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The paper features the fi rst general description in the Russian language of two necropolises located in Campochiaro (Campobasso, Italy) – Vicenne and Morrione, dating back to the period from the last third of the 7th – the beginning of the 8th century AD. The cultural content of the necropolises refl ects their strong ties with the population of Central Asian origin. The most important feature of the necropolises are burials with a horse, corresponding to the Eurasian nomadic burial rite. The author supported the conclusions of European researchers according to which it is highly probable that the necropolises were left by the Bolgars of the duke–gashtald Alzeko, originally recorded by Paul the Deacon in the 8th century in the territories of Bojano, Sepino and Isernia. The similarities of the Campochiaro necropolises with the burials of the Avar Khaganate imply the presence of the Bolgars in the Avar society with a similar burial ritual. Out of the thousands of horse burials left by the Avar population, a large portion could have been left by the Bolgars. The Avars and Bolgars constituted the basis and ruling elite of the Khaganate. The Alzeko people were the part of the Bolgars who in 631 AD fought for the Khagan throne, which indicates the high position of the Bolgars and their large number. After the defeat, this group of the Bolgars migrated to Bavaria, Carantania and Italy. Several decades of living in the Venedian, and later in the Lombard and Roman environment resulted in the heterogeneity of the funerary inventory, but did not change the rite itself. The Bolgars of the Lombard kingdom formed a new military layer - professional cavalry, which received land plots. This equestrian squad is an early example of the European feudal military and social class which was later referred to as chivalry. ; Настоящая работа является первым общим описанием на русском языке двух некрополей Кампокиаро (Кампобассо, Италия) – Виченне и Морионе, датируемых последней третью VII в. – началом VIII в. Культурное содержание некрополей показывает прочные связи с населением центральноазиатского происхождения. Важнейшим признаком некрополей являются захоронения с конем, соответствующие евразийскому кочевому погребальному обряду. Автор поддержал выводы европейских исследователей о том, что с большой долей вероятности некрополи оставлены булгарами дукса–гаштальда Алзеко, зафиксированными Павлом Диаконом в VIII в. на территориях Бояно, Сепино и Изернии. Аналогии некрополей Кампокиаро с погребениями Аварского каганата показывают присутствие в аварском обществе булгар со схожим погребальным обрядом. Из тысяч погребений с конем, оставленных аварским населением, булгарам могла принадлежать большая часть. Авары и булгары составляли основу и правящую верхушку каганата. Народ Алзеко являлся той частью булгар, которая в 631 г. боролась за каганский престол, что указывает на высокое положение булгар и их большое количество. После поражения эта группа булгар мигрировала последовательно в Баварию, Карантанию и Италию. Несколько десятков лет проживания в венедской, а затем в лангобардской и романской среде привели к гетерогенности погребального инвентаря, но не изменили сам обряд. Булгары лангобардского королевства составляли новый военный слой, который представлял из себя профессиональную кавалерию, получивший землю. Эта конная дружина является ранним примером европейского феодального воинского и социального сословия, которое станет называться рыцарством. Библиографические ссылки Акимова М.С. Материалы к антропологии ранних болгар // Генинг В.Ф., Халиков А.Х. 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1. Kapitel: Einleitung Das Kapitel der Einleitung erläutert die Zielsetzung und Fragestellung dieser Arbeit unter Angabe der verwendeten Primärquellen, zu denen die Zeitungsartikel, Archivdokumente, die Transkriptionen der qualitativen Interviews gehören sowie den aktuellen Forschungsstand. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es zum einen, auf inhaltlicher Ebene die Auto- und Heterobilder sowie Stereotype in der westdeutschen und britischen überregionalen Presse herauszuarbeiten und diese vor dem Hintergrund des außenpolitischen bilateralen Verhältnisses zu interpretieren. Zum anderen sollen jene Eigen- und Fremdbilder strukturell in die Argumentationen der jeweils nationalen Pressetexte eingeordnet werden und auf ihre Funktion hin überprüft werden. In der vorliegenden Dissertation wird angenommen, dass Stereotype und Bilder "des Anderen" gezielt in die Argumentationen der nationalen Pressetexte eingebettet sind und dort argumentative Funktionen erfüllen, wie etwa die Verstärkung eines Arguments oder die Herstellung von Plausibilität, Interpretation und Einordnung eines Ereignisses oder dessen gesellschaftliche Legitimation. Daher verbindet diese Arbeit die Methodik der "Kritischen Diskursanalyse" (KDA) mit der "Imagologie". Das Forschungsparadigma der KDA lautet nach Siegfried Jäger, den Diskurs auf seine ikonographischen Mittel hin zu untersuchen. Manfred Beller und Joep Leerssen definieren den Forschungsanspruch der Imagologie wie folgt: "Imagology aims to understand a discourse rather than a society". Weder die KDA gelangt zu einer näheren Klassifizierung der zu untersuchenden "ikonographischen Mittel", noch unternimmt die "Imagologie" den Versuch, den Begriff "discourse" näher zu bestimmen. Daher wird in dieser Arbeit diese Lücke geschlossen und beide Methodiken an ihrer Schnittstelle miteinander verbunden. Es ist das Hauptanliegen dieser Arbeit, die diskursive Konstruktion des deutsch-britischen Verhältnis im jeweiligen Pressediskurs beider Länder im Untersuchungszeitraum dieser Arbeit tiefgreifend zu analysieren und die dem jeweiligen Diskurs zugrundeliegenden "Aussagen" im Sinne Foucaults herauszuarbeiten. Zudem sollen allgemein-gültige Ergebnisse zur Tradierung von Stereotypen und dem positiven und negativen Tenor der überregionalen Berichterstattung unter Berücksichtigung des außenpolitischen Kontextes in Betracht gezogen werden. Die Auswirkungen des Pressediskurses auf das öffentliche Denken soll anhand von Archivdokumenten bzw. von qualitativen Interviews punktuell gezeigt werden. 2. Kapitel: Diskurs und Kritische Diskursanalyse Im zweiten Kapitel wird zunächst der Diskursbegriff nach Michel Foucault mit den Wirkmechanismen und Strukturen von Diskursen begründet. Wichtig dabei ist der "Wissen/Macht-Komplex", der die diskursive Aushandlung von "allgemein gültigem Wissen" innerhalb einer Gesellschaft beschreibt. Dieses "Wissen" enthält die Tradierung gültiger Argumentationsformen inklusive Eigen- und Fremdbilder in der Presse. Der Begriff "Aushandlung" impliziert dabei, dass es sich um einen diffizilen diskursiven Prozess handelt. "Wissen und Macht" sind laut Foucault intrinsisch miteinander verbunden. Macht generiert Wissen, Wissen impliziert Macht. Demnach haben die als gültig ausgehandelten Argumentationsformen und Bilder in den Pressetexten eine Wirkungsmacht, Bewusstsein innerhalb einer Gesellschaft formen. In Foucaults diskursanalytische Theorien, die selbst keine konkreten Analyseschemata zur Untersuchung von (Medien-) Diskursen beinhalten, fließen die Weiterführungen von Sara Mills, Ruth Wodak und Norman Fairclough mit ein. Konkrete Vorgaben zur praktischen Analyse von Mediendiskursen legte der Linguist Sigfried Jäger des Duisburger Instituts für Sprach- und Sozialforschung vor. Jäger definiert verschiedene Diskursebenen innerhalb einer Gesellschaft, bei denen der Mediendiskurs zwischen der Politiker- und Alltagsebene angesiedelt ist. Jäger beschreibt, dass der Mediendiskurs in sich relativ homogen ist, da die großen Leitmedien ihre Informationen von wenigen offiziellen Presseagenturen beziehen. Dies bedeutet, dass die Nachrichten zur Aktualität im Fernsehen relativ gleich denen im Radio oder den Zeitungen sind. Im Fall dieser Arbeit ist bestätigt, dass die Presse den dominanten Mediendiskurs sowohl in der BRD als auch in GB zur politischen Information darstellt. Die Pressetexte mit ihren Argumenten, ihrem Tenor und den Selbst- und Fremdbildern zu den Ereignissen der zweiten Berlin-Krise hatten demnach eine große Wirkung auf ihre Leser, zu denen nachweislich auch die Regierungsoberhäupter Adenauer und Macmillan zählen. Trotz der angenommen Homogenität des Mediendiskurses besitzt jede Presse- und Medieninstitution eine eigene "diskursive Position" gemäß ihrer Ausrichtung, die nachhaltig den Tenor ihrer Nachrichten bestimmen. Grundsätzlich teilt man in einer Gesellschaft Wissen darüber, welche Ausrichtung die "großen Zeitungen" haben. So ist etwa der Guardian und die SZ sozialliberal, die Times, FAZ, Die Welt und der Daily Telegraph konservativ eingestellt. Darüber hinaus teilt Jäger die Presseberichterstattung in ihre Bestandteile. Diese sind etwa die Berichterstattung über ein bestimmtes Thema, den "Diskursstrang". Pressetexte, die ein bestimmtes Thema behandeln, nennt er "Diskursfragmente". Demnach bilden alle Diskursfragmente zu einem Thema den Diskursstrang, der sich diachron gemäß der (außen-)politischen Situation entwickelt. Jäger bezeichnet ihn metaphorisch als "Fluss von Wissen durch die Zeit". Analysiert man ein Ereignis, über das in den Medien viel berichtet wird, stellt dies ein "diskursives Ereignis" dar. Für Jäger stellen diese Orientierungspunkte dar, da sie eine "Momentaufnahme" des Diskursstranges abbilden und zeigen, welche Bilder, Argumente und diskursiven Mechanismen zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt tradiert wurden bzw. "gültig" waren. Die diachrone Aneinanderreihung von Ergebnissen aus mehreren diskursiven Ereignissen zeigt dann Entwicklungen und Veränderungen in einem Diskursstrang auf, dessen Einwirkungen vor dem Hintergrund der politischen Ebene interpretiert werden können. 3. Kapitel: Imagologie und Stereotypenforschung Das Kapitel behandelt die Bildung, Funktionen und Tradierung von Eigen- und Fremdbildkonstruktionen als kulturelle Konstrukte im öffentlichen Diskurs, dem die Berichterstattung angehört. Ursprünglich in der vergleichenden Literaturwissenschaft situiert, weiten Beller & Leerssen das Untersuchungsfeld der Imagologie von literarischen Texten auf Texte "as forms of cultural representation" aus. Dem sind Zeitungsartikel überregionaler Qualitätszeitungen ebenso zuzuordnen. In diesem Kapitel werden die "Images" als Oberbegriff erläutert, aus denen sich das Bild, Stereotyp, Vorurteil und Feindbild ableiten. Zudem wird das Nationenbild behandelt. Der Schwerpunkt der Darstellungen in dieser Arbeit liegt dabei auf dem Stereotypenbegriff. Eingehend erläutert dieses Kapitel die identitätsstiftende Funktion von Eigen- und Fremdbildern, wobei ebenso die Aspekte des Wandels und der Beständigkeit von Stereotypen beleuchtet werden. Die Eigen- und Fremdbildkonstruktionen werden in den Kontext der Presseberichterstattung, insbesondere der Auslandsberichterstattung, eingebettet und deren Merkmale skizziert. Demnach wird die Struktur der Presseberichterstattung erläutert, in dem die Stereotype und Bilder eingebettet werden. Ebenso wird die Relation zwischen verbalem Ausdruck eines Stereotyps und dessen kognitive Assoziierung behandelt, wobei der konturierte Charakter eines Stereotyps gezeigt werden soll. 4. Kapitel: Methodische Vorgehensweise Dieses Kapitel fasst, basierend auf der erläuterten Methodik der Kritischen Diskursanalyse aus Kapitel 2 und den Grundlagen der Stereotypenforschung in Kapitel 3 die konkrete Vorgehensweise und methodische Anwendung dieser Arbeit zusammen. Behandelt wird die konkrete Auswahl relevanter Pressetexte für die quantitative und qualitative Analyse von westdeutschen und britischen Zeitungsartikeln der jeweils drei großen überregionalen Tageszeitungen, die das Korpus dieser Dissertation bilden (Times, Daily Telegraph, Manchester Guardian, FAZ, SZ und Die Welt). Die diskursiven Ereignisse des Untersuchungszeitraumes werden erläutert, ebenso wie die Klassifizierung der drei untersuchten Diskursstränge, die das deutsch-britische Verhältnis zur Zeit der zweiten Berlin-Krise von 1958 bis 1962 diskursiv aushandeln. Die konkrete Vorgehensweise aus Struktur- und Feinanalyse, die auf die drei Diskursstränge angewandt wird, wird geschildert. Dabei wird bereits der "Tenor der Berichterstattung" geschildert, der die drei untersuchten Diskursstränge dominiert. Neben der Tradierung von negativen, neutralen oder positiven Stereotypen im überregionalen Pressediskurs eines Landes entscheidet auch die subtilere "Stimmung" im Pressetext über die Formulierung eines positiven oder negativen Fremdbildes. Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchung zeigen in Abgleich mit den Archivdokumenten zum politischen Hintergrund, dass der Tenor der Berichterstattung eines Landes über die fremde Nation an das außenpolitische Verhältnis gebunden ist – zur Zeit von Macmillans Moskau-Reise im Februar 1959 stellt die britische Außenpolitik eine Bedrohung für den Kurs Adenauers dar mit der Konsequenz, dass in beiden Pressediskursen ein negativer Tenor mit einer großen Anzahl negativer Fremdbilder zirkulierte. Als Macmillan 1960 von seiner Entspannungspolitik in Zentraleuropa Abstand nimmt und sich der kontinentaleuropäischen Wirtschaftsbeziehungen zuwendet, verbessert sich sowohl der Tenor als auch die wechselseitigen Heterobilder über den Anderen in beiden Pressediskursen. Demnach hängt die negative Tradierung von Fremdbildern von der diskursiven Konstellation ab, die in den überregionalen Leitmedien dem außenpolitischen Kurs der jeweiligen Regierung folgt. 5. Kapitel: Das britische und westdeutsche Pressewesen Im 5. Kapitel wird das westdeutsche Pressewesen dem britischen gegenübergestellt. Zunächst soll gezeigt werden, dass die Zeitungen im Untersuchungszeitraum dieser Arbeit das dominante Leitmedium zur politischen Information darstellen, da die "ephemeren" Medien wie Radio und Fernsehen zwar in beiden Ländern zahlenmäßig (bereits) weit verbreitet waren, sich zur intensiven politischen Information jedoch (noch) nicht durchgesetzt hatten. Dies hat zur Folge, dass der Presseberichterstattung über die britische und westdeutsche Außenpolitik zur zweiten Berlin-Krise eine noch größere Wirkungsmacht zukommt, deren inhaltliche Analyse sich eignet, dominante Grundaussagen des britischen und westdeutschen Pressediskurses in Form von Argumentationsmustern und der Tradierung von Fremdbildern zu Legitimierungszwecken herauszuarbeiten. Von diesen kann angenommen werden, dass sie eine sehr starke Wirkmacht zur Bewusstseinsbildung über die jeweils fremde Nation bei den Lesern hatten, zu denen nachweislich auch die führenden Politiker beider Länder zählten. Danach werden die sechs überregionalen Zeitungen in ihrer Pressegeschichte sowie ihrer zahlenmäßigen Verbreitung vorgestellt und ihre "Diskursposition", d.h. in ihrer (politischen) Ausrichtung im gesellschaftlichen Diskurs, genannt. Da diese Arbeit eine relative Homogenität der überregionalen Leitmedien annimmt, wird die Diskursposition der einzelnen Tageszeitungen in dieser Untersuchung vernachlässigt. Es werden zudem wesentliche Unterschiede des westdeutschen und britischen Pressewesens erläutert und die Kriterien einer "überregionalen Tageszeitungen" definiert. Abschließend werden beide Pressewesen miteinander verglichen und in den historischen Kontext der zweiten Berlin-Krise eingeordnet. 6. Kapitel: Die zweite Berlin-Krise als diskursiver Kontext Dieses Kapitel erläutert die außen- und weltpolitischen Hintergründe des längsten Konfliktes des Kalten Krieges, die im August 1961 zur sichtbaren Teilung Deutschlands in Ost- und West führte. Der historische Hintergrund wird mit Archivdokumenten aus dem Bundesarchiv Koblenz sowie dem Politischen Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes gestützt. Gezeigt werden die Rollen und Verantwortlichkeiten der alliierten Siegermächte Großbritannien, den USA und Frankreich gegenüber den sowjetischen Forderungen Chruschtschows, das Viermächteabkommen aufzukündigen und die alliierten Truppen aus Westberlin abzuziehen. Mit der Schilderung des historischen Hintergrundes wird zudem der Untersuchungszeitraum dieser Arbeit festgelegt, der mit dem Chruschtschow-Ultimatum vom 27.11.1958 beginnt und mit dem Beginn der Kuba-Krise im Oktober 1962 endet. Neben der Schilderung des Verlaufes der zweiten Berlin-Krise wird das deutsch-britische Verhältnis in diesem Zeitraum eingehend geschildert. Betont werden die Rolle Großbritanniens in der Außenpolitik Adenauers sowie umgekehrt, Deutschland bzw. Berlin in der britischen Außenpolitik. Darüber hinaus behandelt dieses Kapitel dominante Deutschlandbilder der britischen Öffentlichkeit sowie die Englandbilder der westdeutschen Bevölkerung. Inhalte politischer Dokumente stützen vorherrschende Haltungen beider Regierungen zueinander, die dem Zweck dienen, Einflüsse auf den jeweiligen Pressediskurs eines Landes zu erkennen, bzw. aus diskursanalytischer Sicht, die Politikerebene von der Medienebene zu trennen. 7. Kapitel: Kategorisierung der Diskursstränge Hier werden die drei in dieser Arbeit analysierten Diskursstränge inhaltlich umrissen. Diskursstränge, die Bilder des Anderen enthalten, jedoch nicht wechselseitig in beiden auftreten, werden in Punkt 7.4 genannt. Dabei handelt es sich um Diskursstränge, die spezifisch für ein Land stehen, die fremde Nation jedoch thematisieren. So behandelt Großbritannien verstärkt das Thema "NS-Prozesse" im eigenen spezifischen Diskurs anders als dies in der westdeutschen Presse geschieht. 8. Kapitel: Diskursstrang 1: Der Staatsbesuch von Theodor Heuss: Oktober 1958 Mehrere Faktoren begründen den Staatsbesuch von Theodor Heuss als ersten offiziellen Empfang eines deutschen Regierungsoberhauptes durch die britische Monarchin seit 1907 als diskursives Event zu behandeln und in die Analyse miteinzubeziehen, obwohl er Ende Oktober 1958, knapp einen Monat vor dem Beginn der zweiten Berlin-Krise, durch das Chruschtschow-Ultimatum stattfand. Erstens repräsentieren sowohl der Bundespräsident als auch die britische Monarchin die Bevölkerung ihres Landes und nicht die außenpolitische Linie. Demnach steht das Verhältnis beider Bevölkerungen zueinander im Mittelpunkt der Berichterstattung. Zweitens bestätigen mehrere Quellen, dass der Heuss-Besuch das Ende der Nachkriegsära im deutsch-britischen Verhältnis einläutete. Demnach stand dem Besuch eine große diskursive Aushandlung über die Presse beider Länder bevor, das deutsch-britische Verhältnis, das sich insbesondere durch den Zweiten Weltkrieg zu einer Feindschaft wandelte, neu auszuhandeln. Von britischer Seite bestand eine große Reserviertheit und Kühle gegenüber dem westdeutschen Gast, die die britische Presse dominierte. Die westdeutschen Zeitungen berichteten ausführlich über die Ehrung und Würde des königlichen Empfangs und bezogen sich anschließend auf das negative Echo der britischen Zeitungen. Die britische Presse zeichnete dabei das Bild des "deutschen Charakters" als obrigkeitshörigen, gefügigen, materialistischen und unmoralischen Deutschen, der seine Vergangenheit mit dem Konsum des Wirtschaftswunders verdrängt. Heuss dagegen sei "not this kind of German". Von deutscher Seite seien "Engländer auch keine Italiener". Nationale Bilder des Anderen dienen der Legitimierung und Einordnung in den eigenen diskursiven Kontext, die Haltung und Reaktion des Anderen logisch zu interpretieren. Sowohl die qualitative als auch quantitative Analyse der Presseartikel in den westdeutschen und britischen Zeitungen ergeben, dass das Bild vom Anderen in seiner Anzahl negativ ist, was auf ein vorherrschend negatives Bild und Grundaussauge insbesondere im britischen Diskurs gegenüber den Deutschen schließen lässt. Es zeigt sich zudem, dass die dominanten Unterthemen der britischen und westdeutschen Presse analog zu der Hierarchie der am meisten verwendeten negativen Fremdbildern sind. Demnach überwiegt zahlenmäßig in der britischen Presse das Bild des unmoralischen und militanten Deutschen, das in Analogie zum am meisten vorhandenen Unterthema der NS-Vergangenheit steht. Von deutscher Seite ist das Bild der kühlen, reservierten und unhöflichen Briten dominant, das am gewichtigsten das Unterthema der "Reaktion der britischen Bevölkerung und der britischen Presse" interpretierend unterstützt. Heterobilder und -stereotype sind demnach in die Struktur der Presseberichterstattung eingebettet und erfüllen bestimmte Funktionen, meist die der Verstärkung der Argumentationen zur Herstellung von Plausibilität und Logik. Indem die westdeutsche Presse die Briten als "arrogant allem Fremden gegenüber" charakterisiert, dient dies der Einordnung und Erklärung für die berichtete kühle Reaktion der britischen Bevölkerung auf den deutschen Gast. Indem die britische Presse ein Kontinuitätsbild der Deutschen als "militant und unmoralisch" tradiert, ist die reservierte Haltung der eigenen Bevölkerung gegenüber den unmoralischen Deutschen gerechtfertigt. Zugleich stilisieren sich die Briten selbst als "moralisch" im Hinblick auf ihre politische Tradition und Konstitution. Die diskursive Aushandlung des deutsch-britischen Verhältnis zum Heuss-Staatsbesuch dient der "Aktualisierung" des jeweiligen Fremdbildes, wodurch aus diskursanalytischer Sichtweise "viel Wissen produziert wird". Die mediale Neuaushandlung der deutsch-britischen Beziehungen wird durch Berichte etwa des deutschen Botschafters in London sowie von Heuss selbst ergänzt, die erläutern, dass es sich um eine berichtete kühle Reserviertheit der britischen Bevölkerung gegenüber dem deutschen Staatsgast handelt und nicht um eine tatsächlich erlebte Ablehnung aus Sicht beider Politiker. Theodor Heuss berichtigte diese Tatsache sogar in seiner Neuansprache an das deutsche Volk vom 31.01.1958, bei der er sagte, dass er viel Wärme erfahren habe und dass verantwortliche Journalisten einberufen wurden. Trotz der überwiegend negativen Tradierung der Bilder des Anderen während des Heuss-Besuchs ist eine Verbesserung des Tenors in beiden nationalen Pressediskursen zu erkennen, die etwa im Januar bei den wohlwollenden Berichten über die Assoziierung Großbritanniens an den europäischen Markt deutlich erkennbar ist, jedoch durch die Herausforderungen der zweiten Berlin-Krise ab Januar 1959 deutlich in den Hintergrund rückt. 9. Kapitel: Bilaterale Krise zwischen Adenauer und Macmillan: 1959 Der Diskursstrang der bilateralen Krise zwischen Adenauer und Macmillan im Jahr 1959 bildet den "Kern" der in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Diskursanalyse. Dies ist damit zu begründen, dass der Diskursstrang von Oktober 1958 bis Januar 1959 eine positive Entwicklung aufzeigt, die durch das zunächst relativ harmonische persönliche Verhältnis zwischen Adenauer und Macmillan aufgrund außenpolitischer Übereinstimmung gekennzeichnet ist. Adenauers Position als Befürworter des britischen Anliegens, sich wirtschaftlich in Europa nicht zu isolieren durch die Schaffung einer Freihandelszone als Gegengewicht zur 1957 gegründeten EWG der Kontinentaleuropäer stößt zunächst auf Wohlwollen der außenpolitischen Interessen Macmillans und Adenauers, der stets eine engere Einbindung Großbritannien an Europa anstrebte. Durch das Chruschtschow-Ultimatum Ende November 1958 und der sich Mitte Januar 1959 herauskristallisierenden entgegengesetzten Positionen im Ost-West-Konflikt verschlechterte sich das bilaterale Verhältnis um ein Vielfaches, das nach der unilateralen Moskau-Reise Macmillans Ende Februar 1959 im April 1959 seinen Höhepunkt nimmt. Der bilaterale Konflikt wird auf den polarisierenden Charakterisierungen des weichen Macmillans gegenüber eines starren Adenauers auf die Personen des britischen und westdeutschen Regierungsoberhauptes übertragen. Von westdeutscher Seite wird dem Misstrauen gegenüber der britischen Außenpolitik mit Beschwichtigungen reagiert. Zugleich tritt Amerika als "Beschützer" vor den Russen ins Zentrum der westdeutschen Argumentation. Macmillans ergebnislose Moskau-Reise wird in der westdeutschen und britischen Presse unterschiedlich interpretiert: die Briten sehen sie weitestgehend als Erfolg, da Chruschtschow gegen Ende doch noch einer Außenministerkonferenz zustimmte, die ab Mai in Genf stattfand. Die Zeitungen der BRD werten sie einschlägig als "Fehlschlag". Macmillans einseitige Initiative wirft zugleich die Frage einer "Paris-Bonn-Achse" auf, da die Moskau-Reise noch stärker zu einer Polarisierung innerhalb der westlichen Allianz führt: de Gaulle steht entschieden zur starren Haltung Adenauers gegenüber der UdSSR, Amerika befürwortet eher Verhandlungen wobei die britische Regierung vollkommen auf Verhandlungen mit Chruschtschow setzt, um die Berlin-Frage zu lösen. Die Begriffe "schwach" in der westdeutschen Presse und "suspicious" in der britischen sind die im Verlauf des Jahres 1959 am häufigsten tradierten Bilder des Anderen. Die deutschen Zeitungen stilisieren Macmillans Außenpolitik und Großbritannien als schwächste Alliierte wohingegen die britische Presse Adenauer als "misstrauisch" gegenüber britischen Motiven charakterisiert. Im April äußerte sich Adenauer im Rundfunk über "Drahtzieher", die bewusst das deutsch-britische Verhältnis in Großbritannien verschlechtern. Ohne direkt die "Wire-Pullers" zu nennen, bezieht die britische Presse Adenauers Anschuldigungen Mitte April 1959 auf sich. Es kommt zum Times-Artikel: "Anglo-German relations at low ebb" sowie zur Bemerkung im Daily Telegraph: "No conspiracy is needed since anti-German feelings exist without being artificially inspired". Adenauers kritische Äußerungen halten von Juni bis September 1959 an. Während der ersten Phase der Genfer Außenministerkonferenz bleibt ein negativer Tenor in der westdeutschen Presse gegenüber britischen Motiven bestehen, wobei Adenauers Kritik an der britischen Außenpolitik in Zusammenhang mit der (ergebnislosen) Genfer Konferenz zu sehen ist. Ab September ist eine eindeutige Distanzierung sowohl der britischen als auch deutschen Presse zu Adenauers Äußerungen zu bemerken. Dies liegt in der quantitativen Anzahl von Artikeln begründet als auch in der qualitativen Analyse der Presseartikel. Über die dritte Adenauer-Kritik an Großbritannien wird verhältnismäßig wenig und sehr "nüchtern" berichtet. Daher ist eine Einflussnahme der Regierungen auf eine Verbesserung des bilateralen Verhältnisses in der Presseberichterstattung zu verzeichnen. Als Adenauer im Oktober 1959 bekannt gibt, Ende November 1959 zu bilateralen Gesprächen mit Macmillan nach London zu reisen, richtet sich der Tenor beider Pressediskurse auf die Hoffnung und Zuversicht, dass beide Staatsmänner ihre Differenzen beseitigten. Insbesondere in der britischen Presse ist eine stark betonte Verbesserung des Tenors gegenüber Deutschland zu vermerken, die etwa in Berichten wie "the prospects for next week's talks are excellent" zum Ausdruck kommt. Die deutsche Presse bezeichnet die Verschlechterung des deutsch-britischen Verhältnis als "unnötigen Hader". Auch die Nachbereitung der bilateralen Gespräche hinterlässt einen positiven Einschlag. Die öffentliche Haltung des westdeutschen Außenministers sowie Adenauers selbst, eine Assoziierung der neu gegründeten EFTA mit der EWG zu befürworten, sowie Macmillans Distanzierung von einem Disengagement in Zentraleuropa führt zu jener bilateralen Verbesserung. Die Analyse ergab, dass die britische Presse Adenauer negativ als "old, suspicious, rigid und authoritarian" im April, Juni und September im Rahmen seiner Kritik an Macmillan charakterisiert. Britische Außenpolitik wird in der zweiten Hälfte von 1959 als "nüchtern" und "pragmatisch" stereotypisiert, in der ersten als "weich, schwach und flexibel". Auffallend ist, dass, je mehr über die verschlechterten deutsch-britischen Beziehungen berichtet wird, desto stärker das deutsch-französische hervortritt. Die Dominanz der Unterthemen in beiden Pressediskursen im Jahr 1959 zeigt, dass das Gewicht vom außenpolitischen Prinzip bestimmt ist. Für die deutsche Presse sind dies die deutsch-französischen Beziehungen und die außenpolitische Haltung Großbritanniens im Ost-West-Konflikt, für die britische Presse sind dies die Thematik um die Freihandelszone bzw. EFTA sowie die erstarkende Position der BRD als ("gleichberechtigter", "dominanter") NATO-Partner. Die überregionalen Leitmedien folgen demnach den außenpolitischen Kurs der jeweiligen Regierung. 10. Kapitel: Hinwendung zu Europa? Großbritannien und die EWG ab 1960 Der dritte Diskursstrang behandelt schwerpunktmäßig die diskursive Aushandlung des britischen Selbstbildes in seiner Hinwendung zu Europa gemäß der britischen Außenpolitik. Mit der zunehmenden und schnell wachsenden Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft, die zur politischen Union werden soll, verliert die von Großbritannien gegründete EFTA an Kraft. Neben Kennedys Wunsch nach einer Europäischen Integration, die Großbritannien als Mitglied der EWG sehen will, wird die Einheit der westlichen Allianz gegenüber der Sowjetunion auf die Wirtschaft übertragen. Bei Macmillans Besuch in Washington im April 1961 wird dieser Prozess beschleunigt, als der britische Premier am 31.07.1961 im Unterhaus verkündet, ein Beitrittsgesuch zur EWG in Brüssel zustellen. Der Diskursstrang ist zunächst in drei Phasen zu teilen: 1) Deutsch-britische Annäherung zwischen EWG und EFTA von Januar 1960 bis Februar 1961, 2) Erwägung und Beschluss des britischen EWG-Beitrittes: März bis Dezember 1961, 3) Wachsende Skepsis und Distanz Adenauers zum britischen EWG-Beitritt: Januar bis Oktober 1962. Das der Diskursstrang eine starke Fokussierung auf dem britischen Selbstbild besitzt und das Verhältnis Großbritannien vermehrt gegenüber den EWG-Staaten und weniger bilateral behandelt wird, wurde hier auf eine Feinanalyse verzichtet. Ziel der Strukturanalyse ist es, vor dem Hintergrund der zeitweiligen Abwesenheit außenpolitischer Differenzen zwischen beiden Ländern eine starke Verbesserung des Tenors in der britischen und westdeutschen Presseberichterstattung festzustellen, wobei es im Februar 1961 zu einem berichteten "Höhepunkt" im deutsch-britischen Verhältnis beim bilateralen Treffen zwischen Adenauer und Macmillan in London kommt, der neben dem positiven Tenor auch gerade in der positiven Darstellung Adenauers in der britischen Presse zeigt. Die positive Darstellung Adenauers ist mit seiner Befürwortung eines britischen EWG-Beitrittes verbunden. Auch hier kommt das deutsch-französische Verhältnis zum Tragen: die britische Presse erhofft sich mit Adenauer einen Fürsprecher gegenüber de Gaulle zu haben bzw. die deutsch-französische Achse aufzuweichen. Adenauer dagegen ist über die positive Haltung der Briten gegenüber einer Europäischen Integration positiv gestimmt. Während sich in der zweiten Phase des Diskursstrangs die bilaterale Aushandlung der deutsch-britischen Beziehungen entfernt, da die britischen Zeitungen etwa das Selbstbild um den Verlust der eigenen Souveränität aushandeln und die Berlin-Krise mit dem zweiten Chruschtschow-Ultimatum vom Juni 1961 und der darauf folgenden Abriegelung des Ost-Sektors von Berlin im August 1961 die Aufmerksamkeit der westdeutschen Zeitungen auf den Ost-West-Konflikt richten. Die dritte Phase ab Januar 1962 wird eingeleitet durch Macmillans Besuch in Bonn Anfang Januar 1962. Dabei werden erste Verschlechterungen in der beiderseitigen Berichterstattung deutlich, die sich um die Stationierungskosten der britischen Rhein-Armee ranken, die aufgrund der Teilung Deutschlands im Rahmen der NATO aufgestockt werden muss. Im März äußert sich Adenauer erstmals öffentlich gegenüber einem französischen Journalisten kritisch dem britischen EWG-Beitritt gegenüber. Politische Dokumente vom Dezember 1961 belegen, wie sehr Adenauer de Gaulles distanzierter Haltung zu einem britischen EWG-Beitritt zustimmt, da sonst das politische Konzept der EWG nicht umgesetzt werden könne. Im Juni 1962 äußerte sich der Bundeskanzler erneut konkret kritisch, indem er behauptet, dass eine wirtschaftliche Assoziierung Großbritanniens zur EWG nicht gleich eine Vollmitgliedschaft des Vereinigten Königreiches bedeuten muss. Die westdeutsche Presse distanziert sich zunehmest von Adenauers kritischen Äußerungen wohingegen die britischen Zeitungen Ludwig Erhards und von Brentanos Zustimmung zitieren. Mit Adenauers Staatsbesuch in Paris Anfang Juli und der zelebrierten deutsch-französischen Aussöhnung in der Kathedrale von Reims kommen Feindbilder gegenüber den militanten Deutschen in der britischen Presse erneut hervor. Adenauer wird für die britische Europapolitik zur Bedrohung, da eine demonstrierte Aussöhnung mit de Gaulle gleichbedeutend sei mit einer Distanzierung Bonns vom britischen Anliegen und von einer Fürsprache Adenauers bei de Gaulle für die britische Sonderstellung. Weitere kritische Äußerungen Adenauers im August 1962 verstärken diese Haltung. Die westdeutsche Presse distanziert sich dabei nachweislich von den Äußerungen des "alten Herrn" und folgen dem Konsens der Bonner Außenpolitik. Mit dem Beginn der Commonwealth-Konferenz in London im September und dem aufkommenden Konflikt der Kuba-Krise endet der Untersuchungszeitraum dieser Arbeit. 11. Kapitel: Ergebnisse und diskursanalytische Schlussfolgerungen Zu den zentralen Schlussfolgerungen zählt die Aussage, dass die britische und westdeutsche überregionale Presse den allgemeinen Konsens der Außenpolitik verfolgt. Abweichende Haltungen einzelner Personen, auch gerade die der Regierungsoberhäupter, werden gegebenenfalls ausgegrenzt. Somit hält der überregionale Pressediskurs die Funktion einer Korrektur inne. Einflussnahmen der Politikerebene auf den Tenor der überregionalen Berichterstattung wurden kenntlich gemacht, etwa ab September 1959 vor dem Adenauer-Besuch in London. Die Formulierung negativer Fremdbilder und Stereotype ist in den Zeiten des außenpolitischen Konfliktes quantitativ erhöht. Ein interessantes Ergebnis ist die Dichotomie der tradierten Bilder von Adenauer und Macmillan: im April 1959 stilisiert die westdeutsche Presse Macmillan als "weich" und "flexibel" wohingegen die britischen Zeitungen Adenauer als "rigid" und "authoritarian" charakterisieren. Die Herausbildung negativer Stereotype ist damit zu begründen, dass die fremde Nation zur Bedrohung für die eigenen Interessen wird, wie im Fall von Macmillans Moskau-Reise oder Adenauers zunehmender Distanzierung zum britischen EWG-Beitritt. In Zeiten der akuten Bedrohung ist zusätzlich eine quantitative wie qualitative Abhängigkeit der britischen und westdeutschen Presseartikel festzustellen. So verlaufen beide Diskursstränge parallel zueinander. Aus qualitativer Sicht finden zahlreiche direkte und indirekte Bezüge der westdeutschen Presse zu britischen Artikeln sowie umgekehrt statt. Im dritten Diskursstrang, der vor dem Hintergrund der vorläufigen Abwesenheit von bilateralen Spannungen artikuliert wurde, treten die direkten Bezugnahmen zwischen der britischen und westdeutschen Presse zurück. Darüber hinaus verbessert sich der Tenor nachhaltig. In dem Moment, als erneut Spannungen auftraten, wie ab Juni 1962, tritt sogar das Bild des militanten Deutschen erneut in der britischen Presse auf. Somit hängen negative Fremdbilder vom außenpolitischen Kurs der Regierung und der Position der anderen Nation im bilateralen Verhältnis in den überregionalen Zeitungen ab. Zudem werden Forschungsausblicke vorgelegt, die sich auf einen Vergleich etwa des dritten Diskursstrangs mit dem gegenwärtigen EU-Austritt Großbritanniens beziehen oder sich mit den Dynamiken des deutsch-französischen Verhältnisses beschäftigen. 12. Kapitel: Ausblick: Wandel der Stereotype in der deutsch-britischen Presseberichterstattung(?) Das Kapitel möchte einen Ausblick zum Wandel bzw. zur Beständigkeit von den hier untersuchten Bildern des Anderen im gegenwärtigen deutsch-britischen Verhältnis liefern. Dazu werden einerseits Parallelen zum gegenwärtigen EU-Austritt Großbritanniens gezogen. Andererseits werden mittels der Aussagen von Interviewpartnern aus dem deutsch-britischen Verhältnis Ergebnisse und Ausblicke vorgelegt, die zur weiteren Erforschung der deutsch-britischen Pressebeziehungen einladen sollen. ; This doctoral dissertation examines the use of national stereotypes used in British and West German quality newspapers during the second Berlin Wall Crisis (1958 to 1962). As the Berlin Wall Crisis represents the tensest controversy within Cold War history, the national press coverage of West Germany and Great Britain is highly defined by reports on the political events. These are temporarily characterised by the direct confrontation between the West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer and the British Premier Harold Macmillan. The density and acuteness of this Cold War crisis, however, reduces the respective press releases on German and British affairs to a mere political coverage; thus, the analysis of the prevailing British and German newspapers can be regarded as a political discourse analysis. The methodological approach employed in this work follows the Critical Discourse Analysis according to Ruth Wodak [1], Norman Fairclough [2] and Sara Mills [3] with the aim of displaying the mutual use of auto- and hetero-images of "the Germans" and "the British" in the respective national media and consequently, the discursive construction of national identity. The discourse analysts' view is supplemented here by the imagologist approach of Manfred Beller [4], which concerns the construction of national images of the Self and the Other in public national discourse. Referring to the above-mentioned dominance of politically related reports in past national press coverage, Critical Discourse Analysis represents a highly suitable methodological approach as it aims at examining the discursive mechanisms of power and ideology in which a text is set. Considering this, Sara Mills defines Critical Discourse Analysis as a "political analysis of text" [5]. The time period examined in this work does not only mark the peak of the East-West conflict but also implements the substantial formation and structure of the European Union as it is still prevalent today. Major negotiations in the national press of that time, such as the entrance of Great Britain into the European Economic Community (EEC) beginning in the late 1950s, reveal arguments, attitudes and images in national press coverage about European affiliation of which many are still valid today. This can be currently noticed in British demands for a European reform as well as in a possible exit from the European Union in 2017. Accordingly, the diachronic view from the news coverage between Germany and Britain during the Berlin Wall Crisis is accomplished by this present outlook on German-British relations. This double-tracked approach allows both a complex portrayal of the historical development of German-British relationship and a definition of the mechanisms of auto- and hetero-images as they occur and change in trans-national media discourse. References: [1] Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer (Eds.). Methods of Critical Discourse Studies. London: Sage, 32016. [2] Norman Fairclough. Critical Discourse Analysis. The Critical Study of Language. Edinburgh: Longman, 22010. [3] Sara Mills. Discourse. London: Routledge, 1997. [4] Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Eds.). Imagology. The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters. A Critical Survey. New York: Rodopi, 2007. [5] Mills: Discourse, p. 131. ; Arrogante und nüchterne Briten, ein Bundespräsident, der nicht deutsch sein kann, da er den Briten sympathisch ist oder militante Deutsche, die gemocht werden wollen - so schreiben die überregionalen britischen und westdeutschen Tageszeitungen während einer der brisantesten Krisen des Kalten Krieges übereinander. Die zweite Berlin-Krise (1958 bis 62) repräsentiert dabei eine schicksalhafte Zeit sowohl für die Bundesrepublik als auch für das Vereinigte Königreich. Themen wie die Suche nach einer gemeinsamen westlichen Strategie als Antwort auf sowjetische Ultimaten und die Teilung Deutschlands, die ambivalente britische Außenpolitik gegenüber Berlin, die deutsch-französischen Annäherungen und die Einbindung des Vereinigten Königreiches in die kontinentaleuropäische Wirtschaft dominieren die Pressediskurse beider Nationen. Diese Studie untersucht die diskursiven Mittel, mit denen die überregionale Presse außenpolitische Ereignisse in den eigenen nationalen Referenzrahmen integriert, und welche Rolle dabei textuelle Stereotype und Charakterisierungen spielen. Mithilfe der Methode der Kritischen Diskursanalyse will diese Arbeit anhand qualitativer und quantitativer Darstellungen jeweils diskursive Mechanismen der westdeutschen und britischen Tagespresse aufzeigen und damit ein kleines Stückchen Licht in die mediale Tradierung eines komplexen deutsch-britischen Verhältnisses bringen.

ABSTRACT: The refugee crisis has shaped a new perception of the migration reality in Europe. The ramifications of its impact on European integration are visible and enduring. The EU's response has included a certain strategic perspective, albeit weighed down by an excess of eurocentrism and a security perception that does not take third countries' interests into balanced account. The major economic effort being made supports a far-reaching strategy, only now beginning to be outlined, to promote economic development in the countries of origin and transit of migrants. Additionally, issues such as the monitoring of respect for migrants' human rights have not yet been suitably globally defined in this strategy. Although the behaviour and response capacity of the EU and its Member States can be assessed in different ways, the truth is that the migration debate has decisively swayed a block of countries that are openly reluctant to engage in intra-European solidarity and accept the new realities and responsibilities entailed by the refugees already present and yet to come to Europe. This position is very negative in the medium and long term, since, as noted, the crisis has also underscored the permanence of migration trends and flows and the consolidation of the routes or gates of entry to Europe. This contribution considers the vulnerability of the European borders designed and in operation in the Schengen Area. The internal borders were the most affected at the start of the migration crisis and are likely to be marked by current regulatory changes, which tend to allow exceptionality as a relatively common occurrence in the European 'federal' area of free movement. Nevertheless, the resilience of this system of the absence of internal border controls in the 'federal' area of free movement is undeniable. The impact on the EU's external borders has been even greater, as it has shown once and for all that, more than fragile or vulnerable, some border controls, such as the sea border ones, are not practicable, especially those on Europe's southern sea borders. It is precisely this infeasibility of border control in marine areas that leads to the accentuation of certain trends on Europe's external borders, such as the externalization of migration controls. New regulatory and strategic planning developments confirm this trend, as well as the current concern for deploying an integrated external border management system. With regard to the phenomenon known as the 'externalization' of migration controls, the literature considers it to refer to EU actions aimed at reducing, sorting and controlling migration flows with the consent of third states in relations that are, by definition, asymmetrical. This article has addressed the different situations that arise, highlighting the advisability of differentiating between externalizing migration policy, on the one hand, and extraterritorial action concerning migration control, on the other. In search of greater conceptual accuracy, the term 'deterritoriality' has been used, as it is more neutral than the other terms mentioned insofar as it evokes the idea of positioning outside the territory certain border control and migration policy functions, to be carried out by other states or by the state itself. Since these are situations and actions linked to migration and border control, they should be conceptually situated outside the territory; the deterritoriality option hypothetically makes it possible to encompass both the externalization and the extraterritoriality of border control functions concerning migration. To this end, this article has focused on the various notions and activities that might be discussed in relation to the 'externalization' and the 'extraterritoriality' of migration controls and border functions, terms that, in sum, refer to migration control and management activities outside the territory, carried out by public officials of the EU states or by third states. On the one hand, externalization is considered to refer to the management and control of migration flows, the activities of adopting agreements, programmes, action plans and measures to encourage third states to monitor their own borders and migration flows in order to control, restrict or impede physical access to the territory of the EU states, accepting the placement in their territory, or the rejection, of refugees and migrants from other states. It does not involve the presence of or direct exercise of control activities by public officials of the EU Member States. In fact, outside European territory it is highly debatable that states are strictly performing border control functions, as it is an area that may more accurately fall within the more generic field of migration flow control linked to migration policy and European external action. On the other hand, extraterritorialization is understood to entail the performance of border control functions by states themselves outside their own territory. This case should involve the presence of or exercise by Member State public officials of some (effective) border control activities or functions in areas without state jurisdiction or in the territory of third states, with their consent. We are witnessing a change in the very concept of border in this post-globalization era, in which certain functions are offshored and systematically placed outside a state's territory and checkpoints. However, territorial and extraterritorial actions must be differentiated from those occurring as part of external actions in or with third states for the purposes of migration policy and the control of migration flows. The reality is that a new border space south and east of the Mediterranean has been configured for migratory flows, which needs a new policy of external borders for these areas. Therefore, we must reflect on new frontier spaces, with new concepts and approaches to the border that provide other parameters of action towards migratory flows and external controls. Today, the Union needs new instruments and concepts for these new realities, especially so as not to lose sight of the fact that, when it comes to tackling crises such as those related to migration and the rights of foreigners approaching or entering its territory and jurisdiction, Europe is a rational construct entailing a project for civilizational progress. As such, it must permanently incorporate its values and respect for human rights in all its policies, regulatory measures and actions with foreigners and third states, both on its own external borders and beyond them. This is essential for the identity and objectives of the European integration, and for the projection of the EU security, solidarity and values in accordance with the International and European Human Rights Law. KEYWORDS: European Union, immigration, refugees, asylum, European values, border controls, immigration controls, migration policy, borders, internal borders, external borders, Frontex, maritime immigration, externalization, extraterritoriality, deterritoriality, human rights ; Crisis de refugiados y migraciones en las puertas de Europa: Deterritorialidad, extraterritorialidad y externalización de controles fronterizos RESUMEN: La crisis de los refugiados ha conformado en Europa una nueva percepción de la realidad migratoria. Las ramificaciones de sus impactos en la construcción europea son visibles y duraderas. La reacción de la UE ha tenido cierta perspectiva estratégica, aunque lastrada por un exceso de eurocentrismo y de percepción securitaria, que no tiene en cuenta equilibradamente los intereses de los países terceros. El gran esfuerzo económico que se está realizando sostiene una estrategia de largo alcance que sólo ahora empieza a esbozarse, para fomentar el desarrollo económico en los países de origen y tránsito de la emigración. Por otra parte, cuestiones como las de vigilancia del respeto de derechos humanos de los inmigrantes aún están por perfilarse adecuadamente de manera global en esta estrategia. Aunque podemos hacer diferentes valoraciones del comportamiento y capacidad de reacción de la UE y sus Estados, lo cierto es que el debate migratorio ha decantado decididamente un bloque de países abiertamente reacios a la solidaridad intraeuropea, y a asumir las nuevas realidades y cargas que suponen los refugiados presentes y por venir a Europa. Esta perspectiva es muy negativa a medio y largo plazo, ya que, como hemos visto, la crisis también revela la permanencia de las corrientes y flujos migratorios, y la consolidación de los vías o Puertas de entrada a Europa. Hemos considerado en el trabajo la vulnerabilidad de las fronteras europeas diseñadas y en funcionamiento en el Área Schengen. Las fronteras interiores fueron las más impactadas al comienzo de la crisis migratoria, y probablemente van a quedar marcadas por los cambios normativos en curso, que tienden a admitir la excepcionalidad como hecho relativamente común en el espacio 'federal' de libre circulación europeo. Pese a todo, la capacidad de resiliencia de este sistema de ausencia de controles fronterizos interiores en el espacio 'federal' de libre circulación, es incontestable. El impacto en las fronteras europeas exteriores ha sido aún mayor, ya que se ha puesto de relieve en nuestra opinión definitivamente que, más que frágiles o vulnerables, ciertos controles fronterizos como los marítimos son impracticables, en particular los de las fronteras marítimas meridionales europeas. Precisamente esta inviabilidad del control fronterizo en espacios marítimos es lo que lleva en nuestra opinión a acentuar ciertas tendencias en las fronteras exteriores europeas, como las de externalización de controles migratorios. Los nuevos desarrollos normativos y de planificación estratégica confirman esta tendencia, así como la preocupación actual por desplegar un sistema integrado de gestión de fronteras exteriores. Respecto al fenómeno conocido como de 'Externalización' de controles migratorios, la doctrina ha venido considerándolo como actuaciones de la UE que buscan reducir, ordenar y controlar los flujos migratorios en anuencia con Estados terceros, en relaciones por definición asimétricas. En nuestro trabajo hemos abordado las diferentes situaciones que se plantean, poniendo de relieve la conveniencia de diferenciar entre Externalizar las políticas migratorias, por una parte, de la actuación Extraterritorial de control migratorio, por otra parte. Buscando una mayor precisión conceptual, preferimos utilizar el termino Desterritorialidad, que es más neutro que los referidos, al evocar la idea de ubicar fuera del territorio determinadas funciones de control fronterizo y de políticas migratorias, a desarrollar por otros Estados o por el propio Estado. Al tratarse de situaciones y actuaciones vinculadas a las migraciones y a los controles fronterizos, debemos conceptualmente situarnos fuera del territorio; por lo que esta opción de Desterritorialidad, permite hipotéticamente abarcar las dos situaciones de Externalización y de Extraterritorialidad de las funciones de control fronterizo respecto a las migraciones. Para ello nos centramos en las diferentes nociones y actividades que podrían debatirse respecto a la 'Externalización', 'Extraterritorialidad' de controles migratorios y funciones fronterizas, expresiones que, en suma, hacen referencia a actividades de gestión y control migratorio fuera del territorio, llevados a cabo por agentes públicos de los Estados UE, o por terceros Estados. Por una parte, consideramos constituyen Externalización de la gestión y control de flujos migratorios, las actividades de adopción de Acuerdos, Programa, Planes y medidas que pretenden que Estados terceros vigilen sus propias fronteras y flujos migratorios, para controlar, restringir o impedir el acceso físico al territorio de los Estados UE, asumiendo la localización en su territorio, o el rechazo, de refugiados e inmigrantes de otros Estados. Esto no implicaría presencia ni ejercicio directo de actividades de control por agentes públicos de los Estados Miembros de la UE. En realidad, fuera del territorio europeo es muy discutible que los Estados estén realizando estrictamente funciones de control fronterizo, ya que se trata de un ámbito que se encuentra tal vez en el más genérico terreno del control de flujos migratorios y vinculado a la política migratoria y a la acción exterior europea. Por otra parte, entendemos que la actuación Extraterritorialidad supone llevar a cabo funciones de control fronterizo por los Estados fuera de su territorio. Aquí debe existir en nuestra opinión presencia o ejercicio por agentes públicos de los Estados miembros de ciertas actividades o funciones de control (efectivo) fronterizo, en espacios sin jurisdicción estatal, o en el territorio de Estados terceros, con su acuerdo. Estamos ante un cambio en la concepción misma de la frontera en esta era pos-globalización, donde determinadas funciones se deslocalizan y se sitúan sistemáticamente fuera del territorio y los puestos fronterizos de los Estados. Sin embargo, las actuaciones territoriales y extraterritoriales deben diferenciarse de las que se producen en actividades de acción exterior en o con terceros Estados a fines de política de inmigración y control de flujos migratorios. La realidad es que se ha configurado para los flujos migratorios un nuevo espacio fronterizo al sur y este del mediterráneo, que necesita una nueva política de fronteras exteriores para este área. Por ello debemos reflexionar sobre nuevos espacios e imaginarios fronterizos, con nuevos conceptos y enfoques de la frontera que aporten otros parámetros de actuación hacia los flujos migratorios y los controles exteriores. La Unión necesita hoy instrumentos y conceptos nuevos para estas nuevas realidades, y sobre todo para no perder de vista que, a la hora de afrontar crisis como las migratorias y de derechos de los extranjeros que se acercan o entran en nuestro territorio y jurisdicción, Europa es una construcción racional que supone un Proyecto de progreso civilizatorio, y que como tal debe incorporar permanentemente sus valores y el respeto de derechos humanos en todas sus políticas, medidas normativas y actuaciones con extranjeros y Estados terceros, en sus propias fronteras exteriores y más allá de las mismas. Esto es esencial para la identidad y objetivos de la integración, y para la proyección de la seguridad, solidaridad y valores de la UE conforme al Derecho internacional y europeo de los Derechos Humanos. PALABRAS CLAVE: Unión Europea, inmigración, refugiados, asilo, valores de Europa, controles fronterizos, controles migratorios, política migratoria, fronteras, fronteras interiores, fronteras exteriores, Frontex, inmigración marítima, externalización, extraterritorialidad, desterritorialidad, derechos humanos ; Crise des réfugiés et migrations aux portes de l'Europe: déterritorialité, extraterritorialité et externalisation des contrôles des frontières RÉSUMÉ: La crise des réfugiés a forgé une nouvelle perception de la réalité de la migration en Europe. Les conséquences de ses impacts sur la construction européenne sont visibles et durables. La réaction de l'UE a eu une certaine perspective stratégique, bien que pénalisée par un excès de perception de l'eurocentrisme et de la sécurité, qui ne tienne pas compte des intérêts des pays tiers. Le grand effort économique en cours appuie une stratégie à long terme qui commence seulement à être esquissée pour promouvoir le développement économique dans les pays d'origine et de transit de l'émigration. D'autre part, des questions telles que la surveillance du respect des droits humains des immigrés doivent encore être correctement établies de manière globale dans cette stratégie. Bien que nous puissions évaluer différemment le comportement et la capacité de réaction de l'UE et de ses États, le débat sur l'immigration a décidément décliné en bloc un groupe de pays ouvertement réticents à la solidarité intra-européenne et à assumer les nouvelles réalités et les responsabilités que posent les réfugiés. Cette perspective est très négative à moyen et long terme car, comme on l'a vu, la crise révèle également la permanence des courants et des flux migratoires, ainsi que la consolidation des routes ou portes d'entrée en Europe. Nous avons examiné à l'œuvre la vulnérabilité des frontières européennes en fonctionnement dans l'espace Schengen. Les frontières intérieures ont été les plus touchées au début de la crise migratoire et devraient être modifiées par les propositions réglementaires en cours, qui tendent à admettre que l'exceptionnalité est un phénomène relativement courant dans l'espace «fédéral» de la libre circulation européenne. Malgré tout, la résilience de ce système d'absence de contrôle aux frontières intérieures dans l'espace «fédéral» de libre circulation est incontestable. L'impact sur les frontières extérieures de l'Europe a été encore plus grand, car il a été clairement souligné à notre avis que, plutôt que fragiles ou vulnérables, certains contrôles frontaliers tels que les contrôles maritimes sont irréalisables, notamment ceux des frontières maritimes du sud de l'Europe. C'est précisément cette impossibilité de contrôler les frontières dans les espaces maritimes qui conduit, à notre avis, à accentuer certaines tendances aux frontières extérieures européennes, telles que celles de l'externalisation des contrôles migratoires. Les nouveaux développements réglementaires et stratégiques en matière de planification confirment cette tendance, ainsi que la détermination actuelle de déployer un système intégré de gestion des frontières extérieures. En ce qui concerne le phénomène appelé «externalisation» des contrôles de l'immigration, la doctrine l'a considéré comme une action de l'UE visant à réduire, ordonner et contrôler les flux migratoires en accord avec les États tiers, dans des relations asymétriques par définition. Dans notre travail, nous avons abordé les différentes situations qui se présentent, en soulignant l'opportunité de différencier les politiques migratoires d'externalisation, d'une part, de l'action extraterritoriale de contrôle de l'immigration, d'autre part. À la recherche d'une plus grande précision conceptuelle, nous préférons utiliser le terme Disterritorialité, qui est plus neutre que ceux auxquels il est fait référence, lorsqu'il évoque l'idée de localiser certaines fonctions de contrôle des frontières et certaines politiques de migration en dehors du territoire, à développer par d'autres États ou par l'État lui-même. Lorsque nous traitons des situations et des actions liées à la migration et aux contrôles aux frontières, nous devons nous placer conceptuellement en dehors du territoire; par conséquent, cette option de déterritorialité permet, de manière hypothétique, de couvrir les deux situations d'externalisation et d'extraterritorialité des fonctions de contrôle des frontières en matière de migration. Pour cela, nous nous concentrons sur les différentes notions et activités pouvant être discutées concernant "l'externalisation", "l'extraterritorialité" des contrôles migratoires et des fonctions des frontières, expressions qui, en bref, désignent des activités de gestion et de contrôle des migrations hors du territoire prises par des agents publics des États de l'UE ou par des États tiers. D'une part, nous considérons que l'externalisation de la gestion et du contrôle des flux migratoires constitue une activité d'adoption d'accords, de programmes, de plans et de mesures visant à garantir que les États tiers surveillent leurs propres frontières et flux migratoires, afin de contrôler, restreindre ou empêcher l'accès physique sur le territoire des États membres de l'UE, en supposant que le réfugié et l'immigré en provenance d'autres États sont situés sur leur territoire. Cela n'impliquerait pas la présence ou l'exercice direct d'activités de contrôle par des agents publics des États membres de l'UE. En fait, hors du territoire européen, il est très discutable que les États exercent strictement des fonctions de contrôle des frontières, car il s'agit peut-être d'un domaine qui est peut-être le domaine le plus générique du contrôle des flux migratoires, plutôt lié à la politique migratoire et à l'action exterieure européenne. D'autre part, nous comprenons que l'action Extraterritorialité implique que les États situés à l'extérieur de leur territoire exercent des fonctions de contrôle des frontières. À notre avis, il doit exister une présence ou un exercice par des agents publics des États membres de certaines activités ou fonctions de contrôle des frontières dans les espaces en dehors de la juridiction de l'État ou sur le territoire d'États tiers, avec l'accord de ces derniers. Nous sommes confrontés à un changement dans la conception même de la frontière en cette ère de post-globalisation, où certaines fonctions sont délocalisées et systématiquement situées en dehors du territoire et des postes frontières des États. Toutefois, les actions territoriales et extraterritoriales doivent être distinguées de celles qui se produisent lors d'activités d'action extérieure dans ou avec des États tiers à des fins de politique d'immigration et de contrôle des flux migratoires. La réalité est qu'un nouvel espace-frontière au sud et à l'est de la Méditerranée a été configuré pour les flux migratoires, ce qui nécessite une nouvelle politique de frontières extérieures pour cette zone. Par conséquent, nous devons réfléchir sur de nouveaux espaces frontières, avec de nouveaux concepts et approches de la frontière qui fournissent d'autres paramètres d'action en matière de flux migratoires et de contrôles externes. Aujourd'hui, l'Union a besoin de nouveaux instruments et concepts pour ces nouvelles réalités, et, surtout, pour ne pas perdre de vue le fait que face aux crises telles que les migrations et les droits des étrangers qui s'approchent de notre territoire ou y entrent, l'Europe est une construction rationnelle qui implique un projet de progrès civilisationnel. En tant que tel, l'Europe doit intégrer de manière permanente ses valeurs et le respect des droits de l'homme dans toutes ses politiques, mesures réglementaires et actions auprès des étrangers et des États tiers, à ses frontières extérieures et au-delà. Cela est essentiel pour l'identité et les objectifs de l'intégration, ainsi que pour la projection de la sécurité, de la solidarité et des valeurs de l'UE conformément au droit international et européen des droits de l'homme. MOTS-CLÉ: Union européenne, immigration, réfugiés, asile, valeurs européennes, contrôles aux frontières, contrôles migratoires, politique d'immigration, frontières, frontières intérieures, frontières extérieures, Frontex, immigration maritime, externalisation, extraterritorialité, déterritorialité, droits de l'homme

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tumkur-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 643 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 605 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 38 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 25 per cent area are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm), 69 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm).  About 12 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 15 per cent area is loamy soils and 68per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 91 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 14 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 14 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 12 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 1 per cent area.  4 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 90 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha).  About 55 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 39 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 25 per cent.  About 4.5 ppm) in an area of about 80 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 24 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 436(68) 92(14) Guava - 75(12) Maize 67(10) 452(70) Sapota - 75(12) Bajra 75(12) 453(70) Pomegranate - 444(69) Groundnut - 75(12) Musambi 335(52) 109(17) Sunflower 149(23) 295(46) Lime 335(52) 109(17) Redgram - 444(69) Amla 340(53) 188(29) Bengal gram 436(68) 84(13) Cashew - - Cotton 335(52) 184(29) Jackfruit - 75(12) Chilli - 528(82) Jamun - 369(57) Tomato 67(10) 133(20) Custard apple 436(68) 91(14) Brinjal 142(22) 386(60) Tamarind - 369(57) Onion 142(22) 92(14) Mulberry - 75(12) Bhendi 142(22) 386(60) Marigold - 528(82) Drumstick - 444(69) Chrysanthemum - 528(82) Mango - 41(6)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 36 farmers were sampled in Tumkur-1 micro watershed among them 8 (22.22%) were marginal farmers, 10 (27.78%) were small farmers, 12 (33.33%) were semi medium farmers, 3 (8.33%) were medium farmers, 1 (2.78%) and 2 (5.56%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 161 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 100 (62.11%) men and 61 (37.89%) were women. The average family size of landless, marginal and small farmers was 5. Semi medium and large farmers were 4 and medium farmer was 3. On an average the family size was 4.  The data indicated that 22 (13.66%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (45.96%) were in 16-35 years of age, 52 (32.30%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (8.07%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Tumkur-1 had 37.89 per cent illiterates, 18.63 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.94 per cent of them had both middle school, 14.29 per cent them had high school education, 9.94 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.24 per cent them had ITI education, 4.97 per cent of them had degree education, 1.24 per cent of them had masters education and 1.86 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 86.11 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 2.78 per cent of the household heads were general labour and in government service. 5.56 per cent of the household heads were in private service.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 68.32 per cent of the household members, 0.62 per cent were agricultural labourers, 4.97 per cent were general labours, 0.62 percent were in household industry and in government service, 1.86 per cent of them were in private sector, 11.80 per cent of them were students, 3.11 per cent of them were children and 6.83 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 80 per cent were general labourers and 20 per cent were doing other jobs. In case of marginal farmers 72.97 per cent were agriculturist and 10.81 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 86.96 per cent of them were agriculturist and 10.87 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 59.26 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 1.85 per cent of them were agricultural labour and in government service, 5.56 per cent of them were in private service, 16.67 per cent of them were students, 12.96 per cent of them were housewives and 1.85 per cent of them were children. In case of medium farmers 82 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 10 per cent of them were students and housewives respectively. In medium farmers, 75 per cent of them were doing agriculture and 25 per cent of them were children. 2  100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 47.22 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 41.67 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 11.11 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 80.56 per cent of the households possess TV, 61.11 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 8.33 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 86.11 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.78 per cent of the households possess landline and 91.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6,655, mixer grinder was Rs.1650, bicycle was Rs.3666, motor cycle was Rs.59375, landline phone was Rs. 500 and mobile phone was Rs.1475.  Data showed that 16.67 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.22 per cent of them possess plough, 36.11 per cent of the households possess tractor, 13.89 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 5.56 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 22.22 per cent of the households possess weeder and 11.11 per cent of the households possess harvester.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.14875; the average value of plough was Rs. 1772, the average value of tractor was Rs. 234615, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 2812, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 2333, the average value of weeder was Rs. 169 and the average value of harvester was Rs. 220.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 52.78 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, sheep and goat respectively and 27.78 per cent of the households possess buffalo. In land less farmers 50 per cent of the households possess buffalo and goat respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 50 per cent of the households possess bullock, 62.50 per cent of the households possess local cow, 25 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 12.50 per cent of the households possess sheep and poultry birds respectively. In case of small farmers, 30 per cent of households possess bullock and buffalo and 40 per cent of the households possess local cow respectively. In case of semi medium farmers 41.67 per cent of the households possess bullock, 75 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.33 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 16.67 per cent of the households possess buffalo. In medium farmers 33.33 per cent of the households possess buffalo and in large farmers 100 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.00, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average 3 hired labour (men) available was 9.62 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.97.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was also 1.38, average hired labour (men) was 6.38 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.88. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2.20, average own labour (women) was 1.30, average hired labour (men) was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.20. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.00, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 10.67 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.50. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 1.67, average own labour (women) was 1.00, average hired labour (men) was 13 and average hired labour (women) available was 13. In large farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.00, average hired labour (men) was 15 and average hired labour (women) available was 15.  The results indicated that, 94.44 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Tumkur-1 micro watershed possess 28.96 ha (53.67%) of dry land and 24.99 ha (46.33%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.46 ha (91.69%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (8.31%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.12 ha (86.25%) of dry land and 1.77 ha (13.75%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 13.38 ha (57.26%) of dry land and 9.98 ha (42.74%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.72 ha (100%) of irrigated land and large farmers possess 5.12 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 448,777.08 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 448,727.33. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 761,378.07 for dry land and Rs. 1482000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 557,480.90 for dry land Rs. 507,534.26 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 254,099.85 for dry land and Rs. 532,646.94 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 310,854.74 for irrigated land and in large famers; the average land value was Rs. 390,822.77.  The results indicated that, there were 1 functioning and 1 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 2.78 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 2.12 meters. 4  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0. 40 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown cotton (20.57 ha), paddy (17.34 ha) and redgram (10.88 ha). Marginal and small farmers had grown cotton and redgram respectively. Semi medium farmers had grown cotton, paddy and redgram. Medium and large farmers had grown paddy.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Tumkur-1 micro watershed was found to be 95.09 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 96.27, in semi medium farmers it was 98.18, in medium farmers it was 79.02 per cent and in large farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 61.11 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of marginal, 60 per cent of small, 25 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 37349.61. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70103.06. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 32753.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.88.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 31366.95. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 96591.22. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 65224.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.08.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 44880.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 114607.74. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 69727.12, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.55.  The results indicated that, 63.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated, in landless farmers, that the average income from wage was Rs. 105000, in marginal farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 36250, agriculture was Rs.51000, dairy farm was Rs.6250 and goat farming was RS.2500. In small farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 10000, wage was Rs.39000, agriculture was Rs.68350 and dairy farm was Rs.6000. In semi medium farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 31666.67, agriculture was Rs.156875 and dairy farm was Rs.1250. In medium farmers, the average income from agriculture was Rs.222000 and dairy farm was Rs.5000.  The results indicated that in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.40000. In marginal farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.12142.86, agriculture was Rs.23750, dairy farm was Rs.4250 and goat farming 5 was Rs.10000. In small farmers, the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.30000, wage was Rs.13750, agriculture was Rs.25000 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 19,375, agriculture was Rs. 54,833.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In medium farmers, the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.108333.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In large farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs. 70,000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 1 mango tree in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 52 neem trees and 1 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, cotton, paddy and red gram crops were sold to the extent of 95.25 per cent, 86.67 per cent and 100 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 94.44 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant.  The results indicated that 72.22 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transport and 22.22 per cent of them have used truck.  The results indicated that, 25 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 12.50 percent of marginal farmers, 30 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 75 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 25 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 100 per cent and 2.78 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, semi medium and large farmers, 12.50 per cent of marginal, 10 per cent of small and 33.33 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility respectively.  The results indicated that, 91.67 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 11.11 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 69.44 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. 6  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 94.44 per cent, 100 per cent, 61.11 per cent, 44.44 per cent, 8.33 per cent, 75 per cent, 30.56 per cent and 8.33 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were inadequate for 2.78 per cent of the households, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 38.89 per cent, 55.56 per cent, 91.67 per cent, 22.22 per cent, 69.44 per cent and 91.67 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.67 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.89%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (86.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (27.78%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.56%), high rate of interest on credit (27.78%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (58.33%), inadequate extension services (25%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.89%) and less rainfall (13.89%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bikkanahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 548 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soil and 4 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 17 soil series and 26 soil phases (management units) and 8 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 13 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 83 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 37 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 83 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 41 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 55 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 2 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 44 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 22 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 28 per cent very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 337 kg/ha) in 93 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 71per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 25 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 174(32) 182(33) Sapota 54(10) 135(24) Maize 42(8) 313(58) Pomegranate 96(18) 220(40) Bajra 119(22) 250(45) Musambi 168(31) 149(28) Groundnut 12(2) 271(49) Lime 168(31) 149(28) Sunflower 168(31) 132(24) Amla 148(27) 289(53) Redgram 54(10) 237(43) Cashew 96(18) 94(17) Bengal gram 119(22) 236(43) Jackfruit 54(10) 135(24) Cotton 131(24) 224(41) Jamun 12(2) 290(52) Chilli 77(14) 150(27) Custard apple 267(49) 170(31) Tomato 77(14) 150(27) Tamarind 12(2) 221(41) Brinjal 159(29) 209(39) Mulberry 96(18) 281(51) Onion 108(20) 132(24) Marigold 54(10) 301(55) Bhendi 108(20) 260(48) Chrysanthemum 54(10) 301(55) Drumstick 96(18) 265(48) Jasmine 54(10) 173(31) Mango 12(2) 107(20) Crossandra 54(10) 195(36) Guava 54(10) 133(24) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 131 (59.01%) men and 91 (40.99%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 4.3, small farmers' was 5.27, semi medium farmers' was 5, medium farmers' was 7.33 and large farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (18.92%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 95 (42.79%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (28.83%) were in 36-60 years of age and 21 (9.46%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Bikkanahalli had 23.87 per cent illiterates, 25.68 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.76 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.67 per cent of them had high school education, 9.91 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.90 per cent had diploma, 4.50 per cent of them did ITI, 9.46 per cent of them had degree education and 0.45 per cent did masters.  The results indicate that, 82.22 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 17.78 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 42.34 per cent of the household members, 22.97 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.90 per cent of the households general labourers, 0.90 per cent of the households were in government service, 1.35 per cent were in private service, 27.48 per cent were students and 1.80 per cent were children.  The results show that 98.65 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions, 0.45 per cent of the population participated in sthree shakthi sangha and 0.90 per cent participated in self help group.  The results indicate that 4.44 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 84.44 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 11.11 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 4.44 per cent of the households possess radio, 75.56 per cent of the households possess TV, 24.44 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 6.67 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 28.89 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.22 per cent of the households possess landline phone and 95.56 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of radio was Rs.750, television was Rs.5426, mixer grinder was Rs.1290, bicycle was Rs. 866, motor cycle was Rs.31307, landline phone was Rs.1250 and mobile phone was Rs.2281.  About 22.22 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 8.89 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.22 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, 2.22 per cent of them possess tractor, 2.22 per cent of them possess sprayer and 20 per cent of them possess weeder. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.22400, the average value of plough was Rs.2250, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs.3000, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.50.  The results indicate that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.11 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.67 per cent of them possess buffalo and 2.22 per cent of the households possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.93, average own labour (women) available was 1.23, average hired labour (men) available was 7.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.38.  The results indicate that, 62.22 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 24.44 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Bikkanahalli micro-watershed possess 73.47 ha (89.81%) of dry land and 8.34 ha (10.19%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 12.10 ha (96.76%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (3.24%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 17.42 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.48 ha (65.04%) of dry land and 3.48 per cent (34.96%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 9.15 ha (67.26%) of dry land and 4.45 ha (32.74%) of irrigated land; large farmers possess 28.33 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 151,492.43 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 389,684.47. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 417,034.44 for dry land and Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 225,823.66 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 192,968.75 for dry land and Rs. 545,697.68 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 65,575.22 for dry land and Rs. 190,863.64 for irrigated land and in case of large farmers it was Rs. 10,585.71 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning and 5 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 17.78 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 14.09 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 1.21 ha, 3.08 ha and 4.45 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (21.98 ha), bajra (6.30 ha), sunflower (6.73 ha), Bengal gram (1.42 ha), sorghum (8.42 ha), redgram (1.82 ha), navane (1.01), blackgram (0.40), Greengram (0.81), horsegram (0.81), onion (0.40) and chilly (0.65 ha). 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Bikkanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 66.07 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 86.40 per cent, small farmers it was 76.21 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 81.46, medium farmers it was 45.35 per cent and in case of large farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 75.56 per cent of the households have bank account and 24.44 per cent have savings.  The results indicate that, 44.44 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46549.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33923.77. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -12625.90, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 36636.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 4763.57. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -31872.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.13.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 31736.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18149.41. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 13586.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.57.  The total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 20029.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 7410. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. -12619.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.37.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 30931.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27787.50. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. - 3143.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 37640.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22297.69. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -15342.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.59.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 49117.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25214.58. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -23902.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.51.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25990.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 17599.03. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -8391.01. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.68.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 22542.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 8892. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. - 13650.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.39.  The total cost of cultivation for blackgram was Rs. 29957.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25935. The net income from blackgram cultivation was Rs. -4022.73. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87. 4  The total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 34435.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 6669. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. -27766.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.19.  The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 89144.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. - 59504.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.33.  The results indicate that, 28.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.22 per cent opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 27,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 43,955.79, for small farmers it was Rs. 40,545.45, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 135,300, for medium farmers it was Rs. 170,333.33 and for large farmers it was Rs. 25,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,601.85. For landless households it was Rs. 1,500, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 1,820.18, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,727.27, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,111.11, for medium farmers it was Rs. 30,111.11 and for large farmers it was Rs. 35,000.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 2933.33, for improved crop production Rs.1822.22 and for improved livestock management Rs. 1066.67.  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 7.5 per cent for irrigation facility and 2.5 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 22.22 per cent for land development, for another 22.22 per cent for improved crop production and 13.33 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds were the source of additional investment for 13.33 per cent for land development and 8.89 per cent for improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment capacity for 2.22 per cent for land development, for 6.67 per cent for improved crop production and for 6.67 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except blackgram (66.67), sorghum (96.94%) and sunflower (98.41%).  The results indicated that, about 46.67 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 77.78 per cent of the farmers have sold to local/village merchants and 2.22 per cent have sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 122.22 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 2.22 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport for their agricultural produce. 5  The results indicated that, 86.67 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 89.47 per cent of the marginal farmers, 100 per cent of the small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium, 100 per cent of medium and large farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent have shown interest in soil test i.e 94.74 per cent of marginal, 90.91 per cent of small, 66.67 per cent of semi medium, 100 per cent of medium and large farmers.  The results indicated that, 84.44 per cent of the households used firewood and 17.78 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 28.89 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 60 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 4.44 per cent of the households and canal/nala was the source of drinking water for 2.22 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.22 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 21.05 per cent of the marginal farmers, 36.36 per cent of the small farmers, 33.33 per cent of the semi medium farmers, 100 per cent of the landless, medium and large farmers.  The results indicated that, 95.56 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 4.44 per cent of the households possessed APL card and 2.22 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 42.22 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.11 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 51.11 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 11.11 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 46.67 per cent, fruits were adequate for 6.67 per cent, milk was adequate for 57.78 per cent, eggs were adequate for 31.11 per cent and meat was adequate for 20 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 8.89 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 48.89 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 84.44 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 44.44 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 77.78 per cent, milk was inadequate for 31.11 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 62.22 per cent and meat was inadequate for 51.11 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 2.22 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 11.11 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.22 per cent of the households. 6  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 84.44 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (71.11%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (46.67%), inadequacy of irrigation water (13.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (35.56%), high rate of interest on credit (40%), low price for the agricultural commodities (51.11%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (57.78%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80%), inadequate extension services (24.44%), less rainfall (22.22%) and source of agri-technology information (17.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mainahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 510 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 7land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 8 per cent area has loamy soils and 92 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 66 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 87 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 13 per cent area has nearly sloping (0-1%) lands.  An area of about 28 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 72 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 7 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4), 32 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 35 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 26 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 57 per cent and 42 per cent soils are high (>20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 32 per cent area and 67 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm).  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 1 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 119(23) 315(62) Sapota 38 (8) 45 (9) Maize - 434 (85) Pomegranate 63 (12) 247 (49) Bajra 63 (12) 416 (82) Musambi 119 (23) 192 (38) Groundnut 38 (8) 89 (17) Lime 119 (23) 181 (35) Sunflower 119 (23) 178 (35) Amla 63 (12) 416 (82) Red gram 38 (8) 254 (50) Cashew 63 (12) 14 (3) Bengalgram 80 (16) 384 (76) Jackfruit 38 (8) 45 (9) Cotton 119 (23) 315 (62) Jamun 38 (8) 261 (51) Chilli 38 (8) 75 (15) Custard apple 143 (28) 336 (66) Tomato 38 (8) 75 (15) Tamarind 38 (8) 247 (49) Brinjal 24 (5) 366 (72) Mulberry 63 (12) 104 (21) Onion 24 (5) 45 (9) Marigold 38 (8) 249 (49) Bhendi 24 (5) 366 (72) Chrysanthemum 38 (8) 395 (78) Drumstick 63 (12) 234 (46) Jasmine 38 (8) 214 (42) Mango 38 (8) 24 (5) Crossandra 38 (8) 79 (15) Guava 38 (8) 45 (9) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 37 farmers were sampled in Mainahalli micro watershed among them 15 (40.54%) were marginal farmers, 12 (32.43%) were small farmers, 5 (13.51 %) were semi medium farmers, 1 (2.70%) were medium farmers and 4 (10.81%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 168 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 94 (55.95%) men and 74 (44.05%) were women. The average family size of landless and small farmer was 4, marginal farmers and semi medium farmers were 5 and medium farmers were 7. On an average the family size was 6.  The data indicated that 36 (21.43%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 65 (38.69%) were in 16-35 years of age, 52 (30.95%) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (8.93 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Mainahalli had 29.76 per cent illiterates, 30.36 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.52 per cent of them had both middle school, 13.10 per cent them had high school education, 8.93 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.60 per cent of them had diploma and ITI education, 6.55 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 86.49 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 10.81 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 2.70 per cent of the household heads were doing trade and business.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 20.24 per cent of the household members, 48.81 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.60 per cent were general labours, private sector, trade and business and children respectively. 28.57 per cent of them were students. In case of landless households 6.67 per cent were agriculturist, 86.67 per cent were agricultural labors and 6.67 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 19.18 per cent were agriculturist, 54.79 per cent were agricultural labour and 24.66 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 27.66 per cent of them were agriculturist, 36.17 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 2.13 per cent were trade and business and 34.04 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 19.23 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 34.62 per cent were agriculture labour and 42.31 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 14.29 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 42.86 per cent of them were agriculture labors and 28.57 per cent were students and 14.29 per cent of them were children.  The results showed 100 per cent of the farmers have not participated in any local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 94.59 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 5.41 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 2.70 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 70.27 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.70 per cent of them possess DVD/VCD Player, 10.81 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.41 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 24.32 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 75.68 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6076, DVD/VCD Player was Rs.3000, mixer grinder was Rs.1250, bicycle was Rs.400, motor cycle was Rs.37666 and mobile phone was Rs.4336.  About 8.11 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 2.70 per cent of them possess plough 21.62 per cent of the households possess weeder.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.21666; the average value of plough was Rs. 2000 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 24.  The results indicated that, 10.81 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 5.41 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.70 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 8.11 per cent of the household possess buffalo and 5.41 per cent of the households possess sheep.  In case of marginal farmers, 6.67 per cent of the households possess bullock, local cow, crossbred cow and buffalo respectively. In case of small farmers, 8.33 per cent of households possess bullock, local cow, buffalo and sheep respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 40 per cent of the households possess bullock and 20 per cent possess buffalo and sheep respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.78, average own labour (women) available was 1.36, average hired labour (men) available was 8.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.69.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2.00, average own labour (women) was also 1.47, average hired labour (men) was 6.47 and average hired labour (women) available was also 6.73. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.58, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 6.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.58. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.80, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.60. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 30 and average hired labour (women) available was 30.  The results indicated that, 8.11 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 89.19 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate. 3  The results indicated that, households of the Mainahalli micro watershed possess 38.26 ha (90.61%) of dry land and 3.97 ha (9.39%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 10.44 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 15.95 ha (92.27 %) of dry land and 1.34 ha (7.73 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.43 ha (73.84%) of dry land and 2.63 ha (26.16%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.45 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 233,807.51 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 441,071.43. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 426,027.13 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 206,878.17 for dry land Rs. 486,515.16 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 121,144.41 for dry land and Rs. 418,000 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 67,363.64 for dry land and.  The results indicated that, there were 1 functioning and 1 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 2.70 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 3.77 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of small farmers there was 0.81 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (7.81 ha), maize (19.33 ha), sorghum (5.26 ha), red gram (0.20 ha) and sunflower (8.15 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers had grown bajra, sorghum and maize. Small farmers had grown bajra, sorghum, maize and sunflower. Semi medium farmers had grown bajra, sorghum, maize, red gram and sunflower. Medium farmers had grown sunflower.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Mainahalli micro watershed was found to be 78.16 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 83.93 per cent, in case of small farmers it was 75.66 per cent, in case semi medium it was 70.24 per cent and medium farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 81.08 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings. 100 percent of the marginal and medium farmers possess bank account and savings respectively. 83.33 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings. Semi medium farmers possess 80 per cent of both bank account and savings.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of marginal, 83.33 per cent of small, 80 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 33170.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26696.83. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -6473.21, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.8. 4  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 38478.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31675.95. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -6802.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.82.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 61336.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49804.52. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. -11532.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.81.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 41245.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27371.03. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -13874.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.66.  The results indicated that, 5.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.51 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that, in case of landless, the average income from wage was Rs. 52000. In case marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs.666.67, agriculture was Rs.40666.6 and dairy farm was Rs.1333.33. In small farmers, the average income from service/salary was Rs.3333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 46,666.67. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 2400, agriculture was Rs.137000, dairy farm was Rs. 1200 and goat farming was Rs.8000. In medium farmers the average income from agriculture was Rs.100000.  The results indicated that, in case of land less, the average expenditure from wage Rs. 17500. In marginal farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.5000, agriculture was Rs.20200 and dairy farm was Rs.3500. In small farmers, the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.10000 and agriculture was Rs.24833.33. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.8000, agriculture was Rs.39000, dairy farm was Rs.2000 and goat farming was Rs.15000. In medium farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.70000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 2 teak trees, 21 neem trees, 1tamarind tress, 4 banyan and 1 peeple trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4108.11 for land development and Rs.270.27 for improved crop production.  Marginal farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5333.33 for land development and Rs.266.67 for improved crop production. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4250 for land development. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3800 for land development and Rs. 600 5 in irrigation facility. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2000 for land development and Rs. 3000 in irrigation facility.  The results indicated that for land development, 2.63 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank and own funds respectively and 50 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan. 7.89 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, bajra, sorghum, maize, redgram and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 48.65 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 59.46 percent of the households sold their produce to regulated market.  The results indicated that 2.70 per cent of the households have used head load and truck as a mode of transport, 13.51 per cent of the households used cart as a mode of transport and 89.19 per cent of them have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 27.03 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 46.67 percent of marginal farmers and 25 per cent of small farmers.  The results indicated that, 75.68 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing includes 93.33 per cent of the marginal, 75 per cent of the small, 80 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.70 percent of them used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 35.14 per cent households and 67.57 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 59.46 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 8.33 per cent of the small, 20 per cent of the semi medium and 100 medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 37.84 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 26.67 percent of the marginal, 25 per cent of the small, 40 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk and egg were adequate for 97.30 per cent, 86.49 per cent, 43.24 per cent, 43.24 per cent, 62.16 per cent, 29.73 per cent and 51.35 per cent respectively. 6  The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 10.81 per cent, 51.35 per cent, 54.05 per cent, 24.32 per cent, 24.32 per cent, 35.14 per cent and 5.41 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 89.19 per cent of the households experienced by lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint, wild animal menace on farm field (67.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (51.35%), inadequacy of irrigation water (24.32%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (32.43%), high rate of interest on credit (10.81%), low price for the agricultural commodities (16.22%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (8.11%), inadequate extension services (10.81%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (27.03%), less rainfall (64.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (13.51%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Abbagiri Tanda-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 877 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 96 per cent is covered by soils and 4 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 52 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 57 per cent soils are loamy and 16 per cent clayey soils at the surface  About 32 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 4 per cent in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 69 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 6 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5% slope)  An area of about 59 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 19 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 21 per cent soils are strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), an area of about 21 per cent soils are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), an area of about 13 per cent soils are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) in soil reaction, an area of 10 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5- 7.3), 5 per cent soils are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 7 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 2 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in 61 per cent area.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in an area 25 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in an area of 54 per cent.  About 43 per cent is low (145 kg/ha) in available potassium, 27 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 67 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 38 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 40 (5) 177 (20) Pomegranate - 180 (20) Maize 15 (2) 202 (23) Guava - 158 (18) Bajra 19 (2) 316 (36) Jackfruit - 158 (18) Groundnut - 471 (54) Jamun - 160 (18) Sunflower 22 (3) 58 (7) Musambi 22 (3) 158 (18) Cotton 22 (3) 194 (22) Lime 22 (3) 158 (18) Red gram - 80 (9) Cashew 15 (2) 233 (27) Bengalgram 22 (3) 205 (23) Custard apple 79 (9) 531 (60) Chilli 18 (2) 199 (23) Amla 46 (5) 557 (64) Tomato 18 (2) 199 (23) Tamarind - 24 (3) Drumstick 2 (<1) 253 (29) Marigold 15 (2) 202 (23) Mulberry 2 (<1) 426 (48) Chrysanthemum 15 (2) 202 (23) Mango - 2 (<1) Jasmine 15 (2) 180 (20) Sapota - 158 (18) Crossandra 15 (2) 180 (20)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 124 (53.45%) men and 108 (46.55%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of land less farmers was 4, marginal farmers were 4, small farmer was 5, semi medium farmer was 5 and medium farmers were 3.  There were 55 (23.71%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 101 (43.53%) were in 16-35 years of age, 57 (24.57 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (8.19%) were above 61 years of age.  The micro watershed had 34.48 per cent illiterates, 0.43 per cent functional literates, 34.48 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.59 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.36 per cent of them had high school education, 7.33 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.66 per cent of them diploma, 0.86 per cent of them had ITI, 3.45 per cent of them had degree education and 1.29 per cent of them had other education.  The results indicate that, 81.63 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 4.08 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 53.88 per cent of the household members, 7.33 per cent were agricultural laborers, 4.31 per cent were general labours, 0.43 percent were in government service, 0.86 per cent of them were in private sector, 0.43 per cent of them were in trade and business, 21.98 per cent of them were students and 1.72 per cent were housewives.  The results shows that 1.72 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 0.86 per cent of them participated in gram panchayat, 0.43 per cent of them participated in Raitha Sangha and 96.98 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicate that 87.76 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 10.20 per cent of them possess Pucca house and 2.04 per cent them possess semi Pucca house. 100 percent of the landless, marginal and small farmers possess Katcha house.  The results shows that 57.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 34.69 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 42.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 83.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The average value of television was Rs.3178, mixer grinder was Rs.1876, DVD player was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.33857, bicycle was Rs.1250, Auto Rs.200000 and mobile phone was Rs.1736.  About 34.69 per cent of the households possess plough, 30.61 per cent of them possess bullock cart and 26.53 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 12.24 2 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 46.94 per cent of the households possess weeder. The average value of plough was Rs.748, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 18750 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.2117.  The results indicate that, 36.73 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 18.37 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.12 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.04 per cent of the households possess equally for sheep and goat respectively.  Average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.91, average own labour (women) available was 1.45, average hired labour (men) available was 11.36 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.41.  The results indicate that, 89.80 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, 1 person was migrated from micro watershed that belonged to semi medium farmer category. People have migrated on an average of 450 Kms and average duration was 10 months. Job/work was important reason for migration for all the migrants.  Households of the Abbagiri Tanda-1 micro watershed possess 40.54 ha (68.45%) of dry land and 18.69 ha (31.55%) of irrigated land. The average value of dry land was Rs.260116.79 and average value of irrigated was Rs.316639.24. There were 14 functioning and 7 defunct bore wells in the micro watershed. Bore well was the major irrigation source for 28.57 per cent of the farmers. There were 10.76 ha of irrigated area in total in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (29.38 ha), Navane (0.81 ha), Bajra (7.32 ha), Paddy (1.22 ha), Sorghum (3.04 ha), and Red gram (2.49ha) in kharif season and Bengal gram (4.08 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha), Red gram (1.21 ha) and sorghum (0.81 ha) in Rabi season.  Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, Ground nut, Bengal gram and Redgram. Small farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, Bengal gram and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, bajra, Bengal gram and Paddy. Medium farmers have grown Maize and Bengal gram. Medium farmers have grown Maize and Bengal gram.  The cropping intensity in Abbagiri Tanda-1 micro watershed was found to be 90.91 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers it was 96.40 per cent, for small farmers it was 87.36 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 89.84 per cent and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 55.10 per cent and 53.06 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 63.64 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 65 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 60 per cent of savings. Semi medium farmers possess 54.55 per cent of both bank account and savings and medium category of farmers possess 50 per cent of bank account and also savings. 3  The results indicate that, 65.22 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 43.48 per cent have availed loan in money lender and 4.35 per cent have availed loan from cooperative bank. Marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.16142.86, Rs. 114444.44, Rs.50000, and Rs. 250000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 73608.70.  The results indicate that, 18.75 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially which includes 22.22 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The data also showed that 56.25 per cent of households have unpaid their loans and only 25 per cent of households have fully repaid their loans. The results also indicated that 20 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially and 80 percent of the households have unpaid their loan.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23153.0. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22838.19. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -314.89, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 20389.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47012.31. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 26622.35, and the income generated from red gram was Rs. 10618.55, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.31.  Total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 12067.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25935. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 13867.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.15.  Total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 35259.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41003.63. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 5744.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 14260.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27694.88. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 13715.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96.  The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 41141.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80509.57. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 39367.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96.  Total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 48921.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80878.78. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 31957.66. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.65.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13963.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25468.44. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 11505.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.82. 4  The results indicate that, 59.18 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 4.08 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate also the data revealed that 24.49 per cent of the farmers opined that green fodder is adequate.  The table indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 3571.43, business Rs.3632.65, wage Rs.27367.35, agriculture Rs. 52992.86, farm income Rs.1632.65, Non farm income Rs.3061.22, dairy farm Rs.2215.31 and goat farming was Rs.3061.22.  The results indicated that, 44.90 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 45.45 per cent marginal farmers, 55 per cent small farmers, 45.45 per cent semi medium farmers and 50 per cent medium farmers.  The results indicated that for 12 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development. Similarly for the dependency was for irrigation facility 48 percent and only 2 percent for improved crop production. The results indicated that, only Navane was sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The data regarding marketing channels used for sale of agricultural produce was showing that 57.14 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 42.86 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and only 4.08 per cent of the households sold their produce to agents/traders.  The data about mode of transport of agricultural produce indicated that 75.51 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 28.57 per cent have used tractor. The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 63.64 per cent of marginal farmers, 70 per cent of small farmers, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers have shown interest in soil testing.  The data pertaining to soil and water conservation practices and structures adopted in micro watershed was indicating that, 10.20 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 18.18 per cent of marginal, 10 per cent of small farmers, and 50 per cent of medium farmers. Summer ploughing was adopted by 57.14 per cent of the households i.e.63.64 per cent of the marginal farmers, 70 per cent of the small farmers, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent medium farmers.  Form pond was adopted by the farmers was 2.04 per cent. The data regarding agencies involved in soil conservation structures in was showing that 2.04 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 8.16 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 2.04 per cent is constructed by farmer's organization. 5  The results indicated that, 83.67 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, and 14.29 percent of the households used LPG. Also results indicated that, piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 53.06 per cent which includes 100 per cent of landless, 45.45 per cent of marginal, 40 per cent of small farmers, 63.64 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers and 10.20 per cent of the households were using bore well as a source of drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 93.88 per cent. The results indicated that, 34.69 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of landless, 45.45 per cent of marginal, 3 per cent of small, 9.09 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 91.84 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.04 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 36.73 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 45.45 percent of the marginal, 4 per cent of the small, 36.36 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The result of data regarding adequacy of food items was showing that that, 97.97 per cent of cereals, 79.59 per cent of pulses, 63.27 per cent of oilseeds and 67.35 percent of both milk and egg were adequate for the households. Vegetables and fruits were adequate only for 10.20 per cent and meat was 4.08 per cent for the households respectively.  Also, the results indicated that, both vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 85.71 per cent of the households. Milk and egg were inadequate for 30.61 per cent respectively; meat was inadequate for 89.90 per cent. Cereals, pulses and oilseeds were inadequate for 2.04 per cent, 18.37 per cent and 8.16 per cent respectively.  The results of the farming constraints experienced by households in studied micro watershed was indicating that Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 32.65 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (59.18%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.10%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.10%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (65.31%), high rate of interest on credit (63.27%), low price for the agricultural commodities (65.31%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (67.35%), inadequate extension services (63.27%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (79.59%), less rainfall (30.61%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (12.24). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Katrahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 444 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 90 per cent is covered by soil and 10 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 3 per cent is sandy (loamy sand) at the surface, 15 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 72 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 56 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) available water capacity.  An area of about 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 77 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 50 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 40 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 86 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 4 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in 31 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 5 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 85 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 64 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 42 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in <1 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 127 (29) 157 (35) Pomegranate 48(11) 267(60) Maize 69 (16) 217 (49) Guava 14(3) 140(31) Bajra 82(18) 269(60) Jackfruit 48(11) 105(24) Redgram 34(8) 145 (32) Jamun 34(8) 168(22) Bengal gram 58(13) 234(53) Musambi 106(24) 209(47) Groundnut 14(3) 179 (40) Lime 106(24) 209 (47) Sunflower 93 (21) 165 (37) Cashew 48(11) 105(24) Cotton 93(21) 193(43) Custard apple 154(35) 227(51) Chilli 82(18) 14(3) Amla 95(22) 285 (64) Tomato 82(18) 14(3) Tamarind 95(22) 285(64) Drumstick 48(11) 240(54) Marigold 69(16) 215(49) Mulberry 48(11) 263(59) Chrysanthemum 69(16) 215(49) Mango 34(8) 39(9) Jasmine 69(16) 53(12) Sapota 48(11) 105(24) Crossandra 69(16) 141(32)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey in Katarahalli microwatershed indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Katarahalli microwatershed among them 5 (14.71 %) were landless farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were marginal farmers, 10 (29.41 %) were small farmers, 5 (14.71 %) were semi medium farmer, 6 (17.65 %) were medium farmers and 1(2.94 %) were large farmers.  The data indicated that there were 95 (56.21 %) men and 74 (43.79 %) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of large farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.4, small farmers' was 5.8, semi medium farmers' was 6, medium farmers' was 4.5 and large farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 28 (16.57 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (42.60 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (30.18 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.65 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Katarahalli had 27.22 per cent illiterates, 19.53 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.06 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.02 per cent of them had high school education, 15.98 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.18 per cent of them had Diploma, 1.78 per cent of them had ITI, 7.10 per cent of them had degree education and 0.59 per cent of them did Masters.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 47.06 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 per cent of the household heads were in Trade & Business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 26.04 per cent of the household members, 33.14 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.78 per cent were in government service, 5.33 per cent were in private service, 2.37 per cent were in trade and business, 22.49 per cent were students, 2.96 per cent were housewives and 3.55 per cent were children.  The results show that, 0.59 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in Gram Panchayat, Dairy Cooperative and Raitha Sangha.  The results indicate that 64.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 14.71 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 20.59 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 76.47 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.94 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD Player, 58.82 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Refrigerator, 26.47 per cent of them possess bicycle, 52.94 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94per cent of the households possess Computer/Laptop and 91.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2  The results show that the average value of television was Rs 5,807, DVD/VCD Player mixer was Rs 2,000, grinder was Rs 2,350, Refrigerator was Rs 12,000, bicycle was Rs 5,425, motor cycle was Rs.38,250 mobile phone was Rs. 1,998 and Computer/Laptop was Rs. 45,000.  About 5.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 26.47 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent of them possess Irrigation Pump, 5.88 per cent possess tractor, 17.65 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler, 76.47 per cent of them possess weeder, 23.53 per cent of them possess Thresher, 2.94 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 2.94 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,500, plough was Rs. 1,820, Irrigation Pump was Rs.7,000, tractor was Rs 350,000, sprayer was Rs.3,828, Sprinkler was Rs. 8,000, average value of weeder was Rs. 159, Harvester was Rs. 84,000, Thresher was Rs. 277, average value of chaff cutter was 3,000 and the average value of earth mover/duster was Rs. 15,000.  The data regarding the Livestock possession by the households in Katarahalli micro-watershed is presented in Table 13. The results indicate that, 8.82 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 17.65 per cent of the households possess local cow, 23.53 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 5.88 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 5.88 per cent of the households possess Goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.41, average own labour (women) available was 1.19, average hired labour (men) available was 13.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.23.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 5.88 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Katarahalli micro-watershed possess 17.74 ha (36.01 %) of dry land and 31.51 ha (63.99 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.30 ha (85.80 %) of dry land and 0.55 ha (14.20 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 5.65 ha (52.11 %) of dry land and 5.19 ha (47.89 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.90 ha (58.47 %) of dry land and 4.19 ha (41.53 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.89 ha (16.56 %) of dry land and 14.56 ha (83.44 %) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 7.03 ha (100 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 431,108.83 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 382,220.36. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 726,470.58 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.67. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 398,101.72 3 for dry land and Rs. 731,566.65 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 237,336.99 for dry land and Rs. 441,497.59 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 553,501.40 for dry land and Rs. 322,651.47 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers, the average land value was Rs. 113,824.88 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 22 functioning and 17 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 64.71 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 48.68 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium, medium farmers and large farmers had an irrigated area of 1.09 ha, 7.31 ha, 4.96 ha, 11.91 ha and 2.83 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Bajra (2.91 ha), Bengal gram (2.18 ha), Cotton (5.26 ha), Drumstick (1.26 ha), Groundnut (3.79 ha), maize (12.01 ha), Sorghum (0.88 ha), Onion (1.76 ha), Red gram (.96 ha), bajra (2.91 ha) and Pearl millet (8.10 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Katarahalli micro-watershed was found to be 74.72 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 47751.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33186.64. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -14564.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.69.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 51818.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74236.52. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 22418.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.43.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 318503.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78255.19. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. -240248.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.25.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 57538.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 52673.65. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -4864.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.92.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 113731.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 195184.89. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 81453.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.72. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46264.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 107609.70. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 61345.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.33.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 51344.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23903.22. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -27441.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.47.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 60030.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32057.96. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -27972.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.53.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Drumstick was Rs. 40072.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 223096.78. The net income from Drumstick cultivation was Rs. 183024.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 5.57.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 78158.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61688.25. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -16470.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.79.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 29807.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38285. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. 8477.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.28.  The results indicate that, 26.47 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and dry fodder was inadequate for 17.65 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 2,400 for landless households, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 89,571.43, for small farmers it was Rs. 184,770, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 103,200, for medium farmers it was Rs. 126,208.33 and for semi large farmers it was Rs. 138,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 18,960.57. For landless households it was Rs. 600, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 14,234.69, for small farmers it was Rs. 24,260, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 22,400, for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,069.44 and for large farmers it was Rs. 115,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 68 coconut trees in their field and1 in backyard, 3 Custard apple trees in their field, 5 Guava trees in their field, 10 Lemon trees in their field, 19 Mango trees in their field, 4 Pomegranate in their field and 3 lime in their field. . 5  The results indicate that, households have planted 40 Teak, 47 neem, 2 tamarind and 7 banyan trees in their field. Also, 1 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, Bengalgram, Cow Pea, Drumstick, Garlic, cotton and Redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent, bajra was sold to the extent of 91.83 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 40.38 per cent, Maize was sold to the extent of 98.01 per cent, Onion was sold to the extent of 64.14 per cent, Sunflower was sold to the extent of 62.5 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 86.67 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 61.76 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 2.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market, 8.82 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Cooperative marketing Society and 52.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Agent/Traders.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 73.53 per cent of the households used firewood, 20.59 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel and 2.94 per cent of the households used Kerosene and Biogas as a source of fuel .  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 67.65 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 32.35 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 67.65 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 41.18 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 61.76 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 100 per cent, milk was adequate for 88.24 per cent, Fruits was adequate for 11.76 per cent, eggs were adequate for 29.41 per cent and meat was adequate for 47.06 per cent.  The results indicated that, Cereals were inadequate for 32.35 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 58.82 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 38.24 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 50 per cent, milk 6 was inadequate for 2.86 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.29 per cent and meat was inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 44.12 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (50 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (47.06 %), inadequacy of irrigation water (35.29 %), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (52.94 %), high rate of interest on credit (47.06 %), low price for the agricultural commodities (35.29 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50 %), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20.59 %), less rainfall (38.24 %) and source of agri-technology information (26.47 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanakapura-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 410 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 79 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops, 14 per cent by mining/industrial, 1 per cent by railway and 5 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 6 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 8 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 27 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 44 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 61 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 21 per cent area of the microwatershed is nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 54 per cent area of the microwatershed is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 4 per cent area of microwatershed is gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands.  An area of about 29 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 50 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 69 per cent soil are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 10 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 51 per cent area.  An area of about 14 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 64 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 51 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 28 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in 1 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 78 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) and 21 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 18(4) 103(25) Sapota 18(4) 84(20) Maize 18(4) 113(27) Pomegranate 18(4) 138(34) Bajra 21(5) 148(36) Guava 16(4) 85(21) Groundnut - 183(45) Jackfruit 18(4) 84(20) Sunflower 18(4) 102(25) Jamun 2(<1) 154(13) Cotton 2(<1) 119(29) Musambi 18(4) 138(34) Red gram 18(4) 102(25) Lime 18(4) 138(34) Bengalgram 54(13) 70(17) Cashew 16(4) 108(26) Chilli 21(5) 46(11) Custard apple 21(5) 276(67) Tomato 21(5) 46(11) Amla 21(5) 276(67) Brinjal 64(16) 216(52) Tamarind 2(<1) 115(28) Onion 61(15) 219(53) Marigold 18(4) 104(25) Bhendi 61(15) 219(53) Chrysanthemum 18(4) 104(25) Drumstick 18(4) 217(53) Jasmine 18(4) 50(12) Mulberry 18(4) 275(67) Crossandra 18(4) 49(12) Mango 2(<1) 61(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 94 (53.11%) men and 83 (46.89%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 4.08, small farmers' was 3.60, semi medium farmers' was 5.10 and medium farmers' was 7.50.  The data indicated that, 27 (15.25%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 90 (50.85%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (27.12%) were in 36-60 years of age and 6 (6.78%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kanakapura-1 had 32.20 per cent illiterates, 20.34 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.34 per cent of them had middle school education, 20.34 per cent of them had high school education, 9.60 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.82 per cent of them had ITI, 3.95 per cent had degree education, 0.56 per cent of master and 2.82 per cent others.  The results indicate that, 91.89 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 8.11 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 40.68 per cent of the household members, 21.47 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.56 per cent of the households industry, 2.82 per cent were in private service, 23.16 per cent were in students, 6.78 per cent were housewives and 2.26 per cent were in children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that, 51.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 8.11 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 40.54 per cent of them possess semi pacca house  The results show that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 48.65 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 8.11 per cent of them possess bicycle, 45.95 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 45.95 per cent of them possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 7,299, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,625, bicycle was 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 47,352, and mobile phone was Rs. 2,078.  About 8.11 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.70 per cent of them power tiller, 5.41 per cent of them tractor, 2.70 per cent of them possess sprayer and 37.84 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs. 1,400, power tiller was Rs. 200000, tractor was Rs. 550,000, sprayer was Rs. 5000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.29. 2  The results indicate that, 18.92 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 29.73 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.11 per cent possess crossbreed cow and buffalo respectively and 2.70 per cent possess sheep.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.31, average own labour (women) available was 1.27, average hired labour (men) available was 3.41 and average hired labour (women) available was 2.92.  The results indicate that, households of the Kanakapura-1 micro-watershed possess 11.55 ha (31.70%) of dry land and 24.87 ha (68.30%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.70 ha (71.91%) of dry land and 2.23(28.09%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 3.78 ha (77.92%) of dry land and 1.07 ha (22.08%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.06 ha (13.81%) of dry land and 12.88 ha (86.19%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.70 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 701,261.82 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 548,576.31. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 929,758.50 for dry land and Rs. 1,482,000. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 554,759.35 for dry land and Rs. 1,398,113.16 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 339,019.61 for dry land and Rs. 454,101.20 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 344,811.54 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 16 functioning bore wells and 1de-functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 5 functioning Open wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well and open wells were the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 43.24 per cent and 13.51per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 35.29 meters and Open well was found to be 3.38 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.70 ha, 1.07 ha, 11.51ha and 10.76 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (12.13 ha), bajra (4.75 ha), cotton (4.21ha), sunflower (3.7 ha), redgram (2.24 ha), sugarcane (2.11 ha), cow pea (2.06 ha), greengram (0.85 ha), paddy (0.81), sorghum (0.81), groundnut (0.46ha), onion (0.4ha) and tomato (0.4 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, redgram, greengram, sorghum and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, sunflower, redgram and onion. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, sunflower, sugarcane, greengram and paddy. Medium farmers have grown bajra, sunflower, maize, cowpea and sugarcane.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kanakapura-1 micro-watershed was found to be 87.86 per cent. 3  The results show that 13.51 per cent of the households possess bank account and saving. The results show that 5.41 per cent of the households possess borrowing status.  The results show that 25 per cent for friends/ relative and 75 per cent for Grameena bank of the households possess credit availed.  The results show that Rs.51250 of the households average credit amount status.  The results show that among 100 per cent of the households purpose of credit borrowed - Institutional credit for agricultural production.  The results show that among 100 per cent of the households purpose of credit borrowed - private credit for agricultural production.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 37230.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46287.02. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 9056.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra+redgram was Rs. 19640.10. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31238.23. The net income from bajra+redgram cultivation was Rs. 11598.13. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.59.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 60582.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59800.00. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -782.20. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 41256.23The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50093.01. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8836.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.21.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 35927.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47954.59. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 12027.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33.  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 87301.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 168979.36. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 81678.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.94.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 80494.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55575.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. -24919.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.69.  The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 55759.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. - 6359.25.Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89. 4  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 23473.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640.00.The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 6166.88. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.26.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 47588.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63232.00. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 15643.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33.  The total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 22280.33 gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640.00. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 7359.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33.  The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 7811.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 7278.98. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. -532.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.93.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 48836. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49111.08. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 275.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01.  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 22275.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60206.25The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 37931.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.7.  The results indicate that, 29.73 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and 21.62 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 46,000.00 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 51,915.38, for small farmers it was Rs. 66,200, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 91,700 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 62,750.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,560.36. For landless households it was Rs. 3,480, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,494.87, for small farmers it was Rs. 10,260, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,310 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 21,375.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 90 coconut and13 mango trees in their field and 3 coconut and 1 mango trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 2 cashew and 57 neem, 1tamarind and 11banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, cotton sugarcane and sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent, tomato was sold to the extent of 93.33 per cent, bajra was sold to the extent of 71.55 per cent, redgram was sold to the extent of 62.96 per cent, greengram ground nut was sold extent of 50 per cent paddy was sold to 45 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 16.67 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 62.16 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders. 37.84 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 27.03 per cent of them sold their produce through regulated market. 5  The results indicated that, 21.62 per cent of the households used head load, 29.53 per cent of the households used cart and 75.68 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 10.81 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 18.92 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 89.19 per cent of the households used firewood and 13.51 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 45.95 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 48.65 per cent of the households and 2.70 per cent of the households used Canal/Nala in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.30 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 45.95 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 89.19 per cent of the sampled household's possessed BPL card and 10.81 per cent not possessed card.  The results indicated that, 54.05 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.89 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 70.27 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 27.03 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 45.95 per cent, fruits were adequate for 54.05 per cent, milk was adequate for 72.97 per cent and meat was adequate for 54.05 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 8.11 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 29.73 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 70.27 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 54.05 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 35.14 per cent, milk were inadequate for 16.22 per cent, egg was inadequate for 37.84per cent and meat were inadequate for 35.14 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 59.46 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (43.24%),frequent incidence of pest and diseases (56.76%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (54.05%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (48.65%), low price for the agricultural commodities (27.03%),inadequate extension services (16.22%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (51.35%), less rainfall (51.35%) and source of Agri-technology information (24.32%) . ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tavargere microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 516 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soil, four per cent by rock out crops and three per cent by water bodies, settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 14 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 75 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 5 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 65 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 57 kg/ha) in 37 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in an entire area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm)in 4 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 23 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 19(4) 15 (3) Pomegranate - 85(17) Maize - 37 (7) Guava - 66(13) Bajra 15(3) 135(26) Jackfruit - 66(13) Redgram - 34(3) Jamun - 85(17) Bengal gram 19(4) 77(15) Musambi 19(4) 66(13) Groundnut 15(3) 315 (61) Lime 19(4) 66(13) Sunflower 19 (4) 15 (3) Cashew - 171(33) Cotton 19(4) 15(3) Custard apple 34(7) 444(86) Chilli - 15(3) Amla 15(3) 463 (90) Tomato - 15(3) Tamarind - 20(4) Drumstick - 260(50) Marigold - 34(7) Mulberry - 416(81) Chrysanthemum - 34 (7) Mango - - Jasmine - 15(3) Sapota - 66(13) Crossandra - 34(7)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 114 (60%) men and 76 (40%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.09, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 6.28.  The data indicated that, 33 (17.37%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (40%) were in 16-35 years of age, 65 (34.21%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (8.42%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Tavaregere had 34.21 per cent illiterates, 24.74 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.32 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.32 per cent of them had high school education, 7.37 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.11 per cent of them did ITI, and 6.32 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 65 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 12.50 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 46.84 per cent of the household members, 17.37 per cent were agricultural laborers, 9.47 per cent were general labour, 1.05 per cent were in private, 20.53 per cent were students, 2.11 per cent were housewives and 2.11 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 15 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 67.50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 15 per cent of them possess pucca house and 2.50 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 92.50 per cent of the households possess TV, 60 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 17.50 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 50 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.50 per cent of them possess auto and 90 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.7989, mixer grinder was Rs.1980, bicycle was Rs. 2142, motor cycle was Rs.34800, auto phone was Rs.35000 and mobile phone was Rs.2295.  About 22.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.50 per cent of them possess plough, 7.50 per cent of them possess tractor, 30 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.50 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 87.50 per cent of them possess weeder, 5 per cent of them possess harvester, 2.50 per cent of them possess thresher and 2.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20333, plough was Rs.894, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer 2 was Rs.2331, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3200, the average value of harvester was Rs.60000, the average value of thresher was Rs.45000, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.87.  The results indicate that, 30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, and 17.50 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.86, average own labour (women) available was 1.46, average hired labour (men) available was 12.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.40.  The results indicate that, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Tavaregere micro watershed possess 23.76 ha (46.71%) of dry land and 27.10 ha (53.29%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.24 ha (93.72%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (6.28%). Small farmers possess 6.16 ha (57.35%) of dry land and 4.58 ha (42.65%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.25 ha (27.54%) of dry land and 8.54 ha (72.46%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.11 ha (34.50%) of dry land and 13.49 ha (65.50%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 307,172.06 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 545,937.87. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,553.08 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.60 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275,886.99 for dry land and Rs. 850,971.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123,192.01 for dry land and Rs. 561,895.74 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 140,660.59 for dry land and Rs. 392,651.47 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 18 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning and 1 de-functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45 per cent of the farmers, and open well was the source of irrigation for 2.50 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 49.62 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.44 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 4.58 ha, 8.54 ha and 13.36 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (11.62 ha), brinjal (1.78 ha), groundnut (5.15 ha), ladies finger (1.21 ha), maize (21.74 ha), navane (1.70 ha), paddy (2.83 ha), pearlmillet (1.62 ha), sunflower (2.18 ha) and tomato (0.89 ha). 3  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, watermelon and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy and watermelon. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, paddy, sorghum, tomato, watermelon and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, horsegram, paddy, redgram sorghum and maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Tavaregere micro watershed was found to be 93.29 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 96.97 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 84.93 per cent.  The results indicate that, 72.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 42.50 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 81.25 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 6.25 per cent availed loan from cooperative bank, 75 per cent availed loan from grameena bank, and 37.50 per cent availed loan from money lenders.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs. 90,375, Rs. 258,500, Rs. 525,000 and Rs. 260,000 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 50 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions, 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for animal husbandry and 16.67 per cent borrowed for the purpose of borewell/irrigation related equipments.  The results indicated that 84.62 per cent of the households did not repay their loan and 15.38 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  The results indicate that, around 42.31 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 53.85 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 3.85 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, around 9.09 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 18.18 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 27.27 per cent opined that the rate of interest was high in non institutional source of credits. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 52582.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 179075. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 126492.37, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.41.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 49699.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 105455.28. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 55755.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.12.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27360.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35390.45. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8030.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23644.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36489.05. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 1006.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.54.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 49015.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57055.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 8039.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 40080.30. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -3030.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.92.  The total cost of cultivation for ladies finger was Rs. 41939.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95363.45. The net income from ladies finger cultivation was Rs. 53423.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 13772.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28106.90. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 14334.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.04.  The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 53235.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 186686.05. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 133450.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.51.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 22.50 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 97,600 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 64,581.82, for small farmers it was Rs. 98,320, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 69,571.43, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 108,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,532.54. For landless households it was Rs. 19,360, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,727.27, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,604.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,387.76, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 8,534.69.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 126 coconuts and 22 mangoes in their fields. They have also grown 1 coconut tree in their backyard. 5  The results indicate that, households have planted 147 neem trees, 5 tamarind trees, 2 banyan trees and 2 peepul tree in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 2125, for irrigation facility Rs. 1175, for improved crop production Rs. 1075 and for improved livestock management Rs. 575.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 22.5 per cent of the households for land development, 20 per cent for irrigation facility, 22.5 per cent for improved crop production and 15 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, brinjal, groundnut, ladies finger, maize, navane, paddy, sunflower and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 55 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 15 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 2.50 per cent of the farmers have sold through agents/traders and 27.50 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 22.50 per cent have used truck and 40 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 18.18 per cent of marginal farmers, 71.43 per cent of semi medium farmers and 14.29 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 72.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.50 per cent used fire wood and 2.50 per cent of the households used dung cake.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 92.50 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 7.50 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 27.27 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 28.57 per cent of the semi medium and 14.29 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.50 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.50 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 17.50 per cent, fruits were adequate for 30 per cent, 6 milk was adequate for 87.50 per cent, eggs were adequate for 85 per cent and meat was adequate for 82.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 25 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 90 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 70 per cent, milk was inadequate for 10 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 10 per cent and meat was inadequate for 12.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 12.50 per cent, vegetables were market surplus for 2.50 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 70 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (72.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (52.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (45%), high rate of interest on credit (50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (57.50%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (72.50%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.50%), less rainfall (12.50%), inadequate extension services (72.50%), and source of agri-technology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (7.50%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 613 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 211 ha (35%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 376 ha (61%) in the microwatershed is covered by rock outcrops and about 25 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 35per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 12 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to deep (75 - 150 cm) and 23 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese (>1.0 ppm) and copper (>0.2 ppm) are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 70(11) Guava - 63(10) Maize - 46(7) Sapota - 63(10) Bajra - 80(13) Pomegranate - 63(10) Groundnut - 72(12) Musambi 1(<1) 62(10) Sunflower - 62(10) Lime 1(<1) 62(10) Redgram - 63(10) Amla - 79(13) Bengal gram - 8(1) Cashew - - Cotton - 8(1) Jackfruit - 62(10) Chilli - 71(12) Jamun - 1(<1) Tomato - 71(12) Custard apple 38(6) 41(7) Brinjal - 80(13) Tamarind - 1(<1) Onion 39(6) 41(7) Mulberry - 71(12) Bhendi 38(6) 42(7) Marigold - 71(12) Drumstick - 72(12) Chrysanthemum - 71(12) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed among them 6 (17.65 %) were landless, 14 (41.18 %) were marginal farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were small farmers, 4 (11.76 %) were semi medium farmers and 3 (8.82 %) were medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 91 (54.49 %) men and 76 (45.51 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.33, marginal farmers' was 4.92, small farmers' was 4.28, semi medium farmers' was 5.5 and medium farmers' was 6.66.  The data indicated that, 36 (21.56 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 61 (36.53 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (32.93 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (8.98 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Yadgiri Rf-2 had 70.06 per cent illiterates, 10.18 per cent of them had primary school, 1.80 per cent of them had middle school, 8.98 per cent of them had high school education, 2.40 per cent of them had PUC, 0.60 per cent of them had Masters education and 1.20 per cent of them had Degree education.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 67.65 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 cent of the household heads were General Labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 7.19 per cent of the household members, 67.66 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.60 per cent were in general labour, 0.60 per cent were private service, 16.77 per cent were students, 1.20 per cent were housewives and 5.99 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 14.71 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 67.65 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 20.59 per cent of them possess Pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 47.06 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.82 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 14.71 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 20.59 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Tempo and 82.35 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,343, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,166, Bicycle was Rs. 1,500, motor cycle was Rs. 34,714 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,864.  About 23.53 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 50 per cent of the households possess plough, 38.24 per cent of them possess Seed/Fertilizer Drill, 2 14.71 per cent of them possess sparyer, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler and 41.18 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 12,875, plough was Rs. 4,047, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 3,492, sprayer was Rs. 2,540, sprinkler was Rs. 1,166 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 132.  The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 17.65 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 14.71 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 2.94 per cent of the households possess Poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.03, average own labour (women) available was 1.79, average hired labour (men) available was 9.61 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.70.  The results indicate that, 70.59 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed possess 28.32 ha (75.42 %) of dry land and 9.23 ha (24.58 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.43 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 8.81 ha (90.44 %) of dry land and 0.93 ha (9.56 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.86 ha (58.54 %) of dry land and 3.44 ha (41.46 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.22 ha (56.14 %) and 4.86 ha (43.86 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 370,658.86 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 411,666.67. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 602,092.13 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 376,683.51 for dry land and Rs. 859,130.45 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 267,583.33 for dry land and Rs. 348,705.88 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 128,645.84 for dry land and Rs. 370,500 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 1 De-functioning and 2 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning open wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.88 per cent of the farmers and Canal and Open Well were the irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.94 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.29 meters.  The results indicate that, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.93 ha and 3.36 ha respectively. 3  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (2.83 ha), green gram (7.91 ha), groundnut (4.25 ha), Paddy (1.21 ha), Jasmine (2.11 ha), red gram (16.23 ha), Onion (0.81 ha) and sorghum (2.02 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, groundnut, Jasmine, sorghum, cotton and green gram. Small farmers have grown red gram, green gram, onion and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram, green gram and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown red gram, green gram, Jasmine, cotton and sorghum.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed was found to be 73.97 per cent.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households have bank account and 64.71 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 8.33 per cent of the households have borrowed from Friends/Relatives and 41.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from Grameena Bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs. 55,000.08.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from private sources for the purpose of Household consumption.  The results indicated that, 87.50 per cent of the households Un paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources and 12.50 per cent of the households Partially paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, 75 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 12.50 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from easy accessibility of credit and Higher rate of interest.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 32406.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54751.67. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 22344.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.69.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 37433.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42691.58. The net 4 income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 5258.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.14.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 27567.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 94209.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 66641.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 3.42.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 33006.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54609.16. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 21602.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.65.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 39494.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33417.64. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -6076.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.85.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 39803.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82333.33. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 42530.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.07.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 34350.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 85913.05. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 51562.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.5.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 67,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 166,778.57, for small farmers it was Rs. 242,715.43, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 192,500 and medium farmers it was Rs. 191,666.67.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 12,459.04. For landless households it was Rs. 5,277.78, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,194.87, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,068.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 29,600 and medium farmers it was Rs. 34,111.11.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut, 29 Custard apple, 4 lime and 7 mango tree in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 50 Eucalyptus, 53 Neem, 4 Acacia, 3 Banyan and 10 tamarind trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,441.18 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,294.12 for Irrigation facility, households have an average investment 5 capacity of Rs. 1,470.59 for improved livestock management and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,470.59 for Subsidiary enterprises.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development, 8.82 per cent for irrigation facility. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 2.94 per cent for subsidiary enterprises. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton and paddy was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, Green gram was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, Onion was sold to the extent of 97.5 per cent, Paddy was sold to the extent of 91.67 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 91.95 per cent and sorghum to the extent of 84.62 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 23.53 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 76.47 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Regulated Market.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation and 11.76 per cent of the households have used Truck as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 38.24 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent have adopted Field Bunding, 5.88 per cent have adopted Farm Pond and 2.94 per cent have adopted Bore Well Recharge Pit.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the Bore Well Recharge Pit structures were good, 50 per cent each of the Farm Pond structure was good and slightly damaged and 100 per cent of the Field Bunding structures were good .  The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent of the conservation structures were constructed with own funds and 8.82 per cent of the conservation structures were used govt funds.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel, 20.59 per cent of the households used Kerosene and 23.53 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 58.82 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households in micro watershed and Solar Lamp was the major source of light for 2.94 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. 6  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards and 2.94 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL cards and Not Possessed.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 67.65 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 79.41 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 32.35 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 8.82 per cent and Milk and were adequate for 17.65 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 29.41 per cent of the households, Pulses were inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 67.65 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82.35 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 91.18 per cent, Milk were inadequate for 76.47 per cent, Egg were inadequate for 97.06 per cent of the households and Meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 79.41 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (70.59 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases and High cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.35 %), Inadequacy of irrigation water (58.82 %), High rate of interest on credit and Low price for the agricultural commodities (79.41 %), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (64.71 %), Inadequate extension services (44.12 %) and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (61.76 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mukkumpi-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of about 621 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 51 per cent is covered by soils, 41 per cent is covered by rock-out crops and 8 per cent is by others (Habitation and Settlements). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 7 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  An area of about 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 5 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 42 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 32 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 2 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 49 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 11 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 40 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 34 per cent soils are very strongly acid to slightly acid (pH 4.5-6.5), 15 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 2 per cent soil are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in the entire cultivated are of the microwatershed.  An area of about 35 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 16 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 1 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur content is low (4.5 ppm) in the available iron content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>1.0 ppm) in the available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in the available copper content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 36(6) 248(40) Sapota 12(2) 55(9) Maize 12(2) 272(44) Pomegranate 12(2) 160(26) Bajra 12(2) 278(45) Guava 12(2) 55(9) Groundnut - 45(7) Jackfruit 12(2) 55(9) Sunflower 36(6) 137(22) Jamun - 173(28) Cotton 24(4) 260(42) Musambi 36(6) 137(22) Red gram 12(2) 160(26) Lime 36(6) 137(22) Bengalgram 24(4) 234(38) Cashew 12(2) 55(9) Chilli 12(2) 86(14) Custard apple 38(6) 252(41) Tomato 12(2) 86(14) Amla 13(2) 277(45) Brinjal 68(11) 216(35) Tamarind - 172(28) Onion 66(11) 32(5) Marigold 12(2) 271(44) Bhendi 66(11) 218(35) Chrysanthemum 12(2) 271(44) Drumstick 12(2) 160(26) Jasmine 12(2) 166(27) Mulberry 12(2) 160(26) Crossandra 12(2) 100(16) Mango - 66(11)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Mukkumpi-1 micro watershed among them 11 (32.35%) were marginal farmers, 13 (38.24 %) were small farmers, 13 (38.24 %) were semi medium farmers, 5 (2.94%) were medium farmers and 4 (11.76 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 194 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 115 (59.28%) men and 78(40.21%) were women. The average family size of landless was 3, marginal farmers and semi medium farmers were 5, small farmer was 8 and large farmer was 4. On an average the family size was 6.  The data indicated that 38 (19.59%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 100 (51.55%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (24.74%) were in 36-60 years of age and 8 (4.12 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Mukkumpi-1 had 31.96 per cent illiterates, 1.03 per cent were functional literate, 23.71 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.64 per cent of them had both middle school, 21.13 per cent them had high school education, 6.19 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.55 per cent them had Diploma education, 0.52 per cent them had ITI, 1.55 per cent of them had degree education, 1.03 per cent of them had masters education and 6.70 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 11.76 per cent of the household heads were general labour and 2.94 per cent of the household heads were doing other jobs.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 65.46 per cent of the household members, 2.58 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.67 per cent were general labours, 0.52 percent were in household industry, 1.03 per cent of them were in private sector, 19.07 per cent of them were students and 4.64 per cent of them were children. In case of landless households 7.14 per cent were agricultural labour, 78.57 per cent were general labourers and 14.29 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 61.54 per cent were agriculturist, 5.77 percent was in agricultural labour, 3.85 per cent of were in private and 23.08 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 80.61 per cent of them were agriculturist and 10.20 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 53.85 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 3.85 per cent were agricultural labour and 42.31 per cent of them were students. In case of large farmers 50 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 50 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 85.29 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 5.88 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 8.82 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 67.65 per cent of the households possess TV, 29.41 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 23.53 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 20.59 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 94.12 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 9000, mixer grinder was Rs.1800, bicycle was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.36428 and mobile phone was Rs.2013.  Results indicated that about 5.88 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 55.88 per cent of the households possess weeder and 2.94 per cent of the households possess harvester.  The results showed that the average the average value of plough was Rs. 1500, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 1000, the average value of weeder was Rs. 53 and the average value of harvester was Rs. 33.  The results indicated that, 20.59 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.94 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow. 27.27 per cent of the marginal and 7.69 per cent of the small farmers possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers 60 per cent households possess local cow and 20 per cent households possess crossbred cow.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.33, average own labour (women) available was 1.77, average hired labour (men) available was 6.63 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.23.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.73, average own labour (women) was also 1.27, average hired labour (men) was 7.00 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.55. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 3.08, average own labour (women) was 2.38, average hired labour (men) was 7.77 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.77. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.60, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 4.20 and average hired labour (women) available was 4.20. In large farmers average own labour men available was 3 and average own labour (women) was 1.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Mukkumpi-1 micro watershed possess 23.49 ha (61.12%) of dry land and 14.94 ha (38.88%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.93 ha (87.99%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (12.01%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.14 ha (86.18 %) of dry land and 2.43 ha (13.82 %) of 3 irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.43 ha (32.35 %) of dry land and 5.08 ha (67.65%) of irrigated land. large farmers possess 6.62 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 408,475.45 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 448,239.43. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 623,822.53 for dry land and Rs. 1,482,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 330,213.90 for dry land Rs. 782,166.67 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 370,500 for dry land and Rs. 511,713.15 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 150,885.76 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 10 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 29.41 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 30.48 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.81 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 2.43 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 5.08 ha of irrigated land and large farmers were having 4.45 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 12.77 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (7.29 ha), groundnut (3.81 ha), maize (19.43 ha), paddy (4.53 ha) and redgram (1.21 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers had grown bajra, maize and paddy. Small farmers had grown bajra, groundnut, maize, paddy and redgram. Semi medium farmers had grown bajra, groundnut, maize and paddy. Large farmers had grown groundnut, maize and paddy.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Mukkumpi-1 micro watershed was found to be 74.52 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 78.34, in semi medium farmers it was 82.26 and in medium farmers it was 42.90 per cent.  The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent of the households have bank account and 8.82 per cent of the household possess savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 36.36 percent of them possess bank account and 9.09 per cent of savings. 69.23 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 7.69 percent of them possess savings. 40 per cent of the semi medium farmers possess bank account and 100 per cent of the large category of farmers possesses bank account and also savings correspondingly.  The results indicated that, 36.36 per cent of marginal, 69.23 per cent of small, 40 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 6.25 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, friends/ relatives and money lender correspondingly, 87.50 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank. 4  The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and large have availed Rs. 82,500, Rs. 132,222.22, Rs. 225,000 and Rs. 100000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 129,375.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional source was for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 100 percent of the private credit was taken for agriculture production.  Results indicated 100 percent of the households have unpaid their institutional loan.  Results indicated that 100 percent of the households have unpaid their private loan.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households were opined that the loan taken from the institutional sources was helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicated that 50 per cent of the households were opined that the loan taken from the non-institutional sources was helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 50 per cent of the households were opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 33337.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24031.25. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -9306.50, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46766.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51835.57. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 5069.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.11.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 130496.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 110018.35. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -20477.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.84.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 60597.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56149.70. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -4448.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.93.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Redgram was Rs. 40734.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 85215.00. The net income from Redgram cultivation was Rs. 44480.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.09.  The results indicated that, 20.59 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate respectively.  The table indicated that, in landless, the average income from wage was Rs.66250 and agriculture was Rs.25000. In marginal farmers, the average income from wage was Rs.16181.82, agriculture was Rs.70945.45 and dairy farm was Rs.454.55. In small farmers, the average income from service/salary was Rs.7692.31, wage was 5 Rs.20769.23 and agriculture was Rs.156342.31. In semi medium farmers, the average income from wage was Rs.18000, agriculture was Rs.200000 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In large farmers the average income from wage was Rs.50000 and agriculture was Rs.130000.  The results indicated that, in land less farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 68333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 85000. In case of marginal farmers average expenditure from wage was Rs.27750, agriculture was Rs.46272.73 and dairy farm was Rs.2000. In small farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.75000, wage was Rs.29833.33 and agriculture was Rs.88534.46. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.27500, agriculture was Rs.107600 and dairy farm was Rs.18000. in large farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.25000 and agriculture was Rs.85000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 6 coconut trees and 3 mango tree in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 46 neem trees in their field and also grown 1 Neem tree in the backyard.  The results indicated that, Bajra, groundnut, maize and paddy crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Redgram was sold to the extent of 95.83 per cent.  The results indicated that, 79.41 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 32.35 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets.  The results indicated that 2.94 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 100 per cent have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 36.36 percent of marginal farmers, 53.85 per cent of small farmers, 40 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 97.06 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.94 percent of the households used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 20.59 per cent, 67.65 per cent of them were using bore well and 11.76 per cents of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 29.41 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 75 per cent of landless, 18.18 per cent of marginal, 23.08 per cent of small, 20 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of large had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 11.76 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card. 6  The results indicated that, 64.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 54.55 percent of the marginal, 69.23 per cent of the small, 40 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that cereals and pulses were adequate for 97.06 per cent of the households. Oilseed, vegetables and fruits were adequate for 5.88 per cent of the households. Milk and egg were adequate for 94.12 per cent of the households and meat was adequate for 8.82 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseed, vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 91.18 per cent of the households respectively. Egg was inadequate for 2.94 per cent of the households and meat was inadequate for 88.24 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 88.24 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (67.65%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (79.41%), inadequacy of irrigation water (82.35%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.29%), high rate of interest on credit (82.35%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.24%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50%), inadequate extension services and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (44.12%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Maslapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 510 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 92 per cent is covered by soils and 8 per cent by rock outcrops, habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 10 per cent has sandy soils at the surface, 78 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and 4 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 6 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 86 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 22 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 70 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 35 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) and 56 per cent are very neutral (pH pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 31 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 34 per cent are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 50 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 336 (66) Sapota 18 (4) 70 (14) Maize - 336 (66) Pomegranate 18 (4) 79 (15) Bajra 26 (5) 383 (75) Musambi 18 (4) 79 (15) Groundnut 26 (5) 377 (74) Lime 18 (4) 79 (15) Sunflower - 53 (10) Amla 44 (9) 382 (75) Red gram - 53 (10) Cashew - 88 (17) Bengalgram 9 (2) 257 (50) Jackfruit 18 (4) 70 (14) Cotton - 336 (66) Jamun - 97 (19) Chilli - 327 (64) Custard apple 44 (9) 382 (75) Tomato - 327 (64) Tamarind - 27 (5) Brinjal 26 (5) 284 (56) Mulberry 18 (4) 95 (19) Onion 26 (5) 284 (56) Marigold - 336 (66) Bhendi - 284 (56) Chrysanthemum - 336 (66) Drumstick 18 (4) 51 (10) Jasmine - 327 (64) Mango - 18 (4) Crossandra - 327 (64) Guava - 88 (17) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The result indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Maslapur-2 micro watershed among them 5(14.29%) were landless, 4 (11.43%) were marginal farmers, 16 (45.71%) were small farmers and 10 (28.57%) were semi medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 98 (58.68%) men and 69 (41.32%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.75, small farmers' was 4.56 and semi medium farmers' was 5.40.  The data indicated that, 27 (16.17%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (44.31%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (29.94%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16(9.58%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Maslapur-2 had 30.54 per cent illiterates, 49.70 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.80 per cent of them had middle school education, 8.38 per cent of them had high school education, 4.79 per cent of them had PUC, 0.60 per cent of them had diploma and ITI education, 2.99 per cent of them had degree education and 0.60 per cent of them did other education.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 20.96 per cent of the household members, 56.29 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.80 per cent was in private sector, 20.36 per cent were students and 0.60 per cent was children. In case of landless farmers, 8 per cent were agriculturist, 60 per cent were general labourers and 32 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 20 per cent of them were practicing agriculture, 40 per cent were agricultural labourers, 6.67 per cent were in private service and 33.33 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 21.92 per cent were agriculturists, 58.90 per cent were agricultural labourers and 19.18 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers 25.93 per cent were agriculturist, 55.56 per cent were agriculture labourers, 3.70 per cent were in private service, 12.96 per cent were students and 1.85 per cent was housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 51.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 40 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess Pucca house.  The results showed that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 80 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 91.43 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.4906, mixer grinder was Rs.1332, bicycle was Rs. 1650, motor cycle was Rs.33583 and mobile phone was Rs.1707.  Data showed 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 31.43 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess both power tiller and tractor, 28.57 per cent of them possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.86per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18500, plough was Rs.2029, the average value of power tiller was Rs.30000, the average value was tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.3368, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.17.  The results indicate that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess both bullocks and local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess both crossbreed cow and sheep respectively.  In case of marginal households, 25 per cent of them possess bullocks, local cow and sheep respectively. 43.75 per cent of the small farmers possess bullock and local cow correspondingly, 6.25 per cent of the small farmers possess crossbred cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 30 per cent of households possess bullock and local cow respectively.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.80, average own labour (women) available was 1.63, average hired labour (men) available was 6.80 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.09.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 7.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.50. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was 1.63, average hired labour (men) was 8.94 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.25. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.90, average hired labour (men) was 5.20 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.30.  The results indicate that, 97.14 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Maslapur-2 micro watershed possess 23.43 ha (61.01%) of dry land and 14.97 ha (38.99%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.59 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 18.81 ha (88.74%) of dry land and 2.39 ha (11.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.03 ha (13.90%) of dry land and 12.58 ha (86.10%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 243,202.62 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 460,746.14. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,812.21 for dry land. In case of small famers, the 3 average land value was Rs. 207,250.43 for dry land and Rs. 753,559.31for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 147,609.56 for dry land and Rs. 405,178.51 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning and 14 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 42.86 per cent of the farmers in micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 29.52 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40ha, 3.48 ha and 11.05 ha of irrigated land respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (14.71 ha), groundnut (8.40 ha), bajra (1.88 ha), Sunflower (1.62 ha), Bengal gram (1.21 ha), Red gram (1.21 ha), Sorghum (1.21 ha), castor (0.81 ha), Tomato (0.81 ha), water melon (0.81 ha) and Banana (0.49 ha) in kharif season and also grown maize (1.62 ha) and groundnut (1.21 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra, sunflower and Bengal gram. Small farmers had grown maize, groundnut, bajra, Bengal gram, paddy, red gram, sorghum, castor and banana. Semi medium farmers had grown maize, groundnut, sunflower, tomato and watermelon.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Maslapur-2 micro watershed was found to be 92.65 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 92.25 per cent and in case of semi medium it was 92.18 per cent.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of the households have bank account and 85.71 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 60 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27663.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28612.58. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 949.39, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.03.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53510.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54452.62. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 942.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.02.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 30927.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 43172.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.4.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for water melon was Rs. 37280.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69160. The net income from water melon cultivation was Rs. 31879.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for banana was Rs. 95816.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 679249.97. The net income from banana cultivation was Rs. 583433.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.09.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 58817.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 156227.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 97410.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.66.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 45612.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45960.53. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 348.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 27395.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50931.76. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 23535.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 21266.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20729.50. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -537.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 14285.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31369. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 17083.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13687.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31122.00. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 17434.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Castor was Rs. 32673.72. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from Castor cultivation was Rs. -3033.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that, in landless farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 43000, in marginal farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.27500, wage was Rs.23750, agriculture was Rs.28025 and goat farming was Rs.10000. In small farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.5312.50, wage was Rs.24187.50, agriculture was Rs.64390.63 and dairy farming was Rs.3937.50. In semi medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs.13500, agriculture was Rs.69100 and dairy farming was Rs.800. 5  The results indicate that, in case of landless the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs. 17000. In marginal farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.5000, wage was Rs.8333.33, agriculture was Rs.14750 and goat farming was Rs.15000. In small farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.7133.33, agriculture was Rs.31875 and dairy farming was Rs.5800. In semi medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.10000, agriculture was Rs.29000 and dairy farming was Rs.1333.33.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 24 coconut, 2 lemon trees and 13 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 55 neem trees and 5 tamarind trees in their field and also planted 1 neem tree in their back yard.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 7342.86, for irrigation facility Rs. 1057.14 and for improved crop production Rs. 285.71.  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 85.71 per cent of the households for land development, 22.86 per cent of the households for irrigation facility and 5.71 per cent of the households for improved crop production .  The results indicated that, banana, Bengal gram, castor, red gram, sorghum, tomato and water melon crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, maize, paddy and sunflower crops were sold to an extent of 92.05 per cent, 92.02 per cent, 98.89 per cent, 88.89 per cent and 28 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 87.50 per cent of the small farmers and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent of the households were using bore well for drinking water in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 6  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, 100 per cent of the marginal, 6.25 per cent of the small and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 60 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 54.29 per cent, fruits were adequate for 82.86 per cent, milk was adequate for 45.71 per cent, eggs were adequate for 60 per cent and meat was adequate for 60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 40 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 20 per cent, milk were inadequate for 17.14 per cent and egg was inadequate for 31.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (28.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (51.43%), high rate of interest on credit (8.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (8.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (25.71%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20%), less rainfall (62.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (14.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project