said, "Okay." They wouldn't press any charges against us. While we were in the process of playing a lot of basketball for the church, some professional teams would come here and play. Sometimes we would play them a full game and sometimes we would only play them a half. But they were professional players. A team came from a clothing store in Wichita, Kansas and they were all white players. I have never seen a team with as pretty of suits as they had on. They were professionals and we played them and they liked to shoot long shots and not play any rough stuff. I don't think I ever did see them shoot a long shot that went in. It just seemed like they didn't score up close and they were a professional team. They would pass the ball around in back of their selves and to another player and that was the best team that we did play, the Wichita Kansas Clothers. Then we played the Iowa Ghosts. They were all black and they were traveling across the country. We played them maybe two or three consecutive years. They would come through and they would call and say they would be here on certain dates and they would pick someone and we played them. The center's name was Sue K. Simmons and we both got the ball in the center of the floor so the referee called a tie up ball. He was about seven feet tall. I crouched down just a little bit, and I thought well maybe if I jump as hard as I can jump he will stay flat footed and just tap it. Maybe I can jump as far as he would just reach and I could block the ball. So I crouched down and when the referee blew the whistle to start I jumped as high as he stood flat footed and he just reached out with his right hand and put it around me and put me right around his hip and reached up with the other hand and knocked it down to one of his players. His name was Sue K. Simmons of the Iowa Ghosts. The Globe Trotters were all black and we played them several times, when they were traveling through, particularly toward California. They would call in here and sometimes we would play them a full game and sometimes we'd only play them a half game, but they were all professional players. We tried to beat them but we never could come close in doing it. One—I can't remember what his name was now—he was black and little and he was a guard. He went out around me, I was over close to the side and about half way down the gym, and he stepped right out around me and down to the basket. A little later in the game he wanted to do the same thing and he came right around the sideline dribbling and when he went to go out around I just leaned over and caught him on my right shoulder and he lit about the third bench up on the bleachers. I can't recall his name right now. He was a play guard and was fast but he wasn't that big. One time when we were playing mutual ball and going, like I said, eight consecutive years down to Salt Lake and after that we went a few years after, after the war. We had a good team. The Marriott family had moved up in the twelfth ward, and it came our turn to play them to see who was going to Salt Lake, and it happened to be my Aunt Nell Marriott's birthday that day and so they said, well, they would close her birthday a little earlier in the evening because they wanted to go to the ball game because Marriott was going to play the twelfth ward. They brought a couple of guys down to Salt Lake to play with them and when we were in there warming up that night Deloss Bingham came over to me and he said, "Did you see the shoes that Russell Marriott has got on?" And I said, "No." I looked at his shoes, we were just getting ready to play them and warming up and he said, "He has got all leather shoes on. I have never seen anyone with all leather basketball shoes on." I said, "Well, we don't care what kind of shoes he has got on but we have got to beat them." So we started to play. Russell was a good player. He was left-handed and he liked to go up and play next to the wall on the outside, just inside the boundary and then cut in to the basket and he would shoot with his left hand and he was hard to guard. We were well aware of that fact and they had one of their best players with him. I remember his name was Fred Shots. He was an exceptionally good player and Russell was expecting him to score real well. He had played with us several years and we knew where he liked to play. He liked to go up the left side and stay just inside and then come in and scores with his left hand and to reach over a lot of times you would foul him. But we were aware of that so before he would cut in to the basket we would travel right along the side of him and crowd him a little bit so he couldn't get that left hand up. He would have to cross over. Sometimes he would lose the ball and he would whirl around. When he went to do anything that was real hard for him to do he would always stick his tongue out to the side like that. He would stop and stick his tongue out and whirl around with his fist but by the time he got turned around everybody would be gone. He would turn around several times with his tongue out, biting and swing with his right hand because we wouldn't let him score with his left. We beat them and we got four points ahead of them right on the start and then they never did catch us. Just a little while before the end of the game they put Woodrow in and he was a younger one, they put him in but he only played a couple of minutes and they took him out. We never did get behind. We stayed ahead of them all the way through. They had a cheering crew there and a group of young people in a section for the twelfth ward and they were really trained to cheer for them. But when the game was over, Russell's dad, Will Marriott, he was there sitting with the twelfth ward. They had just moved in the twelfth ward about a year before that. We all had suits on with Marriott written across them. When the ball game ended and we were still ahead of them, we stayed ahead of them all the way through. Russell's dad, who was my uncle, got up and was real cold and he went down off of the bleachers a little ways and with his hat in one hand and his overcoat over his arm on the other and turned and walked in front of the twelfth ward cheering crew and he said, "What the hell is the trouble? Can't anybody smile?" And then he came over and congratulated us for beating them. I always thought that he wanted us to win although he had moved into the twelfth ward. We had his name Marriott wrote right across our suits. I was always of the opinion that he was glad that we beat the twelfth ward but he came over and congratulated us and then smiled and walked out of the gym. It was cold that night. There were only about sixty-five families in the Marriott ward. They had a dance hall there and a stage in the one end. They took that stage out and that gave us about another thirty feet so it was a pretty good sized gym for us to play in. Some of the toughest teams we had to play in the league for the mutual was probably North Ogden and Plain City and the Eighth Ward of Ogden, the Fourth Ward of Ogden, and the Seventeenth Ward of Ogden. Other than the Plain City—they were all pretty well city wards. They had a big group of people to pick from because they were big wards. And we only had about sixty-five families in the ward. Sometimes they had good players and they would find out where the best team was and so they could go over and rent an apartment. Some of them were married guys and some of them were single. They would go and rent apartments in that ward so they could play with them. One night I remembered I was playing and Clifford Blair was coaching us for several years. I don't remember right now just who we were playing but we were getting to the end of the game and we were only three or four points ahead and Clifford called a timeout. Deloss Bingham was playing forward, he was not very big but he was fast and a good scorer. Coach called a timeout and we went over to see what he wanted and we were real close. We were just a few points ahead of them. He said to Deloss Bingham, "What the hell is wrong with you? Why aren't you going like you are usually doing?" He said, "I got the skin off of my foot and I have got a sore foot." And Clifford said, "You'll go back in and forget you got a damn foot!" Now that is the kind of coaching we did get. He came back in and we won the ball. We played four nights to get to go and we had to win. I played the first night and I turned an ankle. That was the only time in all of the time I have played that I ever turned an ankle, but I turned an ankle that night and we still won the ball game. The next morning I went up to Doctor Seidner. He was in the office and I pulled off my shoe and I said, "Can you see anything wrong with my ankle here or what you can do for it?" He said, "I don't see much of anything wrong with it." So I thanked him and pulled my shoe on and walked down the hall to Doctor Clark Rich. Now his dad was a doctor before him, Ezra and Edward Rich. They were half brothers but they were both doctors. Technically Ezra Rich came to our house when I was born to deliver me. But I walked down the hall and his son Clark Rich was the only one in his chair. It was in the morning and he was looking at the early newspaper. I went in and pulled my shoe off and I said, "Can you see anything wrong with my ankle?" He said, "A blind man could see what is wrong with that!" So he took a bandage and bandaged it up and he said, "Now I'll undo that and you watch how I do it. You bring it up the outside; you take it down on the inside and bring it up on the outside." And he banded it up again. He said, "I'll tie that up for you and you keep this, I won't put it that tight." Then he said, "Tonight, when you get ready to play you tighten that up real tight and at the half your foot will maybe go a little numb. At the half you come out and loosen it and then before you go back in, tighten it back up again. Always pull it up from the outside out." I did that and I played alright and at the half I loosened it a little and pulled it back up. It did get a little numb but I played that night and went down to Salt Lake and played in the tournament. It never bothered me; I just tied it up every night for the rest of the season. I was born in 1911 and World War I with Germany was in 1918 and so I was seven years old when the war was on. They took one of my brothers. Carl went up to Logan to the training camp and Clifford Blair, he was twenty-one on the fourth of June. He had to register on the fifth of June. He said, "Oh why couldn't I have been born later and I wouldn't have had to register?" When that war came on, I was only seven years old, but we had a lot of sugar beets and they took him and Frank Tribe who was my oldest sister's husband. Guy Wecker was my other sister's husband, and Clifford Blair and then a lot of the men of our neighbors in our community, took them in World War I. They took them in the late summer. My mother went up and got a letter. I remember going with her, I was seven years old and we went up in the Eccles Building and saw Caleb Marriott. He had just graduated and opened an office as an attorney. My mother had been to an attorney and wrote a letter to the government to see if Clifford could come home to harvest the sugar beets. We never did hear from them so we went in the Eccles Building and kicked on the door. Caleb Marriott had just graduated and he was admitted to the bar. He would take his lunch with him, eat his lunch, and then he would take a nap for an hour. The door was locked but his dad said he would be there. So I went there with my mother and I kicked on the door. I remember kicking on it with my shoe and he opened the door and he had taken a nap. It was just after lunch. My mother went in and told him what we wanted and he said, "I will write a letter." He wrote a letter and in two weeks Clifford came home. He was in Presidio, in California in the camp. He sent that letter there and he released him and he came home. We got all the sugar beets out and then he went back. Well when—I was going to tell you about General Pershing. When I went there with my mother when they marched them all from 24th street down and down 25th and into the railroad yards, I would guess that they must have had 150 men in uniform, young ones that they had picked up then. My brother and our neighbors were among them. I went with my mother and they marched them down off of the hill and into the railroad yards. They had a passenger train there and it had bars on the window. They didn't let them stop to speak. You didn't bother them at all. They had officers with them and they stayed right in line. They walked up the steps and into these cars, a whole trainload of them with bars on the windows. I stood there with my mother and I know I cried. I cried a little bit because I thought I would never see them again with the bars on the windows. They went to the camp and later on in the early fall, they sent General Pershing. "General Pershing is coming to town! He'll be at the Depot and he'll talk shortly." I pleaded with my mother and we went with a buggy and a horse, tied it up, and then walked over to the Ogden Depot on 25th street. We waited just about five minutes and they switched the car. They had a wooden platform there on wheels that they had made. It was just a platform on wheels but it was high. They pulled the passenger car in and it stopped right in front of us and a couple of men went over and wheeled this wooden platform over to the door and they opened the door on the passenger train and General Pershing walked out onto that platform. He had all the ribbons and the citations on his suit. He didn't have a hat on, he was gray-headed. He was a medium sized man and he walked out on that step and he said, "We are going to end the war and we are going to send your boys home." I thought that was the best news that I had ever heard. He talked for, oh, maybe two or three minutes at the most, then he waved goodbye and stepped back in and they moved the car I guess to some other place for him to speak. I waited for that time and sometime after—that was in about August I'd say and along in November all the whistles started to blow. There weren't many cars around then but there were a few. They were honking the horns but there were a lot of whistles blowing in Ogden City and you could hear them out where we lived in Marriott, just down 12th street. Our family was gone working on milk routes and farming and whatnot. Just my mother and I were home. She said, "The operator won't talk to you on the phone, so you go catch that gray horse and go from where we live over across 12th street and the railroad track over to 17th street and ask Mrs. Wecker." Her boy was Guy Wecker and he had married my sister before he went in the military. "You go over and ask Mrs. Wecker if she can get the operator to tell her what the whistles are and the trains blowing." So I got on the horse and rode over there and they had a little fence up in front of their house. Her daughter was there and she said, "What can I do for you?" I said, "I want to talk to your mother." So her mother came out on the sidewalk and I said, "I want to know if you can call the operator and find out what all the horns are blowing and all the whistles are blowing." She said, "You tell your mother that you can't talk to the operator, but she just keeps saying, 'They have caught the Kaiser.' And then in a second or two she'd say, 'They caught the Kaiser.'" So I said, "But she wants to know what the whistles are." And she said, "Well you tell her that they have caught the Kaiser." So I went on home and my mother was standing in the yard by the house as I rode in on this old gray horse. She came right over to the horse and she said, "What did she say?" I said, "She said to tell you that they have caught the Kaiser." She put up her hand and smiled all over. She said, "The war is going to end. The Kaiser is the head of the German army and they have gotten him so the war is going to end." I thought that was the happiest time that I had. Sure enough, in about December, just about Christmas time, they shipped those boys from our community and a lot of other soldiers home. They were home for Christmas. Years after that, I was seven years old then, and when I was about sixteen or so I was in a meeting and they said, "Other than your dads or your fathers, who would you think was the greatest man that you ever saw or talked to?" I guess there was about fifteen in that circle and I was almost to the end, not quite, and they went around. When they come to me I said, "It was General Pershing. He was the best man I ever knew and ever did see." They said, "You didn't know General Pershing." And I said, "Yes, I did. I went up to the train and he walked out on the little platform and he said, 'We are going to end the war.' That was in about October and then in November, about a month or so later, I guess that was about August and I said, "He said we are going to end the war and send your boys home." I said I thought he was the greatest man I had ever heard speak. If I knew the future, like I remember the past I would be pretty smart. It isn't hard for me—at times I recall lots of things that have happened in the past and I grew up pretty active. Like I said, when the war was on I was seven years old and when it ended I'd had a birthday and the war ended in 1918 so I was only seven years old that winter. Then coming in the spring in January I became eight years old. I was active, and we had a big family, four girls and six boys. I don't have any full brothers or sisters. My dad lost his wife, she died with a heart attack and my mother married my dad and I was born when she was thirty-four years old. She had three children and he had six. They had known each other, born and raised in the same ward. They decided they would get married. They had lost their partners so I was the tenth child. When I was a kid I enjoyed growing up with this family. Although I was on one side and some on the other, that didn't bother me and didn't seem to all the way through my life. I respected them as my full brothers and sisters. My oldest sister on my dad's side was Ethel and she used to curl my hair. I was blonde. I had kind of golden colored hair and she used to put it up. They didn't have bobby pins and stuff like that then, they had hair pins. She used to tear strips of cloth and put my hair up in curls. When I got three years old I thought maybe somebody would think I was a girl, so I said, "I guess I had better go have my hair cut." My mother took me up the next morning and just down 24th street, right by the Eccles Building there was a barber shop, a big long barber shop. I walked in there and climbed in the first chair. It was in the morning. The barber got a board and put it across the arms of the chair and set me up on there so he could reach me. He cut my curls off and laid them all in an empty chocolate box. He laid it in there and wrapped it up and tied a string around it. That was the first cut I had ever had. I guess I was about three years old. I took the box, and when I went home I had this box under my arm. I handed it to my sister Ethel; she is the one that always curled my hair. I handed it to her and she cut the string on it and undid it and my curls were all laying kind of golden color in there and she cried. She put her arm around me and she cried because that was the first hair cut I ever had. Like I say, I was born in Marriott in 1911 and I don't remember much about Ogden City until I was about three years old. We had a dairy farm and a crop farm and whatnot and ran that all with the horses on iron towered wagons. My dad had two retail routes and two wholesale routes. There was no refrigeration then. You had to pack things in ice in the summer and cover them in the winter to keep them from freezing. When we would go into town—in Ogden City we sold all the milk. My dad had a big herd of cows and then he bought a lot of milk. Ten gallon cans and then processed it. We delivered that into Ogden. You might say we had to put ice in the bottom of the wagons in the summer because the jarring of the wagon would churn the bottles of cream and we'd have whipping cream and coffee cream and milk. The jar of the wagons would shake that whipping cream and when you would get it into town it would have about an inch or half inch of yellow butter on top. We had to pad those wagons all up with canvas and then put ice on them or whatever to keep them cold in the summer and keep them from freezing in the winter—drove them all with the horse wagons. Then there were a few grocery stores around and I remember going to town once in awhile with my mother. We drove a horse and buggy, and up in the front was a dashboard and you had a lap robe you threw over your legs, and there was a socket where you could put the whip if you had one, and we drove a single horse on that buggy. It had a top on to keep the storm off you and put a lap robe on you, then go into town and tie them up on the side of Washington Boulevard. When the circus would come to town, a man would come along on his bicycle and he said, "Take care of the horses because the elephants are coming." People didn't want the horses jumping around. I thought that it wasn't the elephants and he wouldn't go any farther. He'd go to the South or the North but he wouldn't go any farther up to the circus grounds. He could smell those animals. When we were downtown there were a few grocery stores here and there. Henry Tribe ran a grocery store and it was out this way in Ogden. As you went over there was another grocery store. Then there was somewhere—what was the name of them—Piggly Wiggly. My brother Carl decided he was going to go and get a job and he went to work and they gave him a job in the store, Piggly Wiggly's but he only stayed there about two months. He said all he was doing was stacking shelves. Piggly Wiggly's was in and then Safeways. But the grocery stores were far apart and then they were long. There were a lot of people on the street then. Very few cars, maybe a car here and there, maybe a Ford car and then a Buick car, a few long but very few cars. At the grocery stores a few and the clothing stores, clothing store—there was one on the West side of Washington—it was called the Golden Rule Store. It was a clothing store. Wright's was another store on the northwest corner of 24th street. Wright's clothing store was across the street from the Eccles Building which is still there. Bank buildings then weren't there. A few grocery stores, a lot of clothing stores. It was wet until 1918, and then it was against the law to sell or have liquor or whiskey. Of course, there was some bootlegging going on where they made their own whiskey and sold it. As I grew up as a kid, going along the sidewalk, there were a lot of people walking on the sidewalk and not many vehicles, so they would be walking along the street and it wouldn't be anything to see two or three men sitting with their feet in the gutter, they would be sitting there drunk and then you would go over here a ways farther and there would be a few more. Then they had policeman come along. They didn't take them in all of them, but they tried to keep the streets cleared up. Then a lady would come along and maybe have a package in one hand and a couple of kids trailing along her side. She would stop a young man here or there and ask them if he would go into the saloon—saloons were over there where you would buy whiskey and drink. This was just before 1918 and she would ask them, "Would you go in and see if you can get my husband to come." They would go in and sometimes they would go in and sit at the bar and other times they would bring them out and they were wobbling, they were drunk, and sometimes they couldn't get them to come out. It wasn't anything to go along the street and have several drunks on Washington Avenue. You don't see that now. Lots of people walking. Like I say, 1918 it went dry so they couldn't have any alcohol. Then in Ogden City, 25th street was noted as one of the special streets in Ogden. The trains stopped—all the passenger trains then had a big station just below Wall. You walked off of Wall onto a big passenger—oh it was five hundred feet long and two hundred feet wide where you went to go in and seats were all in there where you went in to wait for the train to go out of town or for one to come in and meet people and then they came. There was hotel right on the corner of 25th and Wall and they had a lot of business in there for people that rode the passenger trains and then came up the street and the Marriott Hotel and then you'd get up farther and the Broom hotel was there. That was a prominent hotel on 25th street, the upper part. Then across the street, the skyscrapers you might say went in as a hotel over across Washington. It wasn't anything then to see quite a few people. There were saloons all over—three along 25th street and a couple or three along Washington. That all "went dry." Then in just a few years they come along with "three-two beer." Old man Becker was in the Brewery business in the eastern states and he and his boys Gus Becker and Albert Becker. He had come down and opened a brewery on about 21st and Lincoln. There was no Wall Avenue come across there. He opened a brewery in there and they run that and they were allowed to make "three-two beer." So he opened that and built the brewery there. He first put it in and they sold Becco, didn't have any alcohol in it but it had Becker's Becco. The people drank that. He sold quite a lot of that. People thought that that helped their health and the doctor's recommended it for some people. Then they made all kinds of soda water and different brands of soda water there. Then two percent beer came in. So they had to make that. We had a contract with them to haul all the malt that was there—it was a three story building, the first one was the ground floor and then on the second was the big kettle, it was as big as these two rooms and that is where they brewed it. The next one was the barley and the hops and that. They had a big copper kettle there and they made that. You could see the thing going out of the top, little pipes going out where the alcohol went out. That was a "three-two beer." It couldn't test any more than that. They brought one of their son-in-laws from California and he was a doctor in California. He came in and they put him in the chemistry room. He had to test it so it couldn't go over three-two in two-three beer—two-three I guess it was. You would go into a store and as soon, and as you went in they had a clerk who would come, the same in the grocery stores. In the clothing stores someone would wait on you as soon as you went in—try to sell you a suit of clothes or a pair of shoes. The best shoes you could buy were five dollars. Suits would cost you maybe thirty dollars for a suit of clothes, as good of clothes that you could buy. Shirts and whatnot—people wore shirts and then they had a collar—you brought a collar and put it around you and fastened a little brass button here and then you would put the necktie on. The shirts you would buy didn't have any collars, work shirts did, but the dress shirts never had any collar on it. They would just come around and button here—then you put a tie on top of that. It was quite a job for our family to keep all the collars and all the shirts—they had to wash them and iron them out and then they put the tie on top of that. Maybe wear the shirt a couple of times with the collars. I remember several of the stores that came along, like Piggly Wiggly and Safeway and others. Then there was—I remember the Egyptian theatre. It was later in years and they had the stars all show up in the ceiling. The Peery's owned the Egyptian and the Ogden Theater and Glassman's owned the Orpheum Theater and the Alhambra was down on Keisel Avenue. You would go to the shows and it would cost you—when I was a kid it would cost you fifteen cents to get in. Adults were about thirty-five cents to get in to the shows. I remember when Willard Marriott went back to Washington D.C., he met his wife Anna Sheets. He met her in the University of Utah. He had been on a mission. He went on a mission and when he came back he went to Weber Academy here and Aaron Tracy was the President then. When he came back they had closed that and he went down to the University of Utah. There is where Willard Marriott met Anna Sheets. She was going to the University of Utah and he met her there, got acquainted with her and he married her. Before he married her he bought a new model-T Ford and went up north and sold woolen goods, most of it from the Utah Woolen Mills in Salt Lake where they took the wool and refined it and made woolen clothes. He went up there and stayed all summer. When he came back from his mission he went up there and stayed all summer and sold woolen clothing and blankets and everything. That is where he met his wife and then he came back and went up again and then he got married and I remember him, Willard Marriott, stopping at our house in the morning—it was about eight o'clock in the morning—and he had a model-T. He had come in and my mother and I walked out to his car with him and Anna Sheets was sitting in this model-T and my mother said to him, "Have you got good tires on this car?" I walked around it and I couldn't see a bit of tread on any of them. They were all bald tires. She was sitting in the seat there but we wished him well. Now here is what he said and I shouldn't tell you this but I will anyway. He wouldn't care. My mother said, "Well that is a long ways to drive this model-T to Washington D.C." He had come from up north and a lot of places that he went, he couldn't collect his money where he had sold clothing and blankets and things. When he came back he said, "Mrs. Sheets," that would be his mother-in-law, "gave me five hundred dollars and said you can use that and go on your honeymoon from here to Washington D.C." So he said, "I have plenty of money." Anna Sheets mother gave him five hundred dollars. Now that is what he said right there in front of our house. They were going to drive this model-T back there and go on their honeymoon. He went back there and he and another man, Sterling Colton, went back to Washington D.C. and opened the A & W Rootbeer stands. Russell and I once in awhile we'd go in to town and walk over by the Egyptian Theatre and they had a barrel going around of A & W Rootbeer. Once in awhile Willard would send a letter, an envelope that would have some A & W tickets in there. We'd go in there and get a couple of mugs of A & W Rootbeer on the tickets he would send for it. That was quite a treat to go in and get free A & W Rootbeers. Ogden City has grown in the last several years, then they put the mall in and it fell apart and there is a lot of Ogden City that has moved into the upper bench and over into Riverdale and out into places. Ogden City isn't anything like it used to be. They put the big mall in there and then they couldn't make it financially. Other than the banks—the city itself has slipped away. Years and years ago, 25th street was well known all over the country. The trains would come in and stopped in the depot at 25th and Wall. Then people went up and there were several hotels in there and restaurants. When you got almost to Washington, right there by Kiesel Avenue, by Washington and Kiesel, was a place opened by two men, it was a long restaurant. It was Ross and Jack's Burger with spuds for a quarter. They had more business there than they could take care of hardly. You could go any time of the day or the night and they had customers there. My dad furnished them all the dairy products for that place. It was Ross and Jacks and you got a big hamburger, potatoes and gravy, and a vegetable for a quarter. That is what it was advertised—Ross and Jacks dinner for twenty-five cents. You got a big hamburger, the potatoes and gravy and a vegetable for twenty-five cents. Ketchup and other things were all sitting there, you could help yourself to them. I remember they had a sign there one time it had come out and it said, "Go easy on the butter boys, it is forty cents a pound." It was a long restaurant, the cash register in the front and rows down here and clear down there, and there were people there—twenty-five cents. J. W. Randall came and wanted me to put in one hundred and thirty thousand ton of sugar beets in two big piles. They were a half a block long and eighteen feet high. I told him, "I don't want to." He said, "Yes, you put them in." And I put in one hundred and thirty thousand ton of beets in with beet forks, with just men by hand. He said, "Don't hire all the guys." The depression was on then. "Try to hire them all around Weber County where they have grown sugar beets." I finally agreed to do it and I paid those men four dollars and twenty cents a day. The twenty cents went for insurance. Each one was insured for everything for twenty cents. They got four dollars and they worked for eight hours. I put that in and he said, "Don't hire everybody in your community, hire them all around Weber County." I had to turn guys down and they put it on an endless belt, here was the pile a half a block long and another one here. It had a pipe flume with the top lids, you took them off. The water would run fast, pumping it and it circulated and washed the beets in and we put them on a belt and they went over and dumped into this flume. I put a hundred thirty thousand ton of beets in with beet forks. Not one man did I ever have to correct, never had one quit, never had one get sick, never had one get hurt, and I never told one he had to do more work or correct him in his throwing. It never stormed. We put them in, through all of November, the factory guy would look up there and if you would watch the moon, the moon will be up here and as it goes down it isn't the moon. It looks like it has turned but it hasn't. He would look up at the moon and say, "That is a wet moon, you'll have to hurry Juke, it is going to storm." We had a platform and you'd come up here and it had a tent of canvas. So if it did storm they were under it. It had a little caterpillar electric on each end of it. It was as long as the pile of beets was wide. It had a little electric caterpillar end. Steve Crowley worked for the sugar company and he stayed and when they would throw the beets in from here to there and have to reach for them, it was electric and he'd put it in and it would crawl up close to the pile. When they reached them—a lot of those guys would sit with their rump right on the edge. It had a four by four along here and a belt, the belt kept going and they would sit right with their butt on that and throw those beets on. That was in 1935, it was the year Sharon was born. The year that Franklin D. Roosevelt took the presidential election by a landslide, was in November of 1932. Remember that the President goes in on an even year. He goes in on '32, '36, and right on up. When they picked those potatoes up I gave them six sacks, six hundred pounds apiece. Some worked 'til noon and they got three hundred pounds. They were red bliss potatoes, just perfect and I said to them when they left that night at five o'clock, it would have been the day before Election Day and the night after election in 1932 it started to snow. You never saw the ground until spring. That was the toughest winter I ever saw. They went over and voted and that night they put Franklin D. in and the next day we got through. The price of potatoes—I took them out in the spring, I carried them upstairs, downstairs, Wesley Hewitt didn't have a job and he lived in a house that charged him seven dollars a month. He couldn't pay the rent so he worked it out. We delivered those potatoes, upstairs, downstairs, traded them in for groceries. They were thirty cents for a hundred pound bag. Uncle Will Marriott moved into town. They had moved into town off of the farm and he come to me and he said, "Do you want to rent the lower farm?" I said, "Well yes I would rent it." So I rented that lower farm for him. I put it all in sugar beets, and if you crowd it there was seventeen acres. The Warren canal ran along the east end and the riverbed was on that end. I ran them from there right through. I put that into sugar beets and I got three dollars and eighty-five cents a ton for them. Now, earlier, a few years before that, the sugar beets were up to twelve dollars and they stayed there. My dad was a bishop for a dozen years. My mother and my dad went down to conference and when they came back we had a long table and there was twelve of us at the table. I sat at the far end and my dad sat at the head end. When they were there one of our family said, "Well what did they tell you at conference?" My mother said, "President Smith,"—Joseph Fielding was the President—he got up and he said, "If you are in debt, get out as fast as you can and if you are not in debt, stay out because the price is going to go down." Sugar beets were twelve dollars a ton. We had every piece of ground around in sugar beets. In fact, we got a furlough for Clifford to come home and dig sugar beets in September. They were twelve dollars a ton, and they started going down in 1932, Uncle Will and Aunt Nell Marriott and Russell and them had all moved into town. They had moved up to the 12th Ward. The spring of 1932 I put it all in sugar beets, seventeen acres and I got three dollars and eighty-five cents a ton for them. I grew that whole field down there and I got a check for eleven hundred and something dollars, I had a good crop. I dug those potatoes and quit and went down and hauled beets for everybody. I hauled over sixteen hundred ton of beets on a 1932 Chevrolet truck and I loaded them all with beet forks. I hauled them beets in and I had almost three hundred ton and I got a check. When he came, they were all good beets and I dug these potatoes and quit and went down and the next day and that night I finished the potatoes it snowed. It started to blow from the east and it snowed. I still had about four acres of sugar beets, I left them right by the road, right on this end and I had to dig them in the snow. I went down the next morning and I had four—this is a coincidence—I had four toppers, topped them all by hand and put them in wind rows. I had two red-headed guys, Wesley Hewitt and the Dana kid. I had Joe and Bill Elmer, they lived on 17th street and were both married men. These two topped the row and these two topped the row and I drove right down the middle of them. I put a team of horses on the truck and I never drove them. They were good horses, I had used them all fall. They were the last beets I got out. Here is the seat, the mirror stuck out here, I hung the lines on the mirror and I loaded this corner and a man here and then the two would throw, all with beet forks. Guys would come and say, "I'll come on and drive those horses for you." I would say, "Nope we don't talk to them." I left them standing, I got out right here, didn't shut the door, leave it open, when I got in all I would do is touch the gas and they just knew to go. They would start to pull and when I let the gas off they stopped. We rent right up and never got stuck a load. Uncle Will came down there, he came down there and Myer and Wright, Myer and Wright was in his arms. He came down in the spring they were all like this. Myer would run out over here and I said, "That sand is hot." That was in the spring. He said, "He'll be back in a minute," the old man said, Uncle Will. He did, he ran about from here to the front door and here he had come back. He had burned his feet because the sand was hot. He picked him up. That was in the spring. In the fall, the same place Uncle Will came down there alone and I was getting the last of them out the last day. I had a team of horses on there and no driver, they would pull right up and when I put the gas down that is just like saying "get up" to them and when I take the gas off they stop. We loaded them and he drove down there with his car and stopped outside the bridge of that lower field and he said, "I have never seen horses pull like that without a driver." They would go right up and come right out. They listened to the gas. When you would give them the gas they went. When you quit the gas they stopped. When Aunt Nell and Uncle Will come to my mother's house and came in the front door and talked to my mother a little bit, my mother said—her and I were there, the only ones—she said, "Willard is making a lot of money. He is about a millionaire." Aunt Nell spoke up and she said, "Yes, the poor boy. It has cost him over ten thousand dollars income tax." Then Uncle Will chuckled and laughed and she was real serious and he chuckled and laughed. He said, "I have come to get the rent," from the farm I had rented. I walked in the other room in the bedroom and I had the cash there. I got a check for eleven hundred dollars. I counted it out and Uncle Will was sitting here and she was sitting here. I gave him half—I didn't get quite eleven hundred, but I gave him five hundred and fifty dollars. That was half of it. I went there to give it to him in cash and Aunt Nell spoke up and she said, "No, he don't get it, you give it to me." It put me in a spot. I said, "Well, he come and ask me if I wanted to rent it and I rented it off of him for five hundred and fifty dollars and I will have to give him the money." So I give him the money, I gave him just a few dollars over half of what I made. They got up and left. I guess Aunt Nell thought that I made too much money so they didn't rent it to me anymore. I sold the potatoes at thirty cents a hundred and I sold the sugar beets for three dollars and eighty-five cents. I went camping with Russell Marriott, Roy Hodson and Clyde Covington, they were cousins, and myself. We got up there we slept way out in the wild and the first night, we had our own food and some blankets and stuff. We camped out there the one night. The next night we came in and we were still out quite a ways from the camping grounds so we pulled up there and the car was like this. We made the bed here and we had plenty of food. The running board was on the outside there. We put some food under those running boards. Clyde Covington wouldn't sleep outside, he was scared, so he slept in the back seat. Russell slept here and Roy Hodson here and me here. Our heads right by the running board of the car. I woke up for some reason, I guess by the noise. I woke up and it was just coming daylight. I woke up and I could hear something. I sat up in bed and I looked about—oh judging thirty feet from where we were sleeping there was a black bear and it was standing facing us and it was growling. I think that was what woke me up, it was growling. I woke up and I looked up there and she was standing on all four feet facing us. I said to these guys, "Hey! Do you want to see something?" "Nah," they slept. They finally woke up and Roy Hodson was in the middle, he raised up and he saw that bear and he went right down in and pulled the covers over him. Clyde Covington was in the car and he was jumping around like a squirrel in there and Russell was over here. I looked that thirty feet away and they got calmed down a little and that bear just kept growling. I reached around here and Uncle Will and Russell and Woodrow and them had just shingled the barn on the farm over there and they had the shingle—so I took one of the shingling hatches that they had and put it under my pillow. I reached around and I thought, "Will I give that bear time to move?" She didn't want to move. I think it was a female bear. So I reached around and I felt there and I got that hatchet in my hand and took a hold of the handle of it. A hatchet is a long blade but it is narrow. I got up on my left knee and that bear still stayed there and she kept growling, and I would say it was twenty-five feet. I got up on my knee and I looked at that and thought, "Maybe if I throw that I can pin her right between the eyes." When I brought my hand up like that, that bear whirled around but it was too far gone. I brought it back like that, she whirled around, and I let it go just as hard as I could throw it and it stuck up right the side of her tail. The full length of the blade went right in her. She ran about twenty-five feet with her hind legs looked like they were going faster than her front ones. She was hunched up but it was a female bear. She ran about twenty-five or thirty feet and the hatchet fell out. But it stuck in her that long. I jumped out of bed and run out there and got it. It was covered in blood all over the hatchet. I brought it back and showed it to them. She never came back. We gathered up camp and right here, she had been in there before, and never woke anybody up. I think she had a cub—I am satisfied she had a cub bear back—a bear will come and get the food and leave the cub back there. Right here by Russell Marriott's head, here was the car, that high and right under the running board by his head we had some bacon and a little sack of sugar, maybe a five pound and half of it was gone. That bear had come and reached in right the side of his head and took that little sack of sugar and we traced it and it had sprinkled a little sugar all over here and there. It had torn the sack a little. All the way out there was a little bit of sugar. She had taken that—she had to get within six inches of his head but she must have reached in with her paw and got that sack with the sugar in and brought it out and took it. Then she fed the cub. That is how close she had come to that kid's head and never woke him up. We never saw the bear again.
In: Spajić-Vrkaš, Vedrana and Ilišin, Vlasta (2005) Youth in Croatia. Faculty of Humanites and Social Sciences University of Zagreb, Research and Training Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Citizenship, Zagreb. ISBN 953-175-242-7
The results of the research described above were obtained on a representative sample of Croatian youth from 15-24 years of age in the second half of 2002. The research was carried on in the context of a regional research project on youth under the auspices of the PRONI institute from Sweden. The main objective of the project was to provide empirical data on life, needs, attitudes and aspirations of young people as a means of assisting the process of youth policy review. The process was initiated by the Council of Europe with a view to strengthen youth participation in democratic changes of the countries in the region. This report is the most recent one in a long and well-established tradition of studying youth issues in Croatia. Therefore, it often includes comments and references to earlier research findings for the purpose of determining the changes in youth trends, as well as for the purpose of validity testing of our data. On the other side, the data presented in this report may, together with earlier studies, be used as a reference point in the process of reviewing the National Programme of Action for Youth, as well as in developing a comprehensive, efficient and youth-centred national youth policy. The core of the findings is probably that the criteria for determining the upper age-level of youth period should be reviewed and extended to include those who are 30 years of age. The fact that more and more young people remain longer in education, that they decide to marry and have children later in their life, that they consider changing their job and probably, if possible, enroll in re-training programmes for that purpose, as well as that they desire to reach full independence by relying on their own abilities and endeavour, speaks in favour of the need to redesign our traditional approaches to youth upper age-limits. Other findings that help us understand some important dimensions and trends of contemporary life of Croatian youth are summarised below. The most basic socio-demographic data demonstrate that very few young people from our research who are 24 and below are married and few think of having children before the age of 25. About half of them live in a two-child nuclear family in a house/apartment of their own that, averagely, comprises more than two rooms. Very few have an opportunity to live in an apartment of their own, although four fifths express desire to live separately. The aspiration towards such independence is mainly motivated by socio-economic and maturity factors: it is a prominent feature of young people who are university students, whose fathers have more education, and who are over 20. Since the chances of having their own apartment in a reasonable period of time are rather minimal, not only due to the difficulties in finding a job but due to extremely high prices in the housing sector, such prolonged co-habitation and dependency on parents and/or relatives is a frequent cause of young people' s frustrations and is probably related to, together with other factors such as poverty and limited capacity of pre-school child-care institutions, a constant decrease in the average number of children per family. On average, young people are satisfied with their present life and expect no change in the future. Despite a high unemployment rate especially among them, approximately three quarters assess their own present and future life, the life of their closest friends and their peers in Western Europe as good or excellent. Their optimism is somewhat even higher than it was found in the end of 1990s. When asked to imagine their life in 10 years ahead majority see it as a success, either in general terms or in specific terms of their professional advancement or family happiness. Dissatisfaction with present life grows with age and with opportunities to enter the world of work and become fully independent, since the young between 20-24 years of age, both employed and unemployed are more inclined to perceive their present life as unsatisfactory. Interestingly enough, the age does not have influence on the assessment of future, which means, in the context of this research, that young people in general, irrespective of age, equally believe that future brings better opportunities. In reference to their professional and educational aspirations, almost two thirds of the young want to continue education, while one fourth of them think of finding a job. The differences are mainly determined by residential, social, and age factors. Thus, a primary aspiration of pupils and university students, as well as of those who live in Zagreb or in families of higher socio-economic status, is to continue their education. Contrary to them, rural young people, those who live in low-income families, as well as those who are over 20 are more inclined to seek for a job or to continuing the job they currently hold. Over two fifths of young people plan to leave their present place of residence so as to be able to meet their professional and educational aspirations. Almost half of this group prefer to move somewhere inside the country, most often to a bigger city which is perceived as the place that offers better opportunities for career and social positioning, while other half think of going abroad. The percentage of the young planning to leave the country for good rose from 11% in 1986 and 18% in 1999 to 19% in 2002. Their migratory plans are connected to their residential status, i.e. to the conditions in the place or region where the young actually live. Young people from Zagreb are less willing to go somewhere else; rural youth and youth from Eastern Croatia wish to migrate to another place inside Croatia more than any other group, while all groups (except youth from Middle and Northern Croatia who want that somewhat more than others) equally (do not) want to settle abroad. Data on a desired place for living are quite similar to those on migratory plans. The number of youth preferring to remain in their present place of residence and the number of those having no migratory plans are almost identical. When compared to earlier studies, we see an increase in the number of young people preferring to live in large cities. In addition, almost one quarter express their preference for living abroad, majority of which opt for a Western European country. The fact that almost one fifth of all has plans and almost one fourth prefer to live abroad indicate the existence of two closely related but, nevertheless, separate dimensions of youth migratory thinking. While the preference for other counties may mean only an inclination, having plans on migrating abroad most certainly includes active search for such a possibility. In light of our findings it means that at least one fifth of Croatian youth not only dream of leaving the country but actually make plans how to make it a reality. Employed youth is far from being satisfied with their jobs. Every second confirms his or her disappointment. Approximately one fifth of both them and those that are still in the process of education desire jobs in the service or business sector; little less in number think of entering more creative and/or dynamic professions or professions related to education, health care and social services. This means that their professional aspirations are somehow higher that those of their parents, majority of whom have secondary school completed and are mainly employed as industrial, service and shop workers or clerks. Nevertheless, if their choices are compared to the structure of the employed force in Croatia and if we add to it a rapidly changing labour market in all transitional countries, their professional preferences seem rather realistic. This is probably why almost half of the young hold that their chances for getting a preferred job are high or very high. The data also confirm that their estimations are related to age and socio-professional status since pessimism increases with age (except for the university students) and is tightly linked to unemployment status. In any case, optimism prevails among the young and it, as well, may be linked to their strong motivation to succeed in life by relying on their own abilities despite unfavourable social and economic context in which they live. It is also possible, at least partly, that self-assurance of young people comes from positive educational experience. Over half of the young state they feel happy and satisfied when thinking of their schools or universities. However, it is not clear whether their satisfaction should be understood in terms of acquiring subject-matter knowledge and skills or in terms of developing certain personal qualities through participating in school life. Earlier studies on youth have proven that the young have complex relations towards education which are the outcomes of both institutional tasks and personal expectations. Moreover, our results document that feelings about school are correlated with sex and socio-professional status.Girls and university students, in general, are more satisfied with their education, while the unemployed are among the least satisfied. It is also possible that positive feelings about education also relate to school grades. Earlier studies have shown that female pupils receive somewhat better average scores than their male schoolmates, which may explain why girls have more positive feelings about school than boys. • On the other hand, it is clear that school is by no means a source of information about the events in the country and the world for young people since a great majority of them actually receive news through ordinary media (TV, radio, newspapers and magazines). Moreover, Internet has become an important source of information about the country and the world for approximately one fifth and over one fourth of them, respectively. This shift has to do with the fact that over two thirds of the young from our study are computer users and that more than half of them already have computer at home. It is, therefore, obvious that new information and communication technologies are becoming part and parcel of young people' s daily life what needs to be taken into account when policies and programmes of action for promoting their wellbeing are designed, especially in reference to underprivileged youth. Namely, our research confirms that the use of computer correlates with residence (urban environment), family background (parents with higher education and higher socio-economic status), age, and education factors (younger population and students). Nevertheless, young people are not enslaved by new information communication technologies. Most of them spend their free time associating with friends, engaging in sport activities, going to disco-clubs, watching TV or performing outdoor activities, while far less enjoy music, reading books or art exhibitions. In addition, many young people have no daily obligations, except in relation to school and spend their free time idling or sleeping. This means that the majority of youth either do nothing or engage almost solely in the so called passive and/or receptive activities for self-entertainment. Despite that fact, almost three fourths of them claim they are more or less satisfied with how they spend their free time what brings us to the conclusion that the main problem is not the quality of their free time activities but their lack of awareness that the quality itself is being at stake. However, it should be pointed out that their opinions are related to age and socio-professional status. Young people who belong to an upper age-cohort and who are unemployed exhibit far more dissatisfaction with their free time than the youngest. Overpronounced dissatisfaction among the unemployed seems to be an indicator of an overall discontent with one' s own life. For the unemployed, free time becomes a burden not only because they cannot perceive it in terms of an offduty activity but because they can not afford it financially. In reference to the use of psychoactive substances, it seems that tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption are the most widespread types of risk behaviour among the youth. Approximately one third of them smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol daily or weekly ; three fifths are non-smokers and one fifth never drink alcohol. Smoking increases with age and employment. Alcohol, on the other hand, is solely related to gender in a way that young women drink less than their male peers. Such trend may be the sign of a subtle male initiation rite de passage that has outlived its traditional context. Since the data on smoking are more favourable than those from earlier research it may be presumed that an anti-smoking media campaign, which has been going on rather aggressively throughout the country, has brought positive effect, whereas non-existence of similar anti-alcohol campaign may be the sign of a relatively high level of a social tolerance for alcohol consumption. As far as drug are concerned, Croatian youth is more inclined to the so-called 'soft' drugs. Over one third of the young have tried or used twice or more only marijuana ; hashish and ecstasy is mentioned by less than one tenth of them, whereas other 'hard' drugs have been only tried or are consumed by 1-3% of them. The consumption of marijuana is associated with a recognizable youth group, what confirms earlier studies. A group of highest risk is made of young people between 20 and 24, male, university students, the residents of Zagreb, Istria, Croatian Littoral and Dalmatia, and whose fathers have higher education level. A great majority of young people tend to see themselves in rather positive terms: they are self-assured, think they have a good number of personal qualities; believe in their capabilities when compared to other people and have no doubts that most people they know like them. This may be related to feeling of security they experience in the context of their immediate environment since a great majority of the young claim that they can almost always get warmth, care and support from their parents and support from their friends. On the other hand, only every second of them feel the same about their teachers. It seems that most Croatian families are characterised by an exercise of indirect and flexible control over their children in the course of their growing up. In over half of the cases parents or relatives hardly ever determine rules for their children' s behaviour although they do control the choice of their friends, as well as their evening outdoor activities. Moreover, young people claim that their parents are especially keen of their school progress since they almost regularly keep records on their children school situation. • When asked about the most serious problems of their generation, the majority of young people in Croatia mention socially unacceptable behaviour, such as drug abuse, alcohol consumption and violence, unemployment, low standard of living, the lack of life chances and mass migration of young experts abroad. Since unemployment was repeatedly displayed as the major problem of young generation in earlier studies, their present preoccupation with socially unacceptable behaviour may be related either to the sample structure (majority of them are students) or to a general social climate which is, due to predominance of media campaigns mainly geared against smoking and drug abuse (but not against alcohol consumption, except for safe driving), inducing an over-sensitisation to behavioural issues causing, on the other side, the lack of awareness of existentially important issues of young people that are of an utmost importance for their independence and self-satisfaction. Young people are inclined to attribute responsibility for solving these problems primarily to themselves, their parents and public authorities, i.e. firstly to those actors that function at the private level (personal and parents' responsibility), than to public sector (government, education system) and, finally, to the civil society (nongovernmental organizations, youth associations and religious institutions). This means that youth principally count on their personal strength and family support, as well as that they have explicit expectations of state institutions, whereas they think of receiving the assistance from the civil sector only exceptionally. Notwithstanding, since half of the young studied have failed to mention personal responsibility, it clearly demonstrates that both strong sense of self-responsibility and its avoidance stand side by side as two features of Croatian youth. Among the measures that Croatian youth see as the most efficient for solving their problems two are underlined: equal education and career opportunities, on the one hand, and strict punishment of drug dealers and restrictions on alcohol selling, on the other hand. Since the majority of youth consider socially unacceptable behaviour, including drug-addiction, to be the gravest problem of their generation, it is understandable that they see the way out in strict punishing of drug dealers, (rather than consumers), what is still inadequately determined by Croatian law. Other most frequently mentioned measure has to do with the youth quest for developing society of equal chances which is in line with their perception of unemployment as the second most frequently mentioned youth problem in Croatia. Although lesser in number, the young refer to their under-representation and require their participation in decision-making to be ensured at all levels. They also require better adapting of secondary and higher education to the needs of contemporary life, as well as better quality of education, in general; some speak in favour of establishing a ministry for youth affairs, developing national strategy for promoting youth well-being, setting up of funds for youth initiatives, better legal regulations of the places of youth entertainment, i.e., the issues majority of which have already been integrated into the recently adopted National Programme of Action for Youth that is seen as an initial step in developing a national youth policy. The values that the majority of young people hold personally important or very important are healthy environment, peace in the world, gender equality, and rights and freedoms of the individual. Second group of the most personally preferable values encompasses solidarity among people, social justice, economic security, respect for differences, rule of law, inalienability of property, civil society, free market, freedom of the media, protection of minorities, religion and democratic system. The bottom of the scale is occupied by social power, national sentiment, European integration, and high economic standard. The review of their preferences demonstrates a relatively respectable level of democratic potential of young people in Croatia. They are more oriented towards comfortable life based on key principles of democracy and civil society, which is in correspondence with earlier research that have documented the shift to a more individualistic value system, including youth' s preference for independence and their focus on self-realisation and material security. However, their relative devaluation of the importance of European integration may be, on the one hand, the sign of either their dissatisfaction with, or their criticism of the way new European order has been established, partly due to the fact that Croatia has been somehow unjustly left behind. On the other hand it may be the consequence of their perceiving the integration merely in terms of a political objective of which very little they experience in everyday life. This is not to say that they devaluate the importance of European integration for Croatia as such. It would be more accurate to say that Croatian young people are becoming more and more pragmatic in their social positioning of which many think not only in the context of Croatia but in the context of Europe and the world. Having in mind a long tradition of Croatian youth emigration to Europe and the fact that almost 20% of contemporary youth plan to leave the country for good (mostly for a European country), their relation toward European integration may mean that they see it only as an added value to an already established youth migratory pattern in Croatia. of young people about the determinants of upward social mobility in Croatia reflect their accurate perception of social anomalies that, if left unquestioned, threaten to deepen social inequalities and diminish democratic potential of the society. Namely, a great majority of the young see as important or highly important for social promotion in Croatia a combination of the following variables: adaptive behaviour, personal endeavour, knowledge and skills, and connections and acquaintances. University degree, money and wealth, and the obedience and submissiveness to the 'boss', are identified less but, nevertheless, reflect a combination of appropriate and inappropriate means of social promotion. Somehow more troublesome is the finding that one third to one half of the young consider belonging to certain nation or political party, as well as bribing and corruption as important determinants of one' s success in Croatia. These data present an index of youth's perception of Croatian society as the society of unequal chances since it, by allowing nondemocratic practice to play an important role in social promotion, actually discriminates against those who in this matter believe in, and rely on their own abilities and efforts. When compared to earlier studies, it is highly troublesome that almost the same factors of social promotion are estimated as important by both socialist and ' transitional' young people in Croatia. Overall examination of the above results may be seen as an indicator of a process of relative homogenisation of young people in today' s Croatia – certainly, within the issues here examined and at the present level of analysis. There is no doubt that young people here described have many characteristic in common, especially in reference to their marital status, family pattern, housing conditions, parent' s educational background, attitudes towards present and future life, professional and educational aspirations, desired accommodation, sources of information, satisfaction with free time, positive feelings about themselves, feeling of security in relation to their parents and friends, as well as in reference to their abuse of psychoactive substances. They also share their desire for autonomy and independence, and for the recognition by the society at large, as well as their dreams of a more just society in which life opportunities would match individual abilities and endeavour. When they differ, it is mostly due to their varied socio-professional status and age. Residential status, father' s educational background, gender, and regional background are less important. The tendencies that have been documented suggest that youth are divided primarily by their actual social status and stage of attained maturity, and only secondarily by socialization factors, such as social origin in a narrow and broad sense of the term, and a gender socialization patterns. However, further analysis of data should disclose youth dominating trends with more accuracy.
Issue 20.5 of the Review for Religious, 1961. ; HENRI HOLSTEIN, S,J. The Mystery of Religious Life Religious life1¯ interests contemporary man; this in-terest, in fact, constitutes one of the curious, paradoxes of our times. However surprising and unexpected this may seem to be, our contemporaries' interest in religious life is shown by the success of the novelized memoirs of ex-religious, especially when they are .transposed to the film. Books about religious are a financial success; this is true even in the case of expensive publications like the recent volume of Mo_nsieurs Serrou and Vals on the Poor Clares;2 this volume, illustrated by remarkable photographs that give the reader a realization of the life of the religious, is a continuation of a series on various comtemplative orders of men and women. Mademoiselle Cita-Malard, who lived with the permission of the Holy See0within the cloister of most of the important orders of women and who is able to make them known in an intelligent and respectful fashion, has published a brief, well-written volume to in-troduce French readers to "a million religious women."a And on. the stage in Paris, Monsieur Di~go Fabri presents the Jesuits4 to an audience which from all appearances:is deeply attentive and thoughtful; by means of a somewhat flamboyant plot which the playwright has imagined on the frontiers of that part of the world cut off by the iron cur-tain, the problem of the contemporary apostolate is placed'~ What is the source of this interest and curiosity which in general is sympathetic even if it is aroused by anecdotal or vestimentary details rather than by what is essential 1 This article was originally a conference given at the University of Louvain as the conclusion of a series of lectures on religious life. !t is reprinted with permission from Revue des communautds re-ligieuses, v. 33 (1961), pp. 65-~9. * Les Clarisses: les pauvres dames de sainte Glaire d'Assise. Paris: Horay, 19fi0. ~ Un million de religieuses. Paris: Fayard, 1960. ¯ A critical review of this drama was given by P. L. Barjon, S.J. in Etudes, February, 1961, pp. 251-57. ' "4. ,4. "4. Henri Holstein, s.J., teaches theology at the Institut Catholiqu, e in Paris. '~ ~' VOLUME 20, 1961 317 Henri Holstein, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 318 to religious life? I believe the reason is that religious poses a problem for modern man; in its own way religious life is a sign of contradiction which ~ angers, shocks, and at times arouses iriescapable questions. If one reflects and considers the matter, religious life by its an.d by its numbeis is a social fact to which modern man can not remaiff~ indifferent, desacralizedas he and living in a paganized atmosphere. This has been stated by Mademoiselle Cita-Malard when she writes religious women, the number of whom she estimates to a million: Is it not a paradox that out of two and half billion human beings and out of about five hundred million Catholics, million women have renounced forever--and in most cases even before personal experienc.e in the matter--the pleasures and the servitudes of the flesh and that they have stripped them-selves of everything, even their own will, either to follow publicly the strict and minute obligations which impose COmmon life on them or to free themselves for a more or !hidden apostolate in their milieu and prof~ssi0n, an apostolate which makes of their life an Oblation without reserve? What have pledged themselves to is directly opposed to the liberties claimed by Ouroindependent, self, centeoroed, sensual age? To this situation, so loudly underscored by:t_he indiscrete means of communication of our era, only we canbring answer by our life and our witness. Doubtless, this Witness will come from religious themselves, for, eveh if people do'not admit it to us, they nevertheless watch u~; si'nce dress and our way of life attract their attention; but witness will come especially from Catholics who Should able to explain to any man of good will what religious in the Catholic Church means. Accordingly; I hope present to y6u what, you already know in a kind of theo-logical synthesis and to give you in ~a simple way :the stitutive essentials of the religious life. Of the two partsof.this conference, the first will attempt [o show religious life as the fullness of baptism; the second will emphasize the .nature 6[ the witness given in and the Church by the religious who is a witness of heaven w~ll as a witness of the love of Jesus Christ for all men, brethren. Religious Life the Fullness~ of Baptism "Religious life," canon 1law tells us, "is a s~able c~o~mmunity way of ili[e in ~hich the faithful besides precepts common to all propose to observe as wello th evangelical counsels, through the vows of obedience, chastity, and poverty" (c. 487). ~ Un million de religieuses, pp. 6-7. ~ In constitutions ~nd, vow formulas the,order is usually reversed "poverty, chastity, and obedience." Was not the purpose of th legislator, however, to show here the p~eeminence of the vow o obedience as mentioned in the well-known text of John XXIII o this matter? ~ In analyzing the obligations of religious life, this legal text first mentions the precepts common'to all Christians to which, it is evident, religious are also bound. It then adds .that besides these religious take on the observance of the evangelical counsels, obligating themselves to these by the observance of the required vows lived out not in isolation but--as far as there is question of religious life in the proper sense of the term--in a stable and commun-ity life. This description might seem to say that religious life claims of those who profess it something more than the Church demands of "ordinary Christians/' This, however, would .not be completely exact. Our Lord's command to be perfect as the heavenly Father holds for al.1, and the exigencies of baptism are the same for all the faithful. But the religious, in responding to a call that comes from our Lord and is acknowledged as such by. the Church when she admits to the vows of religion, intends to live this baptismal perfection in aradical way that by a definitive and irrevocable intention suppresses, the obstacles that might hinder or retard his fervor. "Every Christian," Pius XII said, "is invited to strive with all his powers for the ideal of Christian perfection; but it is realized .in a more complete and.sure way in. the states of perfectton. In religious life there is no question of a Christian ideal 3f life other than that~imposed on every baptized person; it is rather a matter of a complete and total effort to live 3ut in an authentic way the life begun by baptism. The .ame program of perfection is proposed to all; the Gospel s directed to all Christians; religious know no other code of perfection. The originality of religious consists in the ~doption'of radical means which permit them to give full ealization to their baptism; this is done in a prescribed ¯nd organic way within an institute or religious family :pproved by theChurch. In response to a call of our Lord, ,there takes place, at he beginning and origin of religious life a consecration vhich is complete and irrevocable for the heart which hakes it even before the person's lips are authorized to ormulate it publicly before the Church. This consecra-ion, which has .all the fervor and generosity of those -spousals with our Lord of which S~t. Paul speaks, is a lear-sighted and exacting renewal of baptismal-consecra-ion. .~ The life of every Christian is a consecrated one, since n ineradicable character marks it with the baptismal par-icipation in the death and resurrection" of Christ. Every ,aptized person is conformed to Christ; that is, he is T Discourse of December 9, 1957. Acta dpostolicae Sedis, v. 50 ~958), p. 36. 4. 4. ÷ Religious 319 4. 4. 4. Henri Holstein, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 320 regenerated to His likeness, is a member of His Body, and in Him is an adopted son of the Father, Religious profession is not a second baptism: there can be no such thing, but only renewals, more or less fervent, of the baptismal promises. Religious profession--and this is its grandeur and its seriousness---is a decisive act which binds the one who makes it to the obligation of a strict living out of his baptism by forbidding to him everything which could be opposed to the life of the new man. The negative aspects of religious life--separation, re-nouncement, despoiling--which are the first things to capture the attention of the general public as well as of relatives who are present at an investiture or a profession, are nothing else than the execution of this program of radi-cal renouncement which baptism implies. "We are dead with Christ . " says St. Paul. "Regard yourselves as dead to sin and living for God in Christ Jesus. Let sin rule no longer in your mortal body . " (Rom 6:8-12). The demands of baptism are understood by the religious with a total fullness. If it is necessary to renounce sin, then it is necessary to separate oneself from all the occasions of sin, from everything which would be capable of attaching us to a master other than Christ, from-that world for which Christ refused to pray. To renounce sin, says St. Paul, is to refuse to submit to lust. Accordingly, the re-ligious renounces those earthly lusts which are represented by money, by the body, and by self-will; he separates him-self from these by his vows of poverty, chastity, and obedi-ence which in their very austerity represent for him a welcome liberation. In this there is no unconscious self-pity or masochism'. There is only the liberating conclusion of a logic which dares to take literally and without gloss or casuistry the abrupt words of the Gospel. Ever since an Anthony left his town and his family to bury himself in the desert when he heard read in church the gospel passage, "Go, sell what you own," and ever since a Francis of Assisi despoiled himself of all he possessed and returned it all--even :his clothing--to his father, religious life has known the joyous liberty of understanding our Lord literally and ol leaving all to follow Him. This would ,be a childishly imprudent act were it not dictated by a total confidence in the promise of our Lord "The folly of youth," say the wise, when they hear of young men and young women who joyfully put themselves withir the cloister or who bring themselves to enclose their whoh lives within the barriers of obedience and chastity, But i is.not the folly of youth; it is the folly of God who is wise than the wisdom of the prudent, For it is not s~lf-con fidence which brings a person to religious life; and if on should enter in a burst of enthusiasm, the long month of the novitiate would suffice to extinguish it. What leads one to religion is a humble confidence in our Lord who calls, a confidence that is capable of checking an under-standable apprehension and even at times a fear bordering on panic. Like St. Peter, the r~ligi6us makes up'his mind to let down the net only at the word of Jesus. And when the inevitable illusions of the first fervor have yielded place to that maturity of religious life which has been described so profoundly and accurately by Father Voillaume in his recent Lettres aux [raternitds of the Little Brothers of Jesus, then there appears in all its naked grace the power of hope to sustain the religious. More than in his early days, he realizes that what he proposes is humanly senseless; but he also realizes that the power of our Lord sustains him day after day and that it allows him to ad-vance up the steep road which he has chosen. Those who come to us, St. Ignatius of Loyola used to say to his first companions, must pray over it for a long time so that "the Spirit who urges them may also give them the grace of hoping to be able to carry the weight of their vocation with His aid.''s But religious life must not be defined by its negative characteristics, as though a religious placed his. happiness in the restrictions of strict cloister and of stifling prohibi-tions. The truth about religious life--and unfortunately this was left in the shadows in thememoirs of Sister Luke --is that it is the road on which one accompanies Christ as closely as possible; it is the means of imitating and fol-lowing Him as loyally as human weakness permits. If he avoids the sources of earthly desires, the religious knows very well that this is done only to remove the obstacles which spring up between him and Christ. "Whoever wishes to be my disciple," said Christ, "must renounce himself, take up his cross, and follow me." It is not a case of the cross for the sake of the cross nor of suffering for the sake of suffering; it is for the sake of being with Jesus. As Charles de Foucauld wrote in his notes: I can not conceive of a love for Christ] without an overwhelm-ing craving for likeness; for resemblance, and above all for a share in the pains, difficulties, and hardships of life . To be rich, comfortable, living contentedly with my possessions when You Were poor, uncomfortable, living a painful life of hard labor for me . I can not love You in such a way. The separation and the renouncements of religious life which each day accomplish in the religious the "death with Christ" of his baptism are considered by him as so many means of resurrecting with Christ. Better still, his vows appear to him as the attitudes of a person already resurrected. s In Christus, v. 7 (1960), p. 250. 4. 4- 4. Religious Li]e VOLUME 20, 1961 321 Henri Holstein, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS For religious life is not a life of dying, it is a resurrected life. The Lord who is followed is not only the poor work-man of Nazareth and the crucified one of Golgotha, He is also the Lord of glory who appeared on the radiant morn-ing of Easter. And the One to whom virgins give them-selves on the morning of their profession and whom they choose as their Spouse is not only the agonizing Christ of Gethsemane but is as well the Lamb in the paschal splen-dor of His triumph. Already they belong to the procession of virgins who follow the Lamb wherever He goes; their virginal promise is the beginning of the eternal espousals which the Lamb intends to anticipate with them here on earth. By virginity, Christ becomes the only Spouse of their heart. At first view, the vow of chastity is a refusal. Its ef-fect seems to be that of a total renouncement--renounce-ment of the senses, renouncement of affection, renounce-ment of a family. It demands that one leave his family and it forbids all hope of ever founding a family. In reality, however, the vow of chastity is an assuming of a total and exclusive belonging to our Lord. The religious who as-sumes it refuses all idea of a partial belonging; thereby he expresses his desire for that total consecration which re-ligious life realizes as the fullness of baptism. This is the behavior of the new man for whom nothing of the old man, nothing of the partial, nothing of the worldly can make sense. Furthermore, chastity gives its meaning to .the vows of poverty and obedience which in turn give to it their own dimension not of repression, but of a complete spiritual expansion in a total love. For poverty is not the sad ac-ceptance of small privations and of petty dependence; it is the gesture of confidence by one who is no longer anx-ious about those things which the heavenly Father knows we have need of: Moreover, poverty is a refusal to be weighed down by the things of earth and by the cares which afflict those who possess things, making them always fearful of losing or decreasing their precious little treas-ures. The religious knows of another treasure: the love of our Lord which leaves him no time to be occupied in the acquiring of riches, the manipulation of capital, and the preserving of property. Poverty is the testimony of the love given to the divine Spouse by one who has chosen Him in an undivided way. Not~only does the religious place his confidence in Him with regard to his temporal life, he also detaches himself from every self-anxiety and from the monopolizing desire for possessions, d6ing this in order that he might give himself wholly to the Spouse of his soul. Chastity, which is the choosing of our Lord alone,~and poverty, which refuses to allow a person to be monop- lized by any selfish interest, mutually complement each ther. And by the conjunction of these two, obedience re-eives all its meaning. Obedience can easilyJappea~, to be n infantile submission; actually in the eyes of faith it is preferring of the will of God. Defined in the negative 2rms of renouncement of .initiative and independence~ bedience is a caricature that is ridiculous and hateful. It as value only so far as it is an ardent search for the good ,leasure of the One who is loved. Christ Himself said that Iis food was to do the will of His Father. Accordingly, the eligious has only one nourishment: the will of our Lord ;hich is the will of the Father who is the only guide of the ctivity of the only begotten Son: "I always do whatever s pleasing to him." The superior, this brother or this sister who commands ,le, is important for me only because he represents Christ. The abbot," says St. Benedict, "takes the place of Christ." t is Christ whom through faith I hear and see in _my uperior. The man does not interest me, even though he ,e a saint, a genius, or a dear friend. It is Christ who is the ,bject of my obedience; it is to Him that I render my .omage in performing what is commanded me in His ,ame. There is good reason for saying that "obedience is n attitude of faith and love only if it is chaste; that is, if t is inspired.by the exclusive love o,f 9ur Lord." Otherwise t becomes degraded and turns into an interested con- 9rmism or into an Unacceptable infantilism. In religious life, all the elements are consistent with.~ach .ther; chastity, which is an espousal and a consecration ~ Christ, gives its own characteristic mark to a life that is ,oor and dependent through obedience; for these two ows, if they are to be genuine in both great and little hings, imply an exclusive choice of Christ as the only pouse of one's soul. This is why there must be a question here of ~vows, of tatutory promises which oblige one's whole life, thereby arpassing the unstable impulse of a moment of fervor. ¯ ove demands definitive commitments, it engages the ,hole life, it gives assurance for the future. All this which among men is often only an illusion 'hich the future may soon contradict unless the love is ~oted in prayer and nourished by recollection is made ossible for the re.ligious by his original and constantly 2newed confidence in the grace of Him who has called. The religious vow is the instrument of that consecra-on which realizes the baptismal consecration in all the lentitude 9f its demands. If at first view it appears as an ll-out effort to excludeand eradicate the obstacles which re opposed to the perfection of baptismal life, neverthe-ss the religious vow signifies the total consecration of ÷ + ÷ Religious Li~e VOLUME 20, 196]. Henri Holstein, S.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 324 one's whole life to our Lord. It is included in the initia "consecration" which Christ made when He came into world: "I have come, O Father, to do thy will1" The Ser vant has no other intention than that of accomplishing work for which He was sent into the world; for tliat reasor His sole occupation will be to do the will of the Father In line with this consecration of our Lord and in ticipation of this "intention" of the Incarnate Word, religious places himself in the hands of God. As Fathe Bergh has said: The vow is the expression of a positive consecration to divim love. God loved above everything; there in short is the mean ing of religious life . Its program should not be enunciatec precisely in the abstract terms of poverty, chastity, and obedi ence, but rather under the concrete form 0[ a loving imitatior of Christ poor, chaste, and obedient, of Christ the Servant of th~ Father and of men? Religious Life a Witness in the Church Up to this point we have looked at religious life onl, from the viewpoint of a personal relation that unites to our Lord, Now, however, it is necessary to consider in the Church. To do this, we shall consider two points First, the significance of religious life in relation Church and second, the testimony ~to the Church whirl religious life gives to the world. What then does religious life signify in relation to Church?~In other words, why does the Church, withou whose consent there could not be ~ community or an stitute professing the life of the counsels, recognize amon[ her baptized children the existence of groups which order to live out their baptismal life in a more radical oblige themselves publicly to the observance of poverty chastity, and obedience? It seems to me that by the ligious life the Church expresses her own proper mystery The purpose of religious life is to concretize and to realization to the mystery of the bride who is without In the admirable fifth chapter of the Letter to Ephesians, St. Paul presents the Church as the bride whon Christ has chosen for Himself. In order to make her hol~ and to "present to himself the Church in all her glory, having spot or wrinkle," He delivered Himself for Being submitted to Christ, the Churcti has for Him deference and respect, the discreet and fervent love whicl the Bible constantly presents as the expression of the sponse of the creature to his Creator. This is a virgina union which is consummated in those "nuptials of Lamb" to which the angel invited the seer of the Apoc~ lypse: "Come, I will show you the spouse of the Lamb., "And I saw the holy city, the new Jerusalem, coming dow, ~ In Revue diocesaine de Tournai, v. 15 (1960), p. 18. tom out of heaven from God, made ready as a young bride :dorned for her husband" (Ap 21:9,2), The holy bride has lo gifts other than those .given ~her by her Spouse--the :lorious heritage which He acquired by His Blood; could he, then, have any other desire thafi to follow her Spouse :nd to accomplish His entire will: "The Church," says ¯ aint Paul, "submits to Christ" (Eph 5:24)? ~ If all Christian living manifests in its own way the nystery of the Church, is it not fitting that certain ones hould have the particular duty:of manifesting the mystery ,f the virginal bride in its complete authenticity? These :re those who among all the redeemed have the singular ,rivilege of following the .Lamb wherever He goes; for 'they are virgins." Theirs is an absolute and undivided ove which blossoms in holy poverty and lov!ng obedience; t is the mystery of the Church and her consecrated ones. Through religious life the Church manifests her own ~roper mystery to herself and to the world.-This is why eligious life is so dear to her; it is the reason why through he voices of her leaders, especially the recent Popes, she ~ever ceases to increase her efforts to maintain the cor-ectness of religious life in its striving for sanctity: Holy Mother Church has always Striven with solicitous ~are nd maternal affection for the children of her predilection who ,ave given their whole lives to Christ in order to follow Him reely on the arduous path of the counsels that she might onstantly render them worthy of their heavenly resolve and ngelic vocation?° Religious, by reason of the vocation which surpasses hem and which they know themselves unworthy of, are an ntimate witness to the Church herself; at the same time hey are a witness of the Church to all those who see them ive. Nourished in the Church and directed by her, they ,ear witness to her and show forth that the Church in its nmost reality is truly the bride whom Christ has chosen or Himself. First of all, religious give testimony to the sense of God. )ur modern world has lost this to the extent, that even qany Christians do not understand the contemplative ire; their attitude is a questioning one: "Of what use is t?" To this I would answer that to judge religious life by ts relation to human utility is to condemn oneself to fisunderstand it. I readily maintain the paradox that eligious life is not justified by its usefulness for men but ,y its value in the sight of God. In its primary meaning it ppears useless to the city of man, for the precise reason hat it exists in its entirety for God. Speaking o[ contemplation, Mademoiselle Ceta-Millard uotes the phrase of Joan of Arc, "God the first to be _'rved." I would be tempted to einphasize this even more ~°Acta Apostolicae Sedis, v. 39 (1947), p. 114. 4- 4- 4- Religious Lile VOLUME 20, 1961 325 Henri Holstein, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS by saying,, "God the 0nly one to be servedl" This is wh there are in the Church contemplative orders, monasterie of prayer--Carmelites, Poor Clares, Carthusians, Tral~ pists. Their proper witness is to recall to men the im portance of prayer, the urgency of penance, the necessit for adoration. But this same witness is also given by every genuin religious life. Under pain of an anemia'that would quickl become fatal, religious life must always include prayel It can exist and is able to flourish only by reason of spirit of prayer which animates every hour of the day, n matter how filled it may be with the care of the sick, th education of children, the help of the aged or the undel developed. In order to create a suitable climate, there added to prayer religious observance, the rule of silenc~ cloister. One may be tempted to smile at these or to b scandalized by them. Every tradition can manifest a tain rigidity; at times inevitable minutiae may make n ligious life a little out-of-date or unadapted to the time But these are simple human weaknesses which the Churc herself does not hesitate to remedy. To judge religiou tradition by such details is to give proof of pettiness c spirit. W.hat is at stake here and what justifies the ot servances of religious life is the need and the desire to s~ up a favorable climate for prayer. For religious life is a present heralding and'anticipatio of the eternal life to which we are destined by our ba[ tism. It shows forth that this present world is not the onl one, but that there exists a true city in comparison wit which the city of this world with its bustle and its.narro~ cares is vanity. This is the often emphasized eschatologic~ meaning of the vow of chastity: It is an anticipation of th life of heaven; on this earth where the body and sensualit count for so much, it represents "the life of the angels as lived by beings of flesh and blood. Turned toward th heavenly Jerusalem, religious already attempt to live th~ which will be their condition in heaven. "That which will all be," said St. ,~mbrose to the virgins of his tim, "you have already begun to be, Already in this world, yo possess the glory of the resurrection; you live in time, bt without the defilements of time, In persevering in chastit you are the equals of the angels of God." This eschatological witness must be extended to th entirety of religious life. As Father Giuliani writes: Being .a complete break with the world, religious life is witness gwen to the Kingdom of God. Through his life of po erty, chastity, and obedience, the religious makes apparent reality that is begun here below for all, but which will be vealed in its fullness only in the world of the resurrection. is poor in order to affirm that God constitutes the riches of elect in the city of the blessed; he is chaste in order to affirm th there will be no other nuptials other than that of God and H people; he is obedient in order to affirm that the liberty of the creature consists in submission to the full accomplishment, of the will of God. Thus it is that in the Church on earth the re-ligious is a witness to the Church of glory,a But at the same time and by a sort of paradox, religious life also manifests in the Church the charity of Christ who willed to share our condition. To present religious life only as an anticipation of heaven risks considering it as a comfortable evasion, a charge, often enough directed against it. Are religious dispensed from one of the two facets of the great commandment, the one .that commands love of neighb.or? God forbid, for. then they would no longer be Christians. Besides, one has only to recall the multiplication in the Church of charitable orders, insti-tutes, and congregations to reduce to nothing the objec-tion of laziness and flight made against religious life. Contrary to this objection, it can be shown that religious life in its essence is a life of devotion to the neighbor. Pope Pius XlI in the constitution Sponsa Christi has stated this without ambiguity: Since the perfection of Christian life consists especially in charity, and since it is really one and the same charity with which we must love God alone above all and all: men ir~ Him, Holy Mother Church demands of all nuns who canonicallyproo fess alife of'contemplation, together with aperfect love of God, also a perfect love of the neighbor; and for the sake of this charity and their state of life, religious men and women must devote themselves wholly to the needs of the Church and of all those who are in .want. If out of love for Christ a religious consecrates himself to only one thing, the following of Christ as closely as 'possible, then it becomes unthinkable that he should be disinterested in the work of redemption, the salvation of the world. The love of God, which is sovereignly jealous, is also sovereignly generous; this love desires the good, even the temporal good, of all men. The commandment of mutual love .is primary for all religious, and religious life gives testimony in the Church to the charity of God. The witness of religious, then, will be a witness of fra-ternal charity, Of a charity that is patient, inventive, char-acterized by the unfetterable impulses of missionary zeal, of pedagogical discoveries, of parental solicitude. Is there a single kind of suffering, of sickness, or of infirmity which religious life has not sought to care for in the course of history? The almost infinite variety of hospital and teach-ing congregations represent a sort of diffraction of charity towards the neighbor; it is touching to discover at the origin of a given institute the desire to take charge of a particular type of misfortune which seemed to the founder not to have received sufficient care. Although admittedly "In Etudes, June, 1957, p. 397. 4- 4- + Religious Liye VOLUME 20, 1961 327 Henri Holstein, S.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 328 it is often overly dispersed, such an attitude is a magnifi-cent and multiform witness given by religious life of a tireless and tirelessly inventive charity, renewed each day by prayer and union with Christ. This last characteristic must be emphasized. The apos-tolate and the devotion of religious draw their strength and their constancy from the consecration of their life to the Lord. It is ~his consecration that enables religious to be kind and sympathetic to the unfortunate and the afflicted. Likewise it is this consecration that makes it possible for a religious to interest himself in everything that is human, in science, in literature, in the arts. Did not our Lord who took on Himself every infirmity, also assume by His in-carnation every authentic human value? Conclusion This is the witness to the Church which is constantly given in silence and modesty by religious life. It does give witness for itself, but for the Church which has it, accepted it, encouraged it, and which does not cease to be interested in it. Moreover the religious does not give testimony for his own limited congregation, but the entire Church of Christ. Religious life manifests the magnificent fecundity of Church of which the Vatican Council speaks, in the fra-ternal diversity of vocations and spiritualities, religious life is a permanent sign of both the catholicity and unity of the Church. For on the magnificent path which our Lord calls all of them to follow, there is the same love of Christ, the same faithful adherence to the Gospel as the unique rule of their attitudes, the same charity welcoming every appeal of suffering, of education, of the apostolate. And all this takes place in the calm and serene joy those who, having given Up all for our Lord, know that even here below they have 'received the hundredfold. Who are better witnesses than religious of the joy the children of God and of the children of the Church? True, they do not have a monopoly of this, for they lay claim to nothing, not even the peace which radiates from. their faces. But the joy of their Lord which they always bear about with them--they know well that no one can take it from them. The joy of religious life is perhaps the most constant and the most efficacious trait of its witness. This is so pre-cisely because it manifests itself spontaneous~ly without being conscious of itself and without imposing itself upon those it meets. Julien Green relates that on a walk in the United States during the .war he visited a scholasticate of religious order. To the young man who was showing him through the large establishment, he would have liked ask a single question, a question more important to him han all the details of architecture and of theological programs that the young man was giving him. The .fiues-tion he wished to ask was one addressed to the young man personally, since he was a person.about whom some might think that his ardent youth had been enclosed within the ~ad walls of a seminary and the complicated prescriptions of a rule. The question was this: "Young man, are you happy here?" But, continues the diary of the novelist, I :lid not have the courage to ask the question. "For my guide had about him the radiant air of those who feel themselves loved by heaven.''12 ~ Julien Green, Journal, v. 4, p. 106. ÷ Religious Lile VOLUME 20, 1961 329 I~'; 'LEGRAND The Prophetical Meanin of Celibaq ÷ L. Legrand is on the faculty of St. Peter's Seminary, Bangalore, India. REVIEW FOR ~RELIGIOU~S 330 When Jephte's daughter realized that she had to in fulfilment of her father's vow, she withdrew mountains "to bewail her virginity" (Jg 11:37-40).significant that what she laments over is her virginity For hers.elf, her father, her companions, and those wh~ recorded that tradition, what made her fate so pitifu was not the fact that she had to leave the world in bloom of her youth: this is a romantic view which not belong to the stern biblical times. For the Israelite the pathos of her story lies in the fact that she will experience the joys of matrimony and motherhood. will die a virgin, and it is a curse, a disgrace similar the shame attached to sterility (see Lk 1:25). The prophet have a similar thought in mind when, in their lamenta tions, they give the chosen people the title of "Virgin Israel": "Listen to my lamentation, house of Israel!. has fallen, she shall not rise again, the Virgin of Israel." this text Amos (5:2; see J1 1:8; Lam 1 : 15; 2:13), by callin~ Israel a Virgin, wants to emphasize her misery: she will like a virgin, without leaving any descendants. It is like echo, at the collective level, of the laments of Jephte' daughter. These examples show clearly that according to the Semitic mentality, virginity is far from being an It is a fecund matrimony which is honorable and a of God's blessings (Ps 126). The same applies to men L. K6hler remarks that the Old Testament has no wore for bachelor, so unusual is the idea.~ Christ will change that attitude towards celibacy 19:12). But can we not find already in the Old Testamen a preparation and an anticipation of His teaching? Towards the end of the Old Testament period at leas some groups among the Essenes observed celibacy. This article is reprinted with permission from Scripture, Octobe 1960. pp. 97-105, and January, 1961, pp. 12-20. =Hebrew Man (Loudon: S.C.M., 1956), p. 89. fortunately the authors who mention it are very vague on the motives of that observance. Josephus (The Jewish ,,War, II, 8; 2) and Philo (quoted by Eusebius in Prepara-tion for the Gospel, VIII, 2; Patrologia Graeca, 21, 644 AB), putting themselves at the level of their pagan readers, reduce the celibacy of the Essenes to a misogyny entirely void of any religious value: "They beware of the impu-dence of women and are convinced that none of them can keep her faith to a single man," says Josephus. Pliny (Natural History, V, 17) describes the Essenes as philoso-phers, "tired of life" (vita fessos), who give up. the pleasures of love: Essenian celibacy would be of a Stoician type, but evidently Pliny's competency can be doubted when it comes to interpreting the motives of a Hebrew sect. The Qumran texts might have given us an explanation, but so far on this. question they have not been Very helpful. Though they know of a temporary continence on the occasion of the eschatological war,3 they do not impose .celibacy on the members of the community. On the con-trary, the prologue of the m~inual for the future congre-gation speaks explicitly of women and children,4 and the discovery of female skeletons in the cemetery of the com-munity5 makes it cl~ar that at Qumran as in the sect of DamascusS---if the two sects were distinct--matrimony was at least allowed. In short, a few groups among the Essenes present an interesting case of pre-Christian celi-bacy; the study of thai case might throw some light on the New Testament ideal of virginity, but such a study is impaired by the lack of reliable explanation of their mo-tives. And when we come across first,hand contemporary documentation, it happens that it concerns a sect which ~id not observe celibacy as a rule. ~qremiah, the First Celibate Fortunately the Old Testament presents a much more ancient and clearer case of celibacy: the case of Jeremiah, "a virgin prophet and a figure of the Great Phophet who too was a Virgin and the son of a Virgin.''7 Jeremiah was apparently the first biblical character to embrace celibacy as a state of life. At least he is the first one to whom Scripture attributes celibacy explicitly. Others before him may have abstained from marriage. Ancient Christian writers often suppose that Elijah did so3 and make of him s The War o[ the Children o! Light, VII, 3, 4. iSee Theodore Gaster, The Dead Sea Scriptures (Garden City: Doubleday, 1957), p. 307. 5 See Revue biblique, 63 (1956), pp. 569-72; 6 Document o[ Damascu.~', IV, 20-V, 6; VII, 6-8. 7 Bossuet, Mdditations sur l'dvangile, 109th day. SSee the texts in Elie le prophOte (Bruges: Descl~e de Brouwer, 1956), V, 1, pp. 165 and'189. But St. Augustine was not convinced of the celibacy of Elias: De Genesi ad litteram, IX, 6. 4, The Meaning Celibacy VOLUME 20, 1961 ,+ L. Legrand REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS the father of monastic life. But the testimony of Scripture concerning Elijah is purely negative: no wife is mentioned, but the Bible does not speak of his celibacy either. Even if he remained a celibate, we have no indication as to the reasons that prompted him. Jeremiah, on the contrary, in his confessions speaks of his celibacy and explaim it. We may owe this insight on his private life to his intro-spective mood, another quality that was rare in ancient Israel. Anyway he provides us with the most ancient re-flection on celibacy. In it we can trace to its beginnings the biblical doctrine of virginity: The word of the Lord came to me saying: Do not take a wife; have no sons and no daughters in this place. For thus says the Lord concerning the sons and daughters that are born here and concerning the mothers that bore them and concerning their fathers who begot them in this land: They shall die miserably, without being lamented, without being buried. . They shall be as dung upon the face of the earth. They shall perish by the sword and by famine. Their carcasses shall be a prey for the birds of the air and the wild animals (Jer 16:1-4). Those are the terms by which Jeremiah explains his .celibacy. Are those verses to be understood as a positive order of God, given to the prophet when he came of age and enjoining him to abstain from matrimony? It might be said that celibacy was progressively imposed upon the prophet by the circumstances, his isolation, and the per-secutions that made him an outcast. Eventually he would have understood that beneath those circumstances there was a divine ordinance and, with typical Hebrew disre-gard for secondary causes, he would have expressed it in the literary form of an order. In any case, it is clear that Jeremiah gives his celibacy a symbolical value. The loneliness of his unmarried life forebodes the desolation of Israel. Death is about to sweep over the country, Jere-miah's forlorn celibacy is nothing but an enacted proph-ecy of the imminent doom. Calamity will be such as to make meaningless matrimony and procreation. Jeremiah's celibacy is to be understood as a prophecy in action. Symbolical actions were frequent among the prophets. Thus to announce the imminent captivity of the Egyptians, Isaiah walks naked in the streets of Jeru-salem (Is 20:1-6). Jeremiah breaks a pot to symbolize the destruction of the capital (Jer 19:1-11). Ezekiel makes a plan of the siege to come, cooks impure food as the famished inhabitants of the besieged city will have to do, cuts his beard and scatters it to the four winds as the population of Judah will be scattered (Ez 4:1-5:4). In some cases it was the whole life of a prophet which was given by God a symbolical significance: for instance, Hosea's matrimonial misfortunes symbolized the unhapPy~ relations between Yahweh and His unfaithful spouse Israel (Hos 1:3). Jeremiah's life too was symbolical. He lived in times of distress. He was to be a witness of the destruction of Sion. It was his sad duty to announce~the imminent deso-lation: "Every time I have to utter the word, I must shout and proclaim: Violence and ruinsl" (Jet 20:8). Still more: it was his tragic destiny to anticipate in his existence and signify in his own life the terrible fate of. the "Virgin of Israel." "The Virgin of Israel" was soon to undergo the fate of Jephte's daughter, to die childless, to disappear with-out hope. With his prophetical insight, Jeremiah could see already the shadow of death spreading over the coun-try. He could hear already the moaning of th~ land: "Teach your daughter this lamentation: Death has climbed in at our windows; she has entered our palaces, destroyed the children in the street, the young men in the square. Corpses lie like dung all over the country" (Jet 9:20-21). This was 'no mere Oriental exaggeration. What Israel was about to witness and Jeremiah had to announce was really the death of Israel. Israel .,had been living by the covenant and now, by the sin of the people, the cove-nant had been broken. The two institutions in which the covenant was embodied and through which God's graces came down upon the people, the two great signs of God's indwelling in the land. of His choice, the temple and the kingship, would soon disappear. Only a few years more and Nabuchodonosor would invade Judah, burn the sanctuary, enslave the king and kill his children. For the Israelites this would be the end 6f the world, the day of the Lord, day of doom and darkness, day of i~eturn to the original chaos (Jer 4:23-31; 15:2-4). Ezekiel will explain in a dramatic way the meaning of the fall of Jerusalem: the Glory of God will leave His defiled abode and abandon the land (Ez 8:1-11:25). Israel will die and nothing short of a resurrection will bring her back to life (Ez 37:1-14). When the exiles leave Palestine, Rachel'can sing her dirge at Rama (Jer 31:15): her children are no more. Israel as a people has disappeared. God's people has been dispersed. There are no more heirs of the promises and ~children of the covenant unless God repeats the Exodus and creates a new people. A testament is over. God's plan has apparently failed. Death reigns. Prophetically Jeremiah sees all that beforehand. He experiences it proleptically in his flesh. Excluded from the Temple (Jer 36:5), excommunicated so to say from his village (Jer 11:8; 12:6; 11:19-23) and from the community (Jer 20:2; 36:25), he will experience before the exile what it means to live estranged from one's country, away 4. + The Meaning Celibacy VOLUME 20, 1961 L. Legran~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS from the Temple of the Lord. Before the Israelites he knows the bitter taste of a life which has no hope left on earth. "Never could I sit joyful in the company of those who were happy; forlorn I was under the power of thy hand for thou hadst filled me with wrath'~ (Jer 15:17). Thus was Jeremiah's life an anticipation of the im-minent doom. His celibacy too. When death :already casts her shadow over the land, is it a time to marry? "For thus says Yahweh Sabaoth, the God of Israel: Behold I will put an end, in this place, under your very eyes and in your very days, to the shouts of.gladness and of mirth, to the songs of the bride and of the bridegroom" (Jer ~16:9). An end of joy, life, marriage: the country turns into a sheol: there is no marriage and no begetting in the sheol. The command of the Lord to "increase and multiply" (Gen 1:28) assumed that the world was good (Gen 1:4, 10). But now 'that man's sin has aroused death, the Lord re-verses His command: "Do not take a wife; have no sons and no daughters in this place." Jeremiah's life of solitude announces the reign of death and anticipates the end of the world he lived in. His celibacy is in line with his message of doom. It is part of those trials by which "the most~suffering of the prophets," as St, Isidorus of Pelusia puts it;9 anticipates God's judgment. It is ~part of the sufferings which point to the cross, the final expression of God!s judgment. The solitude of the lonely prophet of Anatoth announces the dereliction-of the crucified vic-tim of Calvary. It has the same significance: it signifies the end of an economy in which God's promises and graces were entrusted to Israel according to the flesh and communicated by way of generation. This order dis-appears. When God will raise a new Israel, it will be an Israel according to the spirit .in which one will have access not by right of birth but by direct reception of the Spirit'(Jer 31:31-35). In such a people the fecundity of the flesh will have lost its value. The Negative Aspect of CelibacyI" "'On Account ol the Present Necessity" Replying to a question of the Corinthians concerning virgins, St. Paul's advice is to leave them" in that state: But,the explanation,he gives is not very clear; "I consider that it is better to be so on, account of the present neces-sity" (1 Cor 7:26). What is that "present necessity" that justifies celibacy? Catholic commentators (Cornely, Lemonnier, Allo, Cal-lan, W. Rees, Osty, and others) see in that "necessity;" as Osty puts it, "the thousand worries of married life,"x0 o In Patrologia graeca, 78, 356. ~ Epttres aux Corinthiens ~Bible de ]~rusalem) (Paris: Cerf, 1949), p. 40. or else the imminent persecutions "which'an unmarried person is better able to bear.''11 The standpoint of the Apostle would be purely individual, psychological or as-cetical. On him who is married the burden of the world is more heavy. The celibate, on the contrary, can devote himself fully to the service of God. ,~ Such a thought is certainly not foreign to St. Paul's mind: he expresses it in verses 39 to 35 of, the same chap-ter. Yet this does not seem to be for him a primary consider-ation. The immediate explanation he gives of his pref-erence for celibacy follows another line: "The time is short . The world in its present form is passing away" (vv 99- 31). This shows that his outlook is mainly collective and eschatological: the end of the world is~'drawing near: let us adapt our attitude to these new circumstances; it istime to detach ourselves from a ~d0omed world. "Even those who have a wife, let themlive as if they had none., and those who have to deal with the world as if they had not." Individual considerations are only an application,,of this iiew on the divine economy. It is because the'times we re' living in are the times of the end that it is better not to be burdened with matrimonial obligations, so as to be able to give one's undivided attention to God. The vocabulary used by St. Paul in this section confirms this ~schatological interpretation of his views on cdibacy. The words he uses clearly belong to the vocabulary of apocalyptic literature. The "necess.ity" (andgk~) .whs the technical term used to describe the crisis of the last times (Lk 21:23; 1 The~ 3:7; Ps.Sal,,5:8; Test jos,,2~.4.);.,in th~t sense it is akin to "tribulation (thlipsis) used l~e.re also to describe the present condition (v 98) a.nd which has also an apocalyptic value (Mt 25: 9-28; Ap 1.: 9~; 7:14; 2 Thes ! : 6), Similarly the term used for "time" in verse 29 (ttairos) 'is about a technical term for the period before the Ad-- vent''12 (see Rom 13:11; Heb 9:9; 1 Pet 1:5, 11). It is true that these terms are not always taken in their technical eschatological sense. But their convergence and the con-text make it clear that St. Paul sets virginity against an eschatological background. With Jeremiah he considers celibacy as a testimony that the last times have come, an attitude that presages the end. The difficulty of this interpretation--an.d what makes Catholic commentators to shrink from it--is that it seems to suppose in St. Paul the erroneous belief that the end bf the world was imminent. Can we 'accept such an ex-n W. Rees in Catholic Commentary on Holy Scripture (Edin-burgh: Nelson, 1953), p. 1090. ~ A. Robertson andA. Plummer, First Epistle o[ St. Paul. (Edin-burgh: T. and T. Clark, 1911), p. 152 . ÷ ÷ ÷ The Mean~ing Celibacy VOLUME 20, 1961 L. Le~and REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 336 planation of celibacy without rallying to the consequent eschatology of A. Schweitzer?xa Prat, followed by Huby and Spicq, does not think the objection decisive. He accepts as possible the eschatologi-cal explanation of virginity. Quoting I Corinthians 7:26- 31, he explains: "Is it possible that Paul was haunted by the near prospect of the Parousia? We must not deny this a priori . Lacking certain knowledge, he might have formed an opinion based upon probabilities and con-jectures . It is at least possible that he guided his con-duct and his counsels by such probabilities.TM This inter-pretation can be defended, provided we attribute to Paul not a positive teaching concerning the imminence of an event, the day and hour of which none can know, but an opinion, a desire, a hope without certitude,x~ This is surely sufficient to safeguard biblical inerrancy and remain within the limits fixed by the Biblical Commission, Yet this exegesis is not fully satisfactory, for it leaves the im-pression that the eschatologic~il explanation~of celibacy should not be taken too seriously. It would be one of those views that reflect more the prejudices of the time than the Apostle's personal thought, like the arguments bY which Paul tries to justify the imposition of the veil-on women in the assembly (1 Cot 11:2-16) or the midrashic allusion to the rock following the Jews in the deser~t (1 Cor 10:4) Thus St. Paul would have used the naive expectation of an imminent Parousia to insist on virginity, but that would be a mer_e argumentum ad hominem that should not be pressed too "much. The real and solid ground fo~ celibacy would remain the personal and ascetical con-siderations sketched in verses 32 to 34. Accepting Prat's eschatological interpretation of Paul's arguments for virginity, it may be possible to go deeper b) comparing the thought of the Apostle with that of Jere-miah. Is not the "present necessity" of 1 Corinthians 7:26 parallel with the explanation Jeremiah .gave of his celi-bacy? If so, can we not find in Paul~s eschatological justifi. cation of virginity a lasting value, something much deeper than a pious illusion? It all amounts to a proper evaluation of his eschatolog~- cal hope. Was it a delusion which he had, but which he avoided expressing firmly? Or was it on the contrary a 18 See the decree of the Biblical Commission of June 18, 1915 in Enchiridion Biblicum, 2nd ed. (Naples: D'Auria, 1954),'nn. 419--21. a, The Theology o[ St. Paul (London: Burns, Oates, and Wash bourne, 1926), V. 1, p. 112. Prat explained his mind still more clear!} in a few pages of his final chapter on "The Last Things" which h~ suppressed to satisfy an over-zealous censor. These pages have been published in Prat's biography I~y J. Cal~s, p. 99. a~j. Huby, Ep~tres aux Corinthiens (Paris: Beauchesne, 19.46); W Rees also (op. cir.) accepts an eschatological influence on St. Paul't thought on virginity. central element of his faith and of his spiritual outlook? O. Cullmann, for the early Church in general, and L. Cerfaux, for St. Paul in particular, have shown that is the second view which is true. There is much ~ore than a question of knowing whethei~ Paul or the early Church ex-pected or not an imminent Parousia. For them and for us, the heart of the matter is not the date of the Par0usia but its significance. In Cullmann's terms, what is the connec-tion of the present period of history (the times of the Church) with the past (death and resurrection of Christ) and the future (final resurrection)~1~ The problem is not chronological but theological. St. Paul may or may not have been under the impression that Christ was to return soon. This is rather °immaterial and irrelevant. What matters is that, for him, and for the early Christians, ours are the last days (Acts 2:16 if). The last hour has begun with the death of the Lord (1 Jn 2:18), How long will it be? Nobody knows, but it is clear that now, in Christ, history has reached its end and what we wimess now in the world is the consummation of the end: "The world goes disappearing" (1 Jn 2:i7). The Apocalyp~ses of St. John and of the synoptic Gospels show in a veiled language that the trials the Church has to undergo are the fore-running signs of the consummation, and St. Paul explains that the individual tribulations of the Christians are their share of the Messianic woes (Cor 1:24).xr The present period may be short or long: after all, "with the Lord, one day ,is as a thousand years and a thousand years as one day" (2 Pet 3:8). In any case, Chris-tian life is thoroughly eschatological in character. What-ever may be the actual date of the Parousia, we live after the end of history has been reached. We are just waiting for the consummation of the end, we turn towards it and we prepare it. Parous.ia hangs so to say over our life: even if chronologically it may be still distant, it is theologically imminent: it is the only development of the history of salvation that we can expect, and it gives its color to our outlook on things. Seen in the light of faith, the history we live in and our personal fate appear as signs of the end. Celibacy is one of those signs: it shows that the last times have come. It proclaims that the world is disap-pearing. The end has come. Man's primary duty is no more to continue the human species. It is on the contrary to free himself from a fleeting world which has already 10 O. Cullmann, Christ and Time (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1950), 17 In Col 1:24 "tribulationes Christi" should be translated "the messianic woes" and not "the sufferings ot Christ" (it is thlipsis and not path~ma). The phrase does not refer to the sufferings of our Lord but, according to a terminology common in Judaism, to the trials God's people had to undergo to reach the messianic times, the birth pangs of the new world. ÷ ÷ ÷ The Meaning Celiba~'~ VOLUME 20, 1961 REVIEW FOR REI.IG]OUS lost its substance. This is not an attitude of panic before a threa, tening disaster. It is rather an act of faith in the significance of the Lord's death, beginning of the end. Thus Paul understood virginity exactly as Jeremiah. Jeremiah did not know the date of the destruction of Jerusalem: it is not the role nor the charisma of the prophets to give a chronology of the future. But'one thing he knew for certain: on account of the infidelity of the people, the former covenant had become void. Conse-quently the old institutions like the Temple and the kingship would break like empty shells and Israe!, aban-doned by God, would collapse. H~ knew that his was a time of death. The nuptial songs 'would be replaced by lamentations. Marriage and procreation had lost their meaning. The prophet showed it by his own life: his celibacy was an enacted lamentation. Similarly, St. Paul did not know the date of the end. But he knew for certain that the world had condemned it-self by condemning Christ and that the worldly powers had been nailed down on the cross. It was God's plan to leave some interval before the actual end of all, time to: allow the mystery of iniquity to reach its climax and the Church to spread all over the w~rld. During that time life was to continue and marriage was still legitimate. Yet even married people had to understand that they were no longer of the world they were in. Still using the world, they had to be detached from it. Even in marriage they had to bring an attitude of freedom, a tension towards a higher form of love, the love of Christ 'towards His bride the Church (see Eph 5:25-33). And itis quite fitting that to remind men of the freedom they should keep towards a fleeting world there should be, in the Church, a special charisma (1 Cor 7".'7) of virginity, akin to the charisma of prophecy. The celibate's life is an enacted prophecy. His whole life shouts to the world that it is passing away. As Jeremiah announced to the Chosen People the end of the old covenant, the celibate, new Jeremiah, announces the end of the old world. He embodies the teachings of th~ Apocalypses. He stands as a witness of the day bf the Lord, the day of wrath and of death which began qn that Friday of Nisan when the'Lamb was slaughtered Mount Calvary. + The Positive Aspect ot Celibacy: "'On Account ot the + Kingdom of Heaven'" + What has been said so far has shown that, according to the Bible, and according to Jeremiah and St. Paul es-pecially, celibate life is a prophecy in action, a forebodiiag of the end, a public proclamatioh of the fleeting character of this world. It goes without saying that this is only one aspect of the mystery. There is another one. The last days are not only days of doom: they are also days of resurrection. Jeremiah was not only the prophet of the fall of Jerusalem: he was also the prophet of the .new covenant (Jet 31:31= 35). Similarly for St. Paul the last days are only~secondarily days of woe: primarily, they are the days of the Par0usia~ when Christ will come and hand over to °the Father the world revivified by the Spirit (1 Cor 15). The Apocalypse~ ends its enumeration of th~ eschatological calamities~by the resplendent description~of the~heavenly ~Jerusalem° where everything is niade new (Ap 21). Christ's death:on Calvary was only the beginning of his exaltation 1~-15; 12:32-33). The full, prophetical meaning of virgin-ity is to be understood ifi reference td the whole mystery of death and life contained in Christ. Celibacy is 'not only an enacted prophecy of~th~ imminent doom: it announces also and anticipates the life to come, "the life of the new world in the Spirit. ~ ~ Jeremiah, who.had announced the new covenant, might' have understood that virginity would be the typical state~ in that new life which was.nol6nger to be granted bythe power of the flesh but by the Spirit. But in fact he does not seem to have realized these implications of~his prophetical' teaching. Or if he did, he had no occasion to express it. We have to come to the Gospels to find' this doctrine ex-pounded. ~ ¯ Jesus lived a celibate life. We~can not say that hlscase was unique. By the beginnings of the Christian era, the~ ideal of virginity seems to have been cultivated at least in some restricted circles of Judaism. We.have seen the rather~ mysterious case of the. Essenes. John~the Baptist also must tiave observed celibacy. This movement might explain the pu~rpose of virginity expressed by Mary in Luke 1:34. Jesus assumed that ideal and. by His very life fulfilled the la'tent aspirations it contained. Yet there is very little in the Gospels about virginity. This is not surprising. The Gospels are only factual: sum-maries. There is little in themfor introspection and self-~ analysis. They have,little to say. about Jesus' personal life. They do not tell us how he felt when praying;when work-ing miracles, when undergoing-the trials o~ His 'Passion. It is no wonder,., therefore, ~that they would be ~almost completely silent concerning Jesus' celibacy. This silence gives more value to the one statement of the Gospels in which Christ explained howh'e understood His virginity. It was on an occasion in which he had emphasized once more the law of~ indissolubility o[ matrimony. The dis-as See R. Laurentin, Structure et thdologie de Luc I-H iPa.ris: Gabalda, 1957). The Meaning Celibacy VOLUMEo20~. 1961 ,~ , 339 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ciples could hardly understand the intransigence of the Master. As usual, Jesus tried to bring light to the discus-sion by taking it to a.higher level. The heart of the matter is not the convenience of men but the requirements of the Kingdom of God. The Kingdom of God does make exact-ing demands upon its members. See the case of those to whom it has been given to realize fully the implications of the coming of the Kingdom: they can be compared to eunuchsl "There are eunuchs who were born so from their mother's womb; and ttiere are eunuchs who were made so by men; and there are eunuchs who have made themselves so in view of the Kingdom of Heaven" (Mt 19:12). Though this pericope appears in Matthew 0niT, there is no reason to deny its authenticity, In his book on the synoptic Gospels, L. Vaganay insists several times that Matthew 19:10-12, along,, with several other passages, though appearing in one Gospel only, belongs to the oldest layer of the Gospel formation,~ .and to the most ancient tradition common to the three Synoptic Gospels.19 If the text figures in Matthew only, it is not because it was added afterwards to the~ final edition of Matthew: it is not a case of addition by Matthew but of omission by Marie and Luke. The pericope on the eunuchs has an archaic ring that would, have been shocking to Gentile ears. It is the kind of coarse Semitic paradox, frequent in the Bible, quite appealing to the rough peasants of Pal-estine accustomed to the loud and often brutal eloquence. 6f the prophets. It could hardly be exported to Greece or. even to Asia Minor, Syria., or Egypt. It is not surprising that Mark and Luke preferred to drop it. Yet "its very paradoxical aspect guarantees its authenticity.''20 More-over, the parallel text of Mark seems to leave traces of the amputation. In Mark 10:10, after the discussion with the Pharisees on matrimony, Jesus returns home together' with His disciples. There is a change of place and of audi-ence: Jesus is now in the intimate circle of His disciples. Usually when He retires together with them, it is to teach a deeper doctrine (Mk 4:10, 34; 7:17; 9:30; 10:32). One would expect here, "at home," further explanations on the views He has just exposed. Yet, according to Mark 10:10-12, Jesus merely repeats the elementary explana-tions ivhich, according to Matthew 19:9; 5:32 and Luke 16:18, He would as well give to the crowds. Does not this mean that in the source Mark used, there was "at home" some other deeper teaching imparted to the disciples? But l what other teaching was there except~the logion on the, 1~ L. Vaganay, Le probl~me synoptique ('rournai: Descl~e, 1954), pp.~167, 211, 216, and elsewhere. ~Ibid.,p. 167. iI eunuchs recorded by Matthew? Mark removed this saying, but the operation has left a scar in the text. If the pericope does belong to.th.e origins of the Gospel composition, there is no rea.soia to doubt that it was really an utterance of Jesus and this decides the question of its exact bearing. In the concrete context of jesus'ocelibate life, it is easy to find out to whom the third category of eunuchs refers. When the disciples heard that saying, they could~but think of Jesus Himself and possibly also of John the Baptist.!t is clear that Jesus here speaks of His own case and explains it. He does not advocate self-mutilation; He sets up His own example. He observed virginity and He did it con-sciously "in. view of God's Kingdom." John the Baptist had done it before Him; others would follow. Thus Jesus presents Himself as the leader~ in a line of men who; think-ing of God's Kingdom, will live like ~unuchs, giving-up the use of their sexual powers. But what is exactly the relation between virginity;and God's Kingdom? Why should one remain a celibate prop-ter regnum caelorura (in view of the Kingdom of God)? What is the precise value of that propter (dia ifi Greek)? In biblical Greek, dia with the accusative denotes causality or finality (out of, for the sake of, in view of). It is obvious that, in this'context, the meaning must be of finality. But this is still very vague, too vague to base on it an explana-tion of virginity. We can not build a theology on the strength of a preposition. If the preposition is vague, the phrase "Kingdom of Heaven," on the contrary, is clear enough. The 'Kingdom of.Heaven--or the Kingdom of God, since both phrases = This evidently settles the problem, discussed from the time of Origen onwards, of whether the saying should be understood in a realistic or in a symbolic sense. In Kittel's Theologisches Wb'rterbuch -urn Neuen Testament (TWNT), V. I, p. 590, Schmidt favors the ,ealistic interpretation: the saying would allude to people who ac-ually castrated themselves; it would invite the disciples not to imi-ate them but, at least, to reflect on their earnestness. Origen himself s a proof that there were such'cases in the early Church. But was it o during Jesus' own life time? It is rather doubtful and still more loubtful that Jesus would have set as an example this hypothetical berrant behavior. In the same TWNT of Kittel (2, p. 765), J. chneider maintains the traditional interpretation. The problem could be viewed also from the angle of Form Cdti- ,sin. What are the concrete circumstances in the life of the' ehrly ¯ hutch which led to a reminiscence of these words of-the" Master? 'Chat is the concrete problem to which they were given as an answer. t was most evidently the problem of the virgins, an acute problem as "e know from 1 Corinthians 7, and possibly also, together with it, he problem of the widows "who are truly widows" (1 Tim' 5:3; sde Cor 7: 8). According to J. Dupont, Mariag~ et divorce darts l'evangile ~ruges: Descl~e de Brouwer, 1959), the saying would refer to the case of husbands separated from their wives. This is a rather far- [etched $itz im Leben; moreover it overlooks completely the refer-ence to Jesus' own example. The Meaning Celibacy VOLUME 20, 196~. 341 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS haye the same significancem--appears as a key concept.of the ~synoptic Gospels. It.stands at the center of. Jesus' preaqhing. If not exactly in Judaism, at least in Jesus' mouth, it is ',a comprehensive term for the blessings of .salvation,''23 having practically .the same meaning as "the age to come" or "the life of the age to come2'~24 It is es-sentially an eschatglogical entity,. ,What the Jews had ~ !onged for,-the prophets had promised, and the apoca-lyptic writers had described, the new life coming from above, the new world, ~he new cov.enant imparted by God, t.h.e ~new Israel, the gift of ~he Sp'irit, Resurrection ,and Re,creation: it is all that.which is contained in God's Kingdom. ,Butmand th.i_s is the novelty of Jesus' teaching--with His coming, the eschatological world, the world to come has become present, though it remains unfulfilled. With the coming of Jesus the Kingdom of God offers the para-doxical character of being at the same time future and pre~ent. Jesus assures us that it is already present among us (Mr 12.:28; see Lk !2;21),but He also invites us to pray fpr~it.s coming (Mr 6:10). Exegetes have tried to rationalize ¯ this mystery by reduting Jesus' preaching to one or the other-aspect. The "co.nsequent eschatology" of A. Schweit-zer retaiged only the future aspect: the life-of Jesus was mere expectation of an imminent advent of the Kingdom,': expectation which was deceived by the event. On the con, ffary, the "realized eschatoIogy" of C. H. Dodd retains only the present element: with Jesus, the. Kingdom is .:presen~t and there is nothing ~to expect from the future; escha, to.logical elements should be dismissed as mere apoc- ~alyptical phraseology. Both views are only partial. Kiim-mel2~ and Cullmann,2n among others, have shown-that ihe integral' teaching of Christ combines both aspects. In Jesus the powers of the coming aeon are already active and the future Kingdom of God is already at work in the pres~' ent. The Spirit is given~ Yet He works only like a seed: present" in Jesus and in those who will follow Him, He has still to extend His influence to the whole world tillf His life-giving activity covers and trans,!orms the whole/ crea.t, ion. Such'is the meaning of,the parables ., of , the ¯ ~ "The Heaven" is a term used by the Jews as a' s u b s t i t uGtoed for to" a.yo.id, prgfiouncing the divine name. .m G. Dalman, The Words~o] Jesus (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1902), p.A35. Dalman shows thaLJesus somewhat altered the mean-ing of the phrase by giving .it a specifically eschatological value in connection with Daniel 7 : 27. So, though in Judaism the phrase should be translated "the kinship of God," it becomes, in Jesus' teachings, ~ynonymous with eschatological salvation. ~ Hence the equivalence with the Johannine theme of "eternal~ ~ ~ Pror~ise and Fulfilment (Naperville: Allenson, 1957). ~ Christ and Time (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1950). Kingdom" (Mk 4 and parallels). We are still waiting for the end: the period we live in is at the same time "promise and fulfilment." This appears especially in the "signs" of the Kingdom. Accgrding to the biblical conception, a "sign" is not a pure symbol, faint image of a distant reality. It is the reality itself in its initial manifestation. In the biblical sign the coming reality is already contained, yet still hidden.27 Kiimmel has shown how in that sense J.esus' .victory over the devils and his miracles are signs of that kind.2s They show already "the coming, consummation of salvation breaking in on the present.''2s Cullmann has added to those signs the main ecclesiastical functions: the missionary preaching of the Gospel,s0 the cult and the sacraments for, in them also, in the Spirit, and "through the merits of Christ, everything is fulfilled which was ac-complished in the past history of salvation and which will be achieved in the future.''~1 In the light of Matthew 19:12 we can add virginity to those signs. Like the miracles and the sacraments virginity is a "sign. of the Kingdom," an anticipated realization of the final transformation, the glory of the world to come breaking in on the present condition. Such is the meaning of propter regnum caelorum. Jesus and many of those who follow Him refrain from sexu~al activity "in view of the Kingdom," that i~, to live already now the life of the world to come. Eschatological life has begun to stir in them and that life will be, and can already be now, a: life which has gone beyond the necessity and the urge of pro-creation. As with their preaching and miracles, Jesus and His "disciples by their celibacy proclaim the advent of the Kingdom, They exemplify already i.n_this world the fu-ture condition of men in the next aeon. As Jesus explained to the Sadducees (Mt 22:30 and parallels), in the world of Resurrection, "one shall neither marry nor be married, one will be like the angels in heaven." This does not mean that man in the Kingdom of God will be asexual, losing his human nature to become a pure spirit in the philosophical sense of the term. Such a philosophical consideration would be quite alien to the biblical mentality. Man was not made as a pure spirit neither in this world nor in the other, and consequently celibacy can not consist in trying to ape the angels. St. Luke explains the exact meaning of this analogy between the risen man and the angels in his rendering of the ~See J. Pedersen, Israel its Li[e and Culture (London: Oxford University Press, 1926), V. 1, pp. 168 ft. ~ Op. cit. (note 25), pp. 105-91. ~ Ibid., p. 121. ® O. Cullmann, Christ and Time. ~ O. Cullmann, Early Christian Worship (Chicago: Regnery, 1955i, p. $5. ÷ The Meaning ~elib~y VOLUME 20, 1961 343 4. L. Legrand REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 344 logion: "They shall neither marrynor be married for they are no more liable to die: for they are equal to the angels and they are sons of God, being sons of Resu~rrection'' (Lk 20: 35-36). The point of resemblance with the angels is not their spiritual nature but their immortality. It is account of his immortality that the risen man need no longer procreate. Life of Resurrection is no more a life "in the flesh," in a body doomed to death. It is a life God, a life of a son of God, life "in the Spirit," in a body transformed by the divine Glory. Hence the functions' the flesh become useless: procreation loses its meaning which was to make up for the ravages of death. The celibate shows by his cofidition that such life has already started. His celibacy testifies to what O. Cullmann has called "the prol~ptic deliverance of the body.''~2 proclaims that, in'Christ, despite the appearances, man escapes the clutches of death and lives in the Spirit. A passage of the Apocalypse echoes that teaching. Apoc-alypse 14:1-5 describes the glory of the Lamb in the heavenly Sion. There His throne is surrounded'by a hun-dred and forty-four thougand men, 'all those who "were redeemed from the earth." They represent the perfect number of all those who, saved by the Lamb, will con-stitute His retinue in the world to come; namely, all the elect. Their main characteristic consists in that "they are virgins" (v '~). Virginity must be understood metaphoric-ally: it means primarily fidelity to God by opposition idolatry, often described in Scripture as a "prostitution." Yet considering the realistic value of Hebrew symbolism, the concrete sense of virginity should not be altogether dismissed: "They have not defiled themselves with women" (v 4).~3 This does not mean that the author would make of virginity a necessary condition for entering the Kingdom. This passage must be understood in parallel-ism with Chapter 7, which also describes a hundred and forty-four thousand men leading an innumerable multi-tude which surrounds the throne of the Lamb. While Chapter 14 they are all virgins, in Chapter 7 they are all martyrs. This should not be understood as meaning only martyrdom can lead to salvation. But it does mean that one has no access to the Kingdom unless "he washes his =O. Cullmann, The Early Church (London: S.C.M., 1956), pp. 165-76. In his article CuIlmann does not extend his conclusions to the question 0f celibacy. He shows only that marriage has a special theological value since it "corresponds to the relation between Christ and His Church" (p. 173; see Eph 5:29). This view is quite true but should be completed by an awareness that the love between Christ and the Church is of an eschatological--hence virginal--type, The Spouse is a Virgin (see 2 Cot 11:2). Similarly, even conjugal love will have eventually to turn into the-eschatological virginal agape o! which celibacy is a prophetical type. = See L. Cerfaux and J~ Cambier, L',~pocalypse de saint Jean lue aux Chr~tiens (Paris: Cerf, 1955), pp. 124 ft. robe and makes himself white in the blood of the Lamb" (Ap 7:14). The martyr is the typical Christian for he shares the most closely in the cross of his Master. One cim not be a Christian unless he shares in.some way in the fate of the martyrs, in the cross of Christ: The same interpretatiori can be extended to the fourteenth chapter. "As martyrdom, virginity is eminently representative of Christian life. Even as' one can not be saved~without participating in the dignity of martyrdom, one can not be saved without participating in the dignity of .virginity. Virginit~y is a heavenly perfection, an anticipation, for those who are called to it, of what will be the final destiny of all in the Kingdom of Heaven.TM In the world to come all are virgins~ Even those who are married must keep their eyes on that ideal and know that their love has to turn into virginal charity. Those who remain celibate "in view of the Kingdom of Heaven" be!ong to the virginal retinue of their heavenly King the Lamb. As St. Gregory of Nyssa says: Virginal life is an image of the happi~aess that will obtain in the world to come; for it contains in itself many signs of the good things which in hope are laid before us . For when one brings in himself the life according to the flesh to an end, as far as it depends on him, he can expect "the blessed hope and the comin.g 9f the great God,;' curtailing the interval of the in-tervenlng generations between himself and God s advent. Then he can enjoy in the present life the choicest of the good things afforded by the Resurrection.= Thus the mystery of virginity, as any mystery of Chris-tian life, has a double aspect. It has a negative aspect: it represents the death of Christ and, through it, looks towards the complement of that death, the end of a!l, the apocalyptic consummation. It has also a positive aspect: it shows forth the new life in the Spirit, initiated by the Resurrection ofChrist, to be fulfilled at the Parousia. This doctrine is best embodied in the Lukan account of the virgin birth of Christ. Mary is a virgin (Lk 1:34) and, in her virginity, through the operation of the Spirit, she gave birth to Christ, the "first born" of the new world. Thus, in her virginal fecundity, she anticipated and even originated the re-creation of the world through the Spirit. In that account it must be first noticed that Luke-- and Mary--following the Hebrew mentality, do not extol virginity for its own sake. In the Magnificat Mary describes her condition of virgin as a condition of humilitas; that is, a low condition (Lk 1:48). This was exactly the term used by Anna in 1 Samuel 1 : 11 to qualify her disgrace of having ~' Ibid., p. 125. ~ De virginitate (Patrologia graeca, 46, col. 381 ft.). The theme of celibacy as heavenly life or angelic life is frequent in patristic litera-ture. See L. Bouyer, The Meaning o] Monastic LiIe (New York: Kenedy, 1955), pp. 23-40. ÷ ÷ ÷ The Meaning Celibacy voLUME 20, 1961 4- 4- 4- no child. In fact the whole narrative of the virgin birth of Christ in Luke is built in parallelism with the narratives of the Old Testament d.escribing how sterile women were made miraculously fecund by God.36 To some extent.Luke puts Mary's virginity on a par with the sterility of those women. By remaininga virgin, Mary shares in the wretch-edness of Jephte's daughter, in the abjection of the poor women who had no child (Gen 16:4; 1 Sam 1:1~16; Lk 1:25). She accepted willingly the utter poverty and the op-probrium of those who had no hope of reaching, in motherhood, their human plenitude and who conse, quently were rejected by the world as useless. But in the new Kingdom by God's transforming power, there is a reversal of the human values, The lowly are ex-alted (Lk 1:52), the poor possess the earth (Lk 6:20), those who weep laugh (Lk 6:21), the sterile and the virgins are visited by the power of the Spirit and become receptacles of the divine life. These are simply various aspects of the revolution of the cross turning infamy into glory, death into life. The glorious fecundity of Mary's humble vir-ginity contains already the mystery of the gross. Thelhope, lessness of her virginity points to the hopelessness of the cross: it proclaims, that the world is doomed and that no salvation is to be expected from the flesh. But the fecundity of that virginity presages the triumph of the cross: by the power of the Holy Ghost life will spring from death as it had sprung from the closed womb of a virgin. Thus Mary's virginity announces the disappearance of the world of flesh and the rise of a new world of the Spirit. Jeremiah's celi-bacy had prophesied the first part of the mystery. To Mary it~was given to see the fulfillment and to prophesy, in her life, both aspects of the imminent consummation. Mary's Virginity was prophetical: it turned towards the cross and anticipated the end; it ina~ugurated the~new worldwhere the flesh has no power, for that world knows no other fecundity than the fecundity of the Spirit. The charism oPvirgiriity in the Church continues and com-pletes that prophetical fUnction. Like Mary and Jesus, the Christian celibate renounces any worldly hope," for he knows th~it the world has no hope to propose. But, in his loneliness, he announces and through faith already en-joys the esc, fiato~logical visitation of the Spirit. ' u See S. Lyonhet, "Le r~cit de l'Annonciation," in L'ami du Clergd, 66 (1956), pp; 37-8, and J. P. Audet, "L'annonce h Marie," in Revue biblique 63 (1956), pp. 346-74. REVIEW FOR .RELIGIOUS BARRY MCLAUGHLIN, ~s.J. The Identity Crisis and , Religious Life We often hear it said that the child stabilizes the family. After the first four or five years of marriage the love of the honeymoon is usually exhausted: A new love unfolds. Ideally, it is the affection both parents share for the child that forms the basis for this newmand more maturebond of conjugal love. Perhaps a similar phenomenonJ occurs in religious life. After the first four or five years (or even much later sin~e circumstances and persons differ) a process of reintegra-tion takes place. The religious must re-examine and re-interpret his initial motives and goals. CA newer,° fresher love must supplant the older, faded love. And because ~he natural aids which married life affords are lacking', this transformation to a higher and more perfect love requires supernatural grace and natural maturity. There is no dichotomy here; rather, there is an inter-action. Since God has Himself implanted laws in nature, it is logical to suppose that He will follow the natural patterns operative in the human personality when He works through grace. And grace is, of course, necessary for any form of spiritual development. Yet it is imperative to emphhsize the Scholagtie'axiom that grace builds upon nature. Maturity, on the natural plane, is a prime requisite for supernatural progress and for this transformation of love. To hone Occam's raz6r to a new edge: miracles are not to be multiplied withofit necessity. Like sanctity, maturity develops slowly. For a mah is not born a saint. He is born to be a saint. The distinction is significant: men are not saints all at once; with God's grace men become saints. But-men first'become mature. Maturity, as the natural correlate and predisposition for sanctity, takes time. Psychologists point to a series of crises preliminary to its attainment. " We are especially interested in the "crisis of idehtity" ÷ ÷ ÷ Barry $. McLaughlin, S.J., 3700 W. Pine Bou-levard, St, Louis 8, Mis-souri, is doing graduate studies in psychology at St, ~'~Uis ~Jniversity. VOLUME 20~ 1961 347 the crisis contemporary With the process of re-integration and re-evaluation which occurs once the novelty and freshness of the early years of religious life have disap-peared. Resolution of the identity crisis allows a more mature and transformed love to unfold. But several more basic crises must b~ resolved first. ÷ ÷ ÷ Barry M cLaughlin, S.~. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 348 Development Toward Maturity One of the most widely used theoretical conceptions of psychological development.is the neo-Freudian synthesis proposed by Erik H. Erikson. At a given age, because of physical, intellectual, and emotional maturation, a human being willingly and necessarily faces a new life task. A Set of choices and tests are prescribed for him by his ciety's structure. This new life task presents a crisis. The outcome of this crisis can be successful graduation or im-pairment of the life cycle (which will aggravate future crises). Each crisis prepares for the next--each is a step taken in the direction of the ne~t, until the adult identity is attained. The first crisis is the one of early infancy. What is at stake here, the psychologist feels, is the question of whether a man's inner mood will be determined more by basic trust or basic mistrust. The outcome of this crisis is de-pendent largely upon the quality of maternal care. The mother's affection and her gratification of the child's needs lend a certain pr~edictability and hopefulness in spite of the urgency and bewildering nature of the baby's bodily feelings. This first crisis corresponds roughly to what Freud has described as orality; the second to anality. An awareness of these correspondences is essential for a true understand- ]ng-of the dynamics involved. The second crisis, resolved usually by the fourth year, develops the infantile sources of the sense of autonomy. In this period the child learns to ,~iew himself as an indi-vidual in his own right, apart from his parents although dependent upon them. If there are conditions which in-terfere with the child's achievement of a feeling of ade-quacyv- if he fails, for example, to learn to walk during this ~period--then the alternative is a sense of shame or doubt pervading later adult consciousness (or uncon-sciousness). The third crisis is a part of what Freud described as the central complex of the family; namely, the Oedipus com-plex. According to the opinion of many psychoanalysts, this crisis involves the lasting unconscious association of sensual freedom with the body of the mother; a lasting association of cruel prohibition with the interference of the father; and the consequent love and hate in reality and in phantasy. This is the stage of.initiative; correspond- ing to Freud's phallic stage of psychosexuality. It is the period of vigorous reality testing, imagination, and imi-tation of adult behavior. The major hazard to the solution of this crisis is an overly strict discipline which produces a threatening conscience and flae internalization of rigid and exaggerated (non-rational) ethical attitudes. In the fourth stage the child, now between six and eleven years old, becomes capable of learning intellectually and collaborating with others. The resolution of this stage decides much of the ratio~between, a. sense of in-dustry and a sense of tool-inferiority. A man learns simple techniques which will prepare him for the tasks of his culture. A. rational sense of duty and obligation is also involved here, and the laying aside of fantasy and play for the undertaking of real tasks and the development academic and social competefice. This stage corresponds to the.Freudian latency period. The Identity Crisi~ We are chiefly concerned inthis ~rticle with the identity crisis, first of~all in its broader, cultural dimensions, and then within the specific framework of the religious life. The young~adolescent in our culture must~clarify his understanding of who he is and what his role is to be. He must forge for himself some central perspective and direc-tion, some effective integration, ou_t :of the remnants of his childhood and the hopes of his anticipated adulthood. Failure to resolve this crisis can result in neurosi~s,-psy-chosis, or delinquent behavior. More frequently,, however, there is a generalized sense of role diffusion. The possession of a role within the culture and,of standards of cultural living constitutes the social side of identity. In addition, there is an optimum ego synthesis to which the. individual himself aspires. The Judeo-Chris-dan tradition and the ideals of the American heritage stress the immeasurable worth of _the individual person. The dignity of the individual, respect for the individual, self-det~rmination these are phrases which attest to our consciousness of the value of personal identity. Each per-son is certain of what is in fact true: that he stands at the center of a unique network of relationships, experiences, influences. He is different and he knows it. Consciousness of the value.of personal identity and a strong sense of personal uniqueness do not,. ho.wever, neces-sarily imply a resolution of the crisis of identity. In some young people, in some classes, at certain periods of history, the identity crisis will be minimal; in other people, classes, and periods this crisis will be clearly marked off as a criti-cal period. There is considerable evidence that in our cul-ture today the identity crisis is of maximal importance, that most individuals undergo a prolonged identity crisis. ÷ ÷ ÷ Identity Crisis VOLUME 20, 1961 349 ÷ 4. 4. Barry McLaughlin, $.~. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 350 During this crisis there is a desperate urgency, often con-cealed under the camouflage of social conventions, to resolve the problem of what one should' believe0in and who one should be or become. Three crises follow the crisis of identity; they concern problems of intimacy, generativity, and integrity. What role diffusion is~to identity, its alternative and danger, isolation is to intimacy, egocentric nonproductivity is to generativity, and the lack of consistent values is to integ-rity. When~ the identity crisis is prolonged, these three crises are interwoven with it. The resolution of the identity crisis brings concomitantly the resolution of intimacy, gen-erativity, and integrity crises: A lasting sense of ego identity is the characteristic of the mature adult. The Identity Crisis in the American Culture Victor Frankl, one of the leading .proponents of Ex-istential psychology, has pointed out that Freudian psy-choanalysis has introduced into psych.ological research what it calls the pleasure principle or the will-to-pleasure. Adler has' made psychologists conversant with the role of the will-to-power as a main factor in the formation of neurosis. But Frankl maintains that man is neither dominated by the will-to-pleasure nor by the will-to-power, but by What he'would call man's will-to-meaning; that is, man's deep-seated striving for a higher and~ultimate mean-ing to his existence. Frankl .has perhaps overstated his case; it is more likely a question of emphasis. But the will-to-meaning does re-flect the modern concern with personal identity and, in this sense, is probably as strategic in our time as the study of sexuality was in Freud's time or the study of the drive" for power in Adler~s time. , It is signific~int,-too, that concern with matters of identity is greatest in this country. Psychologists and psychoanalysts recognize th~at in America especially adult patients hope to find in the psychoanalytic system a refuge from the discontinuities 6f existence and a re-gression to a more patriarchal one-to-one system. America has been a melting-pot, a country which attempts to make a super-identity otit of the' identities imported by its constituent immigrants. Previous agrarian and patri-cian identities have been" submerged in the wake of the rapidly increasing ,mdchanization of industrial technology. Frequently the American man has been unable to formu-late his new identity. Depreciation-of.the American way of life is, of course, the favorite indoor sport of cultural critics. The per-tinence of their remarks is not always apparent,.yet in the present context several criticisms'are relevanf. They point out some Of the reasons for the identity crises of con- temporary Americans. From these criticisms we can gain some understanding of the identity crisis of the American man and ultimately of the identity crisis of the (American) religious man. In Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman, Biff'exempli-ties an American "type." Society 'has failed to provide him with a clearly defined role: "I just can't take hold, Mom, I just can't take hold of some kind of life.''1 He-lives in constant frustration, unaware of who he.is or what he is to be. And many psychoanalysts feel thatBiff's number is legion. That Biff should address his problems to Morn is sig-nificant, During World War II the expression "Momism' came :into existence :as a means of denoting a type of per- _~onality commonly :encountered in ybung men. There is ¯ n excessive dependence upon and 'attachment' to, the ,nother, with but feeble' attachment to:the father and no =lear image gained through him of man's role. Psychol-ogists have commented upon the probable roots of this phenomenon: the absence, both physically and psycho: logically, of the father from many American urban, and .uburban homes. Because of the conditions of .ecdnomic ~nd social life, many fathers have neither the opportunity qor the inclination to "take on" their sons in the way that a, as common, for example, in the days of the older patri-archal society. This is the first cause we wish to mention "or the prolongation of the crisis of identity: . the failhre ~,f the father in our culture to give to the son a clear image ,f the masculine personality and the role of man. ~ :~ 'Critics have also noted the American fear of loneliness. Individual identity is sacrificed in an effort to stay. close o the herd, to be no ~different from others in" thought, eeling, or action. To stand aside, to be alone, is t6 assert ¯ personal identity which refuses to be submerged. So-iety will not tolerate this; innumerable social features are lesigned to prevent it: stadiums to accommodate~thou-ands at sport events, open doors of private rooms and of- ¯ ces, club cars on trains, shared bedrooms ih colleges and ,oarding houses, countless clubs, organizations; associa-ions, societies, canned music (for gilence~is unbearable) ,iped~into hotel rooms, railway cars, and supermarkets. Yet one of the surest signs of the resolutio~ of' the iden-ity crisis is an increased capacity for .being alqne, for ~eing responsible for oneself.~The gradual process that ¯ ill end in perfect identity involves 'an awareness of he'fact that there are decisions in life and aspects of life's truggle tha~t a l~erson mu~t fa~e alone. ~o Fgr~. a~ young person becomes dearer in his own mind ,f his role in society and of his personal identity he is a In J6hn Gassner (ed.), Best American Plays: Third Series, 1945- 951 (New York: Crown, 1952), p. 19. Identity, ~risis~ VOLUME 20~ 196~. 4. 4., 4. Barr~ MeLaughlin, $.L REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 352 likely also to become more aware of how he differs from others. Gradually he becomes conscious of his isolation from others, not because others are pulling away but be-cause the fullness of personal identity cannot be achieved without.some degree of aloneness. Here we have a para-dox: the more richly a person lives, the more lonely, in a sense, he becomes. And as a person, in his isolation, .be-comes more able to appreciate the moods and feelings of others, he also becomes more able to have meaningful relationships with them. But the unwritten code of our national culture pro-hibits aloneness, and this is the second causative factor for a prolonged identity crisis: the obstacles our society im-poses to the cultivation'of a sense of personal identity. Finally, we see what the critics refer to as the "deper-sonalization" of man by the mass media. "Man is losing himself," Emmanuel Mounier wrote, "in his handiwork instead ~of losing himself in his consciousness; he has not been liberated.''2 There is much that could be said about these factors and their deleterious effects upon a sense of individual identity; but much has already been said by the critics, What is of primary interest here is that mass media standardize thought by supplying the spectator ~ith a ready-made visual image before he has time to construct a rational interpretation of his own. Man has come to'ac-cept ideas and attitudes without having submitted these to himself for intellectual decision. Man is so much a part of the verbal noise going on around him that he does~not notice what the noise is conveying to him. There are, of course, many other causative factors contributing to our national and individual identity crises Millions of young people face these and other psychologi-cal and social obstacles to identity and transcend them in one way or another. If not, they live, as Captain Ahab says, with half their heart and with only oneof their lungs, and the world is the worse for it, The Identity Crisis in the Religious Life The religious man--and by this is meant the man pos~ sessing a fundamentally God-oriented personalitydis of course, immune from cultural influences. Yet as Erikso observes in his book on Luther,., He is always older, or in early years suddenly becomes older than his pla.ymates or even his parents and teachers, and focuses in a precocious way on what it takes others a lifetime to gain a mere inkling of: the question of how to escape corruption i living and how in death to give meaning to life. Because he e periences a breakthrough to the last problems so early in hit life maybe such a man had better become a martyr and seal his message with an early death; or else become a hermit in a soil ="A Dialogue with Communism," Cross Currents, v. $ (195~ p. 127. i! tude which anticipates the Beyond. We know little of Jesus of Nazareth as a young man, but we certainly cannot even begin to imagine him as middle-aged? This short cut between the youthful crisis of identity and the mature one of integrity makes the religious man's problem acutely intense. In addition, the method of "indoctrination" to which he subjects himself aims at sys-tematically descending to the .frontiers where all ego dan-gers must be faced in the raw, where personal guilt is un-covered, drives tamed by prayer and asceticism, and where, ultimately, self must abandon and transform its own identity. In a sense, only "religious geniuses''4 are cgpable of such an enterprise. Yet the man or woman who enters religious life specifically chooses to face this challenge. Per-haps the most important ramification of the life of the vows is the consequent necessity of mature personal iden-tity. There are those, however, who consider it dangerous, unreasonable, and even in a sense against nature, to com-mit a young person in perpetuity to the religious life. Martin Luther became convinced that religious commit-ment was impossible to a man under thirty years of age. A young man of twenty does not know what th~ future may have in store, what sacrifices he may have to accept. He has only a very general view of what religious life will be and his final renunciation can only be made when he knows in detail and as a whole what such a life entails. Yet St. Thomas held that a person could decide upon a religious vocation years be~fore puberty. This poses a problem which involves more than a ques-tion of the religious vocation. It is concerned 'with one of the fundamental aspects of the problem of life. The ma-ture man is future-oriented; for him life is a continuous whole. In his youth he finds that he must commit him-self to an identity, to a course to which he will remain bound in the future. His acts are weighted with the future. If a man refuses to commit himself, identity becomes im-possible. Marriage and the religious vocation are the two funda-mental forms of commitment. When a man marries he is unaware of the trials and responsibilities'of marriage; he does not know what it is to have a dependent wife and children. But the will to do that which is irrevocable de-pends on the strength of a person's love. A love which is genuine takes possession of the whole of the personality. Then it desires to be irrevocable. This notion of commitment is most perfectly delineated in the thought of Gabriel Marcel: I see it like this. In the end there must be an absolute com- " The Young Man Luther (New York: Norton, 1958), p. 261. 'Jean Dani~lou, s.J., God and the Ways o] Knowing (New York: Meridian Books, 1957), p. 10. ÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 20, 1961 ÷ ÷ ÷ Barry MeLaugh!in, $.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 354 mitment, entered upon by the whole of myself, or at least by something real in myself which could not be repudiated with-out repudiation of the whole--and which would be addressed to the whole of Being and would be made in the presence of that whole. This is faith. ObViously, repudiation is still a possibility .here, but ,cannot be justified by a change in the subject or object; ~t can only be explained by a fall? This notion, of personal commitment leaves little room for the so-called "temporary vocation" (which is actually a contradiction in terms), even when this is understood as an actor the permissive will of God which allows a person, for his sanctification, to live for some time as a religious and with religious vows. Although a person does grow and develop as he lives out his commitment, although his in-itial love deepens into a more perfect and more mature love, there can be no possibility of a repudiation. This would be a denim of identity and is only explained by a "fall." These are strong words, and are not, of course, meant to be dogmatic. The nature and binding force of a religious commitment such as life with vows requires much more adequate theological analysis. Yet the problem remains. The religious man must be mature before, his time. Ultimately it is a question of the initial acquisition of what Lindworsky calls the "'voca-tional ideal": Before every man there stands~ a picture of that which he should become; and never will he be fully at peace, undl the ideal shown in that picture has been brought to perfect rgaliza-tion. G This provides a focal' point for personal identity within the religious vocation. Perfect identity is not something acquired in its fullness all at once. It comes at the termina-tion of a long and gradual process of growth. Each step along the way presents new difficulties and necessitates closer scrutiny and deeper meditation upon the nature of the identity chosen. There must be a gradual transforma-tion and identification with Christ. ¯The vocational ideal guides the individual to this new identity within the confines of a life of the vows. Gradu-ally the significance of each vow becombs apparent. Each involves a secondary crisis of its own, a danger to personal identity. Once each of these crises are faced and resglved perfect identity is realized. By his vow of poverty the religious man is thrust once more--thi~ time on a much more conscious and more spiritual level--into the primary crisis of trust. In a real (though qualified) sense, religious experience, as Erikson points out, retraces our earliest inner experiences, giving ~ Being and Having (Glasgow: University Press, 1949), pp. 45-46. o Johannes Lindworsky, S.J., The Psychology o! Asceticism (West-minster: Newman, 1950), p. 15. angible form to vague evils and reaching back to the .~arliest moments of childhood. The child must learn to rust his mother; the religious man ~must learn 'to rust God. Only then can he venture out into the.apparent cold which lack of possessiong m~ans to his natural un- ]erstanding and to his provident instincts. Otherwise he "alls into a new and much worse predicament. When a nan has adopted poverty, he will take daily action to keep dive his trust in God; and from the constantly reiterated :onfirmation ~of this t~'ust, he will draw nourishment "or ~his love of God. Voluntary poverty is an attempt to live so strongly upon he inner surge of love for Christ that external supports :an be reduced to a minimum. It is an attempt to be as ~nuch as possible. It is an incentive for a man to restore ~rder of the right kind to his own life and in his relations o God and his fellows. To he more a man and more truly ~ man, as completely and perfectly a man as~possible~: hat is the purpose of the yow of poverty. Failure to achieve uch an identity is its danger. .Chastity also entails a crisis. Th~ religious community "isks becoming an assembly of old bachelors or old maids, whose egoism is concealed beneath a facade of renunci-ation. The mainstay of the family is conjugal love and the ove between the parents and their children. In tl~e re-igious life it is God alone who is the bond, and the corn-non life cannot be sanctified except insofar as the person, ~y loving God, passes beyond its natural aspects.-The ring of mortification is always there because the affections :stablished between members of a community do not form hat personal link which is characteristic of the family. The religious man finds affection, but this is on a piritual plane, leaving certain sides ofthe human per-onality unsatisfied. Men do not go to religious life to ind what they normally find in the family. There is friend-hip, but basically a religious man's life is in God, and n,God one is alone. Fundamental solitude: God is the ~ortion of his inheritance. Psychologically, this involves a sublimation of the nost radical type, yet Freud himself admitted its possi-bility and its actual fulfillment in St. Francis of Assisi nd others. A new and different identity must be forged. In order to arrive at being everything, desire to be noth-ng," wrote St. John of the CrossF This crisis involves, ~asically, final surrender of self-identity and union and bs0rption into the identity of Christ. The vow of ob'edience entails an equally radical crisis. Fhe religious man's identity threatens to be submerged. The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1, 13, I1 in E. A. Peers (ed. and rans.), The Complete Work o] St. John o] the Cross (Westminster: ~ewman, 1953), v. 1, p. 62. Identity Crisis VOLUME 20,~ 1961 355 4. 4. Barry McLaughlin, $.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 356 Existentialist literature especially makes this point: "W~ want freedom for freedom's sake and in every particula circumstance," writes Sartre. "Those who hide their com plete freedom from themselves out of a spirit of serious ness, I shall call cowards.''s Self-identity seems impossibh without the freedom to choose, to determine one's owt conduct and profit or suffer by the consequences. This i a notion rooted in contemporary American Protestan ideals. So much so ttiat William James admitted: It is difficult even imaginatively to comprehend how men po~, sessed of an inner life of their own could ever have come t think the subjection of its will to that of other finite creature recommendable. I confess that to myself it seems something o a mystery? There is a paradox here. When'the religious ma empties himself of his own will (not to other finite crea tures, of course, but to God), at that moment the whol world enters in to fill the vacant space. The saint has n~ particular desires. He seeks only to be allowed to disap pear. He reveals the world to mankind as God has willet it. Yet more than any other man, the saint is responsible He is aware of his obligation to choose for himself. Th terrible duty of the saint is the duty to choose consistentl the "chOice of God. There is one other aspect to the identity crisis in re ligious life, the professional aspect. There are two side to the identity crisis: achievement of personal identity an~ of social identity. We have discussed in some detail th religious man's growth in personal identity. There is als the social role of religious men and women in Americ today, the role of teacher and scholar. Much has been wrftten and much said about the pligh of the American Catholic educational endeavor. We ar concerned here with but one facet of these discussions the undeniable need of Catholic educators to dedicat themselves completely to the subjects they teach. Thi dedication must mean a commitment of the sort which in volves the individual completely in the field he is intel ested in, so much so that he is eager and enthusiastic to se and to contribute to its progress. And since there is fi way to dedicate oneself to learning from the outside, th individual must devote himself totally to his field. A b] stander is too uncommitted. As Father Ong has observed If there is anything that our American Catholic education suffel from, it is the fact that too many of us are not committed enoug to the subjects we profess, not dedicated to them with that tot~ ~Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism (New York: Philosophical brary, 1947), pp. 54--55. ~ The Varieties o! Religious Experience (New York: Longma Green, 1909), p. 311. :~ edicati~n which, for us, should be part of our religious dedica- ~on of God Himself, who makes human knowledge to advance.10 It would seem that many religious men and women, who ,ave to a great extent resolved aflm~i~rably the problems of ,ersonal vocational identity, have not resolved the prob-ems of social identity, have not seen clearly their own role s teachers and scholars. Perhaps the opposite is 6ften true, ,ut in either case it is apparent that there is need "for a uccessful resolution of the identity crisis on both levels nd for an integration at an even higher level. ",6nclusion The gyeatness of man consists in his origin, his nobility s a creature, as a child of God. But more than this: there s also his vocation; man is called upon to co-operate with he divine liberty in the creation of his own identity. This nvolves a process of what Dietrich Von Hildebrand calls 'confronting all things with Christ.''n The saint alone ,as solved the identi.ty crisis perfectly. He has transformed fis self-identity into the identity of Christ. Each saint s a pane of glass of a different color through which Christ's adiance shines. But we all are called to be saints. And if maturity is a ,rerequisite to sanctity, the resolution, with grace, of cer-ain psychological crises is necessary. Above all the reso-ution of the identity crisis, usually concomitant with the ,rocess of re-examination and re-evaluation which occurs ,nce the novelty of the early years of religious life has ,assed, prepares the way to sanctity. Each religious, like he saint, must deepen and transform his love. There is a continuity in life which the saint makes nanifest. The child persists in the man; the mature adult ,as grown out of" childhood without losing childhood's ,est traits. He retains the basic emotional strengths and he stubborn autonomy of the infant, the capacity for onder and pleasure and playfulness of the preschool ears, the capacity for affiliation and the intellectual curi- ,sity of the school years, and the idealism and passion of dolescence. He has incorporated these into a new pattern ;ominated by adult stability, wisdom, knowledge, re-ponsibility, strength, and prudence. The saint is not a man apart from, and outside of, the ;retchedness of everyday life. He is not a man in corn- ,union with God and out of communion with other men. ~ecause he lives in close contact with God, because he has onformed his mind to the mind of Christ, the saint is the ~Walter Ong, S.J., American Catholic Crossroads (New York: ¯ *acmillan, 1959), pp. 104-05. n Translormation in Christ (New York: Longmans, Green, 1948), ¯ 74. VOLUME 20, 1961 357 one man who is in communion with us, while all other live apart. This is why the saint is the per[ectly mature individual at once the most sensitive and the most spiritual o[ men The most sensitive because nothing and no one in world finds him unresponsive, since he is always in mediate and loving contact with persons and things. He the most spiritual o[ men, ~or every movement o[ his sonality has its origin in the realization that Christ measure o[ all things, the source o[ his own identity. embodies per[ectly the words of St. Paul: "So we shal reach per[ect manhood, that maturity which is propor ¯ tioned to the complete growth of Christ" (Eph 4:13). Barr~ McLaughlin, $.l. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 358 ROBERT F. WEISS, S.J. The Christ of the Apocalypse Toward the end of his long life in the closing years of the first century, our Lord's beloved disciple, the apostle St. John, penned from his place of exile on the island of Patmos a beautiful message of hope and encouragement for the Christian churches. The style: 0f this letter, the last book of the Bible, is apocalyptic; that is, it deals with the revelation made to John of things present and pastas well as future. Its theme 'is the ,triumph of Christ. In images of surpassing beauty, St. John describes for all ages the glorious King of kings. Although it is the same Christ of the Gospels whom we meet here, a great change has come over Him. He is still "like unto a son of man," but He no longer has the weaknesses and limitationS of His humanity. We will see Him in settings of majesty, power, and triumph--all of which are meant to stir up hope, love, and courage for the struggle ahead, for the difficulties and persecutions the Church must always suffer. He has already conquered. This is Christ as He is now, and yet His victory is being constantly repeated. The message is, therefore, one of personal concern for all Christians of every .age. "Blessed be the man who reads this prophecy," says John, "and those who hear it read and heed what is written in it, for the time is near." For each one of us the battle is now raging, and the end of our own struggle is approaching. Christ conquered sin and death long ago; but as long as this world lasts, the conflict goes on. Not until the last day will Ghrist:s triumph be final and complete. But for us, each individual, the time is near and Christ is coming soon. John begins his epistle in a Trinitarian setting, using a salutation much like Paul's as he wishes peace and blessing to the seven churches in Asia from "Him who is and was and is coming"--the Father--"and from the seven spirits befOre His throne"--the Holy Spirit represented by His Robert F. Weiss, S.J., is a faculty member of St. Louis University, 221 North Grand Boule-vard, St. Louis 3, Mis-souri. VOLUME 20, 1961 359 + 4. 4. Rober~ F. Wei~s~ SJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 360 sevenfold gifts--and "from Jesus Christ." The full title, Jesus Christ, used here in connection with the other per-sons of the Blessed Trinity, is not used again until the very last verse in the letter. John seems to prefer Jesus alone, in this way emphasizing the humanity of the glorious Christ and His identity with the historical person who lived and suffered. Christ alone as a title occurs only four times. All of these are in the last half of the book in settings of solemnity and majesty and in close association with name of God. John's favorite title for Christ is, as will later, the Lamb, although he also .uses Son of God and Son of Man. The apostle's cast of mind is revealed by the prayer Of praise he offers to Christ at the outset--"to Him who loves us and has released us from our sins." This Christ "has made us a kingdom of priests for His God and Father." Just as Israel when set free from Egypt acquired a national life under its divinely appointed king, so Church, redeemed by the Blood of Christ, makes up a holy nation. As kings, the faithful of Christ will reign all the peoples; as priests, united to Christ the Priest, they will offer to God the Whole universe in a sacrifice of praise. In his magnificent opening vision, John sees the glorified and idealized human form of Christ: a being like a man, wearing a long robe, with a gold belt around his breast. His head and hair were as white as white wool, as white as snow; his eyes blazed like fire; his feet were like bronze, refined in a furnace, and his voice was like the noise of mighty waters. In his right hand he held seven stars; from his mouth came a sharp double-edged sword, and his face shone like the sun at noonday. The garments are the first object to catch John's attention. The figure wears a long robe of the priesthood and girded with the belt of royalty. His snow white hair His eternity, and His eyes blazing like fire repre-sent His divine knowledge. Feet glowing like bronze furnace symbolize His power and utter stability. His voice, which is compared to the thundering rush of a waterfall, and His face, shining like the noonday sun, which recalls the glorious transfiguration on Mount Tabor, give Him a majesty that is terrifying. In His right hand are seven stars representing the seven churches over which He has power and care. It was among seven lampstands that this figure had appeared; they are likewise churches and signify His omnipresence. From His mouth comes the sharp two-edged sword of the word of God which has power to condemn or reward. This is He who is "coming on the clouds, and every eye will see Him, even the men who pierced Him." John is so overawed by the sight that he falls at the feet of Christ like a dead man. But our Lord lays His hand him and tells him not to be afraid. For He is the first and tlie last, that is, the Creator and the last end of all things. He is the Living One, an idea prominent in the tliinking of the Hebrews. Theirs is a living God, not the dead idols of their pagan neighbors. Chi'ist ~a~ defid, crudi~ed; yet here He is alive forever and ever. He has risen from the dead never to die again. More than that, He holds the keys of death and the underworld, over which as God He alone has power. He carries the key of David and thus has ab-solute authority to admit or exclude anyone'from the city of David, the new Jerusalem. He "operis and no one shall shut, and'shuts and no one shall open." This is the Christ of the Apocalypse, infinitely majestic and august. He wiil come in the end seated on a cloud, and with a single swing of His sickle the' harvest of the earth will be reaped. His prhdominant characteristic is unbounded power. Only once or twice, it is said, does the tenderness of Christ's compassion or the intimacy of His fe!lowship with men make itself felt in this book. Yet when it does, it is unexpected and most poignant. Afier rebuking and praising, encouraging the faithful and castigating the tepid, Christ concludes: I reprove and discipline all whom I love. So be earnest and re: pent. Here I stand knocking at the door. If anyone listens to my voice ~and opens the door, I will be his guest and dine With him, and he with me. I will permit him who is victorious to take his seat.beside my father on his throne. In apocalyptic literatur~e Christ is frequently pictured as a judge at the door. Hire the beloved disciple sees Christ not as a judge but as a friend inviting us to :the closest kind 6f intimate companionship. For the Orientals the Lidea of perfect friendship is represented by the notion of taking a meal together. Since it is not uncommon for John to use words with additional connotations, even with a triple meaning, he may well be alluding here also to the Holy Eucharist, in which Christ Himself becomes our food, as ~vell as to the banquet prepared for the faithful in heaven. Even in this setting of gentle and tender intimacy, the glory awaiting the loyal friends of Christ is not forgotten. The place asked by their mother for the sons of Zebedee is to be had by all those who are faithful unto the end. The risen and ascended Christ is all in all to the members of His Church. He loves them; He redeemed them; and He has made them what they are, a new Israel, a kingdom of priests. In the succeeding visions, John prefers to speak of Christ as the Lamb. This is not to be looked on as a photograph or a picture or even as an imaginative'representation. Like the other images used, it is a symbol, a thought-representa~ tion to be taken according to its intellectual content. ~Th~ images are not essential and sho~uld not be retained. The ÷ The Christ o] the Apocalypse VOLU~E 20, 1961 361 + + ÷ Robert F. Weiss, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 362 author wishes to convey an idea, and that is all the image should be used for. He gives us a succession of these sym-b~ Is~rom ~hich he wishes us.to take an idea and then move on to the next. This is especially true of the various qualities ascribed to Christ whom he will repeatbdly iefer to as simply the Lamb. This is not the sacrificial Lamb of Isaiah about whom John is speaking; rather it is the Lamb as a leader. He the strong one, the sheperd 0f the faithful who will guide them.to the springs of living water, the fountain of which is God Himself. It is this Lamb alone who can break the seals and open the book upon which are written the secrets of history-~the story of the great sufferings to endured, the conflict that will rage, and Christ's ultimate and magnificent victory. The Lamb, has seven horns signify His unlimi~ted power and seven eyes as symbols His vast knowledge. As so frequently in the peculiar apoc-alyptic style of this letter, the number seven is used to completeness and plenitude. The Lamb as John sees Him appears as if slaughtered, and yet He lives. He has conquered sin and death. He was slain as a victim, but only the splendid results of sacrifice remain. To Him indeed belong the ~rerogatives of God. He is spoken of more and more, as John's account proceeds, in the same breath with God the Father. He has a share in the works of God. "Our deliverance is the work of our God who is seated on the throne and of the Lamb." In the glorious day of the heavenly Jerusalem, Christ Lamb will reign with His Father. John saw this Jerusalem: the holy city, coming down out of heaven from God, in all the glory of God. It shone with a radiance like that of some very precious stone, like jasper, clear as crystal . I saw no temple in it, for the Lord God, the'Almighty, and the Lamb are its temple. The city does not need the sun nor the moon to shine in it, for the glor~ of God lighted it, and the Lamb is its lamp. The heathen will walk by its. light. The kings of the earth will bring their splendor to ,t. Its gates will never be shut by day--for there will be no night there and they will bring the splendor and the wealth of the heathen into it. Noth!ng unclean will ever enter it. In this day God will make "all things new." The apostle is trying to describe heaven in .this passage using the language of the Old Testament with which his readers were familiar. The essential jo~ of this state of glory is that God will be with those who have remained faithful and they will be with Him. Everything good will also be in heaven, but the presence of God will be everything. God and His Christ are its sanctuary; God's glory will light it; the Lamb will be its lamp. There will be no need for a temple other than God or for the intermediary of religion, for God Himself will be possessed. The Lamb in the day of judgment can be terrible in His anger, and as a shepherd He rules with a rod of iron. But there is an arresting touch of tenderness in the glimpse we are given of the glorious victory to which .He will lead His followers: They are the people who come through the great pe~secuti0n, who haveowashed their robes white in the blood of the Lamb. That is why they are before the throne of God and serve him day and night in his :temple, and he who is seated on the throne will shelter them. They will never be hungry or thirsty again, and never again will the sun or any burning heat distress them, for the Lamb who is in the center of the throne will be their shepherd, and will guide them to springs of living water, and God will wipe away every tear from their eyes., Seel God's dwelling is with men, and he will live with them. They will be .his people and God himself will be with them. Those who come through the time of tribulation are those who have washed their :robes in the blood of the Lamb. This symbolic expression includes both the idea of salva-tion through the death, of Christ and theoactivity of-the faithful' themselves signified by the washing. Their reward will be to participate in the worship of God day and night. With typical Hebrew reverence for the name of God, John speaks of Him "who is seated on the throne" rather, than repeat the sacred name: Just as in the land of promise there was to be a cessation of suffering, so in heaven the faithful will be eternally free from all care and want and every sort of mental distress or bodily pain. For the Hebrews water was scarce and very precious; a plentiful source of it signi- ,fled abundance and prosperity. The water here is a symbol of God's grace, and God is its source. John's vision is in terms of the Old Testament prophecy of Isaiah, but now in Christ the fulfillment is assured. There isone other appearance of Christ which must be mentioned, perhaps the most striking vision of all. Before, we saw the temple; now heaven itself is opened, andwe see the magnificent, triumphant Warrior-King followed by the armies of heaven: Then I saw heaven thrown open and there appeared a white horse. His rider was called Faithful and True, and he judges and wages war in uprightness. His eyes blazed like fire. There were many diadems on his head, and there was a name written on him which no one knew but himself. The garment he wore was spattered with blood, and his name was the word of God. The armies of heaven followed him mounted on white horses and clothed in pure white linen. From his mouth came a sharp sword with which he is to strike down the heathen. He will shepherd them with a staff of iron, and will tread the winepress of the
