Suchergebnisse

Während auf zwischenstaatlicher Ebene kein Gewaltmonopol besteht, gibt es innerstaatlich ein staatliches Gewaltmonopol und damit 'legale gewalttätige Gruppen', die 'illegalen gewalttätigen Gruppen' gegenüberstehen. Unter diesem Aspekt werden, beginnend mit dem deutsch-französischen Krieg 1870/71, Aspekte einer 'Biographie der Staatsgesellschaft Deutschland' entworfen. Der Adaption des Bürgertums an die adlige Oberschicht und der 'Verbürgerlichung des militärischen Ethos' nach 1871 folgt nach 1918 ein 'Machtverlust des ehemaligen Establishments', der wesentlich zum Aufkommen des aus Offizierskorps und Studentenschaft sich rekrutierenden Rechts-Terrorismus der Weimarer Republik beiträgt. Die Identifikations- und Sinnkrise, die diesem Terrorismus zugrundeliegt, macht ihn vergleichbar mit dem Terrorismus in der BRD nach 1968. (WZ)

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 국제대학원 국제학과(국제통상전공), 2020. 8. 안덕근. ; Over the past 25 years, the WTO has brought considerable achievements as the principal institution of the world trading system. However, it now faces an unprecedented challenge to its fundamental reform since the paralysis of the Appellate Body (AB) function in December 2019. Among many other topics, the area for imperative reforms includes the existing rules associated with "unfair" trade. This study considers two main backgrounds underlying the need for newly refined rules on trade remedies in legal and economic contexts. The first one relates to widening the discrepancies among nation-states' trade policies, which is largely attributable to substantial discretion to Member states rendered by the ambiguity of the WTO legal texts. Furthermore, along with the criticism for "judicial activism", the conflicts between the panels and the Appellate Body in understanding and interpreting the trade remedy laws of the WTO have certainly aggravated the integrity of the dispute settlement system expected to provide "security and predictability" to the multilateral trading system. The other aspect to understanding the discussion for the refinement on trade remedies is that the existing trade remedy rules have not reflected adequately the profound changes to the degree of the economic integration across the world. Indeed, multilateral rules on unfair trade practices such as dumping and subsidization are regarded as one of the most long-standing trade norms. Anti-dumping and countervailing rules made more than one hundred years ago are still the core framework at the WTO, but already conceptually outdated as national economies are inextricably interdependent with each other. Especially, proliferation of global value chains (GVCs) in the twenty first century calls for new thinking on invocation of traditional trade defense instruments and on reform of all disciplines, rules, and decisions governing trade remedies to incorporate such economic changes into the relevant regime. In all this respect, this study aims to assess legal adequacy and economic reasonableness of existing WTO disciplines on unfair trade and to suggest possible areas for improvement and refinement. This study particularly examines two specific topics, namely, targeted dumping and input subsidies, which have many economic and legal problems in its national operation, but the WTO provides little disciplines regarding these matters. Although this study attempts to analyze the possibility of the WTO to embrace more reasonable disciplines on such specific issues legally and economically, the study lastly addresses the area of retaliation when it comes to non-compliance with WTO rulings in anti-dumping or countervailing disputes. The present study in conjunction with an examination of two contentious dumping and subsidies ultimately aims to contribute to effective function of the WTO's dispute settlement system. ; 세계무역기구(WTO)는 출범 이후 지난 25년 여간 다자통상기구로서 큰 성과를 거두어 왔지만 2019년 12월부터 상소기구 기능이 마비되면서 분쟁해결제도와 국제통상규범에 대한 근본적인 개혁의 필요성에 직면해 있다. 특히 불공정 무역과 관련된 무역구제 규범은 가장 빈번하게 WTO 분쟁 대상이 되었을 뿐 아니라 현재 WTO 개혁 논의 중 가장 핵심 이슈로 부각되고 있어 규범의 정비와 개정이 시급해 보인다. 이는 WTO 무역구제규범이 이미 태생부터 법적 모호성을 내포하고 있었을 뿐 아니라, 과거 전형적인 국가간 무역형태를 기반으로 만들어져 급변하는 경제적 현실과의 괴리가 커져갔기 때문이다. 먼저, WTO 반덤핑 협정과 보조금 및 상계조치에 관한 협정 문언의 모호성으로 인해 각 회원국이 시행하는 반덤핑 및 상계조치 정책 간에는 상당한 불일치 및 재량권 남용이 발생해왔다. 또한 '무역구제'와 관련된 분쟁에서 협정문의 모호성을 보완하기 위한 상소기구의 해석은 사법 적극주의로 종종 비판받으며, 일부 쟁점에 대해서는 패널과 해석 상의 갈등이 지속되어 WTO 분쟁해결제도 기능의 약화에도 공히 기여했다. 이러한 문제를 근본적으로 해결하기 위해 그동안 국내 정책상의 무역구제제도 활용과 WTO 분쟁해결절차의 판정 과정에서 WTO 무역구제 협정문이 어떻게 남용되거나 확대 해석되었는지를 면밀히 검토할 필요가 있다. 무역구제 규범의 재정비가 필요한 또 다른 배경은 WTO 무역구제 규범이 국가간 투자 확대, 초국경 기업들의 성장, 글로벌 공급망의 발전이라는 세계 통상환경의 변화를 적절히 반영하지 못하고 있다는 점이다. 현재 무역구제 규범의 기본 틀은 원재료 조달에서 상품의 생산이 모두 한 국가 내에서 일어난 뒤 다른 국가에서 소비되는, 이른바 '국가 영역' 개념에 기반한 전통적 형태의 상품무역 구조를 전제하고 있다. 현행 무역구제 규범이 지속되는 한 변화된 통상환경을 적절히 고려하지 못 해 개별 국가 차원의 무역구제 제도가 무차별적으로 제정, 적용될 수 있으며, 이로 인한 국가간 분쟁이 증가할 소지가 크다. 무역구제 규범과 관련된 상기 두 가지 과제를 염두에 두고, 동 연구는 현재 WTO 무역구제 규범의 법적 충분성과 경제적 타당성을 평가하고자 한다. 동 연구는 특히 WTO 법 상 구체적인 규율은 없는 반면 미국에서 별도의 규정을 두고 적용해 온 '표적 덤핑'과 '원재료 보조금' 문제를 법적 측면과 경제적 측면에서 검토하고 WTO하에서 보다 타당한 규범의 정비 가능성에 대해 고찰하였다. 먼저, '표적 덤핑'은 WTO 무역구제 분쟁 역사 상 가장 큰 논쟁 대상이었던 제로잉이 허용될 수 있는 마지막 영역으로서 그동안 여겨져 왔던 반면, 반덤핑 협정문 자체는 표적 덤핑 하에서 예외적 가격 비교 방법을 허용하는 것 외에 이 문제를 다루는 별도의 규범을 두고 있지 않아, 각국의 관련 정책에 많은 차이와 남용을 야기하였다. 동 연구에서는 '표적 덤핑'이 일반적 덤핑의 개념과 구별되는 경제학적 근거가 있는지 살펴보고, '표적 덤핑' 조항의 발생 배경과 이 문제를 처음 다룬 US-Washing Machine 상소기구 판정을 비판적으로 검토하였다. 그 결과, 상소 기구의 판정이 표적 덤핑 조항인 반덤핑협정 제2.4.2조 제2문의 실질적 기능을 가능케 하기는 어렵다는 점을 사례 연구를 통해 확인하였으며, 제로잉에 대한 문제도 근본적으로 남아있다는 점에 비추어 동 항에 대한 재정비 필요성에 대해 모색하였다. 두 번째 연구에서는 WTO하에서 원재료 보조금의 규율가능성을 검토하였다. 원재료 보조금은 지속적으로 국가간 통상분쟁을 야기해 왔는데, 이에 대한 구체적인 규율은 보조금 협정상 마련되어 있지 않다. 동 연구는 이미 1984년 국내법 상 원재료 보조금 규정을 도입한 미국에서 해당 조항을 어떻게 적용해 왔는지 사례와 법규를 분석하며, WTO하에서는 원재료 보조금 규율에 대한 법적 논의와 발전이 어떻게 있었는지 검토하였다. 그리고 간접 보조금으로서의 원재료 보조금을 규율할 경우 원재료의 범위를 정의하는 문제와 보조금 혜택의 크기 측정 문제에 대해 경제학적 측면에서 분석하고 원재료 보조금 규율 가능성의 한계를 분석하였다. 마지막으로, WTO 분쟁해결제도의 마지막 구제절차인 양허 또는 기타 의무의 정지, 소위 보복 조치와 관련하여, WTO법 위반인 반덤핑, 상계관세 조치에 대한 불이행에 대해 보복조치 수준 계산 시 발생되는 방법론적 문제점을 분석하였다. 이 연구에서는 US-Washing Machines (Art. 22.6)에서 보복조치 수준을 산정한 방법론을 중심으로, '반덤핑 조치'와 관련된 보복조치 수준의 산정 방식은 중재 패널이 여타 수입 제한적 조치에 대해 산정해 온 전통적 방식과 유사하면서도 고유의 구별되는 시장 환경적 특징으로 인해 특별히 신중한 고려가 필요하다는 점을 분석한다. 특히 기업의 전략적 경영활동과 반덤핑 조치 간의 불명확한 인과관계, 기업과 국가에 귀속되는 무역흐름의 불일치를 고려할 때 기존에 '이행기간 종료일'에 근접한 최근 기간을 분석 기간으로 삼았던 관행을 수정하는 것은 다소 불가피한 측면이 있음을 확인하였다. 또한, 방법론 측면에서 경제학적 모델을 사용하여 무역효과를 산출할 때 사용되는 가정과 변수에 따라 무역효과가 얼마나 크게 변하는지 살펴보았다. 특히 세탁기 사건에 사용된 Armington가정과 대체탄력성의 문제점을 검토함으로써 보다 정교한 무역효과를 산출할 것으로 기대되는 경제학적 모델이 '동등한' 수준의 이익의 무효화 또는 침해수준을 산정함에 있어 가정적, 데이터 측면에서의 취약성을 가지고 있으며, 상당히 제한된 수준의 분석을 제공한다는 점을 비판적으로 고찰하였다. 상기와 같이 '표적 덤핑' 과 '원재료 보조금', 그리고 반덤핑, 상계관세 조치 불이행시 '보복조치 수준의 산정'을 통해 본 연구가 추후 WTO 무역구제 규범 재정비와 관련된 논의에 도움이 되고, 궁극적으로 분쟁해결제도의 기능이 개선되는데 기여하고자 한다. ; Chapter I. General Introduction 1 1. Purpose of the Study 1 2. Historical and Policy Background of Unfair Trade Rules 4 3. Contemporary Challenges to WTO Trade Remedy Rules 7 4. Structure of Contents 9 Chapter II. Disciplines for Targeted Dumping in the WTO Anti-Dumping Law 11 1. Introduction 11 1.1. Research Background 11 1.2. Research Purpose and Structure of Contents 14 2. Economic Rationale of Targeted Dumping 15 3. History of Legal Development of Targeted Dumping 20 3.1. Historical Development of Targeted Dumping in GATT/WTO 20 3.2. Evolution of US Laws and Regulations for Targeted Dumping 23 4. US DOC's Analysis of Targeted Dumping 28 4.1. Targeted Dumping Analysis in the Washers AD Investigation 28 4.2. The DOC's Current Analytic Framework for Targeted Dumping 31 5. WTO Decisions on Targeted Dumping Before US – Washing Machines 35 5.1. US – Softwood Lumber V (Art. 21.5) Case 35 5.2. US – Zeroing (EC) Case 37 5.3. US – Zeroing (Japan) Case 39 5.4. Summary Remarks 40 6. Structural Issues of Targeted Dumping from US-Washing Machines 41 6.1. Interpretation of What Constitutes a "Pattern" 42 6.2. Interpretation of the Assessment Criteria for a "Pattern" 45 6.3. Obligation of Investigating Authorities in the Explanation Clause 47 6.4. Limiting the Calculation of Dumping Margins to "Targeted" Sales 53 6.4.1. New Issues Arising from the AB's Findings 57 6.4.2. Rethinking "Zeroing" Under the W-T Comparison Methodology 61 7. Concluding Remarks 62 Chapter III. Disciplines for Input Subsidies in the WTO Countervailing Duty Law 70 1. Introduction 70 1.1. Research Background 70 1.2. Research Purpose and Structure of Contents 74 2. Rules on Upstream Subsidies in the United States 75 2.1. Legislative History and the Framework of the Statue and the Regulation 75 2.1.1. Prior to the Omnibus Tariff and Trade Act of 1984 75 2.1.2. The Omnibus Tariff and Trade Act of 1984 and Afterwards 79 2.1.3. Changes in Regulations Governing Upstream Subsidies 81 2.2. Application of the Upstream Subsidy Provision since 1994 85 2.2.1. Delineating the Scope of Input 86 2.2.2. Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Products 89 2.2.3. Consistency of the Cross-Ownership Regulation with The Upstream Subsidy Provision of the Act 90 2.2.4. Absence of a Competitive Benefit 93 3. The GATT and the WTO Jurisprudence on Input Subsidies 94 3.1. Discussions on Input Subsidies during the GATT 94 3.2. GATT Case Law 100 3.3. WTO Case Law 102 3.3.1. US – Softwood Lumber III and IV (DS 236, DS257) 102 3.3.2. Mexico – Olive Oil (DS341) 106 4. Should Something Be Done About Input Subsidies? 108 4.1. Calculation of the Amount of a Subsidy 108 4.2. Conceptual Viability of the Scope of Input Subsidies 114 4.3. Countervailing "Cross-National Input Subsidies" 116 5. Concluding Remarks 118 Chapter IV. Retaliatory Level against Anti-Dumping /Countervailing Measures in the WTO 141 1. Introduction 141 1.1. Research Background 141 1.2. Research Purpose and Structure of Contents 143 2. Measurement of NOI in GATT Practices and the Negotiating History 146 2.1. From GATT 1947 to 1986 Post Tokyo Round Dispute Settlement 146 2.2. Uruguay Round Negotiation 151 3. Legal and Economic Grounds Governing the Measurement of Equivalence 154 4. WTO Decisions on a Retaliatory Level before US – Washing Machines (Art.22.6) 159 4.1. The Relevant Time-Frame for Analysis of Counterfactual 161 4.2. Methodology for Quantification of NOI 165 4.2.1. Conventional Approach to Estimating Direct Trade Effects 165 4.2.2. Approach to Beyond-Trade Effects 171 4.3. Causation, Quantification, and Non-Trade Effects 171 4.3.1. Causation 172 4.3.2. Quantifiability or Non-Trade Effects 173 5. Findings in the US – Washing Machines 22.6 Arbitration 175 5.1. Counterfactual and Timeframe in "As Applied" Measures on Washing Machines 175 5.2. Economic Model and Data Used in 'As Applied' Measures on Washing Machines 178 5.3. Findings Associated with 'As Such' Measures on Other Products 179 6. Issues Arising from the Calculation of NOI Concerning Non-Compliant AD/CVD Actions 181 6.1. Determination of Actual and Counterfactual Level of Export Value 181 6.2. Limitations of Using an Economic Model 187 7. Concluding Remarks 194 Chapter V. Conclusion 197 BIBLIOGRAPHY 201 국 문 초 록 220 ; Doctor

As a cradle of ancient Chinese civilization, the Yellow River Basin has a very long human-environment interrelationship, where early anthropogenic activities re- sulted in large scale landscape modifications. Today, the impact of this relationship has intensified further as the basin plays a vital role for China's continued economic development. It is one of the most densely-populated, fastest growing, and most dynamic regions of China with abundant natural and environmental resources providing a livelihood for almost 190 million people. Triggered by fundamental economic reforms, the basin has witnessed a spectacular economic boom during the last decades and can be considered as an exemplary blueprint region for contemporary dynamic Global Change processes occurring throughout the country, which is currently transitioning from an agrarian-dominated economy into a modern urbanized society. However, this resourcesdemanding growth has led to profound land use changes with adverse effects on the Yellow River social-ecological systems, where complex challenges arise threatening a long-term sustainable development. Consistent and continuous remote sensing-based monitoring of recent and past land cover and land use change is a fundamental requirement to mitigate the adverse impacts of Global Change processes. Nowadays, technical advancement and the multitude of available satellite sensors, in combination with the opening of data archives, allow the creation of new research perspectives in regional land cover applications over heterogeneous landscapes at large spatial scales. Despite the urgent need to better understand the prevailing dynamics and underlying factors influencing the current processes, detailed regional specific land cover data and change information are surprisingly absent for this region. In view of the noted research gaps and contemporary developments, three major objectives are defined in this thesis. First (i), the current and most pressing social-ecological challenges are elaborated and policy and management instruments towards more sustainability are discussed. Second (ii), this thesis provides new and improved insights on the current land cover state and dynamics of the entire Yellow River Basin. Finally (iii), the most dominant processes related to mining, agriculture, forest, and urban dynamics are determined on finer spatial and temporal scales. The complex and manifold problems and challenges that result from long-term abuse of the water and land resources in the basin have been underpinned by policy choices, cultural attitude, and institutions that have evolved over centuries in China. The tremendous economic growth that has been mainly achieved by extracting water and exploiting land resources in a rigorous, but unsustainable manner, might not only offset the economic benefits, but could also foster social unrest. Since the early emergence of the first Chinese dynasties, flooding was considered historically as a primary issue in river management and major achievements have been made to tame the wild nature of the Yellow River. Whereas flooding is therefore largely now under control, new environmental and social problems have evolved, including soil and water pollution, ecological degradation, biodiversity decline, and food security, all being further aggravated by anthropogenic climate change. To resolve the contemporary and complex challenges, many individual environmental laws and regulations have been enacted by various Chinese ministries. However, these policies often pursue different, often contradictory goals, are too general to tackle specific problems and are usually implemented by a strong top-down approach. Recently, more flexible economic and market-based incentives (pricing, tradable permits, investments) have been successfully adopted, which are specifically tailored to the respective needs, shifting now away from the pure command and regulating instruments. One way towards a more holistic and integrated river basin management could be the establishment of a common platform (e.g. a Geographical Information System) for data handling and sharing, possibly operated by the Yellow River Basin Conservancy Commission (YRCC), where available spatial data, statistical information and in-situ measures are coalesced, on which sustainable decision-making could be based. So far, the collected data is hardly accessible, fragmented, inconsistent, or outdated. The first step to address the absence and lack of consistent and spatially up-to-date information for the entire basin capturing the heterogeneous landscape conditions was taken up in this thesis. Land cover characteristics and dynamics were derived from the last decade for the years 2003 and 2013, based on optical medium-resolution hightemporal MODIS Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series at 250 m. To minimize the inherent influence of atmospheric and geometric interferences found in raw high temporal data, the applied adaptive Savitzky-Golay filter successfully smoothed the time series and substantially reduced noise. Based on the smoothed time series data, a large variety of intra-annual phenology metrics as well as spectral and multispectral annual statistics were derived, which served as input variables for random forest (RF) classifiers. High quality reference data sets were derived from very high resolution imagery for each year independently of which 70 % trained the RF models. The accuracy assessments for all regionally specific defined thematic classes were based on the remaining 30 % reference data split and yielded overall accuracies of 87 % and 84 % for 2003 and 2013, respectively. The first regional adapted Yellow River Land Cover Products (YRB LC) depict the detail spatial extent and distribution of the current land cover status and dynamics. The novel products overall differentiate overall 18 land cover and use classes, including classes of natural vegetation (terrestrial and aquatic), cultivated classes, mosaic classes, non-vegetated, and artificial classes, which are not presented in previous land cover studies so far. Building on this, an extended multi-faceted land cover analysis on the most prominent land cover change types at finer spatial and temporal scales provides a better and more detailed picture of the Yellow River Basin dynamics. Precise spatio-temporal products about mining, agriculture, forest, and urban areas were examined from long-trem Landsat satellite time series monitored at annual scales to capture the rapid rate of change in four selected focus regions. All archived Landsat images between 2000 and 2015 were used to derive spatially continuous spectral-temporal, multi-spectral, and textural metrics. For each thematic region and year RF models were built, trained and tested based on a stablepixels reference data set. The automated adaptive signature (AASG) algorithm identifies those pixels that did not change between the investigated time periods to generate a mono-temporal reference stable-pixels data set to keep manual sampling requirements to a minimum level. Derived results gained high accuracies ranging from 88 % to 98 %. Throughout the basin, afforestation on the Central Loess Plateau and urban sprawl are identified as most prominent drivers of land cover change, whereas agricultural land remained stable, only showing local small-scale dynamics. Mining operations started in 2004 on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which resulted in a substantial loss of pristine alpine meadows and wetlands. In this thesis, a novel and unique regional specific view of current and past land cover characteristics in a complex and heterogeneous landscape was presented by using a multi-source remote sensing approach. The delineated products hold great potential for various model and management applications. They could serve as valuable components for effective and sustainable land and water management to adapt and mitigate the predicted consequences of Global Change processes. ; Der Gelbe Fluss - in der Landessprache Huange He genannt - ist für die Ausprägung und Entwicklung der chinesischen Kultur von großer Bedeutung. Aufgrund der frühen Einflussnahme auf die natürlichen Ökosysteme in dieser Region durch den Menschen, entwickelte sich dort eine ausgeprägte Interaktion zwischen Mensch und Umwelt. Diese Wechselbeziehung hat sich infolge der gegenwärtigen rapiden sozioökonomischen Veränderungen in den letzten Jahrzehnten weiter intensiviert. Das Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses bildet die Lebensgrundlage für fast 190 Millionen Menschen, die zum Großteil von natürlichen Ressourcen abhängig sind. Zudem gehört es zu den wirtschaftlich bedeutendsten und am schnellsten wachsenden Regionen in ganz China. Durch weitreichende Reformen wurde ein wirtschaftlicher Aufstieg forciert, um den Agrarstaat China zu einem modernen Industrie- und Dienstleistungsstaat weiterzuentwickeln. Ein derartiges rasantes wie auch ressourcenintensives Wirtschaftswachstum führte schließlich zu einem enormen Wandel in den Bereichen der Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Hinzu kamen neue und komplexere wirtschafts-, sozial- und umweltpolitische Herausforderungen, die bis heute eine langfristige und nachhaltige Entwicklung der Region gefährden. Aus diesem Blickwinkel kann das Becken des Gelben Flusses als regionales Spiegelbild der durch den Globalen Wandel bedingten, gegenwärtigen Veränderungsprozesse in ganz China gelten. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung für den adäquaten Umgang mit den Herausforderungen des Globalen Wandels sind kontinuierliche Informationen über aktuelle sowie historische Veränderungen von Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Infolge der technologischen Entwicklung steht heute eine Vielfalt an Satellitenbildsystemen mit immer höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung zur Verfügung. In Verbindung mit kostenfreien und offenen Datenzugriffen ist es möglich, daraus neue Forschungsperspektiven im Bereich der Landoberflächenkartierung - insbesondere für heterogene Landschaften - zu entwickeln. Zur Generierung thematischer Karten werden häufig Klassifikationen entlang verschiedener räumlicher und zeitlicher Skalen vollzogen. Daraus können zusätzlich die nötigen Informationen für lokale wie auch regionale Entscheidungsträger abgeleitet werden. Trotz dieser neuen Möglichkeiten sind regionalspezifische Informationen, die einem besseren Verständnis der Dynamiken von Landoberflächen im Bereich des Gelben-Fluss-Beckens dienen, noch rar. Dieses Forschungsdesiderat wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit aufgegriffen, wobei folgende Schwerpunkte gesetzt werden: (i) Zunächst werden die vorherrschenden sozioökologischen Herausforderungen für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses dargestellt sowie verschiedene Management- sowie Politikmodelle für eine nachhaltigere Ressourcennutzung diskutiert. (ii) Darauf aufbauend wird die fernerkundliche Ableitung von Landbedeckungs- und Landnutzungsveränderungen der letzten Dekade im Gebiet des gesamten Gelben Flusses flächendeckend durchgeführt und anschließend interpretiert. (iii) Im letzten Schritt werden basierend auf den zuvor abgeleiteten Informationsprodukten die dominierenden Landoberflächendynamiken in höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung detailliert untersucht. Insbesondere die dynamischen Prozesse der Minenausbreitung, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebiete und der urbanen Räume rücken in den Fokus. Aufgrund jahrzehntelanger Übernutzung der natürlichen Ressourcen im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses in Verbindung mit politischen Entscheidungen, der vorherrschenden kulturellen Prägung wie auch der Entwicklung der dort ansässigen Institutionen ist eine vielschichtige Problematik entstanden, die für die gesamte Region eine große Herausforderung darstellt. Durch frühzeitige Maßnahmen der Flutbekämpfung und Flussregulierung konnte den zahlreichen Überflutungen der Vergangenheit entgegengewirkt und das Risiko großflächiger Überschwemmungen minimiert werden. Trotz dieser Erfolge ergeben sich laufend neue, komplexere Herausforderungen mit verheerenden Auswirkungen auf Ökologie und Gesellschaft, wie zum Beispiel Boden- und Wasserdegradation, Entwaldung, Rückgang der Artenvielfalt, Ernährungsunsicherheiten und ein steigendes soziales Ungleichgewicht. Durch den anthropogenen Klimawandel werden diese negativen Probleme noch weiter verstärkt. Zwar wurden sie von der chinesischen Regierung als solche erkannt, dennoch scheiterten die Versuche, mit zahlreichen Gesetzen und Verordnungen die genannten Folgen einzudämmen, an unkonkreten Formulierungen, so dass diese der Komplexität der Herausforderungen nicht gerecht wurden. Die in jüngster Zeit verfolgten modernen und deutlich flexibleren, marktorientierten Ansätze (z.B. Subventionen, Wasserzertifikate), die speziell an die lokalen Gegebenheiten angepasst wurden, zeigen bereits Erfolge. Mit Hilfe einer gemeinsamen Daten- und Informationsplattform, beispielsweise in Form eines Geographischen Informationssystems (GIS), wäre eine integrierte und holistische Flussmanagementstrategie für den Gelben Fluss leichter realisierbar. Auf diese Weise könnten alle verfügbaren statistischen-, räumlichen- und Feldaufnahmen gespeichert, harmonisiert und geteilt und so die bisher noch unvollständigen und veralteten Daten laufend aktualisiert werden. Die Flussbehörde des Gelben Flusses (Yellow River Conservancy Commission) böte sich an, ein solches System zu verwalten. In dieser Arbeit wird die heterogene Landbedeckungsstruktur für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses für die Jahre 2003 und 2013 erfasst und interpretiert. Die fernerkundlichen Eingangsdaten für die einzelnen Klassifikationen bestehen aus optischen MODIS NDVI-Zeitserien, aus denen jährlich phänologische Parameter berechnet werden. Da die Qualität optischer Satellitenbilder häufig durch Wolken und Schatten beeinträchtigt ist, müssen die betroffenen Flächen maskiert und entfernt werden. Die so entstandenen Lücken in der Zeitserie werden durch einen Filteralgorithmus (SavitskyGolay) aufgefüllt und geglättet. Die verwendeten RandomForest-Klassifikationsverfahren ermöglichen die Ableitung von Landbedeckungen und -dynamiken. Diese neuen und räumlich detaillierten Produkte unterscheiden insgesamt 18 verschiedene Landbedeckungsund Landnutzungsklassen. Erstmals liefern diese eine regional spezifische Charakterisierung der vorherrschenden Landbedeckung im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses. Darauf aufbauend erfolgt eine sowohl zeitlich als auch räumlich detailliertere Untersuchung der wichtigsten Veränderungen im Bereich der Landbedeckung, die auf dichten Landsat-Zeitserien basiert. Jährliche Informationen über Dynamiken von Minenabbaugebieten, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebieten und urbanen Räumen zeigen präzise lokale Veränderungen im Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses. Die daraus abgeleiteten Ergebnisse lassen insbesondere auf dem Lössplateau die Auswirkungen ökologischer Restorationsmaßnahmen erkennen, bei denen degradierte Flächen in Waldsysteme umgewandelt wurden. Auf dem Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau zeigt sich eine dramatische Ausbreitung von Kohletagebau zu Lasten der besonders anfälligen alpinen Matten und Feuchtgebiete. Auch der anhaltende Trend zur Urbanisierung spiegelt sich in den hier gewonnenen Ergebnissen deutlich wider. Durch die Kombination von Fernerkundungsdaten unterschiedlicher räumlicher und zeitlicher Auflösungen liefert diese Arbeit neue und bisher einzigartige Einblicke in historische und aktuelle Landbedeckungsdynamiken einer heterogenen Landschaft. Die regionalen Analysen wie auch die thematischen Informationsprodukte besitzen somit großes Potential zur Verbesserung der Informationsgrundlage. Die Ergebnisse dienen außerdem als aussagekräftige Entscheidungsgrundlage mit dem Ziel eines angemessenen und nachhaltigen Land- und Wassermanagements für die natürlichen Ökosysteme im Becken des Gelben Flusses.

The British Council is the United Kingdom's international organisation for enhancing cultural relations and offering educational opportunities. Developing Inclusive and Creative Economies (DICE) is a British Council global pilot programme (2018-2020), which takes a holistic approach to imagining and building an economy that is equally accessible to all. DICE is delivered with and for women, youth, people disabled by society, and other groups that are excluded from the mainstream economy. The programme is co-designed by a global team and growing network in Brazil, Egypt, Indonesia, Pakistan, South Africa, and the UK. DICE is founded on the hypothesis that supporting the development of creative and social enterprise is an effective way to address the issues of unemployment and unequal economic growth and build more inclusive societies. This hypothesis was underpinned by the rationale that, around the world, communities face common challenges and problems, including: • unemployment, especially among young people, potentially intensified by automation; • growing wealth inequality and exclusion from 'mainstream' economic opportunities, especially of women, disabled people and minorities; • environmental degradation and the climate emergency; and • a sense of a loss of identity and community.

This report looks at several corporate governance issues, and provides an analysis of four core areas of corporate governance in South Asia in light of global trends and best practices. These include: i) corporate governance legal frameworks; ii) board structure and board diversity; iii) corporate governance of state-owned enterprises; and iv) anti-money laundering and compliance. The report assesses the necessary regulatory preconditions for strong financial and economic development, and identifies areas for regulatory action. The findings are relevant for many developing countries around the world, as corporate governance will impact evolving challenges such as the Covid-19 pandemic, climate change, and sustainable global trade.

Modern civil service must be composed of competent, dedicated, and mission-driven public servants to harness opportunities and improve public service delivery with emerging technology. It also needs to proactively adapt and respond to evolving challenges. This report surveys the current state of civil service in Indonesia from a comprehensive, data-driven perspective. Based on the civil service's size and composition, data on public service delivery, and public opinion, it identifies the current challenges facing Indonesia's bureaucracy. While progress has been made in the last decade, substantial room for improvement remains to increase the basic competencies of civil servants in the country.

Indonesia faces serious climate change and environmental degradation problems. Accelerating the adoption of renewable energy and tweaking the national development strategy can be a key part of the solution.

With borders closed for the foreseeable future New Zealand tourism is facing a loss of substantial revenue from the lack of foreign visitors, who would usually maintain demand for tourism businesses after the end of the peak summer holidays for domestic tourists. But after the COVID-19 set-back, what will recovery look like in a world attempting to curb its emissions of greenhouse gases and global warming? New Zealand legislation now aims to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050, government declared a climate change emergency last year, and the Climate Change Commission (CCC) set up to design a road map for getting there has just issued its first draft report for consultation. While tourism operators may hope to get back to how things were before COVID-19 appeared, is that feasible in the current climate?

While the COVID-19 pandemic appeared to temper concerns about climate change in 2020, the issue has risen to prominence again in 2021. The majority of Australians (60%) say 'global warming is a serious and pressing problem…we should begin taking steps now, even if this involves significant costs'. This represents a reversal of the dip in 2020 during the early days of the pandemic, but remains eight points below the high watermark of concern in 2006. A third of Australians (30%) say the problem of global warming should be addressed, but its effects will be gradual, so we can deal with the problem gradually by taking steps that are low in cost. Only 9% of Australians — one of the lowest results of the past decade — say that until we are sure that global warming is really a problem, we should not take any steps that would have economic costs. As in recent years, there is a significant gap between younger and older Australians' concerns about global warming. Despite a slight narrowing between the generations, the margin is still noteworthy, with three-quarters (76%) of Australians aged 18–29 saying global warming is a serious and pressing problem, compared with 50% of those over 60. Concern about global warming appears to be narrowing slightly between the urban and rural populations, with just a 7-point gap between the 63% of Australians living in cities saying that global warming is a serious and pressing problem, and the 56% of the regional and remote population.